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y, however, out of the union of synthesisers and computers, some much finer tools have evolved. Koan Software is probably the best of these systems, allowing a composer to control not one but one hundred and fifty musical and sonic parameters within which the computer then improvises (as wind improvises the wind chimes).</blockquote>
<blockquote>The works I have made with this system symbolise to me the beginning of a new era of music. Until 100 years ago, every musical event was unique: music was ephemeral and unrepeatable and even classical scoring couldn't guarantee precise duplication. Then came the gramophone record, which captured particular performances and made it possible to hear them identically over and over again.</blockquote>
<blockquote>But now there are three alternatives: live music, recorded music and generative music. Generative music enjoys some of the benefits of both its ancestors. Like live music it is always different. Like recorded music it is free of time-and-place limitations - you can hear it when and where you want.</blockquote>
<blockquote>I really think it is possible that our grandchildren will look at us in wonder and say: "you mean you used to listen to exactly the same thing over and over again?"</blockquote>
CSJ Bofop 1996:
<blockquote>"Each of the twelve pieces on Generative Music 1 has a distinctive character. There are, of course, the ambient works ranging from the dark, almost mournful Densities III (complete with distant bells), to translucent Lysis (Tungsten). These are contrasted with pieces in dramatically different styles, such as Komarek with its hard edged, angular melodies, reminiscent of Schoenberg's early serial experiments, and Klee 42 whose simple polyphony is similar to that of the early Renaissance. But of course, the great beauty of Generative Music is that those pieces will never sound quite that way again." </blockquote>
Eno has also been active in other artistic genres, producing videos for gallery display and collaborating with visual artists in other endeavors. One is the set of "[[Oblique Strategies]]" cards that he produced in the mid-70s, which was described as "100 Worthwhile Dilemmas" and intended as guides to shaking up the mind in the process of producing artistic endeavors. Another was his collaboration with artist [[Russell Mills (artist)|Russell Mills]] on the book ''More Dark Than Shark''. He was also the provider of music for [[Robert Sheckley]]'s ''In the Land of Clear Colours,'' a narrated story with music originally published by a small art gallery in Spain.
In 1996 Brian Eno, and others, started the [[Long Now Foundation]] to educate the public into thinking about the very long term future of society.
Eno is a columnist for the [[United Kingdom|British]] newspaper, ''[[The Observer]]''.
In 1994 Eno was approached by Mark Malamud and [[Erik Gavriluk]], senior designers at [[Microsoft]] on the [[Cairo (operating system)|Cairo]] project. The result was the start-up sound for the [[Windows 95]] operating system (which Eno created on his [[Apple Macintosh]]). From an interview with the [[San Francisco Chronicle]]:
<blockquote>The idea came up at the time when I was completely bereft of ideas. I'd been working on my own music for a while and was quite lost, actually. And I really appreciated someone coming along and saying, "Here's a specific problem &ndash; solve it." The thing from the agency said, "We want a piece of music that is inspiring, universal, blah-blah, da-da-da, optimistic, futuristic, sentimental, emotional," this whole list of adjectives, and then at the bottom it said "and it must be 3 1/4 seconds long." I thought this was so funny and an amazing thought to actually try to make a little piece of music. It's like making a tiny little jewel. In fact, I made 84 pieces. I got completely into this world of tiny, tiny little pieces of music. I was so sensitive to microseconds at the end of this that it really broke a logjam in my own work. Then when I'd finished that and I went back to working with pieces that were like three minutes long, it seemed like oceans of time.</blockquote>
In 2003 he appeared on a Channel 4 discussion on the Iraq war with top military spokesmen. He was highly critical of the war. In 2005 he spoke at an anti-war demonstration in Hyde Park, London.
==Discography==
* (1972) ''[[Roxy Music (album)|Roxy Music]]'' (by [[Roxy Music]])
* (1973) ''[[For Your Pleasure]]'' (by [[Roxy Music]])
* (1973) ''[[The Portsmouth Sinfonia Plays the Popular Classics]]'' (with the [[Portsmouth Sinfonia]])
* (1973) ''[[No Pussyfooting|Fripp & Eno (No Pussyfooting)]]'' (with [[Robert Fripp]])
* (1973) ''[[Here Come the Warm Jets]]''
* (1974) ''[[Taking Tiger Mountain (By Strategy)]]''
* (1974) ''[[June 1, 1974: Kevin Ayers, John Cale, Brian Eno, Nico]]'' (live)
* (1974) ''[[Hallelujah! The Portsmouth Sinfonia Live At The Royal Albert Hall]]'' (with the [[Portsmouth Sinfonia]]) (live)
* (1975) ''[[Evening Star (album)|Evening Star]]'' (with [[Robert Fripp]])
* (1975) ''[[Another Green World]]''
* (1975) ''[[Discreet Music]]''
* (1977) ''[[Cluster & Eno]]'' (with [[Cluster (band)|Cluster]])
* (1977) ''[[801 (band)|801 Live]]'' ([[Phil Manzanera]] with Eno, Lloyd Watson, [[Francis Monkman]], [[Bill MacCormick]], and [[Simon Phillips]])
* (1978) ''[[Before and After Science]]''
* (1978) ''[[Music for Films]]''
* (1978) ''[[After the Heat]]'' (with [[Hans-Joachim Roedelius|Roedelius]] and [[Dieter Moebius|Moebius]])
* (1978) ''Ambient #1 / [[Music for Airports]]''
* (1980) ''Ambient #2 / [[The Plateaux of Mirror]]'' (with [[Harold Budd]])
* (1980) ''Fourth World, Vol. 1: [[Possible Musics]]'' (with [[Jon Hassell]])
* (1980) ''Ambient #3 / [[Day of Radiance]]'' (by [[Laraaji]], produced by Eno)
* (1981) [[My Life in the Bush of Ghosts (album)|''My Life in the Bush of Ghosts'']] (with [[David Byrne (musician)|David Byrne]])
* (1981) ''[[Empty Landscapes]]''
* (1982) ''Ambient #4 / [[On Land]]''
* (1983) ''[[Apollo: Atmospheres and Soundtracks]]''
* (1983) ''[[Music for Films, Volume 2]]'' (with [[Lanois]])
* (1984) ''[[The Pearl (album)|The Pearl]]'' (with [[Harold Budd]])
* (1984) ''[[Begegnungen]]'' (compilation album with material by Eno, [[Hans-Joachim Roedelius|Roedelius]] and [[Dieter Moebius|Moebius]] and [[Conny Plank|Plank]])
* (1985) ''[[Begegnungen II]]'' (compilation album with material by Eno, [[Hans-Joachim Roedelius|Roedelius]] and [[Dieter Moebius|Moebius]] and [[Conny Plank|Plank]])
* (1985) ''[[Thursday Afternoon]]''
* (1985) ''[[Hybrid (album)|Hybrid]]'' (with [[Daniel Lanois]] and [[Michael Brook]])
* (1988) ''[[Music for Films, Volume 3]]''
* (1989) ''[[Textures (album)|Textures]]''
* (1990) ''[[The Shutov Assembly]]''
* (1990) ''[[Wrong Way Up]]'' (with [[John Cale]])
* (1992) ''[[Nerve Net]]''
* (1993) ''[[Robert Sheckley's In a Land of Clear Colours]]'' (with [[Pete Sinfield]])
* (1993) ''[[Neroli (album)|Neroli]]''
* (1994) ''[[Headcandy]]'' ([[CD-ROM]])
* (1995) ''[[Spinner (album)|Spinner]]'' (with [[Jah Wobble]])
* (1995) ''[[Original Soundtracks No. 1]]'' (with [[U2]])
* (1996) ''[[Generative Music 1]]'' [http://www.sseyo.com/products/koancontent/genmus1.html]
* (1997) ''[[The Drop]]''
* (1997) ''[[Harmonia: '76: Tracks and Traces]]'' (with [[Hans-Joachim Roedelius|Roedelius]])
* (1997) ''[[Extracts from Music for White Cube]]''
* (1998) ''[[Lightness: Music for the Marble Palace]]''
* (1999) ''[[I Dormienti]]''
* (1999) ''[[Kite Stories]]''
* (2000) ''[[Music for Civic Recovery Centre]]''
* (2000) ''[[Music for Onmyo-Ji]]'' (with [[Peter Schwalm]])
* (2001) ''[[Drawn From Life]]'' (with [[Peter Schwalm]])
* (2003) ''[[Compact Forest Proposal]]''
* (2003) ''[[January 07003]] | Bell Studies for The Clock of The Long Now''
* (2004) ''[[Curiosities Volume 1]]''
* (2004) ''[[Curiosities Volume 2]]''
* (2004) ''[[The Equatorial Stars]]'' (with [[Robert Fripp]])
* (2005) ''[[Another Day on Earth]]''
* (2005) ''[[More Music from Films]]''
==Singles==
{| class="wikitable"
|rowspan="2"|'''Year'''
|rowspan="2"| '''Title'''
|colspan="4"| '''Chart positions'''
|rowspan="2"| '''Album'''
|-
|US [[Billboard Hot 100|Hot 100]]
|US [[Modern Rock Tracks chart|Modern Rock]]
|US [[Mainstream Rock Tracks chart|Mainstream Rock]]
|[[UK Singles Chart|UK]]
|-
| 1990
| "Been There, Done That" (with [[John Cale]])
| -
| #11
| -
| -
| ''Wrong Way Up''
|}
==Trivia==
*Brian Eno was the inspiration for the character Brent Mini in the 1981 [[Philip K Dick]] novel ''Valis''. The science-fiction writer, who usually preferred classical music, was an aficionado of Eno's ''Discreet Music'' album.
*The character of [[I-No]] (pronounced the same as "Eno"), in the videogame series [[Guilty Gear]] is most likely a reference to Brian Eno. This is one of dozens of music references in the series.
*The [[Windows 95]] startup sound (not the faster melody in later versions) was composed by Brian Eno.
*He once guest appeared as Father Brian Eno on the television [[sitcom]] [[Father Ted]].
*He reportedly has a passion for [[word games]]. A song on his album ''Before and After Science'' is entitled "King's Lead Hat", which is an [[anagram]] of "[[Talking Heads]]", a band that he has worked with. (His own name, "Brian Eno", has an anagram of "One Brain".)
*The song "Lay My Love" with [[John Cale]] was on the soundtrack [[More Music From Northern Exposure]] released in 1994.
==See also==
* [[Category:Brian Eno albums|*Eno]]
* [[Ambient music]]
* [[Electronic music]]
* [[Oblique Strategies]]
==References==
* Bracewell, Michael ''Roxy Music: Bryan Ferry, Brian Eno, Art, Ideas, and Fashion'' (Da Capo Press, 2005) ISBN 0306814005
* Tamm, Eric ''Brian Eno: His Music and t |
acy was considered similar to bootstrapping. The bootstrapping rule has been eliminated from the Federal Rules of Evidence, as decided by the Supreme Court in the ''Bourjaily'' case.
== See also ==
* [[Cellular automaton]]: discusses simple step-by-step self-referential rules used to create larger patterns.
[[Category:Language acquisition]]
[[de:Bootstrapping]]
[[es:Bootstrapping]]
[[sk:Münchhausenova metóda]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bolsheviks</title>
<id>4212</id>
<revision>
<id>15902499</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-05T16:54:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AndyL</username>
<id>56563</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bolshevik]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baltic languages</title>
<id>4213</id>
<revision>
<id>38001302</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T14:34:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>159.148.233.2</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+lv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Indo-European}}
The '''Baltic languages''' are a group of related languages belonging to the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language family and spoken mainly in areas extending east and southeast of the [[Baltic Sea]] in [[Northern Europe]]. The language group is sometimes divided into two sub-groups: '''Western Baltic''', containing only extinct languages, and '''Eastern Baltic''', containing both extinct and the two living languages in the group: [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] and [[Latvian language|Latvian]] (including both literary Latvian and [[Latgalian language|Latgalian]]). While related, the Lithuanian, the Latvian, and particularly the Old Prussian vocabularies differ substantially from each other and are not mutually intelligible. The now extinct Old Prussian language has been considered the most archaic of the Baltic languages.
'''Western Baltic languages'''
*[[Galindan language|Galindan]] †
*[[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]] †
*[[Sudovian language|Sudovian]] ([[Yotvingian]]) †
'''Eastern Baltic languages''''
*[[Curonian language|Curonian]] † — ''sometimes considered Western Baltic.''
*[[Latvian language|Latvian]] (1.5 million speakers)
**[[Latgalian language|Latgalian]] (150 thousand speakers) — ''usually considered a dialect of Latvian''
*[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] (4 million speakers)
**[[Samogitian language|Samogitian]] — ''usually considered a dialect of Lithuanian''
*[[Selonian (language)|Selonian]] †
*[[Semigallian language|Semigallian]] †
''(''†''—Extinct language)''
== Geographic distribution ==
Speakers of modern Baltic languages {{ref|Esto}} are generally concentrated within the borders of [[Lithuania]] and [[Latvia]], and in emigrant communities in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and former [[Soviet]] states. Historically the languages were spoken over a larger area: West to the mouth of the [[Vistula]] river in present-day [[Poland]], at least as far East as the [[Dniepr]] river in present-day [[Belarus]], perhaps even to [[Moscow]], perhaps as far South as [[Kiev]]. Key evidence of Baltic language presence in these regions is found in hydronyms (names of bodies of water) in the regions that are characteristically Baltic. Use of hydronyms is generally accepted to determine the extent of these cultures' influence, but ''not'' the date of such influence. Historical expansion of the usage of [[Slavic languages]] in the South and East, and [[Germanic languages]] in the West reduced the geographic distribution of Baltic languages to a fraction of the area which they had formerly covered.
== History ==
According to one theory, the Indo-European tribes speaking the dialects that would become the Baltic languages probably settled in the area South of the Baltic coast in about the 13th Century B.C.E. and later migrated towards the coast where they met an indigenous population of subsistence fishermen and farmers speaking a proto-[[Finnic]] language. This indigenous population is believed to have assimilated to varying degrees with the [[Baltic peoples]]. Divergence of the dialects into distinct languages probably occurred in the 1st millennium C.E.
Although the various Baltic tribes were mentioned by ancient historians as early as 98 B.C.E, The first attestation of a Baltic language was in about 1350, with the creation of the ''Elbing Prussian Vocabulary'', a German to Prussian translation dictionary. Lithuanian was first attested in a hymnal translation in [[1545]]; the first printed book in Lithuanian, a [[Catechism]] by [[Martynas Mažvydas]] was published in [[1547]]. Latvian appeared in a hymnal in [[1530]] and in a printed Catechism in [[1585]]. One reason for the late attestation is that the Baltic peoples resisted [[Christianization]] longer than any other Europeans, which delayed the introduction of writing and isolated their languages from outside influence.
With the establishment of a [[Germany|German]] state in Prussia, and the relocation of much of the Baltic Prussian population in the 13th century, Prussians began to be assimilated, and by the end of the 17th century, the Prussian language had become extinct.
During the years of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] ([[1569]]-[[1795]]), official documents were written in [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Old Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]] and [[Latin]], with Lithuanian being mostly an oral language of commoners.
After the [[Partitions of Poland]], much of the Baltic lands were under the rule of the [[Russian Empire]], where the native languages were sometimes prohibited from being written down, or used publicly.
== Relationship with other Indo-European languages ==
The Baltic languages are of particular interest to linguists because they retain many archaic features, which are believed to have been present in the early stages of the [[Proto-Indo-European language]].
Linguists disagree regarding the relationship of the Baltic languages to other languages in the Indo-European family. Such relationships are discerned primarily by the [[Comparative method]], which seeks to reconstruct the [[chronology]] of the languages' divergence from each other in [[phonology]] and [[lexicon]]. Language kinship is generally determined by the identification of linguistic innovations that are held in common by two languages or groups.
Several of the extinct Baltic languages have a limited or nonexistent written record, their existence being known only from the records of ancient historians and personal or place names; all of the languages in the Baltic group (including the living ones) were first written down relatively late in their probable existence as distinct languages. These two factors combined with others have obscured the history of the Baltic languages, leading to a number of theories regarding their position in the Indo-European family.
Most linguists believe that the Baltic languages diverged from Proto-Indo-European separately from other language groups.
Close relationships have also been posited between the Baltic languages and geographically-distant Indo-European languages and groups such as [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Dacian language|Dacian]], and [[Thracian language|Thracian]].
More recently, it has been suggested that the Baltic language group is itself an inappropriate grouping and that the West Baltic and East Baltic groups have differing lineages that converged later in their existences.
==See also==
* [[Historical linguistics]]
* [[Language families and languages]]
* [[Baltic peoples]]
* [[Balto-Slavic languages]]
==External links==
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90207 Ethnologue Report on Baltic languages]
==Note==
#{{note|Esto}} Though included among the [[Baltic states]], the language of [[Estonia]] (the [[Estonian language]]) is a [[Finno-Ugric language]], and not a [[Baltic language]] in the linguistic sense nor is it genetically related to the Baltic languages.
==References==
* Joseph Pashka, [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Ithaca/6623/proto.htm Proto Baltic and Baltic languages] (1994)
* [http://www.lituanus.org/IndexLanguage.htm Lituanus Linguistics Index] (1955-2004) provides a number of articles on modern and archaic Baltic languages.
* Mallory, J.P. (1991). ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth.'' New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd. ISBN 0-500-27616-1
[[Category:Baltic languages|*]]
[[Category:History of Latvia]]
[[Category:History of Lithuania]]
[[Category:History of Prussia]]
[[af:Balties]]
[[az:Baltik qrupu]]
[[ca:Llengües bàltiques]]
[[cs:Baltské jazyky]]
[[de:Baltische Sprachen]]
[[et:Balti keeled]]
[[es:Lenguas bálticas]]
[[eo:Balta lingvaro]]
[[fr:Langues baltes]]
[[id:Bahasa Baltik]]
[[he:שפות בלטיות]]
[[lt:Baltų kalbos]]
[[lv:Baltu valodas]]
[[nl:Baltische talen]]
[[ja:バルト語派]]
[[no:Baltiske språk]]
[[nn:Baltiske språk]]
[[pl:Języki bałtyckie]]
[[pt:Línguas bálticas]]
[[ro:Limbile baltice]]
[[ru:Балтийские языки]]
[[se:Baltijalaš gielat]]
[[fi:Balttilaiset kielet]]
[[sv:Baltiska språk]]
[[vi:Nhóm ngôn ngữ gốc Balt]]
[[uk:Балтійські мови]]
[[zh:波罗的语族]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Bioinformatics</title>
<id>4214</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42131363</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:53:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bioinformin</username>
<id>1025935</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* RNA Bioinformatics */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bioinformatics''' or '''computational biology''' is the use of techniques from [[applied mathematics]], [[informatics]], [[statistics]], and [[computer science]] to solve [[biology|biological]] problems. Research in computational biology often overlaps with [[systems biology]]. Major research efforts in the field include [[sequence alignment]], [[Gene_finding|gene find |
an attempt is made. They are meant to function as stubs, allowing the programmer to identify what modules of functions (behaviour or methods) are needed without having to actually implement them. This is in line with [[Object-oriented programming|OOP]]'s philosophy of allowing the programmer to concentrate on how an object should behave without going into the actual detail.
=== Metaclasses ===
Metaclasses are classes whose instances are classes. A metaclass describes a common structure of a collection of classes. A metaclass can implement a [[design pattern (computer science)|design pattern]] or describe a shorthand for particular kinds of classes. Metaclasses are often used to describe [[framework]]s.
In some languages such as [[Smalltalk]] and [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]], a class is also an object; thus each class is an instance of the unique metaclass, which is built in the language. For example, in [[Objective-C]], each object and class is an instance of [[NSObject]]. [[CLOS]] (Common Lisp Object System) provides [[metaobject protocol]]s (MOP) to implement those classes and metaclasses.
==Non-class-based programming==
To the surprise to some familiar with the use of classes for OOP, it has been shown that one can design fully fledged object-oriented languages that do not have builtin supports of classes. Those languages are usually designed with the motive to address the problem of tight-coupling between implementations and interfaces due to the use of classes. For example, the [[Self programming language|Self]] language was designed to show that the role of a class can be substituted by using an extant object which serves as a prototype to a new object, and the resulting language is as expressive as [[Smalltalk]] with more generality in creating objects. See [[class-based OOP]] for the criticism of class-based programming and [[object-based languages]] for such non-class-based languages.
=== Run-time representation of classes ===
As a datatype, a class is usually considered as a compile-time construct. A language may also support [[prototype]] or [[Factory method pattern|factory]] [[metaobject]]s that represent run-time information about classes, or even represent metadata that provides access to [[reflection]] facilities and ability to manipulate data structure formats at run-time. Many languages distinguish this kind of [[run-time type information]] about classes from a class on the basis that the information is not needed at run-time. Some dynamic languages do not make strict distinctions between run-time and compile-time constructs, and therefore may not distinguish between metaobjects and classes.
For example: if [[human]]s is a [[metaobject]] representing the class Person, then instances of class Person can be created by using the facilities of the human [[metaobject]].
==Classes without inheritance==
Not every language that both supports objects and classes is generally seen as object-oriented. Examples are [[JavaScript]] and earlier versions of [[Visual Basic]], which lack the support for inheritance. The lack of inheritance severely impairs the full practice of object-oriented programming. Those languages, sometimes called "object-based languages", do not provide the structural benefits of statically type checked interfaces for objects. This is because in object-based languages it is possible to use and extend data structures and attach methods to them at run-time. This precludes the compiler or interpreter from being able to check the type information specified in the source code as the type is built dynamically and not defined statically. Most of these languages allow for ''instance behaviour'' and complex ''operational polymorphism'' (see [[dynamic dispatch]] and [[Polymorphism (computer science)|polymorphism]]).
== Instantiation ==
As explained above, classes can be used to create new objects by instantiating them. In most languages, the structures as defined by the class determine how the memory used by its instances will be laid out. This technique is known as the ''cookie-cutter model''.
The alternative to the cookie-cutter model is that of for instance [[Python programming language|Python]], where objects are structured as associative key-value containers. In such models, objects that are instances of the same class could contain different instance variables, as state can be dynamically added to the object. This may resemble [[Prototype-based languages]] in some ways, but it is not equivalent.
== Examples ==
=== [[C++]] ===
==== Example 1 ====
#include <iostream>
#include <string>
class Hello
{
std::string what;
public:
Hello(const char* s)
: what(s)
{
}
void say()
{
std::cout << "Hello " << what << "!" << std::endl;
}
};
int main()
{
Hello* hello_world = new Hello("world");
hello_world->say();
return 0;
}
This example shows how to define a [[C++]] class named "Hello". It has a private string attribute named "what", and a public method named "say".
==== Example 2 ====
class Abstract
{
public:
virtual void MyVirtualMethod() = 0;
};
class Concrete : public Abstract
{
public:
void MyVirtualMethod()
{
//do something
}
};
An object of class Abstract can not be created because the function MyVirtualMethod has not been defined (the =0 is C++ syntax for a pure virtual function, a function that must be part of any derived concrete class but is not defined in the abstract base class. The Concrete class is a concrete class because its functions (in this case, only one function) have been declared and implemented.
==== Example 3 ====
#include <string>
using std::string;
class InetMessage
{
string m_subject, m_to, m_from;
public:
InetMessage (const string& subject,
const string& to,
const string& from);
string subject () const;
string to () const;
string from () const;
};
=== [[Java programming language|Java]] ===
==== Example 1 ====
public class Example1
{
// This is a Java class, it automatically extends the class Object
}
This example shows the simplest [[Java programming language|Java]] class possible.
==== Example 2 ====
public class Example2 extends Example1
{
// This is a class that extends the class created in Example 1.
protected int data;
public Example2()
{
// This is a constructor for the class. It does not have a return type.
data = 1;
}
public int getData()
{
return data;
}
public void setData(int d)
{
data = d;
}
}
This example shows a class that has a defined constructor, one member data, and two accessor methods for that member data. It extends the previous example's class. Note that in Java all classes automatically extend the class Object. This allows you to write generic code to deal with objects of any type.
==See also==
* [[Instance|Instantiation]]
* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Hierarchy]]
* [[Class diagram]] (UML)
==Literature==
* Meyer, B.: "Object-oriented software construction", 2nd edition, Prentice Hall, 1997, ISBN 0136291554
* Rumbaugh et al.: "Object-oriented modeling and design", Prentice Hall, 1991, ISBN 0136300545
* [http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/ ISO/IEC 14882:2003 Programming Language C++, International standard]
* Abadi; Cardelli: A Theory of Objects
[[Category:Object-oriented programming]]
[[Category:Programming constructs]]
[[de:Klasse (objektorientierte Programmierung)]]
[[fr:Classe (informatique)]]
[[lt:Klasė (programavimas)]]
[[nl:Klasse (informatica)]]
[[pl:Klasa abstrakcyjna]]
[[pt:Classe (programação)]]
[[ru:Класс_(программирование)]]
[[sv:Klass (programmering)]]
[[zh:类 (计算机科学)]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Canterbury (disambiguation)</title>
<id>7394</id>
<revision>
<id>34192093</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-07T02:10:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.48.50.234</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Canterbury]]''' is a city located in the county of Kent in southeast England.
'''Canterbury''' is also the name of:
In '''England''':
*[[City of Canterbury]], the local government district in Kent
*[[Canterbury Cathedral]]
*[[Canterbury (UK Parliament constituency)]]
In the '''United States''':
*[[Canterbury, Connecticut]], a town
*[[Canterbury, New Hampshire]], a town
*[[Canterbury Park]], a horse racing facility in Minnesota
In '''New Zealand''':
*[[Canterbury, New Zealand]]
*[[Canterbury Plains]]
*[[Canterbury Rugby Football Union]], the governing body for rugby union in the central Canterbury region
In '''Australia''':
*[[Canterbury, New South Wales]], a suburb of Sydney
*[[City of Canterbury, New South Wales]], a local government area of Sydney
*[[Canterbury, Queensland]], a small settlement
*[[Canterbury, Victoria]], a suburb of Melbourne
;Or:
*[[Canterbury Scene]], the British music genre
*[[Canterbury (album)|''Canterbury'' (album)]], a 1983 album by Diamond Head
*[[Canterbury of New Zealand]], a New Zealand-based sports apparel company
*[[Canterbury College]]
*[[Canterbury Bulldogs]], a rugby league team.
*[[Canterbury High School]], a high school dedicated to the arts in Otawa.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Canterbury (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[ko:캔터베리]]
[[it:Canterbury]]
[[nl:Canterbury]]
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<page>
<title>Cryptographer</title>
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<timestamp>2003-02-14T01:11:25Z</timestamp>
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<username>Camembert</username>
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<comment>fix redir</comme |
oases. Large quantities of [[crin vegetal]] (vegetable horse-hair) an excellent fibre, are made from the leaves of the dwarf palm. The [[olive]] (both for its fruit and [[Petroleum]]) and [[tobacco]] are cultivated with great success.
Algeria also exports [[fig]]s, [[date (fruit)|date]]s, [[esparto]] grass, and [[cork (material)|cork]].
====Wine Production====
Throughout Algeria the soil favours the growth of vines. The country, in the words of an expert sent to report on the subject by the French government,
:"can produce an infinite variety of wines suitable to every constitution and to every caprice of taste."
The growing of vines was undertaken early by the colonists, but it was not until vineyards in [[France]] were attacked by [[phylloxera]] that the export of [[wine]] from Algeria became significant. In [[1883]], despite precautionary measures, Algerian [[vineyard]]s were also attacked but in the meantime the quality of their wines had been proved. In 1850 less than 2000 acres (8 km&sup2;) were devoted to the grape, but in 1878 this had increased to over 42,000 acres (170 km&sup2;), which yielded 7,436,000 gallons (28,000 m&sup3;) of wine. Despite bad seasons and ravages of insects, cultivation extended, and in 1895 the vineyards covered 300,000 acres (1,200 km&sup2;), the produce being 88,000,000 gallons (333,000 m&sup3;). The area of cultivation in 1905 exceeded 400,000 acres (1,600 km&sup2;), and in that year the amount of wine produced was 157,000,000 gallons (594,000 m&sup3;). By that time the limits of profitable production had been reached in many parts of the country. Practically the only foreign market for Algerian wine is France, which in 1905 imported about 110,000,000 gallons (416,000 m&sup3;).
===Fishing===
Fishing is a flourishing but minor industry. Fish caught are principally [[sardine]]s, [[bonito]], [[smelt]] and [[sprat]]s. Fresh fish are exported to [[France]], dried and preserved fish to [[Spain]] and [[Italy]]. Coral [[fishery|fisheries]] are found along the coast from [[Bona]] to [[Tunis]].
===Minerals===
Algeria is rich in minerals; the country has many [[iron]], [[lead]] and [[zinc]], [[copper]], [[calamine]], [[antimony]] and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] mines. The most productive are those of iron and zinc. Lignite is found in Algiers; immense [[phosphate]] beds were discovered near [[Tebessa]] in 1891, yielding 313,500 tons in 1905. Phosphate beds are also worked near [[Setif]], [[Guelma]] and [[Ain Beida]]. There are more than 300 quarries which produce, amongst other stones, [[onyx]] and beautiful white and red [[marble]]s. Algerian onyx from Ain Tekbalet was used by the Romans, and many ancient quarries have been found near [[Kleber]], some being certainly those from which the long-lost Numidian marbles were taken. [[Salt]] is collected on the margins of the chotts.
==Foreign trade==
Under French administration the commerce of Algeria developed greatly: the total imports and exports at the time of the French occupation (1830) did not exceed £ 175,000. In 1850 the figures had reached £ 5,000,000; in 1868, £ 12,000,000; in 1880, £ 17,000,000; and in 1890, £ 20,000,000. From this point progress was slower and the figures varied considerably year by year. In 1905 the total value of the foreign trade was £ 24,500,000. About five-sixths of the trade is with or via France, into which country several Algerian goods have been admitted duty-free since 1851, and all since 1867. French goods, except [[sugar]], have been admitted into Algeria without payment of duty since 1835. After the increase, in 1892, of the French minimum tariff, which applied to Algeria also, foreign trade greatly diminished.
By far Algeria's most significant exports, financially, are [[petroleum]] and [[natural gas]]. The reserves are mostly in the Eastern [[Sahara]]; the Algerian government curbed the exports in the 1980s to slow depletion; exports increased again somewhat in the [[1990|1990s]]. Other significant exports are [[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[ox]]en, and [[horse]]s; animal products, such as [[wool]] and skins; [[wine]], cereals ([[rye]], [[barley]], [[oat]]s), [[vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]s (chiefly [[fig]]s and [[grape]]s for the table) and [[seed]]s, [[esparto]] grass, oils and vegetable extracts (chiefly [[olive oil]]), [[iron]] ore, [[zinc]], natural [[phosphate]]s, [[timber]], [[Cork (material)|cork]], [[crin vegetal]] and [[tobacco]]. The import of [[wool]] exceeds the export. [[Sugar]], [[coffee]], machinery, metal work of all kinds, clothing and pottery are largely imported. Of these by far the greater part comes from France. The [[United Kingdom|British]] imports consist chiefly of [[coal]], cotton fabrics and machinery.
===Exports===
Algeria trades most extensively with France and [[Italy]], in terms of both imports and exports, but also trades with the United States and [[Spain]].
===Statistics===
==Reference==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ag.html CIA World Factbook]
:''See also :'' [[Algeria]]
{{OPEC}}
[[Category:Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries|Alegeria]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Algeria]]
[[Category:Economy of Algeria| ]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Algeria]]
[[fr:Économie de l'Algérie]]
[[pt:Economia da Argélia]]
[[ru:Экономика Алжира]]</text>
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<title>Algeria/Communications</title>
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<title>Algeria/Transportation</title>
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<title>Algeria/Transnational Issues</title>
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:''See also :'' [[Algeria]]</text>
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<title>Algeria</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{protected}}
{{Infobox_Country|
native_name = الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية<br>Al-Jumhūrīyah al-Jazā’irīyah<br>ad-Dīmuqrāţīyah ash-Sha’bīyah|
common_name = Algeria |
image_flag = Flag of Algeria.svg |
image_coat = Algeria coa.png |
image_map = LocationAlgeria.png |
national_motto = (translation): The Revolution by the people and for the people |
national_anthem = ''[[Kassaman|Kassaman <small>(Qasaman Bin-Nāzilāt Il-Māḥiqāt)]]''<br>(<small>[[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''[[Kassaman|We Swear By The Lightning That Destroys]]'') |
official_languages = [[Arabic language|Arabic]] |
capital = [[Algiers]] |
latd=36|latm=42|latNS=N|longd=3|longm=13|longEW=E|
largest_city = [[Algiers]] |
government_type= Democratic [[Republic]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Algeria|President]]<br>[[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] |
leader_names = [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]]<br>[[Ahmed Ouyahia]] |
area_rank = 11th |
area_magnitude = 1 E12 |
area = 2,381,740 |
percent_water = negligible |
population_estimate = 32,531,853 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 36th |
population_census= |
population_census_year= |
population_density = 13 |
population_density_rank= 168th|
GDP_PPP_year= 2004 |
GDP_PPP = $217,224,000,000 |
GDP_PPP_rank = 38th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $6,799 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 85th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.722 |
HDI_rank = 103rd |
HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]|
established_events = Declared |
established_dates = From [[France]]<br>[[July 5]], [[1962]] |
currency = [[Algerian dinar]] |
currency_code = DA |
time_zone= [[Central European Time|CET]] |
utc_offset= +1 |
time_zone_DST= [[Ce |
rea.
* The Influenza Pandemic of 1918 or [[Spanish Flu]] killed 25 to 40 million in 1 year (about 2% of world population of 1.7 billion).
** [[Influenza]] now kills about 250,000 to 500,000 worldwide each year.
* The [[Black Death]] of 1347 to 1352 killed 25 million in Europe over 5 years (estimate of 25 to 50% of Europe, Asia, and Africa - world population was 500 million).
===New diseases and pandemics===
In some cases, a microorganism and its host live in reasonable harmony. Such is the case for many tropical viruses and the insects, monkeys, or other animals in which they have lived and reproduced for thousands or millions of years. Because the microbes and their hosts have co-evolved together, the hosts have gradually become resistant to the microorganisms. But when a microbe jumps from a long-time animal host to a human being, it may cease being a harmless parasite and—simply because it is new to the human species—become a pathogen. (See [[infection]]).
With most new infectious diseases, some human action is involved, changing the environment so that an existing [[microbe]] can take up residence in a new ecological [[niche|niche.]] Once that happens, a [[pathogen]] that had been confined to a remote habitat appears in a new or wider region, or a microbe that had infected only animals suddenly begins causing human disease.
Several human activities have led to the emergence and spread of new diseases:
:'''Encroachment on wildlife habitats.''' The construction of new villages and housing developments in rural areas brings people into contact with animals--and the microbes they harbor.
:'''Changes in agriculture.''' The introduction of new crops attracts new crop pests and the microbes they carry to farming communities, exposing people to unfamiliar diseases.
:'''Destroying rain forests.''' As tropical countries make use of their rain forests, building roads through forests and clearing areas for settlement or commercial ventures, people encounter insects and other animals harboring unknown microorganisms.
:'''Uncontrolled urbanization.''' The rapid growth of cities in many developing countries concentrates large numbers of people in crowded areas with poor sanitation, which foster the transmission of contagious diseases.
:'''Modern transport.''' Ships and other cargo carriers often harbor unintended "passengers," such as insects and rats, that can spread diseases to faraway destinations.
:'''High-speed globe-trotting.''' With international jet-airplane travel, people infected with a new disease can carry the disease to the far side of the world before their first symptoms appear.
The relationship between virulence and transmission is complex, and has important consequences for the long term evolution of a pathogen. If a disease is rapidly fatal, the host may die before the microbe can get passed along to another host. However, this cost may be overwhelmed by the short term benefit of higher infectiousness if transmission is linked to virulence, as it is for instance in the case of cholera (the explosive diarrhoea aids the bacterium in finding new hosts) or many respiratory infections (sneezing, coughing etc create infectious aerosols). Since it takes time for a microbe and a new host species to co-evolve an emerging pathogen may hit its earliest victims especially hard. It is usually in the first wave of a new disease that death rates are highest.
== Diagnosis and therapy ==
The field of ''infectious diseases'' also occupies itself with the [[diagnosis]] and [[therapy]] of [[infection]].
===Diagnosis===
''Diagnosis'' is initially by medical history and physical examination, and imaging (such as [[X-ray]]s), but the principal tool in infectious disease is the [[microbiological culture]]. In a culture, a [[growth medium]] is provided for a particular agent. After inoculation of a specimen of diseased fluid or tissue onto the medium, it is determined whether bacterial growth occurs. This works for a number of [[bacterium|bacteria]], for example [[Staphylococcus]] or [[Streptococcus]].
Certain agents cannot be [[microbiological culture|cultured]], for example the above-mentioned ''[[Treponema pallidum]]'' and most [[virus]]es. The first [[serology|serological]] markers were developed to diagnose [[syphilis]] (the [[Wassermann test]], later replaced by the [[VDRL]] and [[TPHA]] tests). Serology involves detecting the [[antibody|antibodies]] against an infectious agent in the patient's [[blood]]. In [[immunocompromised]] patients (e.g. [[AIDS]]), [[serology]] can be troublesome, because the antibody reaction is blunted.
A more recent development is direct detection of [[virus|viral]] proteins and/or DNA in [[blood]] or [[secretion]]s. This can be done by [[PCR]] (polymerase chain reaction), involving the amplification of viral DNA and its subsequent detection with anti-DNA probes.
==== The classification of infectious disease ====
One way of proving that a given disease is "infectious", is to satisfy [[Koch's postulates]] ([[Robert Koch]]), which demand that the [[infectious agent]] is identified in patients and not in controls, and that patients who contract the agent also develop the disease. These postulates were tried and tested in the discovery of [[Mycobacteria]] as the cause for [[tuberculosis]]. Often, it is not possible to meet some of the criteria, even in diseases that are quite clearly infectious. For example, ''[[Treponema pallidum]]'', the causative [[spirochete]] of [[syphilis]], cannot be [[microbiological culture|cultured]] in vitro - however the organism can be cultured in rabbit testes].
[[Epidemiology]] is another important tool used to study disease in a population. For infectious diseases it helps to determine if a disease [[outbreak]] is sporadic (occasional occurrence), [[endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] (regular cases often occurring in a region), [[epidemic]] (an unusually high number of cases in a region), or [[pandemic]] (a global epidemic).
=== Therapy ===
When a [[microbiological culture|culture]] has proven to be positive, the sensitivity (or, conversely, the [[antibiotic resistance]]) of an agent can be determined by exposing it to test doses of [[antibiotic]]. This way, the [[microbiology|microbiologist]] determines how sensitive the target [[bacterium]] is to a certain antibiotic. This is usually reported as being: '''S'''ensitive, '''I'''ntermediate or '''R'''esistant. The ''[[antibiogram]]'' can then be used to determine optimal therapy for the patient. This can reduce the use of [[broad-spectrum antibiotic]]s and lead to a decrease in [[antibiotic resistance]].
==== The work of an infectiologist ====
[[Physician|Doctor]]s who specialise in the [[medicine|medical treatment]] of infectious disease are called ''infectiologists'' or ''infectious disease specialists''. Generally, [[infection]]s are initially diagnosed by [[primary care]] physicians or [[internal medicine]] specialists. For example, an "uncomplicated" [[pneumonia]] will generally be treated by the [[internist]] or the [[pulmology|pulmonologist]] (lung physician).
The services of the infectious disease team are called for when:
* The disease has not been definitively diagnosed after an initial workup
* The patient is [[immunocompromised]] (for example, in [[AIDS]] or after [[chemotherapy]]);
* The [[infectious agent]] is of an uncommon nature (e.g. [[tropical disease]]s);
* The disease has not responded to first line [[antibiotic]]s;
* The disease might be dangerous to other patients, and the patient might have to be isolated.
The work of the infectiologist therefore entails working with patients and doctors on one hand and [[laboratory science|laboratory scientists]] and [[immunology|immunologist]]s on the other hand.
=== History ===
[[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]] ([[1632]]-[[1723]]) advanced the science of microscopy, allowing easy visualization of bacteria.
[[Louis Pasteur]] proved beyond doubt that certain diseases can be caused by infectious agents, and developed a vaccine for rabies.
[[Robert Koch]], mentioned above, gave the study of infectious diseases a scientific basis by formulating [[Koch's postulates]].
[[Edward Jenner]], [[Jonas Salk]] and [[Albert Sabin]] developed successful vaccines for [[Smallpox]] and [[polio]], reducing the threat of these debilitating diseases.
==See also==
* [[Infection]]
* [[Microbiology]]
* [[List of infectious diseases]]
* [[Copenhagen Consensus]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_biology#Infectious disease| Important publications in infectious diseae]]
* [[Big killer]]
==References==
*[http://www.ppidonline.com/ Mandell's Principles and Practices of Infection Diseases] or [http://www.intl.elsevierhealth.com/catalogue/title.cfm?ISBN=0443066736 this site]
*[http://www.elsevier-international.com/catalogue/title.cfm?ISBN=0702026409 Manson's Tropical Diseases]
*[[Control of Communicable Diseases Manual]] edited by James B. Chin, APHA, 2000
*[[Encyclopedia of public health]] edited by Lester Breslow, Macmillan Reference 2002
* Table: [http://www.who.int/whr/en/ The World Health Report] - 2004 Annex Table 2 and 1995 Table 5
==External link==
* [http://www.idsociety.org IDsociety] - The Infectious Disease Society of America
* [http://www.GIDEONonline.com GIDEON] - Global Infectious Diseases and Epidemiology Network
* [http://www.epidemi.ca EPIDEMIca] - A weblog about infectious diseases.
* [http://www.watchtower.org/library/g/2003/5/22/article_01.htm When Insects Spread Disease], discusses problem and offers tips for prevention
{{Medicine}}
[[Category:Infectious diseases|*]]
[[de:Infektionskrankheit]]
[[es:Enfermedad infecciosa]]
[[fr:Maladie infectieuse]]
[[ko:감염병]]
[[id:Penyakit menular]]
[[lt:Infekcinė liga]]
[[nl:Infectieziekte]]
[[ja:感染症]]
[[pl:Choroba zakaźna]]
[[pt:Doença infecciosa]]
[[ro:Boală infecţioasă]]
[[simple:Infectious disease]]
[[tr:Bulaşıcı hastalık]]
[[zh:傳染病]]</text>
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<titl |
erses it suffered on land and sea in the Crimean War exposed the decay and weakness of Tsar Nicholas' regime.
When [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] came to the throne in [[1855]], desire for reform was widespread. A growing humanitarian movement, which in later years has been likened to that of the [[abolitionism|abolitionists]] in the [[United States]] before the [[American Civil War]], attacked serfdom. In [[1859]], there were more than 23 million serfs living under conditions frequently worse than those of the peasants of [[western Europe]] on 16th century [[Manorialism|manor]]s. Alexander II made up his own mind to abolish serfdom from above rather than wait for it to be abolished from below through revolution.
The [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia|emancipation of the serfs]] in [[1861]] was the single most important event in 19th century Russian history. It was the beginning of the end for the landed aristocracy's monopoly of power. Emancipation brought a supply of free labor to the cities, industry was stimulated, and the middle class grew in number and influence; however, instead of receiving their lands as a gift, the freed peasants had to pay a special tax for what amounted to their lifetime to the government, which in turn paid the landlords a generous price for the land that they had lost. In numerous instances the peasants wound up with the poorest land. All the land turned over to the peasants was owned collectively by the ''mir'', the village community, which divided the land among the peasants and supervised the various holdings. Although serfdom was abolished, since its abolition was achieved on terms unfavorable to the peasants, revolutionary tensions were not abated, despite Alexander II's intentions.
In the late 1870s Russia and the Ottoman Empire clashed in the Balkans. From 1875 to 1877, the Balkan crisis escalated with rebellions against Ottoman rule by various Slavic nationalities, which the Ottoman Turks suppressed with what was seen as great cruelty in Russia. Russian nationalist opinion became a serious domestic factor in its support for liberating Balkan Christians from Ottoman rule and making Bulgaria and Serbia quasi-protectorates of Russia. In early 1877, Russia intervened on behalf of Serbian and Russian volunteer forces when it went to war with the Ottoman Empire. Within one year, Russian troops were nearing Constantinople, and the Ottomans surrendered. Russia's nationalist diplomats and generals persuaded Alexander II to force the Ottomans to sign the [[Treaty of San Stefano]] in March 1878, creating an enlarged, independent Bulgaria that stretched into the southwestern Balkans. When Britain threatened to declare war over the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano, an exhausted Russia backed down. At the [[Congress of Berlin]] in July 1878, Russia agreed to the creation of a smaller Bulgaria. As a result, Russian nationalists were left with a legacy of bitterness against Austria-Hungary and Germany for failing to back Russia. The disappointment as a result of war stimulated revolutionary tensions in Russia.
====Nihilism====
In the [[1860s]] a movement known as [[Nihilist movement|Nihilism]] developed in Russia. For some time many Russian liberals had been dissatisfied by the empty discussions of the [[intelligentsia]]. The Nihilists questioned all old values, championed the independence of the individual, and shocked the Russian establishment.
The Nihilists first attempted to convert the aristocracy to the cause of reform. Failing there, they turned to the peasants. Their "go to the people" campaign became known as the [[Narodnik]] movement.
While the Narodnik movement was gaining momentum, the government quickly moved to extirpate it. In response to the growing reaction of the government, a radical branch of the Narodniks advocated and practiced [[terrorism]]. One after another, prominent officials were shot or killed by bombs. Finally, after several attempts, Alexander II was assassinated in [[1881]], on the very day he had approved a proposal to call a representative assembly to consider new reforms in addition to the abolition of serfdom designed to ameliorate revolutionary demands.
====Autocracy and reaction under Alexander III====
[[Image:Kramskoy Alexander III.jpg|left|thumb|Portrait of Tsar [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]] (1886)]]
Unlike his father, the new tsar [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]] ([[1881]]&ndash;[[1894]]) was throughout his reign a staunch reactionary who revived the maxim of "Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Nationalism" of Nicholas I. A committed Slavophile, Alexander III believed that Russia could be saved from chaos only by shutting itself off from the subversive influences of Western Europe.
The tsar's most influential adviser was [[Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonostsev]], tutor to Alexander III and his son Nicholas, and procurator of the Holy Synod from [[1880]] to [[1895]]. He taught his royal pupils to fear freedom of speech and press and to hate democracy, constitutions, and the parliamentary system. Under Pobedonostsev, revolutionaries were hunted down and a policy of Russification was carried out throughout the empire. In his reign Russia has concluded the union with republican France and has received the French credits for development of the industry.
====Nicholas II and a new revolutionary movement====
Alexander was succeeded by his son [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] ([[1894]]&ndash;[[1917]]). The Industrial Revolution, which began to exert a significant influence in Russia, was meanwhile creating forces that would finally overthrow the tsar. The liberal elements among the industrial capitalists and nobility believed in peaceful social reform and a constitutional monarchy, forming the Constitutional Democrats, or [[Kadets]]. Social revolutionaries combined the Narodnik tradition and advocated the distribution of land among those who actually worked it&mdash;the peasants. Another radical group was the Social Democrats, exponents of [[Marxism]] in Russia. Gathering their support from the radical intellectuals and the urban working class, they advocated complete social, economic and political revolution.
In [[1903]] the party split into two wings&mdash;the [[Menshevik]]s, or moderates, and the [[Bolshevik]]s, the radicals. The Mensheviks believed that Russian socialism would grow gradually and peacefully and that the tsar’s regime should be succeeded by a democratic republic in which the socialists would cooperate with the liberal bourgeois parties. The Bolsheviks, under [[Vladimir Lenin]], advocated the formation of a small elite of professional revolutionists, subject to strong party discipline, to act as the vanguard of the proletariat in order to seize power by force.<sup>[[#Notes|2]]</sup>
The disastrous performance of the Russian armed forces in the [[Russo-Japanese War]] ([[1904]]&ndash;[[1905]]) was a major blow to the Tsarist regime and increased the potential for unrest. In January [[1905]], an incident known as "[[Bloody Sunday (1905)|Bloody Sunday]]" occurred when [[Father Gapon]] led an enormous crowd to the [[Winter Palace]] in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]] to present a petition to the tsar. When the procession reached the palace, Cossacks opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. The Russian masses were so aroused over the massacre that a general strike was declared demanding a democratic republic. This marked the beginning of the [[Russian Revolution of 1905]]. [[Soviet]]s (councils of workers) appeared in most cities to direct revolutionary activity. Russia was paralyzed, and the government was desperate.
In October 1905, Nicholas reluctantly issued the famous [[October Manifesto]], which conceded the creation of a national Duma (legislature) to be called without delay. The right to vote was extended and no law was to go into force without confirmation by the Duma. The moderate groups were satisfied; but the socialists rejected the concessions as insufficient and tried to organize new strikes. By the end of 1905, there was disunity among the reformers, and the tsar's position was strengthened for the time being.
==Russian Revolution==
''Main article: [[Russian Revolution of 1917]]''
[[Image:Soviet Union, Lenin (55).jpg|thumb|right|[[Vladimir Lenin]] following his return to Petrograd]]
Tsar Nicholas II and his subjects entered [[World War I]] with enthusiasm and patriotism, with the defense of Russia's fellow Orthodox Slavs, the [[Serbs]], as the main battle cry. In August 1914, the Russian army entered Germany to support the French armies. However, the weaknesses of the Russian economy and the inefficiency and corruption in government were hidden only for a brief period under a cloak of fervent nationalism. Military reversals and the government's incompetence soon soured much of the population. German control of the Baltic Sea and German-Ottoman control of the Black Sea severed Russia from most of its foreign supplies and potential markets.
By the middle of [[1915]] the impact of the war was demoralizing. Food and fuel were in short supply, casualties were staggering, and inflation was mounting. Strikes increased among low-paid factory workers, and the peasants, who wanted land reforms, were restless. Meanwhile, public distrust of the regime was deepened by reports that a semiliterate mystic, [[Grigory Rasputin]], had great political influence within the government. His assassination in late [[1916]] ended the scandal but did not restore the autocracy's lost prestige.
On [[March 3]], [[1917]], a strike occurred in a factory in the capital [[Petrograd]] (formerly St. Petersburg). Within a week nearly all the workers in the city were idle, and street fighting broke out. When the tsar dismissed the Duma and ordered strikers to return to work, his orders triggered the [[February Revolution]].
The Duma refused to disband, t |
orney General]]||align="left"|'''[[Benjamin H. Brewster]]'''||align="left"|1881&ndash;1885
|-
|align="left"|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align="left"|'''[[Timothy O. Howe]]'''||align="left"|1881&ndash;1883
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Walter Q. Gresham]]'''||align="left"|1883&ndash;1884
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Frank Hatton]]'''||align="left"|1884&ndash;1885
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align="left"|'''[[William H. Hunt]]'''||align="left"|1881&ndash;1882
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[William E. Chandler]]'''||align="left"|1882&ndash;1885
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]]||align="left"|'''[[Samuel J. Kirkwood]]'''||align="left"|1881&ndash;1882
|-
|align="left"|&nbsp;||align="left"|'''[[Henry M. Teller]]'''||align="left"|1882&ndash;1885
|}
<br clear="all">
===Supreme Court Appointments===
*[[Samuel Blatchford]] - 1882
*[[Horace Gray]] - 1882
Confirmed Supreme Court Appointment, but declined to take office
*[[Roscoe Conkling]] - 1882
===Social and personal life===
Arthur is remembered as one of the most society-conscious presidents, earning the nickname "the Gentleman Boss" for his style of dress and courtly manner.
Upon taking office, Arthur did not move into the [[White House]] immediately. He insisted upon its redecoration and had 24 wagonloads of furniture, some including pieces dating back to [[John Adams|John Adams's]] term, carted away and sold at public auction, and Arthur commissioned [[Louis Comfort Tiffany]] to replace them with new pieces. A famous designer now best-known for his [[stained glass]], Tiffany was among the foremost designers of the day and among his clients included [[Mark Twain]].{{ref|Tiffany}}
Arthur was a [[fisherman]] who belonged to the Restigouche Salmon Club and once reportedly caught an 80-pound [[bass (fish)|bass]] off the coast of [[Rhode Island]].
Widely popular by the end of his presidency, four young women (ignorant of Arthur's pronouncement that he would never marry again) proposed to him on the day he left office. He was sometimes called "Elegant Arthur" for his commitment to fashionable attire and was said to have "looked like a president." He reportedly kept 80 pairs of pants in his wardrobe, and changed pants several times a day. He was called "Chet" by family and friends and his middle name with the stress on the second syllable ("Al-AN").
== Post presidency ==
Arthur served as president through [[March 3]], [[1885]]. Upon leaving office, he returned to New York City where he died of a massive [[cerebral hemorrhage]] at 5:10 a.m. on Thursday [[November 18]], [[1886]], at the age of 57. His time as a [[List of U.S. Presidents by time as former president|former president]] was the second shortest, longer only than that of [[James Knox Polk|James Polk]].
Chester was buried next to Ellen in the Arthur family plot in the [[Albany Rural Cemetery]] in [[Albany, New York]], in a large sarcophagus on a large corner plot that contains the graves of many of his family members and ancestors.
==Notes==
<div style="font-size: 80%">
#{{note|Tiffany}} Mitchell, Sarah E. "Louis Comfort Tiffany's work on the White House." 2003.<sup>[http://www.vintagedesigns.com/fam/wh/tiff/]</sup>
</div>
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
*[http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/arthur-1.html First State of the Union Address of Chester A. Arthur]
*[http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/arthur-2.html Second State of the Union Address of Chester A. Arthur]
*[http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/arthur-3.html Third State of the Union Address of Chester A. Arthur]
*[http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/arthur-4.html Fourth State of the Union Address of Chester A. Arthur]
*[http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/ca21.html White House Biography]
*[http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g21.htm Medical and Health history of Chester A. Arthur]
*{{gutenberg author | id=Chester_Alan_Arthur | name=Chester Alan Arthur}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
title=[[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican Party Vice Presidential candidate]] |
before=[[William A. Wheeler]] |
after=[[John A. Logan]]|
years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1880|1880]] (won)
}}
{{succession box|
title=[[Vice President of the United States]]|
before=[[William A. Wheeler]]|
after=[[Thomas A. Hendricks]]|
years=[[March 4]], [[1881]] &ndash; [[September 19]], [[1881]]<sup>(a)</sup>
}}
{{succession box|
title=[[President of the United States]]|
before=[[James A. Garfield]]|
after=[[Grover Cleveland]]|
years=[[September 19]], [[1881]]<sup>(b)</sup> &ndash; [[March 3]], [[1885]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. -->| }}
{{succession footnote|
marker=<sup>(a)</sup>|
footnote=President Garfield died on September 19.}}
{{succession footnote|
marker=<sup>(b)</sup>|
footnote=Arthur took the oath of office on September 20.}}
{{end box}}
{{USpresidents}}
{{US Vice Presidents}}
{{USRepVicePresNominees}}
[[Category:1830 births|Arthur, Chester A.]]
[[Category:1886 deaths|Arthur, Chester A.]]
[[Category:American Civil War Generals|Arthur, Chester A.]]
[[Category:Deaths by apoplexy|Arthur, Chester A.]]
[[Category:Episcopalians|Arthur, Chester A.]]
[[Category:People from Vermont|Arthur, Chester A.]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Arthur, Chester A.]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans|Arthur, Chester A.]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees|Arthur, Chester A.]]
[[Category:Union College, New York alumni|Arthur, Chester A.]]
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<page>
<title>Calvin Coolidge</title>
<id>6195</id>
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<id>42137256</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:45:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
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<comment>replacing image</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President | name=President John Calvin Coolidge, Jr.
| nationality=american
| image=Calvin Coolidge photo portrait head and shoulders.jpg
| order=30th President
| term_start=[[August 2]], [[1923]]
| term_end=[[March 3]], [[1929]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. -->
| predecessor=[[Warren G. Harding]]
| successor=[[Herbert Hoover]]
| birth_date=[[July 4]], [[1872]]
| birth_place=[[Plymouth, Vermont]]
| death_date=[[January 5]], [[1933]]
| death_place=[[Northampton, Massachusetts]]
| spouse=[[Grace Coolidge|Grace Goodhue Coolidge]]
| party=[[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
| vicepresident=[[Charles G. Dawes]]
}}
'''John Calvin Coolidge, Jr.''' ([[July 4]], [[1872]] &ndash; [[January 5]], [[1933]]) was the twenty-ninth [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] (1921-1923) and the 30th [[President of the United States]] (1923-1929), succeeding to that office upon the death of [[Warren G. Harding]].
==Biography==
John Calvin Coolidge Jr. was born in [[Plymouth, Vermont|Plymouth]], [[Windsor County, Vermont|Windsor County]], [[Vermont]] on [[July 4]], [[1872]] to John Calvin Coolidge, Sr. and Victoria Moor. Coolidge was the only president to be born on the 4th of July (Independence Day). He dropped ''John'' from his name upon graduating from college. He attended [[Amherst College]], in [[Massachusetts]], where he became a member of the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, and graduated in 1895. He practiced law in [[Northampton, Massachusetts]], and was a member of the city council in 1899, city solicitor from 1900-1902, clerk of courts in 1904, and representative from 1907-1908. In 1905, Coolidge married Grace Anna Goodhue. They were complete opposites personality-wise: she was talkative and fun-loving, and Coolidge was quiet and serious. Not long after their marriage Coolidge handed her a bag with 52 pairs of socks in it, all of them full of holes. Grace's reply was "Did you marry me to darn your socks?" Without cracking a smile and with his usual seriousness, Calvin answered, "No, but I find it mighty handy." <ref> [http://www.drafthorsejournal.com/daysbeforeyesterday/autumn01/75yearsago/75yearsago.htm Drafthorse Journal] - 2001 </ref>
The couple had two children named [[John Coolidge|John]] and Calvin.
Coolidge was elected mayor of Northampton in [[1910]] and 1911, was a member of the State senate 1912-1915, serving as president of that body in 1914 and 1915. He was [[lieutenant governor]] of the state from 1916-1918, and [[List of Governors of Massachusetts|Governor]] from 1919-1920. In 1919, Coolidge gained national attention when he ordered the Massachusetts [[United States National Guard|National Guard]] to forcefully |
uot;Confucius".
|}
'''Confucius''' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]] '''Kong Fuzi''', literally "Master Kong", traditionally [[September 28]], [[551 BCE]]&ndash;[[479 BCE]]) was a famous thinker and social [[philosopher]] of [[China]], whose teachings have deeply influenced [[East Asia]]. Living in the [[Spring and Autumn period]], he was convinced of his ability to restore the world's order, but failed.
After much travelling around China to promote his ideas among rulers, he eventually became involved in teaching [[disciples of Confucius|disciples]]. His philosophy emphasized personal and governmental [[morality]], correctness of [[social relation]]ships, [[justice]] and [[sincerity]]. These values gained prominence in China over other doctrines such as [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]] or [[Taoism]] during the [[Han dynasty]]. Used since then as the imperial orthodoxy, Confucius' thoughts have been developed into a vast and complete philosophical system known in the West as [[Confucianism]]. They were introduced to Europe by the [[Jesuit]] [[Matteo Ricci]], who was the first to [[Latinization|Latinise]] the name as "Confucius".
The ''[[Analects of Confucius|Analects]]'' is a short collection of his discussions with disciples, compiled posthumously. It contains an overview of his teachings.
== Personal life and family ==
:At 15, I set my mind upon learning;
:At 30, I took my stand;
:At 40, I no longer had doubts;
:At 50, I knew the will of the heavens;
:At 60, my ear was attuned;
:At 70, I follow all the desires of my heart without breaking any rule.
:(Translation by James Legge)
According to tradition, Confucius was born in [[551 BCE]] (during the [[Spring and Autumn Period]], at the beginning of the [[Hundred Schools of Thought]] philosophical movement) in the city of [[Qufu]] in the Chinese [[Lu (state)|State of Lu]] (now part of present-day [[Shandong Province]] and culturally and geographically close to the royal mansion of [[Zhou]]). He was born into a once noble family who had recently fled from the [[Song (state)|State of Song]].
The [[Records of the Grand Historian]] (史記) compiled some 400 years later indicate that Confucius was conceived out of wedlock (野合). His father was 70 and his mother only 15 at his birth. His father died when he was three and he was brought up in poverty by his mother. His social ascendancy links him to the growing class of ''Shì'' (&#22763;), between old [[nobility]] and common people, which later became the prominent class of [[literati]] because of the cultural and intellectual skills they shared.
As a child, he is said to have enjoyed putting ritual vases on the sacrifice table. As a young man he was a minor administrative manager in the State of Lu and rose to the position of Justice Minister. After several years, disapproving of the politics of his Prince, he resigned. At about age 50, seeing no way to improve the government, he gave up his political career in Lu, and began a 12-year journey around China, seeking the "Way" and trying unsuccessfully to convince many different rulers of his political beliefs and to push them into reality. When he was about 60, he returned home and spent the last years of his life teaching an increasing number of disciples, trying to share his experiences with them and transmit the old wisdom via a set of books called the [[Five Classics]].
When Confucius held the post of the highest officer in Lu, he issued an arrest and execution order for Shao-Zheng-Mao (少正卯), a respected person in Lu. The order gave five rather vague reasons: 1. Having a recalcitrant mind, 2. Alienating himself and refusing changes, 3. Enjoying specious arguments, 4. Broadcasting others' faults, 5. Supporting and profiting from others' bad deeds. (１.心逆而险 ２.行辟而坚 ３.言伪而辩 ４. 记丑而博 ５.顺非而泽). (This accusation of judicial murder has been denied by Confucius' admirers.)
The King of Lu was unhappy at this abuse of power, and during an annual ritual he refused to distribute the sacred meat to Confucius, a strong indication of disapproval. In fact, Confucius was forced into exile from Lu after these accusations. During his exile (called “touring the kingdoms” 周游列国 in Confucianism), Confucius was not widely welcomed; some kingdoms even forbade him to cross their borders.
Confucius' descendants were repeatedly identified and honored by successive imperial governments. They were honored with the rank of a [[marquis]] thirty-five times since [[Han Gaozu|Gaozu]] of the Han Dynasty, and they were promoted to the rank of [[duke]] forty-two times from the [[Tang Dynasty]] to [[1935]]. One of the most common titles is ''Duke Yansheng'' (&#34893;&#32854;&#20844; Y&#462;nshèng g&#333;ng), which means "overflowing with sainthood."
Today, there are thousands of reputed descendants of Confucius. The main lineage fled from the Kong ancestral home in [[Qufu]] to [[Taiwan]] during the [[Chinese Civil War]]. The latest head of the household is [[K'ung Te-ch'eng]] who is of the 77th generation and a professor at [[National Taiwan University]]. The [[Republic of China]] appointed him President of the [[Examination Yuan]]. Kung married [[Sun Qifang]], the great-granddaughter of the [[Qing dynasty]] scholar-official and first president of [[Beijing University]] [[Sun Jianai]], whose [[Shouxian]], [[Anhui]], family created one of the first business combines in modern-day China that included the largest [[flour mill]] in [[Asia]], the [[Fou Foong Flour Company]] &#31119;&#35920;&#40629;&#31881;&#24288;. The Kongs are related by marriage to a number of prominent Confucian families, among them that of the [[Song]] dynasty prime minister and martyr [[Wen Tianxiang]].
==Teachings==
In the [[Analects]], where one can find the most intimate descriptions of him, Confucius (孔夫子) presents himself as a "transmitter who invented nothing" and his greatest emphasis may be on ''study'', the Chinese character that opens the book.
In this respect, he is seen by Chinese people as the Greatest Master. Far from trying to build a systematic theory of [[life]] and [[society]], he wanted his disciples to think deeply for themselves and relentlessly study the outside world, mostly through the old [[scriptures]] relating past political events (like the ''Annals'') or past feelings of common people (like the [[Book of Odes]]).
In these times of division, chaos and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the [[Mandate of Heaven]] that could unify the "world" (i.e., China) and bestow peace and prosperity on the people. Therefore, Confucius is often considered a great proponent of [[conservatism]], but a closer look at what he proposes often shows that he used (and maybe twisted) past institutions and rites to push a new political agenda of his own: for example, he wanted rulers to be chosen on their merits, not their parentage. He wanted rulers who were devoted to their people. And he wanted the ruler to reach [[perfection]] himself, thus spreading his own virtues to the people instead of imposing proper behavior with laws and rules.
One of the deepest teachings of Confucius, and one of the hardest to understand from a Western point of view, may have been the superiority of exemplification over explicit rules of [[behavior]]. His [[ethics]] may be considered one of the greatest [[virtue ethics]]. This kind of "indirect" way to achieve a goal is used widely in his teachings, where [[allusion]]s, [[innuendo]] and even [[tautology]] are common ways of expressing himself. That is why his teachings need to be examined and put into context for access by Westerners. A good example is found in this famous anecdote:
::When the stables were burnt down, on returning from court, Confucius said, "Was anyone hurt?" He did not ask about the horses.
:::::::''Analects'' X.11, tr. A. Waley
What seems a matter of tiny importance has been long commented on and shows another of the Confucian specificities that have to be underlined. When one knows that in his time horses were perhaps 10 times more expensive than stablemen, one can understand that, by not asking about the horses, Confucius demonstrated his greatest priority: human beings. Thus, when one sees a little bit of the greater picture, according to many ancient or recent Eastern and Western commentators, Confucius' teaching can be considered as noteworthy Chinese variant of [[humanism]].
Confucius also heavily emphasized what he calls "rites and music," referring to these social conventions as two poles to balance [[social order|order]] and [[harmony]]. While rites, in short, show off social hierarchies, music unifies hearts in shared enjoyment. He added that rites are not only the way to arrange sacrificial tools, and music is not only the sound of stick on bell. Both are mutual communication between someone's humanity and his social context; both feed social relationships, like the five prototypes: between father and son, husband and wife, prince and subject, elder and youngster, and between friends. Duties are always balanced and if a subject must obey his ruler, he also has to tell him when he is wrong.
Confucius' teachings were later turned into a ''corps de doctrine'' by his numerous disciples and followers. In the centuries after his death, [[Mencius]] and [[Xun Zi]] both wrote a prominent book on it, and in time a philosophy was elaborated, which is known in the West as [[Confucianism]].
==Names==
[[Image:Confucius - Project Gutenberg eText 15250.jpg|thumb|Confucius, illustrated in ''Myths & Legends of China'', [[1922]], by E.T.C. Werner]]
* The [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]], while translating Chinese books into Western languages, translated &#23380;&#22827;&#23376; as ''Confucius''. This [[Latin alphabet|Latin]]ized form has since been commonly used in Western countries.
* In systema |
for [[empathy]].
=== Turing Test ===
[[Alan Turing]] proposed what is now known as the [[Turing test]] to determine if a computer could simulate human conversation undetectably. This test is commonly cited in discussion of [[artificial intelligence]]. The application to consciousness is that, according to some philosophers, anything capable of passing the Turing test as well as a person is necessarily conscious. Other philosophers say that a [[philosophical zombie]] could pass the test yet fail to be conscious. This matter is heavily disputed. Still others take it for granted that computers can think, since this is what they were designed to do; [[Edsger Dijkstra]] commented that "The question of whether a computer can think is no more interesting than the question of whether a submarine can swim."
A [[thought experiment]], which is intended to show problems with the Turing Test, is as follows. Imagine a computer in which are stored a very large number of questions and a very large number of actual human responses to these questions. If the number of questions and answers was large enough, then the computer would be able to mimic consciousness by a purely mechanical procedure. Of course, this is a purely hypothetical example, because any attempt to create a lookup table for all possible responses would entail a device of truly gigantic proportions. For this reasons, some consider this thought experiment to be misleading. See [[Chinese_room|Chinese room]].
=== Mirror test ===
''See also the concept of the [[Mirror stage]] by [[Jacques Lacan]]''
With the [[mirror test]], devised by [[Gordon Gallup]] in the 1970s, one is interested in whether animals are able to recognize themselves in a mirror. Such self-recognition is said to be an indicator of consciousness. Humans (older than 18 months), [[Hominid|great apes]] (except for [[gorilla|gorillas]]), and [[bottlenose dolphin|bottlenose dolphins]] have all been observed to pass this test.
== Endnotes ==
*{{note|Aquinas}} See [http://www.corpusthomisticum.org/qdv15.html#55339 Aquinas, ''De Veritate'' 17,1 c.a.]
*{{note|Davies}} See Catherine G. Davies, ''Conscience as Consciousness'', Oxford 1990, and [http://www.borishennig.de/texte/descartes/diss Hennig, Cartesian Conscientia].
*{{note|Balibar}} See [[Etienne Balibar]], ''Identité et différence. Le chapitre II, xxvii de l'''Essay concerning Human Understanding'' de Locke. L'invention de la conscience.'' Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1998. ISBN 2020263009
("Identity and Difference". Chapter XXVII, book II of Locke's ''Essay Concerning Human Understanding''. The invention of consciousness")
*{{note|Locke}}{{note label|Locke|4|a}}John Locke, §21 and §28, chap.XXVII, book II of ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding''
*{{note|Gay}} See Friedrich Nietzsche, ''[[The Gay Science]]'', §355.
== See also ==
===Cognitive Neuroscience ===
* [[Attention]]
* [[Binocular rivalry]]
* [[Blindsight]]
* [[Change blindness]]
* [[Cognitive science]]
* [[Iconic memory]]
* [[Multistable perception]]
* [[Neural correlate of consciousness]]
* [[Neural Darwinism]]
* [[Short term memory]]
* [[Society of Mind]]
* [[Unconscious mind]]
* [[Visual short term memory]]
===Philosophy===
* [[Mental body]]
* [[Mind]]
* [[Mind-body problem]]
* [[Multiple drafts theory | Dennett's Multiple Drafts theory]]
* [[New Mysterianism]]
* [[Philosophy of mind]]
* [[Qualia]]
* [[Stream of consciousness]]
* [[Supervenience]]
* [[Theory of mind]]
* [[Philosophy of perception]]
* [[Personhood|Personhood Theory]]
===Physical Theories of Consciousness===
* [[Orch-OR|Orch-OR theory]]
* [[Electromagnetic theories of consciousness]]
* [[Holonomic brain theory]]
* [[Many-minds interpretation]]
* [[Quantum mind]]
* [[Space-time theories of consciousness]]
* [[Spin-Mediated Consciousness Theory]]
===People===
* [[Bernard Baars]]
* [[Ned Block]]
* [[David Chalmers]]
* [[Francis Crick]]
* [[Antonio Damasio]]
* [[Stanislas Dehaene]]
* [[Daniel Dennett]]
* [[Gerald Edelman]]
* [[Sigmund Freud]]
* [[Stuart Hameroff]]
* [[Stevan Harnad]]
* [[Christof Koch]]
* [[Benjamin Libet]]
* [[Thomas Metzinger]]
* [[Marvin Minsky]]
* [[Roger Penrose]]
* [[Geraint Rees]]
* [[John Searle]]
* [[Petra Stoerig]]
* [[Larry Weiskrantz]]
===Miscellaneous===
* [[8-Circuit Model of Consciousness]]
* [[Altered state of consciousness]]
* [[Artificial consciousness]]
* [[Communalness]]
* [[Neurophenomenology]]
* [[Simulated consciousness]]
* [[Vijnana]]
* [[Yoga Nidra]]
== Further reading ==
{{Wikibookspar|Consciousness studies| }}
=== General ===
* Baars, B. (1997). ''In the Theater of Consciousness: The Workspace of the Mind''. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 2001 reprint: ISBN 0195147030
* Blackmore, S. (2003). ''Consciousness: an Introduction''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019515343X
* [http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/philo/faculty/block/papers/ecs.pdf Block, N. (2004). ''The Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science''.]
*Chalmers, D. (1996). ''The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory''. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511789-1
* Cleermans, A. (Ed.) (2003). ''The Unity of Consciousness: Binding, Integration, and Dissociation''. Oxford: Oxford Univerisity Press. ISBN 0198508573
* Damasio, A. (1999). ''The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness''. New York: Harcourt Press. ISBN 0156010755
* Dennett, D. (1991). ''Consciousness Explained'', Boston: Little & Company. ISBN 0316180661
* [[Stevan Harnad| Harnad, S.]] (2005) [http://cogprints.org/4414/01/harnad-searle.html What is Consciousness?] ''[[New York Review of Books]]'' 52(11).
* [http://www.psywww.com/psyrelig/james/james5.htm#115 James, W. (1902) The Varieties of Religious Experience]
* Koch, C. (2004). ''The Quest for Consciousness''. Englewood, CO: Roberts & Company. ISBN 0974707708
* Libet, B., Freeman, A. & Sutherland, K. ed. (1999). ''The Volitional Brain: Towards a neuroscience of free will''. Exeter, UK: Short Run Press, Ltd.
* Metzinger, T. (2003). ''Being No One: the Self-model Theory of Subjectivity''. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
*Metzinger, T. (Ed.) (2000). ''The Neural Correlates of Consciousness''. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0262133709
* Searle, J. (2004). ''Mind: A Brief Introduction''. New York: Oxford University Press.
=== Consciousness and quantum mechanics ===
* Bourget, D. (2004), &#8216;Quantum Leaps in Philosophy of Mind&#8217;, Journal of Consciousness Studies 11 (12).
* Eccles, J.C. (1994), How the Self Controls its Brain, (Springer-Verlag).
* Hagan, S., Hameroff, S.R., and Tuszy&#324;ski, E. (2000), &#8216;Quantum Computation in Brain Microtubules: Decoherence and biological feasibility&#8217;, Physical Review E, 65.
* Hodgson, D. (2002), &#8216;Quantum Physics, Consciousness, and Free Will&#8217;, in R. Kane (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Freewill (Oxford University Press).
* Lockwood, M. (1989), Mind, Brain and Quantum (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
* McFarlane, Thomas J. (1988) [http://www.integralscience.org/ConsciousQM.html Consciousness and Quantum Mechanics]
* Mulhauser, G. R. (1995), &#8216;On the End of the Quantum Mechanical Romance&#8217;, Psyche, 2 (5).
* Penrose, R., Hameroff, S. R. (1996), &#8216;Conscious Events as Orchestrated Space-Time Selections&#8217;, Journal of Consciousness Studies, 3 (1), pp. 36-53.
* Stapp, H.P. (1993), Mind, Matter, and Quantum Mechanics, First Edition (Springer-Verlag).
* Tegmark, M. (1999), &#8216;The importance of Decoherence in Brain Processes&#8217;, Physical Review E, 61, pp. 4194-4206.
* Walker, E.H. (1997), &#8216;Quantum Mechanical Tunneling in Synaptic and Ephaptic Transmission&#8217;, Int. J. Quantum Chemistry, 11, 103-127.
==External links==
===Academic journals & newsletters===
* [http://www.imprint.co.uk/jcs.html ''Journal of Consciousness Studies'']
* [http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/622810/description#description ''Consciousness and Cognition'']
* [http://psyche.cs.monash.edu.au/ ''Psyche'']
* [http://www.sci-con.org ''Science & Consciousness Review'']
===Societies===
* [[Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness]]
===Philosophy resources===
* [http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/incpages/publctns.shtml Publications of the Tufts Center for Cognitive Studies, including Daniel Dennett]
* [http://consc.net/online.html David Chalmers' directory of online papers on consciousness]
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness-animal/ Animal Consciousness]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness-higher/ Higher Order Theories of Consciousness]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness-intentionality/ Consciousness and Intentionality]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness-representational/ Representational Theory of Consciousness]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness-unity/ Unity of Consciousness]
===Miscellaneous sites===
* [http://klab.caltech.edu/cns120/videos.php Online lecture videos,] from an undergraduate course taught by [[Christof Koch]] at [[Caltech]] on the neurobiological basis of consciousness in 2004.
* [http://www.imprint.co.uk/Wilber.htm Ken Wilber's Integral Theory of Consciousness] from ''Journal of Consciousness Studies''
* [http://brainmaps.org Brain Atlas, Brain Maps, Neuroinformatics]
* [http://www.starstuffs.com/physcon2 Physics and Consciousness Quantum Relations to The Mind]
* [http://faculty.virginia.edu/consciousness/ Online course in consciousness] at [[University of Virginia]]
* [http://grove.ufl.edu/~psy4930/ A survey course] at [[University of Florida]]
* Edinburgh [http://www.robots.ox.ac.uk/~charles/thesis/Fox_Consciousness_Thesis.ps thesis] on consciousness including up-to-date reviews
* [http://www.gnosticweb.com/index.php?PageID=14/ Gnosticweb] Articles on Consciousness as taught by some [[gnostic |
gime, although responsibility for the attack is a matter of some dispute {{ref|ref2}} (Saddam maintains his innocence in this matter). Almost all current accounts of the incident regard the Iraqi regime as the party responsible for the gas attack (as opposed to Iran), and the event has become iconic in depictions of Saddam's cruelty. Estimates of casualties range from several hundred to at least 7,000 people. The Iraqi government continued to be supported by a broad international community including the most of the West, the [[Soviet Union]], and [[China]] which continued sending arms shipments to combat [[Iran]]. Indeed, shipments from the US increased after this date, and the UK awarded £400 million in trade credits to Iraq ten days after condemning the massacre [http://middleeastreference.org.uk/llb020916a.html].
In the late 1970s, Iraq purchased a French nuclear reactor, dubbed [[Osirak]] or [[Tammuz 1]]. Construction began in 1979. In 1980 the reactor site suffered minor damage due to an Iranian air strike, and in 1981, before the reactor could be completed, it was destroyed by the [[Israeli Air Force]] (see [[Operation Opera]]), greatly setting back Iraq's nuclear weapons program.
=== Invasion of Kuwait and the [[Persian Gulf War]] ===
A long-standing territorial dispute led to the invasion of [[Kuwait]] in [[1990]]. Iraq accused Kuwait of violating the Iraqi border to secure oil resources, and demanded that its debt repayments should be waived. Direct negotiations began in July 1990, but they soon failed. Saddām Hussein had an emergency meeting with [[April Glaspie]], the United States Ambassador to Iraq, on [[25 July]] 1990, airing his concerns but stating his intention to continue talks. April Glaspie informed Saddām that the United States had no interest in Iraq/Kuwait border disputes.
Arab mediators convinced Iraq and Kuwait to negotiate their differences in [[Jiddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]], on [[1 August]] [[1990]], but that session resulted only in charges and counter-charges. A second session was scheduled to take place in [[Baghdad|Baghdād]], the Iraqi capital, but Iraq invaded Kuwait the next day. Iraqi troops overran the country shortly after midnight on [[2 August]] 1990. The [[United Nations Security Council]] and the [[Arab League]] immediately condemned the Iraqi invasion. Four days later, the Security Council imposed an economic [[embargo]] on Iraq that prohibited nearly all trade with Iraq.
Iraq responded to the sanctions by annexing Kuwait as the "19th Province" of Iraq on [[8 August]], prompting the exiled Sabah family to call for a stronger international response. Over the ensuing months, the United Nations Security Council passed a series of resolutions condemned the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait and implementing total mandatory economic sanctions against Iraq. Other countries subsequently provided support for "[[Operation Desert Shield]]". In November 1990, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 678, permitting member states to use all necessary means, authorising military action against the Iraqi forces occupying Kuwait, and demanded a complete withdrawal by [[15 January]] [[1991]].
[[Image:Gulf war soldiers.jpg|thumb|left|222px|''A US Army convoy crosses the [[Iraq]]i desert during the [[Persian Gulf War]].'']]
When Saddām Husayn failed to comply with this demand, the [[Persian Gulf War]] (Operation "[[Desert Storm]]") ensued on the 17th of January 1991 (3 a.m. Iraq time), with allied troops of 28 countries, led by the US launching an aerial bombardment on Baghdad. The war, which proved disastrous for Iraq, lasted only six weeks, one hundred and forty thousand tons of munitions had showered down on the country, the equivalent of 7 [[Hiroshima]] bombs. Probably as many as 100,000 Iraqi soldiers and tens of thousands of civilians were killed.
Allied air raids destroyed roads, bridges, factories, and oil-industry facilities (shutting down the national refining and distribution system) and disrupted electric, telephone, and water service. Conference centres and shopping and residential areas were hit. Hundreds of Iraqis were killed in the attack on the [[Al-Amiriyah]] bomb shelter. Diseases spread through contaminated drinking water because water purification and sewage treatment facilities could not operate without electricity.
A cease-fire was announced by the US on [[28 February]] [[1991]]. UN Secretary-General [[Javier Pérez de Cuéllar]] met with [[Saddam Hussein|Saddām Husayn]] to discuss the Security Council timetable for the withdraw of troops from Kuwait. Iraq agreed to [[UN]] terms for a permanent cease-fire in April 1991, and strict conditions were imposed, demanding the disclosure and destruction of all stockpiles of weapons.
[[Image:Hussein1.jpg|frame|During the Persian Gulf War Saddām became well-known for his distinctive uniform and beret, pictured here.]]
===Iraq under UN Sanction===
''See also: [[Iraq sanctions]]''
On [[6 August]] [[1990]], after Iraqs invasion of Kuwait, the U.N. Security Council adopted [[UN Resolution 661|Resolution 661]] which imposed [[economic sanctions]] on Iraq, providing for a full trade embargo, excluding medical supplies, food and other items of humanitarian necessity, these to be determined by the Security Council sanctions committee. After the end of the Gulf War and after Iraqs withdrawal from Kuwait, the sanctions were linked to removal of [[Weapons of mass destruction]] by [[UN Resolution 687|Resolution 687]][http://www.mideastweb.org/687.htm]. Iraq was later allowed under the UN Oil-for-Food program ([[UN Resolution 986|Resolution 986]]) to export $5.2 billion (USD) of oil every 6 months. It is alleged that much of this program suffered from corruption between Saddam and the U.N., with little aid getting to the Iraqi people.
The [[United States]], citing a need to prevent the genocide of the Marsh Arabs in southern Iraq and the [[Kurds]] to the north, declared "air exclusion zones" north of the 36th parallel and south of the 32nd parallel. The [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] administration judged an alleged assassination attempt on former President [[George H. W. Bush]] by Iraqi secret agents to be worthy of a military response on [[27 June]] [[1993]]. The Iraqi Intelligence Headquarters in Baghdad was targeted by [[Tomahawk cruise missile]]s.
During the time of the UN sanctions internal and external opposition to the Ba´ath government was weak and divided. In May 1995, Saddām sacked his half-brother, Wathban, as Interior Minister and in July demoted his Defense Minister, [[Ali Hassan al-Majid|`Alī Hasan al-Majīd]]. These personnel changes were the result of the growth in power of Saddām Hussein's two sons, [[Uday Hussein|`Udayy Husayn]] and [[Qusay Hussein|Qusayy Husayn]], who were given effective vice-presidential authority in May 1995. In August Major General Husayn Kāmil Hasan al-Majīd, Minister of Military Industries and a political ally of Saddam, defected to Jordan, together with his wife (one of Saddām's daughters) and his brother, Saddām, who was married to another of the president's daughters; both called for the overthrow of the Iraqi government. After a few weeks in Jordan, being given promises of a safe return, the two brothers returned to Iraq where they were killed.
During the latter part of the 1990s the UN considered relaxing the sanctions imposed because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. According to UN estimates, between 500,000 and 1.2 million children died[http://www.unicef.org/newsline/99pr29.htm] during the years of the sanctions, though the figure is in dispute. The Unites States used its veto in the UN securiy council to block the proposal to lift the sanctions.
Iraqi cooperation with UN weapons inspection teams was questioned on several occasions during the 1990s. [[UNSCOM]] chief weapons inspector [[Richard Butler]] withdrew his team from Iraq in November 1998 because Iraqs lack of cooperation. The team returned in December. {{ref|ref3}}. Butler prepared a report for the [[UN Security Council]] afterwords in which he expressed dissatisfaction with the level of compliance [http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/meast/9811/11/iraq.05/]. The same month, US President Bill Clinton authorized air strikes on government targets and military facilities. Air strikes against military facilities and alleged WMD sites continued into 2002.
===2003 invasion of Iraq===
''Main article'': [[2003 invasion of Iraq]].
After the terrorist attacks by the group around the [[Osama bin Laden]] on New York and Washington in the United States in 2001, American foreign policy began to call for the removal of the Ba´ath government in Iraq as a part of the global [[War on Terrorism]]. Conservative think-tanks in Washington had for years been urging [[regime change]] in Baghdad, but until the [[Iraq Liberation Act|Iraq Liberation Act of 1998]], official US policy was to simply keep Iraq complying with UN sanctions. In addition, unofficial US policies, including a CIA backed coup attempt, were aimed at removing Saddam Hussein from power. The election of [[George W. Bush]] as US president had as result that many of the people who had urged for a regime change were placed in influental policy making positions in the new administration. After the attacks regime change became official policy.
The US urged the [[United Nations]] to take military action against Iraq. The American president George Bush stated that Saddām had repeatedly violated 16 UN Security Council resolutions. The Iraqi government rejected Bush's assertions. A team of U.N. inspectors, led by Swedish diplomat [[Hans Blix]] was admitted, into the country; their final report stated that Iraqis capability in producing "weapons of mass destruction" was not significantly different from 1992 when the country dismantled the bulk of their remaining arsenals under terms of the ceasefire agreement with U.N. forces, but did not c |
ing in [[Latin]] characters, and [[transcription]] to convey [[pronunciation]].
Standard Cyrillic-to-Latin transliteration systems include:
* [[Scientific transliteration]], used in linguistics, is based on the Latin [[Croatian alphabet]].
* The [http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/ Working Group on Romanization Systems] of the [[United Nations]] recommends different systems for specific languages. These are the most commonly used around the world.
* [[ISO 9]]:1995, from the International Organization for Standardization.
* America Library Association & Library of Congress (ALA-LC) [http://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/roman.html Romanization tables for Slavic alphabets], used in North American libraries.
* [[BGN/PCGN romanization]] (1947), United States Board on Geographic Names & Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use).
* [[GOST 16876-71]] (1983), from the Main Administration of Geodesy and Cartography of the former Soviet Union. Russian abbreviation of ''GOsudarstvenny STandart'', "the State Standard". GOST has limited support for non-Russian alphabets.
Serbian is written in both Cyrillic and Latin alphabets. There is also a [[Lacinka alphabet|Latin alphabet for Belarusian]], and some non-Slavic languages, such as [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] or [[Moldavian language|Moldavian]] have confronted permanent Romanization after the disintegration of the Soviet Union. In Serbian there is a one-to-one correspondence between [[Vuk Stefanovic Karadzic|Vuk Karadžić’s]] Serbian Cyrillic and [[Ljudevit Gaj|Ljudevit Gaj’s]] Croatian [[Croatian alphabet|Gajica]] (derived from the [[Czech alphabet]]. (See [[Serbo-Croatian language#Writing systems]].) The [[Belarusian]] Latin alphabet is traditionally based on Polish and is called [[Lacinka|Łacinka]], but, because of the political realities in the former USSR, Belarusian is usually Romanized by analogy to Russian.
See also:
* [[Romanization]]
* [[Romanization of Bulgarian]]
* [[Romanization of Russian]]
* [[Romanization of Ukrainian]]
External links:
* [http://transliteration.eki.ee/ Transliteration of Non-Roman Scripts], a collection of writing systems and transliteration tables, by Thomas T. Pederson. Includes PDF reference charts for many languages‘ transliteration systems.
== As used in various languages ==
Sounds are indicated using [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]].
These are only approximate indicators.
While these languages by and large have [[phoneme|phonemic]] orthographies, there are occasional exceptions—for example, Russian ''его'' (meaning ''him/his''), which is pronounced {{IPA|/jevɔ/}} instead of {{IPA|/jeɡɔ/}}.
Note that spellings of names may vary, especially Y/J/I, but also GH/G/H and ZH/J.
=== Slavic languages ===
==== Old Church Slavonic ====
''Main article:'' [[early Cyrillic alphabet]]
[[Old Church Slavonic]] is the first literary and [[liturgy|liturgical]] [[Slavic language]] developed from the native language of the [[9th century]] [[missionaries]], Saints Cyril and Methodius. It is not the same as the modern [[Church Slavonic language]], which is still used in some [[Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Eastern Catholic]] church services.
As the Cyrillic alphabet spread throughout the Slavic world, it was adopted for writing local languages, such as [[Old Ruthenian]]. Its adaptation to the characteristics of local languages led to the development of its many modern variants, below.
{| cellpadding=4 style="font-size:larger; text-align:center;" class="Unicode" summary="Letters of the Early Cyrillic alphabet"
|+ style="font-size:smaller;" | The Early Cyrillic alphabet
|-
| А || Б || В || Г || Д || Є || Ж || Ѕ || З || И || І, Ї
|-
| К || Л || М || Н || О || П || Ҁ || Р || С || Т || Ѹ
|-
| Ф || Х || Ѡ, Ѻ || Ц || Ч || Ш || Щ || Ъ || ЪІ || Ь || Ҍ
|-
| Ю || ІА || Ѧ || Ѩ || Ѫ || Ѭ || Ѯ || Ѱ || Ѳ || Ѵ || Ѥ
|-
| Ѿ
|}
Yeri (ЪІ) was originally a [[ligature (typography)|ligature]] of Yer and I. Ya (Я) was written in an archaic form called [[A iotified]]. Capital and lowercase letters were not distinguished in old manuscripts.
The early Cyrillic alphabet is difficult to represent on computers. Many of the letterforms differed from modern Cyrillic and varied a great deal in [[manuscript]]s, and changed over time. Few fonts include adequate [[glyph]]s to reproduce the alphabet. Some characters are missing from the current [[Unicode]] standard altogether, including Cyrillic dotless I, iotified [[Yat]], abbreviated [[Yer]] ("Yerok"), and many [[Ligature (typography)|ligatures]].
See also: [[Glagolitic alphabet]].
==== Russian ====
''Main article:'' [[Russian alphabet]]
{| cellpadding=4 style="font-size:larger; text-align:center;" summary="Thirty-three letters of the Russian alphabet, capital and small"
|+ style="font-size:smaller;" | The Russian alphabet
|-
| [[A (Cyrillic)|А а]] || [[Be (Cyrillic)|Б б]] || [[Ve (Cyrillic)|В в]] || [[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г г]] || [[De (Cyrillic)|Д д]] || [[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е е]] || [[Yo (Cyrillic)|Ё ё]] || [[Zhe (Cyrillic)|Ж ж]] || [[Ze (Cyrillic)|З з]] || [[I (Cyrillic)|И и]] || [[Short I|Й й]]
|-
| [[Ka (Cyrillic)|К к]] || [[El (Cyrillic)|Л л]] || [[Em (Cyrillic)|М м]] || [[En (Cyrillic)|Н н]] || [[O (Cyrillic)|О о]] || [[Pe (Cyrillic)|П п]] || [[Er (Cyrillic)|Р р]] || [[Es (Cyrillic)|С с]] || [[Te (Cyrillic)|Т т]] || [[U (Cyrillic)|У у]] || [[Ef (Cyrillic)|Ф ф]]
|-
| [[Kha (Cyrillic)|Х х]] || [[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц ц]] || [[Che (Cyrillic)|Ч ч]] || [[Sha|Ш ш]] || [[Shcha|Щ щ]] || [[Yer|Ъ ъ]] || [[Yery|Ы ы]] || [[Soft sign|Ь ь]] || [[E (Cyrillic)|Э э]] || [[Yu (Cyrillic)|Ю ю]] || [[Ya (Cyrillic)|Я я]]
|}
{| border="0"
|-
! align="left" | Capital&nbsp; !! align="left" | Small&nbsp; !! align="left" | Italic&nbsp; !! align="left" | Small italic&nbsp; !! align="left" | Name !! align="left" | [[International Phonetic Alphabet|Sound]]
|-
| А || а|| ''А'' || ''а'' || A || {{IPA|/a/}}
|-
| Б || б || ''Б'' || ''б'' || Be || {{IPA|/b/}}
|-
| В || в || ''В'' || ''в'' || Ve || {{IPA|/v/}}
|-
| Г || г || ''Г'' || ''г'' || Ge || {{IPA|/ɡ/}}
|-
| Д || д || ''Д'' || ''д'' || De || {{IPA|/d/}}
|-
| Е || е || ''Е'' || ''е'' || Ye || {{IPA|/je/}}
|-
| Ё || ё || ''Ё'' || ''ё'' || Yo || {{IPA|/jo/}}
|-
| Ж || ж || ''Ж'' || ''ж'' || Zhe || {{IPA|/ʒ/}}
|-
| З || з || ''З'' || ''з'' || Ze || {{IPA|/z/}}
|-
| И || и || ''И'' || ''и'' || I || {{IPA|/i/}}
|-
| Й || й || ''Й'' || ''й'' || Short I || {{IPA|/j/}}
|-
| К || к || ''К'' || ''к'' || Ka || {{IPA|/k/}}
|-
| Л || л || ''Л'' || ''л'' || El || {{IPA|/l/}}
|-
| М || м || ''М'' || ''м'' || Em || {{IPA|/m/}}
|-
| Н || н || ''Н'' || ''н'' || En || {{IPA|/n/}}
|-
| О || о || ''О'' || ''о'' || O || {{IPA|/o/}}
|-
| П || п || ''П'' || ''п'' || Pe || {{IPA|/p/}}
|-
| Р || р || ''Р'' || ''р'' || Er || {{IPA|/r/}}
|-
| С || с || ''С'' || ''с'' || Es || {{IPA|/s/}}
|-
| Т || т || ''Т'' || ''т'' || Te || {{IPA|/t/}}
|-
| У || у || ''У'' || ''у'' || U || {{IPA|/u/}}
|-
| Ф || ф || ''Ф'' || ''ф'' || Ef || {{IPA|/f/}}
|-
| Х || х || ''Х'' || ''х'' || Kha || {{IPA|/x/}}
|-
| Ц || ц || ''Ц'' || ''ц'' || Tse || {{IPA|/ts/}}
|-
| Ч || ч || ''Ч'' || ''ч'' || Che || {{IPA|/tʃ/}}
|-
| Ш || ш || ''Ш'' || ''ш'' || Sha || {{IPA|/ʃ/}}
|-
| Щ || щ || ''Щ'' || ''щ'' || Shcha || {{IPA|/ʃʃ/}}
|-
| Ъ || ъ || ''Ъ'' || ''ъ'' || Hard Sign¹ || &nbsp; || indicates no palatalisation²
|-
| Ы || ы || ''Ы'' || ''ы'' || Yery || {{IPA|/ɨ/}}
|-
| Ь || ь || ''Ь'' || ''ь'' || Soft Sign || {{IPA|/ʲ/}} || indicates palatalisation²
|-
| Э || э || ''Э'' || ''э'' || E || {{IPA|/ɛ/}}
|-
| Ю || ю || ''Ю'' || ''ю'' || Yu || {{IPA|/ju/}}
|-
| Я || я || ''Я'' || ''я'' || Ya || {{IPA|/ja/}}
|}
Notes:
# In the pre-reform [[Russian language|Russian]] orthography, in [[Old Russian language|Old Russian]] and in [[Old Church Slavonic]] the letter is called [[yer]]. Historically, the "hard sign" takes the place of a now-absent [[vowel]], still preserved in [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]. See the notes for Bulgarian.
# When an iotated vowel (vowel whose sound begins with {{IPA|/j/}}) follows a consonant, the consonant will become palatalised (the {{IPA|/j/}} sound will mix with the consonant), and the vowel’s initial {{IPA|/j/}} sound will not be heard independently. The Hard Sign will indicate that this does not happen, and the {{IPA|/j/}} sound will appear only in front of the vowel. The Soft Sign will indicate that the consonant should be palatised, but the vowel’s {{IPA|/j/}} sound will not mix with the [[palatalization]] of the consonant. The Soft Sign will also indicate that a consonant before another consonant or at the end of a word is palatised. Examples: та ({{IPA|ta}}); тя ({{IPA|tʲa}}); тья ({{IPA|tʲja}}); тъя ({{IPA|tja}}); т ({{IPA|t}}); ть ({{IPA|tʲ}}).
Historical letters: before [[1918]], there were four extra letters in use: {{Unicode|Іі}} (replaced by Ии), {{Unicode|Ѳѳ}} (Фита "[[Fita]]", replaced by Фф), {{Unicode |Ѣѣ}} (Ять "[[Yat]]", replaced by Ее), and {{Unicode |Ѵѵ}} (ижица "[[Izhitsa]]", replaced by Ии); these were eliminated by [[reforms of Russian orthography]].
==== Ukrainian ====
''Main article:'' [[Ukrainian alphabet]].
{{Ukrainian alphabet}}
[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] differs from Russian in the following ways:
* [[He (Cyrillic) |He]] (Г, г) is a [[voiced]] [[fricative]] [[consonant]], pronounced {{IPA |/ɦ/}}.
* [[Ghe|Ge]] (Ґ, ґ) appears after He, pronounced {{IPA|/g/}}, i.e., like a Russian Г. It looks like He with an "upturn" pointing up from the right side of the top bar. (This letter was not officially used in the [[Soviet Union]] after 1933, so it is missing from older Cyrillic fonts.)
* [[Ye (Cyrillic) |E]] (Е, е) is pronounced {{IPA|/e/}} .
* [[Ukrainian Ye|Ye]] (Є, є) appears after E, pronounced {{IPA|/je/}}. It looks like a mi |
Gokturks|Gokturk]] Empire.
His name literally means "wise chieftain". In [[716]], he assumed the leadership together with his brother [[Kul Tigin]] after a coup against the previous ruler, his cousin [[Inal Khan]] who was a weak leader. Bilge Khan and [[Kul Tigin]] took their place in history as the wisest and most heroic figures among Turkish statesmen. They asserted that the state could not be ruled only by fighting and bravery and the Khanate should also require wisdom.
His empire spanned from the [[Caspian Sea]] to [[Manchuria]] and he invaded the western sections of the [[China|Chinese]] territories. After he was killed by being poisoned, an inscription was erected near the [[Orhon River]] on a [[Orkhon Valley|monumental area]], which is known today as [[Orkhon inscriptions]].Orkhon Inscriptions immortalized Bilge Khan's accomplishments.These inscriptions are the first written texts of the Turkish language.
[[Category:683 births|Bilge Khan]]
[[Category:734 deaths|Bilge Khan]]
[[Category:Gokturks]]
[[bg:&#1041;&#1080;&#1083;&#1075;&#1077; &#1093;&#1072;&#1085;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blend</title>
<id>3828</id>
<revision>
<id>27364934</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-04T17:07:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wonderfool</username>
<id>108476</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{Wiktionarypar|}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Blend''' can mean one of the following:
{{Wiktionarypar|blend}}
*[[Portmanteau|Portmanteau word]]
*Mixture of different [[tea]] or [[tobacco]] varieties.
*[[Conceptual blending]]
*Blending [[whisky]]
*[[Blend (cigarettes)|Blend]] brand cigarettes
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bells palsy</title>
<id>3829</id>
<revision>
<id>15902143</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-22T16:55:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Bell's palsy]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Bell's palsy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bryce Canyon</title>
<id>3830</id>
<revision>
<id>15902144</id>
<timestamp>2004-01-20T13:52:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pcb21</username>
<id>7320</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Bryce Canyon National Park]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bryce Canyon National Park]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Britannica</title>
<id>3831</id>
<revision>
<id>15902145</id>
<timestamp>2003-03-11T03:57:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Toby Bartels</username>
<id>1078</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bauhaus</title>
<id>3832</id>
<revision>
<id>41191635</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T17:57:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Piersmasterson</username>
<id>121497</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Impact */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{for|the British rock band|Bauhaus (band)}}
[[Image:Bauhaus.JPG|thumb|300px|Bauhaus (2003).]]
'''Bauhaus''' is the common term for the '''Staatliches Bauhaus''', an [[art]] and [[architecture]] school in [[Germany]] that operated from [[1919]] to [[1933]], and for the approach to design that it developed and taught. The most natural meaning for its name (related to the German verb for "build") is ''Architecture House''. Bauhaus style became one of the most influential currents in [[Modernism|Modernist]] architecture.
==History==
[[Image:S_Weissenhof.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Weissenhof Siedlung in Stuttgart (1927).]]
The Bauhaus art school existed in three different cities ([[Weimar]] from 1919 to 1925, [[Dessau]] from 1925 to 1932, and [[Berlin]] from 1932 to 1933), under three different architect-directors ([[Walter Gropius]] from 1919 to 1928, [[Hannes Meyer]] from 1928 to 1930, and [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]] from 1930 to 1933). These changes of venue and leadership meant a constant shifting of focus, technique, instructors, and politics. When the school moved from Weimar to Dessau, for instance, the pottery shop was discontinued, although it had been an important revenue source. When Mies took over the school in 1930, he transformed it into a private school, and would not allow any supporters of Hannes Meyer to attend.
The school was founded by Gropius at the conservative city of Weimar in [[1919 in architecture|1919]], as a merger of the Weimar School of Arts and Crafts (Grossherzogliche Kunstgewerbeschule) and the Weimar Academy of Fine Arts (Grossherzogliche Hochschule für Bildende Kunst). Most of the contents of the workshops had been sold off during [[World War I]]. The early intention was for the Bauhaus to be a combined architecture school, crafts school, and academy of the arts. Much internal and external conflict followed.
Gropius argued that a new period of history had begun with the end of the war. He wanted to create a new architectural style to reflect this new era. His style in architecture and consumer goods was to be functional, cheap, and consistent with mass production. To these ends, Gropius wanted to reunite art and craft to arrive at high-end functional products with artistic pretensions. The Bauhaus issued a magazine called "Bauhaus" and a series of books called "Bauhausbücher". Its head of printing and design was [[Herbert Bayer]].
The Bauhaus was largely subsidized by the early [[Weimar Republic]]. After a change in local government, the school moved to [[Dessau]] in [[1925]], where the civic atmosphere was more industrial and progressive. After the Bauhaus moved to Dessau, a school of industrial design with teachers and staff less antagonistic to the conservative political regime remained in Weimar. This school was eventually known as the Technical University of Architecture and Civil Engineering and in 1996 changed its name to [[Bauhaus University Weimar]]. In 1927, the Bauhaus style and its most famous architects heavily influenced the exhibition "Die Wohnung" ("The Dwelling") organized by the [[Deutscher Werkbund]] in [[Stuttgart]]. A major component of that exhibition was the [[Weissenhof Siedlung]], a settlement or housing project.
Gropius was succeeded by Meyer, and then in turn by Mies. Under increasing political pressure the Bauhaus was closed on the orders of the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi regime]] in 1933. The [[National Socialist German Workers Party|Nazi Party]] and other fascist political groups had opposed the Bauhaus throughout the [[1920s]]. They considered it a front for communists, especially because many [[Russia|Russian]] artists were involved with it. Consequently, many Weissenhof architects fled to the [[Soviet Union]], thus strengthening the effect. [[Nazism|Nazi]] writers such as [[Wilhelm Frick]] and [[Alfred Rosenberg]] called the Bauhaus "un-German," and criticized its modernist styles. (See [[degenerate art]].)
==Architectural output==
The paradox of the early Bauhaus was that, although its manifesto proclaimed that the ultimate aim of all creative activity was building, the school wouldn't offer classes in architecture until 1927. The single most profitable tangible product of the Bauhaus was its wallpaper.
During the years under Gropius (1919&ndash;1927), he and his partner [[Adolf Meyer (architect)|Adolf Meyer]] observed no real distinction between the output of his architectural office and the school. So the built output of Bauhaus architecture in these years is the output of Gropius: the Sommerfeld house in Berlin, the Otte house in Berlin, the Auerbach house in Jena, and the competition design for the Chicago [[Tribune Tower]], which brought the school much attention. The definitive 1926 Bauhaus building in Dessau is also attributed to Gropius. Student work amounted mainly to unbuilt projects, interior finishes, and craft work like cabinets, chairs and pottery.
In the two years under the outspoken Swiss Communist architect Hannes Meyer, the architectural focus shifted away from aesthetics and towards user requirements. But there were major commissions: one by the city of Dessau for five tightly designed "Laubenganghäuser" (apartment buildings with balcony access), which are still in use today, and another for the headquarters of the Federal School of the German Trade Unions (ADGB) in [[Bernau bei Berlin]]. Meyer's approach was to research users' needs and scientifically develop the design solution.
And then Mies van der Rohe repudiated Meyer's politics, his supporters, and his architectural approach. As opposed to Gropius' "study of essentials", and Meyer's research into user requirements, Mies advocated a "spatial implementation of intellectual decisions", which effectively meant an adoption of his own aesthetics. Neither Mies nor his Bauhaus students saw any projects built during the 1930s.
The popular conception of the Bauhaus as the source of extensive Weimar-era working housing is not accurate. One single project, the apartment building project in Dessau, falls in that category, and it's fair to say that developing worker housing was not the first priority of Gropius nor Mies. It was the Bauhaus contemporaries [[Bruno Taut]], [[Hans Poelzig]] and particularly [[Ernst May]], as the city architects of Berlin, [[Dresden]] and [[Frankfurt]] respectively, who are rightfully credited with the thousands of socially progressive housing units built in Weimar Germany.
==Impact==
The Bauhaus had a major impact on art and [[architecture]] trends in [[Western Europe]], |
]
#[[Universidade de Brasilia]]
#[[Universitat Bremen]]
#[[Universit degli studi di Brescia]]
#[[University of Bridgeport]]
#[[University of Brighton]]
#[[University of British Columbia]]
#[[Universiti Brunei Darussalam]]
#[[University of Buckingham]]
#[[Universidad de Buenos Aires]]
#[[Universitat der Bundeswehr Hamburg]]
#[[Universitat der Bundeswehr Munchen]]
=== C ===
#[[Universidad de Cadiz]]
#[[Université de Caen]]
#[[Universita di Cagliari]]
#[[University of Calcutta]]
#[[University of Calgary]]
#[[University of California Extension - CMIL]]
#[[University of California, Berkeley]]
#[[University of California, Davis]]
#[[University of California, Irvine]]
#[[University of California, Los Angeles]]
#[[University of California, Merced]]
#[[University of California, Riverside]]
#[[University of California, San Diego]]
#[[University of California, San Francisco]]
#[[University of California, Santa Barbara]]
#[[University of California, Santa Cruz]]
#[[University of Cambridge]] ([[Cambridge, England]])
#[[UNICAMP|University of Campinas]] ([[Campinas]], [[Brazil]])
#[[University of Canberra]]
#[[University of Cantabria]]
#[[University of Canterbury]]
#[[University of Cape Town]]
#[[Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha]]
#[[Université catholique de Louvain]]
#[[Universidad Catolica Andres Bello]]
#[[Universidade Catolica Portuguesa]]
#[[Universidade Catolica de Brasilia]]
#[[Universidade Catolica de Pernambuco]]
#[[Universidad Catolica del Norte]]
#[[University of Catania]]
#[[Universidad Católica de Valparaíso]]
#[[University of Central Arkansas]]
#[[University of Central Florida]]
#[[University of Central Lancashire]]
#[[University of Central Oklahoma]]
#[[Central University of Venezuela|Universidad Central de Venezuela]]
#[[Universite Charles-de-Gaulle - Lille 3]]
#[[University of Charleston]]
#[[University of Chester]]
#[[University of Chicago]]
#[[Universidad de Chile]]
#[[Universidad Científica del Sur]]
#[[University of Cincinnati]]
#[[Universite Claude Bernard Lyon I]]
#[[Universidade de Coimbra]]
#[[Universidad de Colima]]
#[[University College Cork]]
#[[University College Dublin]]
#[[University College, Durham|University College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[National University of Ireland, Galway|University College Galway]]
#[[University College London]]
#[[University College Salford]]
#[[University College of Arts, Crafts and Design]] ([[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]])
#[[University College of Borås]]
#[[University College of Cape Breton]]
#[[University College of Dalarna]]
#[[University College of Dance]] ([[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]])
#[[University College of Film, Radio, Television and Theatre]] ([[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]])
#[[University College of Gotland]]
#[[University College of Gävle]]
#[[University College of Halmstad]]
#[[University College of Jönköping]]
#[[University College of Kalmar]]
#[[University College of Kristianstad]]
#[[University College of Mälardalen]]
#[[University College of Malmö]]
#[[University College of Music Education]] ([[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]])
#[[University College of Opera]] ([[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]])
#[[University College of Skövde]]
#[[University College of the Fraser Valley]]
#[[University College of Trollhättan/Uddevalla]]
#[[University of Colombo]]
#[[University of Cologne]]
#[[University of Colorado at Denver]]
#[[University of Colorado at Boulder]]
#[[University of Colorado, Colorado Springs]]
#[[Universita Commerciale Luigi Bocconi]]
#[[Universidad Complutense de Madrid]]
#[[Universidad de Concepción]]
#[[University of Connecticut]]
#[[University of Copenhagen]]
#[[Universidad de Cordoba]]
#[[Universidade da Coruna]]
#[[Universidad de Costa Rica]]
#[[University of Craiova]]
#[[University of Crete]]
#[[University of Cyprus]]
=== D ===
#[[University of Dallas]]
#[[University of Dayton]]
#[[University of Delaware]]
#[[University of Delhi]]
#[[University of Denver]]
#[[University of Derby]]
#[[University of Detroit Mercy]]
#[[University of Dhaka]]
#[[Universidad Diego Portales]]
#[[University of the District of Columbia]]
#[[Universidad Distrital Francisco Jose de Caldas]]
#[[University of Dublin]]
#[[University of Dubuque]]
#[[University of Durban-Westville]]
#[[University of Durham]]
=== E ===
#[[Universidad EAFIT]]
#[[Universidade de Evora]]
#[[University of East Anglia]]
#[[University of East London]]
#[[University of the East, Caloocan Campus]]
#[[University of Economics, Prague]]
#[[University of Economics, Vienna]]
#[[University of Edinburgh]]
#[[University of Education Hradec Kralove]]
#[[University of Electro-Communications]]
#[[University of Electronic Science and Technology of China]]
#[[Universitat Erlangen-Nurnberg ]]
#[[University of Essex]]
#[[University of Evansville]]
#[[University of Exeter]]
#[[Universidade Estacio de Sa]]
#[[University of Evansville]]
#[[Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro]]
#[[Universidade Estadual Paulista]]
#[[Universidade Estadual de Campinas| UNICAMP]]
#[[Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense]]
#[[Universidade Gama Filho]]
#[[Universidade Rural de Pernambuco]]
=== F ===
#[[University of Falun/Borlange]]
#[[University of the Faroe Islands]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Alagoas]]
#[[Universidade Federal da Bahia]]
#[[Universidade Federal Fluminense]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Pernambuco]]
#[[Universidade Federal de São Paulo]]
#[[Universidade Federal de São Carlos]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Santa Maria]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Uberlândia]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Vicosa]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Ceará]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Paraná]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Amazonas]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Pará]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Acre]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Maranhão]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Piauí]]
#[[Universidade Federal da Paraíba]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Sergipe]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Goiás]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Mato Grosso]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Mato Grosso do Sul]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Tocantins]]
#[[Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro]]
#[[Universidade do Vale do Acarau]]
#[[University of Findlay]]
#[[University of Florida]]
#[[Universidade de Fortaleza]]
#[[University of Fort Hare]]
#[[Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa]]
#[[Universidade Estadual de Maringá]]
#[[Universidade Estadual de Londrina]]
#[[Universite de Franche-Comte]]
#[[Universite de Fribourg]]
=== G ===
#[[Uniwersytetu Gdanskiego]]
#[[Universitat Goettingen]]
#[[Universita G.d'Annunzio]]
#[[Universitat-GH Paderborn]]
#[[University of Galati]]
#[[University of Gazi Antep]]
#[[University of Geneva]]
#[[University of Georgia]]
#[[Universitat Gesamthochschule Essen]]
#[[Universitat Gesamthochschule Kassel]]
#[[University of Ghent]]
#[[Universitat Giessen]]
#[[Universitat de Girona]]
#[[University of Glamorgan]]
#[[University of Glasgow]]
#[[Universidad de Granada ]]
#[[University of Greenland]]
#[[University of Greenwich]]
#[[University of Groningen]]
#[[Universidad de Guadalajara]]
#[[University of Guam]]
#[[Universidad de Guanajuato]]
#[[University of Guelph]]
#[[University of Guelph-Humber]]
=== H ===
#[[University of Haifa]]
#[[Universität Hamburg]]
#[[Universität Hannover]]
#[[University of Hartford]]
#[[University of Havana]]
#[[University of Hawaii at Hilo]]
#[[University of Hawaii]]
#[[University of Hawaii, West Oahu]]
#[[Universitat Heidelberg]]
#[[University of Helsinki]]
#[[University of Hertfordshire]]
#[[Universität Hildesheim]]
#[[Universitat, Hohenheim]]
#[[University of Hokkaido]]
#[[University of Hong Kong]]
#[[University of Houston]]
#[[University of Houston-Clear Lake]]
#[[University of Houston-Downtown]]
#[[University of Houston-Victoria]]
#[[University of Huddersfield]]
#[[University of Hull]]
=== I ===
#[[University of Iceland]]
#[[University of Idaho]]
#[[Universitat de les Illes Balears]]
#[[University of Illinois at Chicago]]
#[[University of Illinois at Springfield]]
#[[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]]
#[[University of Indianapolis]]
#[[University of Indonesia]]
#[[University of Innsbruck]]
#[[University Institute of Architecture]]
#[[University of International Business and Economics]]
#[[University of Ioannina]]
#[[University of Iowa]]
#[[University of Isfahan]]
=== J ===
#[[Universitat Jaume I de Castello]]
#[[University of Joensuu]]
#[[University of Jordan]]
#[[Universite Joseph Fourier]]
#[[University of Jyväskylä]]
=== K ===
#[[University of Kaiserslautern]]
#[[University of Kansas]]
#[[University of Kansas Medical Center]]
#[[University of Karlskrona/Ronneby]]
#[[University of Karlsruhe|Universität Karlsruhe]]
#[[University of Karlstad]]
#[[Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia]]
#[[University of Kent]]
#[[University of Kentucky]]
#[[University of Khartoum]]
#[[University of King's College]]
#[[University of Klagenfurt]]
#[[University of Koblenz and Landau]]
#[[University of Konstanz]]
#[[University of Kristianstad]]
#[[University of Kuopio]]
#[[University of KwaZulu-Natal]]
#[[University of Kyoto]]
=== L ===
#[[Universitat Luneburg]]
#[[Universidad de La Frontera]]
#[[Universidad de La Laguna]]
#[[University of Lapland]]
#[[Universidad La Salle]]
#[[Universidad de La Salle - Santafe de Bogota]]
#[[Universidad Latina]]
#[[Universidad Latina de Costa Rica]]
#[[University of Latvia]]
#[[Universite de Lausanne]]
#[[Université Laval]]
#[[University of La Verne]]
#[[University of Leeds]]
#[[University of Leicester]]
#[[Universitat Leipzig]]
#[[University of Lethbridge]]
#[[University of Library and Information Science]]
#[[Université Libre de Bruxelles]]
#[[University of Lima]]
#[[University of Limerick]]
#[[Universidade de Lisboa]]
#[[University of Liverpool]]
#[[University of Liège]]
#[[University of |
nts, and they define several standard encodings that are capable of representing every available code point. The standard encodings of Unicode and the UCS use sequences of one to four 8-bit code values ([[UTF-8]]), sequences of one or two 16-bit code values ([[UTF-16]]), or one 32-bit code value ([[UTF-32]] or [[UCS-4]]). There is also an older encoding that uses one 16-bit code value ([[UCS-2]]), capable of representing one-seventeenth of the available code points. Of these encoding forms, only UTF-8's byte sequences are in a fixed order; the others are subject to platform-dependent [[Endianness|byte ordering]] issues that may be addressed via special codes or indicated via [[out-of-band]] means.
Newer editions of ISO 8859 express characters in terms of their Unicode/UCS names and the ''U+nnnn'' notation, effectively causing each part of ISO 8859 to be a Unicode/UCS character encoding scheme that maps a very small subset of the UCS to single 8-bit bytes. The first 256 characters in Unicode and the UCS are identical to those in ISO-8859-1.
Single byte character sets including the parts of ISO 8859 and derivatives of them were favored throughout the 1990s, having the advantages of being well-established and more easily implemented in software: the equation of one byte to one character is simple and adequate for most single-language applications, and there are no combining characters or variant forms.
As the relative cost, in computing resources, of using more than one byte per character began to diminish, programming languages and operating systems added native support for Unicode alongside their system of [[code page]]s. [[Windows NT]] was quite an early adopter of Unicode. However Unicode support in [[Windows 9x]] required linking with a special compatibility layer or restricting your design to a very small subset of the Windows API discouraging its use. As Unicode-enabled operating systems became more widespread, ISO 8859 and other legacy encodings became less popular. While remnants of ISO 8859 and single-byte character models remain entrenched in many operating systems, programming languages, data storage systems, networking applications, display hardware, and end-user application software, most modern computing applications use Unicode internally, and rely on conversion tables to map to and from other encodings, when necessary.
== Development status ==
The ISO/IEC 8859 standard was maintained by ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1, Subcommittee 2, Working Group 3 (ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2/WG 3). In June 2004, WG 3 disbanded, and maintenance duties were transferred to SC 2. The standard is not currently being updated, as the Subcommittee's only remaining [[working group]], WG 2, is concentrating on development of [[Universal character set|ISO/IEC 10646]].
== References ==
* Published versions of each part of ISO/IEC 8859 are available, for a fee, from the [http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/stdsdevelopment/tc/tclist/TechnicalCommitteeStandardsListPage.TechnicalCommitteeStandardsList?COMMID=23 ISO catalogue site] and from the [http://webstore.ansi.org/ansidocstore/find.asp?find_spec=8859 ANSI eStandards Store].
* PDF versions of the final drafts of some parts of ISO/IEC 8859 as submitted for review &amp; publication by ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2/WG 3 are available at the [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/ WG 3 web site]:
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/docs/n411.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-1:1998] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 1: Latin alphabet No. 1 ''(draft dated [[February 12]] [[1998]], published [[April 15]] [[1998]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/docs/n413.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-4:1998] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 4: Latin alphabet No. 4 ''(draft dated [[February 12]] [[1998]], published [[July 1]] [[1998]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/open/02n3329.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-7:1999] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 7: Latin/Greek alphabet ''(draft dated [[June 10]] [[1999]]; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-7:2003, published [[October 10]] [[2003]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/docs/n415.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-10:1998] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 10: Latin alphabet No. 6 ''(draft dated [[February 12]] [[1998]], published [[July 15]] [[1998]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/open/02n3333.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-11:1999] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 11: Latin/Thai character set ''(draft dated [[June 22]] [[1999]]; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-11:2001, published [[15 December]] [[2001]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/docs/n451.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-13:1998] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 13: Latin alphabet No. 7 ''(draft dated [[April 15]] [[1998]], published [[October 15]] [[1998]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/docs/n404.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-15:1998] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 15: Latin alphabet No. 9 ''(draft dated [[August 1]] [[1997]]; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-15:1999, published [[March 15]] [[1999]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/open/02n3389.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-16:2000] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 16: Latin alphabet No. 10 ''(draft dated [[November 15]] [[1999]]; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-16:2001, published [[July 15]] [[2001]])''
* [[European Computer Manufacturers Association|ECMA]] standards, which in intent correspond exactly to the ISO/IEC 8859 character set standards, can be found at:
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-094.htm Standard ECMA-94]: 8-Bit Single Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin Alphabets No. 1 to No. 4 ''2nd edition (June 1986)''
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-113.htm Standard ECMA-113]: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Cyrillic Alphabet ''3rd edition (December 1999)''
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-114.htm Standard ECMA-114]: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Arabic Alphabet ''2nd edition (December 2000)''
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-118.htm Standard ECMA-118]: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Greek Alphabet ''(December 1986)''
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-121.htm Standard ECMA-121]: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Hebrew Alphabet ''2nd edition (December 2000)''
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-128.htm Standard ECMA-128]: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin Alphabet No. 5 ''2nd edition (December 1999)''
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-144.htm Standard ECMA-144]: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Character Sets - Latin Alphabet No. 6 ''3rd edition (December 2000)''
* ISO/IEC 8859-1 to Unicode [ftp://ftp.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ISO8859 mapping tables] as plain text files are at the Unicode FTP site.
* Informal descriptions and code charts for most ISO 8859 standards are available in [http://czyborra.com/charsets/iso8859.html ISO 8859 Alphabet Soup] [http://www.lysator.liu.se/~jmo/czyborra_index.html (Mirror)]
[[Category:ISO 8859|*]]
[[Category:Character sets]]
[[br:ISO 8859]]
[[de:ISO 8859]]
[[eo:ISO 8859]]
[[fr:ISO 8859]]
[[he:ISO 8859]]
[[pl:ISO 8859]]
[[sv:ISO/IEC 8859]]
[[tt:ISO 8859]]
[[tr:ISO 8859]]
[[zh:ISO 8859]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Imad Mughniyeh</title>
<id>15021</id>
<revision>
<id>15912536</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-09T08:54:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alphaxer0</username>
<id>35478</id>
</contributor>
<comment>changed page to redirect to article on Imad Mugniyah</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Imad Mugniyah]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Infrared</title>
<id>15022</id>
<revision>
<id>41096006</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T00:44:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tv316</username>
<id>523572</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.254.149.154|216.254.149.154]] to last version by Heron</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Infrared_dog.jpg|thumb|right|332px|Image of a small dog taken in mid-infrared ("thermal") light (false color)]]
'''Infrared''' ('''IR''') radiation is [[electromagnetic radiation]] of a [[wavelength]] longer than that of visible [[light]], but shorter than that of [[microwave]] radiation. The name means "below [[red]]" (from the [[Latin]] ''infra'', "below"), red being the [[color]] of visible light of longest wavelength. Infrared radiation spans three orders of magnitude and has wavelengths between approximately [[1 E-7 m|750]]&nbsp;[[Nanometre|nm]] and 1&nbsp;[[millimetre|mm]].
===Different regions in the infrared===
IR is often subdivided into:
* near infrared '''NIR''', IR-A ''[[DIN]]'', 0.75&ndash;1.4&nbsp;[[micrometre|µm]] in wavelength, defined by the water absorption, and commonly used in [[fiber optic]] telecommunication because of low attenuation losses in the SiO<sub>2</sub> glass ([[silica]]) medium.
* short wavelength (shortwave) IR '''SWIR''', IR-B ''[[DIN]]'', 1.4&ndash;3&nbsp;µm, water absorption increases significantly at 1450&nbsp;nm
* mid wavelength IR '''MWIR''', IR-C ''[[DIN]]'', also intermediate-IR (IIR), 3&ndash;8&nbsp;µm
* long wavelength IR '''LWIR''', IR-C ''[[DIN]]'', 8&ndash;15&nbsp;µm)
* far infrared '''FIR''', 15&ndash;1000&nbsp;µm
However, these terms are not precise, and are used differently in various studies i.e. near (0.75&ndash;5&nbsp;µm) / mid (5&ndash;30&nbsp;µm) / long (30&ndash;1000&nbsp;µm). Especially at the telecom-wavelengths the spectrum is further subdivided i |
on>
</page>
<page>
<title>Insurance</title>
<id>15176</id>
<revision>
<id>42072858</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:09:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Monkeyman</username>
<id>79245</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ Removed spam links.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Insurance''', in [[law]] and [[economics]], is a form of [[risk management]] primarily used to [[Hedge (finance)|hedge]] against the [[risk]] of potential [[financial]] [[loss]]. Insurance is defined as the equitable transfer of the [[risk]] of a potential loss, from one entity to another, in exchange for a premium and duty of care.
==Principles of insurance==
The timing or occurrence of the loss must be uncertain.
The rate of losses must be relatively predictable: In order to set premiums (prices) insurers must be able to estimate them accurately. If the coverage is unique, the insured will pay a correspondingly higher premium. [[Lloyd's of London]] often accepts unique coverages. (e.g., the insuring of [[Tina Turner]]'s legs and [[Jennifer Lopez]]'s butt)
The losses must ''be predictable'' on a macro level: Insurers need to know how much they would be required to pay when the insured-for event occurs. Most types of insurance have maximum levels of payouts, but not all do, notably [[health insurance]].
The loss must be significant: The legal principle of ''[[De minimis]]'' dictates that trivial matters are not covered. Furthermore, rational insurance uses existing insurance when the [[transaction costs]] dictate that filing a claim is not rational.
The loss must not be catastrophic: If the insurer is insolvent, it will be unable to pay the insured. In the United States, there is a system of Guaranty Funds run at the state level to reimburse insured people whose insurance companies have become insolvent. [http://www.ncigf.org] This program is run by the National Association of Insurance Commissioners (NAIC). [http://www.naic.org/] To avoid catastrophic depletion of their own capital, insurers almost universally purchase [[reinsurance]] to protect them against excessively large accumulations of risk in a single area, and to protect them against large-scale catastrophes.
==Insurance Contract Principles==
A property or liability insurance policy is a "personal contract," a "conditional contract," a "contract of adhesion," a "contract of indemnity," and a contract which requires that the person insured have an insurable interest at the time of the insured-against contingency.
===Personal Contract===
Property and liability insurance policies cover persons and not property or operations. Although the terms "insured my house" or "insured my motorcycle" are used commonly, they are not technically correct. The contract between the insurer and the insured is a personal contract between an insuring entity and a person(s) and not the object being insured. In other words, the question of whether payment is due upon the occurrence of a contingency, and how such payment will be measured, depends upon economic loss suffered by the person(s).
===Conditional Contract===
Property and liability insurance policies are said to be "conditional contracts" because the obligation of the insurer to perform may be conditioned upon the insured satisfying certain conditions.
===Contract of Adhesion===
Property and liability insurance policies are said to be "contracts of adhesion" because the insurer and insured parties are of unequal bargaining power where the insured party cannot negotiate the terms of the contract and must take the offer of the insurer as made. Importantly, the rule of law regarding "contracts of adhesion" is that any ambiguities resolve in favor of the insured.
===Contract of Indemnity===
Property and liability insurance policies are said to be "contracts of indemnity" because the purpose of insurance is to indemnify the insured. The principle of indemnification is that the insured should not profit nor incur an economic loss from the response provided by the policy.
===Insurable Interest===
Insurable interest is one wherein economic loss would be suffered from an adverse occurrence to the person(s) insured.
==Indemnification==
An entity seeking to transfer risk (an individual, corporation, or association of any type) becomes the 'insured' party once risk is assumed by an 'insurer', the insuring party, by means of a [[contract]], defined as an insurance 'policy'. This [[legal]] contract sets out terms and conditions specifying the amount of coverage (compensation) to be rendered to the insured, by the insurer upon assumption of risk, in the event of a loss, and all the specific perils covered against ([[indemnity|indemnified]]), for the term of the contract.
When insured parties experience a loss for a specified peril, the coverage entitles the policyholder to make a 'claim' against the insurer for the amount of loss as specified by the policy contract. The [[fee]] paid by the insured to the insurer for assuming the risk is called the 'premium'. Insurance premiums from many clients are used to fund accounts set aside for later payment of claims - in theory for a relatively few claimants - and for [[overhead]] costs. So long as an insurer maintains adequate funds set aside for anticipated losses, the remaining margin becomes their [[profit]].
==How an insurance company makes money==
A customer might pay one or more premium payments over time. The company collects these payments from one or more customers. If something happens which triggers a claim, the company then pays out a certain amount of money. If, during the lifetime of all of the company's insurance contracts, it pays out less than it has taken in, it makes what is known as an [[underwriting profit]]. One measure of an insurance company's performance is their loss ratio (incurred losses and loss-adjustment expenses divided by net earned premium). The loss ratio is added to the expense ratio (underwriting expenses divided by net premium written) to determine the company's combined ratio. The combined ratio is a reflection of the company's overall underwriting profitability. A combined ratio of less than 100 percent indicates a profit, while anything over 100 is a loss. One company that is famous for achieving underwriting profit is [[American International Group]]. Berkshire Hathaway, by contrast, is famous for making its money on "float" rather than underwriting profit. Float is the concept that as insurance premiums are collected up front, and claims paid over time (sometimes up to periods of 10 years or more), the insurance companies are able to collect investment income on the money they have reserved for claims that have not occurred yet, or have not yet been paid. Over time, this interest is compounded into significant dollars, particularly for a company as large as Berkshire Hathaway.
In many cases a company's combined ratio is greater than 100 percent, however the company still manages to make money. This is because in between the time the company collects premiums and when it pays out claims, it can invest that money. The return from these investments may offset an underwriting loss resulting in profit. For example, if a company has to pay out 10 percent more than it took in, but made a 20 percent return on its investment, then it made a 10 percent profit. However, since most insurance companies consider it only prudent (and may be mandated to do so by laws controlling insurance businesses in the territory in which they operate) to invest in risk-free government bonds, or other lower risk and lower return forms of investments, it's important that the extra amount it has to pay out compared to what it has to take in is less than the percent return of these investments. If it isn't, the company loses money. The extra amount that a company has to pay out can be considered a "cost of funds" and be compared to an interest rate of the same company borrowing money. Because of this, most insurance companies don't have a goal just to have any amount of profit over the cost of funds, but rather to have this cost of funds be lower than what they would have been able to get by borrowing somewhere else. If this isn't the case, the insurance company does not add any value to their owners, who theoretically could have borrowed money from somewhere else and made the same investments themselves.
Although insurers traditionally depended upon [[underwriting profit]] to provide them with operating profit, market forces now require that insurers earn the bulk of their profit on investment income on premiums held pending claims occurrence. This is a form of financial leveraging.
==Determination of rate structures==
The insurer uses [[actuarial science]] to quantify the risk they are willing to assume. Data is generated to approximate future claims, ordinarily with reasonable accuracy. Actuarial science uses [[statistics]] and [[probability]] to analyze the risks associated with the range of perils covered, and these scientific principles are used by insurers, in conjunction with additional factors, to determine rate structures.
For example, many individuals purchase homeowner's insurance policies by signing a contract paying a premium to an insurance company. If a covered loss occurs, the insurer is obliged by the terms of the contract to [[honor]] the insured's claim. For some policyholders, the amount of insurance benefits received from their insurer will greatly exceed the expense of premiums paid. Others may never make a claim or receive any benefit other than the peace of mind rendered by the security of an insurance policy. When averaged, the total claims expense paid by an insurer should be less than the total premiums |
t severe manifestation of infection with HIV. HIV is a [[retrovirus]] that primarily infects vital components of the human [[immune system]] such as CD4+ [[T cell]]s, [[macrophage]]s and [[dendritic cell]]s. It also directly and indirectly destroys CD4+ T cells. As CD4+ T cells are required for the proper functioning of the immune system, when enough CD4+ cells have been destroyed by HIV, the immune system barely works, leading to AIDS. Acute HIV infection progresses over time to clinical latent HIV infection and then to early symptomatic HIV infection and later, to AIDS, which is identified on the basis of the amount of [[CD4]] positive cells in the blood and the presence of certain infections.
{{details|HIV}}
In the absence of antiretroviral therapy, progression from HIV infection to AIDS occurs at a [[median]] of between nine to ten years and the median survival time after developing AIDS is only 9.2 months <ref name=Morgan2>{{
cite journal
| author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B., Okongo, J. M., Lubega, R. and Whitworth, J. A.
| title=HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries?
| journal=AIDS | year=2002 | pages=597-632 | volume=16 | issue=4 | id={{PMID |11873003}}
}}</ref>. However, the rate of clinical disease progression varies widely between individuals, from two weeks up to 20 years. Many factors affect the rate of progression. These include factors that influence the body's ability to defend against HIV, including the infected person's genetic inheritance, general immune function <ref name=Clerici>{{
cite journal
| author=Clerici, M., Balotta, C., Meroni, L., Ferrario, E., Riva, C., Trabattoni, D., Ridolfo, A., Villa, M., Shearer, G.M., Moroni, M. and Galli, M.
| title=Type 1 cytokine production and low prevalence of viral isolation correlate with long-term non progression in HIV infection
| journal=AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. | year=1996 | pages=1053-1061 | volume=12 | issue=11
| id={{PMID |8827221}}
}}</ref><ref name=Morgan>{{
cite journal
| author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B. and Whitworth, J. A.
| title=Progression to symptomatic disease in people infected with HIV-1 in rural Uganda: prospective cohort study
| journal=BMJ | year=2002 | pages=193-196 | volume=324 | issue=7331
| id={{PMID |11809639}}
cite journal
| author=Tang, J. and Kaslow, R. A.
| title=The impact of host genetics on HIV infection and disease progression in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy
| journal=AIDS | year=2003 | pages=S51-S60 | volume=17 | issue=Suppl 4
| id={{PMID |15080180}}
}}</ref>, access to health care, age and other coexisting infections <ref name=Morgan2>{{
cite journal
| author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B., Okongo, J. M., Lubega, R. and Whitworth, J. A.
| title=HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries?
| journal=AIDS | year=2002 | pages=597-632 | volume=16 | issue=4
| id={{PMID |11873003}}
}}</ref><ref name=Gendelman>{{
cite journal
| author=Gendelman, H. E., Phelps, W., Feigenbaum, L., Ostrove, J. M., Adachi, A., Howley, P. M., Khoury, G., Ginsberg, H. S. and Martin, M. A.
| title=Transactivation of the human immunodeficiency virus long terminal repeat sequences by DNA viruses
| journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. | year=1986 | pages=9759-9763 | volume=83 | issue=24
| id={{PMID |2432602}}
}}</ref><ref name=Bentwich>{{
cite journal
| author=Bentwich, Z., Kalinkovich., A. and Weisman, Z.
| title=Immune activation is a dominant factor in the pathogenesis of African AIDS.
| journal=Immunol. Today | year=1995 | pages=187-191 | volume=16 | issue=4
| id={{PMID |7734046}}
}}</ref>. Different strains of HIV <ref name=Quinones>{{
cite journal
| author=Quiñones-Mateu, M. E., Mas, A., Lain de Lera, T., Soriano, V., Alcami, J., Lederman, M. M. and Domingo, E.
| title=LTR and tat variability of HIV-1 isolates from patients with divergent rates of disease progression
| journal=Virus Research | year=1998 | pages=11-20 | volume=57 | issue=1
| id={{PMID |9833881}}
}}</ref><ref name=Campbell>{{
cite journal
| author=Campbell, G. R., Pasquier, E., Watkins, J., Bourgarel-Rey, V., Peyrot, V., Esquieu, D., Barbier, P., de Mareuil, J., Braguer, D., Kaleebu, P., Yirrell, D. L. and Loret E. P.
| title=The glutamine-rich region of the HIV-1 Tat protein is involved in T-cell apoptosis
| journal=J. Biol. Chem. | year=2004 | pages=48197-48204 | volume=279 | issue=46
| id={{PMID |15331610}}
}}</ref> may also cause different rates of clinical disease progression.
{{details|HIV Disease Progression Rates}}
==Diagnosis==
===AIDS and HIV case definitions===
Since June 18, 1981, many different definitions have been developed for epidemiological surveillance such as the [[Bangui definition]] and the [[1994 expanded World Health Organization AIDS case definition]]. However, these were never intended to be used for clinical staging of patients, for which they are neither sensitive nor specific. The [[World Health Organization]]s (WHO) staging system for HIV infection and disease, using clinical and laboratory data, can be used in developing countries and the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers for Disease Control]] (CDC) Classification System can be used in developed nations.
====WHO Disease Staging System for HIV Infection and Disease====
{{main|WHO Disease Staging System for HIV Infection and Disease}}
In 1990, the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) grouped these infections and conditions together by introducing a staging system for patients infected with HIV-1 <ref name=WHO>{{
cite journal
| author=World Health Organisation
| title=Interim proposal for a WHO staging system for HIV infection and disease
| journal=WHO Wkly Epidem. Rec. | year=1990 | pages=221-228 | volume=65 | issue=29
| id={{PMID |1974812}}
}}</ref>. This was updated in September 2005. Most of these conditions are [[opportunistic infections]] that can be easily treated in healthy people.
: ''Stage I:'' HIV disease is asymptomatic and not categorized as AIDS
: ''Stage II:'' include minor mucocutaneous manifestations and recurrent upper respiratory tract infections
: ''Stage III:'' includes unexplained chronic diarrhea for longer than a month, severe bacterial infections and pulmonary tuberculosis or
: ''Stage IV'' includes [[toxoplasmosis]] of the brain, [[candidiasis]] of the esophagus, trachea, bronchi or lungs and [[Kaposi's sarcoma]]; these diseases are used as indicators of AIDS.
====CDC Classification System for HIV Infection====
{{main|CDC Classification System for HIV Infection}}
In the [[USA]], the definition of AIDS is governed by the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC). In 1993, the CDC expanded their definition of AIDS to include healthy HIV positive people with a CD4 positive T cell count of less than 200 per µl of blood. The majority of new AIDS cases in the United States are reported on the basis of a low [[T cell]] count in the presence of HIV infection <ref name=MMWR>{{
cite web | author=[[CDC]] | publisher=CDC | year=1992
| url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00018871.htm
| title=1993 Revised Classification System for HIV Infection and Expanded Surveillance Case Definition for AIDS Among Adolescents and Adults
| accessdate=2006-02-09
}}</ref>
===HIV test===
{{main|HIV test}}
Approximately half of those infected with HIV don't know that they are infected until they are diagnosed with AIDS. HIV test kits are used to screen donor blood and blood products, and to diagnose HIV in individuals. Typical HIV tests, including the HIV enzyme immunoassay and the Western blot assay, detect HIV antibodies in serum, plasma, oral fluid, dried blood spot or urine of patients. Other tests to look for HIV antigens, HIV-RNA, and HIV-DNA are also commercially available and can be used to detect HIV infection prior to the development of detectable antibodies. However, these assays are not specifically approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the diagnosis of HIV infection.
==Symptoms and Complications==
[[Image:Hiv-timecourse.png|400px|thumb|right|A generalized graph of the relationship between HIV copies (viral load) and CD4 counts over the average course of untreated HIV infection; any particular individuals' disease course may vary considerably.]]
The symptoms of AIDS are primarily the result of conditions that do not normally develop in individuals with healthy [[immune system]]s. Most of these conditions are infections caused by [[bacteria]], [[virus|viruses]], [[fungus|fungi]] and [[parasite]]s that are normally controlled by the elements of the immune system that HIV damages. [[Opportunistic infection]]s are common in people with AIDS <ref name=Holmes>{{
cite journal
| author=Holmes, C. B., Losina, E., Walensky, R. P., Yazdanpanah, Y., Freedberg, K. A.
| title=Review of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-related opportunistic infections in sub-Saharan Africa
| journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. | year=2003 | pages=656-662 | volume=36 | issue=5
| id={{PMID |12594648}}
}}</ref>. Nearly every [[organ system]] is affected. People with AIDS also have an increased risk of developing various cancers such as [[Kaposi sarcoma]], [[cervical cancer]] and cancers of the immune system known as [[lymphoma]]s.
Additionally, people with AIDS often have systemic symptoms of infection like [[fever]]s, [[sweat]]s (particularly at night), swollen glands, chills, weakness, and weight loss <ref name=Guss>{{
cite journal
| author=Guss, D. A.
| title=The acquired immune deficiency syndrome: an overview for the emergency physician, Part 1
|
rds. This allowed [[Indonesian]] peoples to cross the Indian Ocean to settle in [[Madagascar]].
In the second or first century BC [[Eudoxus of Cyzicus]] was the first [[Greece|Greek]] to cross the Indian Ocean. [[Hippalus]] is said to have discovered the direct route from [[Arabia]] to [[India]] around this time. During the first and second centuries intensive [[Roman commerce|trade relations]] developed between [[Roman Egypt]] and the [[Tamil people|Tamil kingdoms]] of the [[Cheras]], [[Cholas]] and [[Pandyas]] in Southern India. Like the Indonesian people above, the western sailors used the monsoon to cross the Ocean. The unknown author of the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' describes this route and the ports and trade goods along the coasts of [[Africa]] and [[India]] around [[70]].
In [[1497]] [[Vasco da Gama]] rounded the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and sailed to India, the first European to do so. The European ships, armed with heavy cannon, quickly came to dominate the trade. [[Portugal]] at first attempted to achieve pre-eminence setting up forts at the important straits and ports. But the small nation was unable to support such a vast project and they were replaced in the mid-[[17th century|1600s]] by other European powers. The [[Dutch East India Company]] ([[1602]]-[[1798]]) sought control of trade with the East across the Indian Ocean. [[France]] and Britain established trade companies for the area. Eventually Britain became the principal power and by [[1815]] dominated the area.
The opening of the [[Suez Canal]] in [[1869]] revived European interest in the East, but no nation was successful in establishing trade dominance. Since [[World War II]] the United Kingdom has withdrawn from the area, to be only partially replaced by India, the [[Soviet Union|USSR]], and the [[United States]]. The last two have tried to establish hegemony by negotiating for naval base sites. Developing countries bordering the ocean, however, seek to have it made a "zone of peace" so that they may use its shipping lanes freely, though the United States did manage to salvage a naval base for itself at Deigo Garcia in the middle of the Indian Ocean.
On [[December 26]] [[2004]] the countries surrounding the Indian Ocean (south east asia) were hit by [[tsunami]]s caused by the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]]. The waves resulted in more than 226,000 deaths and over 1 million homeless.
==Data==
'''Southern Ocean:'''
A spring 2000 decision by the [[International Hydrographic Organization]] delimited a [[Southern Ocean|fifth world ocean]], stripping the southern portions of the Indian Ocean. The new ocean extends from the coast of Antarctica north to 60°south latitude which coincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit. The Indian Ocean remains the third-largest of the world's five oceans.
'''Area:'''
* ''total:'' 68.556 million km&sup2;
* ''seas:'' includes [[Andaman Sea]], [[Arabian Sea]], [[Bay of Bengal]], [[Great Australian Bight]], [[Gulf of Aden]], [[Gulf of Oman]], [[Laccadive Sea]], [[Mozambique Channel]], [[Persian Gulf]], [[Red Sea]], [[Strait of Malacca]], and other tributary water bodies
'''Coastline:'''
66,526 km
'''Climate:'''
northeast [[monsoon]] (December to April), southwest monsoon (June to October); tropical cyclones occur during May/June and October/November in the northern Indian Ocean and January/February in the southern Indian Ocean
'''Terrain:'''
surface dominated by counterclockwise gyre (broad, circular system of currents) in the southern Indian Ocean; unique reversal of surface currents in the northern Indian Ocean; low atmospheric pressure over southwest Asia from hot, rising, summer air results in the southwest monsoon and southwest-to-northeast winds and currents, while high pressure over northern Asia from cold, falling, winter air results in the northeast monsoon and northeast-to-southwest winds and currents; ocean floor is dominated by the [[Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge]] and subdivided by the [[Southeast Indian Ocean Ridge]], [[Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge]], and [[Ninetyeast Ridge]]
Graphics of the seabed terrain produced by the Royal Navy & British Geological Survey in 2005 can be found [[here]].
'''Elevation extremes:'''
* ''lowest point:'' [[Diamantina Trench]] - 8,047 m
* ''highest point:'' sea level 0 m
'''Natural resources:'''
[[petroleum|oil]] and gas fields, [[fish]], [[shrimp]], sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules
'''Environment - current issues:'''
endangered marine species include the [[dugong]], [[seal (mammal)|seal]]s, [[turtle]]s, and [[whale]]s; oil [[pollution]] in the Arabian Sea, [[Persian Gulf]], and [[Red Sea]]
'''Geography - note:'''
major chokepoints include [[Bab el Mandeb]], [[Strait of Hormuz]], [[Strait of Malacca]], southern access to the [[Suez Canal]], and the [[Lombok Strait]]
'''Ports and harbors:'''
[[Calcutta]] ([[India]]), [[Chennai]] ([[Madras]]; [[India]]), [[Colombo]] ([[Sri Lanka]]), [[Durban]] ([[South Africa]]), [[Jakarta]] ([[Indonesia]]), [[Karachi]] ([[Pakistan]]), [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]] ([[Australia]]), [[Mumbai]] ([[Bombay]]; [[India]]), [[Richards Bay]] ([[South Africa]]), [[Visakhapatnam]] ([[India]]),[[Kochi, India|Kochi]] ([[India]])
==References==
<div style="font-size:85%;">
<references/>
</div>
*Braun, D., The Indian Ocean (1983)
*Chandra, S., ed., The Indian Ocean (1987);
*Chaudhuri, K. N., Trade and Civilization in the Indian Ocean (1985);
*Cousteau, Jacques-Yves, and Diole, Philippe, Life and Death in a Coral Sea (1971);
*Cubitt, Gerald, Islands of the Indian Ocean (1975);
*Das Gupta, A., and Pearson, M.N., India and the Indian Ocean (1987);
*Dowdy, W. L., and Trood, R., eds., The Indian Ocean (1985);
*Kerr, A., ed., Resources and Development in the Indian Ocean Region (1981);
*Nairn, A. E., and Stehli, F. G., eds., The Ocean Basins and Margins, Vol. 6: The Indian Ocean (1982);
*Ostheimer, John M., ed., The Politics of the Western Indian Ocean Islands (1975); *Toussaint, Auguste, The History of the Indian Ocean, trans. by June Guicharnaud (1966).
''Much of this text is based on public domain text by US Naval Oceanographer at: http://oceanographer.navy.mil/indian.html''
==External links==
*[http://dapper.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/ NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer] Plot and download ocean observations
[[Category:Oceans]]
[[Category:Indian Ocean]]
[[ar:محيط هندي]]
[[an:Ozián Indico]]
[[ast:Océanu Índicu]]
[[bg:Индийски океан]]
[[zh-min-nan:Ìn-tō·-iûⁿ]]
[[bn:ভারতীয় মহাসমুদ্র]]
[[ca:Oceà Índic]]
[[cs:Indický oceán]]
[[cv:Инди океанĕ]]
[[cy:Cefnfor India]]
[[da:Indiske Ocean]]
[[de:Indischer Ozean]]
[[et:India ookean]]
[[el:Ινδικός Ωκεανός]]
[[es:Océano Índico]]
[[eo:Hinda Oceano]]
[[eu:Indiar ozeano]]
[[fr:Océan Indien]]
[[gl:Océano Índico]]
[[ko:인도양]]
[[hr:Indijski ocean]]
[[io:Indiana Oceano]]
[[id:Samudra Hindia]]
[[is:Indlandshaf]]
[[it:Oceano Indiano]]
[[he:האוקיינוס ההודי]]
[[sw:Bahari ya Hindi]]
[[la:Oceanus Indicus]]
[[lt:Indijos vandenynas]]
[[hu:Indiai-óceán]]
[[nl:Indische Oceaan]]
[[ja:インド洋]]
[[no:Indiahavet]]
[[nn:Det indiske havet]]
[[pl:Ocean Indyjski]]
[[pt:Oceano Índico]]
[[ro:Oceanul Indian]]
[[ru:Индийский океан]]
[[sa:सिन्धु महासागर]]
[[simple:Indian Ocean]]
[[sk:Indický oceán]]
[[sl:Indijski ocean]]
[[sr:Индијски океан]]
[[fi:Intian valtameri]]
[[sv:Indiska oceanen]]
[[ta:இந்து சமுத்திரம்]]
[[th:มหาสมุทรอินเดีย]]
[[vi:Ấn Độ Dương]]
[[tr:Hint Okyanusu]]
[[uk:Індійський океан]]
[[zh:印度洋]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ich bin ein Berliner</title>
<id>14581</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41961437</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:21:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ProhibitOnions</username>
<id>139004</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert the usual vandalism, warned vandal</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Berlin_Plaque_Kennedy.jpg|thumb|Plaque commemorating Kennedy's speech next to the front entrance of [[Rathaus Schöneberg]]]]
[[Image:JFK Entry in Berlin Golden Book.png|thumb|Entry in Berlin's Golden Book]]
[[Image:JFK Ich bin ein Berliner - civis Romanus sum.png|thumb|<small>Kennedy's notes: Ish bin ein Bearleener – kiwis Romanus sum – Lasd z nack Bearleen comen </small>]]
[[Image:JFK Ich bin ein Berliner - civis Romanus sum 2.png|thumb|Part of the speech manuscript</small>]]
'''"Ich bin ein Berliner"''' ("I am a [[citizen]] of [[Berlin]]") is a famous quote from a [[June 26]], [[1963]] speech of [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[John F. Kennedy]] in [[West Berlin]]. Kennedy was underlining the support of the [[United States]] for [[democratic]] [[West Germany]] shortly after Soviet-controlled [[communist]] [[East Germany]] had erected the [[Berlin Wall]] as a deadly barrier to its citizens escaping to the West.
The speech is considered one of Kennedy's best, and a notable moment of the [[Cold War]]. It was a great morale boost for the West Berliners, who feared absorption into the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] empire. Speaking from the balcony of [[Rathaus Schöneberg]], Kennedy said,
:"Two thousand years ago the proudest boast was ''[[Roman citizen|civis Romanus]] sum''. Today, in the world of freedom, the proudest boast is <nowiki>'</nowiki>''Ich bin ein Berliner''.<nowiki>'</nowiki> All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin, and, therefore, as a free man, I take pride in the words <nowiki>'</nowiki>''Ich bin ein Berliner!''<nowiki>'</nowiki>"
This message of defiance was aimed as much at the Soviets as it was the Berliners, and was a clear statement of U.S. policy in the wake of the Berlin Wall. However, Kennedy also faced criticism inasmuch as his speech seemed to accept the new [[status quo]] following the division of Berlin. Kennedy said West Berlin had been &qu |
hat Atari would sue to block sales (they never did). The baseless comments were selected as #3 in the [http://archive.gamespy.com/articles/june03/dumbestmoments/index22.shtml Top 25 Dumbest Moments in Gaming].
In a last ditch effort to rescue the Jaguar, Atari tried to play down these two consoles by claiming the Jaguar was the only 64-bit system, causing some controversy. (Some contended that the Jaguar's two 64-bit "processors" were essentially nothing more than graphics accelerators; its [[Graphics processing unit|GPU]] was only 32-bit and its [[Central processing unit|CPU]] was a 16-bit [[Motorola 68000|68000]].) This advertising push was futile, and production of the Jaguar stopped after Atari purchased [[JT Storage]] in a [[reverse takeover]].
Several peripherals were announced, such as a voice modem and [[Virtual reality|VR]] headset, but the only peripherals released were the [[Atari Jaguar CD]] drive and the JagLink, a simple two-console networking device. Working prototypes of some of the proposed future developments exist (some, such as the Jaguar Voice Modem, in relatively large quantities), and include fully-functional versions of the [[virtual reality|VR]] headset, with infrared head-tracking, and a stereo adaptor to allow connection of the Jaguar to a hi-fi system. See [[Loki (computer)|Loki]] and [[Konix Multisystem]] for early development.
After Atari was bought out by [[Hasbro Interactive]] in the late 1990s, Hasbro released the [[encryption]] coding to the Jaguar, finally opening the doors for enthusiasts and hobby programmers to make their own Jaguar games and software, similar to what has happened with another defunct game system, the [[Sega Dreamcast]]. Several game companies, including Telegames and Songbird Productions, have not only released previously unfinished materials from the Jaguar's past, but also several brand new titles to satisfy the system's cult following.
== Screenshot gallery ==
<gallery>
Image:JAG_Cybermorph.png|''Cybermorph''<Br>[[Atari]] ([[1993]])
<!-- Unsourced image removed: Image:Avp3.jpg|''[[Alien vs Predator]]''<br>[[Atari]]([[1993]]) -->
Image:JAG_Tempest_2000.png|''[[Tempest 2000]]''<Br>[[Atari]] ([[1994]])
<!-- Unsourced image removed: Image:bubsy2.jpg|''[[Bubsy]]''<br>[[Atari]] ([[1994]]) -->
<!-- Unsourced image removed: Image:Ironsold2.jpg|''[[Iron Soldier II]]''for Jag CD<br>[[Atari]]([[1995]]) -->
<!-- Unsourced image removed: Image:Rayman.jpg|''[[Rayman|Rayman]]''<br>[[Ubisoft]]([[1995]]) -->
Image:JAG_Fight_For_Life.png|''Fight For Life''<br>[[Atari]] ([[1995]])
Image:JAG_NBA_Jam_TE.png|''[[NBA Jam|NBA Jam TE]]''<br>[[Acclaim Entertainment|Acclaim]]/High Voltage ([[1995]])
</gallery>
==Technical specifications==
'''[[Central processing unit|CPUs]]:'''
*"Tom" (contains 3 video-related [[central processing unit|processor]]s), 25.59 [[Megahertz|MHz]]
**[[Graphics processing unit]] (GPU) &ndash; 32-[[bit]] [[RISC]] architecture, 4K internal cache, provides wide array of graphic effects
**64-bit [[object (computer science)|object]] processor &ndash; programmable; can behave as a variety of graphic architectures
**64-bit [[blitter]] processor &ndash; high speed logic operations, [[z-buffering]] and [[Gouraud shading]]
**64-bit [[Dynamic random access memory|DRAM]] controller (not a processor)
*"Jerry" , 26.6 [[Megahertz|MHz]]
**Digital Signal Processor &ndash; 32-[[bit]] [[RISC]] architecture, 8k internal cache
**CD-quality sound (16-bit stereo)
***Number of sound channels limited by software
***Two DACs (stereo) convert digital data to analog sound signals
***Full [[Stereophonic sound|stereo]] capabilities
**Wavetable synthesis, FM synthesis, FM Sample synthesis, and AM synthesis
**A clock control block, incorporating timers, and a UART
**Joystick control
*[[Motorola]] 68000 (processor #5)
**General purpose control processor, 13.295 [[Megahertz|MHz]]
'''Other Jaguar features:'''
*[[Random access memory|RAM]]: 2[[Megabyte|MB]]
*Storage: [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]] &ndash; up to 6MB
*Support for ComLynx [[Input/output|I/O]]
==See also==
{{Dedicated video game consoles}}
*[[List of Atari Jaguar games]]
*[[Atari Panther]]
*[[Atari Jaguar II]]
*[[Atari Jaguar CD]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ataritimes.com/jaguar/index.html Atari Times, Jaguar] - Covering the Atari Jaguar!
* http://dmoz.org/Games/Video_Games/Console_Platforms/Atari/Jaguar_64/
* Jaguar FAQ: http://www.digiserve.com/eescape/showpage.phtml?page=a2
* [http://www.atari-jaguar.com/ Atari JagFest Guide]
* http://www.atari-jaguar64.de/
* [http://strider.mjjprod.free.fr/toxic15/articles/tramiel.htm Sam Trameil interview]
<!-- Backup link, lots of ads: * [http://www.geocities.com/archdukeadvice/atari.html Sam Trameil interview] -->
[[Category:Atari consoles|Jaguar]]
[[Category:Fifth-generation video game consoles]]
[[Category:Computer and video game flops]]
[[de:Atari Jaguar]]
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[[it:Atari Jaguar]]
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[[sv:Atari Jaguar]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Atari Lynx</title>
<id>2783</id>
<revision>
<id>41849135</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T03:23:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Otduff</username>
<id>934738</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CVG system| title = Atari Lynx
|logo = [[Image:lynxlogo.gif|225px]]
|image = [[Image:atari-lynx-1-1000.jpeg|225px||Atari Lynx]]
|manufacturer = [[Atari]]
|type = [[Handheld game console]]
|generation = [[History of video games (8-bit era)|Third generation era]]
|lifespan = [[1989]]
|media = [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]]
|conrollers =
|onlineservice = ComLynx <br>(17 player networking)
|topgame = ''[[Road Blasters]]''
}}
The '''Atari Lynx''' is [[Atari]]'s only [[handheld game console]], and the first such machine with a [[color]] display. The system is notable for its forward-looking features, advanced graphics, and [[ambidextrous]] format. The ''Lynx'' was released in [[1989]], the same year as [[Nintendo]]'s (monochromatic) [[Game Boy]].
==Features==
The Atari Lynx had several innovative features including it being the first color handheld, with a backlit display, a switchable right-handed/left-handed (upside down) configuration, and the ability to network with up to 17 other units via its "ComLynx" system (though most games would network eight or fewer players).
The Lynx was also the first gaming console with hardware support for zooming/distortion of [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprites]], allowing fast pseudo-[[3D computer graphics|3D]] games with unrivaled quality at the time and a capacity for drawing filled polygons with limited CPU intervention.
The games were originally meant to be loaded from [[tape]], but it changed to using ROM, but the loading didn't change so the data had to be loaded from ROM to RAM before it could be used, thereby eating up memory and making the games slower than necessary.
The system was developed by [[Epyx]] as the "Handy" and completed in [[1987]], at which point Atari bought the rights to it. Atari changed the internal speaker and removed the thumb-stick on the control pad before releasing it as the Lynx two years later, initially retailing in the US at USD $189.95. The two creators of the system, [[RJ Mical]] and [[Dave Needle]], were also members of the [[Amiga]] design team and much to the frustration of Atari, the Amiga was used as the software development platform.
[[Image:Atarilynx.jpg|right|thumb|Atari Lynx II]]
In 1991, Atari relaunched the Lynx with new packaging, slightly improved hardware, and a new sleek look. The new system (referred within Atari as the "Lynx II") featured rubber hand grips and a clearer backlit color screen with a power save option. It also replaced the monaural headphone jack of the original Lynx with one wired for stereo.
==Mistakes==
Though technologically superior to the Game Boy, Nintendo's marketing muscle, domination of 3rd party developers, and quality first party game releases (particularly ''[[Tetris]]'') meant the Lynx was soon marginalized. The Lynx also suffered from needing more batteries (six versus four in the original Game Boy) which managed to run down much faster. The more powerful CPU of the Lynx, plus its backlit screen, would drain a set of six AA batteries in only four hours (five to six hours in the Lynx II). The Lynx was also physically larger than it needed to be; Atari had followed the advice of focus groups who wanted a bigger unit because that gave them "more" for their money (much of the inside of the Lynx's housing was empty air). It also didn't help that the Lynx was sold at a substantially higher price than the Game Boy. By the mid-1990s, the Atari Lynx was no longer widely available.
The [[Sega Game Gear]] followed a similar formula to the Atari Lynx, and the Game Gear did fare somewhat better due to stronger marketing and better titles. At the same time, the Game Gear was also plagued by similar problems that hurt the Lynx; higher price, shorter battery life, larger size and the Game Boy's dominance of the portable video game market.
As with a lot of older consoles, there are a small group of devoted fans still creating and selling games for the system.
==Technical specifications==
*[[MOS_Technology|MOS]] 65SC02 processor running at up to 4MHz (~3.6MHz average)
**8-bit CPU, 16-bit address space
**Sound engine
***4 channel sound (Lynx II with panning)
***8-bit DAC for each channel(4 channels x 8-bits/channel = 32 bits commonly quoted)
**Video DMA driver for liquid-crystal display
***4,096 color (12-bit) palette
***16 simultaneous colors (4 bits) from palette per scanline (more than 16 colors can be displayed by changing palettes after |
taling $1.016 trillion.
Germany's main exports:
* [[Machinery]]
* [[Car|Vehicles]]
* [[Chemicals]]
* [[Metals]] and [[Manufacturing|Manufactures]]
* [[Food industry|Foodstuffs]]
* [[Consumer electronics]]
* [[Textiles]]
* [[Electricity]]
===Imports===
As a nation that relies heavily on [[international trade]], Germany also imports a wide variety of [[Good (economics)|goods]]. Germany is the world's second largest importer of goods with a total of $801 billion in imports.
Germany's main [[imports]] are:
* [[Machinery]]
* [[Vehicles]]
* [[Chemicals]]
* [[Foodstuffs]]
* [[Textiles]]
* [[Metal|Metals]]
''[http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html CIA Factbook 2005]''
===Agriculture===
For many years now agriculture in Germany has been in a state of decline. Poor earnings and lack of profitability are counted as the main reasons for the failure of many medium and small [[farming|farms]]. The main crops grown are [[potato]]es, [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[sugar beet]] and [[cabbage]]. Germany ranks among the world's largest producers of [[milk]], dairy products and [[meat]]. Agricultural support is managed under the [[EU]] [[Common Agricultural Policy]].
===Industrial sector===
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:MB_S-Class_2.jpg|thumb|left|250px|German cars are famous all over the world]] -->
As in most other large economic nations, Germany's industrial sector has declined in favour of the service sector. Germany is among the world's largest and most technologically advanced producers of [[iron]], [[steel]], [[cement]], [[chemicals]], [[machinery]], [[motor vehicles]], [[machine tool]]s and [[electronics]], as well as a world leader in the [[shipbuilding]] industry. Major car manufacturers like [[BMW]], [[DaimlerChrysler]] ([[Mercedes-Benz|Mercedes]]), [[Opel]] (owned by [[General Motors|GM]]), [[Porsche]] <!-- before somebody asks - Porsche is independent --> and [[Volkswagen Group|Volkswagen AG]] (including [[Audi]], and more non-German brands), and it is also home to huge multinational corporations like [[BASF]], [[Robert Bosch GmbH|Bosch]], and [[Siemens AG]], which consistently rank among the world's largest firms.
===Service sector===
The [[service sector]] has grown steadily in recent years and now contributes the largest share of GDP. This sector includes [[tourism]]. As of 2004, the largest numbers of foreign visitors to Germany came from the Netherlands, followed by the United States and the United Kingdom ([http://www.destatis.de/basis/e/tour/tourtab4.htm]). Germany also has a large (and possibly underrated) presence in the banking world, lead by [[Deutsche Bank]] and [[Allianz]].
===Natural resources===
Germany is lacking in natural raw materials, if one disregards the hard [[coal]] deposits in the [[Ruhr Area|Ruhr area]], in the [[Aachen]] district and in the [[Saarland]], where mining is profitable only thanks to state subsidies. Brown coal from mines in the [[Leipzig]]er Bucht and the Niederlausitz is still the major energy source in the eastern [[States of Germany|states]], while [[petroleum]] enjoys this position in the western "''Länder''". The previous [[Red-Green Alliance|red-Green]] (1998-2005) coalition government was pursuing a long-term strategy of phasing out [[nuclear energy|nuclear power]] in favour of [[renewable energy|renewable]] sources of energy. The current coalition has not yet agreed on its nuclear policy.
==Society==
===Demographics===
{{main|Demographics of Germany}}
[[Image:KreuzbergStreet.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The borough of [[Kreuzberg]] in [[Berlin]] is sometimes called the "second largest Turkish city in Europe, after [[Istanbul]]"]]
Due to the country's federal and decentralized structure Germany has a number of larger cities. The most populous cities of Germany are [[Berlin]], [[Hamburg]], [[Munich]], [[Cologne]], [[Frankfurt]] and [[Dortmund]]. By far the largest conurbation is the [[Rhine-Ruhr]] region, including the Düsseldorf-Cologne district and the cities of [[Dortmund]], [[Duisburg]] and [[Bochum]]. The federal structure has kept the population oriented towards a number of large cities, and has precluded the growth of any single city that would rival such European capitals as [[London]], [[Paris]] or [[Moscow]] for size.
As of 2004, about 7.5 million foreign citizen residents were living in Germany. By far the largest number came from [[Turkey]], followed by [[Italy]], [[Greece]], [[Croatia]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Spain]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Austria]], [[Portugal]], [[Vietnam]], [[Morocco]], [[Poland]], [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]], [[Lebanon]] and [[France]]. [http://www.destatis.de/basis/e/bevoe/bevoetab10.htm] Thanks to reform of [[German nationality law]], many of these immigrants are eligible for [[naturalisation]] ([http://www.destatis.de/basis/e/bevoe/bevoetab8.htm]).
9% of the population is not ethnically German.
Germany is still a primary destination for political and economic [[refugee]]s from many [[developing country|less industrialized countries]], especially [[Turkey]] and [[southern Europe|southern]]/[[southeastern Europe|southeastern]] [[Europe]], but the number of annual asylum seekers has been declining in recent years, reaching about 50,000+ in 2003.
An [[Danish people|ethnic Danish]] minority of about 50,000 people lives in [[Schleswig]], most of them close to the Danish border, in the north; a small number of [[Slavs|Slavic]] people known as the [[Sorbs]] lives in the states of [[Saxony]] (about 40,000) and [[Brandenburg]] (about 20,000). The [[Frisian language]] is [[mother tongue]] to about 12,000 speakers in Germany. In rural areas of Northern Germany, [[Low German]] is widely spoken. The [[North-Rhine Westphalia]]n border is a transitional area between German and [[Dutch language|Dutch]].
There are also a large number of [[ethnic German]] immigrants from the former [[Soviet Union]] area (1.7 million), [[Poland]] (0.7 million) and [[Romania]] (0.3 million) (1980&ndash;1999 totals), who are automatically granted German citizenship, and thus do not show up in foreign resident statistics; unlike non-ethnic German immigrants, they have been settled by the government almost evenly spread throughout Germany.
===Religion===
[[Image:Luther46c.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Martin Luther]], Father of the Protestant [[Reformation]] and reformer of the German language, 1529]]
[[Image:Berliner Dom.jpg|thumb||250px|[[Berliner Dom]]]]
{{main|Religion in Germany}}
Germany is the home of the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] launched by [[Martin Luther]] in the early 16th century. Today, [[Protestantism|Protestants]] (particularly in the north and east) comprise about 33% of the population and [[Catholicism|Catholics]] (particularly in the south and west) also 33%. In total more than 55 million people officially belong to a [[Christian]] denomination. The third largest religious identity in Germany is that of non-religious people (including [[atheism|atheists]] and [[agnosticism|agnostics]]), who amount to a total of 28.5% of the population (23.5 million).
Most German Protestants are members of the [[Evangelical Church in Germany]]. [[Free church]]es (as [[Baptists]], [[Methodism|Methodists]] and other independent Protestants are usually called in Germany) exist in all larger towns and many smaller ones, but most such churches are small. The current pontiff of the Roman Catholic Church, [[Pope Benedict XVI]], is German.
Besides this there are several hundred thousand [[Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christians]] (mostly [[Greece|Greeks]] and [[Serbia|Serbs]]), 400,000 [[New Apostolic Church|New Apostolic Christians]], more than 150,000 [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], and numerous other small groups. The highest numbers of members of these denominations in Germany has the [[Greek Orthodox Church]], the [[Serb Orthodox Church]] coming fourth.
[[Islam in Germany|Approximately 3.2 million Muslims]][http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/aug212005/foreign1834142005820.asp] (Predominantly from [[Turkey]] and the former [[Yugoslavia]]) live in Germany.
Today's Germany has Western Europe's third-largest [[Jew|Jewish]] population. In 2004, twice as many Jews from former [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] republics settled in Germany as in [[Israel]], bringing the total influx to more than 200,000 since 1991. About half joined a settled Jewish community, of which there are now more than 100, with a total of 100,000 members&mdash;up from 30,000 before reunification. Some German cities have seen a revival of Jewish culture, particularly in [[Berlin]], where there are also 3,000 Israelis. Jews have a voice in German public life through the [[Zentralrat der Juden in Deutschland]]. Other cities with significant Jewish populations are Frankfurt and Munich.
{{seealso|History of the Jews in Germany}}
In the territory of the former German Democratic Republic, there is much less religious feeling than in the West. Only 5% attend a mass at least once per week, compared with 14% in the West according to a recent [http://www.umich.edu/~newsinfo/Releases/1997/Dec97/r121097a.html study]. About 30% of the total population are officially religiously unaffiliated. In the East this number is considerably higher.
Church and state are separate, but there is cooperation in many fields, most importantly in the social sector. Churches and religious communities, if they are large, stable and loyal to the constitution, can get special status from the state as a ''corporate body under public law'' which allows the churches to levy taxes called ''Kirchensteuer'' ([[church tax]]) on their members on the basis of laws of the Länder, and to apply laws of public service to their ministers. In most cases, the revenue is collected by the state in return for a collection fee, while some smaller-sized religious bodies chose to administer the collection of the |
he 'British Isles', but in a wider context the term might be misunderstood as including [[Iceland]], [[Greenland]], the [[Azores]] and other islands.
A more geographically accurate and slightly less ambiguous phrase, "North-Western Europe", is starting to find favour, especially in Ireland; however, the term has often been used before to refer to northern France, Germany and the Low Countries. The phrase "North European Archipelago" is somewhat whimsical, but even more accurate. Both of these suffer, however, from [[euroscepticism|political issues]] associated with the word "European", particularly in the United Kingdom.
The phrase "the Anglo-Celtic Isles" has also been suggested [http://www.studiegids.leidenuniv.nl/index.php3?c=17&t=3&q=aWQ9ODAwOA==&v=&k=8008] and is in some use, being both ethnically and geographically accurate and elegantly concise.
The term ''[[British Islands]]'' is not a potential alternative; this is an official term used for the United Kingdom and the [[Crown Dependencies]] [http://www.know-britain.com/general/great_britain.html], i.e. all of the isles except the Republic of Ireland.
==Footnotes==
#The [[Channel Islands]] are included here by convention. Some people do not consider them part of the archipelago, as they are closer to [[France]] than to [[Great Britain]].
#[[Rockall]] is not on the same segment of [[continental shelf]] as that of the archipelago, but is regarded in Britain as included. Its status is disputed.
#Translation by Roseman, ''op.cit.''
#The problems caused by how one refers to the isles was highlighted when the historian Norman Davies produced a book examining the history of the archipelago. The title chosen was the neutral ''The Isles: A History'' though the cover carries a picture of the Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland from Abraham Ortelius's 1570 map. Indeed the term ''British Isles'' does not even feature in the index of the book. The index simply refers to ''The Isles''. Norman Davies, ''The Isles: A History'' (Palgrave/Macmillan, 1999) ISBN 033376370X
==Further reading==
*<cite>[[A History of Britain]]: At the Edge of the World, 3500 BC - 1603 AD</cite> by [[Simon Schama]], BBC/Miramax, 2000 ISBN 0786866756
*<cite>A History of Britain - The Complete Collection</cite> on DVD by [[Simon Schama]], BBC 2002
*<cite>The Isles, A History</cite> by [[Norman Davies]], Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0195134427
*<cite>Shortened History of England</cite> by [[George Macaulay Trevelyan|G. M. Trevelyan]] Penguin Books ISBN 0140233237
==See also==
*[[UK topics]]
*[[History of Britain|History of Great Britain]]
*[[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542]]
*[[Act of Union 1707]]
*[[Act of Union 1800]]
*[[Anglo-Irish Treaty]]
*[[British-Irish Council]]
==External links==
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DA90xB358A/ Archaic England]: an essay in deciphering prehistory from megalithic monuments, earthworks, customs, coins, place-names, and faerie superstitions, by Harold Bayley. Publisher: London, Chapman & Hall ltd., 1919
* [http://www.geograph.org.uk Geograph British Isles] - Creative Commons licenced, geo-located photographs of the British Isles
* [http://www.roman-britain.org Roman-Britain.Org]
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Great_Britain/_Periods/Roman/home.html Roman Britain at LacusCurtius] (includes 3 complete books)
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/.Texts/Ptolemy/2/1*.html The Geography of Claudius Ptolemy: Book II, Chapter 1]
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/4*.html#102 Pliny, Book 4 section 102ff.]
* [http://www.roman-britain.org/pliny.htm Pliny excerpts]
* [http://www.maphist.com/artman/uploads/04520_002.jpg Angliae, Scotiae et Hiberniae, sive Britannicar. insularum descriptio. - Ortelius, 1570]
* [http://www.bergbook.com/htdocs/woda/data/demo/descriptions/14983.htm Britannicarum Insularum Typus - Ortelius 1624]
* [http://www.walkingtree.com/ Mercator's Atlas] Maps of Cornwall & Wales ("Cornewallia & Wallia"), Ireland ("Irlandia"), Scotland ("Scotia") and England ("Anglia") circa 1564.
* [http://www.antiquemaps.co.uk/book/chapter18.html Early maps of the British Isles &ndash; Munster 1550 et al.]
* [http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/L201040/text082.html Excerpt from Reeves edition of ''Life of Saint Columba''.]
* [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bede1.html#8 Excerpt from Bede in Latin]
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-book1.html Excerpt from Bede in English translation]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/nations/ BBC Nations]
*[http://www.macs.hw.ac.uk/britishisles/ The British Isles]
{{Template:Region}}
[[Category:British Isles]]
[[ca:Illes Britàniques]]
[[cs:Britské ostrovy]]
[[de:Britische Inseln]]
[[eo:Britaj Insuloj]]
[[es:Islas Británicas]]
[[fr:Îles britanniques]]
[[ko:영국 제도]]
[[is:Bretlandseyjar]]
[[nl:Britse Eilanden]]
[[ja:ブリテン諸島]]
[[no:De britiske øyene]]
[[nn:Dei britiske øyane]]
[[pl:Wyspy Brytyjskie]]
[[pt:Ilhas Britânicas]]
[[ru:Британские острова]]
[[simple:British Isles]]
[[fi:Britteinsaaret]]
[[sv:Brittiska öarna]]
[[zh:不列顛群島]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Baptist church</title>
<id>3737</id>
<revision>
<id>15902052</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baptist]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Basque language</title>
<id>3738</id>
<revision>
<id>41260363</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T03:16:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Saforrest</username>
<id>33387</id>
</contributor>
<comment>dab, add accent aigu to Na-Dene</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Basque
|nativename=Euskara
|familycolor=Isolate
|states=[[Spain]] and [[France]]
|region=[[Basque Country]]
|speakers=1,033,900 (first language: 700,000)
|family=[[Language isolate]] (see [[#History and classification|below]])
|nation=[[Euskadi]] and [[Navarre]] ([[Spain]])
|agency=[[Euskaltzaindia]]
|iso1=eu|iso2b=baq|iso2t=eus|iso3=eus}}
'''Basque''' (in Basque: ''Euskara'') is the [[language]] spoken by the [[Basque people]] who inhabit the [[Pyrenees]] in North-Central [[Spain]] and the adjoining region of South-Western [[France]]. More specifically, the Basques occupy a Spanish [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous community]] known as the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] (''Euskadi''), which has significant cultural and political autonomy. Basques also make up sizable parts of the population in what is known as the Northern Basque Country in France and the autonomous community of [[Navarre]] in Spain. The Standard Basque name for the language is '''euskara'''; other dialectal forms are ''euskera'', ''eskuara'' and ''üskara''. Although geographically surrounded by [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] languages, Basque is believed to be a [[language isolate]]. It is not an Indo-European language.
==History and classification==
The [[Basque_people|ancestors of Basques]] are among the oldest inhabitants of [[Europe]], and their origins are still unknown, as are the origins of their language itself. Most scholars see Basque as a [[language isolate]].
Latin inscriptions in [[Aquitania]] preserve a number of words with cognates in proto-Basque, for instance the personal name Nescato (''neskato'' means "young girl" in modern Basque). This proposed language is called "Aquitanian" and was presumably spoken before the [[Roman Empire|Roman]]s brought Latin to the western Pyrenees. Roman neglect of this hinterland allowed Aquitanian Basque to survive while the Iberian and [[Tartessian language]]s died out. Basque did come to acquire some Latin vocabulary, both before and after the Latin of the area developed into Gascon (a branch of Occitan) and [[Iberian Romance|Navarrese Romance]].
Given that the border between Basque and Gascon country is more diffuse than that of Basque and Castilian country, it is commonly assumed that the Basques' origin was in Aquitaine and that they migrated southward.
===Theories on connections with other languages===
Many scholars have tried to link Basque to [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]], [[African languages]], [[Languages of the Caucasus|Caucasian languages]] and so on. A connection with the [[Iberian language]] gave some hope, but it is unclear whether similarities are due to genetic relations or [[Sprachbund|mere vicinity]].
The Caucasian hypothesis is widespread in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] as a link between Basques and Georgians; but there is little evidence to support it. (See "[[Caucasian Iberia]]".) One of the few practical consequences is that the former mayor of [[Bilbao]] [[José María Gorordo]] made the city and the Georgian capital [[Tbilisi]] twin cities, and [[Euskal Telebista]] (Basque Television) co-produced a version of [[Don Quixote]] with the [[Georgian Television]].
Some adherents of the theory that Basque and the Caucasian languages are akin go as far as to propose a [[superfamily]], the [[Dene-Caucasian languages]]. This superfamily would also include the North American family of [[Na-Dené languages]].
==Geographic distribution==
The region in which Basque is spoken is smaller than what is known as the [[Basque Country]], or ''Euskal Herria'' in Basque.
Basque toponyms show that Basque was spoken further along the Pyrenees than today.
For example, the name of the [[Aran Valley]] (now a [[Gascon language|Gascon]]-speaking part of [[Catalonia]]) suggests Basque ''haran'', meaning "valley". However, the growing influence of [[Latin language|Latin]] beg |
าร์บอน]]
[[vi:Cacbon]]
[[tr:Karbon]]
[[uk:Вуглець]]
[[wa:Carbone]]
[[zh:碳]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Computer storage</title>
<id>5300</id>
<revision>
<id>39519841</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T01:32:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sifaka</username>
<id>916327</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>revert deletion of sections by 72.138.28.251</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
{{mergefrom|Data storage device}}
'''Computer storage''', or '''computer memory''', refers to the [[computer]] components, devices and [[recording medium|recording media]] that retain [[binary numeral system|binary information]] for some interval of time. In casual language, ''memory'' usually refers to forms of storage which are fast, but lose their contents in a case of power loss, and ''storage'' refers to forms of storage which are slower, but suitable for long-term retention.
In a [[home computer]], storage will usually take the form of [[random access memory]] to store the [[computer program]]s that are currently running and the documents that are being worked on, a [[hard disk]] to store the programs that are not running and the documents that are not worked on at the moment, and a [[removable media]] to store purchased programs and archived documents.
== Purposes of storage ==
The fundamental components of a general-purpose computer are [[arithmetic and logic unit]], [[control unit|control circuitry]], storage space, and input/output devices. If storage was removed, the device we had would be a simple [[calculator]] instead of a computer. The ability to store [[instruction (computer science)|instruction]]s that form a computer program, and the information that the instructions manipulate is what makes [[Von Neumann architecture|stored program architecture]] computers versatile.
[[Digital computer]] represents all information using the [[binary numeral system]]. Text, numbers, pictures, audio, and nearly any other form of information can be converted into a string of [[bit]]s, or binary digits, each of which has a value of 1 or 0. A piece of information can be manipulated by any computer whose storage space is large enough to accommodate the corresponding '''[[data (computing)|data]]''', or ''the binary representation of the piece of information''. For example, a computer with a storage space of eight million bits, or one [[megabyte]], could be used to edit a small [[novel]].
[[Image:Computer_storage_types.png|thumb|right|250px|Various forms of storage, divided according to their distance from the [[central processing unit]].]]Various forms of storage, based on various natural phenomenon, have been invented. So far, no practical universal storage medium exists, and all forms of storage have some drawbacks. Therefore a computer system usually contains several kinds of storage, each with an individual purpose.
=== Primary storage ===
'''[[Primary storage]]''' can be directly accessed by the [[central processing unit]] of the computer. Primary storage typically consists of three kinds of storage:
* '''[[CPU register|Processor register]]s''' are internal to the central processing unit. Registers contain information that the arithmetic and logic unit needs to carry out current instruction.
* '''[[Main storage]]''' contains the programs that are currently being run and the data the programs are operating on. The arithmetic and logic unit can quickly transfer information between a processor register and a location in main storage. In modern computers, [[random access memory]] is used for main storage. When people refer to ''computer memory'', they usually mean main storage.
* '''[[CPU cache|Processor cache]]''' is a special class of storage used by some central processing units. Some of the information in the main storage is duplicated in the processor cache, which is slightly slower but of much higher capacity than processor registers, and significantly faster than main storage.
=== Secondary, tertiary and off-line storage ===
'''[[Secondary storage]]''' requires the computer to use its [[input/output]] channels to access the information, and is used for long-term storage of persistent information. Secondary storage is typically of higher capacity than primary storage, but it is usually also much slower. In modern computers, [[hard disk]]s are usually used for this purpose.
'''[[Tertiary storage]]''' is a system where a [[industrial robot|robotic arm]] will handle off-line storage media (see next item) according to computer's commands. Tertiary storage is used in the realms of [[enterprise storage]] and [[scientific computing]], and is something a typical computer user never sees firsthand.
'''[[Off-line storage]]''' is a system where the storage medium can be easily removed from the storage device. Off-line storage is used for [[data transfer]] and archival purposes. In modern computers, [[floppy disk]]s and [[optical disc]]s are often used for off-line storage.
=== Network storage ===
'''[[Network storage]]''' is any type of computer storage that involves accessing information over a [[computer network]]. Network storage arguably allows to centralize the [[information management]] in an organization, and to reduce the duplication of information. Network storage includes:
* '''[[Network-attached storage]]''' is secondary or tertiary storage attached to a computer which an another computer can access over a [[local-area network]], a private [[wide-area network]], or in the case of [[online file storage]], over the [[Internet]].
* '''[[Network computer]]s''' are computers that do not contain internal secondary storage devices. Intead, documents and other data are stored on a network-attached storage.
<!-- Note: this paragraph requires revision -->Confusingly, these terms are sometimes used differently. '''Primary storage''' can be used to refer to local random-access disk storage, which should properly be called secondary storage. If this type of storage is called primary storage, then the term '''secondary storage''' would refer to offline, sequential-access storage like tape media.
== Characteristics of storage ==
The division to primary, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage is based on '''[[memory hierarchy]]''', or ''distance from the central processing unit''. There are also other ways to characterize various types of storage.
=== Volatility of information ===
* '''[[Volatile memory]]''' requires constant power to maintain the stored information. Volatile memory is typically used only for primary storage.
* '''[[Non-volatile memory]]''' will retain the stored information even if it is not constantly supplied with electric power. It is suitable for long-term storage of information, and therefore used for secondary, tertiary, and off-line storage.
* '''Dynamic memory''' is volatile memory which also requires that stored information is periodically ''[[memory refresh|refreshed]]'', or read and rewritten without modifications.
=== Ability to access non-contiguous information ===
* '''[[Random access]]''' means that any location in storage can be accessed at any moment in the same, usually small, amount of time. This makes [[random access memory]] well suited for primary storage.
* '''[[Sequential access]]''' means that the accessing a piece of information will take a varying amount of time time, depending on which piece of information was accessed last. The device may need to ''seek'' (e.g. to position the [[disk read-and-write head|read/write head]] correctly), or ''cycle'' (e.g. to wait for the correct location in a constantly revolving medium to appear below the read/write head).
=== Ability to change information ===
* '''Read/write storage''', or '''mutable storage''', allows information to be overwritten at any time. A computer without some amount of read/write storage for primary storage purposes would be useless for many tasks. Modern computers typically use read/write storage also for secondary storage.
* '''Read only storage''' retains the information stored at the time of manufacture, and '''write once storage''' ([[WORM]]) allows the information to be written only once at some point after manufacture. These are called '''immutable storage'''. Immutable storage is used for tertiary and off-line storage. Examples include [[CD-R]].
* '''Slow write, fast read storage''' is read/write storage which allows information to be overwritten multiple times, but with the write operation being much slower than the read operation. Examples include [[CD-RW]].
=== Addressability of information ===
* In '''location-addressable storage''', each individually accessible unit of information in storage is selected with its numerical [[memory address]]. In modern computers, location-addressable storage usually limits to primary storage, accessed internally by computer programs, since location-addressability is very efficient, but burdensome for humans.
* In '''[[file system|file system storage]]''', information is divided into ''[[computer file|files]]'' of variable length, and a particular file is selected with [[human-readable]] directory and file names. The underlying device is still location-addressable, but the [[operating system]] of a computer provides the file system [[abstraction (computer science)|abstraction]] to make the operation more understandable. In modern computers, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage use file systems.
* In '''[[content-addressable memory|content-addressable storage]]''', each individually accessible unit of information is selected with a [[hash function|hash value]], or a short identifier with no pertaining to the memory address the information is stored on. Content-addressable storage can be implemented using [[computer software|software]] (computer program) or [[computer hardware|hardware]] (computer device), with hardware being faster but mo |
es can be implemented in each other, meaning that the length of two encodings in different languages will vary by at most the length of the "translation" language - which will end up being negligible for sufficiently large data strings.
It should be noted that these algorithmic measures of complexity tend to assign high values to [[signal noise|random noise]]. However, those studying complex systems would not consider [[randomness]] as complexity.
[[Information entropy]] is also sometimes used in information theory as indicative of complexity.
=== Complexity of problems ===
[[Computational complexity theory]] is the study of the complexity of problems - that is, the difficulty of [[problem solving|solving]] them. Problems can be classified by [[complexity class]] according to the time it takes for an algorithm to solve them as function of the [[problem size]]. For example, the [[travelling salesman problem]] can be solved in time <math>O(n^22^n)</math> (where ''n'' is the size of the network to visit).
== Specific meanings ==
In several scientific fields, "complexity" has a specific meaning :
* In [[computational complexity theory]], the '''time complexity''' of a problem is the number of steps that it takes to solve an instance of the problem as a function of the [[problem size|size of the input]] (usually measured in bits), using the most efficient [[algorithm]]. This allows to classify problems by [[complexity class]] (such as [[P (complexity)|P]], [[NP (complexity)|NP]] ... ) such analysis also exists for space, that is, the [[computer storage|memory]] used by the algorithm.
* In [[algorithmic information theory]], the '''Kolmogorov complexity''' (also called '''descriptive complexity''' or '''algorithmic entropy''') of a [[string (computer science)|string]] is the length of the shortest binary [[computer program|program]] which outputs that string.
*In [[information processing]], complexity is a measure of the total number of [[property|properties]] transmitted by an [[object]] and detected by an [[observer]]. Such a collection of properties is often referred to as a [[state (computer science)|state]].
* In [[physical systems]], complexity is a measure of the [[probability]] of the state vector of the [[system]]. This is often confused with [[entropy (disambiguation)|entropy]], but is a distinct [[analysis]] of the probability of the state of the system, where two distinct states are never conflated and considered equal as in [[statistical mechanics]].
* In [[mathematics]], [[Krohn-Rhodes complexity]] is an important topic in the study of finite [[semigroup|semigroups]] and [[automata theory|automata]].
* In the sense of how complicated a problem is from the perspective of the person trying to solve it, limits of complexity are measured using a term from [[cognitive psychology]], namely the [[hrair limit]].
* [[Specified complexity]] is a term used in [[intelligent design]] theory, first coined by [[William Dembski]].
* [[Irreducible complexity]] is a term used in arguments against the generally accepted theory of biological evolution, being a concept popularized by the biochemist [[Michael Behe]].
* [[Unruly complexity]] denotes situations that do not have clearly defined boundaries, coherent internal dynamics, or simply mediated relations with their external context, as coined by Peter Taylor.
==Quotes about complexity==
* "The complexity of a [[document]] is proportional to the number of fingers that you need to read it." [[DeMarco's Law]] is a paraphrase from [[Tom DeMarco]]. For example, 'The complexity of a [[computer program]] is proportional to the number of fingers you need to read it.'
* "The essence of tyranny is the denial of complexity" [[Jacob Burkhardt]], Swiss historian.
* "Some days I will say yes, and then odd days it seems things say yes to me. And stranger still, there are those times when I become a yes." (And they are moments of the Calm) -Kevin Hart, quoted by Mark Taylor in 'The Moment of Complexity'
==See also==
*[[Chaos theory]]
*[[Complexity theory]] (disambiguation page)
*[[List of important publications in computer science#Complexity| Important publications on computational complexity in computer science]]
*[[Occam's razor]]
*[[Programming Complexity]]
*[[Holism in science]]
*[[Game complexity]]
==Reference==
*Roger Lewin. ''Complexity: Life at the Edge of Chaos''. Macmillan, 1992.
==External links==
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/complex.html Complexity vs. Simplicity]
* [http://www.calresco.org/lucas/quantify.htm Quantifying Complexity Theory] - classification of complex systems
* [http://cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/notebooks/complexity-measures.html Complexity Measures] - an article about the abundance of not-that-useful complexity measures.
*[http://www.visualcomplexity.com VisualComplexity.com] - A visual exploration on mapping complex networks
*[http://euromed.blogs.com Complexity, Knowledge and Learning] - A blog on complexity, knowledge and learning
*[http://www.santafe.edu Santa Fe Institute] - an institute dedicated to complexity research
[[Category:Abstraction]]
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[[pt:Complexidade]]</text>
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<title>Catholic Church</title>
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<title>Catholic church</title>
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<page>
<title>Chastity</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For information on the comic book Chastity, please see [[Chastity (Comic Book)]]. For information on [[erotic sexual denial]] or enforced chastity, see that article or [[Chastity belt]].}}
'''Chastity''', in many [[religion|religious]] and [[culture|cultural]] contexts, is a [[virtue]] concerning the state of purity of the [[mind]] and [[body]]. The term is most often associated with refraining from [[sexual intercourse|sexual intimacy]], especially outside of [[marriage]]. ''Chastity'' is often taken to be synonymous with [[virginity]] or abstention from all sexual activity; however, some consider sexually active married couples to be ''chaste'' if they have relations only with each other.
Due to prohibitions of sexual intimacy outside of marriage in Abrahamic religions deriving from the [[Ten Commandments|Decalogue]] and [[Mosaic law]], the term has become closely associated with premarital [[sexual abstinence]] in [[Western culture]]; however, in the context of religion, the term remains applicable to persons in all states, single or married, clerical or lay, and has implications beyond sexual temperance.
== Classical origin==
The word derives, via the French ''chasteté'', from the Latin ''castitas'', which is the abstract of ''castus'' (the root of ''chaste''), which originally meant a 'pure' state of conformity with the [[Greco-Roman religion]], rather the practical counterpart of a pious (Latin ''pius'') state of mind, in no way limited to the sexual sphere. As the etymological link suggests, [[castigation]] or chastisement is originally the use of (harsh) means to preserve or restore this state as a form of [[catharsis (disambiguation)| catharsis]]. This meaning is preserved fully in the parallel term ''chastening''.
In ancient times the value of chastity was highly debated in both the [[homosexuality|homosexual]] and [[heterosexuality|heterosexual]] spheres. In particular, [[Socrates]] was an advocate of chaste [[pederasty|pederastic relations]] between men and boys, in opposition to the sexually expressed [[pedagogy|pedagogic]] relationships prevalent in his time. [[Plato]], having transmitted many of these teachings, has become the eponym for this type of chastity, known today as [[Platonic love]].
== Abrahamic religions ==
Traditionally, acts of sexual nature are prohibited outside of marriage in Islamic and Judeo-Christian ethical contexts and are considered [[sin|sinful]]. Since offenses against the [[virtue]] of chastity are most often perceived as fornication or [[adultery]], the term has become closely associated with [[sexual abstinence]] in common usage throughout most of the English-speaking world.
Offenses against chastity can include:
* [[Adultery]]
* [[Anal sex]]
* [[Artificial contraception]]
* [[Fornication]]
* [[Lust]]
* [[Masturbation]]
* [[Oral sex]]
* [[Pornography]]
* [[Prostitution]]
* [[Rape]]
* Sexual intimacy during or shortly after [[menstrual cycle|menstruation]]
* Sexual intimacy for a period of time after the [[childbirth|birth of a child]]
although not all ethical systems proscribe all of these. The state of chastity may include not only [[sexual abstinence]] but also:
* [[Coitus]] within the context of [[marriage|marital fidelity]]
* [[Natural family planning]]
Yet, as above, the particular ethical system may not prescribe each of these.
For example, within the scope of [[Christianity|Christian]] ethic, [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] view sex within marriage as chaste, but prohibit the |
es are not uncommon; this often results in the death of the pup whose mother the milk was stolen from, as any single female can only produce enough milk to provision one pup.
Because the pup receives the milk energy from its mother so quickly, its development is typically not complete enough for it to begin foraging on its own as soon as the nursing period is complete. Seals, like all marine mammals, need time to develop the oxygen stores, swimming muscles and neural pathways necessary for effective diving and foraging. Because of this, most phocids undergo a postweaning fast, in which they remain on or near the breeding site and live off of the fat stores they acquired from their mothers until they are ready to begin foraging on their own. These pups typically eat no food and drink no water during the fast, although some polar species have been observed to eat snow. The postweaning fast ranges from 2 weeks in the [[Hooded Seal]] to 9-12 weeks in the [[Northern Elephant Seal]]. The physiological and behavioral adaptations that allow phocid pups to endure these remarkable fasts, which are among the longest for any mammal, remain an area of active study and research.
==Classification==
'''SUBORDER [[Pinniped|PINNIPEDIA]]'''
* Family [[Otariidae]]: fur seals and sea lions
* Family [[Odobenidae]]: Walrus
* '''Family Phocidae'''
** '''Subfamily Monachinae'''
*** '''Tribe Monachini'''
**** ''[[Monachopsis]]'' (extinct)
**** ''[[Pristiphoca]]'' (extinct)
**** ''[[Properiptychus]]'' (extinct)
**** ''[[Messiphoca]]'' (extinct)
**** ''[[Mesotaria]]'' (extinct)
**** ''[[Callophoca]]'' (extinct)
**** ''[[Pliophoca]]'' (extinct)
**** ''[[Pontophoca]]'' (extinct)
**** [[Hawaiian Monk Seal]], ''Monachus schauinslandi''
**** [[Mediterranean Monk Seal]], ''Monachus monachus''
**** [[Caribbean Monk Seal]], ''Monachus tropicalis'' (probably extinct around 1950)
*** '''Tribe Miroungini'''
**** [[Northern Elephant Seal]], ''Mirounga angustirostris''
**** [[Southern Elephant Seal]], ''Mirounga leonina''
*** '''Tribe Lobodontini'''
**** ''[[Monotherium]] wymani'' (extinct)
**** [[Ross Seal]], ''Ommatophoca rossi''
**** [[Crabeater Seal]], ''Lobodon carcinophagus''
**** [[Leopard Seal]], ''Hydrurga leptonyx''
**** [[Weddell Seal]], ''Leptonychotes weddellii''
*** [[Acrophoca|Swan-necked Seal]], ''Acrophoca longirostris'' (extinct)
*** ''[[Piscophoca]] pacifica'' (extinct)
*** ''[[Homiphoca]] capensis'' (extinct)
** '''Subfamily Phocinae'''
*** ''[[Kawas benegasorum]]'' (extinct)
*** ''[[Leptophoca]] lenis'' (extinct)
*** ''[[Preapusa]]'' (extinct)
*** ''[[Cryptophoca]]'' (extinct)
*** [[Bearded Seal]], ''Erignathus barbatus''
*** [[Hooded Seal]], ''Cystophora cristata''
*** '''Tribe Phocini'''
**** [[Common Seal]] or Harbor Seal, ''Phoca vitulina''
**** [[Spotted Seal]] or Larga Seal, ''Phoca largha''
**** [[Ringed Seal]], ''Phoca hispida''
**** [[Nerpa]] or Baikal Seal, ''Phoca sibirica''
**** [[Caspian Seal]]'', Phoca caspica''
**** [[Harp Seal]], ''Phoca groenlandica'' (or ''Pagophilus groenlandicus'')
**** [[Ribbon Seal]], ''Phoca fasciata''
**** ''[[Phocanella]]'' (extinct)
**** ''[[Platyphoca]]'' (extinct)
**** ''[[Gryphoca]]'' (extinct)
**** [[Grey Seal]], ''Halichoerus grypus''
[[Category:Pinnipeds]]
[[bg:Същински тюлени]]
[[ca:Foca]]
[[cs:tuleňovití]]
[[da:Ægte sæler]]
[[de:Hundsrobben]]
[[es:Phocidae]]
[[fr:Phocidae]]
[[he:כלבי ים]]
[[it:Foca]]
[[lt:Tikrieji ruoniai]]
[[nl:Zeehonden]]
[[ja:アザラシ]]
[[no:Hårselfamilien]]
[[nn:Ekte sel]]
[[pt:Foca]]
[[sv:Öronlösa sälar]]</text>
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<title>Espionage</title>
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<comment>/* Noteworthy incidents in the history of espionage */ Sorry, bishop [[Pierre Cauchon]] was no spy. He didn't come in contact with her until after her capture in battle. No espionage was involved.</comment>
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'''Espionage''' is the practice of obtaining [[secrecy|secrets]] ('''spying''') from rivals or enemies for [[military]], [[politics|political]], or [[economics|economic]] advantage.
It can also be defined as stealing information that a country does not want the public to know (classified) from that country. It is usually thought of as part of an institutional effort (i.e., governmental or corporate [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]]). The definition has been restricted to a [[state]] spying on potential or actual enemies, primarily for military purposes, but this has been extended to spying involving [[corporation]]s, known specifically as [[industrial espionage]]. Many [[nation]]s routinely spy on both their enemies, and allies, although they maintain a policy of not making comment on this. ''[[Black's Law Dictionary]]'' ([[1990]]) defines espionage as: "...gathering, transmitting, or losing...information related to the [[national defense]]."
A '''spy''' is an agent employed to obtain such secrets. The term '''intelligence officer''' is also used to describe a member of the [[armed forces]], [[police]] officer or civilian [[intelligence agency]] who specialises in the gathering, fusion and [[analysis]] of [[information]] and intelligence in order to provide advice to their [[government]] or another organisation.
Incidents of espionage are well documented throughout history. The writings of [[Sun-Tzu]] contain information on deception and [[subversion (political)|subversion]]. The [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] had a thoroughly developed system for the acquisition of intelligence, and the [[Hebrews]] used spies as well. More recently, they played a significant part in [[Elizabethan]] [[England]] (see [[Francis Walsingham]]). [[Feudal Japan]] often used [[ninja]] to gather intelligence. Many modern espionage methods were already then well established.[http://www.henrywotton.org.uk/]
The [[Cold War]] involved intense [[Cold War espionage|espionage]] activity between the [[United States|United States of America]] and its allies and the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] and their allies, particularly related to [[nuclear weapon|nuclear weapons]] secrets. Recently, espionage agencies have targeted the [[illegal drug trade]] and those considered to be [[terrorism|terrorist]]s.
For three decades the United States has cultivated its best and brightest to pre-eminence in what is now known as the field of communication and control. As technology has advanced, the means and methods of espionage have advanced from Nixon era wire tapping, through Reagan era programs like echelon and carnivore, to surveillance of all electronic transmissions including cell phone logs, voice mail, email, packet sniffing, trace routing and wireless transmissions.
However, the [[Soviet Union]] has been said to have had fielded the largest and most advanced spy networks during its time, infiltrating some of the most secure places on the planet which has caused many scandals.
Since January of 2000, a long list of agencies have been data mining the world's stock exchanges; this program was formalized on October 26, 2001 in the form of the Patriot Act. This helps track the financing of people who might be laundering money from drug transactions. For a variety of reasons, including changes in technology, it has been necessary to do this without warrants and it is argued that the necessity makes it legal.
In order to gather political and economic information that might be of advantage to the United States, foreign communications are routinely subject to surveillance. In 2002, new programs of satellite surveillance and unmanned low level drones armed with missiles made it possible not only to perform surveillance in real time, but to respond with force that can instantly annihilate any suspected threat anywhere in the world.
==Legality of espionage==
Espionage, when performed by a citizen of the target state, is generally considered to be a form of [[treason]]. In many countries espionage is a crime punishable by death or life imprisonment. For example, espionage is still a capital crime in the [[United States|USA]]; however, the death penalty is rarely used in espionage cases in the U.S. ''See'' [[Espionage Act]].
A person who owed allegiance to the British Crown who spied for a foreign country would face a maximum life sentence for [[treason]] if it could be proved they were aiding Britain's enemies. In fact a foreign spy may also be prosecuted for treason because temporary allegiance to the Crown is owed by everyone voluntarily in Britain except lawful enemy [[combatant]]s.
Also in the UK, spying for proscribed [[terrorism|terrorist]] organisations violates the [[Terrorism Act 2000]]. During the [[World War II|Second World War]] German spies in Britain were executed for [[treachery]], a special offense covering any aid given to the enemy, including by foreign nationals.
==Noteworthy incidents in the history of espionage==
* [[Daniel Defoe]] spies for [[Kingdom of England|England]] in [[Edinburgh]], assisting in the bribery scandal which led to the [[Treaty of Union 1707]]
* [[Benedict Arnold]]'s [[West Point, New York|West Point]] betrayal conspiracy
* Patriot [[Kelsie DeNooy]] leaks British invasion plan to General Washington
* [[1870s]] — infiltration of U.S. labor unions by [[Pinkerton National Detective Agency]]
* [[1940s]] — [[Double Cross System]] British capture of German spy network in Britain in WWII
* [[1940s]] — transfer of U.S. [[nuclear weapons]] secrets in the [[Rosenberg Case]]
* [[1940s]]–[[1950s]] — [[Cambridge Five]] Soviet spy ring in U.K. during and after WWII
* [[1961]] — failure of the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]]
* [[1968]]–[[1985]] — [[Walker spy ring]] sold U.S. [[KL-7]] codes to Sovie |
ifs, an upended royal crown and a broken sceptre. Given these aspects, it was no surprise that the book was the cause of some considerable controversy in Great Britain. The book itself was successful. It made many Americans aware for the first time of their country's economic progress and sold over 40,000 copies, mostly in the U.S.A.
In 1889, Carnegie stirred up yet another hornet's nest when an article entitled [http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/rbannis1/AIH19th/Carnegie.html "Wealth" appeared in the June issue of the ''North American Review''.] After reading it, Gladstone requested its publication in England, and it appeared under a new title, "The Gospel of Wealth" in the ''Pall Mall Gazette''. The article itself was the subject of much discussion. In the article, the author argued that the life of a wealthy industrialist such as Carnegie should comprise two parts. The first part was the gathering and the accumulation of wealth. The second part was to be used for the subsequent distribution of this wealth to benevolent causes.
==Carnegie the industrialist==
===1885-1900: Building an empire of steel===
[[Image:Steelmills.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A steel mill owned by Andrew Carnegie in Pittsburgh, PA]]
But all this was only a preliminary to the success attending his development of the [[iron]] and [[steel]] industries at [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]]. Carnegie made his fortune in the steel industry, controlling the most extensive integrated iron and steel operations ever owned by an individual in the United States. His great innovation was in the cheap and efficient mass production of steel rails for railroad lines.
In the late 1880s, Carnegie Steel was the largest manufacturer of [[pig iron|pig-iron]], [[steel-rails]], and [[coke (fuel)|coke]] in the world, with a capacity to produce approximately 2,000 tons of [[pig metal|pig-metal]] a day. In 1888, he bought the rival [[Homestead Steel Works]], which included an extensive plant served by tributary coal and iron fields, a railway 425 miles long, and a line of lake steamships. An agglutination of the assets of he and his associates occurred in 1892 with the launching of the [[Carnegie Steel Company]].
By 1889, the U.S. output of steel exceeded that of the U.K., and Andrew Carnegie owned a large part of it. Carnegie had risen to the heights he had by being a supreme organiser and judge of men. He had the talent of being able to surround himself with able and effective men, while, at the same time, retaining the control and the direction of the enterprise. Carnegie's businesses were uniquely organised in that his belief in "democratic principles" found itself interpreted into these businesses. This did not mean that Carnegie was not in absolute control, however. The businesses incorporated Carnegie's own version of profit sharing. Carnegie wanted his employees to have a stake in the business, for he knew that they would work best if they saw that their own self interest was allied to the firm's. As a result, men who had started as labourers in some cases, eventually ended up millionaires. Carnegie also often encouraged unfriendly competition between two of his workers and goaded them into outdoing one another. These rivalries became so important to some of the workers that they wouldn't talk to each other for years. Carnegie maintained control by incorporating his enterprises not as joint stock corporations but as limited partnerships with Carnegie as majority and controlling partner. Not a cent of stock was publicly sold. If a member died or retired, his stock was purchased at book value by the company. Similarly, the other partners could vote to call in stock from those partners who underperformed, forcing them to resign.
The internal organisation of his businesses was not the only reason for Andrew Carnegie's rise to pre-eminence. Carnegie introduced the concept of counter-cyclical investment. Carnegie's competitors, along with virtually every other business enterprise across the globe, pursued the conventional strategy of procyclical investment; manufacturers reinvesting profits in new capital in times of boom and high demand. Because demand is high, investment in bull markets is is more expensive. In response, Carnegie developed and implemented a secret tactic. He shifted the purchasing cycle of his companies to slump times, when business was depressed and prices low. Carnegie observed that business cycles alternated between "boom" and "bust". He saw that if he capitalized during a slump, his costs would be lower and profits higher. During the years 1893 to 1897, there was a great slump in economic demand, and so Carnegie made his move. At rock bottom prices, he upgraded his entire operation with the latest and most cost effective steel mills. When demand picked up, prosperity followed for the Homestead & Edgar Thompson Steel Works, the Carnegie, Phipps & Company, and Carnegie Bros. & Company as a flood tide of profit. In 1900, the profits of Carnegie Bros. & Company alone stood at $40,000,000 with $25,000,000 being Carnegie's share.
Carnegie's empire grew to include the [[J. Edgar Thomson Steel Works]], (named for [[John Edgar Thomson]], Carnegie's former boss and president of the Pennsylvania Railroad), Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works, the Lucy Furnaces, the Union Iron Mills, the Union Mill (Wilson, Walker & County), the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the Scotia ore mines. Also, Carnegie, through Keystone, supplied the steel for and owned shares in the landmark [[Eads Bridge]] project across the Mississippi River in [[St. Louis, Missouri]] (completed 1874). This project was an important proof-of-concept for steel technology which marked the opening of a new steel market.
===1901: The formation of U.S. Steel===
Carnegie was now 65 and was wanting to retire. He reformed his enterprises into conventional joint stock corporations as preparation to this end. Carnegie, however, wanted a good price for his stock. There was a man who was to give him his price. This man was [[John Pierpont Morgan]].
Morgan was a banker and perhaps America's most important financial deal maker. He had observed how efficiency produced profit. He envisioned an integrated steel industry that would cut costs, lower prices to consumers and raise wages to workers. To this end he needed to buy out Carnegie and several other major producers, and integrate them all into one company by eliminating duplication and waste. Negotiations were concluded on 2nd March with the formation of the United States Steel Corporation. It was the first corporation in the world with a market capitalization in excess of $1,000,000,000.
The buyout, which was negotiated in secret by [[Charles M. Schwab]] (no relation to [[Charles R. Schwab]], the brokerage house founder), was the largest such industrial takeover in [[United States]] history to date. The holdings were incorporated in the [[United States Steel Corporation]], a trust organized by [[J. P. Morgan]], and Carnegie himself retired from business. His steel enterprises were bought out at a figure equivalent to twelve times their annual earnings; $480 million [http://www.carnegie.org/sub/kids/legacy.html], which at the time was the largest ever personal commercial transaction. Andrew Carnegie's share of this amounted to a massive $225,639,000 which was paid to Carnegie in the form of 5%, 50 year gold bonds. The letter agreeing to sell his share was signed on the 26th February, 1901. On the 2nd March 1901, the circular formally filing the organisation and capitalisation (at $1,400,000,000 - 4% of U.S national wealth at the time) of the United States Steel Corporation actually completed the contract. The bonds were to be delivered within two weeks to the Hudson Trust Company of Hoboken, New Jersey in trust to Robert A. Franks, Carnegie's business secretary. There, a special vault was built to house the physical bulk of nearly $230,000,000 worth of bonds. It was said that "....Carnegie never wanted to see or touch these bonds that represented the fruition of his business career. It was as if he feared that if he looked upon them they might vanish like the gossamer gold of the leprechaun. Let them lie safe in a vault in New Jersey, safe from the New York tax assessors, until he was ready to dispose of them...."
As they signed the papers of sale, Carnegie remarked, "Well, Pierpont, I am now handing the burden over to you." In return, Andrew Carnegie became one of the world's wealthiest men. Retirement was a stage in life that many men dreaded. Carnegie was not one of them. He was looking forward to retirement, for it was his intention to follow a new course from then on.
Besides steel, Carnegie's companies were involved in other areas of the railroad industry. His company, [[Pittsburgh Locomotive and Car Works]], was noted for its building of large [[steam locomotive]]s at the turn of the 20th century. His associates and partners included [[Henry Clay Frick]] and [[F. T. F. Lovejoy]].
He owned 18 English [[newspapers]], which he controlled in the interests of [[radicalism]].
At the height of his career, he was the second richest person in the world, behind only [[John D. Rockefeller]].
==1901-1915: Carnegie the philanthropist==
Andrew Carnegie spent his last years as a [[philanthropist]]. From 1901 forward, public attention was turned from the shrewd business capacity which had enabled Carnegie to accumulate such a fortune, to the public-spirited way in which he devoted himself to utilizing it on philanthropic objects. His views on social subjects and the responsibilities which great wealth involved were already known from ''Triumphant Democracy'' (1886), and from his "[[Gospel of Wealth]]" (1900). He acquired [[Skibo Castle]], in [[Sutherland]], [[Scotla |
licia|Vindelicans]] border with these <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Noricum|Noricans]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>, all distributed in numerous cities. The Gauls maintain that the Raetians descend from the Etruscans, pushed back under the leadership of Raetus." Based on this and linguistic data it's clear that Etruscan ought to be related to [[Raetia|Raetic]]. However, beyond these known facts, there is ample debate and hearsay that follows.
Debate continues on concerning the relationship of [[Eteocypriot]], [[Eteocretan]] and [[Minoan]] to this family. The Amathus bilingual written in Eteocretan shows important structural similarities bearing what appears to be a genitive in '''-O-SE''' (Etruscan <-as> and Lemnian <-š>) as well as a 3ps animate pronoun '''A-NA''' (Etruscan <an> 'he, she'). The meager text however makes it difficult to prove a kinship for certain. Time will tell whether these connections bear fruit.
Some modern scholars have claimed that Etruscan as part of a larger Tyrrhenian family is distantly related to [[Indo-European]], citing similarities in grammatical endings and vocabulary. By extension, because Indo-European is a classified as a [[Nostratic]] language, they therefore presume that Etruscan and its family are also Nostratic. However, scholars differ on whether Nostratic is a valid grouping. Nothing yet can be ascertained considering the paucity of texts in general other than those of Etruscan. For now, many remain conservative and consider Tyrrhenian to be isolate. A connection with IE is not proven by a long-shot.
==Other less accepted theories==
The interest in Etruscan antiquities and the mysterious Etruscan language found its modern origin in a book by a Dominican monk, [[Annio da Viterbo]], "il Pastura" (1432&mdash;1502), the [[cabalist]] and [[orientalist]] who guided [[Pinturicchio]]'s allegorical frescoes for [[Pope Alexander VI]]'s Vatican apartments. In [[1498]] Annio published his antiquarian miscellany titled ''Antiquitatum variarum '' (in 17 volumes) where he put together a fantastic theory in which both the Hebrew and Etruscan languages were said to originate from a single source, the "Aramaic" spoken by Noah and his descendants, founders of Etruscan Viterbo. Annio also started to excavate Etruscan tombs, unearthing sarcophagi and inscriptions, and made a bold try at deciphering the Etruscan language.
It is long ago been disproven that Etruscan can possibly be on its own a member of the Indo-European branch of [[Anatolian languages]] because of the discovery of the [[Lemnian language]], which backs up Herodotus' ancient account of an eastern origin of the Etruscans and their language. Furthermore, Etruscan is very different from IE languages, having a [[Grammatical person|first person]] [[Grammatical number|singular]] [[Nominative case|nominative]] '''mi''' while Indo-European languages point to '''*h<font size="-2"><sub>1</sub></font>egô''' instead. It also lacks any pronominal endings, a thematic class of verbs in *-e-, [[ablaut]] between *e and *o in the verb stem, and other clear features that are specifically those of the IE family. While there is debate about Etruscan and the Tyrrhenian family being ''related to'' IE, the debate about Etruscan ''being'' an IE language is very much dead now.
The obscurity of Etruscan's roots continue to attract further investigation. A recent (2003) study by linguist [[Mario Alinei]] has proposed the idea that Etruscan may have been an archaic form of [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]. While this theory is considered controversial, and is not widely accepted in academic circles, nevertheless there are a number of similarities between Etruscan and Hungarian that provide the basis for Alinei's theory: similarities between certain words (magistrature names), agglutination, vowel harmony, construction of personal pronouns when used together with prepositions, etc. Alinei's theory is consistent with archaeological findings that established a connection between the [[Villanovan]] culture and the [[Urnfield]] culture that originated in the Carpathian basin (as concluded by archaeologist Hugh Hencken). However, critics accuse Alinei's work as being the product of [[Mass lexical comparison|mass comparison]], a methodology that is not accepted by comparative linguists.
==Geographic distribution==
Etruscan was spoken in north-west and west-central [[Italy]], in the region that even now bears their name: [[Tuscany]], and in the [[Po]] valley to the north of Etruria.
=== Related Languages ===
One language certain to be very closely related to Etruscan is the language once spoken on the island of [[Lemnos]] before the Athenian invasion ([[6th century BC]]), aptly named Lemnian. A stone tablet called the [[Lemnos stele]] was found there written with a script related to Etruscan and is dated to approximately 600 BCE. We know that the inhabitants actually spoke this language due to the plethora of ceramic pieces with inscriptions written with this same alphabet. However, we do not know when or how speakers of this dialect arrived on this island.
It is probable that Rhaetic, a language attested in Northern Italy, is also related to Etruscan, sharing with it some common features such as grammatical inflections and vocabulary, although the number of inscriptions in this language are few.
The most notable inscription in a language known to linguists as [[Eteocypriot]] is the Amathus Bilingual, so named because it bears a partially translated version of the Eteocypriot text in the ancient Attic dialect of Greek. Like Lemnian, it bears similarities in vocabulary and grammar to Etruscan and is likely to be part of the same family.
Tentatively, some note a possible relationship with Minoan (aka [[Eteocretan]]) to Etruscan, written in the [[Linear A]] script. While this may seem too bold for some, this view would be perfectly in line with Herodotus' account in Histories that Etruscans originate from Asia Minor, suggesting that an entire family of now extinct languages may have once existed in the area extending from Greece and neighbouring islands to Western Turkey. Indeed, this in turn may remind us of the theory proposed by [[Robert S. P. Beekes|Beekes]] of a pre-Greek substrate present in some Greek words of otherwise obscure "non-Indo-European" origin.
In all, the old view that Etruscan is an ''isolated'' language can be put to rest. In modern times we see that Etruscan is part of a larger linguistic family that is now known as Tyrrhenian, based on the Greek name for the Etruscans, "Tyrrhenoi".
==Sounds==
The reconstructed [[phonemes]] of Etruscan ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] encoding):
===Vowels===
*{{IPA|/a/}} letter: A
*{{IPA|/e/}} letter: E
*{{IPA|/i/}} letter: I
*{{IPA|/u/}} letter: V
*{{IPA|/w/}} letter: F
===Consonants===
*{{IPA|/h/}} letter: H
*{{IPA|/p/}} letter: P
*{{IPA|/p&#688;/}} letter: Φ
*{{IPA|/t/}} letter: T
*{{IPA|/t&#688;/}} letter: Θ
*{{IPA|/k/}} letter: K
*{{IPA|/k&#688;/}} letter: Χ (''[[chi (letter)|chi]]'', not ''[[x]]'')
*{{IPA|/ts/}} letter: Z
*{{IPA|/s/}} letter: S
*{{IPA|/&#643;/}} letter: [[san (letter)|{{Unicode|Ϻ}}]]
*{{IPA|/f/}} letter: 8, FH
*{{IPA|/l/}} letter: L
*{{IPA|/r/}} letter: R
*{{IPA|/m/}} letter: M
*{{IPA|/n/}} letter: N
Rix (see Refs.) postulates several syllabic consonants, namely {{IPA|/l, r, m, n/}} and palatal {{IPA|/l, r, n/}} as well as a labiovelar spirant but this is not the view shared by most Etruscanologists. Some scholars (see Cristofani et al.) also view the aspirates as palatal rather than aspirated.
==Texts==
Helmut Rix, ''Etruskische Texte'', works as a kind of incomplete thesaurus, a main key to studying the Etruscan language.
First of all Rix and his collaborators present the only two unified (though fragmentary) texts available in Etruscan: the ''[[Liber Linteus]]'' used for mummy wrappings (now at [[Zagreb, Croatia]]) and the ''[[Tabula Capuana]]'' (the inscribed tablet from [[Capua]]).
All the rest of the recovered inscriptions follow, grouped according to the localities in which they were found: [[Campania]], [[Latium]], [[Falerii]] and [[Ager Faliscus]], [[Veii]], [[Caere]], [[Tarquinia]], [[Ager Tarquinensis]], [[Ager Hortanus]], and finally, outside Italy, in [[Gallia Narbonensis]], in [[Corsica]] and in [[North Africa]]. (Two inscriptions from [[Sardinia]], published in 1935, escaped Rix.)
Less precisely identified inscriptions follow, and finally inscriptions on small movable objects: bronze mirrors and ''cistae'' (boxes), on gems and coins.
Archeological inscriptions in Etruscan include inner walls and doors of tombs, engraved stele, [[Ossuary|ossuaries]], mirrors and [[votive offering|votive gifts]].
Inscriptions are highly abbreviated and often casually formed, so that many individual letters are in doubt among the specialists.
The [[Pyrgi Tablets]] are a short bilingual text in Etruscan and [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]].
Some surviving Etruscan inscriptions appear on thin gold sheets. A "book" of gold sheets bound with gold rings went on display in May 2003 at the National History Museum in [[Sofia, Bulgaria]]. It consists of six bound sheets of 24-[[carat (purity)|carat]] (100%) gold, with low-reliefs of a horseman, a [[mermaid]], a harp and soldiers, with text. It was claimed to have been discovered about 1940 in a tomb uncovered during digging for a canal along the [[Strouma]] river in south-western Bulgaria, kept secretly and anonymously donated by its 87-year-old owner, living in Macedonia. Museum director Bojidar Dimitrov confirmed its authenticity with Bulgarians and experts in London. Bulgarian linguist Vladimir Georgiev is working on a translation of the text.
About 30 single golden sheets with Etruscan inscriptions are known, according to the Sofia museum's curator of archaeology, Elka Penkova. |
time, the Epimenides paradox has been commonly employed in discussions of logic.
== Sources ==
All of the works of Epimenides are now lost, and known only through quotations by other authors. The quotation from the ''Cretica'' of Epimenides is given by R.N. Longenecker, "Acts of the Apostles", in volume 9 of ''The Expositor's Bible Commentary'', Frank E. Gaebelein, editor (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Corporation, 1976-1984), page 476. Longenecker in turn cites M.D. Gibson, ''Horae Semiticae X'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1913), page 40, "in [[Syriac]]". Longenecker states the following in a footnote:
: ''The Syr. version of the quatrain comes to us from the Syr. church father [[Isho'dad of Mero]] (probably based on the work of [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]]), which J.R. Harris translated back into Gr. in Exp ["The Expositor"] 7 (1907), p 336.''
An oblique reference to Epimenides in the context of logic appears in "The Logical Calculus" by W. E. Johnson, ''Mind'' (New Series), volume 1, number 2 (April, 1892), pages 235-250. Johnson writes in a footnote,
:''Compare, for example, such occasions for fallacy as are supplied by "Epimenides is a liar" or "That surface is red," which may be resolved into "All or some statements of Epimenides are false," "All or some of the surface is red."''
The Epimenides paradox appears explicitly in "Mathematical Logic as Based on the Theory of Types", by [[Bertrand Russell]], in the ''American Journal of Mathematics'', volume 30, number 3 (July, 1908), pages 222-262, which opens with the following:
:''The oldest contradiction of the kind in question is the Epimenides. Epimenides the Cretan said that all Cretans were liars, and all other statements made by Cretans were certainly lies. Was this a lie?''
In that article, Russell uses the Epimenides paradox as the point of departure for discussions of other problems, including the [[Burali-Forti paradox]] and the paradox now called [[Russell's paradox]]. Since Russell, the Epimenides paradox has been referenced repeatedly in logic. Typical of these references is ''[[Gödel, Escher, Bach]]'' by [[Douglas Hofstadter]] (Basic Books, 1980), which accords the paradox a prominent place in a discussion of self-reference.
[[Category:Paradoxes]]
[[de:Paradoxon des Epimenides]]
[[es:Paradoja de Epiménides]]
[[hu:Epimenidész-paradoxon]]
[[nl:Paradox van Epimenides]]
[[pl:Paradoks Epimenidesa]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Engines of creation</title>
<id>9639</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2006-02-10T06:39:44Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* Fixing double redirect */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Engines of Creation (book)]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Engine</title>
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<id>41541705</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T01:14:22Z</timestamp>
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<ip>67.181.81.135</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">An '''engine''' is something that produces some effect from a given input. The origin of [[engineering]] was the working of engines. There is an overlap in [[English language|English]] between two meanings of the word "engineer": 'those who operate engines' and 'those who design and construct new items'.
==Usage of the term==
In original usage, an engine was any sort of mechanical device. The term "gin" in [[cotton gin]] is a short form of this usage. Practically every device from the [[industrial revolution]] was referred to as an engine, and this is where the [[steam engine]] gained its name. This form of the term has recently come into use once again in [[computer science]], where terms like [[search engine]], "3-D graphics [[game engine|rendering engine]]" and "[[speech synthesis|text-to-speech engine]]" are common. The earliest mechanical computing device was called the [[difference engine]]; Military devices such as [[catapult]]s are referred to as ''[[siege engine]]s''.
In more recent usage, the term is typically used to describe devices that perform [[mechanical work]], follow-ons to the original steam engine. In most cases the work is supplied by exerting a [[torque]], which is used to operate other machinery, generate [[electricity]], [[pump]] water or [[gas compressor|compress gas]].
In the context of propulsion systems, an air breathing engine is one that uses atmospheric air to oxidise the fuel carried, rather than carrying an oxidiser, as in a [[rocket]]. Theoretically, this should result in a better [[specific impulse]] than for [[rocket engine]]s.
==History of engines==
===Antiquity===
While [[Chemistry |chemical]] and [[Electricity |electrical]] engines of enormous power dominate the modern world, engines themselves are not new. Engines using [[Manual labour |human power]], [[Animal powered transport |animal power]], [[Hydropower |water power]], [[wind power]] and even [[Steam engine |steam power]] date back to antiquity.
Human power was focused by the use of simple engines, such as the [[capstan]], [[windlass]] or [[treadmill]], and with ropes, [[pulley]]s, and [[block and tackle]] arrangements, this power was transmitted and multiplied. These were commonly used in [[Crane (machine)|cranes]] and aboard [[ship]]s during [[Ancient Greece]], and in [[Mining |mine]]s, [[Pump |water pump]]s and [[siege engines]] in [[Ancient Rome]]. Early [[Galley |oared warships]] used human power augmented by the simple engine of the [[lever]] -- the [[oar]] itself. The writers of those times, including [[Vitruvius]], [[Frontinus]] and [[Pliny the Elder]], treat these engines as commonplace, so their invention may be far more ancient.
By the [[1st century]] AD, various breeds of [[cattle]] and [[horse]]s were used in [[Mill (grinding)|mill]]s, using machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times.
According to [[Strabo]], a water powered mill was built in Kaberia in the [[Parthian Empire |kingdom of Mithridates]] in the [[1st century BC]]. Use of [[water wheel]]s in mills slowly spread through [[Europe]] over the next few centuries. Some were quite complex, with [[aqueduct]]s, [[dam]]s, and [[sluice]]s to maintain and channel the water, and systems of [[gears]], or toothed-wheels made of wood with metal, used to regulate the speed of rotation. In a poem by [[Ausonius]] in the [[4th century]], he mentions a stone-cutting saw powered by water.
[[Hero of Alexandria]] demonstrated both wind and steam powered machines in the 1st century, although it's not known if these were put to any practical use until much later.
===Modern===
[[England|English]] inventor Sir [[Samuel Morland]] allegedly used [[gunpowder]] to drive water pumps in the [[17th century]]. For more conventional, reciprocating [[internal combustion engine]]s the fundamental theory for [[two-stroke engine]]s was established by [[Sadi Carnot]], [[France]], 1824, whilst the American [[Samuel Morey]] received a [[patent]] on [[April 1]], [[1826]].
Automotive production down the ages has required a wide range of energy-conversion systems. These include electric, [[steam engine|steam]], [[solar power|solar]], [[turbine]], rotary, and different types of piston-type internal combustion engines. The gasoline internal combustion engine, operating on a four-stroke Otto cycle, has traditionally been the most successful for automobiles, while diesel engines are widely used for trucks and buses. However, in the twenty first century the diesel engine has been increasing in popularity with automobile owners. This is partially due to the improvement of engine control systems (computers) and forced induction (turbos and superchargers), giving modern diesel engines the same power characteristics as gasoline engines. This is especially evident with the popularity of diesel engines in Europe.
The internal combustion engine was originally selected for the automobile due to its flexibility over a wide range of speeds. Also, the power developed for a given weight engine was reasonable; it could be produced by economical mass-production methods; and it used a readily available, moderately priced fuel--gasoline.
In today’s world, there has been a growing emphasis on the pollution producing features of automotive power systems. This has created new interest in alternate power sources and internal-combustion engine refinements that were not economically feasible in prior years. Although a few limited-production battery-powered electric vehicles have appeared from time to time, they have not proved to be competitive owing to costs and operating characteristics. However, the gasoline engine, with its new emission-control devices to improve emission performance, has not yet been challenged significantly.
The first half of the twentieth century saw a trend to increase engine power, particularly in the American models. Design changes incorporated all known methods of raising engine capacity, including increasing the pressure in the cylinders to improve efficiency, increasing the size of the engine, and increasing the speed at which power is generated. The higher forces and pressures created by these changes created engine vibration and size problems that led to stiffer, more compact engines with V and opposed cylinder layouts replacing longer straight-line arrangements. In passenger cars, [[V8|V-8]] layouts were adopted for all piston displacements greater than 250 [[cubic inch]]es (4 litres).
Smaller cars brought about a return a to smaller engines, the [[V4|four]]- and [[v6|six]]-cylinder designs rated as low as 80 horsepower (60 kW), compared with the standard-size V-8 of large cylinder bore and relatively short piston stroke with power ratings in the rang |
uryn Hill]]'', [[1998]]) and [[Macy Gray]] (''[[On How Life Is]]'', [[1999]]) began its popularization soon after. Around and immediately after the turn of the decade, a second wave of female artists moved neo soul into the mainstream, especially [[Alicia Keys]]' ''[[Songs in A Minor]]'' ([[2001]]), as well as [[india.arie]]'s ''[[Acoustic Soul]]'' ([[2001]]) and [[Jill Scott]]'s ''[[Who Is Jill Scott?: Words and Sounds, Vol. 1]]'' ([[2000]]). Critical reviews were mixed, with many listeners feeling that neo soul had lost its pioneering edge for middle-class shallow idealism.
==The end of the 1990s==
In spite of neo soul gaining mainstream acceptance, gangsta hip hop artists like [[Jay-Z]] (''[[Reasonable Doubt]]'', [[1996]]) and [[DMX_(rapper)|DMX]] (''[[And Then There Was X|...And Then There Was X]]'', [[1999]]) still dominated the charts as the end of the millennium neared. Critics and listeners regarded alternative hip hop as going through a lull, as even mainstays like A Tribe Called Quest (''[[Beats, Rhymes and Life]]'', [[1996]]) released lackluster albums.
[[Image:MosDef&TalibKweliBlackStar.jpg|left]]
Many observers feel that [[Dr. Octagon]]'s seminal [[1996]] album ''[[Dr. Octagonecologyst]]'' revitalized hip hop's underground; [[Company Flow]]'s ''[[Funcrusher Plus]]'' is another album cited as redefining the genre. [[Del tha Funkee Homosapien]] paired with Kool Keith's (aka Dr. Octagon) producer [[Dan the Automator]] to make [[Deltron 3030]], who pushed the boundaries of hip hop to other universes and times. Alternative hip hop soon began to lose its recent stylings for a return to [[Native Tongues]]-style [[old school hip hop|old school]] with [[hardcore hip hop|hardcore]] and [[jazz]] elements mixed in. The hip hop band, [[The Roots]] were among the leaders of the second alternative hip hop wave, dropping several critically acclaimed albums in the mid to late 90s, including ''Do You Want More?!!!??!'' ([[1995]]), ''Illadelph Halflife'' ([[1996]]), and the breakthrough, ''Things Fall Apart'' in [[1999]]. On the West Coast, [[Ozomatli]]'s self titled 1998 release fused latin and funky beats with hip hop in a groundbreaking way.
[[Mos Def]] and [[Talib Kweli]]'s [[1998]] ''[[Black Star (album)|Black Star]]'' also contributed greatly to this evolution, with its return to Native Tongues-style old school hip hop. Mos Def's solo debut, ''[[Black on Both Sides]]'' ([[1999]]), quickly established him as a darling of alternative media for its incendiary politics, while Kweli's solo career took some time to get off the ground; as he didn't appear until [[2000]]'s ''[[Reflection Eternal]]'', with partner [[Hi-Tek]]. [[Pharaoh Monch]]'s ''[[Internal Affairs]]'', his 1999 solo debut after leaving [[Organized Konfusion]], also added more gangsta and hardcore hip hop elements to the mix.
Following in the footsteps of the Freestyle Fellowship were [[Jurassic 5]] (''[[Jurassic 5 EP]]'') and [[Dilated Peoples]] (''[[The Platform]]''), who continued mixing [[funk]] and [[hip hop music]] to critical acclaim and popular rejection. The Bay area gave birth to highly experimental artists like [[Blackalicious]] with ''[[Nia]]'', as well as [[Lyrics Born]], [[Lateef the Truth Speaker]], and the [[Hieroglyphics]] Crew.
This period was also the high point for Hip Hop's DJ scene. The [[Invisibl Skratch Piklz]] and artists such as [[Cut Chemist]], [[Dan the Automator]], [[DJ Shadow]], [[Mix Master Mike]], [[DJ Qbert]], and many others put a lasting stamp on [[turntablism]] and its emerging genre.
==Post-2000 alternative hip hop==
After the turn of the millennium, as the United States (still by far the world capital of hip hop) found itself confronted by the [[War on Terrorism|War on Terror]], lyrics grew increasingly anti-mainstream, with some advocating radical actions on the behalf of various [[anarchism|anarchist]] and [[socialism|socialist]] ideas. The cover for the album ''[[Party Music]]'' ([[2001]]) by the openly marxist band, [[The Coup]], proved controversial after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] due to its depiction of the duo holding a stick of dynamite and a detonator, ready to blow up the [[World Trade Center]] (though the band itself had been well known in alternative hip hop circles since the early 1990s); other groups like [[Dead Prez|Dead Prez]] (''[[Let's Get Free]]'', [[2000]]), [[Mr. Lif]] with his EP, ''[[Emergency Rations]]'', and [[Emcee Lynx]] (''[[The Black Dog EP]]'', 2003, and ''[[The UnAmerican LP]]'', 2004) similarly raised controversy with militant and confrontational lyrics.
In [[2001]] and [[2002]], several popular albums were released. These included:
*[[AWOL One & Daddy Kev]] - ''[[Souldoubt]]''
*[[Blackalicious]] - ''[[Blazing Arrow]]''
*[[Black Eyed Peas]] - ''[[Elephunk]]''
*[[Busdriver]] - ''[[Temporary Forever]]''
*[[Common (rapper)|Common]] - ''[[Electric Circus]]''.
*[[The Coup]] - ''[[Steal This Double Album]]''
*[[Daddy Kev]] - ''[[Lost Angels EP]]''
*[[Hi-Tek]] - ''[[Hi-Teknology]]''
*[[Jurassic 5]] - ''[[Power in Numbers]]''
*[[The Roots]] - ''[[Phrenology (album)|Phrenology]]''
*[[Talib Kweli]] - ''[[Quality (album)|Quality]]''
*[[Aesop Rock]] - [[Labor Days]]
Though most of these bands could be considered "political hip hop" for their lyrical focus, the early 2000s also saw futuristic or apocalyptic rappers like [[Cannibal Ox]], [[El-P]], [[Del Tha Funkee Homosapien]] and [[Aesop Rock]].
In the new millennium a new "sub-genre" arose from the West Coast, masterminded by underground rap mogul/producer [[Daddy Kev]] (famed for his work with the Freestyle Fellowship). With artists like [[Busdriver]], [[AWOL One]], [[The Shape Shifters]], [[cLOUDDEAD]], and [[Themselves]], the music became known as [[avant-hop]], prog-hop or [[indie-hop]]. These MCs and DJs blend their rhymes and beats with an [[electronica]], [[post-rock]] or [[Indie rock|indie]] crossover. Additionally, [[Trip Hop]] artists such as the Bay Area's [[Zion I]] continue to collaborate with their forebears to keep hip hop conscious.
==See also==
*[[List of alternative hip hop musicians]]
*[[:Category:Alternative hip hop musicians]]
==Sound samples==
*[[Image:OodlesofOs.ogg|De La Soul's "Oodles of Os"]] from [[1991]]'s ''[[De La Soul Is Dead]]'' - note: the legendary trio are one of the early legends of alternative hip hop, here demonstrating their bizarre, almost stream-of-consciousness humor
*[[Image:What?.ogg|A Tribe Called Quest's "What?"]] from [[1991]]'s ''[[The Low End Theory]]'' - note: humor and obscure cultural references are characteristic of this crew; this song features off-kilter references to [[Alex Haley]]&rsquo;s ''[[Roots]]'', [[Duke Ellington]], [[Superman]], [[Ed Norton]], [[Doug E. Fresh]] and [[Ralph Kramden]], as well as calls for black unity
*[[Image:LeBien,LeMal.ogg|Guru's "Le Bien, Le Mal" with MC Solaar]] from [[1993]]'s ''[[Jazzmatazz, Vol. 1]]'' - note: begins with French language rapping from [[MC Solaar]], probably the first non-American rapper to gain any fame in the US here combined with Guru's trademark, light jazzy accompaniment
*[[Image:Mathematics.ogg|Mos Def's "Mathematics"]] from [[1999]]'s ''[[Black on Both Sides]]'' - note: known for his righteous lyrics and scathing commentary, this song (with a lyrical theme focusing on mathematical operations and figures) comments on mandatory minimum sentencing, poverty, unemployment and the minimum wage, privacy, violence, jail and the police
*[[Image:AlphabetAerobics.ogg|Blackalicious' "Alphabet Aerobics"]] from [[1999]]'s ''[[A2G]]'' [[EP (format)|EP]] - note: this crew has gained underground fame for their unique brand of quirky rapping, here demonstrated by a song which alliterates through the alphabet
*[[Image:Still.ogg|Common's "1-9-9-9" with Talib Kweli and Sadat X]] from [[1999]]'s ''[[Soundbombing, Vol. 2]]'' - note: collaboration between some of the most influential performers of alternative hip hop
*[[Image:PoliceState.ogg|Dead Prez's "Police State"]] from [[2000]]'s ''[[Let's Get Free]]'' - note: beginning with a sampled speech before moving on to Dead Prez&rsquo;s militant socio-political lyrics, also characteristically criticizing pop hip hop (specifically [[Master P]])
*[[Image:JurassFinishFirst.ogg|Jurassic 5's "Jurass Finish First"]] from [[2000]]'s ''[[Quality Control]]'' - note: lyrical inventiveness is the hallmark of Jurassic 5, shown in this song by the frequent use of alliteration, rhyme, word-plays and assonance; these literary techniques are so widespread that the song is difficult to decipher in spite of relatively clear diction and medium tempo
*[[Image:TradeMoney.ogg|Dilated People's "Trade Money"]] from [[2001]]'s ''[[Expansion Team]]'' - note: humor and social criticism are paired in this duo, here focusing on the latter with a commentary on materialism
{{hiphop}}
[[Category:Hip hop genres]] [[Category:Alternative music]]
[[Category:Underground]]
[[de:Alternative Hip Hop]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>`Abdu'l-Bahá</title>
<id>3019</id>
<revision>
<id>41795250</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:26:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gene Nygaard</username>
<id>146986</id>
</contributor>
<comment>indexing</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abdulbaha.jpg|thumb|`Abdu'l-Bahá]]
{{Bahá'í}}
'''Sir `Abdu’l-Bahá Abbas Effendi''' ([[May 23]], [[1844]] - [[November 28]], [[1921]]) commonly known as '''`Abdu’l-Bahá''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]/[[Persian language|Persian]]:عبد البهاء), was the son of [[Bahá'u'lláh]], the Prophet-Founder of the [[Bahá'í Faith]]. Bahá'u'lláh, in his [[Tablets_of_Baha%27u%27llah#Kit.C3.A1b-i-.27Ahd_.28Book_of_the_Covenant.29|Will and Testament]] appointed `Abdu'l-Bahá as his successor and he became the leader of the Bahá'í Faith in 1892. Almost a |
r's Dictionary|Webster's 1913 dictionary]] have been assimilated into the database), a substantial amount of factual content has been submitted to Everything2.
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#{{note|pipe}}[http://www.everything2.org/index.pl?node_id=1340039 Pipe links and three-dimensionality@Everything2.com]
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[[sv:Everything2]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electricity generation</title>
<id>9540</id>
<revision>
<id>41089841</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T23:59:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>152.163.100.133</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Electricity generation */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Itaipu2.jpg|right|250px|thumb|[[Itaipu]] Dam is a [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] generating station]]
'''Electricity generation''' is the first process in the delivery of [[electricity]] to consumers. The other three processes are [[electric power transmission]], [[electricity distribution]] and [[electricity retailing]].
==Electricity generation==
[[Image:US390721.png|thumb|left|200px|[[Nikola Tesla]]'s generation system using [[alternating current|AC]] circuits to transport [[energy]] across great distances.]]
The importance of dependable electricity generation, [[electric power transmission|transmission]] and [[electricity distribution | distribution]] was revealed when it became apparent that [[electricity]] was useful for providing heat, light and power for human activities. Decentralised power generation became possible when it was recognised that [[alternating current]] electric power lines can transport [[electricity]] at low costs across great distances by taking advantage of the ability to transform the [[voltage]] using power [[transformer]]s.
Electricity has been generated for the purpose of powering human technologies for at least 120 years from various sources of [[potential energy]]. The first power plants were run on wood, while today we rely mainly on [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[coal]], [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] and [[nuclear reactor|nuclear]] power and a small amount from [[hydrogen]], [[solar power | solar energy]], [[Tidal power|tidal harnesses]], [[wind generator]]s, and [[geothermal]] sources.
==Electricity demand==
The demand for electricity can be met in two different ways. The primary method thus far has been for public or private utilities to construct large scale centralized projects to generate and transmit the electricity required to fuel growing economies. Many of these projects have unpleasant environmental effects such as air or radiation pollution and the flooding of large areas of land.
Increasingly, [[distributed generation]] is seen as an alternate way to supply the electrical demand close to the users. Smaller, distributed projects can:
*Protect from blackouts caused by the closure of de-centralised power plants or [[transmission lines]] for maintenance, market manipulation or emergency shut downs or detox
*Reduce pollution
*Allow smaller players to enter the energy markets
==Methods of generating electricity==
===Methods for transforming other power into electrical power===
Rotating [[turbines]] attached to [[electrical generator]]s produce most commercially available electricity. Turbines may be driven by using steam, water, wind or other fluids as an intermediate energy carrier. The most common usage is by steam in [[fossil fuel power plant]]s or [[nuclear power plant]]s, and by water in [[hydroelectric dams]]. Alternately, turbines can be driven directly by the [[combustion]] of natural gas. Co-generation gas turbines (COGT) offer efficiencies of up to 60%, as they generate power both directly by combustion of natural gas and also use residual heat to generate electricity from steam. Small mobile electricity generators are often powered by [[diesel engine]]s, especially on ships, remote building sites or for emergency standby.
[[Fuel cells]] produce electricity using a variety of chemicals and are seen by some people to be the most likely source of power in the long term, especially if [[hydrogen]] can be used as the feedstock. However, hydrogen is usually only an [[energy carrier]], and must be formed by some other power source.
===Primary energy sources used in electrical power generation===
[[Image:fuel_shares_world_electricity_generation.png|thumb|World Electricity Generation]]
[[Image:elecgen_graph1.gif|thumb|right|U.S. Electricity Generation]]
The world relies mainly on [[coal]] and [[natural gas]] for power. The high capital requirements of nuclear power and the fear of [[nuclear reactor|its dangers]] have prevented the ordering of new nuclear power plants in North America since the [[1970s]].
[[Steam turbine]]s can be powered using steam produced from [[geothermal]] sources, [[solar power | solar energy]], or [[Nuclear reactor]]s, which use the energy created by the fission of radioactive plutonium or uranium to generate heat. Nuclear power plants often use a primary and secondary steam circuit to add an additional layer of protection between the location of the nuclear fuel and the generator room.
[[Hydroelectric]] power plants use water flowing directly through the turbines to power the generators. Tidal harnesses use the force of the moon on bodies of water to spin a turbine. [[Wind turbine]]s use wind to turn turbines that are hooked up to a generator. [[Pumped-storage hydroelectricity]] is used to [[grid energy storage|level demands]] on the [[power grid]].
Power generation by [[thermonuclear fusion]] has been suggested as a possible way of generating electricity; currently a number of technical obstacles and environmental concerns stand in the way, but if realized fusion might provide a relatively clean and safe source of electrical power. The construction of a large experimental reactor ([[ITER]]) is expected to commence in 2005-2006.
===Improving efficiency===
Co-generation ([[combined heat and power]]) plants combine the generation of electricity and heat using [[solar power]], [[fossil fuels]], [[syngas]], [[biomass]], or [[biogas]] as a fuel source. These plants can achieve efficiencies as high as 80%, but many of these plants being built today only expect to achieve stated maximum 55% efficiency. Heated steam turns a turbine, and then excess heat is distributed for space heating in buildings, industrial processes or green house heating. Whole communities can benefit from heat distributed through a [[Cogeneration|district heating scheme]].
The ability to achieve [[tri-generation]] using [[fossil fuels]] or [[solar power|solar energy]] to generate heat, electricity and evaporative cooling exists. These combined power plants have the best energy conversion ratio after hydroelectric plants. Small [[photovoltaic]] arrays, [[windmills]] and [[bicycles]] hooked up to a turbine can all be used to generate mobile electricity.
==Ownership and reform of electricity generation market==
Electricity reform around the world is de-coupling electricity generation from the regulated [[monopoly]] elements of [[electric power transmission|transmission]] and [[electricity distribution]]; see [[electricity market]]. The generation and distribution of electricity is managed by either privately owned or state owned [[public utility|public utilities]]. In recent years some governments have started to [[privatization|privatise]] or [[corporatization|corporatise]] these utilities as part of a move to introduce market forces to [[monopolies]]. The [[New Zealand Electricity Market]] is a typical example.
==See also==
*[[Electricity]]
*[[Future energy development]]
*[[Renewable energy]]
*[[Environmental concerns with electricity generation]]
{{Sustainability and energy development group}}
[[Category:Electric power]]
[[Category:Electrical engineering]]
[[Category:Energy conversion]]
[[de:Stromerzeugung]]
[[es:Generación de electricidad]]
[[fr:Génération d'électricité]]
[[it:Produzione di energia elettrica]]
[[ja:発電]]
[[sv:Produktion av elektricitet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Design of experiments</title>
<id>9541</id>
<revision>
<id>34451787</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-09T04:01:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68 |
mething different'-in a way realities-what the imbeciles call 'impressionism' is a term which is as poorly used as possible, particularly by art critics."
[[Rudolph Réti]] points out these features of Debussy's music which "established a new concept of tonality in European music":
# Frequent use of long [[pedal point]]s
# Glittering passages and webs of [[figuration]]s which distract from occasional absence of tonality
# Frequent use of [[parallel chord]]s which are "in essence not harmonies at all, but rather 'chordal melodies', enriched unisons."
# Bitonality, or at least [[bitonal]] chords
# "Use of the [[whole-tone scale]]."
# Unprepared [[Modulation (music)|modulations]], "without any harmonic bridge."
He concludes that Debussy's achievement was the synthesis of monophonic based "melodic tonality" with harmonies, albeit different from those of "harmonic tonality". (Reti, 1958)
==Debussy in film and pop culture==
Debussy's music has been used countless times in film and television.
*''Clair de lune'' is especially popular. It appears to be a great favorite with the character Uncle Bally in [[George Stevens]]' ''[[Giant (film)|Giant]]''. The piece was used in ''[[The Right Stuff]]'', [[Philip Kaufman]]'s film about a NASA space program. Recently it featured in the movie ''[[Man on Fire]]'' and in the final minutes of ''[[Ocean's Eleven (2001 film)|Ocean's Eleven]]'', accompanying the fountains in front of the [[Bellagio (Hotel and Casino)|Bellagio]] hotel and casino. The British horror movie ''[[Dog Soldiers]]'' used ''Clair de lune'' for comical effect; in the film the light of the moon ('clair de lune' in French) is to be feared because it will awaken [[werewolf|werewolves]]. Terrance McNally's play ''Frankie and Johnny in the Clair de Lune'' features two characters who make love, then enter a long, heated argument, which is only resolved after hearing ''Clair de lune'', referred to as the "most beautiful song in the world." The tune is also played by the music box, given to [[Heinrich Harrer]] by the [[Dalai Lama]] in the film ''[[Seven Years in Tibet]]''.
*''La Cathédrale Engloutie'' appears in an electronic version in [[John Carpenter]]'s film ''[[Escape from New York]]'' as the hero glides into a futuristic Manhattan.
*''Arabesque No 1'' can be heard during the dinner scene in ''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' by [[Alfred Hitchcock]]. The theme song to Jack Horkheimer's syndicated weekly TV series, ''Star Gazer'' (previously called ''Star Hustler'') is a synthesized version of the same piece, performed by [[Isao Tomita]]. It is also listened to and frequently referenced by the characters in [[Shunji Iwai]]'s film ''[[All About Lily Chou-Chou]]''.
*The slow movement of the piece ''En blanc et noir'' for two pianos is performed by the characters of [[Anna Mouglalis]] and [[Jacques Dutronc]] in [[Claude Chabrol]]'s ''Merci pour le chocolat'' (2000).
*The band called [[Art of Noise]] released an album in 1999 titled ''[[The Seduction of Claude Debussy]]'', a montage of his music with a contemporary twist.
*[[Dan Brown]]'s novel ''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'' repeats the unsupported rumor that Debussy was a grand master of the [[Priory_of_Sion#Alleged_Grand_Masters_of_the_Priory_of_Sion|Priory of Sion]], a secret society that is said to have existed since the middle ages.
==Notable compositions==
=== Piano ===
*''Deux Arabesques'' (1888)
*''Petite Suite'' (1889)
*''[[Suite bergamasque]]'' (1890)
:including ''[[Clair de Lune]]''
*''Rêverie'' (1890)
*''Pour Le Piano'' (1899)
*''Estampes'' (1903)
*''[[L'Isle Joyeuse]]'' (1904)
*''Images'', sets one and two (1905, 1907)
:a ''very'' notable piece being ''[[Reflets dans l'eau]]''
*''[[Children's Corner|Children's Corner Suite]]'' (1909)
*''[[Preludes (Debussy)|Préludes]]'', book one and two (1910-1913)
: including ''La Fille aux Cheveux de Lin'', ''La Cathédrale Engloutie'' and ''Canope''
*''Etudes'', book one and two (1915)
=== Two pianos or piano, four hands ===
*''Six épigraphes antiques'' for piano, four hands (1914, from the music for ''Chansons de Bilitis'')
*''En blanc et noir'' for two pianos (1915)
=== Opera ===
* ''[[Pelléas et Mélisande (opera)|Pelléas et Mélisande]]'' (1893-1902)
=== Cantatas ===
*''L'enfant prodigue'' for soprano, baritone, and tenor and orchestra (1884)
*''La demoiselle élue'' for two soloists, female choir, and orchestra (1887-1888, text by [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]])
*''Ode à la France'' for soprano, mixed choir, and orchestra (1916-1917, completion by Marius Francois Gaillard)
=== Orchestral ===
*''Le printemps'' for choir of four voices and orchestra (1884)
*''[[Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun]]'', ([[tone poem]]) for orchestra (1894)
*''Nocturnes'' for orchestra and chorus (1899)
*''Dances Sacrée et Profane'' for harp and orchestra (1903)
*Music for ''Le roi Lear'', two pieces for orchestra (1904)
*''[[La Mer (Debussy)|La Mer]]'', esquisses symphoniques (Symphonic Sketches) for orchestra (1905)
*''Images'' for orchestra (1905-1911)
*''Le martyre de St. Sébastien'', fragments symphoniques for orchestra (from the music for the play by [[d'Annunzio]], 1911)
*''Khamma'', ballet (1911-1912, orchestrated by [[Charles Koechlin]])
*''Jeux'', ballet (1913)
*''La boîte à joujoux'', ballet (1913, orchestrated by [[André Caplet]])
=== Music for solo instruments and orchestra ===
*''Fantaisie'' for piano and orchestra (1889-1890)
*Rhapsody for clarinet and orchestra (or piano) (1909-1910)
*''Petite pièce'' for clarinet and orchestra (or piano) (1910)
*Rhapsody for alto saxophone and orchestra (or piano) (1901-1911)
=== Chamber music ===
*''String Quartet in G minor'' (1893)
* Music for ''Chansons de Bilitis'' for two flutes, two harps, and celesta (1901, text by [[Pierre Louys]])
*''[[Syrinx (Debussy)|Syrinx]]'' for flute (1913)
*''Sonata for cello and piano'' (1915)
*''Sonata for flute, viola and harp'' (1915)
*''Sonata for violin and piano'' (1917)
''See also'': [[List of compositions by Claude Debussy]]
==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Debussy - Dieu qu il la fait bon regarder.ogg|title=Dieu qu'il la fait bon regarder|description=("God, how good it is to watch her")|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Debussy - Quant jai ouy le tambourin.ogg|title=Quant j'ai ouy le tambourin|description=("When I heard the tambourine")|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Debussy - Mazurka.ogg|title=Mazurka|description=("[[Mazurka]]")|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
==References and links==
===References===
*Reti, Rudolph (1958). ''Tonality, Atonality, Pantonality: A study of some trends in twentieth century music.'' Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313204780.
*Jean Barraqué, Debussy (Solfèges), Editions du Seuil, 1977. ISBN 2020002426
===Further Reading===
Simon Trezise (Editor), The Cambridge Companion to Debussy, Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0521654785
Jane Fulcher (Editor), Debussy and His World (The Bard Music Festival), Princeton University Press, 2001. ISBN 0691090424
===External links===
{{Wikiquote}}
*[http://www.imslp.org/index.php?title=Category:Debussy%2C_Claude IMSLP] - International Music Score Library Project's Debussy page.
*[http://www.carolinaclassical.com/articles/debussy.html Claude Debussy and Impressionism]
*{{musicbrainz artist|id=be50643c-0377-4968-b48c-47e06b2e2a3b|name=Claude Debussy}}
*[http://homepage.mac.com/stevepur/music/debussy.html Steve's Debussy Page]
[[Category:1862 births|Debussy, Claude]]
[[Category:1918 deaths|Debussy, Claude]]
[[Category:20th century classical composers|Debussy, Claude]]
[[Category:French composers|Debussy, Claude]]
[[Category:Modernist composers|Debussy, Claude]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Debussy, Claude]]
[[bg:Клод Дебюси]]
[[da:Claude Debussy]]
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[[he:קלוד דביסי]]
[[nl:Claude Debussy]]
[[ja:クロード・ドビュッシー]]
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[[uk:Дебюссі Клод]]
[[zh:克劳德·德彪西]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charles Baxter</title>
<id>6261</id>
<revision>
<id>39672925</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T01:59:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>198.144.45.119</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles Baxter''' is an [[United States|American]] author born in [[1947]] in
[[Minneapolis, Minnesota|Minneapolis]]. Baxter is known for blending a quiet, sometimes absurdist wit with a profound sympathy for his far-from-perfect characters; he has also attracted attention for the consummate brilliance of his prose. He is likewise celebrated as an engaging and even deeply moving performer of his own work in public readings. His writing has been compared to that of [[Anton Chekhov]], [[William Trevor]], [[Alice Munro]], and [[John Cheever]].
Baxter graduated from Macalester College in [[Saint Paul, Minnesota|Saint Paul]] and in 1974 received a Ph.D. in English from the [[University at Buffalo]] with a thesis on [[Djuna Barnes]]. He began his teaching career at Wayne State University in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]]. He then moved to the [[University of Michigan]], where for many years he directed the [http://www.lsa.umich.edu/english/grad/mfa/ Creative Writing MFA] program. He is renowned for his generosity towards and patient encouragement of his students, many of whom have gone on to forge successful writing careers; they include [[Michael Byers]], [[Jardine Libaire]], [[Porter Shreve]], [[John Fulton]], [[Marc Nesbitt]] and [[Elwood Reid]]. He currently teaches at the [[University of Minnesota]].
==[[The novel|Novels]]==
* |
nological civilization is not impossible, there has as yet been no unambiguous evidence of intelligent extraterrestrial life. While many believe this is a vindication of the idea that we are alone in our galaxy (if not the universe) many theoreticians have proposed alternate explanations as to ''why'' the skies appear to be silent.
=== They do not exist... ===
The simplest explanation is that we ''are'' alone in the galaxy. Several theories along these lines have been proposed, explaining why intelligent life might be either very rare, or very short lived.
==== ...and they never did. ====
Those who believe that extraterrestrial intelligent life does not exist in our galaxy argue that the conditions needed for [[life]] &mdash; or at least complex life &mdash; to evolve are rare or even unique to Earth (see the [[#Con: The 'Rare Earth' hypothesis|Rare Earth hypothesis]] above). While some have pointed out that complex life may evolve through other mechanisms than those found specifically here on Earth, the fact that in the extremely long history of life on the Earth only one species has developed a civilization to the point of being capable of space flight and radio technology seems to lead more credence to the idea of technologically advanced civilization being a rare commodity in the universe.
While the lack of evidence for extraterrestrial intelligence is not conclusive proof of their non-existence, those that believe that we are alone have yet to be disproven.
==== ...because an inhospitable universe destroys complex intelligent life. ====
Another possibility is that life can and does arise elsewhere, but events such as [[ice age]]s, [[impact event]]s, or other catastrophic planetary events prevent complex life forms from evolving. Even if conditions for the development of life are not unique to Earth, it may be that on most worlds such events routinely and periodically destroy such life. Even if a "benign local environment" might exist on some world long enough for intelligent life to finally arise despite the odds, such life might also be exterminated by cosmological events (such as [[supernova]]e, or [[gamma ray burster|gamma ray bursts]]) suddenly sterilizing previously hospitable regions of space. [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/gamma/]
==== ...because it is the nature of intelligent life to destroy itself. ====
Technological civilizations may usually or invariably destroy '''themselves''' (via [[nuclear war]], [[biological warfare]], [[grey goo|nanotechnological catastrophe]], or in a [[Malthusian catastrophe]] after destroying their planet's [[ecosphere]]) before or shortly after developing radio or space flight technology. This general theme is explored in ''[[The Mote in God's Eye]]'' by [[Larry Niven]] and [[Jerry Pournelle]], which has as its central premise a civilization that overtaxes its resource base and cyclically self-destructs, but which tries to preserve its culture from one cycle to the next.
It would be anthropocentric to suggest that humanity is immune from such a fate. Therefore it is possible that we ourselves will not exist long enough to encounter alien life. Indeed, there are probabilistic arguments which suggest that our end may occur sooner rather than later. See [[Doomsday argument]].
Such argument might be extended to intelligent life elsewhere. Intelligent life on Earth evolved as a result of the competition for scarce resources. The evolutionary psychology that developed during this struggle has left its mark on our characters, and left human beings subject to involuntary, instinctual drives to consume resources and to breed. It can be argued that this is the very aspect of our nature that lead us to develop a technological society &mdash; that our technology is a result of our quest to access more resources (and utilize them effectively) in order that we can continue to breed. If this is true, then it seems likely that either intelligent life on other planets has evolved subject to similar constraints &mdash; and they have developed a technology &mdash; or they are not subject to such constraints and do not have the drive to develop a ''technological'' civilization. In the former case their long term viability &mdash; and ours &mdash; may be in doubt. In the latter case, they may be difficult or impossible to detect. Either way, it seems possible that the evolutionary character of life would make contact between intelligence less likely than originally thought.
==== ...because it is the nature of intelligent life to destroy others. ====
[[Science fiction]] authors have proposed another possible explanation — that someone, or something, is destroying intelligent life in the universe as fast as it is created. This theme can be found in novels such as [[Frederik Pohl]]'s [[Heechee]] novels, Fred Saberhagen's ''[[Berserker]]'' novels, [[Alastair Reynolds]]'s Revelation Space novels, [[Greg Bear]]'s novel ''[[The Forge of God]]'', [[Ian Douglas]]'s series ''[[The Heritage Trilogy]]'', [[K.A. Applegate]]'s novel The Ellimist Chronicles and [[Jack McDevitt]]'s novel ''[[The Engines of God]]''. This explanation is also featured in [[Marvel Comics]] with the being [[Galactus]].
If several intelligent species arise in a galaxy it is possible that some may view other civilizations as a threat, or as competition. It is possible that they may pursue a policy of violent extermination of other civilizations. Nor is this an unrealistic goal. The concept of self replicating spacecraft need not be limited to exploration or communication, but can be applied to aggression (see [[Von Neumann probe|Berserker probe]]). Even if such a civilization were to fall, or go extinct, such machines could outlive their creators, destroying civilizations far into the future.
Fortunately, there are good arguments for such an approach ''not'' being used by any civilization in our galaxy for several billion years (see [[Von Neumann probe|Berserker probe]]). However, this does not rule out all ''other'' aggressive acts and methods by an aggressive civilization. It may be that intelligent life tends to suppress ''other'' intelligent life, and as such, becomes a rare commodity in a galaxy.
==== ...because God created humans alone. ====
Although not generally considered a [[falsifiability|testable scientific explanation]], this theory is one of the lines of thought contributing to the [[#Con: The 'Rare Earth' hypothesis|''Rare Earth Hypothesis'']]. Several schools of thought within the Judeo-Christian and Islamic religions maintain that that man is uniquely special in the universe, and thus could be viewed as the only ''physical'' creatures in the universe with intelligence (many religions do include non-physical created intelligences, for example angels, jinn and demons).
===They ''do'' exist, but...===
It may be that technological extraterrestrial civilizations may exist, but that we do not or '''can not''' communicate with them because of technical constraints, or because their nature is simply too ''alien'' for perception of them ''as'' intelligent life, or for meaningful communication. Perhaps our belief that we can communicate with an alien civilization is unrealistic anthropormorphization of alien life.
==== ... we cannot communicate for the technical reason that ... ====
===== ... we are too far apart in space to communicate. =====
It may be that technologically capable alien civilizations exist, but are rare enough such that there is a high probablility that they are simply too far apart for meaningful two-way communication. If two civilizations are separated by several thousand light years, it is very possible that one, or the other, or both cultures may become extinct before meaningful dialog can be established. We may be able to ''detect'' their existence, but we may find it impossible to ''communicate'' with them. This problem might be ameliorated somewhat if contact/communication is made through a [[Bracewell probe]]. In this case at least ''one'' partner in the exchange is guaranteed to obtain meaningful information.
===== ... we are too far apart in time to communicate. =====
If we look at the length of time that intelligent life has existed on Earth &mdash; or is likely to exist &mdash; the "window of opportunity" for detection or contact might be quite small. Intelligent civilizations may arise, and fall, periodically thoughout our galaxy, but this may be such a rare event that the odds of two or more such civilizations existing ''at the same time'' may be low. There may have ''been'' intelligent civilizations in our galaxy before us, and there may ''be'' intelligent civilizations after our race is extinct, but it is possible that we are the only intelligent civilization in existence ''now''. (The term "now" is somewhat complicated by the finite speed of light and the nature of space-time under relativity: see [[Relativity of simultaneity]]. Assuming that an extraterrestrial intelligence is not able to travel to our vicinity at faster-than-light speeds, in order to detect an intelligence 1,000 lightyears distant, that intelligence will need to have been active 1,000 years ago.)
There is a very slight possibility that we may detect "archeological evidence" of past civilizations through deep space observations &mdash; especially if they left behind large artifacts such as [[Dyson sphere]]s &mdash; but this seems less likely than detecting the output of a thriving civilization.
===== ... it is too expensive to spread physically throughout the galaxy. =====
Many assumptions on the ability of an alien culture to colonize other stars, let alone come near the solar system, are based on the idea that interstellar travel is technologically feasible. While our current understanding of physics rules out the possibility of [[faster than light]] travel, we believe that there are no '''major''' theoretical |
cus from politics to the arts, producing any number of literary luminaries like [[Fujiwara no Shunzei]] or [[Fujiwara no Teika]]
===Descent===
Only forty years after Michinaga's death, his Fujiwara heirs were not able to prevent the ascension of [[Emperor Go-Sanjo|Emperor Go-Sanjō]] (reigned 1068-1073), the first emperor since [[Emperor Go-Uda]] whose mother was not a Fujiwara. The system of government by retired emperor (''daijō tennō'') ([[cloistered rule]]) beginning from 1087 further weakened the Fujiwara's control over the Imperial Court.
The Fujiwara-dominated Heian period approached its end along disturbances of 12th century. The dynastic struggle known as the Hōgen Disturbance (''Hōgen no Ran'') led to the Taira emerging as the most powerful clan in 1156. During the Heiji Disturbance (''Heiji no Ran'') in 1160 the Taira defeated the coalition of Fujiwara and Minamoto forces. This defeat marked the end of the Fujiwara's dominance.
==Fission==
During the [[13th century]], the Fujiwara northern house was split into the [[five regent houses]] (五摂家): [[Konoe family|Konoe]], [[Takatsukasa family|Takatsukasa]], [[Kujo family|Kujō]], [[Nijo family|Nijō]] and [[Ichijo family|Ichijō]]. They had a "monopoly" to the offices of ''sesshō'' and ''kampaku'', and served in turn. The political power had shifted away from the court nobility in Kyoto to the new warrior class in the countryside. However, Fujiwara princes remained close advisors, regents and ministers to the emperors for centuries, until the 20th century. As such, they had certain political power and much influence, as often the rival warriors and later bakufus sought their alliance.
Until the marriage of the Crown Prince [[Hirohito]] (posthumously Emperor Shōwa) to Princess [[Kuni Nagako]] (Kuninomiya Nagako Nyoō) in January 1924, the principal consorts of emperors and crown princes had always been recruited from one of the [[Sekke]] Fujiwara. Imperial princesses were often married to Fujiwara lords - throughout a millennium at least. As recently as Emperor Shōwa's third daughter, the late former Princess Takanomiya (Kazoku), and Prince Mikasa's elder daughter, the former Princess Yasuko, married into Takatsukasa and Konoe families, respectively.
==Regents==
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2"
|-
! Regent !! Lived !! Sessho !! Kampaku
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Yoshifusa|Yoshifusa]] || [[804]]&ndash;[[872]] || [[866]]&ndash;[[872]] || &mdash;
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Mototsune|Mototsune]] || [[836]]&ndash;[[891]] || [[876]]&ndash;[[884]] || ([[887]]&ndash;[[890]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Tadahira|Tadahira]] || [[880]]&ndash;[[949]] || [[930]]&ndash;[[941]] || [[941]]&ndash;[[949]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Saneyori|Saneyori]] || [[900]]&ndash;[[970]] || [[969]]&ndash;[[970]] || [[967]]&ndash;[[969]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Koretada|Koretada]] || [[924]]&ndash;[[972]] || [[970]]&ndash;[[972]] || &mdash;
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Kanemichi|Kanemichi]] || [[925]]&ndash;[[977]] || &mdash; || [[973]]&ndash;[[977]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Yoritada|Yoritada]] || [[924]]&ndash;[[989]] || &mdash; || [[977]]&ndash;[[986]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Kaneie|Kaneie]] || [[929]]&ndash;[[990]] || [[986]]&ndash;[[990]] || [[990]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Michitaka|Michitaka]] || [[953]]&ndash;[[995]] || [[990]]&ndash;[[993]] || [[993]]&ndash;[[995]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Michikane|Michikane]] || [[961]]&ndash;[[995]] || &mdash; || [[995]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Michinaga|Michinaga]] || [[966]]&ndash;[[1028]] || [[1016]]&ndash;[[1017]] || &mdash;
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Yorimichi|Yorimichi]] || [[990]]&ndash;[[1074]] || [[1017]]&ndash;[[1020]] || [[1020]]&ndash;[[1068]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Norimichi|Norimichi]] || [[997]]&ndash;[[1075]] || &mdash; || [[1068]]&ndash;[[1075]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Morozane|Morozane]] || [[1042]]&ndash;[[1101]] || [[1087]]&ndash;[[1091]] || [[1075]]&ndash;[[1087]], [[1091]]&ndash;[[1094]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Moromichi|Moromichi]] || [[1062]]&ndash;[[1099]] || &mdash; || [[1094]]&ndash;[[1099]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Tadazane|Tadazane]] || [[1078]]&ndash;[[1162]] || [[1107]]&ndash;[[1114]] || [[1106]]&ndash;[[1107]], [[1114]]&ndash;[[1121]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Tadamichi|Tadamichi]] || [[1097]]&ndash;[[1164]] || [[1123]]&ndash;[[1129]], [[1142]]&ndash;[[1151]] || [[1121]]&ndash;[[1123]], [[1129]]&ndash;[[1142]], [[1151]]&ndash;[[1158]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Motozane|Motozane]] || [[1143]]&ndash;[[1166]] || [[1165]]&ndash;[[1166]] || [[1158]]&ndash;[[1165]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Motofusa|Motofusa]] || [[1144]]&ndash;[[1230]] || [[1166]]&ndash;[[1173]] || [[1173]]&ndash;[[1179]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Moroie|Moroie]] || [[1172]]&ndash;[[1238]] || [[1184]] || &mdash;
|}
==See also==
*[[Sessho]]
*[[Shogun]]
*[[Bakufu]]
*[[Puppet emperor]]
*[[Cloistered rule]]
*[[History of Japan]]
*[[Lists of incumbents]]
[[Category:Japanese clans]]
[[Category:Fujiwara family|*]]
[[ar:فوجي-وارا]]
[[de:Fujiwara]]
[[fr:Fujiwara]]
[[nl:Fujiwara (familie)]]
[[ja:藤原氏]]
[[fi:Fujiwara]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fifth amendment rights of witness</title>
<id>11540</id>
<revision>
<id>15909284</id>
<timestamp>2004-06-28T15:07:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gtrmp</username>
<id>38984</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect, redundant</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>File system</title>
<id>11541</id>
<revision>
<id>42120855</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:28:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>203.131.170.117</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''See [[Filing system]] for this term as it is used in [[libraries]] and offices''
In [[computing]], a '''file system''' is a method for storing and organizing [[computer file]]s and the data they contain to make it easy to find and access them. File systems may use a [[storage device]] such as a [[hard disk]] or [[CD-ROM]] and involve maintaining the physical location of the files, or they may be virtual and exist only as an access method for virtual data or for data over a network (e.g. [[Network File System|NFS]]).
More formally, a file system is a set of [[abstract data type]]s that are implemented for the storage, hierarchical organization, manipulation, navigation, access, and retrieval of [[data]].
== Aspects of file systems ==
The most familiar file systems make use of an underlying [[data storage device]] that offers access to an array of fixed-size [[block size (data storage and transmission)|block]]s, sometimes called ''sectors'', generally 512 bytes each. The file system software is responsible for organizing these sectors into [[computer file|files]] and [[directory|directories]], and keeping track of which sectors belong to which file and which are not being used.
However, file systems need not make use of a storage device at all. A file system can be used to organize and represent access to any data, whether it be stored or dynamically generated (eg, from a network connection).
Whether the file system has an underlying storage device or not, file systems typically have directories which associate '''file names''' with files, usually by connecting the file name to an index into a [[file allocation table]] of some sort, such as the [[File Allocation Table|FAT]] in an [[MS-DOS]] file system, or an [[inode]] in a [[Unix-like]] filesystem. Directory structures may be flat, or allow hierarchies where directories may contain subdirectories. In some file systems, file names are structured, with special syntax for [[filename extension]]s and version numbers. In others, file names are simple strings, and per-file [[Metadata (computing)|metadata]] is stored elsewhere.
The hierarchical filesystem was an early research interest of [[Dennis Ritchie]] of Unix fame; previous implementations were restricted to only a few levels, notably the IBM implementations, even of their early databases like IMS. After the success of Unix, Ritchie extended the filesystem concept to every object in his later operating system developments, such as [[Plan 9 (operating system)|Plan 9]].
Traditional filesystems offer facilities to create, move and delete both files and directories. They lack facilities to create additional links to a directory (hard [[link]]s in [[Unix]]), rename parent links (".." in [[Unix-like]] OS), and create bidirectional links to files.
Traditional filesystems also offer facilities to truncate, append to, create, move, delete and in-place modify files. They do not offer facilities to [[prepend]] to or truncate from the beginning of a file, let alone arbitrary insertion into or deletion from a file. The operations provided are highly asymmetric and lack the generality to be useful in unexpected contexts. For example, interprocess [[Pipeline (Unix)|pipes]] in [[Unix]] have to be implemented outside of the filesystem because it does not offer [[truncation]] from the beginning of files.
Secure access to basic file system operations can be based on a scheme of [[access control list]]s or [[capability (computers)|capabilities]]. Research has shown access control lists to be difficult to secure properly, which is why research operating systems tend to use capabilities. Commercial file systems still use access control lists. ''see: [[secure computing]]''
==Types of file systems==
File system types can be classified into disk file systems, network file systems and special purpose file systems.
=== Disk file systems ===
A ''disk file system'' is a file system designed for the storage of [[c |
;|33.5% of GDP (2004)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|External debt
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$36.3bn (2004)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Revenues
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$39.3bn (2004)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Expenses
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$45.8bn (2004)
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Economic aid
|colspan="2" valign="top"|$2.4bn from EU funds (2004-06)
|}
Of the emerging democracies in [[Central Europe|central]] and [[eastern Europe]], the [[Czech Republic]] has one of the most developed [[industrialized economy|industrialized economies]]. Its strong industrial tradition dates to the [[19th century]], when [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]] were the economic heartland of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]]. Today, this heritage is both an [[asset]] and a [[liability]]. The Czech Republic has a well-educated population and a well-developed [[infrastructure]], but its industrial plants and much of its industrial equipment are obsolete.
According to the [[Stalin]]ist development policy of planned interdependence, all the economies of the [[socialist]] countries were linked tightly with that of the [[Soviet Union]]. With the disintegration of the communist economic alliance in [[1991]], Czech manufacturers lost their traditional markets among former communist countries to the east, some of which still owe the former Czechia sizable debts.
The Czech Republic is reducing its dependence on highly polluting low-grade [[brown coal]] as a source of energy. [[Nuclear energy]] presently provides about 30 % of total power needs, and its share is projected to increase to 40%. [[Norway]] (via [[pipeline]]s through [[Germany]]) and [[Russia]] also supply the Czech Republic with liquid and [[natural gas]].
The principal industries are heavy and general machine-building, [[iron]] and [[steel]] production, metalworking, [[chemistry|chemical]] production, [[electronics]], transportation equipment, [[textile]]s, [[glass]], brewing, china, [[ceramic]]s, and [[pharmaceutical]]s. It's main agricultural products are [[sugarbeet]]s, [[fodder root]]s, [[potato]]es, [[wheat]], and [[hops]].
The "[[Velvet Revolution]]" in [[1989]] offered a chance for profound and sustained economic reform. Signs of economic resurgence began to appear in the wake of the shock therapy that the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) labelled the "big bang" of January 1991. Since then, astute economic management has led to the liberalization of 95% of all price controls, annual inflation in the 10% range, modest [[budget deficit]]s, low [[unemployment]], a positive [[balance of payments]] position, a stable [[exchange rate]], a shift of exports from former [[Eastern bloc|communist economic bloc]] markets to [[Western Europe]], and relatively low [[foreign debt]].
Particularly impressive have been the Republic's strict [[fiscal policy|fiscal policies]]. Following a series of currency [[devaluation]]s, the [[koruna|crown]] has remained stable in relation to the [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]]. The Czech crown became fully [[convertibility|convertible]] for most business purposes in late [[1995]].
In addition, the government has revamped the legal and administrative structure governing [[investment]] in order to stimulate the economy and attract foreign partners. Shifting emphasis from the East to the West has necessitated restructuring existing facilities in banking and telecommunications as well as adjusting commercial laws and practices to fit Western standards. The republic has made progress toward creating a stable investment climate.
This success has enabled the Czech Republic to become the first post-communist country to receive an investment-grade credit rating by international credit institutions. Successive Czech governments have welcomed [[United States of America|U.S.]] investment, in particular, as a counter-balance to the strong economic influence of Western Europe, especially of their powerful neighbour, [[Germany]]. <!-- Which was not always successful, see the flop with Boeing vs Aero Vodochody. --> Although [[foreign direct investment]] (FDI) runs in uneven cycles, with a 12.9% share of total FDI between 1990 and March 1998, the U.S. was the third-largest foreign investor in the Czech economy, behind Germany and the [[Netherlands]].
The republic boasts a flourishing consumer production sector and has [[privatization|privatized]] most state-owned heavy industries through the [[voucher privatization]] system. Under the system, every citizen was given the opportunity to buy, for a moderate price, a book of vouchers that represents potential shares in any state-owned company. The voucher holders could then invest their vouchers, infusing the chosen company with valuable capital. State ownership of businesses was estimated to be about 97% under [[communism]]. In [[1998]], more than 80% of enterprises are in private hands. When the voucher privatization process is complete, Czechs will own shares of each of the Czech companies, making them one of the highest per capita share owners in the world. Privatization through restitution of real estate to the former owners was largely completed in 1992.<!-- The voucher privatization is already finished. Some people think it was a flop. Shouldn't it be reflected here? -->
The republic's economic transformation is far from complete. A recession in 1998 revealed that the government still faces serious challenges in completing industrial restructuring, increasing [[transparency (humanities)|transparency]] in [[capital market]] transactions, fully [[privatization|privatizing]] the [[banking]] sector, transforming the [[housing]] sector, privatizing the [[health care]] system, and solving serious environmental problems.
'''Economy - overview:'''
Political and financial crises in [[1997]] shattered the Czech Republic's image as one of the most stable and prosperous of post-Communist states. Delays in enterprise restructuring and failure to develop a well-functioning capital market played major roles in Czech economic troubles, which culminated in a currency crisis in May. The currency was forced out of its fluctuation band as investors worried that the current account deficit, which reached nearly 8% of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] in [[1996]], would become unsustainable. After expending $3 [[billion]] (3 G$) in vain to support the currency, the central bank let it float. The growing current account imbalance reflected a surge in domestic demand and poor export performance, as wage increases outpaced productivity. The government was forced to introduce two [[austerity]] packages later in the spring (called vernacularly "The Packages"), which cut government spending by 2.5% of [[gross domestic product]]. Growth dropped to 0.3% in 1997, -2.3% in 1998, and -0.5% in 1999. The basic transition problem continues to be too much direct and indirect government influence on the privatized economy. The government established a restructuring agency in 1999 and launched a revitalization program - to spur the sale of firms to foreign companies. Key priorities include accelerating legislative convergence with [[European Union|EU]] norms, restructuring enterprises, and privatizing banks and utilities. The economy, fuelled by increased export growth and investment, is expected to recover in 2000.
==Other statistics==
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:''' (1996)
*''lowest 10%:'' 4.3%
*''highest 10%:'' 22.4%
'''Industrial production growth rate:''' 11% (2004)
'''Electricity - production:''' 70.04 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
*''fossil fuel:'' 75.54%
*''hydro:'' 2.55%
*''nuclear:'' 20.37%
*''other:'' 1.54% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:''' 55.6 billion kWh (2001), 54,733 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - exports:''' 18,92 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - imports:''' 9,38 GWh (2001)
'''Natural resources:''' coal, timber, lignite, uranium, magnesite.
'''Agriculture - products:'''
wheat, rye, oats, corn, barley, potatoes, sugar beets, hops, fruit; pigs, cattle, poultry, horses; forest products
'''Exports - commodities:'''
machinery and transport equipment 44%, other manufactured goods 40%, chemicals 7%, raw materials and fuel 7% (2000)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery and transport equipment 40%, intermediate manufactures 21%, chemicals 11%, raw materials and fuels 13%(2000)
'''Exchange rates:'''
koruny (Kč) per US$1 - 28.2 (2003), 32.7 (2002), 38.0 (2001), 38.6 (2001), 34.6 (1999), 32.3 (1998), 31.7 (1997), 27.1 (1996), 26.5 (1995)
==See also==
* [[Prague Stock Exchange]]
* [[Economy of Europe]]
==External links==
*[http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/czech/ OECD Economic Survey of the Czech Republic]
*[http://www.oecd.org/czech/ OECD's Czech Republic country Web site]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ez.html CIA - The World Factbook -- Czech Republic]
*[http://www.czso.cz/eng/csu.nsf/aktualniinformace Current economic data]
{{EU countries}}
{{OECD}}
[[fr:Économie de la République tchèque]]
[[Category:Economy of the Czech Republic| ]]
[[Category:European Union member economies]]
[[es:Economía de la República Checa]]
[[pt:Economia da República Checa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in the Czech Republic</title>
<id>5850</id>
<revision>
<id>31060438</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-12T16:11:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bbpen</username>
<id>70135</id>
</contributor>
<comment>enhance -> improve</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
3.626 million (2003)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
9.708 million (2003)
'''Telephone system:'''
<br>''domestic:''
86% of exchanges now digital; existing copper su |
with the caption "She's here", since no introduction was needed.
After her death, her son [[Elliott Roosevelt]] wrote a series of best-selling fictional [[Detective fiction| murder mysteries]] wherein she acted as a detective, helping the police solve the crime, while she was First Lady. They feature actual places and celebrities of the time.
Despite an intense campaign to have her awarded a posthumous [[Nobel Peace Prize]], the Norwegians refused and she was never so honored. In 1968 she was awarded one of the [[United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights|Human Rights Prizes]]. [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Roosevelt_Eleanor/Eleanor_Years_Alone.html]
Roosevelt is the ninth most [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|admired]] person in the 20th century, according to [[Gallup]].
==Quotes==
“Great minds discuss ideas; Average minds discuss events; Small minds discuss people”
“No one can make you feel inferior without your consent.”
“Friendship with oneself is all important because without it one cannot be friends with anybody else in the world.”
“In the long run, we shape our lives, and we shape ourselves. The process never ends until we die. And the choices we make are ultimately our own responsibility.”
“You gain strength, courage, and confidence by every experience by which you really stop to look fear in the face. You are able to say to yourself, 'I lived through this horror. I can take the next thing that comes along.”
“You have to accept whatever comes and the only important thing is that you meet it with courage and with the best that you have to give”
“You gain strength, courage, and confidence by every experience in which you really stop to look fear in the face… do the thing you think you cannot do.”
“You must do the thing you think you cannot do”
“The purpose of life, after all, is to live it, to taste experience to the utmost, to reach out eagerly and without fear for newer and richer experiences.”
“We are afraid to care too much, for fear that the other person does not care at all.”
“For it isn't enough to talk about peace. One must believe in it. And it isn't enough to believe in it. One must work for it.”
“People grow through experience if they meet life honestly and courageously. This is how character is built.”
“It is better to light one small candle than to curse the darkness.”
“Happiness is not a goal; it is a by-product.”
“I once had a rose named after me and I was very flattered. But I was not pleased to read the description in the catalogue: no good in a bed, but fine up against a wall.”
“Do what you feel in your heart to be right, for you'll be criticized anyway. You'll be damned if you do and damned if you don't.”
“Never allow a person to tell you no who doesn't have the power to say yes.”
“Friends, you and me... you brought another friend... and then there were three... we started our group... our circle of friends... and like that circle... there is no beginning or end.”
“Remember always that you not only have the right to be an individual, you have an obligation to be one.”
“Sometimes I wonder if we shall ever grow up in our politics and say definite things which mean something, or whether we shall always go on using generalities to which everyone can subscribe, and which mean very little.”
“It is not fair to ask of others what you are unwilling to do yourself”
“If life were predictable it would cease to be life, and be without flavor”
“I think that somehow, we learn who we really are and then live with that decision.”
“Life must be lived and curiosity kept alive. One must never, for whatever reason, turn his back on life.”
“It takes as much energy to wish as it does to plan”
“What one has to do usually can be done.”
“Women are like teabags. We don't know our true strength until we are in hot water!”
“Only a man's character is the real criterion of worth.”
“I have spent many years of my life in opposition, and I rather like the role.”
“Since you get more joy out of giving joy to others, you should put a good deal of thought into the happiness that you are able to give.”
“Understanding is a two-way street.”
“When will our consciences grow so tender that we will act to prevent human misery rather than avenge it?”
“A little simplification would be the first step toward rational living, I think.”
“We have to face the fact that either all of us are going to die together or we are going to learn to live togethern and if we are to live together we have to talk.”
“With the new day comes new strength and new thoughts.”
“A day out-of-doors, someone I loved to talk with, a good book and some simple food and music -- that would be rest.”
“I could not, at any age, be content to take my place by the fireside and simply look on. Life was meant to be lived. Curiousity must be kept alive. One must never, for whatever reason, turn his back on life.”
"The future belongs to those who believe in the beauty of their dreams."
==See also==
* [[Molly Yard]]
==References==
* Eleanor Roosevelt, ''The Autobiography of Eleanor Roosevelt'', Da Capo Press ed., 1992, paperback, 439 pages, ISBN 03680476X, [http://www.dacapopress.com dacapopress.com]
* Manly, Chesly. "U.N. Adopts 1st Declaration on Human Rights." Chicago Daily Tribune [[11 December]]. 1948: 4. ProQuest. EBSCO. Indiana University, Bloomington.
* "The Draft Declaration of Human Rights." The New York Times [[19 June]] [[1948]]. ProQuest. EBSCO. Indiana University, Bloomington.
==Further reading==
*Beasley, Maurine H., Holly C. Shulman, and Henry R. Beasley. ''The Eleanor Roosevelt Encyclopedia'' (2001)
* Cook, Blanche Wiesen. ''Eleanor Roosevelt, Vol. 1: 1884-1933'' (1992).
* Cook, Blanche Wiesen. ''Eleanor Roosevelt: Volume 2, The Defining Years, 1933-1938'' (2000).
* Lachman, Seymour P. "The Cardinal, the Congressmen, and the First Lady." ''Journal of Church and State'' 7 (Winter 1965): 35–66.
* Lash, Joseph. ''Eleanor and Franklin: The Story of Their Relationship Based on Eleanor Roosevelt's Private Papers'' (1971).
* Lash, Joseph. ''Eleanor: The Years Alone'' (1972)
* Roosevelt, David B. ''Grandmère: A Personal History of Eleanor Roosevelt'', Warner Books, 2002, Hardcover, 256 pages, ISBN 0446527343
* Goodwin, Doris Kearns. ''No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II'', 768 pages, ISBN: 0684804484
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.nps.gov/elro Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site]
*[http://www.ervk.org/index.htm The Eleanor Roosevelt Center at Val-Kill]
*[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers]
*[http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/ Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum]
*[http://www.firstladies.org/ National First Ladies' Library]
*[http://www.feri.org The Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute]
*[http://rooseveltinstitution.org The Roosevelt Institution, a student think tank inspired in part by Eleanor Roosevelt]
*''[http://www.biresource.org/features/roosevelt.html An 'Outing' of Historical Proportions]''- an article about E.R.'s possible bisexuality, by Cliff Arsen, a Gay rights activist who was friends with Roosevelt during his childhood and adolescence.
* [http://www.teddyroosevelt.com TeddyRoosevelt.com: Information about Eleanor and her favorite, famous uncle Teddy.]
* [[http://www.nytimes.com/specials/magazine4/articles/roosevelt2.html]], ''Mrs. Roosevelt dies at 78. New York Times Obituary, November 8, 1962''.
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Lou Henry Hoover]]|
title=[[First Ladies of the United States|First Lady of the United States]]|
years=1933&ndash;1945|
after=[[Bess Truman]]
}}
{{end box}}
{{US First Ladies}}
[[Category:1884 births|Roosevelt, Eleanor]]
[[Category:1962 deaths|Roosevelt, Eleanor]]
[[Category:People from New York City|Roosevelt, Eleanor]]
[[Category:Alpha Kappa Alpha sisters|Roosevelt, Eleanor]]
[[Category:Feminists|Roosevelt, Eleanor]]
[[Category:First Ladies of the United States|Roosevelt, Eleanor]]
[[Category:Roosevelt|Eleanor Roosevelt]]
[[Category:United Nations|Roosevelt, Eleanor]]
[[Category:Dutch Americans|Roosevelt, Eleanor]]
[[ca:Eleanor Roosevelt]]
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[[sv:Eleanor Roosevelt]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eight ball</title>
<id>9727</id>
<revision>
<id>40221421</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T01:27:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SupaCues</username>
<id>955919</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Included external link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Eight ball (disambiguation)]]''
{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
[[Image:Pool.jpg|The break|thumb]]
'''Eight ball''' is a [[billiards]] game played with a [[cue ball]] and 15 [[billiard ball]]s on a [[pool table]] with 6 pockets. There are eight solid-colored balls numbered 1 through 8, seven [[stripe]]d balls numbered 9 through 15, and a solid white cue ball.
The balls are usually colored as follows:
* 1 and 9 - yellow
* 2 and 10 - blue
* 3 and 11 - red
* 4 and 12 - purple
* 5 and 13 - orange
* 6 and 14 - green
* 7 and 15 - brown
* 8 - black
* cue - white.
On occasion, however, 7 and 15 are colored tan or magenta.
----
In eight ball, two persons or two teams play against each other. One plays balls 1-7, the solid balls, the other plays balls 9-15, the striped ones. Ball 8, though colored solid, is not considered one of the solid balls, as it is the final objective for both sides. Each side on its turn hits the cue ball into one of their balls with the purpose of sinking that bal |
stract algebra was motivated by the need for more rigor in mathematics. The study of abstract algebra has brought into full view intricacies of the logical assumptions on which the whole of mathematics and the natural sciences are built, and today there is scarcely a branch of mathematics which doesn't utilize the results of algebra. What's more, in the course of study, algebraists discovered that apparently diverse logical structures can very often be brought by analogy to a very small core of axioms. This grants the mathematician who has learned algebra a deep sight, and empowers him broadly.
The term ''abstract algebra'' is used to distinguish the field from "[[elementary algebra]]" or "high school algebra", which teach the correct rules for manipulating formulas and algebraic expressions involving [[real numbers|real]] and [[complex number]]s, and [[unknown]]s. Abstract algebra was at times in the first half of the [[twentieth century]] known as '''modern algebra'''.
The term '''abstract algebra''' is sometimes used in [[universal algebra]] where most authors use simply the term "algebra".
== History and examples ==
Historically, algebraic structures usually arose first in some other field of mathematics, were specified axiomatically, and were then studied in their own right in abstract algebra. Because of this, abstract algebra has numerous fruitful connections to all other branches of mathematics.
Examples of algebraic structures with a single [[binary operation]] are:
* [[magma (algebra)|magmas]],
* [[quasigroup]]s,
* [[monoid]]s, [[semigroup]]s and, most important, [[group (mathematics)|groups]].
More complicated examples include:
* [[ring (mathematics)|rings]] and [[field (mathematics)|fields]]
* [[module (mathematics)|modules]] and [[vector space]]s
* [[algebra over a field|algebras over fields]]
* [[associative algebra]]s and [[Lie algebra]]s
* [[lattice (order)|lattice]]s and [[Boolean algebra]]s
In [[universal algebra]], all those definitions and facts are collected that apply to all algebraic structures alike. All the above classes of objects, together with the proper notion of [[homomorphism]], form [[category theory|categories]], and category theory frequently provides the formalism for translating between and comparing different algebraic structures.
==An example==
The systematic study of algebra has allowed mathematicians to bring under a common logical description apparently disparate conceptions. For example, consider two rather distinct operations: the composition of [[function composition|functions]], f(g(x)), and the multiplication of [[matrix multiplication|matrices]], AB. These two operations are, in fact, the same. To see this, think about multiplying two square matrices (AB) by a one-column vector, x. This, in fact, defines a function that is equivalent to composing Ay with Bx: Ay = A(Bx) = (AB)x. Functions under composition and matrices under multiplication form sets called [[monoid]]s; a monoid under an operation is associative for all its elements ( (ab)c = a(bc) ) and contains an element e such that, for any a, ae = ea = a.
==See also==
* [[List of publications in mathematics#Abstract algebra| Important publications in abstract algebra]]
==Further reading==
* {{cite book | author=Sethuraman, B. A. | title=Rings, Fields, Vector Spaces, and Group Theory: An Introduction to Abstract Algebra via Geometric Constructibility | publisher=Springer | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0-387-94848-1}}
==External links==
{{book}}
* John Beachy: ''[http://www.math.niu.edu/~beachy/aaol/contents.html Abstract Algebra On Line]'', Comprehensive list of definitions and theorems.
* Joseph Mileti: ''Mathematics Museum: [http://www.math.uchicago.edu/~mileti/museum/algebra.html Abstract Algebra]'', A good introduction to the subject in real-life terms.
{{Mathematics-footer}}
[[Category:Abstract algebra|*Abstract algebra]]
[[ar:جبر تجريدي]]
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[[fa:جبر مجرد]]
[[fr:Algèbre abstraite]]
[[ko:추상대수학]]
[[io:Abstrakta algebro]]
[[it:Algebra astratta]]
[[he:אלגברה מופשטת]]
[[nl:Abstracte algebra]]
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[[ru:Абстрактная алгебра]]
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[[th:พีชคณิตนามธรรม]]
[[vi:Đại số trừu tượng]]
[[zh:抽象代数]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aphrodite</title>
<id>1174</id>
<revision>
<id>42027051</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:20:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Haukurth</username>
<id>16226</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.138.180.35|202.138.180.35]] ([[User talk:202.138.180.35|talk]]) to last version by Adam Bishop</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Aphrodite (Greek Mythology).jpg|thumb|Aphrodite, [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] goddess of love and beauty,and the patroness of physical love.]] -->
{{otheruses}}
'''Aphrodite''' ([[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (pronunciation)/IPA vs. other pronunciation symbols#Chart|World Book]] ''«AF roh DY tee»'') ( {{unicode|&#x1F08;}}&#966;&#961;&#959;&#948;&#943;&#964;&#951;, "risen from sea-foam") is the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] [[goddess]] of [[love]] and [[beauty]].
== Worship ==
{{Greek myth (Olympian)}}
The epithet ''Aphrodite Acidalia'' was occasionally added to her name, after the spring she used to bathe in, located in [[Boeotia]] ([[Virgil]] I, 720). She was also called ''Kypris'' or ''Cytherea'' after her alleged birth-places in [[Cyprus]] and [[Cythera]], respectively. The island of Cythera was a center of her cult. She was associated with [[Hesperia]] and frequently accompanied by the [[Oread]]s, [[nymph]]s of the mountains.
Aphrodite had a festival of her own, the Aphrodisiac, which was celebrated all over Greece but particularly in [[Athens, Greece|Athens]] and [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]]. In Corinth, intercourse with her priestesses was considered a method of worshipping Aphrodite.
Aphrodite was associated with, and often depicted with [[dolphin]]s, [[dove]]s, [[swan]]s, [[pomegranate]]s,[[apples]], [[myrtle]], [[rose]] and [[Lime (Citrus aurantifolia)|lime]] trees.
Her Roman analogue is [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]]. Her [[Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian]] counterpart was [[Ishtar]]. Her Egyptian counterpart is [[Hathor]], and her Syro-Palestinian counterpart was [[`Ashtart|&#8216;Ashtart]] (in standard Greek spelling ''Astarte''); her [[Etruscan mythology|Etruscan]] equivalent was [[Turan (mythology)|Turan]].
Venus was often referred to with epithet [[Venus Erycina]] ("of the heather") after [[Mount Eryx]], [[Sicily]], one of the centers of her cult.
== Birth ==
[[Image:Bouguereau venus detail.jpg|115px|thumb|right|Aphrodite rising from the sea foam in birth, crowned with luxuriant tresses, as depicted in the [[19th century]] by [[William-Adolphe Bouguereau]] in his [[1879]] ''Birth of Venus'' (the [[Rome|Roman]] name for Aphrodite).]]
"Foam-arisen" Aphrodite was born of the sea foam near [[Paphos]], Cyprus after [[Cronus]] cut off [[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]]' genitals and Cronus threw the penis into the sea. [[Hesiod's Theogony]] described that the genitals "were carried over the sea a long time, and white foam arose from the immortal flesh; with a girl grew" to become Aphrodite. Thus Aphrodite is of an older generation than Zeus. ''[[Iliad]]'' (Book V) expresses another version of her origin, by which she was considered a daughter of [[Dione (mythology)|Dione]], who was the original oracular goddess ("Dione" being simply "the goddess," etymologically an equivalent of "[[Diana (mythology)|Diana]]") at [[Dodona]]. In Homer, Aphrodite, venturing into battle to protect her son, [[Aeneas]], who has been wounded by [[Diomedes]] and returns to her mother, to sink down at her knee and be comforted. "Dione" seems to be an equivalent of Rhea, the [[Earth Mother]], whom Homer has relocated to Olympus. After this story, Aphrodite herself was sometimes referred to as "Dione". Once [[Zeus]] had usurped the oak-grove oracle at Dodona, some poets made him out to be the father of Aphrodite.
Aphrodite's chief center of worship remained at Paphos, on the south-western coast of Cyprus, where the goddess of desire had long been worshipped as [[Ishtar]] and [[Ashtaroth]]. It is said that she first tentatively came ashore at [[Cytherea]], a stopping place for trade and culture between [[Crete]] and the [[Peloponnese|Peloponesus]]. Thus perhaps we have hints of the track of Aphrodite's original cult from the [[Levant]] to mainland [[Greece]].
In [[Plato]]'s ''[[Symposium]]'' the speech of Pausanias distinguishes two manifestations of Aphrodite, represented by the two stories: Aphrodite Ourania ("heavenly" Aphrodite), and Aphrodite Pandemos ("Common" Aphrodite). These two manifestations represented her role in homosexuality and heterosexuality, respectively.
Alternatively, Aphrodite was a daughter of [[Thalassa]] (for she was born of the Sea) and [[Zeus]].
== Adulthood ==
Aphrodite, in many of the myths involving her, is characterized as vain, ill-tempered and easily offended. Though she is one of the few gods of the [[List of Greek mythological characters|Greek Pantheon]] to be actually married, she is frequently unfaithful to her husband. [[Hephaestus]], of course, is one of the most even-tempered of the Hellenic deities; Aphrodite seems to prefer [[Ares]], the volatile god of war. In [[Homer]]'s [[Iliad]] she surges into battle to save her son, but abandons him (in fact, drops him as she flies through the air) when she herself is hurt (Ares does much the same thing<!-- I doubt this tidbit, originally included re |
e|French]] centre-halves [[Frank Leboeuf]] and [[Marcel Desailly]].
===The new millennium: glory days===
[[Image:Stamford Bridge stands.jpg|thumb|float|200px|Chelsea's home ground is [[Stamford Bridge (stadium)|Stamford Bridge]], in [[London]]]]
Vialli was dismissed in September 2000 and replaced by another Italian, [[Claudio Ranieri]], who guided them to another FA Cup final in 2002 but was unable to prevent them from losing to double winners [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]].
Bates unexpectedly sold Chelsea F.C. in June 2003 for £60 million. In so doing, Bates reportedly recognized a personal profit of £17 million on the club he had bought for £1 in 1982 (his stake had been diluted to just below 30% over the years). The club's new owner was [[Russia]]n billionaire [[Roman Abramovich]], who also took on responsibility for the club's £80 million of debt, quickly paying most of it<!--NOT all of it. Some of the bondholders preferred to keep on receiving the 8.5% interest, and he couldn't force them to sell tradeable securities if they didn't want to. I think the bonds mature in 2007 and the remainder will be paid off then-->. He then went on a £100 million spending spree before the start of the season and landed players like [[Claude Makélélé]], [[Geremi Njitap|Geremi]], [[Glen Johnson (footballer)|Glen Johnson]], [[Joe Cole (footballer)|Joe Cole]] and [[Damien Duff]].
The spending saw a good return, with Chelsea finishing the Premiership runners-up and reaching the [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]] semifinals after beating Arsenal in the quarter-finals. But Ranieri was sacked after ending the season trophyless, and Abramovich recruited [[José Mourinho]] (who had lifted two [[SuperLiga|Portuguese league]] titles, a [[Cup of Portugal|Portuguese Cup]], a [[UEFA Champions League|European Cup]] and a [[UEFA Cup]] with [[Futebol Clube do Porto|FC Porto]]) as the club's new manager.
2004-05 was the most successful season in the history of Chelsea Football Club. They secured the Premiership title in a record breaking season by gaining 95 points from 38 fixtures (ending a 50-year wait for the title with the highest Premiership points total for a 38 game season), along with setting records for: most wins (29), fewest goals against (15) and most clean sheets (25) in a 38 game season -- all this in the season that also saw "The Blues" lift the [[League Cup]]. In addition to the two major trophies won, Chelsea reached the semifinals of the Champions League, losing controversially 1-0 on aggregate to the eventual winners [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]].
===Current season: 2005-2006===
2005-06 is Chelsea's centenary season, and is being marked by the introduction of a new badge based on an old time badge, and by various special events. Chelsea has signed a five-year £10 million a year shirt sponsorship deal with Korean electronics company [[Samsung]], which runs from the 2005-06 season. This is the largest annual shirt sponsorship yet agreed by an English football club. Chelsea has also agreed a new kit deal with [[Adidas]], worth approximately £12 million a year to the club, and effective from the 2006-07 season. Chelsea are currently top of the Premiership table. [http://www.chelseafc.com/article.asp?hlid=252757&m=1&y=2005&nav=news&sub=latest+news]
<!--
*** POLITE SUGGESTION to potential editors: This article is already too long by Wikipedia standards and it has been suggested that the temptation to provide a match by match commentary here throughout the season should be resisted. See Talk page. *** I need to know the scores for the steve Clarke Benefit Game 11th august 1996 Chelsea v. PSV Eindhoven
-->
===Crest===
[[Image:Cfcpensioner.gif|thumb|left|160px|Chelsea's first crest]]
[[Image:Chelsea's old badge.jpg|thumb|160px|Club crest 1953-1986]]
[[Image:Cfcbadge.gif|thumb|160px|Club crest 1986-2005]]
Since the club's foundation, Chelsea have had four main crests, though all underwent minor variations. In 1905, Chelsea adopted as its first crest the image of a Chelsea pensioner, which obviously contributed to the ''pensioner'' [[nickname]], and remained for the next half-century, though it never appeared on the shirts. As part of new manager [[Ted Drake]]'s modernisation of the club from [[1952]], he insisted that the pensioner badge be removed from the match day programme in order to change the club's image and that a new crest be adopted. As a stop-gap, a temporary emblem comprising simply the initials C.F.C. was adopted for one year. In [[1953]], the club adopted what is arguably its most famous crest - that of an upright blue [[lion]] looking backwards and holding a [[staff (stick)|staff]] - which was to endure for the next three decades. The crest was based on elements in the [[coat of arms]] of the [[Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea]] (discussed and illustrated [http://www.civicheraldry.co.uk/lcc.html#chelsea%20bc on this website]) with the "lion rampant regardant" taken from the arms of then club president [[Earl Cadogan|Viscount Chelsea]] and the staff from the [[Westminster Abbey|Abbots of Westminster]], former Lords of the Manor of Chelsea. This was also the first club badge to appear on shirts, since the policy of putting the crest on the shirts was only adopted in the early 1960's.
In [[1986]], with new owners now at the club, Chelsea's crest was changed again as part of another attempt to modernise and to capitalise on new [[marketing]] opportunities, because new Chairman Ken Bates was advised he had not acquired any copyright in the existing crest. The new badge featured a more naturalistic non-heraldic lion, yellow and not blue, standing over the C.F.C. initials. It lasted for the next 19 years, though with some modifications such as the use of different colours. With new ownership, and the club's [[centenary]] approaching, combined with demands from fans for the club's traditional badge to be restored, it was decided that the crest should be changed again in [[2004]]. The new crest was officially adopted for the start of the 2005-6 season and marks a return to the older design of the blue heraldic lion holding a staff.
==Current players==
{{Fs start}}
{{Fs player | no=1 | nat=Czech Republic | pos=GK | name= [[Petr Cech]]}}
{{Fs player | no=2 | nat=England | pos=DF | name= [[Glen Johnson (footballer)|Glen Johnson]]}}
{{Fs player | no=3 | nat=Spain | pos=DF | name= [[Asier del Horno]]}}
{{Fs player | no=4 | nat=France | pos=MF | name= [[Claude Makélélé]]}}
{{Fs player | no=5 | nat=Ghana | pos=MF | name= [[Michael Essien]]}}
{{Fs player | no=6 | nat=Portugal | pos=DF | name= [[Ricardo Carvalho]]}}
{{Fs player | no=7 | nat=Portugal | pos=MF | name= [[Maniche]] | other=on loan from [[FC Dynamo Moscow|Dynamo Moscow]]}}
{{Fs player | no=8 | nat=England | pos=MF | name= [[Frank Lampard]]}}
{{Fs player | no=9 | nat=Argentina | pos=FW | name= [[Hernán Crespo]]}}
{{Fs player | no=10 | nat=England | pos=MF | name= [[Joe Cole (footballer)|Joe Cole]]}}
{{Fs player | no=11 | nat=Ireland | pos=MF | name= [[Damien Duff]]}}
{{Fs player | no=12 | nat=England | pos=FW | name= [[Carlton Cole]]}}
{{Fs player | no=13 | nat=France | pos=DF | name= [[William Gallas]]}}
{{Fs mid}}
{{Fs player | no=14 | nat=Cameroon | pos=MF | name= [[Geremi Njitap|Geremi]]}}
{{Fs player | no=15 | nat=Ivory Coast | pos=FW | name= [[Didier Drogba]]}}
{{Fs player | no=16 | nat=Netherlands | pos=MF | name= [[Arjen Robben]]}}
{{Fs player | no=19 | nat=France | pos=MF | name= [[Lassana Diarra]]}}
{{Fs player | no=20 | nat=Portugal | pos=DF | name= [[Paulo Ferreira]] }}
{{Fs player | no=22 | nat=Iceland | pos=FW | name= [[Eidur Gudjohnsen]]}}
{{Fs player | no=23 | nat=Italy | pos=GK | name= [[Carlo Cudicini]]}}
{{Fs player | no=24 | nat=England | pos=MF | name= [[Shaun Wright-Phillips]]}}
{{Fs player | no=26 | nat=England | pos=DF | name= [[John Terry]]}} (captain)
{{Fs player | no=29 | nat=Germany | pos=DF | name= [[Robert Huth]]}}
{{Fs player | no=40 | nat=England | pos=GK | name= [[Lenny Pidgeley]]}}
{{Fs player | no=42 | nat=ENG | pos=MF | name= [[Anthony Grant]]}}
{{Fs player | no=-- | nat=ENG | pos=FW | name= [[Scott Sinclair]]}}
{{Fs end}}
===Players out on loan===
{|
{{Fs player | no=18 | nat=England | pos=DF | name= [[Wayne Bridge]] | other=at [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham]] until summer [[2006]]}}
{{Fs player | no=20| nat=Argentina | pos=MF | name= [[Juan Sebastián Verón]] | other=at [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Inter]] until summer [[2007]]}}
{{Fs player | no=5| nat=Russia | pos=MF | name= [[Alexei Smertin]] | other=at [[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton Athletic]], season-long}}
{{Fs player | no=27| nat=Czech Republic | pos=MF | name= [[Jirí Jarošík]] | other=at [[Birmingham City F.C.|Birmingham City]], season-long}}
{{Fs player | no=41 | nat=BEL | pos=GK | name= [[Yves Ma-Kalambay]]|other=at [[Watford F.C.|Watford]], until [[March]] [[2006]]}}
|}
==Notable former players==
{|
|valign="top"|
*[[Ken Armstrong]]
*[[Tommy Baldwin]]
*[[Dave Beasant]]
*[[Roy Bentley]]
*[[Frank Blunstone]]
*[[Peter Bonetti]]
*[[Barry Bridges]]
*[[Craig Burley]]
*[[Steve Clarke]]
*[[Paul Canoville]]
*[[Charlie Cooke (footballer)|Charlie Cooke]]
*[[Jack Cock]]
*[[Marcel Desailly]]
*[[Kerry Dixon]]
*[[Gordon Durie]]
*[[Roberto Di Matteo]]
*[[Tore André Flo]]
*[[Albert Ferrer]]
*[[William Foulke (footballer)|William Foulke]]
|width="25"|&nbsp;
|valign="top"|
*[[Hughie Gallacher]]
*[[Jimmy Greaves]]
*[[George Graham (footballer)|George Graham]]
*[[Ruud Gullit]]
*[[Ron Harris (footballer)|Ron Harris]]
*[[John Hollins]]
*[[Alan Hudson]]
*[[Ian Hutchinson]]
*[[John Harris (footballer)|John Harris]]
*[[Jack Harrow]]
*[[Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink]]
*[[George Hilsdon]]
*[[Ben Howard Ba |
and, to a lesser degree, [[Lithuanian SSR]], [[Byelorussian SSR]] and [[Moldavian SSR]]. At the same time, the nation's film industry, which was fully nationalized throughout most of the country's history, was guided by philosophies and laws propounded by the monopoly Soviet Communist Party which introduced a new view on the cinema, which was different from the one before or after the existence of the Soviet Union. [[Image:Bronenosets.jpg|thumb|300px|A [[1926]] Soviet poster for ''[[The Battleship Potemkin]]''.]]
== Historical outline==
The new state, the [[Soviet Union]], officially came into existence on [[November 7]], [[1917]]. From the outset, it was held that film would be the most ideal propaganda tool for the Soviet Union because of its mass popularity among the established citizenry of the new land; [[V. I. Lenin]], in fact, declared it the most important medium for educating the masses in the ways, means and successes of Communism, a position which was later echoed by [[Joseph Stalin]]. Meanwhile, between [[World War I]] and the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], most of the film industry, and the general infrastructure needed to support it (e.g. electrical power), was in a shambles. The majority of cinemas had been in the corridor between [[Moscow]] and St. Petersburg in Russia, and most were out of commission. Additionally, many of the performers, producers, directors and other artists of pre-Soviet Russia, had fled the country or were moving ahead of the [[Red Army]] forces as they pushed further and further south into the remainder of the [[Imperial Russia|Russian Empire]]. Furthermore, the new government did not have the funds to spare for an extensive reworking of the system of filmmaking. Thus, they initially opted for project approval and censorship guidelines while leaving what of the industry remained in private hands. As this amounted mostly to [[movie theater|cinema houses]], the first Soviet films consisted of recycled films of the Russian Empire and its imports, to the extent that these were not determined to be offensive to the new Soviet [[ideology]]. Ironically, the first new film released in the [[Soviet Union]] did not exactly fit this mold: this was "[[Otets Sergii]]", in English "Father Sergius", a religious film completed during the last weeks of the Russian Empire but not yet exhibited. It appeared on Soviet screens in [[1918]]. [[Image:Orlova bw.jpg|thumb|[[Lubov Orlova]], the most glamorous star of Stalinist cinema.]]
Beyond this, the government was principally able to fund only short, educational films, the most notorious of which were the [[agitki]] - propaganda films intended to "agitate", or energize and enthuze, the masses to participate fully in approved Soviet activities, and deal effectively with those who remained in opposition to the new order. These short (often one small reel) films were often as not visual aids and accompaniments to live lectures and speeches, and were carried from city to city, town to town, village to village (along with the lecturers) to indoctrinate the entire countryside, even reaching areas where film had not been previously seen.
Newsreels, as documentaries, were the other major form of earliest Soviet cinema. [[Dziga Vertov]]'s newsreel series ''Kino-Pravda'', the best known of these, lasted from [[1922]] to [[1925]] and had a propagandistic bent; Vertov used the series to promote [[Socialist realism]] but also to experiment with cinema.
Still, in [[1921]], there was not one functioning cinema in Moscow until late in the year. Its rapid success, utilizing old Russian and imported feature films, jumpstarted the industry significantly, especially insofar as the government did not heavily or directly regulate what was shown, and by 1923 an additional 89 cinemas had opened. Despite extremely high taxation of ticket sales and film rentals, there was an incentive for individuals to begin making feature film product again - there were places to show the films - albeit they now had to conform their subject matter to a Soviet world view. In this context, the directors and writers who had remained in support of the objectives of Communism assumed quick dominance in the industry, as they were the ones who could most reliably and convincingly turn out films that would satisfy government censors. New talent joined the experienced remainder, and an artistic community assembled with the goal of defining "Soviet film" as something distinct and better from the output of "decadent capitalism". The leaders of this community viewed it essential to this goal to be free to experiment with the entire nature of film, a position which would result in several well-known creative efforts but would also result in an unforeseen counter-reaction by the increasingly solidifying administrators of the government-controlled society in which filmmakers were viewed as workers, not masters.
[[Sergei Eisenstein|Eisenstein]]'s ''[[The Battleship Potemkin|Battleship Potemkin]]'' was released to wide acclaim in [[1925]]; the film was heavily fictionalized and also propagandistic, preaching the party line about the virtues of the proletariat. The party leaders soon found it difficult to control directors' expression, partly because definitive understanding of a film's meaning was elusive.
One of the most popular films released in 1930s was ''[[Circus (1936 film)|Circus]]''. Notable films from 1940s include ''[[Alexander Nevsky (film)|Aleksandr Nevsky]]'' and ''[[Ivan the Terrible (film)|Ivan Grozny]]''.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s Soviet Cinema again flowered, beginning with films such as ''Ballada o Soldate'' ''[[Ballad of a Soldier]]'' that won the 1961 [[BAFTA Award for Best Film]] and ''[[The Cranes Are Flying]]''.
''Vysota (Height)'' is considered to be one of the best films of the 1950s (it also became the foundation of the [[Bard (Soviet Union)|Bard movement]]).
[[Image:Ballada2.jpg|thumb|Screenshot from [[Grigori Chukhrai]]'s ''[[Ballad of a Soldier]]'' (1959).]]
The 1980s saw a diversification of subject matter. Touchy issues could now be discussed openly. The results were films like ''Pokayanie'' (''Repentance'')<!-- *** I am not certain of the Sakartvelo title, someone help *** -->, which dealt with Stalinist repressions in [[Georgian SSR|Georgia]], and the allegorical [[science fiction]] movie ''[[Kin-Dza-Dza]]'', which satirized the Soviet life in general.
==Censorship==
After [[Stalin]], Soviet filmmakers got a freer hand to film what they believed audiences wanted to see in their film's characters and stories. However, the industry remained a part of the government and if any material was found politically offensive or undesirable, it was either removed, edited or reshot; or it was shelved. In rare cases the filmmakers managed to convince the government of his innoccence and the film was released. The definition of "socialist realism" was liberalized to allow development of more human characters, but communism still had to remain uncriticized in its fundamentals. Additionally, the degree of relative artistic liberality could be changed from administration to administration.
Oddities created by censorship include:
*The first chapter of the epic film ''Освобождение'' (''Liberation'') was filmed 20 years after the subsequent three parts. The director had refused to minimize the errors of the Soviet High Command during the first year of the war, and instead waited for a time when he could film this portion accurately.
[[Image:Rzhevsky.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Yury Yakovlev]] as [[Poruchik Rzhevsky]] in [[Eldar Ryazanov]]'s musical comedy ''[[Hussar Ballad]]'' (1962).]]
==1950s==
In the beginning of the [[Cold War]] writers, still considered the primary auteurs, were all the more reluctant to take up script writing, and the early 50s saw only a handful of feature films completed during any year. The death of Stalin was a merciful relief to many, and all the more so was the official trashing of his public image as a benign and competent leader by [[Nikita Khruschev]] two years later. This latter event gave filmmakers the margin of comfort they needed to move away from the narrow formula stories of socialist realism, expand its boundaries, and begin work on a wider range of entertaining and artistic Soviet films.
==1960s-70s==
The 1960s and 1970s saw the creation of many excellent films, many of which moulded Soviet and post-Soviet culture. They include:
*''[[The Colour of Pomegranates]]'', an [[Armenia]]n art film, considered a masterpiece by [[Fellini]], [[Jean-Luc Godard]] and [[Antonioni]]
*''[[Seventeen Instants of Spring]] (Semnadtsat mgnoveniy vesny)'', which created the immortal character of [[Russian joke#Standartenführer Stirlitz|Standartenführer Stirlitz]], and whose compelling and unbiased look at the life of a spy in wartorn Germany made the film popular in both the Germanies as well. [[Image:Batalov.jpg|right|frame|[[Aleksey Batalov]] as Gosha in [[Moscow Does Not Believe In Tears]].]]
*''[[White Sun of the Desert]] (Beloe Solntze Pustyni)'' (1970), a classic '[[Ostern|Eastern]]', although with dubious stereotyping of central Asians. It is ritually watched by [[cosmonaut]]s before launches, and has contributed many quotes to the Russian language such as 'The East is a delicate matter'. Its theme tune became a huge hit.
*''[[Solaris (film)|Solaris]]'' (1972)
*''[[Moscow Does Not Believe In Tears]] (Moskva Slezam ne Verit)''
*''[[Ya Shagayu po Moskve]] (I am striding Through Moscow)''
*''[[Irony of Fate]]'' (Original title: Ирония судьбы, или С лёгким паром!)
*''[[Pokrovskiye Vorota]] (Pokrovsky Gates)''
*''[[Gentelmeny Udachi]] (Gentlemen of Fortune)'' starring [[Yevgeny Leonov]]
*''[[Operatzyya "Y" i drugie priklucheniya Shurika]] (Operation "Y" and other Shurik's adventures)''
Soviet directors were |
ed into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] as a solo artist in 2004.
Harrison was also a [[film producer]] and founded [[Handmade Films]] in 1979. The company's films include [[Monty Python]]’s ''[[The Life of Brian]],'' ''[[Time Bandits]]'', ''[[Withnail and I]]'', and ''[[Mona Lisa (movie)|Mona Lisa]]''. Harrison also has a cameo role in the Beatles parody film ''[[All You Need Is Cash|The Rutles]]''.
==Early years==
George Harrison was born in [[Liverpool]], [[England]] in 1943. His sister has said that their mother wrote in her diary that he was born ten minutes after midnight on [[February 25]], though Harrison subsequently claimed that he had, in fact, been born on [[February 24]] at 11:40 PM. His full name is often given as "George Harold Harrison," but this is incorrect. Harrison had no middle name, as one can see on his birth certificate. Harold was his father's name.
Harrison’s childhood home is located at [[12 Arnold Grove]]. He first attended school at [[Dovedale Infants]], just off [[Penny Lane]]. Later on, he attended the [[Liverpool Institute for Boys]] (now the [[Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts]]), a "smart school", but was regarded as a poor student, and contemporaries described him as someone who would "sit alone in the corner". In the mid-1950s he knew [[Paul McCartney]] (also a Liverpool Institute student) and beginning in February 1958 played lead [[guitar]] in the band (initially called [[The Quarry Men]]) that eventually became The Beatles.
In 1959, Harrison worked briefly as an apprentice electrician at [[Blacklers Stores]] in [[Liverpool]]. The training helped, and Harrison became the member who knew the most about rigging their sound equipment. Later he set up his own [[multitrack recording]] gear at his Esher home, [[Kinfauns]], making [[demo (music)|song demos]] for himself and The Beatles.
==Role in The Beatles==
Harrison was a fluent, inventive and highly accomplished lead and rhythm guitarist, whose influences included [[Chuck Berry]], [[Carl Perkins]] and [[Chet Atkins]]. Although he was a creative soloist, several of his famous Beatles guitar solos were recorded under specific directions from Paul McCartney, who on occasion demanded that Harrison play what he envisioned virtually note-for-note. Other Harrison solos were directed or modified by producer [[George Martin]], who also vetoed several of Harrison's song and instrument offerings; Martin admitted years later, "I was always rather beastly to George."
During the era of [[Beatlemania]], Harrison was characterized as the "Quiet Beatle", noted for his introspective manner and his tendency not to speak in press conferences. He studied situations and people closely, though, and was the most interested of any Beatle in the band's finances, often quizzing [[Brian Epstein]] about them. He could also wisecrack as well as anyone in the band; when a reporter asked what they did in their hotel suite between shows, Harrison told him "We [[ice skating|ice-skate]]." He also gave the '[[Beatle haircut]]' a formal name: "Arthur!"
[[Image:PDGeorge Harrison.jpg|right|thumb|Harrison in the early 1960s]]
Harrison wrote his first song, "[[Don't Bother Me]]", during a sick day in 1963, as an exercise "to see if I ''could'' write a song", as he remembered. "Don't Bother Me" appeared on the second Beatles album (''[[With the Beatles]]'') late that year, on ''[[Meet the Beatles!]]'' in the US in early 1964, and also in ''[[A Hard Day's Night (film)|A Hard Day's Night]]''. Harrison was usually allotted only one original song per album, the break coming in 1966, when three Harrison songs appeared on ''[[Revolver (album)|Revolver]]''.
A turning point in Harrison's career came during an American tour in 1965, when his friend [[David Crosby]] of [[The Byrds]] introduced him to Indian classical music and the work of [[sitar]] maestro [[Ravi Shankar (musician)|Ravi Shankar]]. Harrison quickly became fascinated with the instrument, immersed himself in Indian music and was pivotal in popularizing the sitar in particular and Indian music in general in the West. Buying a sitar himself as the Beatles came back from a Far East tour, he became the first western popular musician to play one on a pop record "[[Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)]]". He championed Shankar with western audiences, and was largely responsible for having him included on the bill at the [[Monterey Pop Festival|Monterey International Pop Festival]] in June 1967. Shankar didn't admire Harrison's first Indian-influenced efforts, but the two became friends, and Harrison began his first formal musical studies with Shankar.
A personal turning point for Harrison came during the filming of the movie ''[[Help! (film)|Help!]]'', on location in the [[Bahamas]], when a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] devotee presented each Beatle with a book about [[reincarnation]]. Harrison’s interest in Indian culture expanded to his embracing [[Hinduism]]. A pilgrimage with wife Pattie to the [[Republic of India]], where Harrison studied sitar, met several gurus and visited various holy places, filled the months between the end of the final Beatles tour in 1966 and the commencement of the ''Sgt. Pepper'' sessions. Ironically though, it was through Pattie (and back in England) that George met [[Maharishi]] [[Mahesh Yogi]], who introduced the Beatles, their wives and girlfriends to [[Transcendental Meditation]]. While they parted company with the Maharishi months afterwards, Harrison continued his pursuit of [[Eastern philosophy|Eastern]] [[spirituality]].
In the summer of 1969, he produced the single "[[Hare Krishna Mantra]]", performed by Harrison with the devotees of the London [[Radha]]-[[Krishna]] Temple, that topped the 10 best-selling record charts throughout UK, Europe, and Asia. That same year, he and fellow Beatle John Lennon met [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]], Founder-[[acharya]] of the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] (ISKCON). Soon after, Harrison embraced the Hare Krishna tradition (particularly ''japa-yoga'' chanting with beads; a meditation technique similar to the [[Catholic]] [[rosary]]), and remained associated with it until his death. When during his lifetime, Harrison bequeathed to ISKCON his [[Letchmore Heath]] mansion (renamed [http://chantandbehappy.com/manorvirtual/ Bhaktivedanta Manor]) north of London, he redoubled speculations that he would leave ISKCON a large sum in his will; in fact, he left nothing to the organization. [http://www.newsindia-times.com/2002/12/13/intl-top14.html].
Harrison formed a close friendship with [[Eric Clapton]] in the late 1960s and they co-wrote the song "[[Badge (song)|Badge]]", which was released on [[Cream (band)|Cream's]] farewell album in [[1969 in music|1969]]. This song was the basis for Harrison's composition for The Beatles' ''[[Abbey Road (album)|Abbey Road]]'' album, "[[Here Comes the Sun]]", which was written in Clapton's back garden.
Friction between Harrison and McCartney increased markedly during the recording of the ''[[The Beatles (album)|White Album]]'', with Harrison threatening to leave the group on several occasions. The tension between Harrison and McCartney can be clearly seen in several scenes in the ''[[Let It Be (film)|Let It Be]]'' documentary film and relations became so strained during the making of the film that Harrison briefly quit the band.
Harrison's songwriting improved greatly through the years, and his material gradually earned respect from both his fellow Beatles (with Lennon telling McCartney during 1969 "George's songs this year are at least as good as ours") and the public. Nonetheless, he later said that he always had difficulty getting the band to record his songs.
Notable Harrison compositions from The Beatles' oeuvre include: the intricate "[[If I Needed Someone]]"; "[[I Want to Tell You]]"; the Indian-influenced "[[Love You To]]"; the acerbic "[[Taxman]]" (later referenced in [[Cheap Trick]]'s "Taxman, Mr. Thief" and [[The Jam]]'s "Start"); the much-maligned "[[Within You Without You]]"; "[[While My Guitar Gently Weeps]]", which was strongly influenced by the music of his friend [[Roy Orbison]] and featured a guitar solo by his close friend Eric Clapton; and "[[Piggies]]", which later featured inadvertently in the notorious [[Charles Manson]] murder case (as did McCartney's "[[Helter Skelter]]" actually about a fairground ride).
"[[Something (song)|Something]]" and "[[Here Comes the Sun]]" are probably his two best-known Beatles songs. "Something" is considered one of his very best works, and was even covered by [[Elvis Presley]] and [[Frank Sinatra]], who famously deemed it "the greatest love song of the last 50 years." At the same time, "Something" serves as a supreme example of Harrison's lack of recognition as a songwriter - Frank Sinatra once called it his "favorite Lennon-McCartney tune." His increasing productivity, coupled with his difficulties in getting The Beatles to record his music, meant that by the end of the group's career he had amassed a considerable stockpile of unreleased material.
When asked years later what kind of music The Beatles might have made if they'd stayed together, his answer was to the point: "The solo stuff that we've done would have been on Beatle albums." Harrison, Lennon and McCartney had always largely written apart; on one level, breaking up for each was merely a change of collaborators.
See also: [[List of Beatles songs written by George Harrison]].
==1970s==
After the Beatles split in 1970, Harrison released a number of albums that were critically and commercially successful, both as solo projects and as a mem |
PA|/ˈanˌgli&#643;t/}}||(ahn-GLEE-sht)||[[media:Albanian anglisht.ogg|listen]]
|-
|yes||''po''||{{IPA|/po/}}||(POE)||[[media:Albanian po.ogg|listen]]
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|no||''jo''||{{IPA|/jo/}}||(IOH)||[[media:Albanian jo.ogg|listen]]
|-
|sorry||''më fal''||{{IPA|/mə fal/}}||(mUh FAL)||[[media:Albanian më fal.ogg|listen]]
|-
|I don't understand||''nuk kuptoj''||{{IPA|/nuk ˈkupˌtoj/}}||(nUhk KUP-toi)||[[media:Albanian nuk kuptoj.ogg|listen]]
|-
|where's the bathroom?||''ku është banjoja?''||{{IPA|/ku ˌə&#643;ˈtə baˌ&#626;oˈja/}}||(kuh ush-tEh bA-nio-jA)||[[media:Albanian ku është banjoja.ogg|listen]]
|-
|generic toast||''gëzuar''||{{IPA|/gəˌzuˈar/}}|| (gUh-zuh-ar)||[[media:Albanian gëzuar.ogg|listen]]
|-
|Do you speak English?||''flisni Anglisht?''||{{IPA|/ˈflisˌni ˈanˌgli&#643;t/}}||(flee-snEE ahn-GLEE-sht)||[[media:Albanian flisni anglisht.ogg|listen]]
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''Note: All the sounds above are in the [[Ogg]] [[Vorbis]] format.''
The [[Islam]]ic [[shahadah]] in Albanian is ''Nuk ka Zot përveç Allahut, dhe Muhamedi është profet i Tij''.
'''MONTHS IN ALBANIAN'''
January- ''Janar''
February- ''Shkurt''
March- ''Mars ''
April- ''Prill''
May- ''Maj''
June- ''Qershor''
July- ''Korrik''
August- ''Gusht''
September- ''Shtator ''
October- ''Tetor''
November- ''Nëntor''
December- ''Dhjetor''
'''DAYS OF THE WEEK'''
e hënë- Monday
e martë- Tuesday
e mërkurë- Wednesday
e enjte- Thursday
e premte- Friday
e shtunë- Saturday
e diel- Sunday
'''OTHER PHRASES AND WORDS IN ALBANIAN'''
unë jam- i am
ti je- you are
ju jini- you are (formal)
ai/ajo është- he/ she is
ne jemi- we are
ju jeni- you are (plural)
ata/ato janë- they(m)/they(f) are
më quajnë- my name is....
flisni anglisht?- do you speak English (formal)
flet anglisht- do you speak English (informal)
hajde këtu- come here
ik atje- go there
sa ështe ora- what time is it
si e ke emrin/ si te quajnë- what is your name (informal)
si e kini emrin/ si ju quajnë- what is your name (formal)
jam nga Amerika- I'm from America (a.k.a USA)
jam nga Kanadaja- I'm from Canada
nuk flas Shqip- I don't speak Albanian
flas pak Shqip- I speak little Albanian
==References==
*''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]], edition 15 ([[1985]]). Article: Albanian language''
* Isa Zemberi, ''Colloquial Albanian'', [[Routledge]], ISBN 0-415-05663-2
== See also ==
* [[Albanian Wikipedia]]
==External links==
{{Interwiki|code=sq}}
* [http://www.argjiro.net/fjalor English - Albanian Dictionary]
* [http://www.albanianoverview.com/ An overview of the Albanian language and culture]
* [http://www.single-serving.com/Albanian/ Albanian phrase guide]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90071 Ethnologue report on Albanian]
* [http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/al.htm List of free online resources for learners]
* [http://language-directory.50webs.com/languages/albanian.htm List of online Albanian-related resources]
* [http://www.geocities.com/cezarkurti/ Albanian World] Learn Albanian here
Samples of various Albanian dialects:
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/albanian-gheg.php Albanian (Gheg)]
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/albanian-tosk.php Albanian (Tosk)]
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/albanian-arbereshe.php Albanian (Arbëreshë)]
* [http://www.christusrex.org/www1/pater/JPN-arberishte.html Albanian (Arvanitika)]
Dictionaries:
* [http://www.argjiro.net/fjalor English - Albanian dictionary]
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Albanian-english/ English - Albanian dictionary]
* [http://www.fjalorturqisht.com/ Turkish - Albanian dictionary]
* [http://www.fjalor.de/ German - Albanian dictionary]
<!-- Interlanguage links and categories -->
[[Category:Languages of Albania]]
[[Category:Languages of Kosovo]]
[[Category:Languages of the Republic of Macedonia]]
[[Category:Languages of Italy]]
[[Category:Languages of Serbia and Montenegro]]
[[Category:Languages of Greece]]
[[Category:Languages of Turkey]]
[[Category:Albanian language]]
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]
[[ar:لغة ألبانية]]
[[ast:Albanés]]
[[bg:Албански език]]
[[be:Альбанская мова]]
[[bs:Albanski jezik]]
[[cs:Albánština]]
[[da:Albansk (sprog)]]
[[de:Albanische Sprache]]
[[et:Albaania keel]]
[[el:Αλβανική γλώσσα]]
[[es:Idioma albanés]]
[[eo:Albana lingvo]]
[[fr:Albanais]]
[[gl:Lingua albanesa]]
[[ko:알바니아어]]
[[id:Bahasa Albania]]
[[he:שפות אלבניות]]
[[ka:ალბანური ენა]]
[[kw:Albaynek]]
[[li:Albanees]]
[[hu:Albán nyelv]]
[[mk:Албански јазик]]
[[nl:Albanees]]
[[nds:Albaansche Spraak]]
[[ja:アルバニア語]]
[[nn:Albansk språk]]
[[pl:Język albański]]
[[pt:Língua albanesa]]
[[ro:Limba albaneză]]
[[ru:Албанский язык]]
[[se:Albánagiella]]
[[sq:Gjuha Shqipe]]
[[sl:Albanščina]]
[[fi:Albanian kieli]]
[[sv:Albanska]]
[[th:ภาษาแอลเบเนีย]]
[[tr:Arnavutça]]
[[zh:阿尔巴尼亚语]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adrian Lamo</title>
<id>3003</id>
<revision>
<id>41873674</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:28:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.145.143.158</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Adrian Lamo, Fall '04.jpg|thumb|250px|Adrian Lamo in 2004.]]
'''Adrian Lamo''' (born 1981, in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]]), is an infamous [[Grey hat|gray hat]] [[hacker]] best known, despite having no formal education in programming or computer security, for breaking into ''[[The New York Times]]'' computer network and his subsequent arrest. He is also known for attempting to identify security flaws in computer networks of [[Fortune 500]] companies and then notifying them of any found; while still illegal in most places without permission, this can be seen as a form of unsolicited [[Penetration test|penetration testing]].
==Personal==
Dubbed the "homeless hacker" for his transient lifestyle, Lamo spent parts of his travels squatting in abandoned buildings and travelling to Internet cafes, libraries and universities to investigate networks, and sometimes exploit security holes. Despite performing authorized and unauthorized [[Vulnerability assessment|vulnerability assessment]] for several large, high-profile entities, Lamo has refused to accept payment for his services. In the past, his lifestyle forced him to travel up and down the coasts of the [[United States]], often by coach, carrying all necessary possessions in a backpack. Since his sentencing, he has expressed an interest in [[journalism]], studying at [[American River College]], with work appearing in [[Network World]], [[Mobile Magazine]], [[2600 Magazine]], The American River Current, and others.
==Activities and techniques==
[[Image:Lmp.jpg|thumb|left|Adrian Lamo with contemporaries [[Kevin Poulsen]] and [[Kevin Mitnick]].]]
Adrian Lamo is perhaps best known for breaking into ''The New York Times'' internal computer network in February 2002, adding his name to confidential databases of expert sources, and using the paper's [[Lexis-Nexis|LexisNexis]] account to conduct research on high-profile subjects, although his first published activities involved operating [[AOL]] watchdog site [[Inside-AOL.com]]<ref>[http://archive.salon.com/tech/log/1999/07/01/inside_aol/]</ref><ref>[http://www.securityfocus.com/news/119]</ref><ref>[http://www.interesting-people.org/archives/interesting-people/200302/msg00182.html]</ref>. The Times filed a complaint and a warrant for Lamo's arrest was issued in August 2003 following a 15 month investigation by federal prosecutors in New York. At 10:15 AM on [[September 9]], after spending a few days in hiding, he surrendered to the [[United_States_Marshals_Service|US Marshals]] in [[Sacramento, California]]. He re-surrendered to the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] in New York City on [[September 11]], and pleaded guilty to one count of [[computer crime|computer crimes]] against [[Microsoft]], [[Lexis-Nexis]] and the [[New York Times]] on [[8 January]], 2004.
Later in 2004, Lamo was sentenced to six months' detention at his parents' home plus two years probation, and was ordered to pay roughly $65,000 in restitution. He was convicted of compromising security at [[The New York Times]] and [[Microsoft]], and is alleged to have admitted to exploiting security weaknesses at [[Excite@Home]]<ref>[http://news.com.com/2100-1001-261728.html]</ref>, [[Yahoo!]]<ref>[http://www.securityfocus.net/news/254]</ref>, [[Microsoft]], [[MCI|MCI WorldCom]]<ref>[http://www.securityfocus.org/news/296]</ref>, [[Ameritech]] [[Cingular]] and has allegedly <!-- where are these allegations? -->violated network security at [[Time Warner|AOL Time Warner]], [[Bank of America]], [[Citigroup|Citigroup]], [[Mcdonald's]] and [[Sun Microsystems Inc.|Sun Microsystems]] {{fact}}. Lamo's techniques are largely unpublished but articles on his alleged intrusions reflect fewer examples of technical skill than of unusual coincidence.
Critics have repeatedly labelled Lamo as a publicity seeker or common [[criminal]], claims that he has refused to publicly refute. When challenged for a response to allegations that he was glamorizing crime for the sake of publicity, his response was "Anything I could say about my person or my actions would only cheapen what they have to say for themselves." When approached for comment during his criminal case, Lamo would frequently frustrate reporters with non sequiturs such as "Faith manages"<ref>[http://news.com.com/2008-1014_3-5076942.html]</ref> and "It was a beautiful day."<ref>[http://news.com.com/Judge+lifts+hacker's+PC+restrictions/2100-1002_3-5076124.html]</ref> At his sent |
bacteria]]. It is mostly stably incorporated in the inside of [[metalloprotein]]s, because in exposed or in free form it causes production of [[free radical]]s that are generally toxic to cells. To say that iron is free doesn't mean that it is free floating in the bodily fluids. Iron binds avidly to virtually all biomolecules so it will adhere nonspecifically to [[cell membranes]], [[nucleic acids]], [[proteins]] etc.
Many animals incorporate iron into the [[heme]] complex, an essential component of [[cytochrome]]s, which are proteins involved in [[redox]] reactions (including but not limited to [[cellular respiration]]), and of oxygen carrying proteins [[hemoglobin]] and [[myoglobin]]. Inorganic iron involved in redox reactions is also found in the [[iron-sulfur cluster]]s of many [[enzyme]]s, such as [[nitrogenase]] (involved in the synthesis of [[ammonia]] from [[nitrogen]] and [[hydrogen]]) and [[hydrogenase]]. A class of [[non-heme iron proteins]] is responsible for a wide range of functions within several life forms, such as [[enzymes]] [[methane monooxygenase]] (oxidizes [[methane]] to [[methanol]]), [[ribonucleotide reductase]] (reduces [[ribose]] to [[deoxyribose]]; [[DNA replication|DNA biosynthesis]]), [[hemerythrin]]s ([[oxygen]] transport and fixation in [[marine biology#other sea life|marine invertebrate]]s) and [[purple acid phosphatase]] ([[hydrolysis]] of [[phosphate]] [[ester]]s). When the body is fighting a bacterial [[infection]], the body sequesters iron inside of cells (mostly stored in the storage molecule [[ferritin]]) so that it cannot be used by bacteria.
Iron distribution is heavily regulated in [[mammal]]s, both as a defense against bacterial infection as well as the potential biological toxicity of iron. The iron absorbed from the [[duodenum]] binds to transferrin, and is carried by [[blood]] to different [[cell (biology)|cell]]s. There it gets by an as yet unknown mechanism incorporated into target proteins. [http://www.plosbiology.org/plosonline/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0000079]. A lengthier article on the system of human iron regulation can be found in the article on [[human iron metabolism]].
=== Dietary sources ===
Good sources of dietary iron include [[meat]], [[fish]], [[poultry]], [[lentil]]s, [[bean]]s, [[leaf vegetable]]s, [[tofu]], [[chickpea]]s, [[black-eyed pea]], [[strawberry|strawberries]] and [[farina (food)|farina]].
Iron provided by [[dietary supplement]]s is often found as [[Ferrous fumarate|Iron (II) fumarate]]. The [[Recommended Dietary Allowance|RDA]] for iron varies considerably based on the age, gender, and source of dietary iron ([[heme]]-based iron has higher [[bioavailability]])[http://www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/7/294/0.pdf]. Also note the section below on [[#Precautions|precautions]].
Metallic iron filings are added to some [[breakfast cereals]] and listed in the ingredients as "reduced iron" ("reduced" referring to [[redox]] chemistry). If the cereal is crushed, the iron filings can be separated with a magnet.
== Precautions ==
Excessive iron is toxic to humans, because excess ferrous iron reacts with [[peroxide]]s in the body, producing [[free radical]]s. Iron becomes toxic when it exceeds the amount of [[transferrin]] needed to bind free iron. In excess, uncontrollable quantities of free radicals are produced.
[[human iron metabolism|Iron uptake is tightly regulated]] by the human body, which has no physiologic means of excreting iron and regulates iron solely by regulating uptake. However, too much ingested iron can damage the cells of the [[gastrointestinal tract]] directly, and may enter the bloodstream by damaging the cells that would otherwise regulate its entry. Once there, it causes damage to cells in the [[heart]], [[liver]] and elsewhere. This can cause serious problems, including the potential of death from overdose, and long-term organ damage in survivors.
Humans experience iron toxicity above 20 milligrams of iron for every kilogram of weight, and 60 milligrams per kilogram is a lethal dose.[http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic285.htm] Over-consumption of iron, often the result of children eating large quantitities of [[ferrous sulfate]] tablets intended for adult consumption, is the most common toxicological cause of death in children under six. The [[Dietary Reference Intake|DRI]] lists the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for adults as 45 [[milligram|mg]]/day. For children under fourteen years old the UL is 40 mg/day.
If iron intake is excessive [[iron overload disorder]]s can sometimes result, such as [[hemochromatosis]]. Iron overload disorders require a genetic inability to regulate iron uptake; however, many people have a genetic susceptibility to iron overload without realizing it and without knowing a family history of the problem. For this reason, people should not take iron supplements unless they suffer from [[iron deficiency (medicine)|iron deficiency]] and have consulted a doctor. [[Blood donation|Blood donors]] are at special risk of low iron levels and are often recommended to supplement their iron intake.
The medical management of iron toxicity is complex. One element of the medical approach is a specific [[chelator|chelating]] agent called deferoxamine, used to bind and expel excess iron from the body in case of iron toxicity.
==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/26.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &mdash; Iron]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Iron}}
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Fe/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Iron]
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele026.html It's Elemental &ndash; Iron]
* [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nucene/nucbin2.html The Most Tightly Bound Nuclei]
<!-- interwiki -->
[[Category:Iron| ]]
[[Category:Chemical elements|Iron]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]
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[[af:Yster]]
[[ar:حديد]]
[[bg:Желязо]]
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[[cy:Haearn]]
[[da:Jern]]
[[de:Eisen]]
[[et:Raud]]
[[es:Hierro]]
[[eo:Fero]]
[[fr:Fer]]
[[gl:Ferro]]
[[ko:철]]
[[hr:Željezo]]
[[io:Fero]]
[[id:Besi]]
[[ia:Ferro]]
[[is:Járn]]
[[it:Ferro]]
[[he:ברזל]]
[[ku:Hesin]]
[[la:Ferrum]]
[[lv:Dzelzs]]
[[lt:Geležis]]
[[li:Iezer]]
[[hu:Vas]]
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[[pt:Ferro]]
[[ru:Железо]]
[[sco:Airn]]
[[simple:Iron]]
[[sk:Železo]]
[[sl:Železo]]
[[sr:Гвожђе]]
[[fi:Rauta]]
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[[ta:இரும்பு]]
[[th:เหล็ก]]
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[[zh:铁]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IEEE 802.15</title>
<id>14735</id>
<revision>
<id>41874999</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:47:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fresnel zone</username>
<id>1016303</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''IEEE 802.15''' is the '''15'''<sup>th</sup> [[working group]] of the [[IEEE 802]] which specializes in [[Wireless PAN]] (Personal Area Network) standards. It includes four task groups (numbered from 1 to 4):
*Task group 1 (WPAN/Bluetooth) deals with [[Bluetooth]], having produced the 802.15.1 standard, published on June 14, 2002. It includes a [[medium access control]] and [[physical layer]] specification adapted from Bluetooth 1.1.
*Task group 2 (Coexistence) deals with coexistence of Wireless LAN ([[IEEE_802.11|802.11]]) and Wireless PAN.
*Task group 3 is in fact two groups: 3 (WPAN High Rate) and 3a (WPAN Alternate Higher Rate), both dealing with high-rate WPAN standards (20 Mbit/s or higher).
*Task group 4 (WPAN Low Rate) deals with low rate but very long battery life (months or even years). The first edition of the 802.15.4 standard was released in May 2003. In March 2004, after forming Task Group 4b, task group 4 put itself in hibernation. The new Task group 4b aims at clarifying and enhancing specific parts of the Task Group 4 standard. The [[ZigBee]] set of high level communication protocols is based upon the specification produced by this 802.15.4b taskgroup.
==See also==
*[[Bluetooth]] - IEEE 802.15.1
*[[Ultra wideband|UWB]] / [[Wireless USB]] - IEEE 802.15.3a
*[[ZigBee]] - IEEE 802.15.4
==External links==
*[http://www.ieee802.org/15/ official web site]
*[http://ieee802.org/15/pub/TG1.html Task group 1 (WPAN/Bluetooth)]
*[http://ieee802.org/15/pub/TG2.html Task group 2 (WPAN Coexistence)]
*[http://ieee802.org/15/pub/TG3.html Task group 3 (WPAN High Rate)]
*[http://ieee802.org/15/pub/TG3a.html Task group 3a (WPAN Alternate Higher Rate)]
*[http://ieee802.org/15/pub/TG4.html Task group 4 (WPAN Low Rate)]
*[http://www.palowireless.com/i802_15/ Palowireless IEEE 802.15 Resource Center] Articles, news and resources
{{compu-network-stub}}
[[Category:IEEE 802]]
[[Category:Wireless networking]]
[[es:IEEE 802.15]]
[[da:IEEE 802.15]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IEEE 802</title>
<id>14736</id>
<revision>
<id>39107827</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T19:47:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.95.126.57</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''IEEE 802''' refers to a family of [[IEEE]] standards about [[local area network]]s and [[metropolitan area network]]s.
More specifically, the IEEE 802 standards are restricted to networks carrying variable-size packets. (By contrast, in cell-based networks data is transmitted in short, uniformly sized units called cells. [[Isochronous]] networks, where data is transmitted as a steady stream of octets, or groups of octets, at regular time intervals, are also out of the scope of this standard.)
The services and protocols specified in IEEE 802 map to the lower two layers (Data Link and Physical) of the seven-layer [[OSI model|OSI]] networking reference model. In fact, IEEE 802 splits the OSI Data Link Layer into two sub-layers named |
Philistine woman and subsequent problems arising from it; the second is the tale of his relationship with Delilah, which begins with him standing between two gateposts at dawn, and ends with him standing between two temple pillars in the evening. Though these two cycles may have been collected separately from each other, textual criticism favours the view that the whole Samson narrative originates from one author. That the narrative of Samson is easily broken into 12 episodes is considered to be a deliberate literary conceit, owing to the significance of the number 12 to the Israelites.
In addition to such parallel narratives, the story of Jephthah (11:1-12:7) is often suspected to have been subject to later editing in three locations, though the reasons for the first two are not at all clear
*According to 11:1-2, it is Jephthah's own brothers which expelled him, whereas according to 11:7 it is the elders of Gilead
*The message to the Ammonites at 11:12-27 is written as if directed at Moabites.
*11:35-40 has the appearance of abridging a more extensive original text, glossing over the existence in the text of human sacrifice to Yahweh, which is mentioned fairly obviously at 11:31
===The appendices===
The Appendices cover two stories from the time of the Judges, rather than Judges themselves, and so only have contextual relationship in passing with the remainder of the work. Perhaps the most unusual aspect of the Appendices is that they cover events occurring at the start of the period of Judges not at its end, and so, chronologically, belong before the remainder of the book, not after it. Even more noticeable is that the narrative preceding the Appendices continues in 1 Samuel, as if the interruption due to the narrative of the Appendices were simply not present. Hence scholars view the Appendices as texts that were not originally present but later added due to the shared time frame, though the reason they were inserted at the end rather than the beginning is fairly unknown.
The story of Micah and his Idols (17-18) is thought by some scholars (e.g. Bertheau, Budde, Kittel, and [[Carl Heinrich Cornill]]) to be composed from two distinct accounts, one recording Micah making an Ephod and Teraphim and hiring a Levite to be "father and priest", the other recording Micah making a graven image and a molten image and hiring a Levite as a priest who he treated as a son. Were this to be the case, it may indicate that at least part of the Appendices could be considered further continuations of the Jahwist, Elohist, or Priestly sources, hence explaining their origin. However, other critical scholars have proposed that such discrepencies may simply be due to later scribal interpolations. The story is significantly notable as it describes a cult and priesthood at Dan which is mentioned nowhere else in the entire [[Hebrew Bible]], and hence is considered to be based on a particularly early source, prior to later recensions glossing over cult centres of Yahweh outside Jerusalem and Shiloh.
The other story of the appendices (19-21), concerning the Levite and his concubine, is thought to date from a similarly early era based on linguistic similarities to the first appendix. However, as everyone in the story is anonymous, except Phinehas, has lead many Biblical critics to regard the story as fictional. Nevertheless, Hosea (10:9) says that "...since the days of Gibeah, you have sinned, O Israel...'', evidencing at least the presence of traditions resembling parts of the story, though some scholars, beginning with Noldeke, believe the story is actually based on something from a slightly later time period - the ruining of the tribe of Benjamin by the war between David and the son of Saul.
==See also==
*[[Tanakh]]
*[[Bible]]
*[[Biblical canon]]
*[[Documentary hypothesis]]
*[[Deuteronomic Cycle]]
==External links==
*Original text:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0701.htm &#1513;&#1468;&#1473;&#1465;&#1508;&#1456;&#1496;&#1460;&#1497;&#1501; - ''Shoftim'' - Judges] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0701.htm Judges at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15750 Shoftim - Judges (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/07_judges.htm Judges at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&version=NIV&passage=judges Judges at Bible Gateway] (Various versions)
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Judges Judges at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
*Articles:
** [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=689&letter=J&search=Judges Book of Judges article] (Jewish Encyclopedia)
** [http://www.kingscalendar.com/cgi-bin/index.cgi?action=viewnews&id=164 The King's Calendar: The Secret of Qumran] (Chronology for Israel's Period of the Judges 1412 BCE to 1039 BCE)
{{eastons}}
[[Category:Judges of ancient Israel|**]]
[[Category:Nevi'im|*]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Judges]]
[[bg:Книга на съдиите]]
[[ca:Llibre dels Jutges]]
[[cs:Kniha Soudců]]
[[de:Buch der Richter]]
[[es:Jueces]]
[[fi:Tuomarien kirja]]
[[fr:Livre des Juges]]
[[he:ספר שופטים]]
[[id:Hakim-Hakim]]
[[ja:士師記]]
[[jv:Para Hakim]]
[[ko:판관기]]
[[nl:Richteren]]
[[no:Dommernes bok]]
[[pl:Księga Sędziów]]
[[pt:Juízes]]
[[sk:Sudcovia]]
[[sv:Domarboken]]
[[zh:士師記]]
[[zh-min-nan:Sū-su-kì]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Books of Samuel</title>
<id>4378</id>
<revision>
<id>40928988</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T23:08:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cmdrjameson</username>
<id>101935</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>sp (9): an pro→a pro, criticists→critics, independant→independent, preceeded→preceded, pursuaded→persuaded, pursuades→persuades, pursuade→persuade, reknowned→renowned, sucessfully→successfully; unicodify</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
The '''Books of Samuel''', also referred to as '''[The Book of] Samuel''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: שְׁמוּאֵל), are part of the [[Tanakh]] (part of [[Judaism]]'s [[Hebrew Bible]]) and also of the [[Old Testament]] (of [[Christianity]]). The work was originally written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]), and the ''Book(s) of Samuel'' originally formed a single text, as they are often considered today in Hebrew bibles, referred to as ''Sefer Shmuel''.
Together with what is now referred to as the ''[[Books of Kings|Book(s) of Kings]]'', the translators who created the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Septuagint]] divided the text into four books, which they named the ''Books of the Kingdoms''. In the [[Latin]] [[Vulgate]] version, these then became the ''Books of the Kings'', and what we now know as ''1 & 2 Samuel'' were referred to as ''1 & 2 Kings'', with ''3 & 4 Kings'' being what we now call ''1 & 2 Kings''.
== The contents of the books ==
The two books can be essentially broken down into five parts:
*The period of Yahweh's rejection of [[Eli]], [[Samuel]]'s birth, and subsequent judgement (1 Samuel 1:1-7:17)
*The period of the life of [[Saul]] prior to meeting [[David]] (1 Samuel 8:1-15:35)
*The period of Saul's interaction with David (1 Samuel 16:1-2 Samuel 1:27)
*The period of David's reign and the rebellions he suffers (2 Samuel 2:1-20:22)
*An appendix of material concerning David in no particular order, and out of sequence with the rest of the text (2 Samuel 2:21:1-25)
A conclusion of sorts appears at [[1 Kings]] 1-2, concerning [[Solomon]] enacting a final revenge on those who did what David perceived as wrongdoing, and having a similar narrative style. While the subject matter in the Book(s) of Samuel is also covered by the narrative in [[Chronicles]], it is noticeable that the section (2 Sam. 11:2-12:29) containing an account of the matter of [[Bathsheba]] is omitted in the corresponding passage in 1 Chr. 20.
;The period of Samuel's birth and judgement involves
*'''Story of [[Eli]]''' (portions of 1 Samuel 1:1-4:22) - Eli's sons are the priests at [[Shiloh]], but they abuse their position. A ''man of God'' comes to Eli and tells him that owing to this behaviour, Yahweh has revoked his promise of perpetual priesthood for his family, and Eli's sons will die on the same day. Samuel confirms that there is no way for them to avoid the fate. His son's duly die on the same day during a battle, and Eli drops dead from shock.
*'''Story of [[Hannah]]''' (remainder of 1 Samuel 1:1-1:28) - Hannah is childless, but then makes a vow promising that if she has a son, he will be dedicated to God and be a [[Nazarite]]. Eli blesses her and a child is soon born. The child is identified as [[Samuel]], though many modern academics think this is a later edit to the story and it was originally the birth narrative of [[Saul]].
*'''[[Song of Hannah]]''' (1 Samuel 2:1-10) - Hannah pronounces a poem concerning Yahweh's magnificence that has strong similarities to the later [[Magnificat]]
*The '''[[Philistine captivity of the Ark]]''' (1 Samuel 4:1-7:1) - The philistines attack [[Ebenezer]] and capture the ark, taking it to their temple to [[Dagon]]. Eli's daughter in law drops dead from shock, but first goes into labour and gives birth to a child named [[Ichabod]] (''without glory''). The next morning, the Dagon statue is found prostrate before it, so they adjust it, but the morning after it is found broken into pieces. The town surrounding it falls victim to a plague, so the Philistines resign themselves to get rid of the ark, first sending it on to [[Gath]], and then to [[Ekron]], both of which fall victim to the plague. On the advice of |
[March 4]], [[1857]]. Two months before he took office, shortly after boarding a train in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], president-elect Pierce and his family were trapped in a [[Derailment|derailed]] car when it rolled over an [[embankment]] near [[Andover, Massachusetts]]. Pierce and his wife survived and were merely shaken up, but they watched as their 11-year-old son Benjamin ("Bennie") was crushed to death in the [[train disaster]]. Grief-stricken, Pierce entered the presidency nervously exhausted. The family had already lost two children to typhus, and Jane Pierce believed the train accident was divine punishment for her husband's acceptance of the high office of the presidency. As a result, Pierce chose to "affirm" his [[oath of office]] on a law book rather than the Bible, becoming the first and thus far only president to do so. In his [[Inauguration Day|inaugural address]], he proclaimed an era of peace and prosperity at home and vigor in relations with other nations, saying that the United States might have to acquire additional possessions for the sake of its own security and would not be deterred by "any timid forebodings of evil."
===Policies===
Pierce selected for his [[United States Cabinet|Cabinet]] not men of similar beliefs but a broad cross-section of people he personally knew. Many thought that the diverse group would soon break up, but instead it became the only Cabinet, [[as of 2006]], that would remain unchanged through a four-year term.
Pierce aroused sectional apprehension when he pressured [[United Kingdom|Britain]] to relinquish its special interests along part of the [[Central America]]n coast, and even more when he tried to persuade [[Spain]] to sell [[Cuba]] for $100 million because of the expansive sugar crop in Cuba. The release of the [[Ostend Manifesto]], signed by several of Pierce's cabinet members, caused outrage with its suggestion that the U.S. seize Cuba by force, and permanently discredited the Democratic Party's expansionist policies, which it had so famously rode to victory in 1844.
But the most controversial event of Pierce's presidency was the [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]], which repealed the [[Missouri Compromise]] and reopened the question of slavery in the West. This measure, the handiwork of Senator [[Stephen A. Douglas]], allegedly grew out of his desire to promote a railroad from [[Chicago, Illinois]] to [[California]] through [[Nebraska]]. Secretary of War [[Jefferson Davis]], advocate of a southern transcontinental route, had persuaded Pierce to send [[James Gadsden]] to Mexico to buy land for a southern railroad. He purchased the area now comprising southern [[Arizona]] and part of southern New Mexico for $10,000,000, commonly known as the [[Gadsden Purchase]].
Douglas, to win Southern support for the organization of Nebraska, placed in his bill a provision declaring the Missouri Compromise null and void. Douglas provided in his bills that the residents of the new territories could decide the slavery question for themselves. Pierce, who had acquired a reputation as untrustworthy and easily manipulable, was persuaded to support Douglas' plan in a closed meeting between Pierce, Douglas, and several southern Senators, with Pierce consulting only [[Jefferson Davis]] of his cabinet. The passage of Kansas-Nebraska caused widespread outrage in the North and spurred the creation of the Republican Party, a sectional, Northern party which was organized as a direct response to the bill. The election of Republican [[Abraham Lincoln]] would provoke secession in 1861.
Meanwhile, Pierce lost all credibility he may have had in the North and his supporters in the South and was not renominated.
===Major legislation signed===
* Signed [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]]
===Administration and Cabinet===
[[Image:franklin pierce stamp.JPG|right|thumb|Franklin Pierce postage stamp]]
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left"
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|'''OFFICE'''||align="left"|'''NAME'''||align="left"|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[President of the United States|President]]||align="left" |'''[[Franklin Pierce]]'''||align="left"|1853&ndash;1857
|-
|align="left"|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align="left"|'''[[William R. King]]'''||align="left"|1853
|-
!bgcolor="#000000" colspan="3"|
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align="left"|'''[[William L. Marcy]]'''||align="left"|1853&ndash;1857
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align="left"|'''[[James Guthrie]]'''||align="left"|1853&ndash;1857
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align="left"|'''[[Jefferson Davis]]'''||align="left"|1853&ndash;1857
|-
|align="left"|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align="left"|'''[[Caleb Cushing]]'''||align="left"|1853&ndash;1857
|-
|align="left"|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align="left"|'''[[James Campbell (Postmaster General)|James Campbell]]'''||align="left"|1853&ndash;1857
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align="left"|'''[[James C. Dobbin]]'''||align="left"|1853&ndash;1857
|-
|align="left"|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]]||align="left"|'''[[Robert McClelland (American)|Robert McClelland]]'''||align="left"|1853&ndash;1857
|}
<br clear="all">
===Supreme Court appointments===
Pierce appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:
* [[John Archibald Campbell]] - 1853
===States admitted to the Union===
''none''
==Retirement==
After losing the Democratic nomination, Pierce reportedly quipped "there's nothing left to do but get drunk" (quoted also as "after the [[White House]] what is there to do but drink?") which he apparently did frequently, once running down an elderly woman while driving a carriage, drunk. During the Civil War, Pierce further damaged his reputation by declaring support for the Confederacy, headed by his old cabinet member Davis. One of the few friends to stick by Pierce was his college friend and biographer, [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]]. Franklin Pierce died in [[Concord, New Hampshire|Concord]], [[New Hampshire]] at 4:40 in the morning of [[October 8]], [[1869]], from [[cirrhosis]] of the [[liver]], and was interred in Minot Enclosure in the Old North Cemetery.
==Legacy==
Places named after President Pierce:
* [[Franklin Pierce College]] in [[Rindge, New Hampshire|Rindge]], [[New Hampshire]]
* [[Franklin Pierce School District]] in [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]], [[Washington]]
* [[Franklin Pierce High School]] in the [[Franklin Pierce School District]] in [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]], [[Washington]]
* [[Pierce County, Washington|Pierce County]], [[Washington]]
* The [[Franklin Pierce Law Center]] in [[Concord, New Hampshire|Concord]], [[New Hampshire]]
* [[Mt. Pierce]] in the [[Presidential Range]] of the [[White Mountains]], [[New Hampshire]]
Pierce and [[Barbara Bush]] share a common ancestor, thus President [[George W. Bush]] is not only related to Pierce, but in some photos (as with the one on this page) there is an observable facial resemblance between the two.
==References==
* Gara, Larry, ''The Presidency of Franklin Pierce'' (1991)
* Nichols; Roy Franklin. ''Franklin Pierce, Young Hickory of the Granite Hills'' (1931)
* Taylor; Michael J.C. "Governing the Devil in Hell: 'Bleeding Kansas' and the Destruction of the Franklin Pierce Presidency (1854-1856)" ''White House Studies'', Vol. 1, 2001, pp 185-205
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Franklin+Pierce | name=Franklin Pierce}}
*[http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/fp14.html White House biography]
*[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/pierce.htm Inaugural Address]
*[http://www.eldritchpress.org/nh/fppf.html The Life of Franklin Pierce By Nathaniel Hawthorne]
*State of the Union: [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/pierce-1.html 1853], [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/pierce-2.html 1854], [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/pierce-3.html 1855], [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/pierce-4.html 1856]
{{start box}}
{{succession box
| title=[[United States House of Representatives, New Hampshire District 3|Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New Hampshire's 3rd District]]
| before=[[Joseph Hammons]]
| after=[[Jared W. William]]
| years=1833 &ndash; 1837}}
{{U.S. Senator box
| state=New Hampshire
| class=2
| before=[[John Page (New Hampshire)|John Page]]
| after=[[Leonard Wilcox]]
| alongside=[[Henry Hubbard]], [[Levi Woodbury]]
| years=1837 &ndash; 1842}}
{{succession box
| title=[[List_of_United_States_Democratic_Party_presidential_tickets|Democratic Party presidential nominee]]
| before=[[Lewis Cass]]
| after=[[James Buchanan]]
| years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1852|1852]] (won)}}
{{succession box
| title=[[President of the United States]]
| before=[[Millard Fillmore]]
| after=[[James Buchanan]]
| years=[[March 4]], [[1853]] &ndash; [[March 3]], [[1857]]<!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 4. -->}}
{{end box}}
{{USpresidents}}
{{USDemPresNominees}}
[[Category:1804 births|Pierce, Franklin]]
[[Category:1869 deaths|Pierce, Franklin]]
[[Category:Democratic Party |
].
The heroine's father, Maurice Malherb, is based on [[Thomas Windeatt]].
In the novel Malherb is a miscreant who destroys [[Childes Tomb|Childe's tomb]] and beats his servant. He is depicted as a victim of his own bad temper rather than a sadist.
Malherb is introduced as the younger son of a noble family and he builds the Fox Tor house to be the impressive gentleman's residence suggested by [[William Crossing]] rather than the humble cottage which it actually is.
[[Category:1929 films|American Prisoner, The]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electromagnetic field</title>
<id>9735</id>
<revision>
<id>42155465</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:37:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/144.122.128.91|144.122.128.91]] ([[User talk:144.122.128.91|talk]]) to last version by 216.166.159.185</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
An electromagnetic field is composed of two related [[Vector_%28spatial%29|vector]] [[Field (physics)|fields]]: the [[electric field]] and the [[magnetic field]]. When referred to as ''the'' electromagnetic field, the field is imagined to encompass all of [[space]]; typically an electromagnetic field is considered to be limited to a local area around an object in space.
The [[vector (spatial)|vector]]s ('''E''' and '''B''') that characterize the field have their values defined at every point of space and time.
The field is said to be an [[electrostatic field]] when the [[electric field]] ('''E''') is non-zero and is constant in time.
The electric and magnetic fields are linked by [[Maxwell's equations]].
Electromagnetic fields can be explained with a quantum basis by [[quantum electrodynamics]].
==Behavior of the electromagnetic fields==
;(A [[fluid dynamics|hydrodynamic]] interpretation)
===Incompressible fluids===
The electric and magnetic vector fields can be thought of as being the velocities of a pair of [[Perfect_fluid|incompressible fluids]] which permeate space. In the absence of charges these fluids would be at rest, so that their velocity fields would be zero. Since both fluids are incompressible, their densities do not change: it is not possible to compress magnetic or electric fluid into a smaller space.
==Source and Sinks==
[[Electric charge]]s act either as [[Divergence|sources or sinks]] of the electric fluid. An [[electron]] is constantly absorbing electric fluid around it at some rate, call it &epsilon;. [[Proton]]s are the reverse: they constantly pour electric "fluid" towards the surrounding space at rate &epsilon;, so fluid moves away from the proton with speed
:<math> v = {\epsilon \over 4 \pi r^2} </math>
(where ''r'' is distance of the fluid away from the proton) so that the total [[flux]] of fluid going through any (imaginary) sphere which contains that proton is the area of the sphere times the speed of the fluid flowing through it: <math> 4 \pi r^2 \cdot v = \epsilon </math>.
===The two fluids===
Magnetic fluid, on the other hand, has [[Solenoidal_vector_field|no sources or sinks]]: there are no [[Magnetic_monopoles|magnetic charges]] that could pour out or suck up magnetic fluid. If magnetic fluid is standing still, it can be stirred up, making it move in closed circles and closed loops (see [[vortical]] motion).
For a magnetic fluid to keep moving in the same loop, though, some force has to keep stirring it up: otherwise the energy of its circular motion will dissipate and the magnetic fluid will stop moving and will return to rest.
===The vortex===
If electric fluid starts to accelerate in a certain direction, it will cause a [[vortex]] of magnetic fluid to move in circles around the direction in which the electric fluid is accelerating (according to the [[right hand rule]]). As soon as the electric fluid stops accelerating, the vortex of magnetic fluid vanishes.
Notice that electric fluid will not accelerate spontaneously; something has to force it to accelerate. This same thing then indirectly causes the magnetic vortex to be stirred up: a magnetic vortex will not arise spontaneously.
Finally, if magnetic fluid accelerates in a certain direction, it causes electric fluid to move in a vortex which circles around the direction of acceleration in the direction opposite to the right hand rule.
===Summary===
To summarise, an acceleration of the electric fluid causes a positive vortex of magnetic "fluid" to move around it, but an acceleration of the magnetic fluid causes a negative vortex of electric fluid to flow around it.
===Negative Feedback Loop===
The opposite signs of acceleration create a [[negative feedback]] loop (see [[Lenz's law]].) An acceleration of electric fluid causes a positive magnetic vortex. This means that the magnetic fluid has been accelerated to produce this circular flow. But this causes a negative vortex of electric fluid around the magnetic vortex. This reactive vortical acceleration of electric fluid is in the direction opposite of the original acceleration of electric fluid: hence a negative feedback loop:
:<math> \Delta E \rightarrow + \Delta B </math>
:<math> - \Delta E \leftarrow + \Delta B </math>.
===Positive Feedback Loop===
If there were a [[positive feedback]] loop, the result might be similar to the high pitched resonant effect produced by a microphone too close to its speaker. The positive feedback would cause the original acceleration of electric fluid to amplify itself continually, while at the same time the vortices around it would amplify as well; an explosive maelstrom of movement! However, the laws of electromagnetism and [[conservation of energy]] being what they are, an initial disturbance (acceleration) of the electric fluid will cause a feedback loop that, being negative, will tend to extinguish itself at its source but which will propagate outwards in what is called an [[electromagnetic wave]].
==Flaw in the velocity field interpretation==
The fluid analogy is flawed, in that objects immersed in a moving fluid (e.g. a river) tend to be pushed by that fluid in such a way that the velocity of the object aligns with the velocity of the fluid. Once the velocities are aligned, the fluid's motion should vanish from the object's point of view.
However, the force of an electric field on a charged particle is <math> \mathbf{F} = q \mathbf{E} </math>, a force that is independent of the velocity of the particle. This means that the particle will accelerate continually in the direction of the field. If the field were the velocity field of a fluid then the fluid would cause the object to accelerate continually in the direction of the fluid's motion, to the point that the object's speed becomes [[paradox|paradoxically]] far greater than that of the fluid is in which it is immersed.
From the continually accelerating object's point of view (see [[principle of relativity]]), if its speed has already surpassed the speed of the fluid, then the fluid is moving backwards; the field should be pointing in the direction opposite to the direction in which the object keeps accelerating. This means that the object should stop accelerating and begin decelerating, until its speed aligns with the speed of the electric fluid.
==The field as a stream of moving photons==
An alternative interpretation would be that the field is not actually a velocity field, but a [[flux]] density field of [[photon|photonic]] fluid, which is constantly moving at the same speed: the [[speed of light]], independent of the speed of the observer (the charged object). Photonic fluid never changes speed but can change net direction and the intensity of its net movement in that direction.
The velocity field interpretation is related to the hypothesis of a [[luminiferous aether]] through which electromagnetic waves would propagate. The proposition that the motion of the earth relative to the aether might be detectable (i.e. through an "aether wind") was disproven by the [[Michelson-Morley experiment]], whereupon it was argued that the experiment had disproved the very existence of the aether. This opinion prevailed, but remains disputed by some who equate the classical concept of the aether with the modern notion of a [[Quantum_electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamic]] fluid. (The disputants argue that proving that the earth does not travel through an "aether wind" is no more nor less significant than proving that the earth does not travel through its own gravitational or magnetic fields.) The necessity of an aether was seen to have vanished when it was replaced by [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[theory of relativity]].
According to [[special relativity]], the [[Lorentz force]] equation reduces to the equation
:<math> \mathbf{F} = q \mathbf{E}. </math>
The magnetic field becomes a relativistic by-product of the electric field, i.e. [[Lorentz transformations]] cause magnetic fields to be induced from electric fields, and vice versa. So the photonic fluid describes the electric field, and relativistic effects account for the derivative magnetic field. (This can be derived by applying a Lorentz transformation to a simplified version of [[Maxwell's equations]], and it is mentioned by Einstein in his paper ''On The Electrodynamics Of Moving Bodies'' [http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/].)
The [[speed]] of light is [[Invariant_%28physics%29|invariant]] under a Lorentz transformation, but the [[velocity]] of light is changed. The component of the velocity of light parallel to the [[Coordinate rotation#Relativity|boost]] is left unchanged, but the transverse component is rotated: it is accelerated in a direction parallel to the boost. The addition of special relativity a |
bodying various emanations of God's being.
With this in mind, the Kabbalist [[Isaac Luria]], explained that all creation contained ניצוץ ("nitzutz" or "holy sparks") &#0151; the remnants and shards of the sephiroth/kaylim which God had shattered &#0151; and offered a theological purpose known as תיקון עולם ("[[Tikkun Olam]]" or "rectifying the world") which states that humanity's duty is to recognize the holy sparks inherent in all creation and to elevate them by performing מצוות ("[[mitzvah|mitzvot]]"), otherwise regarded as the fulfilment of Biblical obligations. This view gave rise to the concept of [[panentheism]] in Judaism: The notion that God is inherent in all things, and is corroborated by the Jewish principle בצלם אלוהים ("b'tzelem Elohim" or "in the image of God"), inferring that all humanity is created with God inherent. The concept derives from Genesis 9:6 (serving as a Biblical proof-text for the position), "For in the image of God He made man." Thus, suggested Luria, by doing mitzvoth directed towards our fellow human being, we recognize the nitzutz within them, and thus sanctify and elevate their inherent Godliness.
This notion is exemplified rather well by a Jewish nursery school song <blockquote>[[Hashem]] is here, Hashem is there, Hashem is truly everywhere. Up, up, down, down, right, left, and all around. Here, there, and everywhere, Hashem is truly there.</blockquote>Over time, this view evolved into the belief that all of creation and all of existence was in fact God itself, and that we as humanity are unaware of our own inherent Godliness and are grappling to come to terms with it. The standing view in neo-Hasidism, currently, is that there is nothing in existence other than God. I.e., all being is God. As it is stated in the ancient Kabbalistic incantation, אין עוד מילבדו ("Ain od milvado") &#0151; "There is nothing but God." Thus, it has become understood that God used God's self to form the universe. Rather than a contraction and the creation of something "other" in the void which God created, it is as though God punched a doughnut-hole in God's self and used the remaining "[[Munchkin (disambiguation)|munchkin]]" to form all of creation.
This paradigm shift is well documented by [[Zalman Schachter-Shalomi]], a [[Lubavitch]] Hasidic rabbi and founder of [[Jewish Renewal]] and its neo-Hasidic progeny, in his book ''Wrapped In A Holy Flame'':
<blockquote>I'd like to say we are in the shift to the place where everything is God, pantheism. The understanding that has come from mysticism and from people on the cusp of periods moving from past to present, people talking about primary experience, is that the body and the soul cannot be separated. It shouldn't be that they should be fighting one another, that you have too get rid of one in order to get the other. We want Wholeness, a holistic understanding, now. I believe that people are moving from theism to pantheism. There are some who don't like the word ''pantheism'', the idea that God is everything. They prefer the word ''panentheism'', which means that God is ''in'' everything. I, however, don't think that the distinction is real. What was the objection that people had to pantheism, God is everything? "Are you going to tell me that the excrement of a dog is also God?" And the answer to this would be &#0151;"Yes." What is wrong with that? It is only from the human perspective that we see a difference between that and ''challah''. On the sub molecular level, on the atomic level, they all look the same. And if you look from a galactic perspective, what difference is there between one and the other? So if "God is everything," why are you and I here? Because we are the appearance of God in this particular form. And God likes to appear in countless forms and experience countless lives.
If you would have mentioned this point of view when theism was dominant, you might have been killed. The theists would complain, "What you are saying is that there are no differences anymore? Does that mean that everything is right, everything is kosher? Where are the differences?" And those are good questions. We are not so far advanced yet that we can explain all these things, but deep down, the deepest level of the pattern is that God is everything. So it's not that God ''created'' the world but that God ''became'' the world.</blockquote>
Another progenitor of neo-Hasidism, [[Rabbi Arthur Green]], further describes the evolution of pantheistic thought in the Hasidic world, as well, in his book ''Seek My Face: A Jewish Mystical Theology''
====Qur'anic definitions of God====
''Main article'': [[Islamic concept of God]]
''Allah'' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''allāhu'' الله) is traditionally used by Muslims as the Arabic word for "God" (not "God's personal name", but the equivalent of the Hebrew word "El" as opposed to "YHWH"). The word ''Allah'' is not specific to Islam; [[Arab Christians]] and Arabic-speaking [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardi]] and [[Mizrahi Jew]]s also use it to refer to the monotheist deity. Arabic translations of the Bible also employ it, as do the [[Catholics]] of [[Malta]] who pronounce it as "Alla" in [[Maltese language|Maltese]], a language derived from and most closely related to Arabic, as well as Christians in [[Indonesia]], who pronounce it "Allah Bapa" (Allah the Father).
Most of the [[99 names of God]] found in the Qur'an are not actually names, but attributes. One, however, Al Haq, meaning The Truth, seems to equate to absolute truth as that which cannot be negated. Al Haq is more than a reflection of faith in the existence of The God, and links the concept of God to all creation forever. Thus Allah transcends the prophetic origins of Islam and is thus universal in all time and applies to all existence—past, present, and future.
====Negative theology====
''Main article: [[Negative theology]].''
Some Jewish, Christian and Muslim [[Medieval]] philosophers, including [[Moses Maimonides]] and [[Pseudo-Dionysius]], as well as many sages of other religions, developed what is termed as [[Apophatic Theology]] or the [[Via Negativa]], the idea that one cannot posit attributes to God and can only be discussed by what God is not. For example, we cannot say that God "exists" in the usual sense of the term, because that term is human defined and God's qualities such as existence may not be accurately characterized by it. What we can safely say is that ''God is not non-existent''. Likewise God's "wisdom" is of a fundamentally different kind from limited human perception. So we cannot use the word "wise" to describe God, because this implies he is wise in the way we usually describe humans being wise. However we can safely say that ''God is not ignorant''. We should not say that God is One, because we may not truly understand his nature, but we can state that there is no multiplicity in God's being.
The reason that this theology was developed was because it was felt that ascribing positive characteristics to God would imply that God could be accurately described with terms that were used to describe human qualities and perceptions. As humans cannot truly comprehend what kind of wisdom an eternal transcendent being might have, or what infinity might be like, we cannot in fact know or characterize His true nature. It is beyond human ability and would only mislead people.
The same path is known in [[Hindu]] tradition as [[Neti neti]], literally "not this nor that".
The proponents of this theory often experienced [[apophatic meditation|meditation]] which they viewed as one of the only effective ways of having a personal relationship with God. It involved trying to reach beyond the words commonly used to describe Him and His more [[ineffability|ineffable]] characteristics, and to comprehend in a [[mysticism|mystical]] manner the truths about Him which could not be achieved through religious language. Thus many sages and saints of both monotheistic and other traditions experienced mystical trances, or [[rapture]]s and stated they were unable to describe God or their [[vision]]s fully.
==== God as Unity or Trinity ====
Muslims, Jews, Jehovah's Witnesses and a small fraction of other nominal Christians are ''unitarian monotheists''. The vast majority of Christians have been and still are ''Trinitarian monotheists''.
* Unitarian monotheists hold that there is only one "person" (so to speak), or one basic substance, in God. Some adherents of this position consider Trinitarianism to be a form of polytheism.
* Trinitarian monotheists believe in one God that exists as three interdependent persons who share the same substance/essence; the Christian version of this is called the Trinity. The Hindu version [[Trimurti]], differs from Christianity in holding that God has three aspects (though shown as anthromorphs) rather than being three distinct Gods. Trinitarians hold that the three Gods have the same purpose, holiness, and sovereignty, and therefore each can be worshipped as God, without violating the idea that there is only truly one God to which worship belongs. The [[Smarta]] denomination of Hinduism also hold that belief and believe that worship of any aspect of God is equivalent. Although not a perfect analogy, the other denominations of Hinduism, [[Shaivism]] and [[Vaishnavism]] would be considered unitarian monotheistic faiths.
*Ayyavazhi says [[Ayya Vaikundar]] as the unity of [[Ekam]], [[Narayana]] and human ''(See:[[Ayyavazhi Trinity]])''
* [[Mormon]]s believe that there are three separate divine personages. One of these personages is a spirit without a body referred to as the "Holy Ghost". The other two personages are be |
hates]
* [http://home.att.net/~sergei592/East.html The Orthodox Tradition]
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/denominations/orthodoxy.htm Eastern Orthodox Christianity]
* [http://www.orthodoxlinks.info/ Directory of Orthodox Internet Resources]
* [http://www.theandros.com Theandros—An Online Journal of Orthodox Christian Theology and Philosophy]
* [http://www.smart.net/~mmontes/ortheast.html The Orthodox Ecclesiastical Calendar]
*[http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/ Orthodox Christian Information Center]
*[http://www.orthodoxcentral.com/talk/ Orthodox Web Portal]
===Local Orthodox churches (churches in full communion) ===
* [http://www.ec-patr.gr/ Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]
** [http://www.goarch.org/ Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America]
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** [http://www.antiochian.org/ Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America]
* [http://www.patriarchofjerusalem.com/en/home/homefr.htm Church of Jerusalem]
* [http://www.mospat.ru/index.php?lng=1 Russian Orthodox Church]
** [http://www2.gol.com/users/ocj/TheOrthodoxChurchinJapan.htm Orthodox Church in Japan]
** [http://www.orthodox.org.ua/ Ukrainian Orthodox Church - Moscow Patriarchy (UOC-MP)] (Ukrainian only)
* [http://www.patriarchate.ge/indexe.htm Church of Georgia]
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** [http://www.poa-info.org/index.php?l=en Archbishopric of Ohrid (Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia)]
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===Local Orthodox churches (churches not in full communion) ===
* [http://www.russianorthodoxchurch.ws/english Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]
* [http://www.ecclesiagoc.gr/ Church of the Genuine Orthodox Christians of Greece]
* [http://mpc.org.mk/ Macedonian Orthodox Church]
===Organizations===
* [http://www.scoba.us/ Standing Conference of Orthodox Bishop of America]
* [http://www.iocc.org/ International Orthodox Christian Charities]
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===Seminaries and Schools===
* [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/Seminaries Comprehensive List at OrthodoxWiki]
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<title>Exobiology</title>
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<page>
<title>Eusebius of Nicomedia</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Eusebius of Nicomedia and Constantinople,''' (d. [[341]]) was a bishop of Berytus (modern-day [[Beirut]]) in [[Phoenicia]], then of [[Nicomedia]] where the imperial court resided, and finally of [[Constantinople]] from [[338]] up to his death.
Distantly related to the imperial family of [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine]], he not only owed his removal from an insignificant to the most important episcopal see to his influence at court, but the great power he wielded in the Church was derived from that source. With the exception of a short period of eclipse, he enjoyed the complete confidence both of Constantine and [[Constantius II]]; and it was he who baptized the former May, [[337]].
Like [[Arius]], he was a pupil of [[Lucian of Antioch]], and it is probable that he held the same views as Arius from the very beginning. He afterward modified his ideas somewhat, or perhaps he only yielded to the pressure of circumstances; but he was, if not the teacher, at all events the leader and organizer, of the [[Arianism|Arian]] party.
At the [[First Council of Nicaea]], [[325]], he signed the Confession, but only after a long and desperate opposition. His defense of Arius angered the emperor, and a few months after the council
he was sent into exile. After the lapse of three years, he succeeded in regaining the imperial favor;
and after his return in [[329]] he brought the whole machinery of the state government into action in
order to impose his views upon the [[Christianity|Church]].
Eusebius baptised [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]] in 337 just before the death of the Emperor.
He is not to be confused with his contemporary [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], the author of a well-known early book of Church History.
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before=[[Paul I of Constantinople|Paul I]]|
title=[[List of Constantinople patriarchs|Bishop of Constantinople]]|
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<page>
<title>Edo</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the former city name of [[Tokyo]]. For the [[Nigeria]]n state or language, see [[Edo State]] or [[Edo language]]''
'''Edo''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 江戸, literally: [[Headlands and bays|bay]]-[[door]], "[[estuary]]", pronounced /{{IPA|edo}}/), once also spelled '''Yedo''' or '''Yeddo''', is the [[Geographical renaming|former name]] of the [[Japan]]ese capital [[Tokyo]]. While there had been early settlements on the hills at [[Tokyo Bay]] for several centuries, the first major event in the history of Edo was the building of the [[Edo Castle]] in [[1457]] by [[Ota Dokan]].
The [[Tokugawa shogunate]] was established in [[1603]] with Edo as its seat of government (''[[de facto]]'' [[capital]]). The emperor's residence, and formal capital, remained in [[Kyoto]]; that city had been the actual capital of Japan until that time.
Edo was devastated repeatedly by fires, the ''Meireki no Taika'' of [[1657]] perhaps having been the most serious one: an estimated 100,000 people perished in the flames. During the [[Edo period]], there were about one hundred fires, typically caused by accidents when the mostly wooden townhouses (''[[Machiya]]'') were heated with [[charcoal]] fires in winter.
In [[1868]], when the [[shogunate]] came to an end, the city was renamed "Tokyo" which means "Eastern Capital"; during the restoration, the emperor moved to Tokyo, making the city the formal as well as de facto capital of Japan.
During the [[Edo period]], the Shogunate appointed administrators (''machi bugyo'') to oversee the government of Edo. They oversaw the police and (from the time of [[Tokugawa Yoshimune|Yoshimune]] onward) the commoner fire department (''machibikeshi''), heard criminal and civil suits, and performed other administrative functions necessary in a city of a million inhabitants.
==See also==
*[[Tokyo]]
*[[Edo period]]
*[[History of Tokyo]]
*[[iki (aesthetic ideal)|iki]] (one of Japanese aesthetic ideals)
*[[Edokko]] (native of Edo)
==Sources==
Alternate spelling from [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]] article
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<page>
<title>Bing Crosby</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Wikibing2.jpg|thumb|right|]]
'''Harry Lillis "Bing" Crosby''' ([[May 3]], [[1903]] &ndash; [[October 14]], [[1977]]) was a popular and influential [[United States|American]] [[singer]] and [[actor]] whose career flourished from [[1926]] until his death in [[1977]].
Bing Crosby's influence on [[Popular Culture|popular culture]] and [[Popular Music|popular music]] is considerable as from [[1934]] to [[1954]], he held a nearly unrivaled command of [[Sound recording|record]] sales, [[radio]] ratings and [[motion picture]] grosses. He is considered by many to be among the most popular musical acts of the 20th century, along with [[Elvis Presley]], [[The Beatles]] and [[Frank Sinatra]].
Bing Crosby popularized singing with conversational ease, or [[crooning]]. His musical interpretations amalgamated rhythm and romance with scat singing, whistling, rythmic improvisation and melodic paraphrasing as elements of a hotter, sexier sound than had been concieved before.
Crosby is also credited as being the inspiration for the likes of [[Frank Sinatra]], [[Perry Como]], [[Dean Martin]], [[Andy Williams]], and more recently [[Harry Connick Jr.]] and [[Michael Bublé]]. In [[1992]], [[Artie Shaw]] offered his opinion of Crosby's place in [[Culture of the United States|American culture]] in these terms: "The thing you have to understand about Bing Crosby is that he was the first [[Hipster|hip]] [[white (people)|white]] person born in the United States"<sup>[[Bing Crosby#References|1]]</sup>.
In [[1962]], Crosby was the first person to receive the [[Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award]].
==Early life==
Harry Lillis Crosby was born in [[Tacoma, Washington]] on [[May 3]], [[1903]] in a house that his father built (1112 North J Street, Tacoma, Washington). His family later moved to [[Spokane, Washington]] in 1906 to find work. He was the fourth of seven children - five boys [[Larry Crosby|Larry]] (1895-1975), Everett (born 1896), Ted (born 1900) and [[Bob Crosby|Bob]] (1913-1993) and two girls Catherine (born 1905) and Mary Rose (born 1907) - born to [[United Kingdom|English]]-[[United States|American]] Harry Lowe Crosby (1871-1950), a bookkeeper and [[Irish-American]] Catherine Harrigan (1873-1964), (affectionately known as Kate), the daughter of a builder from [[County Mayo]] in [[Ireland]]. His paternal ancestors Thomas Prence and Patience Brewster were born in [[England]] and immigrated to the [[U.S.]] in the 17th century; Brewster's family came over on the [[Mayflower]].
It should be noted that Bing Crosby had no birth certificate and that his birth date was shrouded in mystery until his childhood [[Roman Catholic]] church in Tacoma, Washington, released the baptismal records that revealed his date of birth.
The nickname "Bing" was bestowed upon on him by a childhood friend, Valentine Hobart, who shared Bing's interest in a newspaper comic strip called "The Bingville Bugle". Valentine Hobart began calling Harry Crosby "Bingo from Bingville." Eventually the nickname was shortened to "Bing" and was adopted by Bing's other friends and even his teachers.
Bing Crosby's parents loved music and they both loved to sing. Bing was even sent away to singing lessons, but dropped out because he did not like the demands of the training. Bing's favorite singer and idol was [[Al Jolson]]. However, Bing's style is quite different from Jolson's loud, high volume approach to singing.
Bing enrolled in the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]]-run [[Gonzaga University|Gonzaga College]] in [[Spokane, Washington]] in the fall of [[1920]] with the intent to become a lawyer. While in Gonzaga he sent away for a set of mail order drums. After much practice he soon became good enough and was invited to join a local band which was made up of mostly local high school kids called the "Musicaladers", managed by one [[Al Rinker]]. He made so much money doing this he decided to drop out of school during his final year, to pursue a career in show business.
==Popular success==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Bing_Crosby_Oscar.gif|left|thumb|Bing Crosby with Ingrid Bergman and their Oscars at the 1945 Academy Awards]] -->
In [[1926]], Crosby caught the eye of [[Paul Whiteman]] (a.k.a The King of Jazz) while singing on the vaudeville in [[Los Angeles]]. Hired to join one of the most popular bands in [[United States|America]], the fledgling vocalist would receive a musical education from the greatest musicians of the era. Unlike the typical vaudeville "shouters," he learned to work the microphone (and the crowd) drawing the audience in with his smooth, gentle style.
He was thus able to take popular singing beyond the kind of "belting" associated with a performer like [[Al Jolson]], who had to reach the back seats in New York theatres without the aid of the microphone. With Crosby, as [[Henry Pleasants]] noted in ''The Great American Popular Singers'', something new had entered American music, something that might be called "singing in American," with conversational ease. The oddity of this new sound led to the epithet "[[crooner]]".
Bing soon became the star attraction of the band and sang Whiteman's biggest hit of [[1928]], "[[Ol' Man River]]." However, his repeated youthful peccadilloes forced Whiteman to fire him [[1930]]. Crosby had no desire to step out on his own, but was now forced into a solo career.
In early [[1931]], Bing landed his first hit under his own name with "I Surrender, Dear." He contined to chart throughout the year with "Out Of Nowhere," "Just One More Chance," "Wrap your Troubles In Dreams" and "I Found A Million Dollar Baby." Crosby became so popular that [[Mack Sennett]] (of Keystone Kops fame) signed him up for six two reelers, each based on one of his songs. (Today this is Redistributed under the title of "Road to Hollywood.")
That same year (1931), Bing made his solo debut, co-starring with [[Carl Fenton|The Carl Fenton Orchestra]] on a popular [[CBS]] radio show and by [[1936]], replaced his former boss, [[Paul Whiteman]], as the host of [[NBC]]'s Kraft Music Hall, a weekly radio program where he would remain for the next ten years.
Crosby's entertainment trifecta led to major motion picture contract with [[Paramount Pictures]] beginning with The Big Broadcast Of [[1932]]. This led to his appearances in 79 Movies, most of which he headlined. Perhaps most fondly remembered as an actor for the series of seven jaunty musical comedy "Road To" pictures with [[Bob Hope]] and [[Dorothy Lamour]] (''[[Road to Morocco]]'', ''[[Road to Bali]]'', etc.), he was also a well-liked dramatic actor, appearing in such films as ''[[Going My Way]]'', ''[[The Bells of St. Mary's]]'' and ''[[The Country Girl]]''.
During [[World War II|the War]], Crosby gave great emphasis to live appearances before American troops fighting in the [[European Theater of Operations|European Theater]]. He also learned how to pronounce [[German language|German]] from written scripts, and would read them in propaganda broadcasts intended for the German forces. The nickname "der Bingle" for him was understood to have become current among German listeners, and came to be used by his [[English language|English]]-speaking fans. In a poll of U.S. troops at the close of WWII, Crosby topped the list as the person who did the most for G.I. morale (beating out [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], [[Dwight Eisenhower]] and one Leslie Townes "[[Bob Hope]]"
Crosby's biggest musical hit was his recording of [[Irving Berlin]]'s ''"[[White Christmas (song)|White Christmas]]"'', which he introduced through a 1941 Christmas-season radio broadcast and the movie ''[[Holiday Inn (film)|Holiday Inn]]''. Bing's recording hit the charts on Oct. 3, 1942, and rose to #1 on Oct. 31, where it stayed for an amazing 11 weeks. In the following years Bing's recording hit the top-30 pop charts another 16 times, even topping the charts again in 1945 and January of '47. The song remains Bing's best-selling recording, and the best-selling Christmas single and second best selling song of all time with estimates between 30 to 45 million albums sold. In 1998 after a long absence, his 1947 version hit the charts in Britain, and [[as of 2006]] remains the North American holiday-season standard. According to [[Guinness World Records]], Bing Crosby's ''White Christmas'' has "sold over 100 million copies around the world, with at least 50 million sales as singles.[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=52805]
[[Image:Bing_Crosby.jpg|right|thumb|Golfballs for the Scrap Rubber Drive during [[World War II|WWII]].]]
Crosby also had regular [[radio]] shows from the 1930s through the 1950s. During the 1940s he recorded many songs with [[the Andrews Sisters]]. He starred in a network [[television]] sitcom in 1964 and 1965, and made numerous short films and television appearances.
=== Career Statistics ===
As arguably the most popular musical act of the 20th century, Bing Crosby played a central role in American cultural and musical history. Even today his statistics are dazzling; 1,700 recordings, 383 of those in the top 30, and of those, 41 hit No. 1. For 15 years (1934, 1937, 1940, 1943-1954) he was among the top 10 in box office draw, and for five of those years (1944-49) he was the largest in the world. He sang four [[Academy Award]]-winning songs - "Sweet L |
iputra]], near the present day [[Patna]]. This dynasty lasted till [[424 BC]], when it was overthrown by the [[Nanda dynasty]]. This period saw the development of two of India's major religions. [[Gautama Buddha]] in the [[6th century BC|6th]] or [[5th century BC]] was the founder of [[Buddhism]], which later spread to [[East Asia]] and [[South-East Asia]], while [[Mahavira]] founded [[Jainism]].
===Nanda Dynasty===
{{main|Nanda Dynasty}}
The [[Nanda dynasty]] was established by an illegitimate son of the king [[Mahanandin]] of the previous [[Shishunaga dynasty]]. [[Mahapadma Nanda]] died at the age of 88, ruling the bulk of this 100-year dynasty. The Nandas were followed by the [[Maurya]] dynasty.
===Maurya dynasty===
{{main|Maurya Dynasty}}
In [[321 BC]], exiled general [[Chandragupta Maurya]] founded the [[Maurya dynasty]] after overthrowing the reigning king [[Dhana Nanda]] to establish the [[Mauryan Empire]]. During this time, most of the subcontinent was united under a single government for the first time. Capitalising on the destabilization of northern India by the Persian and Greek incursions, the Mauryan empire under Chandragupta would not only conquer most of the Indian subcontinent, but also push its boundaries into [[Persia]] and [[Central Asia]], conquering the [[Gandhara]] region. Chandragupta was succeeded by his son [[Bindusara]], who expanded the kingdom over most of present day India, barring the extreme south and east, which may have held tributary status.
[[Image:Sanchi2.jpg|thumb|280px|The Buddhist stupa at [[Sanchi]], built during the Mauyran period]]
The kingdom was inherited by his son [[Ashoka The Great]] who initially sought to expand his kingdom. In the aftermath of the carnage caused in the invasion of [[Kalinga (India)|Kalinga]], he renounced bloodshed and pursued a policy of [[non-violence]] or ahimsa after converting to Buddhism. The [[Edicts of Ashoka]] are the oldest preserved historical documents of India, and from Ashoka's time, approximate dating of dynasties becomes possible. The Mauryan dynasty under [[Ashoka]] was responsible for the proliferation of [[Buddhism|Buddhist ideals]] across the whole of [[East Asia]] and [[South-East Asia]], fundamentally altering the history and development of Asia as a whole. [[Ashoka the Great]] has been described as one of the greatest rulers the world has seen.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|align=center colspan=13 style="background:#ccf"| '''[[Mauryan Empire|Approximate Dates of Mauryan Dynasty]]'''
|-
! style="background-color:#FFD700" | Emperor
!! style="background-color:#FFD700" | Reign start
!! style="background-color:#FFD700" | Reign end
|-
| valign="top" | '''[[Chandragupta Maurya]]'''
| valign="top" | [[322 BC]]
| valign="top" | [[298 BC]]
|-
| valign="top" | '''[[Bindusara]]'''
| valign="top" | [[297 BC]]
| valign="top" | [[272 BC]]
|-
| valign="top" | '''[[Asoka|Asoka The Great]]'''
| valign="top" | [[273 BC]]
| valign="top" | [[232 BC]]
|-
| valign="top" | '''[[Dasaratha Maurya|Dasaratha]]'''
| valign="top" | [[232 BC]]
| valign="top" | [[224 BC]]
|-
| valign="top" | '''[[Samprati]]'''
| valign="top" | [[224 BC]]
| valign="top" | [[215 BC]]
|-
| valign="top" | '''[[Salisuka]]'''
| valign="top" | [[215 BC]]
| valign="top" | [[202 BC]]
|-
| valign="top" | '''[[Devavarman]]'''
| valign="top" | [[202 BC]]
| valign="top" | [[195 BC]]
|-
| valign="top" | '''[[Satadhanvan]]'''
| valign="top" | [[195 BC]]
| valign="top" | [[187 BC]]
|-
| valign="top" | '''[[Brihadratha]]'''
| valign="top" | [[187 BC]]
| valign="top" | [[185 BC]]
|-
|}
===Shunga dynasty===
{{main|Sunga Dynasty}}
The Sunga dynasty was established in 185 BC, about 50 years after Ashoka's death, when the king [[Brihadratha]], the last of the Mauryan rulers, was brutally murdered by the then commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honour of his forces. [[Pusyamitra Sunga]] then ascended the throne.
==Early Middle Kingdoms - the golden age==
{{main|Middle kingdoms of India}}
[[Image:Ellora cave16 003.jpg|thumb|280px|The rock cut [[Ellora]] caves]]
The middle period, especially that associated with the Gupta dynasty, is known as India's Golden Age, a time of unparalleled cultural development. The [[Kushan Empire|Kushanas]] invaded northwestern India about the middle of the 1st century CE, from [[Central Asia]], and founded an empire that eventually stretched from [[Peshawar]] to the middle [[Ganges]] and, perhaps, as far as the [[Bay of Bengal]]. It also included ancient Bactria (in the north of modern Afghanistan) and southern [[Tajikistan]]. Their power also extended into [[Turkestan]] and helped spread Buddhism to [[China]]. In [[South India]], several kingdoms emerged. The earliest of these is the [[Pandya]] kingdom in southern Tamil Nadu, with its capital at [[Madurai]]. The [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]s following the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]] ruled much of Gandhara from [[180 BC]] to [[10 CE]]. Around the same time in southern India, the [[Dravidian race|Dravidian]] [[Pandyan kingdom]] began to take shape. An important source for the geography and history of that period is the Greek historian [[Arrian]].
===Satavahana Empire===
{{main|Satavahanas}}
[[Image:Indischer Maler des 6. Jahrhunderts 001.jpg|thumb|280px|An ancient fresco from the [[Ajanta]] caves]]
[[Image:Kumaragupta coins.JPG|thumb|280px|Coins of the [[Gupta]] period]]
The [[Satavahanas]], also known as the Andhras, were a dynasty which ruled in Southern and Central India starting from around 230 BC. Although there is some controversy about when the dynasty came to an end, the most liberal estimates are of about 450 years. Long before that their kingdom had disintegrated into [[successor state]]s. Conflict with the [[Sakas]] and the rising ambitions of their feudatories, led to their decline. Several dynasties divided the lands of the kingdom among themselves.
===Kushan Empire===
{{main|Kushan Empire}}
The Kushan Empire (c. [[1st century|1st]]&ndash;[[3rd century|3rd centuries]]) was a state that at its height, about [[105]]&ndash;[[250s|250]], stretched from [[Tajikistan]] to the [[Caspian Sea]] to [[Afghanistan]] and down into the [[Ganges river]] valley. The empire was created by [[Tocharians]] from modern [[Xinjiang|East Turkestan]], [[China]], but was culturally dominated by north India. They had diplomatic contacts with [[Rome]], [[Sassanian]] [[Persian Empire|Persia]] and China, and for several centuries were at the centre of exchange between the East and the West, spreading Buddhism through trade with China.
===Gupta Dynasty===
{{main|Gupta Empire}}
In the [[4th century|4th]] and [[5th century|5th centuries]], the [[Gupta Dynasty]] unified northern India. During this period, known as India's [[Golden Age]], [[Hindu]] culture, science and political administration reached new heights. After the collapse of the Gupta empire in the [[6th century]], India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms. The Gupta 'golden age' marked a period of significant cultural development.
Their origins are largly unknown, however the Chinese traveller [[I-tsing]] provides the first evidence of the Gupta kingdom in [[Magadha]]. The Vedic [[Puranas]] are also thought to have been written around this period. The empire came to an end with the attack of the [[Huns]] from central Asia. A minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule [[Magadha]] after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by the Vardhana king [[Harsha]], who established an empire in the first half of the seventh century that, for a brief time, rivalled that of the Guptas in extent.
===Hun Invasion===
{{main|Hunas}}
The Huns, (sometimes known as Alchon, and inaccurately potrayed as the ''Indo-Hephthalites''), seem to have been part of the [[Hephthalites|Hephthalite]] group, who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the fifth century, with their capital at [[Bamiyan]]. They were responsible for the downfall of the Gupta dynasty, and thus brought an end to what historians consider a golden age in northern India. However, much of the [[Deccan]] and southern India were largely unaffected by this state of flux in the north.
The [[Gupta]] Emperor [[Skandagupta]] repelled a Hun invasion in 455 AD, but they continued to pressure India's northwest frontier (present day Pakistan), and broke through into northern India by the end of the fifth century, thereby hastening the disintegration of the Gupta Empire. After the end of the sixth century, little is recorded in India about the Huns, and their ultimate fate is unclear; some historians surmise that the remaining Huns were assimilated into northern India's population. Certain historians, such as [[Romila Thapar]], have suggested that the Huns are the ancestors of the Rajputs. Many Rajputs themselves however have hotly rejected this suggestion.
===Indo-Sassanians===
{{main|Indo-Sassanians}}
The [[Sassanian]] empire of [[Persia]], who were close contemporaries of the [[Guptas]], began to expand into the northwestern part of ancient [[India]] (now [[Pakistan]]), where they established their rule. The mingling of [[Indian culture|Indian]] and [[Persian culture]]s in this region gave birth to the [[Indo-Sassanian]] culture, which fluorished in the western part of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and the areas now known in [[Pakistan]] as the [[North West Frontier Province]] and [[Baluchistan]]. <!--The prophet [[Manes]] seems to have visited this region around this time, apparently winning over a local Buddhist ruler. It's possible that this visit accounts for much of t |
=Fictional references==
*A [[Saga of Seven Suns#Terran Hanseatic League (Hansa)|Terran Hanseatic League]] exists in [[Kevin J. Anderson|Kevin J. Anderson's]] science fiction series, ''[[Saga of Seven Suns]]''. The political structure of this fictional interstellar version is very similar to the historical Hanseatic League.
*In the [[Perry Rhodan]] SF series, the ''Cosmic Hansa'' (''Kosmische Hanse'') was a trade organisation covering the Galaxy.
==References==
*P. Dollinger ''The German Hansa'' (1970; repr.1999).
*Braudel, Fernand, ''The Perspective of the World,'' vol. III of ''Civilization and Capitalism'' 1984
*E. Gee Nash. ''The Hansa''. 1929 (Reprint. 1995 Edition, Barnes and Noble)
==External links==
* [http://www.hanse.org/ Hanseatic Towns Network]
[[Category:History of Europe]]
[[Category:Hanseatic League|!]]
[[ar:الرابطة الهانزية]]
[[cs:Hanza]]
[[da:Hanseforbundet]]
[[de:Hanse]]
[[et:Hansa Liit]]
[[es:Liga Hanseática]]
[[eo:Hansa Ligo]]
[[fr:Hanse]]
[[io:Hansa-uniono]]
[[it:Lega Anseatica]]
[[he:ברית ערי הנזה]]
[[la:Hansa]]
[[hu:Hanza-szövetség]]
[[nl:Hanze]]
[[nds:Hanse]]
[[ja:ハンザ同盟]]
[[no:Hansaen]]
[[pl:Hanza]]
[[pt:Liga Hanseática]]
[[ru:Ганзейский союз]]
[[fi:Hansaliitto]]
[[sv:Hansan]]
[[zh:汉萨同盟]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harvard (disambiguation)</title>
<id>14107</id>
<revision>
<id>39031577</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T06:03:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jwy</username>
<id>674008</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Harvard, MA is a town, not a city.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Harvard University]] is a university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.
'''Harvard''' may also refer to:
* [[John Harvard (clergyman)]], a clergyman for whom Harvard University is named
* [[John Harvard (politician)]], the Lieutenant-Govenor of [[Manitoba]]
* [[Harvard College]], the undergraduate division of Harvard University
* [[Harvard Square]], a square in Cambridge, Massachusetts surrounding the Harvard University campus
* [[Harvard (MBTA station)]], the subway station located in Harvard Square
* [[Harvard, Illinois]], a city in the United States
* [[Harvard, Massachusetts]], a town in the United States
* [[Harvard architecture]], a type of computer architecture
* [[Harvard Boulevard]], a street in Los Angeles, California
* [[Harvard Bridge]], a bridge over the Charles River near the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
* [[Harvard Graphics]], an early breaking computer software for handling diagrams
* [[Harvard Mark I]], an early digital computer
* [[Harvard referencing]], a citation style developed by Harvard University
* [[North American Harvard]], the Royal Air Force name for the T-6 Texan advanced trainer aircraft
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Historical African place names</title>
<id>14108</id>
<revision>
<id>31048183</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-12T13:59:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Astrokey44</username>
<id>413045</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of '''historical African place names'''. The names on the left are linked to the corresponding subregion(s) from [[History of Africa]].
* [[Abyssinia]] - [[History of Ethiopia|Ethiopia]]
* [[Africa (province)]] - [[History of Tunisia|Tunisia]]
* [[Barbary Coast]] - [[History of Algeria|Algeria]]
* [[Bechuanaland]] - [[Botswana]]
* [[Belgian Congo]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
* [[Carthage]] - [[History of Tunisia|Tunisia]]
* [[Central African Empire]] - [[Central African Republic]]
* [[Congo Free State]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
* [[Equatoria]] - [[History of Sudan|Sudan]] and [[History of Uganda|Uganda]]
* [[Fernando Poo]] - [[Bioko]]
* [[French Congo]] - [[Gabon]] and [[Republic of the Congo]]
* [[French Equatorial Africa]] - [[Chad]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Gabon]], [[Republic of the Congo]]
* [[French Sudan]] - [[Mali]]
* [[French West Africa]] - Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Niger, Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) and Dahomey (now Benin)
* [[German East Africa]] - [[Tanzania]]
* [[German South West Africa]] - [[Namibia]]
* The [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] - [[Ghana]]
* [[Guinea (disambiguation)|Guinea]]
* [[Malagasy Republic]] - [[Madagascar]]
* [[Monomotapa]] -
* [[Middle Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]]
* [[Nubia]] - [[History of Sudan|Sudan]] and [[History of Egypt|Egypt]]
* [[Nyasaland]] - [[Malawi]]
* [[Portuguese Guinea]] - [[Guinea-Bissau]]
* [[Rhodesia]] - [[Zimbabwe]] and [[History of Zambia|Zambia]]
* The [[Slave Coast]] - [[Benin]]
* [[South-West Africa]] - [[Namibia]]
* [[Spanish Sahara]] - [[Western Sahara]]
* [[Upper Volta]] - [[Burkina Faso]]
* [[Zaire]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
'''See also:''' [[List of extinct countries, empires, etc.]]
[[Category:Place names]]
[[Category:Africa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Horror fiction</title>
<id>14109</id>
<revision>
<id>41750486</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:56:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about horror fiction. For the [[1989]] [[video game]], see [[Horror Story (video game)]].''
'''Horror fiction''' is, broadly, [[fiction]] in any medium intended to scare, unsettle or horrify the reader. Historically, the cause of the "horror" experience has often been the intrusion of an evil, or occasionally misunderstood, [[supernatural]] element into everyday human experience. Since the 1960s, any work of fiction with a morbid, gruesome, [[Surrealism|surreal]], exceptionally [[suspense]]ful or frightening theme has come to be called "horror." Horror fiction often overlaps with [[science fiction]] and/or [[fantasy]], all of which have sometimes been placed under the umbrella category [[speculative fiction]]. See also [[supernatural fiction]].
== Early horror fiction ==
[[Fictional character]]s have found themselves in horrifying situations from the earliest recorded tales. Many [[Mythology|myth]]s and [[legend]]s feature scenarios and [[archetypes]] used by later horror writers. Tales collected by the [[Grimm Brothers]] are often quite horrific.
Modern horror fiction found its roots in the [[gothic novel]]s that exploded into popularity in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, typified by [[Ann Radcliffe]]'s ''The Mysteries of Udolpho'' and [[Horace Walpole]]'s ''The Castle of Otranto''. A variation on the Gothic formula that remains one of the most enduring and imitated horror works is [[Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley]]'s novel ''[[Frankenstein]]'' (1818, revised version 1831). ''Frankenstein'' has also been considered [[science fiction]] or a [[philosophy|philosophical]] novel by some literary historians. At the same time, [[John William Polidori]] devised the kind of [[vampire]] story that has since become familiar with his novella ''[[The Vampyre]]''. This kind of supernatural character, combining evil with sinister charm, has since been much used and elaborated by horror writers.
Later gothic horror descendants included seminal late 19th century works such as [[Bram Stoker]]'s ''[[Dracula]]'' and [[Henry James]]'s ''[[The Turn of the Screw]]''. Early horror works used mood and subtlety to deliver an eerie and otherworldly flavor, but usually eschewed extensive explicit violence.
Other early exponents of the horror form number such luminaries as [[Edgar Allan Poe]] and [[H. P. Lovecraft]] who are widely considered to be masters of the art. Among the writers of classic English [[ghost]] stories, [[M.R. James]] is often cited as the finest. His stories avoid shock effects and often involve an [[Oxford]] [[antiquarian]] as their hero. [[Algernon Blackwood]]'s ''The Willows'' and [[Oliver Onions]]'s ''The Beckoning Fair One'' have been called the best ghost stories. Lovecraft and [[Sheridan le Fanu]] called some of their writing '''weird fiction''' or '''weird stories'''.
Some stories in highbrow "literary" fiction could arguably be regarded as horror narratives: examples include [[Franz Kafka]]'s "[[The Metamorphosis]]" (''Die Verwandlung'') and "[[In the Penal Colony]]" (''In der Strafkolonie'') and [[William Faulkner]]'s ''[[A Rose for Emily]]''.
== Contemporary horror fiction ==
Some modern practitioners of the genre have resorted to vivid depictions of extreme violence to shock or entertain their audiences, often recalling [[grand guignol]] theatre (see [[splatterpunk]]). This development has given horror fiction a stigma as base entertainment devoid of [[literary merit]]. Other writers, such as [[Ramsey Campbell]] and [[Thomas Ligotti]], are cited as rejecting the portrayal of violent acts in favor of more subtle, psychological writing.
Nevertheless, contemporary writers such as [[Dean Koontz]], [[Clive Barker]] in ''[[Imajica]]'' and [[Stephen King]] in his more considered works, such as ''[[Misery]]'', are capable of bringing off the horror effect without the excessive violence that characterises much of the current mainstream of this genre.
== See also ==
* [[Horror film]]
* [[List of horror fiction authors]]
* [[Ghost story]]
* [[Psychological horror]]
* [[Body horror]]
* [[Internet Speculative Fiction DataBase]]
==External links==
* [http://gaslight.mtroyal.ab.ca/superhor.htm "Supernatural Horror in Literature" essay by H. P. Lovecraft on horror fiction antecendents]
* [http://www.awardannals.com/genre/horror/ Most Honored Horror Books] at [[Book Award Annals]]
;Horror fiction sites
* {{dmoz|Arts/Literature/Genres/Horror/|Horror fiction}}
* [http://www.mydevilswork.com Devil's Work |
al vehicle]] (UAV) fired a [[Hellfire missile]] that destroyed a car carrying six suspected al-Qaeda operatives in [[Yemen]]. The target of the attack was [[Abu Ali al-Harithi|Qaed Salim Sinan al-Harethi]], the top al-Qaida operative in Yemen. Among those killed in the attack was a US citizen, Yemeni-American [[Ahmed Hijazi]]. <!-- THE ARTICLE SAYS Kamal Derwish -->
According to Bush administration, the killing of an American in this fashion was legal. "I can assure you that no constitutional questions are raised here. There are authorities that the president can give to officials. He's well within the balance of accepted practice and the letter of his constitutional authority," said [[Condoleezza Rice]], the US [[national security adviser]]. [http://timeenoughforlove.org/saved/YahooNewsU_S_CanTargetAmericanal-QaidaAgents.htm], [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/2404425.stm]
During the press-conference, the [[US State Department]] spokesman [[Richard Boucher]] said that Washington's reasons for opposing the targeted killings of Palestinians might not apply in other circumstances and denied allegation that by staging the Yemen operation the US may be using [[double standard]]s towards Israeli policy: "We all understand the situation with regard to Israeli-Palestinian issues and the prospects of peace and the prospects of negotiation... and of the need to create an atmosphere for progress... A lot of different things come into play there... Our policy on targeted killings in the Israeli-Palestinian context has not changed." [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/1106-06.htm]
On [[December 3]], [[2005]], the US was blamed for another incident, in which alleged al-Qaeda #3 man (operations chief [[Abu Hamza Rabia]]) was reportedly killed in [[Pakistan]] by an airborne missile, together with four associates. However Pakistani officials claim the group was killed while preparing explosives, not from any targeted military operation ([http://edition.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/asiapcf/12/03/pakistan.rabia/index.html], [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4494428.stm]). The US has made no official comment about the incident.
On [[January 13]], [[2006]] US [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]-operated [[unmanned aerial vehicle|unmanned]] [[RQ-1 Predator|Predator]] drones launched four [[AGM-114 Hellfire|Hellfire missiles]] into the [[Pakistan]]i village of [[Damadola]], about 7 km (4.5 miles) from the [[Afghan]] border, killing at least 18 people. The attack targeted [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] who was thought to be in the village. Pakistani officials later said that al-Zawahiri was not there and that the U.S. had acted on faulty intelligence. [http://pakistantimes.net/Top15010601.htm]
:''See [[War on Terrorism]]''
=== Russia ===
[[Image:Death of Inejiro Asanuma.jpg|right|250px|thumbnail|The assassination of Japanese politician Inejiro Asanuma, caught on camera.]]
The [[Russian Federation]] employed similar strategy in the course of its [[Chechen War]]s, targeting the leaders of separatist movement. Chechen President [[Dzhokhar Dudaev]] was killed by an air strike of [[Russian Air Force]] on [[April 21]], [[1996]] and [[Aslan Maskhadov]] was killed on [[March 8]], [[2005]].
"When terrorists feel they are literally being trailed, fighting groups are systematically being detained, when in fact a top leader is eliminated, this creates an atmosphere in which there’s no place for terrorist attacks,” said Vladimir Vasilyev, head of the security committee of the lower house of the Russian [[State Duma]].[http://www.mosnews.com/news/2005/03/10/maskhimpl.shtml]
===Assassination for money===
Individually, too, people have often found reasons to arrange the deaths of others through paid intermediaries. One who kills with no political motive or group loyalty who kills ''only'' for money is known as a [[hitman]] or contract killer. Note that by the definition accepted above, while such a killer is not, strictly speaking, an assassin, if the killing is ordered and financed towards a political end, then that killing must rightly be termed an assassination, and the hitman an assassin by extension (in the same way that a ''[[Manchurian Candidate]]''-style killer would be an assassin because, though they have been brainwashed to kill and have therefore no political aims, those that brainwashed them do have such aims, and if the killing can be termed an assassination, the killer must be an assassin).
Entire organizations have sometimes specialized in assassination as one of their services, to be gained for the right price. Besides the original [[hashshashin]], the [[ninja]] clans of [[Japan]] were rumored to perform assassinations — though it can be pointed out that most of what was ever known about the ninja was [[rumor]] and [[hearsay]]. In the [[United States]], [[Murder Incorporated]], an organization partnered to the [[Mafia]], was formed for the sole purpose of performing assassinations for organized crime. In [[Russia]], the ''vory'' (thieves), their version of the Mafia, are often known to provide assassinations for the right price, as well as engaging in it themselves for their own purposes.
===Assassination as military doctrine===
While assassination for military purposes has long been espoused — [[Sun Tzu]] argued for such in ''[[The Art of War]]'', as did [[Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavelli]] in his ''[[The Prince]]'' — In medieval times, an army and even a nation might be based upon and around a particularly strong, canny or charismatic leader, whose loss could paralyze the ability of both to make war. However, in modern warfare a soldier's mindset is generally considered to surround ideals far more than specific leaders. Theoretically, while the death of a soldier's leader definitely has a detrimental effect on morale, the cause for which they fight is at times strong enough to push through the loss of leadership.
It can be argued that, assassinating a military leader may run the risk of eliminating a later advocate of peace. As many would argue that military leaders, seeing the face of warfare and bearing a clearer sense of the war effort's effects, have more sagacity on the subject. There is the risk that the target may be an incompetent and could be replaced by a more competent leader. Not only that, but worse, there is a high chance such a killing will be treated as not only reinforcing evidence of the opponents' moral bankruptcy, but also "[[martyr]]" the leader, increasing their charisma posthumously and rallying still others to an enemy cause and hardening the enemies' resolve to fight — and resist entreaties to peace (indeed, the death in battle of [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustavus Adolphus]] of [[Sweden]], while not an assassination, led directly to the [[Catholic]] defeat at [[Battle of Luetzen (1632)|Lützen]] as the infuriated Swedes rallied behind their fallen leader). Such an effect can be extremely detrimental to a group or state, but supporters might argue in return that when faced with a particularly brilliant leader, there is no choice but to take the chance and, essentially, hope for a more mediocre successor (one might use the example of the many attempts to kill the Athenian [[Alcibiades]] during the [[Peloponnesian War]], the American shooting down of [[Admiral]] [[Isoroku Yamamoto]] during World War II, or arguably Henri IV of France). Also, they might note that in a time-sensitive situation, such a killing could be useful if only to briefly buy time for a more permanent and effective plan to be set into motion or stall an army as reinforcements rush to the area. Another situation where assassination '''may''' have been beneficial, would have been the early assassination of [[Osama Bin Laden]], which might have saved thousands of lives from the terrorist attacks that occurred on [[September 11, 2001]].
There are a number of examples from [[World War II]], the last [[total war]], which show how assassination can be used as an effective military tool both at a tactical and strategic level. The American's perception that [[Otto Skorzeny|Skorzeny]]'s [[commando]]s were trying to assassinate [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] during the [[Battle of the Bulge]] shows that military assassination, or the threat of it, if well timed can be a very effective tactical move. In an interview with the ''New York Times'' Skorzeny denied that he had ever intended to [[Operation Grief|assassinate Eisenhower]] and could prove it. ''(page 155, Commando Extraordinary, by Charles Foley)''. There is also a mention in the same book ''(Page 35)'' of a British commando raid to "capture" [[Rommel]]. If he had been removed from the board, then that might well have had strategic effects. The British, too, decided not to try to assassinate Admiral [[Wilhelm Canaris]], head of the [[Abwehr]] (''German military intelligence''), because to do so might have improved the service.
==Moral issues==
[[Moral equivalence]] is also important when examining the use of assassination. Opponents of what one American officer called "trial, judgment and execution by intelligence" argue that no state deliberately training, hiring, sanctioning or harbouring an assassin could hope to justify it in such a way that would satisfy its allies and neighbours, much less the affected countries (even though many might use the tactic themselves). In [[democracy|democracies]] this issue is particularly crucial; much of the impetus for engaging in military action in such states is the motivation of perceived righteousness fighting a brutal enemy, an opinion that is undermined if one's nation is actively and openly engaged in killings outside the laws of war. Many would argue that the negative morale effects alone would outweigh any possible benefits. Therefore a severe injustice is done if a self-proclaimed democracy calls another authority names and mount assassination plots. Furthermo |
is moment for nearly 60 years, coups and short-lived constitutions dominated Bolivian politics.
Going through a vicious economic and political crisis, Bolivia's weakness was demonstrated during the [[War of the Pacific]] ([[1879]]&ndash;[[1883|83]]), when it lost its seacoast, and the adjoining rich [[nitrate]] fields, together with the port of [[Antofagasta]], to [[Chile]]. Since independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to neighboring countries due to wars. See [[Treaty of Petrópolis]] in 1903 [[Chaco War]] ([[1932]]&ndash;[[1935|35]]).
An increase in the world price of [[silver]] brought Bolivia a measure of relative prosperity and political stability in the late [[1800s]]. During the early part of the 20th century, [[tin]] replaced silver as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by the economic and social elite followed [[laissez-faire]] [[Capitalism|capitalist]] policies through the first third of the century.
Living conditions of the indigenous people, who constituted most of the population, remained deplorable. Forced to work under primitive conditions in the mines and in nearly feudal status on large estates, they were denied access to education, economic opportunity, or political participation. Bolivia's defeat by [[Paraguay]] in the [[Chaco War]] ([[1932]]&ndash;[[1935|35]]) marked a turning point.
===Rise of the Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (1951)===
The Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (MNR) emerged as a broadly based party. Denied its victory in the [[1951]] presidential elections, the MNR led the successful 1952 revolution. Under President [[Víctor Paz Estenssoro]], the MNR introduced universal adult suffrage, carried out a sweeping land reform, promoted rural education, and nationalized the country's largest tin mines.
Twelve years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In [[1964]], a military [[junta]] overthrew President Paz Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The [[1969]] death of President [[René Barrientos Ortuño]], a former member of the junta elected President in [[1966]], led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed by public disorder, the military, the MNR, and others installed Col. (later General) [[Hugo Banzer Suárez]] as President in [[1971]]. Banzer ruled with MNR support from [[1971]] to [[1974]]. Then, impatient with schisms in the coalition, he replaced civilians with members of the armed forces and suspended political activities. The economy grew impressively during most of Banzer's presidency, but [[human rights]] violations and eventual fiscal crises undercut his support. He was forced to call elections in [[1978]], and Bolivia again entered a period of political turmoil.
=== Military governments: García Meza and Siles Zuazo (1978)===
Elections in 1978, [[1979]], and [[1980]] were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups, counter-coups, and caretaker governments. In 1980, Gen. [[Luis García Meza Tejada]] carried out a ruthless and violent coup that did not have popular support. He pacified the people by promising to remain in power only for one year. (At the end of the year, he staged a televised rally to claim popular support and announced, "Bueno, me quedo," or, "All right; I'll stay [in office]." He was deposed shortly thereafter.) His government was notorious for human rights abuses, [[narcotics]] trafficking, and economic mismanagement; during his presidency the inflation that would later cripple the Bolivian economy could already be felt. Later convicted in absentia for crimes including murder, García Meza was extradited from Brazil and began serving a 30-year [[Prison|sentence]] in [[1995]].
After a military rebellion forced out García Meza in [[1981]], three other military governments in 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the [[Congress of Bolivia|Congress]] elected in 1980 and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October [[1982]], twenty-two years after the end of his first term of office (1956-60), [[Hernán Siles Zuazo]] again became President. Severe social tension, exacerbated by economic mismanagement and weak leadership, forced him to call early elections and relinquish power a year before the end of his constitutional term.
===Sánchez de Lozada and Banzer: Liberalizing the economy (1993)===
Sánchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda. The most dramatic change undertaken by the Sánchez de Lozada government was the "capitalization" program, under which investors, typically foreign, acquired 50% ownership and management control of public enterprises, such as the state [[Petroleum|oil]] corporation, [[telecommunications]] system, [[airline]]s, [[railroad]]s, and electric utilities in return for agreed upon capital investments. The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly opposed by certain segments of society, which instigated frequent and sometimes violent protests, particularly in La Paz and the Chapare coca-growing region, from [[1994]] through [[1996]]. The Sánchez de Lozada government pursued a policy of offering monetary compensation for voluntary eradication of illegal coca by its growers in the Chapare region. The policy produced little net reduction in coca, and in the mid-1990s Bolivia accounted for about one-third of the world's coca going into [[cocaine]].
During this time, the umbrella labor organization of Bolivia, the Central Obrara Boliviana (COB), became increasingly unable to effectively challenge government policy. A teachers' strike in 1995 was defeated because the COB could not marshall the support of many of its members, including construction and factory workers. The state also used selective martial law to keep the disruptions caused by the teachers to a minimum. The teachers were led by Trotskyists, and were considered to be the most militant union in the COB. Their downfall was a major blow to the COB. The COB also became mired in internal corruption and infighting in 1996.
In the [[1997]] elections, Gen. [[Hugo Banzer]], leader of the [[Nationalist Democratic Action|ADN]], former dictaror (1971-1978), won 22% of the vote, while the MNR candidate won 18%. Gen. Banzer formed a coalition of the ADN, MIR, UCS, and CONDEPA parties which held a majority of seats in the Bolivian Congress. The Congress elected him as president and he was inaugurated on [[August 6]], [[1997]]. During the election campaign, General Banzer had promised to suspend the privatization of the state owned oil company, YPFB. Considering the weak position that Bolivia is in vis-a-vis international corporations, though, this seemed unlikely.
The Banzer government basically continued the free market and privatization policies of its predecessor, and the relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s continued until about the third year of its term in office. After that, regional, global and domestic factors contributed to a decline in economic growth. Financial crises in Argentina and Brazil, lower world prices for commodity exports, and reduced employment in the Coca sector depressed the Bolivian economy. The public also perceived a significant amount of public-sector corruption. These factors contributed to increasing social protests during the second half of Banzer's term.
At the outset of his government, President Banzer launched a policy of using special police units to physically eradicate the illegal coca of the Chapare region. The policy produced a sudden and dramatic 4-year decline in Bolivia's illegal coca crop, to the point that Bolivia became a relatively small supplier of coca for cocaine. Those left unemployed by coca eradication streamed into the cities, especially El Alto the slum neighbor of La Paz. The MIR of Jaime Paz Zamora remained a coalition partner throughout the Banzer government, supporting this policy (called the Dignity Plan).
On [[August 6]], [[2001]], Banzer resigned from office after being diagnosed with [[cancer]]. He died less than a year later. Banzer's U.S.-educated Vice President, [[Jorge Quiroga|Jorge Fernando Quiroga Ramírez]], completed the final year of the term. Quiroga was constitutionally prohibited from running for national office in [[2002]] but could do so in [[2007]].
In the June 2000 national elections, former President [[Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada]] (MNR) placed first with 22.5% of the vote, followed by coca advocate and indigenous campesino leader [[Evo Morales]] ([[Movement toward Socialism (Bolivia)|Movement Toward Socialism]], MAS) with 20.9%. Morales edged out populist candidate [[Manfred Reyes Villa]] of the [[New Republican Force]] (NFR) by just 700 votes nationwide, earning a spot in the congressional run-off against Sánchez de Lozada on [[August 4]], [[2002]].
A July agreement between the MNR and the fourth-place MIR, which had again been led in the election by former president [[Paz Zamora]], virtually ensured the election of Sánchez de Lozada in the congressional run-off, and on [[August 6]] he was sworn in for the second time. The MNR platform featured three overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation), anti-[[political corruption|corruption]], and social inclusion.
===Social Crisis and the nationalization of hydrocarbon resources (2000-2005)===
In April 2000, the social movements in Bolivia got together to protest the privatization of water provision in Cochabamba. Three years earlier, the government had sold rights to manage water in the city to Aguas del Tunari, a conglomerate led by Bechtel corporation. After making investments, the company raised water prices dramatically. They also made drawing water from community wells or gathering rainwater illegal, giving Aguas del Tunari exclusive rights. Protests that included Cochabamba residents and coca growers turned violent. Roadblocks paralyzed parts of the country. The p |
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</page>
<page>
<title>Governors of New South Wales</title>
<id>12850</id>
<revision>
<id>37385139</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T18:03:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>HJKeats</username>
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<comment>/* List of Governors of [[New South Wales]] */ disambig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:New_South_Wales_Governors_flag.png|thumb|250px|the flag of the Governor of New South Wales]]
The '''Governor of New South Wales''' is the representative in the [[Australia]]n state of [[New South Wales]] of Australia's head of state, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]], [[Queen of Australia]]. The Governor performs the same constitutional and ceremonial functions at the state level as does the [[Governor-General of Australia]] at the national level.
The office of Governor of New South Wales is the oldest constitutional office in Australia. Captain [[Arthur Phillip]] assumed office as Governor of New South Wales on [[26 January]] [[1788]], the day on which he founded what is now the city of [[Sydney]], the first British settlement in Australia.
In accordance with the conventions of the [[Westminster system]] of parliamentary government, the Governor nearly always acts solely on the advice of the head of the elected government, the [[Premiers_of_New_South_Wales|Premier of New South Wales]]. Nevertheless, the Governor retains the [[reserve powers]] of the Crown, and has the right to dismiss the Premier. This power was last exercised in [[1932]], when Sir [[Philip Game]] dismissed [[Jack Lang (Australian politician)|Jack Lang]].
See [[Governors of the Australian states]] for a description and history of the office of Governor.
===List of Governors of [[New South Wales]]===
#[[Arthur Phillip|Captain Arthur Phillip]], 1788-1792
#[[John Hunter (New South Wales)|Captain John Hunter]], 1795-1800
#[[Philip Gidley King|Captain Philip King]], 1800-1806
#[[William Bligh|Captain William Bligh]], 1806-1808
#[[William Paterson (governor)|Colonel William Paterson]] (acting), 1809
#[[Lachlan Macquarie|Major-General Lachlan Macquarie]], 1810-1821
#[[Thomas Brisbane|Major-General Sir Thomas Brisbane]], 1821-1825
#[[Ralph Darling|Lieutenant-General Ralph Darling]], 1825-1831
#[[Richard Bourke|Major-General Sir Richard Bourke]], 1831-1837
#[[George Gipps|Sir George Gipps]], 1838-1846
#[[Sir Charles Augustus FitzRoy]], 1846-1855
#[[William Denison|Sir William Denison]], 1855-1861
#[[John Young, 1st Baron Lisgar]], 1861-1867
#[[Somerset Lowry-Corry, 4th Earl Belmore]], 1868-1872
#[[Hercules Robinson|Sir Hercules Robinson]], 1872-1879
#[[Augustus Loftus|Lord Augustus Loftus]], 1879-1885
#[[Charles Robert Wynn-Carington, 1st Marquess of Lincolnshire|Charles Wynn-Carington, 3rd Baron Carrington]], 1885-1890
#[[Victor Albert George Child-Villiers, 7th Earl of Jersey]], 1891-1893
#[[Robert Duff (politician)|Sir Robert Duff]], 1893-1895
#[[Henry Robert Brand, 2nd Viscount Hampden]], 1895-1899
#[[William Lygon, 7th Earl Beauchamp]], 1899-1901
#[[Harry Rawson|Admiral Sir Harry Rawson]], 1902-1909
#[[Frederic John Napier Thesiger, 3rd Baron Chelmsford]], 1909-1913
#[[Gerald Strickland|Sir Gerald Strickland]], 1913-1917
#[[Walter Davidson|Sir Walter Davidson]], 1918-1923
#[[Dudley de Chair|Admiral Sir Dudley de Chair]], 1924-1930
#[[Philip Game|Air Vice-Marshal Sir Philip Game]], 1930-1935
#[[Alexander Hore-Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie|Brigadier-General Sir Alexander Hore-Ruthven]], 1935-1936
#[[David Anderson (Australian governor)|Admiral Sir David Anderson]], 1936
#[[John de Vere Loder, 2nd Baron Wakehurst]], 1937-1946
#[[John Northcott|General Sir John Northcott]], 1946-1957
#[[Eric Woodward|Lieutenant-General Sir Eric Woodward]], 1957-1965
#[[Arthur Roden Cutler|Sir Roden Cutler]], 1966-1981
#[[James Rowland (Australia)|Air Marshal Sir James Rowland]], 1981-1989
#[[David Martin (Governor)|Sir David Martin]], 1989-1990
#[[Peter Sinclair|Rear Admiral Peter Sinclair]], 1990-1996
#[[Gordon Samuels]], 1996-2001
#[[Marie Bashir|Prof. Marie Bashir]], 2001-present
[[Category:Governors of New South Wales|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Governors of Victoria</title>
<id>12851</id>
<revision>
<id>39990617</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T08:59:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Greentubing</username>
<id>764766</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Flag of the Governor of Victoria.svg|thumb|right|250px|Flag of the Governor of Victoria]]
The '''Governor of Victoria''' is the representatives in the [[Australia]]n state of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] of Australia's head of state, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]], [[Queen of Australia]]. The Governor performs the same constitutional and ceremonial functions at the state level as does the [[Governor-General of Australia]] at the national level.
In accordance with the conventions of the [[Westminster system]] of parliamentary government, the Governor nearly always acts solely on the advice of the head of the elected government, the [[Premier of Victoria]]. Nevertheless, the Governor retains the [[reserve powers]] of the Crown, and has the right to dismiss the Premier.
See [[Governors of the Australian states]] for a description and history of the office of Governor.
===Lieutenant-Governors===
*[[Charles La Trobe]], 1851-1854*
*[[Charles Hotham|Captain Sir Charles Hotham]], 1854-1855
<nowiki>*</nowiki> La Trobe was Superintendent of the Port Phillip District of New South Wales 1839-1851
===Governors===
*[[Charles Hotham|Captain Sir Charles Hotham]], 1855
*[[Henry Barkly|Sir Henry Barkly]], 1856-1863
*[[Charles Darling|Sir Charles Darling]], 1863-1866
*[[John Manners-Sutton|Sir John Manners-Sutton]], 1866-1873
*[[George Bowen|Sir George Bowen]], 1873-1879
*[[George Phipps, Marquess of Normanby]], 1879-1884
*[[Henry Loch|Sir Henry Loch]], 1884-1889
*[[John Hope, 1st Marquess of Linlithgow|John Hope, 7th Earl of Hopetoun]], 1889-1895
*[[Thomas Brassey, 1st Earl Brassey|Thomas Brassey, 1st Baron Brassey]], 1895-1900
*[[George Clarke (Victoria)|Sir George Clarke]], 1901-1903
*[[Reginald Talbot|Major-General Sir Reginald Talbot]], 1904-1908
*[[Thomas Gibson-Carmichael, 1st Baron Carmichael|Sir Thomas Gibson-Carmichael]], 1908-1911
*[[John Fuller (Australian governor)|Sir John Fuller]], 1911-1914
*[[Arthur Stanley|Sir Arthur Stanley]], 1914-1920
*[[George Edward John Mowbray Rous, 3rd Earl of Stradbroke|Colonel George Rous, 3rd Earl of Stradbroke]], 1921-1926
*[[Arthur Herbert Tennyson Somers Cocks, 6th Baron Somers|Lieutentant-Colonel Arthur Somers Cocks, 6th Baron Somers]], 1926-1931
*[[William Charles Arcedeckne Vanneck, 5th Baron Huntingfield|Captain William Vannecke, 5th Baron Huntingfield]], 1934-1939
*[[Winston Dugan|Major-General Sir Winston Dugan]], 1939-1949
*[[Dallas Brooks|General Sir Dallas Brooks]], 1949-1963
*[[Rohan Delacombe|Major-General Sir Rohan Delacombe]], 1963-1974
*[[Henry Winneke|Sir Henry Winneke]], 1974-1982
*[[Brian Murray|Rear-Admiral Sir Brian Murray]], 1982-1985
*[[Davis McCaughey|The Reverend Dr Davis McCaughey]], 1986-1992
*[[Richard McGarvie]], 1992-1997
*[[James Gobbo|Sir James Gobbo]], 1997-2000
*[[John Landy]], 2001-present
*[[David de Kretser|Professor David de Kretser]] (Announced as the new Governor from April 2006)
[[category:Government of Victoria]]
[[category:Australian viceroys|Victoria]]
[[Category:Governors of Victoria|*]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>List of Governors of Tasmania</title>
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<timestamp>2004-02-21T04:57:27Z</timestamp>
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<username>Wik</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Governors of Tasmania]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>George Bernard Shaw</title>
<id>12855</id>
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<id>41994172</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:34:19Z</timestamp>
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<ip>206.255.136.154</ip>
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<comment>... And not all of the quotes you removed are on WikiQuote. Putting them back for now.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''George Bernard Shaw''' ([[July 26]], [[1856]] &ndash; [[November 2]], [[1950]]) was an [[Ireland|Irish]] [[playwright]] and winner of the [[Nobel Prize in literature|Nobel Prize for Literature]] in 1925. After those of [[William Shakespeare]], Shaw's plays are some of the most widely produced in English language theatre.
[[Image:George bernard shaw.jpg|thumbnail|George Bernard Shaw]]
==Biography==
Born at 33 Synge Street in [[Dublin, Ireland]] to rather poor [[Protestantism|Protestant]] parents, Shaw was educated at [[Wesley College, Dublin]] and moved to [[London]] during the 1870s to embark on his literary career. He wrote five [[novel]]s, all of which were rejected, before finding his first success as a music critic on the ''Star'' newspaper. In the meantime he had become involved in politics, and served as a local councillor in the [[St Pancras (district)|St Pancras]] district of London for several years from 1897. He was a noted [[Socialism|socialist]] who took a leading role in the [[Fabian Society]].
In 1895, he became the drama critic of the ''Saturday Review'', and this was the first step in his progress towards a lifetime's work as a dramatist. In 1898, he married an Irish heiress, Charlotte Payne-Townshend. His first successful play, ''Candida'', was produced in the same year. He followed this up with a series of classic comedy-dramas, including ''[[The Devil's Disciple]]'' (1897), ''[[Arms and the Man]]'' (1898), ''[[Mrs. Warren's Profession]]'' (1898), ''[[Captain Brassbound's Conversion]]'' (1 |
ctively, are: male and female, [[light]] and [[darkness|dark]], active and passive, motion and stillness. Although these interpretations are common and understandable misconceptions of the greater meaning. The Tai-Chi in actuality has very little to do with dualism.
The complementary aspects of [[masculinity]] and [[femininity]] are revered by certain [[Neo-pagan]] religions.
== Usage in philosophy of mind ==
''Main Article: [[Dualism (philosophy of mind)|Mind-body dualism]]''
In [[philosophy of mind]], dualism is any of a narrow variety of views about the relationship between mind and matter, which claims that mind and matter are two ontologically separate categories. In particular, mind-body dualism claims that neither the mind nor matter can be reduced to each other in any way, and thus is opposed to [[materialism]] in general, and [[reductive materialism]] in particular. Mind-body dualism can exist as [[substance dualism]] which claims that the mind and the body are composed of a distinct substance, and as [[property dualism]] which claims that there may not be a distinction in substance, but that mental and physical properties are still categorically distinct, and not reducible to each other. This type of dualism is sometimes referred to as "''mind and body''". This is in contrast to [[monism]], which views mind and matter as being ultimately the same kind of thing. See also [[Cartesian dualism]], [[substance dualism]], [[epiphenomenalism]].
The belief in possessing both a body and a spirit as two separate entities was first documented in approximately 1000 B.C. by Zoroastrianism, and has become a very common view in the present day.
=== Mind-Matter Dualism in Eastern Philosophy ===
During the classical era of [[Buddhist philosophy in India]], philosophers such as [[Dharmakirti]] argue for a dualism between states of consciousness and [[Buddhist atoms]] (Buddhist atoms are merely the basic building blocks that make up reality), according to "the standard interpretation" of Dharmakirti's [[Buddhist metaphysics]]. (See Georges B.J. Dreyfus, ''Recognizing Reality'', [[SUNY Press]], for more information.) Typically, in [[Western philosophy]], dualism is considered to be a dualism between mind (nonphysical) and brain (physical), which ultimately involves mind interacting with pieces of tissue in the brain, and therefore, also interacting, in some sense, with the micro-particles (basic buildling blocks) that make up the brain tissue. Buddhist dualism, in Dharmakirti’s sense, is different in that it is a dualism between not the mind and brain which is made of particles, but rather, between states of consciousness (nonphysical) and basic building blocks (according to the [[Buddhist atomism]] of Dharmakirti, Buddhist atoms are also nonphysical: they are unstructured points of energy). Like so many Buddhists from 600-1000 CE, Dharmakirti’s philosophy involved [[mereological nihilism]], meaning that other than states of consciousness, the only things that exist are momentary quantum particles, much like the particles of [[quantum physics]] ([[quarks]], [[electrons]], etc.). Dharmakirti’s dualism however has one similarity to Western accounts of mind-body dualism, Dharmakirti’s dualism may also be considered as being not well worked-out, where few philosophers would assert that clear accounts of dualism in either tradition have been given, and many philosophers will assert, following Descartes, that dualism involves serious problems that remain unsolved.
== Usage in philosophy of science ==
In [[philosophy of science]], ''dualism'' often refers to the dichotomy between the "subject" (the observer) and the "object" (the observed). Some critics of Western science see this kind of dualism as a fatal flaw in science. In part, this has something to do with potentially complicated interactions between the subject and the object, of the sort discussed in the [[social construction]] literature.
== Usage in physics ==
''Main Article: [[Wave-particle duality]]''
In [[physics]], ''dualism'' refers generally to the duality of waves and particles.
==Usage in contemporary feminist theory==
An interesting theory relating to dualism and a contemporary feminist world view is presented by [[Susan Bordo]]. Bordo contends that dualism has shaped Western culture since the time of [[Plato]], through [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] and [[Descartes]], up to the present day.
All three of these philosophers provide instructions, rules or models as to how to gain control over the body, with the ultimate aim of learning to live without it. The mind is superior to the body, and strength comes from disregarding the body's existence to reach an elevated spiritual level.
Bordo believes that the existence of [[anorexia nervosa]] is the most telling and compelling argument that dualism is still a key aspect of modern thinking. She believes it is oftentimes a dangerous way of looking at the world. Those who are [[anorexic]] seek to gain ultimate control, and depriving oneself of food makes one a master of one's own body, which creates a sense of purity and perfection. Again, Bordo contends this stems from dualism, the separation of the mind and body.
==Usage in recent religious and philosophical movements==
In recent years, with world travel and rapid communication systems, the distinction between "eastern" and "western" philosophy has been less significant than in previous times. In the wake of these changes new religious and philosophical movements have drawn freely upon all the world's philosophy to create syntheses and compendia based around [[new age]] and [[holism|holistic]] ideas. Dualism is often cited within these groups, along with ideas of [[Oneness (concept)|Oneness]], [[:Category:Holism|Wholeness]] and [[Theory of multiple intelligences|Theories of multiple intelligences]].
In the [[Emin Society]] (printed in their archives) Dualism is presented as the Law of Two, which is said to have [[Octave|seven levels]]:
* First level: Apparent Opposites
* Second level: The apparent opposites are actually two ends of the same bar (or the North-South [[vector]] is split by the East-West vector) (or the law of things adjacent)
* Third level: [[Pitching]] and [[Yaw|Yawing]], (or [[Basque]] [[bargaining]])
* Fourth level: [[Balance]] and [[Movement]]
* Fifth level: [[Solution|Solve]] and [[Coagulation|Coagulate]]
* Sixth level: Over and Under [[Compensation]]
* Seventh level: Apparent movement between two poles (or [[heat|hot and cold]])
== See also ==
* [[Dualism (philosophy of mind)]]
* [[Advaita]]
* [[Dialectic]]
* [[Monism]]
* [[Non-Dualism]]
* [[Pluralism]]
* [[Reductionism]]
== External links ==
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-05 ''Dictionary of the History of ideas'':] Dualism in Philosophy and Religion
* [http://www.cogwriter.com/two.htm Binitarian View: One God, Two Beings from Before the Beginning] Discusses the biblical and historical belief of the nature of God
* [http://www.renneslechateaubooks.info/languedocdualism/index.htm Books on (Religious) Dualism] Recommendations and Reviews
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<title>Disaster</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">A '''disaster''' (from [[Latin language|Latin]] meaning, "bad star") is the impact of a [[natural disaster|natural]] or man-made event that negatively affects [[life]], [[property]], livelihood or [[industry]] often resulting in permanent changes to human [[society|societies]], [[ecosystem]]s and [[natural environment|environment]]. (Note that the event itself is not a disaster; it is the impact which is called a disaster.) Disasters manifest as [[hazard]]s exacerbating [[vulnerable]] conditions and exceeding individuals' and communities' means to survive and thrive. Most events included herein are compiled from United States Federal Emergency Management Agency and Department of Homeland Security. [http://www.fema.gov/hazards/][http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/]
The word's roots imply that when the [[star]]s are in a bad position, a disaster is about to happen. The Latin pejorative ''dis'' and ''astro'', star (L. ''aster''), creating the Italian ''disastro'', which came in to the English language in the 16th century (OED 1590) through the French ''desastre''.
==Natural disasters==
A [[Natural phenomenon]] can easily cause a [[natural disaster]]. Appearing to arise without direct human involvement, natural disasters are sometimes called an [[act of God]]. A [[natural disaster]] may become more severe because of human actions prior, during or after the disaster itself. A specific disaster may spawn different types of events and may reduce the survivability of the initial event. A classic example, is an earthquake that collapses homes, trapping people and breaking gas mains that then ignite, and burn people alive while trapped u |
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{christianity}}
'''Apocrypha''' is a [[Greek language|Greek]] word (απόκρυφα, neuter plural of απόκρυφος), from αποκρυπτειν, to hide away. Thus it connotes the idea of "closed" or "hidden." (In this sense apocrypha is in contrast with [[apocalypse]], which means "opened," "revealed," or "uncovered.") '''Apocryphon''' is the singular noun, '''apocrypha''' the plural noun, and '''apocryphal''' the adjective. These words are used to describe the character of a certain class of religiously oriented ancient writings.
By an analogy the term is extended to non-religious contexts to refer to questionable sources.
==Non-religious usage==
<!-- I placed this small section on top, since the whole rest is religious subject -->
In everyday conversation, '''''apocryphal''''' typically denotes "of highly questionable or no authenticity", when describing a story nevertheless frequently told and widely believed. In [[literature]], '''''apocrypha''''' are works that purport to have been created by somebody other than their real author, usually a famous figure, as in the case of the [[Ossian|Ossianic]] cycle invented by [[James Macpherson]].
==Religious usage==
In [[Judeo-Christian]] [[theology]], the word '''apocrypha''' refers to texts that are not considered [[Biblical canon|canonical]], part of [[Scripture|the Bible]], but are of roughly similar style and age as the accepted canonical Scriptures. [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] and [[Orthodox Christianity|Orthodox Christian]] Bibles typically contain several texts not included in the Biblical canon by other Christians or by Judaism, who see them as apocryphal. Catholics and Orthodox consider these texts equally canonical as other books of the Bible, with Catholics terming them ''[[deuterocanon]]ical'' (from [[Greek language|Greek]]: "second canon," or "measuring rule").
R.M. Wilson wrote:
:"The Greek word ''apocryphos'' did not always have the disparaging sense which later became attached to it. In [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] circles it was used of books the contents of which were too sacred to be divulged to the common herd, and it was in fact the [[heresy|heretical]] associations which it thus came to possess which led to its use as a term of disparagement. In the [[Nag Hammadi library]], for example, one document bears the title Apocryphon or Secret Book of John, another that of Apocryphon of James, and several Gnostic gospels contain solemn warnings against imparting their contents to any save the deserving, or for the sake of material gain."
:&mdash;from ''Studies in the Gospel of Thomas'' (the "apocryphal" [[Gospel of Thomas]])</blockquote>
Apart from the broad sense mentioned in the first paragraph above, Protestants use the word "apocrypha", in a narrow sense, of those books that they exclude from their canon of Scripture, but that other Churches view as canonical and venerate as divinely inspired, written under the influence of the Holy Spirit. Disagreement between Christian Churches is almost non-existent about the canon of the [[New Testament]], but the inclusion of some books in the [[Old Testament]] canon is disputed. Since many now considered these books to be of late composition, Protestant scholars sometimes call them "intertestamental", i.e. intermediate between the Old and New Testaments, and hold that God imposed a period of silence, with no prophecy or Scripture, to prepare for the coming of [[Jesus]].
The [[Church of England]] takes an intermediate position; its 6th article of religion says of them "the Church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners; but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine".
The books that come under the description "apocrypha" in the broad sense but not in this narrow sense are called apocrypha by Catholics and Jews, but Protestants usually call them [[Pseudepigrapha]]. Many of them have [[Apocalypse|apocalyptic]] themes.
The history of the earlier usage of the term "Apocrypha" is not free from obscurity. We shall therefore enter at once on a short account of the origin of this literature in [[Judaism]], of its adoption by early [[Christianity]], of the various meanings which the term "apocryphal" assumed in the course of its history, and having so done we shall proceed to classify and deal with the books that belong to this literature. The word most generally denotes writings which claimed to be, or were by certain sects regarded as, sacred scriptures although excluded from the canonical scriptures.
===Apocrypha in Judaism===
Certain circles in Judaism, as the [[Essenes]] in Palestine (Josephus, ''B.J.'' ii. 8. 7) and the [[Therapeutae]] (Philo, ''De Vita Contempl.'' ii. 475, ed. Mangey) in Egypt possessed a secret literature. But such literature was not confined to the members of these communities, but had been current among the [[Chasids]] and their successors the [[Pharisees]]. (Judaism was long accustomed to lay claim to an esoteric tradition. Thus though it insisted on the exclusive canonicity of the 24 books, it claimed the possession of an [[oral law]] handed down from [[Moses]], and just as the apocryphal books overshadowed in certain instances the canonical scriptures, so often the oral law displaced the written in the regard of Judaism.) To this literature belong essentially the [[apocalyptic literature|apocalypses]] which were published in fast succession from [[Daniel]] onwards. These works bore, perforce, the names of ancient Hebrew worthies in order to procure them a hearing among the writers' real contemporaries. To reconcile their late appearance with their claims to primitive antiquity the alleged author is represented as "shutting up and sealing" (Dan. xii. 4, 9) the book, until the time of its fulfilment had arrived; for that it was not designed for his own generation but for far-distant ages (Ass. Mos. i. 16, 17). It is not improbable that with many Jewish enthusiasts this literature was more highly treasured than the canonical scriptures. Indeed, we have a categorical statement to this effect in 4 Ezra xiv. 44 sqq., which tells how Ezra was inspired to dictate the sacred scriptures which had been destroyed in the overthrow of Jerusalem: "In forty days they wrote ninety-four books: and it came to pass when the forty days were fulfilled that the Highest spake, saying: the first that thou hast written publish openly that the worthy and unworthy may read it; but keep the seventy last that thou mayst deliver them only to such as be wise among the people; for in them is the spring of understanding, the fountain of wisdom and the stream of knowledge." Such esoteric books are apocryphal in the original conception of the term. In due course the Jewish authorities drew up a canon or book of sacred scriptures in response to Christianity; they marked other books off from those which claimed to be such without justification.
The true scriptures, according to the Jewish canon (Yad. iii. 5; Toseph. Yad. ii. 3), were those which defiled the hands of such as touched them. But other scholars, such as Zahn, Schürer, Porter, state that the secret books with which we have been dealing formed a class by themselves and were called "Genuzim" (גנוזים), and that this name and idea passed from Judaism over into the Greek, and that αποκρυφα βιβλια is a translation of ספרים גנוזים. But the Hebrew verb does not mean "to hide" but "to store away," and is only used of things in themselves precious. Moreover, the phrase is unknown in Talmudic literature. The derivation of this idea from Judaism has therefore not yet been established. Whether the Jews had any distinct name for these esoteric works we do not know. For writings that stood wholly without the pale of sacred books such as the books of heretics or Samaritans they used the designation Hisonim, Sanh. x. I (ספרים חצונים and ספרי המינים. To this class in later times even Sirach was relegated, and indeed all books not included in the canon (Midr. r. Num. 14 and on Koheleth xii. 12; cf. Jer. Sabb. 16). (See Porter in Hastings' ''Bible Dict.'' i. 113) In Aqiba's time Sirach and other apocryphal books were not reckoned among the Hisonim; for Sirach was largely quoted by rabbis in Palestine till the 3rd century A.D.
===Apocrypha in Christianity===
Christianity from [[Jesus]] had no secret or [[esoteric]] teaching. It was essentially the revelation or manifestation of the truth of God. But as Christianity took its origin from Judaism, it is not unnatural that a large body of Jewish ideas was incorporated in the system of Christian thought. The bulk of these in due course underwent transformation either complete or partial, but there was always a residuum of incongruous and inconsistent elements existing side by side with the essential truths of Christianity. This was no isolated phenomenon; for in every progressive period of the history of religion we have on the one side the doctrine of God advancing in depth and fullness: on the other we have [[cosmology|cosmological]], [[eschatology|eschatological]] and other survivals, which, however justifiable in earlier |
h/wallace/S043.htm "On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely From the Original Type" (1858)], and asked him to review it. On [[18 June]] [[1858]] Darwin received the manuscript from Wallace. In it, Wallace described a novel theory of what is now known as "natural selection," and he proposed that it explains the diversity of life. It was essentially the same as the theory that Darwin had worked on for twenty years, but had yet to publish. Darwin wrote in a letter to [[Charles Lyell]]: "he could not have made a better short abstract! Even his terms now stand as heads of my chapters!" Although Wallace had not requested that his essay be published, Charles Lyell and [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Joseph Hooker]] decided to present the essay, together with excerpts from a paper that Darwin had written in [[1844]], and kept confidential, to the [[Linnean Society of London]] on [[1 July]] [[1858]], highlighting Darwin's priority.
Wallace accepted the arrangement after the fact, grateful that he had been included at all. Darwin's social and scientific status was at that time far greater than Wallace's, and it was unlikely that Wallace's views on evolution would have been taken as seriously. Though relegated to the position of co-discoverer, and never the social equal of Darwin or the other elite British natural scientists, Wallace was granted far greater access to tightly-regulated British scientific circles after the advocacy on his part by Darwin. When he returned to England, Wallace met Darwin and the two remained friendly afterwards.
==Religious views, and application of the theory to mankind==
In a letter to a relative in [[1861]], Wallace wrote: "I think I have fairly heard and fairly weighed the evidence on both sides, and I remain an utter disbeliever in almost all that you consider the most sacred truths... I can see much to admire in all religions... But whether there be a God and whatever be His nature; whether we have an immortal soul or not, or whatever may be our state after death, I can have no fear of having to suffer for the study of nature and the search for truth...."
In [[1864]], before Darwin had publicly addressed the subject&mdash;though others had&mdash;Wallace published a paper, ''The Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man Deduced from the Theory of 'Natural Selection''', applying the theory to mankind. Wallace subsequently became a [[spiritualism|spiritualist]], and later maintained that natural selection cannot account for mathematical, artistic, or musical genius, as well as metaphysical musings, and wit and humor; and that something in "the unseen universe of Spirit" had interceded at least three times in history: 1. The creation of life from inorganic matter. 2. The introduction of consciousness in the higher animals. 3. The generation of the above-mentioned faculties in mankind. He also believed that the raison d'être of the universe was the development of the human spirit. (See Wallace (1889)). These views greatly disturbed Darwin in his lifetime, who argued that spiritual appeals were not necessary and that [[sexual selection]] could easily explain such apparently non-adaptive phenomena.
In many accounts of the history of evolution, Wallace is relegated to a role of simply being the "stimulus" to Darwin's own theory. In reality, Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin's, and was considered by many (especially Darwin) to be a chief thinker on evolution in his day whose ideas could not be ignored. He is among the most cited naturalists in Darwin's ''[[Descent of Man]]'', often in strong disagreement.
[[Image:Alfred Russel Wallace - Project Gutenberg eText 14558.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Alfred Russel Wallace, and signature, from the frontispiece of ''Darwinism'' (1889)]]
==Precursor of ecology, and awards==
Wallace was the first to propose a [[biogeography|"geography"]] of animal species, and as such is considered one of the [[ecology#The_notion_of_biocenose:_Darwin_and_Wallace|precursors of ecology]] and [[biogeography|biogeography]].
==Awards==
Among the many awards presented to Wallace were the [[Order of Merit]] ([[1908]]), the [[Royal Society]]'s [[Copley Medal]] ([[1908]]), the [[Royal Geographical Society]]'s Founder's Medal ([[1892]]) and the Linnean Society's Gold Medal ([[1892]]).
He is also honored by having [[Impact crater|crater]]s on [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and the [[Moon]] named after him. Having sometimes been referred to as "Darwin's Moon" it is amusing that Wallace has a crater on the Moon named after himself.
==References==
*Wallace, Alfred Russel (1889). [http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S724CH15.htm ''Darwinism'', Chapter 15.]
==Publications==
*Alfred Russel Wallace: ''Vaccination A Delusion'', '''1898''', ''Swan Sonnenschein & Co, LTD'' [http://www.vaccination.org.uk/vaccine/wallace/book.html]
==External links==
*[http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/index1.htm The Alfred Russel Wallace Page]
*[http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/geo/travel/TheMalayArchipelagoVolume1/toc.html Alfred Russel Wallace, ''The Malay Archipelago'']
* {{gutenberg author| id=Alfred+Russel+Wallace | name=Alfred Russel Wallace}}
==Books about Wallace==
*''Just Before the Origin: Alfred Russel Wallace's Theory of Evolution'' by John Langdon Brooks ISBN 1583481117
*''The Spice Islands Voyage: The Quest for Alfred Wallace, the Man Who Shared Darwin's Discovery of Evolution'' by Tim Severin ISBN 0786707216
*''My Life'' an autobiography : (1905) Alfred Russel Wallace By Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London
==See also==
*[[Australia-New Guinea]]
*[[Wallace line]]
[[Category:1823 births|Wallace, Alfred Russel]]
[[Category:1913 deaths|Wallace, Alfred Russel]]
[[Category:British scientists|Wallace, Alfred Russel]]
[[Category:Evolutionary biologists|Wallace, Alfred Russel]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Wallace, Alfred Russel]]
[[Category:Natives of Monmouthshire|Wallace, Alfred Russel]]
[[Category:Welsh scientists|Wallace, Alfred Russel]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Merit|Wallace, Alfred Russel]]
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|ALP}}
{{Infobox_Australian_Political_Party |
party_name = Australian Labor Party |
party_logo = [[Image:Alp.png|100px|Australian Labor Party Logo]] |
party_wikicolourid = Labor |
leader = [[Kim Beazley]] |
deputy leader = [[Jenny Macklin]] |
foundation = [[1890s]] |
ideology = [[social democracy]]|
headquarters = [[Centenary House]]<br/>19 National Circuit<br/>
[[Canberra|BARTON]] [[Australian Capital Territory|ACT]] 2600 |
holds_government = [[New South Wales|NSW]], [[Victoria (Australia)|VIC]], [[Queensland|QLD]], [[South Australia|SA]]<br />[[Western Australia|WA]], [[Tasmania|TAS]], [[Australian Capital Territory|ACT]] & [[Northern Territory| NT]]|
website = [http://www.alp.org.au Australian Labor Party]|
international = [[Socialist International]]
}}
The '''Australian Labor Party''' or '''ALP''' is [[Australia]]'s oldest [[political party]]. It is so-named because of its origins in and close links to the [[labor union|trade union]] movement. While it is standard practice in [[Australian English]] to spell the word ''[[Wiktionary:labour|labour]]'' with an "-our" ending, the name of the party ends with "-or".
==Policy==
Like other [[social democratic]] parties, Labor tends to believe that government is generally a positive force in the community and that it is the responsibility of governments to intervene in the operation of the economy (and society in general) to improve outcomes. Labor believes that the government should ensure that all members of society receive a basic income in order to have a "decent quality of life". Labor also believes that the government should ensure that all members of society are able to access quality and affordable housing as well as education and health services [http://www.alp.org.au/about/values.php].
Taking these objectives into account, like most social democratic parties around the world, Labor has embraced more free market principles since the beginning of the [[1980s]]. For example, Labor supports and implemented the dismantling of trade barriers and deregulation of industry. However, the party argues that it made these changes more moderately and with greater concern for those made worse off from these changes than the [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]] would have. Labor's policy shift has had critics from both the [[Left-wing politics|left]] and the [[Right-wing politics|right]] of the political spectrum. The left says that Labor has abandoned its traditional base and values and that its policies are indistinguishable from those of the Coalition. The right argues that Labor doesn't embrace enough neo-liberal economics and that it is sticking to a tired, union-dominated ideology.
Since the 1970s and 1980s Labor has supported [[multiculturalism]] and generally is more likely to approve of higher immigration levels than the Coalition. Labor is the primary supporter of issues that affect [[indigenous Australians]] such as land rights and supports a formal apology on th |
t [[Ellen DeGeneres]] even poked fun at her during the ceremony, saying that Danner shouldn't be nervous because she's almost certain to win at least one Emmy. And indeed she did: Danner won Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (for ''Huff'', and it was her first Emmy win) and thanked her daughter and late husband, among others. She said [[New Orleans]] (which had recently been devastated by [[Hurricane Katrina]]) was her husband's favorite city, and ended by paying tribute to "our sons and daughters in [[Iraq]]", followed by, "let's get the heck outta there!"
For twenty-five years, she has been a regular performer at the [[Williamstown Summer Theater Festival]], where she also serves on the Board of Directors.
==Personal life==
She is the mother of actress [[Gwyneth Paltrow]] and director [[Jake Paltrow]], and the widow of producer [[Bruce Paltrow]], who died in [[2002]]. Danner first co-starred with her daughter in [[1992]] in the TV movie ''[[Cruel Doubt]]'', then again in the [[2003 in film|2003 film]] ''[[Sylvia (movie)|Sylvia]]'', playing the mother of the title character, played by her daughter.
She is also the aunt of actresses [[Hillary Danner]] and [[Katherine Moennig]], and sister-in-law (through brother Harry) of [[opera]] director [[Dorothy Danner]].
Although she has worked frequently on TV and on stage, Danner put her film career on hold for a number of years to raise her children. Danner often said the proudest night of her life was when Gwyneth won an [[Academy Award]] for Best Actress (for ''[[Shakespeare in Love]]''), and Danner was the first person Paltrow thanked, tearfully, followed by her father and grandfather, who were both ill with [[cancer]] and subsequently died.
==Environmental activism==
In addition to her acting work, Blythe Danner has been involved in environmental issues such as [[recycling]] and [[conservation ethic|conservation]] for over 30 years, having seen firsthand the contrast between her rural youth and her later residence in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] and [[New York]]. She has been active with [[INFORM]], is on the Board of [[Environmental Activists]] and the Board of Directors of the [[Environmental Media Association]], and won the [[2002]] EMA Board of Directors Ongoing Commitment Award. She was instrumental in implementing curbside recycling in [[Santa Monica, California|Santa Monica]] and in retaining the [[New York, New York|New York City]] recycling program despite threatened budget cuts in [[1991]], has driven an electric car since the first [[General Motors]] [[EV1]] was available, and has installed solar panels at her house. In [[2002]] Danner, her husband Bruce Paltrow, and her daughter Gwyneth Paltrow worked together on a series of [[PSA]]s encouraging use of alternative energy sources and alternative fuel vehicles. Blythe Danner recently announced that she plans to take up skydiving.
==Filmography==
*[[1776 (musical)]] (1972)
*[[To Kill a Clown]] (1972)
*[[Lovin' Molly]] (1974)
*[[Hearts of the West]] (1975)
*[[Futureworld]] (1976)
*[[The Great Santini]] (1979)
*[[Man, Woman and Child]] (1983)
*[[Brighton Beach Memoirs]] (1986)
*[[Another Woman]] (1988)
*[[Alice]] (1990)
*[[Mr. & Mrs. Bridge]] (1990)
*[[The Prince of Tides]] (1991)
*[[Husbands and Wives]] (1992)
*[[To Wong Foo: Thanks for Everything, Julie Newmar]] (1995)
*[[Homage]] (1995)
*[[The Myth of Fingerprints]] (1997)
*[[Mad City]] (1997)
*[[The Farmhouse]] (1998)
*[[The Proposition]] (1998)
*[[No Looking Back]] (1998)
*[[The X-Files]] (1998)
*[[Forces of Nature]] (1999)
*[[The Love Letter]] (1999)
*[[Meet the Parents]] (2000)
*[[The Invisible Circus]] (2001)
*[[3 Days of Rain]] (2002)
*[[The Quality of Light]] (2003)
*[[Sylvia]] (2003)
*[[Meet the Fockers]] (2004)
==Television appearances==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:BlytheDanner1.jpg|thumb|With Stephen Collins in a scene from the short-lived CBS television series ''Tattinger's'']] -->
*Dr. Cook's Garden (1970)
*Adam's Rib (1973)
*F. Scott Fitzgerald and the Last of the Belles (1974)
*Inside the Third Reich (1982)
*Tattinger's (1988)
*Nick and Hillary (1989)
*Cruel Doubt (1992)
*Huff (2004)
*St. Elsewhere
*Presidio Med
*Will & Grace (in recurring role as Will's mother)
*The Seagull
*Candida
*A Call to Remember
*Saint Maybe
*[[We Were the Mulvaneys]]
*Back When We Were Grownups
*M*A*S*H
*Columbo (1972)
==Theater credits==
*The Miser (1968)
*Butterflies Are Free (1970)
*Betrayal (1980)
*A Streetcar Named Desire (1988)
*Follies (2001)
*Much Ado About Nothing
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0001100|name=Blythe Danner}}
*[http://www.twoop.com/people/archives/2005/10/blythe_danner.html Blythe Danner] Timeline
*[http://www.playbill.com/celebritybuzz/whoswho/biography/9756.html Stage biography] from ''[[Playbill]]'' website
*[http://www.ema-online.org/greenlight_2003_spring_in_focus.htm 2003 article] from the [[Environmental Media Association]]
*[http://hometown.aol.com/dannerfan/index.html Unabashedly Blythe], a fan website
[[Category:1943 births|Danner, Blythe]]
[[Category:Living people|Danner, Blythe]]
[[Category:American film actors|Danner, Blythe]]
[[Category:American stage actors|Danner, Blythe]]
[[Category:American television actors|Danner, Blythe]]
[[Category:Emmy Award winners|Danner, Blythe]]
[[Category:M*A*S*H actors|Danner, Blythe]]
[[Category:People from Philadelphia|Danner, Blythe]]
[[Category:Quakers|Danner, Blythe]]
[[Category:Will & Grace actors|Danner, Blythe]]
[[de:Blythe Danner]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bioleaching</title>
<id>4111</id>
<revision>
<id>36937242</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-27T13:02:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>130.60.24.124</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Further Reading */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Bioleaching''' is the extraction of specific [[metal]]s from their [[ore]]s through the use of [[bacterium|bacteria]].
Bioleaching is a new technique used by the [[mining]] industry to extract [[mineral]]s such as [[gold]] and [[copper]] from their [[ore]]s. Traditional extractions involve many expensive steps such as [[roasting]] and [[smelting]], which requires sufficient concentrations of elements in ores. Low concentrations are not a problem for [[bacterium|bacteria]] because they simply ignore the waste which surrounds the metals, attaining extraction yields of over 90% in some cases. These [[microorganism]]s actually gain energy by breaking down minerals into their constituent elements. The company simply collects the [[ion]]s out of the solution after the bacteria have finished.
Some advantages associated with bioleaching are:
*economical: bioleaching is generally simpler and therefore cheaper to operate and maintain than traditional processes, since fewer specialists are needed to operate complex chemical plants.
*environmental: The process is more environmentally friendly than traditional extraction methods. For the company this can translate into profit, since the necessary limiting of [[sulfur dioxide]] emissions during smelting is expensive. Less landscape damage occurs, since the [[bacterium|bacteria]] involved grow naturally, and the mine and surrounding area can be left relatively untouched. As the bacteria breed in the conditions of the mine, they are easily cultivated and recycled.
Some disadvantages associated with bioleaching are:
*not economical: the bacterial leaching process is very slow compared to smelting. This brings in less profit as well as introducing a significant delay in cash flow for new plants.
*not environmental: Toxic chemicals are sometimes produced in the process. [[Sulfuric acid]] and H<sup>+</sup> ions which have been formed can leak into the ground and surface water turning it acidic, causing environmental damage. Heavy ions such as iron, zinc, and [[arsenic]] leak during acid mine drainage. When the pH of this solution rises, as a result of dilution by fresh water, these ions precipitate, forming "Yellow Boy" pollution. For these reasons, a setup of bioleaching must be carefully planned, since the process can lead to a [[biosafety]] failure.
Currently it is more economical to smelt copper ore rather than to use bioleaching, since the concentration of copper in its ore is generally quite high. The profit obtained from the speed and yield of smelting justifies its cost. However, the concentration of gold in its ore is generally very low. The cheaper cost of bacterial leaching in this case outweighs the time it takes to extract the metal.
=== The process ===
The extraction of copper from its ore involves two [[bacterium|bacteria]], ''[[Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans]]'' and ''[[Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans]]'' (formerly known as ''Thiobacillus''). In stage 1, bacteria [[catalyst|catalyse]] the breakdown of the mineral [[arsenopyrite]] (FeAsS) by oxidising the [[sulfur]] and metal (in this case [[arsenic]] ions) to higher oxidation states whilst reducing [[oxygen|dioxygen]] by H<sub>2</sub> and Fe<sup>3+</sup>. This allows the [[soluble]] products to dissolve.
:FeAsS<sub>(s)</sub> <tt>-></tt> Fe<sup>2+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + As<sup>3+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + S<sup>6+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub>
This process actually occurs at the [[cell membrane]] of the bacteria. The electrons pass into the cells and are used in biochemical processes to produce energy for the bacteria to reduce oxygen molecules to water.
In stage 2, bacteria then oxidise Fe<sup>2+</sup> to Fe<sup>3+</sup> (whilst reducing O<sub>2</sub>).
:Fe<sup>2+</sup> <tt>-></tt> Fe<sup>3+</sup>
They then oxidise the metal to a higher positive oxidation state. With the electrons gained from that, they reduce Fe<sup>3+< |
ers.
The BDF is a capable and well-disciplined military force. Following positive political changes in [[South Africa]] and the region, the BDF's missions have increasingly focused on anti-poaching activities, disaster-preparedness, and foreign peacekeeping. The United States has been the largest single foreign contributor to the development of the BDF, and a large segment of its officer corps has received U.S. training. It is considered an apolitical and professional institution.
==Foreign relations==
Botswana puts a premium on economic and political integration in Southern Africa. It seeks to make SADC a working vehicle for economic development, and promotes efforts to make the region self-policing in terms of preventative diplomacy, conflict resolution, and good governance. It has welcomed post-apartheid South Africa as a partner in these efforts. Botswana joins the African [[consensus]] on most major international matters and is a member of international organisations such as the [[United Nations]], the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] and the [[African Union]] (AU).
== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Botswana}}
== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Botswana}}
''See also'': [[List of African writers (by country)#Botswana|List of writers from Botswana]], [[African art#Botswana|Art of Botswana]]
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
<CAPTION><font size="+1">'''Holidays'''</font></caption>
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | Date
! style="background:#efefef;" | English Name
! style="background:#efefef;" | Local Name
! style="background:#efefef;" | Remarks
|-
| [[January 1]] || [[New Year's Day]] || -
| &nbsp;
|-
| [[January 2]] || Public Holiday || - |
| -
|-
| (varies, usually in late March or early April) || [[Good Friday]]
| - || -
|-
| (varies, usually in late March or early April) || [[Easter Monday]]
| - || -
|-
| (varies, usually in May) || [[Ascension Day]] || -
| -
|-
| [[July 1]]
| [[Seretse Khama|Sir Seretse Khama]] Day
| - || -
|-
| [[July 19]] || President's Day || - || -
|-
| [[July 20]] || Public Holiday || - || -
|-
| [[December 25]] || [[Christmas]] day || - || -
|-
| [[December 26]] || [[Boxing day]] || - ||-
|-
| first Monday after Christmas || Public Holiday
| - || -
|}
== Main population centres (in descending order)==
Cities:
* [[Gaborone]]
* [[Francistown]]
Towns and villages:
* [[Molepolole]]
* [[Selebi-Phikwe, Botswana|Selebi-Phikwe]]
* [[Maun]]
* [[Serowe, Botswana|Serowe]]
* [[Kanye, Botswana|Kanye]]
* [[Mahalapye]]
* [[Mochudi]]
* [[Mogoditshane]]
* [[Lobatse]]
* [[Palapye]]
* [[Tlokweng]]
* [[Ramotswa, Botswana|Ramotswa]]
* [[Thamaga]]
* [[Moshupa]]
* [[Tonota]]
* [[Jwaneng]]
* [[Orapa]]
* [[Letlhakane]]
== Education ==
{{main|Education in Botswana}}
== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in Botswana]]
* [[Foreign relations of Botswana]]
* [[History of Botswana]]
* [[Military of Botswana]]
* [[Transportation in Botswana]]
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Botswana}}
===Government===
*[http://www.gov.bw/home.html The Republic Of Botswana] official government site
*[http://www.gov.bw/government/the_parliament.html The Parliament of Botswana] official site
*[http://www.rulers.org/rulb1.html#botswana Rulers.org —Botswana] List of rulers for Botswana
*[http://www.gov.bw/government/office_of_auditor_general.html Supreme Audit Institution] Botswana Audit Office
===News===
*[http://www.gov.bw/cgi-bin/news.cgi/ Daily News] Government of Botswana newspaper
*[http://allafrica.com/botswana/ allAfrica - Botswana] news headline links
*[http://www.gazette.bw/ The Botswana Gazette] independent mid-week newspaper
*[http://www.mmegi.bw/ Mmegi] independent weekly newspaper
*[http://www.botswanaguardian.co.bw/ The Botswana Gaurdian] Independent weekly newspaper
*[http://www.thevoicebw.com/ The Voice] Independent weekly newspaper
*[http://www.midweeksun.co.bw/ Midweek sun] Independent mid-week newspaper
*[http://www.ngamitimes.com/ The Ngami Times] Ngamiland's weekly newspaper
===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1068674.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: Botswana'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bc.html CIA World Factbook - ''Botswana'']
===Directories===
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065675/us559901/ LookSmart - ''Botswana''] directory category
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Botswana/ Open Directory Project - ''Botswana''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/bots.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Botswana''] directory category
*[http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Botswana/index.html The Index on Africa - ''Botswana''] directory category
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Botswana.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Botswana''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Botswana/ Yahoo! - ''Botswana''] directory category
===Tourism===
*[http://www.airbotswana.co.uk/ Air Botswana UK - The national airline]
*{{wikitravel}}
===Other===
* [http://www.photos-botswana.com Photos from Botswana]
{{Africa}}
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Botswana|*]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[af:Botswana]]
[[am:ቦትስዋና]]
[[ar:بوتسوانا]]
[[an:Botsuana]]
[[bg:Ботсвана]]
[[zh-min-nan:Botswana]]
[[bn:বোত্সওয়ানা]]
[[bs:Bocvana]]
[[ca:Botswana]]
[[cs:Botswana]]
[[da:Botswana]]
[[de:Botsuana]]
[[et:Botswana]]
[[el:Μποτσουάνα]]
[[es:Botsuana]]
[[eo:Bocvano]]
[[eu:Botswana]]
[[fr:Botswana]]
[[gl:República de Botsuana - Republic of Botswana]]
[[ko:보츠와나]]
[[ht:Botswana]]
[[hi:बोत्सवाना]]
[[hr:Bocvana]]
[[io:Botswana]]
[[id:Botswana]]
[[is:Botsvana]]
[[it:Botswana]]
[[he:בוטסואנה]]
[[ks:बोत्सवाना]]
[[ku:Botswana]]
[[la:Botsuana]]
[[lv:Botsvāna]]
[[lt:Botsvana]]
[[hu:Botswana]]
[[ms:Botswana]]
[[na:Botswana]]
[[nl:Botswana]]
[[nds:Botswana]]
[[ja:ボツワナ]]
[[no:Botswana]]
[[nn:Botswana]]
[[pl:Botswana]]
[[pt:Botswana]]
[[ro:Botswana]]
[[ru:Ботсвана]]
[[sa:बोत्सवाना]]
[[sq:Botsuana]]
[[simple:Botswana]]
[[sk:Botswana]]
[[sl:Bocvana]]
[[sr:Боцвана]]
[[fi:Botswana]]
[[sv:Botswana]]
[[tl:Botswana]]
[[tr:Botsvana Cumhuriyeti]]
[[uk:Ботсвана]]
[[zh:波札那]]
[[tn:Botswana]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bouvet Island</title>
<id>3465</id>
<revision>
<id>41291294</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T09:00:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Leflyman</username>
<id>42863</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Bouvet Island in fiction */ removed [[WP:NOR</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right width=300px
|+<font size=+1>'''Bouvetøya'''</font>
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [[Image:Flag of Bouvet Island (local).svg|150px|Representative flag of Bouvet Island]]
<span style="font-size: smaller;">([[Flag of Bouvet Island|Unofficial flag]])</span>
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [[Image:Orthographic projection centered over Bouvet Island.png|280px]]
|-
| [[Area]]
* Total
*Water (%)
| <br/>
*49 [[km&sup2;]]
*? %
|-
| [[Population]] <br/>
* Total ([[2004]])
* [[Population density]]
| <br/>
*0
*0/[[km&sup2;]]
|-
| [[List of dependent territories|Dependency of Norway since]] || [[February 27]], [[1930]]
|-
| [[Time zone]] || [[UTC]] +1
|-
| [[Country code top-level domain|Top level domains]] || [[.bv]] [[.no]]
|-
| [[Country calling code]] || 47
|}
[[Image:Bouvet Island.png|250px|right|thumb|Map of Bouvet Island]]
[[Image:Bouvet aerial photo.JPG|250px|right|thumb|Aerial photo]]
'''Bouvet Island''' ([[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]: ''Bouvetøya'') is an uninhabited sub-[[antarctic]] volcanic [[island]] in the South [[Atlantic Ocean]], south-southwest of the [[Cape of Good Hope]] ([[South Africa]]). It is a dependent area of [[Norway]] and is ''not'' subject to the [[Antarctic Treaty]].
== Geography ==
Bouvet Island is located at {{coor dm|54|26|S|3|24|E|}}. It is 58.5&nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]] (22.6&nbsp;[[square mile]]s) in area, 93% of which is covered by [[glacier]]s which block the south and east coasts.
It has no ports or harbors, only offshore anchorages, and is difficult to approach. The glaciers form a thick ice layer falling in high cliffs into the sea or onto the black beaches of [[volcanic]] sand. The 29.6&nbsp;[[Kilometer|km]] (18.4&nbsp;[[mile]]s) of coastline are often surrounded by an ice pack. The highest point on the island is called ''Olavtoppen'', whose peak is 780&nbsp;[[metre|m]] (2,600&nbsp;[[foot (length)|ft]]) above sea level. A [[lava]] shelf on the island's west coast, which appeared between [[1955]] and [[1958]], provides a nesting site for birds.
Bouvet Island is a candidate for the most remote island in the world, along with other small isolated islands such as [[Tristan da Cunha]], [[Easter Island]] and the [[Pitcairn Island]]s. The nearest land is [[Queen Maud Land]], Antarctica, over 1,600 km (1,000 miles) away to the south, which is itself uninhabited.
== History ==
[[Bouvet Island]] was discovered on [[January 1]], [[1739]], by [[Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier]], who commanded the [[France|French]] ships ''Aigle'' and ''Marie''. However, the island's position was not accurately fixed and Bouvet did not circumnavigate his discovery, so it remained unclear whether it was an island or part of a continent.
The island was not sighted again until [[1808]], when it was spotted by one Lindsay, the captain of the Enderby Company whaler ''Swan''. Though he didn't land, he was the first to correctly fix the island's position.
The first successful landfall dates to December [[1822]], when Captai |
en]]
[[it:Cinema italiano]]
[[hu:Olasz film]]
[[pt:Cinema italiano]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cinema of Poland</title>
<id>10789</id>
<revision>
<id>40357528</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:03:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rmo13</username>
<id>273904</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{EuropeanCinema}}
== Directors ==
*[[Józef Arkusz]]
*[[Stanisław Bareja]]
*[[Aleksander Ford]]
*[[Wojciech Has]]
*[[Agnieszka Holland]]
*[[Jerzy Hoffman]]
*[[Jerzy Kawalerowicz]]
*[[Krzysztof Kieślowski]] -- The ''[[Three Colors]]'' trilogy, ''[[The Decalogue]]''
*[[Jan Jakub Kolski]]
*[[Kazimierz Kutz]]
*[[Juliusz Machulski]]
*[[Andrzej Munk]]
*[[Marek Piwowski]]
*[[Roman Polański]]
*[[Ladislas Starevich]] Wladyslaw Starewicz
*[[Andrzej Wajda]]
*[[Krzysztof Zanussi]]
*[[Andrzej Zulawski]]
== Actors and actresses ==
*[[Pola Negri]]
*[[Eugeniusz Bodo]]
*[[Michał Bajor]]
*[[Zbigniew Cybulski]]
*[[Paweł Deląg]]
*[[Katarzyna Figura]]
*[[Marek Kondrat]]
*[[Bogusław Linda]]
*[[Magdalena Mielcarz]]
*[[Daniel Olbrychski]]
*[[Cezary Pazura]]
*[[Wojciech Pszoniak]]
*[[Izabella Scorupco]] (left Poland in 1978)
*[[Andrzej Seweryn]]
*[[Jerzy Stuhr]]
== Notable [[film]]s ==
*[[Kanal (movie)|Kanal]]
*[[Ashes and Diamonds]]
*[[The Saragossa Manuscript]]
*[[The Hour-Glass Sanatorium]]
*[[The Cruise (film)|The Cruise]] aka The Trip Down the River
*[[Kiler]]
*[[The Decalogue]]
*[[The Pianist (memoir)|The Pianist]]
*[[Seksmisja]]
==See also==
* [[Polish film school]]
* [[National Film School in Łódź]]
* [[Polish Film Institute]]
* [[History of cinema]]
* [[List of famous Poles]]
==External links==
*[http://www.pisf.pl Polish Film Institute]
*[http://www.filmpolski.pl Internet Polish Movie Database]
*[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3763/is_199803/ai_n8792389 Film theory in Poland before World War II]Marek Haltof, ''Canadian Slavonic Papers'', March-June 1998.
{{film-stub}}
{{poland-stub}}
[[Category:Cinema of Poland| ]]
[[pl:Film polski]]
[[de:Polnische Filmgeschichte]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cinema of Japan</title>
<id>10790</id>
<revision>
<id>41848156</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T03:14:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nihonjoe</username>
<id>446342</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */ fix link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{EasternCinema}}'''Japanese cinema''' (映画; ''Eiga'') has a history in [[Japan]] that spans more than 100 years.
==Genres==
*'''[[Anime]]''': Japanese [[animation]].
*'''[[Jidaigeki]]''', period pieces featuring [[samurai]], also known as '''Chambara''' ([[onomatopoeia]] describing the sound of swords clashing).
*'''[[Horror film|Horror]]''' films such as ''[[Ring (film)|Ringu]]'', also known as [[J-Horror]]
*'''[[Cult film|Cult Horror]]''', such as ''[[Battle Royale]]'' or ''[[Jisatsu Circle|Suicide Club]]''
*'''[[Kaiju]]''': [[monster]] films, such as ''[[Godzilla (1954 film)|Gojira]]''
*'''[[Pinku eiga|Pink films]]''', [[pornography|pornographic]] films. Often more socially-engaged and aesthically well-crafted than simple pornography.
*'''[[Yakuza film|Yakuza films]]''': films about [[mafia|mobsters]].
==History==
===The Silent Era===
The first film produced in Japan was the short documentary ''Geisha No Teodori'' (&#33464;&#32773;&#12398;&#25163;&#36362;&#12426;) in June of [[1899]].
The first Japanese performer to appear in a film professionally was the [[dancer]]/[[actor|actress]] [[Tokuko Nagai Takagi]], who appeared in four shorts for the American-based [[Thanhouser Company]] between 1911 and 1914 [http://www.brightlightsfilm.com/30/tokuko.html (source)].
Most Japanese cinema theatres at the time employed ''[[benshi]]'', narrators whose dramatic readings accompanied the film and its musical score which, like in [[Western countries|the West]], was often performed live. (See also the books ''Benshi, Japanese Silent Film Narrators, and their Forgotten Narrative Art of Setsumei A History of Japanese Silent Film Narration''
by [[Jeffrey A. Dym]] and [http://www.infoasia.co.jp/ucsubs/benshi_e.html ''The Benshi--Japanese Silent Film Narrators''].)
The [[Great Kantō earthquake|1923 earthquake]], the Allied bombing of Tokyo during [[World War II]], as well as the natural effects of time and Japan's [[humidity]] on the then more fragile [[celluloid|filmstock]] have all resulted in a great dearth of surviving films from this period.
Some of the most discussed silent films from Japan are those of [[Kenji Mizoguchi]], whose later works (e.g., ''[[The Life of Oharu]]'') are still highly regarded today.
A study of the "gendaigeki" (contemporary/modern film drama) and writing for film in Japan in the 1910s to early 1920s, with select translations of scripts (complete as well as excerpts) is available in "Writing in Light: The Silent Scenario and the Japanese Pure Film Movement" (Joanne Bernardi, Wayne State University Press, 2001).
===The 1930s===
Unlike Hollywood, silent films were still being produced in Japan well into the 1930s. Notable [[Sound film|talkies]] of this period include [[Kenji Mizoguchi|Mizoguchi]]'s ''[[Sisters of the Gion]]'' (''Gion no shimai'', 1936), ''Osaka Elegy'' (''Naniwa erejî'', 1936) ''[[The Story of the Late Chrysanthemums]]'' (''Zangiku monogatari'', 1939). With increasing censorship, the left-leaning [[tendency film]]s of directors such as [[Daisuke Ito]] come under attack.
===The 1940s===
[[Akira Kurosawa]] makes his feature film debut with ''[[Sugata Sanshiro (1943 movie)|Sugata Sanshiro]]'' in 1943. With the [[SCAP]] occupation following the end of [[World War II|WWII]], Japan is exposed to over a decade's worth of American [[animation]] that had been banned under the war-time government.
===The 1950s===
The [[Akira Kurosawa]]-directed ''&#19971;&#20154;&#12398;&#20365; ([[The Seven Samurai]])'' is released in 1954, the same year as ''&#12468;&#12472;&#12521; (Gojira),'' known to the West (and to Japan from its first sequel on) as ''[[Godzilla]].'' Over ten minutes of footage is cut from ''Godzilla'' by its American distributor, mostly of wounded civilians in burning cities, evoking the recent [[Nuclear weapon|Atomic Bombings]] of [[Hiroshima, Hiroshima|Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]]. ''[[Kaiju|Daikaiju]]'' films were a mainstay of Japanese cinema for well into the 1970s, and are still being made today. Kurosawa directs [[Rashomon (movie)|Rashōmon]] (1950).
[[Kenji Mizoguchi]] directs ''[[The Life of Oharu]]'' (Saikaku Ichidai Onna, [[1952]]), ''[[Ugetsu]]'' (Ugetsu Monogatari, [[1953]]) and ''[[Sansho the Bailiff]]'' (Sansho Dayu, [[1954]]).
ggt
[[Mikio Naruse]] directs ''[[Repast]]'' (1950) and ''[[Floating Clouds]]'' (1955).
[[Yasujiro Ozu]] directs ''[[Tokyo Story]]'' (''Tōkyō monogatari'') ([[1953]]) and ''[[Good Morning (movie)|Good Morning]]'' (''Ohayō'') ([[1959]]). Many have argued that ''[[Tokyo Story]]'' is the greatest film ever made, surpassing even ''[[Citizen Kane]]''.
===The 1960s===
[[Technicolor]] makes its mark. [[Kon Ichikawa]] captures the watershed [[1964 Summer Olympics|1964 Olympics]] in his three-hour documentary ''Tokyo Olympiad'' (''Tōkyō Orimpikku''; 1965). [[Nikkatsu Corporation|Nikkatsu]] fires [[Suzuki Seijun]] for "making films that don't make any sense and don't make any money" after his surrealist [[yakuza]] flick ''[[Branded to Kill]]'' (1967).
[[Osamu Tezuka]]'s ''Tetsuwan Atomu'' introduces [[anime]] to television and gives the world ''[[Astro Boy]]'' in [[1963]].
[[Nagisa Oshima]], [[Kaneto Shindo]], and [[Shohei Imamura]] emerge as major filmmakers during the decade.
[[Hiroshi Teshigahara]]'s ''[[Woman in the Dunes]]'' ([[1964]]) takes the Special Jury Prize at the [[Cannes Film Festival]], and is nominated for [[Academy Award for Directing|Best Director]] and [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Best Foreign Language Film]] [[Academy Award|Oscars]]. [[Masaki Kobayashi]]'s ''[[Kwaidan (film)|Kwaidan]]'' (1965) also picks up the Special Jury Prize at Cannes.
===The 1970s===
[[Nagisa Oshima]] directs ''Ai no koriida'' (''In the Realm of the Senses''; 1976), a [[World War I]] period piece about [[Abe Sada]]. Staunchly anti-censorship, he insists the film contain hardcore pornographic material; as a result the exposed film must be shipped to [[France]] for processing, and an uncut version of the film has still, to this day, never been shown in Japan. However, the [[pink film]] industry became the stepping stone for young independent filmmakers of Japan.
===The 1980s===
[[Hayao Miyazaki]] adapts his [[manga]] ''[[Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind]]'' (''Kaze no tani no Naushika'') into a feature film (an [[anime]] of the same name) in 1984. [[Katsuhiro Otomo]] adapts his manga ''[[Akira (film)|Akira]]'' into a feature-length anime in 1988. New anime movies are run every summer and winter with characters from popular TV anime. [[Shohei Imamura]] wins the Golden Palm at [[Cannes Film Festival|Cannes]] for ''Narayama Bushiko (1983)'' (''Ballad of Narayama''; 1982).
===The 1990s===
Shohei Imamura again wins the Golden Palm (shared with [[Iran|Iranian]] director [[Abbas Kiarostami]]), this time for ''Unagi'' (''The Eel''; 1997), joining [[Alf Sjöberg]], [[Francis Ford Coppola]] and [[Bille August]] as only the fourth two-time recipient. [[Takeshi Kitano]] emerges as a significant filmmaker with works such as ''[[Sonatine]]'' (1993), ''[[Kids Return]]'' (1996) and ''[[Hana-Bi]]'' (1997), which was given the Golden Lion at the [[Venice Film Festival]]. Not to forget, [[Takashi Miike]] makes up to 50 films in a decade, building up an impressive portfolio with titles such as, ''[[Audition (1999 film)|Audition]]'' (1999), ''[[Dead or Alive (film)|Dead or Alive |
townspeople. He later said that due to his constantly retelling this story of inspiration, he no longer had any memory of the moment of inspiration itself, and only remembered his retellings of that moment. A postscript to M. J. Simpson's biography of Adams, ''Hitchhiker'', provides evidence that the story was in fact a fabrication and that Adams had conceived the idea some time ''after'' his trip around Europe.
Despite the original outline, Adams was said to make up the stories as he wrote. He turned to [[John Lloyd (writer)|John Lloyd]] for help with the final two episodes of [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Primary and Secondary Phases#The Primary Phase|the first series]]. Lloyd contributed bits from an unpublished science fiction book of his own, called ''GiGax''. {{ref|Webb2005_120}} However, very little of Lloyd's material survived in later adaptations of ''Hitchhiker's'', such as the novels and the TV series. The TV series itself was based on the first six radio episodes, but sections contributed by Lloyd were largely re-written.
[[BBC Radio 4]] broadcast the first radio series weekly in the UK in March and April 1978. Following the success of the first series, another episode was recorded and broadcast, which was commonly known as the [[Christmas]] Episode. [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Primary and Secondary Phases#The Secondary Phase|A second series]] of five episodes was broadcast one per night, during the week of [[21 January]] - [[25 January]] [[1980]].
While working on the radio series (and with simultaneous projects such as ''[[The Pirate Planet]]'') Adams developed problems keeping to writing deadlines that only got worse as he published novels. Adams was never a prolific writer and usually had to be forced by others to do any writing. This included being locked in a [[hotel]] suite with his [[editor]] for three weeks to ensure that ''[[So Long, and Thanks For All the Fish]]'' was completed. {{ref|2004bookslut}} He was quoted as saying, "I love deadlines. I love the whooshing noise they make as they go by." {{ref|HitchhikerUS236}}
[[Image:DNA with H2G2 towel.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Douglas Adams with an officially licensed ''Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' towel on his left shoulder.]]
The books formed the basis for other adaptations, such as three-part comic book adaptations for each of the first three books, an interactive text-adventure [[computer game]], and a photo illustrated edition, published in 1994. This latter edition featured a [[42 Puzzle]] designed by Adams, which was later incorporated into paperback covers of the first four "Hitchhiker's" novels (the paperback for the fifth re-used the artwork from the hardcover edition).{{ref|42PuzzleCovers}} Adams also began attempts to turn the first ''Hitchhiker's'' novel into a movie in 1980, making several trips to [[Los Angeles, California]], and working with a number of Hollywood studios and potential producers. When he died in 2001 in California, he had been trying again to get the movie project green-lit with Disney. The screenplay finally got a posthumous re-write by [[Karey Kirkpatrick]], was green-lit in September 2003, and [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (film)|the resulting movie]] was released in 2005.
Radio Producer [[Dirk Maggs]] had consulted with Adams in 1993 about creating a third radio series, based on the third novel in the ''Hitchhiker's'' series. They also vaguely discussed the possibilities of radio adaptations of the final two novels in the five-book "trilogy." As well as the movie, this project was only realized after Adams's death. The third series, ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Tertiary to Quintessential Phases#The Tertiary Phase|The Tertiary Phase]]'', was broadcast on [[BBC Radio 4]] in September 2004 and is now available on audio CD. Douglas Adams himself can be heard playing the part of Agrajag. ''So Long, and Thanks For All the Fish'' and ''Mostly Harmless'' made up the fourth and fifth radio series, respectively (on radio they were titled ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Tertiary to Quintessential Phases#The Quandary Phase|The Quandary Phase]]'' and ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Tertiary to Quintessential Phases#The Quintessential Phase|The Quintessential Phase]]'') and these were broadcast in May and June of 2005, and subsequently released on Audio CD. The last episode in the last series (with a new, "more upbeat" ending) concluded with, "The very final episode of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' by Douglas Adams is affectionately dedicated to its author." {{ref|ScriptBookTwo356}}
==''Doctor Who''==
[[Image:The Pirate Planet Writers Credit.jpg|thumb|200px|Douglas Adams's credit from the opening titles of the ''[[Doctor Who]]'' serial ''[[The Pirate Planet]]''.]]
Adams sent the script for the HHGG pilot radio programme to the ''[[Doctor Who]]'' production office in 1978, and was commissioned to write ''[[The Pirate Planet]]'' (see below). He had also previously attempted to submit a potential movie script, called "Doctor Who and the Krikkitmen," which later became his novel ''Life, the Universe, and Everything'' (which in turn became the third ''Hitchhiker's Guide'' radio series). Adams then went on to serve as script editor on the show for its seventeenth season in 1979. Altogether, he wrote three [[List of Doctor Who serials|''Doctor Who'' serials]] starring [[Tom Baker]] as the Doctor:
* ''The Pirate Planet'' (the second serial in the "[[The Key to Time|Key To Time]]" arc, in [[List of Doctor Who serials#Season 16 (1978-79)|Season 16]])
* ''[[City of Death]]'' (with producer [[Graham Williams]], from an original storyline by writer [[David Fisher]]. It was transmitted under the pseudonym "[[David Agnew]]")
* ''[[Shada]]'' (only partially filmed and not broadcast due to industrial disputes)
Adams was also known to allow [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy cultural references#Hitchhiker's references in Doctor Who|in-jokes]] from ''The Hitchhiker's Guide'' to appear in the ''Doctor Who'' stories he wrote and other stories on which he served as Script Editor. Conversely, at least one reference to ''Doctor Who'' was worked into a ''Hitchhiker's'' novel. In ''[[Life, the Universe and Everything]]'', two characters travel in time and land on the pitch at [[Lord's Cricket Ground]]. The reaction of the radio commentators to their sudden appearance is very similar to a scene in the eighth episode of the 1965-66 story ''[[The Daleks' Master Plan]]'', which has [[Doctor (Doctor Who)|the Doctor]]'s [[TARDIS]] [[Materialization (science fiction)|materialise]] on the pitch at Lord's, with the reactions of the match's commentators.
Elements of ''Shada'' and ''City of Death'' were reused in Adams's later novel ''[[Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency]]'', in particular the character of [[Professor Chronotis]]. [[Big Finish Productions]] eventually remade ''Shada'' as an audio play starring [[Paul McGann]] as the Doctor. Accompanied by partially animated illustrations, it was [[Doctor Who spin-offs#Webcasts|webcast]] on the [[BBCi]] website in 2003, and subsequently released as a two-CD set later that year. An omnibus edition of this version was broadcast on the digital radio station [[BBC7]] on [[10 December]] [[2005]].
Adams is credited with introducing a fan of his, the zoologist [[Richard Dawkins]], to Dawkins' future wife, [[Lalla Ward]], who had played the part of [[Romana]] in Doctor Who.
When he was at school, he wrote and performed a play called ''Doctor Which''.
==Music==
Adams played the left-handed [[guitar]] and had a collection of twenty-four of these instruments when he died in 2001 (having received his first guitar in 1964). He also studied [[piano]] in the 1960s with the same instructor who taught [[Paul Wickens]], the pianist who later played in [[Paul McCartney]]'s band (and composed the music for the 2004-2005 editions of the ''Hitchhiker's Guide'' radio series). {{ref|Webb2005_49}} [[The Beatles]], [[Pink Floyd]] and [[Procol Harum]] all had great influence on Adams's work.
===Pink Floyd===
Adams included a direct reference to [[Pink Floyd]] in the original radio version of ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'', in which he describes the main characters surveying the landscape of an alien planet while Marvin, their android companion, hums Pink Floyd's "Shine on You Crazy Diamond". See also [[Pink Floyd trivia]] or [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (radio series)#Trivia|Hitchhiker's radio series trivia]].
Adams's official biography shares its name with the song "Wish You Were Here" by [[Pink Floyd]]. Adams was friendly with their guitarist [[David Gilmour]] and, on the occasion of his 42nd birthday (the number 42 having especial significance, being [[The Answer to Life, the Universe and Everything]]), was invited to make a guest appearance at one of their 1994 concerts in [[London]], playing [[rhythm guitar]] on the songs "Brain Damage" and "Eclipse". Adams chose the name for Pink Floyd's 1994 album, ''[[The Division Bell]]'' by picking the words from the lyrics to one of its tracks. Gilmour also performed at Adams's Memorial Service.
Pink Floyd and their lavish stage shows were also the inspiration for the Adams-created fictional [[rock band]] "[[Minor characters from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy#Hotblack Desiato|Disaster Area]]", described in the ''Hitchhiker's Guide'' as not only the loudest rock band in the galaxy, but in fact the loudest noise of any kind at all. One element of Disaster Area's stage show was to send a space ship hurtling into a sun, probably inspired by the plane that would crash into the stage during some of Pink Floyd's live shows, usually at the end of "On The Run". The 1968 Pink Floyd song “Set The Controls For The Heart Of The Sun” may a |
elations of Ghana</title>
<id>12076</id>
<revision>
<id>39554868</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T06:43:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AySz88</username>
<id>222815</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 39038696 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Ghana}}
Ghana is active in the [[United Nations]] and many of its specialized agencies, the [[World Trade Organization]], the [[Nonaligned Movement]], the [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU), what is now is the [[African Union]] (AU) and the [[Economic Community of West African States]]. Generally, it follows the consensus of the Nonaligned Movement and the OAU on economic and political issues not directly affecting its own interests. Ghana has been extremely active in international [[peacekeeping]] activities under UN auspices in [[Lebanon]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Rwanda]], the [[Balkans]], and [[Pakistan]], in addition to an eight-year sub-regional initiative with its ECOWAS partners to develop and then enforce a cease-fire in [[Liberia]]. Ghana maintains friendly relations with all states, regardless of ideology.
'''Disputes - international:'''
none
'''Illicit drugs:'''
illicit producer of [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] for the international [[Recreational drug use|drug]] trade; transit hub for Southwest and Southeast [[Asia]]n [[heroin]] and [[South America]]n [[cocaine]] destined for [[Europe]] and the [[United States]].
:''See also :'' [[Ghana]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Ghana, Foreign affairs of]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Ghana| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gibraltar</title>
<id>12077</id>
<revision>
<id>42157607</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:01:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.153.131.216</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="infobox bordered" cellpadding="4" style="width: 20em; font-size: 95%;"
|+ style="margin-left: inherit; font-size: medium;" | '''Gibraltar
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" |
{| style="width: 280px; background: none; text-align: center;"
|- style="vertical-align: middle;"
| style="border: 0;" | <span style="display:table-cell; border-collapse:collapse; border: solid 1px #BBBBBB;">[[Image:Flag of Gibraltar.svg|125px|Flag of Gibraltar]]</span>
| style="border: 0;" | [[Image:Gib original crest.jpg|70px|Coat of Arms of Gibraltar]]
|- style="font-size: smaller;"
| style="border: 0;" | [[Flag of Gibraltar|Flag]]
| style="border: 0;" | [[Coat of arms of Gibraltar|Coat of Arms]]
|}
|- style="text-align: center;"
| style="font-size:95%" colspan="2" | [[List of state mottos|Motto]]: ''Nulli Expugnabilis Hosti'' <br/>([[Latin]]: ''Conquered By No Enemy'')</small>
|- style="text-align: center;"
| style="font-size:95%" colspan="2" | [[National anthem|Anthem]]: [[Gibraltar Anthem]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
| colspan="2" style="background:#ffffff;" | [[Image:LocationGibraltar.png|Location of Gibraltar]]
|-
| '''Status'''
| [[British overseas territory|Overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| '''[[Official language|Official&nbsp;language(s)]]'''
| [[English language|English]]
|-
|'''[[Governor of Gibraltar|Governor]]'''
|[[Francis Richards|Sir Francis Richards]]
|-
| '''[[Chief Minister of Gibraltar|Chief Minister]]'''
| [[Peter Caruana]]
|-
| style="font-weight: normal;" | '''[[Area]]'''<br/>&nbsp;- Total <br/>&nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|not ranked]] (192 if)<br/> [[1 E6 m²|6.5 km&sup2;]] <br/> -
|-
| style="font-weight: normal;" | '''[[Population]]'''<br/>&nbsp;- Total (2003 [[Estimation|E]]) <br/>&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| [[List of countries by population|not ranked]] (190 if) <br/> 27,776 <br/> 4270/km&sup2;
|-
| '''[[Currency]]'''
| [[Gibraltar Pound]] (&pound;) (GIP)
|-
| style="font-weight: normal;" | '''[[Time zone]]'''<br>&nbsp;- in [[European Summer Time|summer]]
| [[Central European Time|CET]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+1)<br>[[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+2)
|-
| [[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]
| [[.gi]]
|-
! '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling code]]'''
| 350¹
|}
'''Gibraltar''' is an [[British overseas territory|Overseas Territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. It is located on the southern part of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] at the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] that links the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and [[Mediterranean Sea]] and placing it between [[Europe]] and [[Africa]]. The territory shares a land border with [[Spain]], to the north. Gibraltar has historically been important base for the [[British Armed Forces]], and is the site of a large naval base.
The name of the rock comes from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] name of ''Jebel al Tariq'' (جبل طارق) meaning rock of Tariq. It refers to the [[Ummayad]] general [[Tariq ibn-Ziyad]] who led the [[Islamic conquest of Iberia|Muslim conquest of Spain]] in [[711]]. Earlier it was known as [[Calpe]], one of the [[Pillars of Hercules]]. Today, Gibraltar is also known colloquially as "Gib" or "the Rock".
The [[Disputed status of Gibraltar|sovereignty of Gibraltar]] is a major issue of contention in Anglo-Spanish relations. [[Spain]] requests the return of sovereignty, ceeded in perpetuity in 1713. Any transfer has been consistently and totally rejected by the people of Gibraltar.
==History==
{{main|History of Gibraltar}}
Human settlement in Gibraltar can be traced back to the [[Phoenicians]] around [[950 BC]], although there is earlier evidence of habitation by the [[Neanderthal]]s, a prehistoric subspecies of man. Semi-permanent settlements were later established by the [[Carthaginians]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]]. Gibraltar was named at that time as one of the [[Pillars of Hercules]], after the legend of the creation of the [[Straits of Gibraltar]].
The first permanent settlement was built by the [[Almohad]] Sultan [[Abd al-Mu'min]]. Gibraltar then passed to a successive line of empires, becoming a part of [[Castile]] and then [[Spain]]. Admiral Sir George Rooke, commander of the confederate fleet captured the territory in [[1704]] during the [[War of the Spanish Succession]].
In the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] which ended the war, Spain ceded Gibraltar and [[Minorca]] to the United Kingdom, which has retained sovereignty over the former ever since, despite early attempts by Spain to recapture the territory.
Gibraltar then became an important naval base for the [[Royal Navy]], playing an important part in the [[Battle of Trafalgar]]. Its strategic value increased with the opening of the [[Suez Canal]], as it controlled the important sea route between the UK and its colonies in [[India]] and [[Australia]]. During [[World War II]], the civilian residents of Gibraltar were evacuated, and the Rock was turned into a fortress. An [[Gibraltar Airport|airfield]] was built over the civilian racecourse. Plans by [[Nazi Germany]] to capture the Rock were frustrated by Spain's reluctance to allow the [[Wehrmacht|German Army]] onto Spanish soil.
[[Image:Battle of Gibraltar 1607.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[[Battle of Gibraltar]].]]
In the [[1950s]], Spain – then under "Generalísimo" [[Francisco Franco]] – renewed its claim to sovereignty over Gibraltar, sparked in part by the visit of [[Queen Elizabeth II]] in [[1954]] to celebrate the 250th anniversary of the Rock's capture. For the next thirty years, Spain restricted movement between Gibraltar and Spain. A referendum was held on September 10, [[1967]] in which Gibraltar's voters were asked whether they wished to either pass under Spanish sovereignty, or remain under British sovereignty, with institutions of self-government. The vote was overwhelmingly in favour of continuance of British sovereignty, with 12,138 to 44 voting to reject Spanish sovereignty. In response Spain completely closed the border with Gibraltar and severed all communication links.
In [[1981]] it was announced that [[Charles, Prince of Wales|The Prince]] and [[Diana, Princess of Wales|Princess of Wales]] would fly to Gibraltar to board the [[HMY Britannia|''Britannia'']] as part of their honeymoon. In response the Spanish King, [[Juan Carlos of Spain|Juan Carlos I]] refused to attend their wedding in [[London]].
In [[1988]], [[Special Air Service|SAS troops]] foiled an attempted terrorist attack on the British Army Garrison by members of the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]].
The border with Spain was partially reopened in [[1982]], and fully reopened in [[1985]] after Spain's accession into the [[European Community]]. Joint talks on the future of the Rock held between Spain and the United Kingdom have occurred since the late [[1980s]], with various proposals for joint sovereignty discussed. However, another referendum organised in Gibraltar rejected the idea of joint sovereignty by 17,900 votes to 187. The question of Gibraltar continues to dominate Anglo-Spanish relations.
==Politics==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Francis Richards.jpg|thumb|150px|The [[Governor of Gibraltar]], [[Francis Richards|Sir Francis Richards]].]] -->
{{main|Politics of Gibraltar}}
As an [[British overseas territory|overseas territory]] of the UK, the head of state is [[Queen Elizabeth II]], who is represented by the [[Governor of Gibraltar]]. The UK retains responsibility for [[Defense (military)|defence]], [[International relations|foreign relations]], internal security and financial stability. The Governor is not involved i |
excellent overview
:*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=493014 Miller, John C. ''Origins of the American Revolution'' (1943)]
:*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8875493 Morison, S. E. ed. ''Sources and Documents Illustrating the American Revolution, 1764-1788, and the Formation of the Federal Constitution'' (1923)]
:*Nash, Gary B. ''The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America''. (2005). ISBN 0670034207.
:* Purcell, L. Edward. "Who Was Who in the American Revolution" (1993)
:*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10268028 Van Tyne, Claude Halstead. ''American Loyalists: The Loyalists in the American Revolution'' (1902)]
:*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106799260 Volo, James M. and Dorothy Denneen Volo. ''Daily Life during the American Revolution'' (2003)]
:*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3566256 Wahlke, John C. ed. ''The Causes of the American Revolution'' (1967)]
:*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=72423772 Wrong, George M. ''Washington and His Comrades in Arms: A Chronicle of the War of Independence'' (1921)] short overview
:* Wood, Gordon S. ''The Radicalism of the American Revolution: How a Revolution Transformed a Monarchical Society into a Democratic One Unlike Any That Had Ever Existed''. Alfred A. Knopf, 1992. ISBN 0679404937.
== External links ==
*[http://www.americanrevolution.com The American Revolution at americanrevolution.com] - historical information, documents, pictures, and more
*[http://www.pbs.org/ktca/liberty/ PBS Television Series]
[[Category:American Revolution]]
[[Category:Rebellions in the United States]]
[[Category:The Enlightenment]]
[[Category:Revolutions]]
[[bn:&#2438;&#2478;&#2503;&#2480;&#2495;&#2453;&#2494;&#2472; &#2476;&#2495;&#2474;&#2509;&#2482;&#2476;]]
[[da:USA's uafhængighedskrig]]
[[de:Amerikanische Unabhängigkeitsbewegung]]
[[eo:Usona Revolucio]]
[[es:Guerra de la Independencia de los Estados Unidos]]
[[fi:Amerikan vallankumous]]
[[fr:Guerre d'indépendance des États-Unis d'Amérique]]
[[ga:Cogadh Réabhlóideach Mheiriceá]]
[[he:מלחמת העצמאות של ארצות הברית]]
[[id:Perang Revolusi Amerika]]
[[is:Bandaríska frelsisstríðið]]
[[it:Guerra di indipendenza americana]]
[[ja:アメリカ独立戦争]]
[[ko:미국 독립전쟁]]
[[nl:Amerikaanse Onafhankelijkheidsoorlog]]
[[pl:Rewolucja ameryka&#324;ska]]
[[pt:Guerra da Independência dos Estados Unidos da América]]
[[sk:Americká vojna za nezávislosť]]
[[sv:Amerikanska revolutionen]]
[[zh:&#32654;&#22283;&#38761;&#21629;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 17</title>
<id>1974</id>
<revision>
<id>42075364</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:30:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>63.80.167.195</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom -->
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=17}}
|}
[[April 17]] is the 107th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (108th in [[leap year]]s). There are 258 days remaining.
==Events==
* [[69]] - After the First [[Battle of Bedriacum]], [[Vitellius]] becomes [[Roman Emperor]].
*[[1397]] - [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] tells the [[Canterbury Tales]] for the first time at the court of [[Richard II of England|Richard II]]. Chaucer scholars have also identified this date (in [[1387]]) as when the book's [[pilgrimage]] to [[Canterbury]] starts.
*[[1492]] - [[Spain]] and [[Christopher Columbus]] sign a contract for him to sail to [[Asia]] to get [[spice]]s.
*[[1521]] - [[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Martin Luther]] speaks to the assembly at the [[Diet of Worms]], refusing to recant his [[Lutheranism|teachings]].
*[[1524]] - [[Giovanni da Verrazano]] reaches [[New York City|New York]] harbor.
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Virginia]] secedes from the [[United States|Union]].
*[[1864]] - American Civil War: [[Battle of Plymouth (1864)|Battle of Plymouth]] begins &ndash; [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] forces attack [[Plymouth, North Carolina]].
*[[1865]] - [[Mary Surratt]] is arrested as a conspirator in the [[assassination]] of [[Abraham Lincoln]].
*[[1895]] - The [[Treaty of Maguan]] (also known as the "Treaty of Shimonoseki") between [[China]] and [[Japan]] is signed. This marks the end of the first [[Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) | Sino-Japanese War]], and the defeated [[Qing Empire]] is forced to renounce its claims on [[Korea]] and to concede the southern portion of the [[Fengtien]] [[Political divisions of China|province]], [[Taiwan]] and the [[Pescadores Islands]] to [[Japan]].
*[[1924]] - [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]] studios is formed from a merger of Metro Pictures, Goldwyn Pictures, and the Louis B. Mayer Company.
*[[1935]] - [[Sun Myung Moon]] has a vision of [[Jesus Christ]] who tells him to complete his mission from almost 2000 years ago.
*[[1937]] - [[Daffy Duck]] debuts in [[Warner Bros]]' short ''[[Porky's Duck Hunt]]''.
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] surrenders to [[Germany]].
*[[1942]] - [[POW]] [[France|French]] General [[Henri Giraud]] escapes from his castle prison in [[Festung Königstein]].
*[[1945]] - In [[Strassfurt]], [[Germany]], U.S. Lieutenant Colonel [[Boris T. Pash]] seizes half a ton of [[uranium]], in an attempt to foil [[Soviet Union]] plans to build an [[atomic bomb]].
*[[1961]] - [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]]: A group of [[CIA]]-financed and -trained [[Cuba]]n refugees lands at the [[Bay of Pigs]] in [[Cuba]] with the aim of ousting [[Fidel Castro]].
*[[1964]] - The [[Ford Motor Company]] unveils the [[Ford Mustang]] at the [[New York World's Fair]].
*1964 - [[Jerrie Mock]] becomes the first woman to circumnavigate the world by air.
*[[1969]] - [[Sirhan Sirhan]] is convicted of assassinating [[Robert F. Kennedy]].
*1969 - [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] Communist Party chairman [[Alexander Dubček]] is deposed.
*[[1970]] - [[Apollo program]]: The ill-fated [[Apollo 13]] spacecraft returns to [[Earth]] safely.
*[[1975]] - [[Cambodian Civil War]] ends: The [[Khmer Rouge]] captures the capital [[Phnom Penh]] and [[Cambodia]]n government forces surrender.
*[[1976]] - During his unsuccessful re-election bid, U.S. President [[Gerald Ford]] appears as himself on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''.
*[[1982]] - Patriation of the [[Canadian constitution]] in Ottawa by Proclamation of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], [[Queen of Canada]].
*[[1984]] - Police Constable [[Yvonne Fletcher]] is killed by automatic gunfire coming from the [[Libya]]n People's Bureau in central [[London]]. She had been policing a small demonstration outside the embassy. Ten other people are wounded. The events lead to an 11-day [[siege]] of the building.
*[[1986]] - Treaty signed, ending [[Three Hundred and Thirty Five Years' War]] between the [[Netherlands]] and the [[Isles of Scilly]].
*[[1991]] - The [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] closes above 3,000 for the [[Closing milestones of the Dow Jones Industrial Average|first time ever]] gaining 17.58 to 3,004.46.
*[[2001]] - [[Barry Bonds]] becomes the 17th member of the [[500 home run club]] at [[SBC Park|Pacific Bell Park]] in [[San Francisco, California]].
*[[2002]] - Four [[Canadian Forces]] soldiers are killed in [[Afghanistan]] by [[friendly fire]] from two [[U.S. Air Force]] [[F-16]]s, the first deaths in a combat zone for Canada since the Korean War.
==Births==
*[[593]] - [[Emperor Jomei]], emperor of Japan (d. [[641]])
*[[1573]] - [[Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria]] (d. [[1651]]
*[[1586]] - [[John Ford (dramatist)|John Ford]], English dramatist
*[[1598]] - [[Giovanni Riccioli]], Italian astronomer (d. [[1671]])
*[[1710]] - [[Henry Erskine, 10th Earl of Buchan]], British Freemason (d. [[1767]])
*[[1734]] - [[Taksin]], King of Thailand (d. [[1782]])
*[[1794]] - [[Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius]], German botanist (d. [[1868]])
*[[1837]] - [[J.P. Morgan]], American financier, art collector, and philanthropist (d. [[1913]])
*[[1842]] - [[Maurice Rouvier]], French statesman (d. [[1911]])
*[[1852]] - [[Cap Anson]], baseball player (d. [[1922]])
*[[1863]] - [[Augustus Edward Hough Love]], English mathematician (d. [[1940]])
*[[1866]] - [[Ernest Starling]], British physiologist (d. [[1927]])
*[[1882]] - [[Artur Schnabel]], Polish pianist (d. [[1951]])
*[[1885]] - [[Isak Dinesen]], Danish author (d. [[1962]])
*[[1890]] - [[Art Acord]], American actor and rodeo rider (d. [[1931]])
*[[1894]] - [[Nikita Khrushchev]], [[Premier of the Soviet Union]] (d. [[1971]])
*[[1897]] - [[Thornton Wilder]], American dramatist (d. [[1975]])
*[[1902]] - [[Jaime Torres Bodet]], Mexican writer, politician, and diplomat (d. [[1974]])
*[[1903]] - [[Gregor Piatigorsky]], Russian cellist (d. [[1976]])
*1903 - [[Morgan Taylor]], American athlete (d. [[1975]])
*[[1915]] - [[Joe Foss]], American soldier and politician (d. [[2003]])
*[[1916]] - [[Helenio Herrera]], French footballer player and manager (d. [[1997]])
*[[1917]] - [[Bill Clements]], Governor of Texas
*[[1918]] - [[William Holden (actor)|William Holden]], American actor (d. [[1981]])
*[[1923]] - [[Lindsay Anderson]], English film director (d. [[1994]])
*1923 - [[Harry Reasoner]], American journalist (d. [[1991]])
*[[1926]] - [[Gerry McNeil]], Canadian hockey player (d. [[2004]])
*[[1929]] - [[James Last]], German band leader
*[[1934]] - [[Don Kirshner]], American television producer and composer
*[[1938]] - [[Ben Barnes]], Lieutenant Governor of Texas
*[[1940]] - [[Anja Silja]], German soprano
*[[1947]] - [[Linda Martin]], Irish singer and [[Eurovision Song Contest]] winner
*[[1948]] - [[Jan Hammer]], Czech composer
*[[1950]] - [[Bruce McNall]], American former [[National Hockey League|NHL]] team owner
*[[1951]] - [[Olivia Hussey]], Argentine-born actress
*[[1952]] - [[Zeljko Raznatovic]], Ser |
onfiscated the church's property. By this time, many church leaders had gone into hiding to avoid prosecution, and half the Utah prison population was composed of polygamists.
Thus, under extreme pressure by the United States, church leadership officially ended the practice in [[1890]], based on a revelation by [[Wilford Woodruff]], a position which also allowed [[Utah]] to be granted U.S. statehood in [[1896]]. However, polygamy continued to be unofficially sanctioned or allowed by members of the [[First Presidency]] at least into the first decade of the [[20th Century]], with many polygamous marriages taking place in [[Mexico]] to avoid legal complications. (Quinn 1985). The Church practice of unofficially sanctioning allowing new polygamous marriages ended by about [[1910]]. At about the same time, the church prohibited its members from cohabiting with plural wives to which they had previously been married.
In modern times, the Church has consistently excommunicated all its members who have attempted to marry more than one wife, or to cohabitate with a plural wife. Although there were rare tacitly-accepted polygamous cohabitations by active church members as late as [[1930]], in [[1935]], the state of [[Utah]] made polygamous cohabitation a felony. Therefore, there have been no active polygamists in [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] for several generations. Moreover, in the [[21st Century]], the Church has officially endorsed an amendment to the U.S. Constitution forever banning marriage except between one man and one woman. Nevertheless, the church has never abandoned its practice of performing polygamous ''[[Sealing (Mormonism)|sealings]]'', in which a widower can be sealed to a second wife after the first wife dies. According to widely-accepted [[Mormon]] belief, a trio thus formed will begin a polygamous relationship in the afterlife.
==The Church and the modern world (c. 1890 to c. 1960)==
When the Church renounced polygamy in [[1890]], and Utah received statehood in [[1896]], Latter-day Saints for the first time saw an opportunity to begin entering the modern American mainstream.
===The beginnings of Mormon involvement in and attention to national politics===
Until about [[1890]], Utah politics was divided between the Mormon People's party (composed of Mormons) and the Gentile Liberal party (composed of non-Mormons). After the [[1890]] Manifesto, Mormons began their involvement in both the [[United States Republican Party]] and [[United States Democratic Party]].
In [[1898]], [[Utah]] elected general authority [[B.H. Roberts]] to the [[United States House of Representatives]] as a Democrat. Roberts, however, was denied a seat there because he was practicing polygamy.
====Mormons and the women's suffrage movement====
As a result of the church's practice of [[polygamy]], and the fact that women were a large untapped demographic group in [[Utah]], [[women's suffrage]] was always in the best political interests of the Church. Thus, in [[1870]], the [[Utah Territory]] had become one of the first polities to grant women the right to vote—a right which the [[U.S. Congress]] revoked in [[1887]] as part of the [[Edmunds-Tucker Act]].
As a result, a number of LDS women became active and vocal proponents of women's rights. Of particular note was the LDS journalist and suffragist [[Emmeline B. Wells|Emmeline Blanch Wells]], editor of the ''[[Woman's Exponent]]'', a Utah feminist newspaper. Wells, who was both a [[feminism|feminist]] and a polygamist, wrote vocally in favor of a woman's role in the political process and public discourse. National suffrage leaders, however, were somewhat perplexed by the seeming paradox between Utah's progressive stand on women's rights, and the church's stand on polygamy.
In [[1890]], after the church officially renounced polygamy, U.S. suffrage leaders began to embrace Utah's feminism more directly, and in [[1891]], Utah hosted the Rocky Mountain Suffrage Conference in [[Salt Lake City]], attended by such national feminist leaders as [[Susan B. Anthony]] and [[Anna Howard Shaw]]. The Utah Woman Suffrage Association, which had been formed in [[1889]] as a branch of the American Woman Suffrage Association (which in [[1890]] became the [[National American Woman Suffrage Association]]), was then successful in demanding that the constitution of the nascient state of [[Utah]] should enfranchise women. In [[1896]], [[Utah]] became the third state in the [[U.S.]] to grant women the right to vote.
====Mormons and the debate over temperance and prohibition====
The LDS church was actively involved in support of the [[temperance movement]] in the [[19th Century]], and then the prohibition movement in the early [[20th Century]].
====Mormonism and the national debate over socialism and communism====
Mormonism has had a mixed relationship with [[socialism]] in its various forms. In the earliest days of [[Mormonism]], [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] had established a form of [[religious communism]], an idea made popular during the [[Second Great Awakening]], combined with a move toward [[theocracy]]. Mormons referred to this form of theocratic communism as the [[United Order]], or the [[Law of Consecration]]. While short-lived during the life of Joseph Smith, the United Order was re-established for a time in several communities of [[Utah]] during the theocratic political leadership of [[Brigham Young]].
In addition to religious socialism, many [[Mormons]] in [[Utah]] were receptive to the secular [[socialism|socialist]] movement that began in America during the [[1890]]s. During the [[1890]]s to the [[1920]]s, the Utah Social Democratic Party, which became part of the [[Socialist Party of America]] in [[1901]], elected about 100 socialists to state offices in [[Utah]]. An estimated 40% of Utah Socialists were Mormon.
While religious and secular socialism gained some acceptance among Mormons, the Church was more circumspect about [[Marxism|Marxist]] [[Communism]], because of its association with violent revolution. From the time of [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], the church had taken a favorable view as to the [[American Revolution]] and the necessity at times to violently overthrow the government. Thus, in [[1917]], after the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], LDS [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles|apostle]] [[David O. McKay]] initially told an audience in general conference that "It looks as if Russia will have a government 'by the people, of the people, and for the people." ([[April 7]], [[1917]] Conference Report).
Eventually, however, the Church began to view the revolutionary nature of [[Communism]] as a threat to the [[United States Constitution]], which the Church respected about as much as it respected American revolutionaries. In [[1936]], the [[First Presidency]] issued a statement stating:
:[I]t would be necessary to destroy our government before communism could be set up in the United States.
:Since Communism, established, would destroy our American Constitutional government, to support communism is treasonable to our free institutions, and no patriotic American citizen may become either a communist or supporter of communism. . . .
:Communism being thus hostile to loyal American citizenship and incompatible with true Church membership, of necessity no loyal American citizen and no faithful Church member can be a Communist. (First Presidency, "Warning to Church Members," July 3, 1936, ''Improvement Era'' 39, no. 8 (August 1936): 488).
As an extension of the Church's opposition to revolutionary [[Marxism]] beginning in [[1936]], modern [[Latter-day Saints]] generally focus on the ''differences'' between secular communism and the [[religious communism]] of the religion's early years. While both economic systems abolish the private ownership of property, many Mormons feel that communal ownership of property by a church or theocracy is fundamentally different, and even diametrically opposed to, communal ownership by a non-theocratic government. The point has frequently been raised that entry into the various Mormon systems of communism has always been voluntary: while one could always choose to leave the religion, one could not always choose to leave the jurisdiction of a secular communist system.
===The effect of modernism on Mormon doctrine===
<!--Influence of Roberts, Talmage, Widtsoe, and Joseph Fielding Smith-->
Beginning soon after the turn of the Twentieth Century, four influential Latter-day Saint scholars began to systematize, modernize, and codify Mormon doctrine: B.H. Roberts, James E. Talmage, John A. Widtsoe, and Joseph Fielding Smith.
====The Church and scientific rationalism====
In 1921, the church called chemistry professor [[John Andreas Widtsoe]] as an apostle. Widtsoe's writings, particularly ''Rational theology'' and ''Joseph Smith as Scientist'', reflected the optimistic faith in science and technology that was pervasive at the time in American life. According to Widtsoe, all Mormon theology could be reconciled within a rational, positivist framework.
====The Church and evolution====
The issue of evolution has been a point of controversy within the Church. The first official statement on the issue of evolution was in [[1909]], which marked the centennial of [[Charles Darwin]]'s birth and the 50th anniversary of his masterwork, the ''[[Origin of Life]]''. On that year, the [[First Presidency]] led by [[Joseph F. Smith]] as President, issued a statement reinforcing the predominant religious view of [[creationism]], and calling human evolution one of the "theories of men", but falling short of declaring evolution untrue or evil. "It is held by some", they said, "that Adam was not the first man upon the earth, and that the original human was a development from lower orders of the animal creation. These, however, are the theories of men." N |
&#363;z'' &#1583;&#1585;&#1608;&#1586;, [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: druzi דרוזי, pl. druzim דרוזים) are a small, distinct religious community based mostly in the [[Middle East]], whose religion resembles [[Islam]], but is influenced by [[Greek philosophy]] and other religions.
[[Image:dstar.gif|thumb|170px|Druze Star]]
==Location==
[[Image:beiteddine2.jpg|thumb|400px|Palace at Beiteddine, Lebanon built by a Druze prince]]
The Druze reside primarily in [[Lebanon]], [[Israel]], [[Syria]], [[Turkey]] and [[Jordan]]. Small communities of expatriates also live in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Latin America]], [[West Africa]], [[Australia]], and [[Europe]]. They use the [[Arabic language]] and follow a social pattern very similar to the other [[Arab]]s of the region. They are not considered [[Muslim]] by most Muslims in the region for although the Druze faith has its origins in Shia Islam, it differs in many respects from the principal branches of Islam. Most Druze consider themselves [[Arab]]s [http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_1-2-2004_pg3_5]. There are about 1 million Druze worldwide, the vast majority in the [[Levant]] or East Mediterranean [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3612002.stm]. However, this figure may not be accurate as some sites/studies suggest they number around 450 000 [http://www.adherents.com/adh_branches.html#Islam].
The Druze call themselves ''[[Ahl al-Tawh&#299;d]]'' or ''[[al-muwahhidūn]]'', "[[the People of Monotheism]]". The origin of the name ''Druze'' is debated but is usually traced to [[Muhammad al-Darazi]], an early messenger of the community who is considered a [[Heresy|heretic]] by the Druze today.
==History of the Druze==
The religion developed out of [[Ismaili]] Islam, a philosophical movement based in the [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] [[Caliphate]], in the [[10th century]], a time of particular cultural wealth. The religion did not attempt to reform mainstream Islam but to create a whole new religious body influenced by [[Greek philosophy]], [[Gnosticism]] and [[Christianity]], among others. The main actors were ''Tariq al-Hak&#299;m'' (meaning Ruler), also known as ''[[al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|al-Hak&#299;m bi-Amr Allah]] or Ruler in the Name of God'', and ''[[Hamza ibn-'Ali ibn-Ahmad]]'', the main architect of the movement. It was Hamza who first publicly proclaimed that Hak&#299;m was the Ruler in the Name of God. Hak&#299;m was opposed by mainstream [[Muslim]]s for what was considered [[apostasy]].
Because the Druze considered Tariq al-Hak&#299;m to be the incarnation of God, they were persecuted by mainstream [[Muslim]]s, especially after Hak&#299;m's death in [[1021]]. The Druze took up [[taqiyya]] ("dissimulation"), a practice whereby they conceal their true beliefs and outwardly accept the religious beliefs of those amongst whom they live, even as they secretly retained their true convictions. The Druze believe that Hak&#299;m disappeared and will return in the [[Eschatology|end of days]].
The Druze have played major roles in the history of the [[Levant]]. They were mostly scattered in the [[Chouf Mountains]], which is part of [[Mount Lebanon]], and later the so-named [[Jabal el-Dourouz|Jabal al-Dur&#363;z (Mount of the Druzes)]] in [[Syria]].
The Druze also played a major role in the [[Lebanese Civil War]] ([[1975]]&ndash;[[1990]]). They organized a [[militia]] (one of the strongest militia in the War) under the leadership of [[Walid Jumblatt]], (son of [[Kamal Jumblatt]]), in opposition to the [[Maronite]] Christian [[Kataeb Party (Lebanon)|Phalangist]] militia of [[Bachir Gemayel]]. They were based in the Mount Lebanon area (especially the [[Chouf]]).
==The Druze today==
In Lebanon, Syria, and Israel, the Druze have official recognition as a separate religious community with its own religious court system. Their symbol is an array of five colors: [[green]], [[red]], [[yellow]], [[blue]] and [[white]]. Each color pertains to a symbol defining its principles: green for the Universal Soul or Al-ruh, red for the Universal Mind or Al-Aql, yellow for the Truth/Word or Al-Kalima, blue for the Antagonist/Cause or As-Sabq, and white for the Protagonist/Effect or Al-Tali. The symbol is usually represented in a five-sided star. This is why the number ''[[5 (number)|5]]'' has special considerations among the religious community.
In [[Israel]], Druze choose to vote in elections but usually identify themselves as [[Arab]]s (but not specifically as [[Palestinian]]s)<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup>. Some of the Galilean and Carmelean Druzes are well known in Israel as “Israeli patriots”. Lately [[Azzam Azzam]], an Israeli-Druze alleged spy, has become (in Israel’s popular culture) the model of the “ultimate Israeli patriot”. However, many Druze living in the [[Golan Heights]] consider themselves [[Syria]]n and refuse Israeli citizenship, while the remainder consider themselves Israeli. In general elections the majority of Druze's villages have similar voting patterns as the general public. However, Druze living in the [[Golan Heights]] vote almost exclusively for right wing parties. Some Israeli Druze complain that their villages do not receive the same grants and subsidies that are given to [[Jew]]ish communities.
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:druzewoman.jpg|thumb|300px|Druze woman of the Jabal El Druze in Syria]] -->
Israeli Druze also serve in the [[Israeli army]], voluntarily since 1948, and&mdash;at the community's request&mdash;compulsorily since 1956. Their privileges and responsibilites are the same as Israeli Jews; thus, all Druze are drafted, but exemptions are given for religious students and for various other reasons; however, conscientious objectors typically face jail time [http://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp464.htm] (see also [[Refusal to serve in the Israeli military]]).
== Prominent Druze figures ==
*[[Fakhreddin II]] (1588 - 1635), descendant of the [[Ma'an Dynasty]], ruled at its height what is now Lebanon, part of Syria, Israel and even part of [[Turkey]].
*[[L'Emir Magid Arslan]] was the leader of the independence of Lebanon in 1943 when the president Bechara el Khoury with fellow ministers were taken to prison to rachaya by the French. His sons L'Emir Faysal Arslan and L'emir Talal Arslan fought democratically each other to gain seat in the Lebanese Parliament but L'Emir Talal Arslan won the seat because of Syria's influence over Lebanon during the Lebanese elections in 1992.
*[[Kamal Jumblatt]] was founder of the [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] [[Progressive Socialist Party]] in the mid-20th century, and a major thinker and philosopher; his son [[Walid Jumblatt]] remains prominent in Lebanese politics.
*In Israel, [[Salah Tarif]] (a former captain in the paratrooper and the tank divisions of the Israeli Army) has been a [[Knesset]] member since 1992. He has served as the Deputy Speaker and the Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs, and was appointed [[Minister Without Portfolio]] in the Sharon government of 2001. Other notable figures include [[Ayoob Kara]], a Druze Knesset member of the [[Likud]] party, and [[Colonel]] [[Imad Fares]], the acclaimed commander of the [[Givati Brigade]] from 2001&ndash;2003. [[Major General]] Hussain Fares is the commander of the [[Israel Border Police]]. [[Azzam Azzam]] was accused of spying for Israel by Egypt, and jailed there for 8 years, before being released in late 2004.
*Famous musician [[Farid Al Atrache]], born in Syria (Jabal Al Druze) to Prince Farhan Atrash brother of Sultan Basha Al Atrash. He moved to Egypt with his mother, brother and sister Asmahan who was also a famous singer. He composed hundreds of songs and acted in many movies. He revived the Eastern musical traditions with such pieces as Lahn Al Khulud and the Rabeeh Opera.
*Radio announcer [[Casey Kasem]], born Kamal Amin Kasem to Lebanese Druze immigrants to the U.S., is probably that country's most well-known figure of Druze heritage. About 20,000 Druze live in the United States.
*Sultan Basha Elatrash: leader of the revolution against the French occupation of Lebanon and Syria in 1920's. He is viewed by many Druse as well as many Arabs as a symbol of courage and defiance to outside influence and occupation.
==Beliefs of the Druze==
The Druze faith keeps its tenets secret. They are publicly open about very few details of their faith (borrowing from the [[Shi'a Islam|Shiite]] practice of [[taqiyya]]) and they do not accept converts and strongly discourage conversion from their religion to another. This is due to many religious, political and historical reasons: the Druze were violently and brutally persecuted for centuries by other religious communities.
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:pythagorasd.jpg|thumb|300px|Thinkers like Pythagoras are respected and even considered prophets in Druze faith]] -->
The Druze believe in the unity of God, hence comes their own name for themselves: ''[[Ahl at-Tawh&#299;d]]''. They are [[monotheism|monotheists]] in the same way as Christians, Jews and Muslims. Their [[theology]] has a [[Neo-Platonism|Neo-Platonic]] view about how God interacts with the world through emanations and is similar to some [[gnosticism|gnostic]] and other [[esotericism|esoteric]] sects. They are not, however, influenced by the [[Sufi]] philosophy, as many believe.
The principles of the Druze faith are: guarding one's tongue (honesty), protecting one's brother, respecting the elderly, helping others, protecting one's homeland, and belief in one God. Another well-known feature of the Druze religion is a fervent belief in human-only [[reincarnation]] for all the members of the community. They do not accept [[polygamy]], [[tobacco smoking]], [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], and consumption of [[pork]]. Although pork is eaten and alcohol may be consumed in many no |
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film | name = A Man for All Seasons, TV and cinematic films
| image = A Man for All Seasons DVD cover.jpg
| caption = A Man for All Seasons
| director = [[Fred Zinnemann]]
| producer = Fred Zinnemann
| writer = [[Robert Bolt]]
| starring =[[Paul Scofield]]<br>[[Wendy Hiller]]<br>[[Leo McKern]]
| music =[[Georges Delerue]]
| cinematography =
| editing =
| distributor = [[Columbia Pictures]]
| released = [[December 12]], [[1966]]
| runtime = 120 min
| language = English
| budget = $3,900,000 (estimated)
| imdb_id = 0060665
}}
'''''A Man for All Seasons''''' is a play by [[Robert Bolt]], first performed in [[London]] on [[July 1]] [[1960]]. It has subsequently been made into a feature film and a television movie.
{{spoiler}}
The plot is based on the true story of Sir [[Thomas More]], the [[16th century|16th-century]] Chancellor of [[England]], who refuses to endorse or denounce the [[monarch|king's]] wish to divorce his aging wife so that he can marry his mistress. The King is [[Henry VIII of England]] and his wife is [[Catherine of Aragon]], the first of an eventual six.
The play portrays More as a man of principle, envied by rivals such as [[Thomas Cromwell]] and loved by the common people and by his family.
[[Image:A Man for All Seasons.jpg|left|250px|thumb|Thomas More ([[Paul Scofield]]) is accused of [[high treason]] by Cromwell ([[Leo McKern]]) - 1966 film]] [[Paul Scofield]], who played the leading role in the [[West End]], reprised it on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in [[1962]], winning a [[Tony Award]], and played More again in the first of two film versions ([[1966]]), winning an [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Oscar]] in the process. The film also stars [[Robert Shaw (actor)|Robert Shaw]] as Henry VIII, [[Orson Welles]] as [[Thomas Cardinal Wolsey|Wolsey]], a young [[John Hurt]] as More's nemesis [[Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich|Richard Rich]], and an older [[Wendy Hiller]] as More's second wife. It was directed by [[Fred Zinnemann]]. In addition to the [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor Oscar]] won by Scofield, the film won [[Academy Awards]] for screenplay, [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|cinematography]], costume design, [[Academy Award for Directing|Best Director]], and [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]].
The [[1988]] version stars [[Charlton Heston]] (who also directed it) as More, [[Vanessa Redgrave]] (who appeared briefly in the [[1966]] version as [[Anne Boleyn]]) as More's wife, and Sir [[John Gielgud]] as Cardinal Wolsey.
More recently, the play has been staged in London's West End at the [[Theatre Royal]], Haymarket starring [[Martin Shaw]] and produced by [[Bill Kenwright]]. It closes on [[1 April]] [[2006]].
==Quotation==
[[Image:man4all.JPG|thumb|200px]]
'''Alice:''' Arrest him!
'''More:''' Why, what has he done?
'''Margaret:''' He's bad!
'''More:''' There is no law against that.
'''Roper:''' There is! God's law!
'''More:''' Then God can arrest him.
'''Roper:''' Sophistication upon sophistication.
'''More:''' No, sheer simplicity. The law, Roper, the law. I know what's legal, not what's right. And I'll stick to what's legal.
'''Roper:''' Then you set man's law above God's!
'''More:''' No, far below; but let me draw your attention to a fact -- I'm not God. The currents and eddies of right and wrong, which you find such plain sailing, I can't navigate. I'm no voyager. But in the thickets of the law, oh, there I'm a forrester.I doubt if there's a man alive who could follow me there, thank God.
'''Alice:''' While you talk, he's gone!
'''More:''' And go he should, if he was the Devil himself, until he broke the law!
'''Roper:''' So now you'd give the Devil benefit of law!
'''More:''' Yes. What would you do? Cut a great road through the law to get after the Devil?
'''Roper:''' I'd cut down every law in England to do that!
'''More:''' Oh? And when the last law was down, and the Devil turned round on you, where would you hide, Roper, the laws all being flat? This country's planted thick with laws from coast to coast -- man's laws, not God's -- and if you cut them down -- and you're just the man to do it -- do you really think you could stand upright in the winds that would blow then? Yes, I'd give the Devil benefit of law, for my own safety's sake.
----
'''More:''' It profits a man nothing to give his soul for the whole world ... but for Wales, Richard?
==Redirections==
[[A Man for All Seasons, play]]
[[A Man for All Seasons, film]]
==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0060665|title=The 1966 film}}
* {{imdb title|id=0095578|title=The 1988 film}}
*[http://thebestnotes.com/booknotes/Man_For_All_Seasons/Man_For_All_Seasons01.html Free Study Guide for "A Man for All Seasons"] at [http://thebestnotes.com TheBestNotes.com]
*''[http://artsandfaith.com/t100/2005/entry.php?film=49 A Man for All Seasons]'' (1966) at the [http://artsandfaith.com/top100/ Arts & Faith Top100 Spiritually Significant Films] list
*[http://www.kenwright.com Current London stage production].
{{start box}}
{{succession box
| title=[[Academy Award for Best Picture]]
| years=1966
| before=''[[The Sound of Music]]''
| after=''[[In the Heat of the Night]]''
}}
{{end}}
{{Template:AcademyAwardBestPicture}}
[[Category:Films based on plays|Man for All Seasons, A]]
<!-- Paul Scofield -->
<!-- Robert Shaw -->
<!-- Wendy Hiller -->
[[Category:1966 films|Man for All Seasons, A]]
[[Category:1988 films|Man for All Seasons, A]]
[[Category:Film remakes|Man for All Seasons, A]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar (film)|Man for All Seasons, A]]
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar|Man for All Seasons, A]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee (film)|Man for All Seasons, A]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actress Oscar Nominee (film)|Man for All Seasons, A]]
[[Category:British films|Man for All Seasons, A]]
[[Category:British plays|Man for All Seasons, A]]
[[Category:Films directed by Fred Zinnemann|Man for All Seasons, A]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Azincourt</title>
<id>953</id>
<revision>
<id>37220201</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T15:33:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TheFEARgod</username>
<id>381244</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of Agincourt, see [[Agincourt]].''
'''Azincourt''' (sometimes: '''Agincourt''') is a village and [[commune in France|commune]] of northern [[France]] in the [[Pas-de-Calais]] ''[[départment]]'', 14 miles to the north-west of [[Saint-Pol-sur-Ternoise]] by road, famous on account of the victory, on [[October 25]] [[1415]], of [[Henry V of England]] over the French in the [[Battle of Agincourt]]. Population (1999): 276.
The original museum of the battle featuring model knights fabricated from [[Action Man]] has given way to a more professional space with slide shows, audio commentary's and some interactive elements. The museum building is itself modelled on the [[English longbow]] of the English soldiers.
[[Category:Communes of Pas-de-Calais]]
{{PasdeCalais-geo-stub}}
[[fr:Azincourt]]
[[it:Azincourt]]
[[nl:Azincourt]]
[[pl:Azincourt]]
[[sr:Азенкур]]
[[sv:Agincourt]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albert Speer</title>
<id>954</id>
<revision>
<id>42134522</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:22:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Clngre</username>
<id>30878</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv accidently to wrong version for last rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the son of Albert Speer, also an architect, see [[Albert Speer (the younger)]]''
[[Image:speer portrait.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Albert Speer]]
{{Audio|De-Albert_Speer.ogg|'''Albert Speer'''}} ([[March 19]], [[1905]] &ndash; [[September 1]], [[1981]]) was born ''Berthold Konrad Hermann Albert Speer'' in [[Mannheim]], [[Germany]], the second of three sons. He is sometimes called 'the first architect of the [[Third Reich]]'. He was [[Hitler|Hitler's]] chief [[architect]] in [[Nazi Germany]] and in [[1942]] became Hitler's minister of armaments, when he had considerable success in reforming and streamlining Germany's war production. After the war he was tried at [[Nuremberg trials|Nuremberg]] where he expressed remorse and was sentenced to 20 years in prison. After his release, he became a successful author, writing a number of semi-autobiographical works until his death in 1981 from a [[cerebral hemorrhage]].
==Early years==
Although Speer originally wanted to become a [[mathematics|mathematician]] when he was young, he ended up following in the footsteps of his father and grandfather and studied architecture. He began his architectural studies at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology; his decision to study locally instead of at one of the more prestigious institutes was dictated by the inflation of 1923. In 1924 when the inflation had stabilised, Speer transferred his studies to the more esteemed Munich Institute of Technology. In 1925 he transferred again, this time to the Berlin Institute of Technology. It was there that he was under the tutelage of [[Heinrich Tessenow]], Speer had a high regard for Tessenow and when he passed his exams in 1927 he became Tessenow's assistant. His duties as assistant involved teaching seminar classes three days a week. Although Tessenow himself never agreed with [[Nazism]], a number of his students did, and it was they who persuaded Speer to attend a [[Nazi Party]] rally in a Berlin beer-hall in December 1930.
Speer claims to have been apolitical as a young man; nevertheless, he did attend the rally. He was surprised to find Hitler dressed in a neat blue suit, rather than the brown uniform seen on Nazi Party posters. Speer claimed to have b |
t for which the sum of necessary [[evil]] is a minimum."</blockquote>
A cautious defense of Leibnizian [[optimism]] would invoke certain scientific principles that emerged in the two centuries since his death and that are now thoroughly established: the [[principle of least action]], the [[conservation of mass]], and the [[conservation of energy]]. Recent scientific developments enable a bolder defense. The [[solar system]] appears to have a number of fortuitous characteristics that support [[Earth]]'s long lived and melioristic [[biosphere]]: the Earth is rich in [[metal]]s, is of the right size and distance from the [[sun]], and has the right [[rotation period]] and axis tilt. The [[Moon]] and Jupiter have sizes and [[orbit]]s enabling them to shield the Earth from [[bolide]] impacts; for whatever reason, such impacts have been happily rare since life emerged; and so on (Ward & Brownlee, 2000; Morris 2003: chpts. 5,6).
Bolder yet is a defense of [[optimism]] that invokes the [[Anthropic Principle]]. Contemporary physics can be seen as grounded in the numerical values of a handful of [[fundamental physical constants|dimensionless constants]], the best known of which are the [[fine structure constant]] and the ratio of the [[rest mass]] of the [[proton]] to the [[electron]]. Were the numerical values of these constants to differ by a few percent from their observed values, it is likely that the resulting universe would be incapable of harboring [[complexity]]. Our universe is "best" in the sense that it is capable of supporting [[complexity|complex]] structures such as [[galaxy|galaxies]], [[star]]s, and, ultimately, life on Earth.
===Symbolic thought===
Leibniz had a remarkable faith that a great deal of human reasoning could be reduced to calculations of a sort, and that such calculations could resolve many differences of opinion:
<blockquote>"The only way to rectify our reasonings is to make them as tangible as those of the Mathematicians, so that we can find our error at a glance, and when there are disputes among persons, we can simply say: Let us calculate [''calculemus''], without further ado, to see who is right." (''The Art of Discovery'' 1685, W 51) </blockquote>
Leibniz's [[calculus ratiocinator]], which very much brings [[symbolic logic]] to mind, can be viewed as a way of making calculations of this sort feasible. Leibniz wrote memoranda (many of which are translated in Parkinson 1966) that can now be read as groping attempts to get symbolic logic--and thus his ''calculus''--off the ground. But Gerhard and Couturat did not publish these writings until after modern formal logic had emerged in Frege's ''[[Begriffsschrift]]'' and in various writings by [[Charles Peirce]] and his students in the 1880s, and hence well after [[Boole]] and [[De Morgan]] began that logic in 1847.
Leibniz thought [[symbol]]s very important for human understanding. He attached so much importance to the invention of good notations that he attributed to this alone the whole of his discoveries in mathematics. His notation for the [[infinitesimal calculus]] affords a splendid example of his skill in this regard. [[Charles Peirce]], a 19th century pioneer of [[semiotics]], shared Leibniz's passion for symbols and notation, and his belief that these are essential to a well-running logic and mathematics.
But Leibniz took his speculations much further. Defining a [[Grapheme|character]] as any written sign, he then defined a "real" character as one that represents an idea directly and not simply the word embodying the idea. Some real characters, such as the notation of logic, serve only to facilitate reasoning. Many characters well-known in his day, including [[Egyptian]] [[hieroglyphic]]s, [[Chinese character]]s, and the symbols of [[astronomy]] and [[chemistry]], he deemed not real.<!--is this paragraph correct up to this point?--> Instead, he proposed the creation of a ''[[characteristica universalis]]'' or "universal characteristic," built on an [[alphabet of human thought]] in which each fundamental concept would be represented by a unique "real" character.
<blockquote>"It is obvious that if we could find characters or signs suited for expressing all our thoughts as clearly and as exactly as arithmetic expresses numbers or geometry expresses lines, we could do in all matters ''insofar as they are subject to reasoning'' all that we can do in arithmetic and geometry. For all investigations which depend on reasoning would be carried out by transposing these characters and by a species of calculus." (''Preface to the General Science'', 1677. Revision of Rutherford's translation in Jolley 1995: 234. Also W I.4) </blockquote>
More complex thoughts would be represented by combining in some way the characters for simpler thoughts. Leibniz saw that the uniqueness of [[prime factorization]] suggests a central role for [[prime numbers]] in the universal characteristic, a striking anticipation of [[Gödel numbering]]. Granted, there is no intuitive or [[mnemonic]] way to number any set of elementary concepts using the prime numbers.
Because Leibniz was a mathematical novice at the time he first wrote about the ''characteristic'', at first he did not conceive it as an [[algebra]] but rather as a [[universal characteristic | universal language]] or script. Only in 1676 did he conceive of a kind of "algebra of thought," modeled on and including conventional algebra and its notation. The resulting ''characteristic'' was to include a logical calculus, some combinatorics, algebra, his ''analysis situs'' (geometry of situation) discussed in 3.2, a universal concept language, and more.
What Leibniz actually intended by his [[characteristica universalis]] and [[calculus ratiocinator]], and the extent to which modern formal [[logic]] does justice to the calculus, may perhaps never be unambiguously established. A good introductory discussion of the "characteristic" is Jolley (1995: 226-40). An early yet still classic discussion of the "characteristic" and "calculus" is Couturat (1901: chpts. 3,4).
The importance of the ''characteristica'' and ''calculus'' goes beyond their value for understanding Leibniz's legacy, and extends to [[mathematics]], [[modernity]], the European [[Age of Enlightenment |Enlightenment]], and, more controversially, even to [[postmodern]] theory. The ''characteristica'' and ''calculus'' are also possible ways in which Leibniz's thinking can contribute to contemporary thinking in [[thermodynamics]], [[biology]], [[climate change]], and [[resource policy]], and consequently how [[ethics]] and [[metaphysics]] can meaningfully engage with such currently topical issues. Moreover, computer [[software]] employing networks of block diagrams and pictograms to generate the mathematics and [[kinetics]] of [[ecology|ecological]], thermodynamic, and dynamic [[socioeconomic]] systems, all appear to aim at formal systems of the sort Leibniz dreamed about.
===Formal logic===
Leibniz is the most important logician between Aristotle and 1847, when [[George Boole]] and [[Augustus De Morgan]] each published books that began modern formal logic. Leibniz enunciated the principal properties of what we now call [[logical conjunction|conjunction]], [[disjunction]], [[negation]], [[identity]], set [[subset|inclusion]], and the [[empty set]]. The principles of Leibniz's logic and, arguably, of his whole philosophy, reduce to two:
#All our ideas are compounded from a very small number of simple ideas, which form the [[alphabet of human thought]].
#Complex ideas proceed from these simple ideas by a uniform and symmetrical combination, analogous to arithmetical multiplication.
With regard to (1), the number of simple ideas is much greater than Leibniz thought. As for (2), logic can indeed be grounded in a symmetrical combining operation, but that operation is analogous to either of addition or multiplication. The formal logic that emerged early in the 20th century also requires, at minimum, unary [[negation]] and [[quantification|quantified]] [[variable]]s ranging over some [[universe of discourse]].
Leibniz published nothing on formal logic in his lifetime; most of what he wrote on the subject consists of working drafts [[Louis Couturat]] found in the [[Nachlass]] and published in 1903. Selections from this volume have been translated into English, mainly by Parkinson (1966) and Loemker (1969). Our present understanding of Leibniz the logician emerges mainly from the work of Wolfgang Lenzen, beginning around 1980; for a summary, see [http://www.philosophie.uni-osnabrueck.de/Woods.htm Lenzen (2004).]
[[Charles Peirce]], [[Hugh MacColl]], [[Frege]], and [[Bertrand Russell]] all shared Leibniz's dream of combining symbolic logic, mathematics, and philosophy. The culmination of Leibniz's approach to logic is, arguably, the algebraic logic of [[Ernst Schröder]] and the [[modal logic]] founded by [[Clarence Irving Lewis]]. For an example of how present-day work in logic and metaphysics can draw inspiration from, and shed light on, Leibniz's thought, see Zalta (2000).
==Mathematician==
Although the mathematical notion of [[Function (mathematics)|function]] was implicit in trigonometric and logarithmic tables, which existed in his day, Leibniz was the first, in 1692 and 1694, to employ it explicitly, to denote any of several geometric concepts derived from a curve, such as [[abscissa]], [[ordinate]], [[tangent]], [[chord]], and the perpendicular (Struik 1969: 367). In the 18th century, "function" lost these geometrical associations.
Leibniz was the first to see that the coefficients of a system of [[linear equation]]s could be arranged into arrays, now called [[determinant]]s, which can be manipulated to find the solution of the system, if any. This method was later called [[Cramer's Rule]] |
he midpoint of the chord is perpendicular to the chord.
*The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the centre of a circle.
===Tangent properties===
*The line drawn perpendicular to the end point of a radius is a tangent to the circle.
*A line drawn perpendicular to a tangent at the point of contact with a circle passes through the centre of the circle.
*Tangents drawn from a point outside the circle are equal in length.
*Two tangents can always be drawn from a point outside of the circle.
*If a central angle and an inscribed angle of a circle are subtended by the same chord and on the same side of the chord, then the central angle is twice the inscribed angle.
*If two angles are inscribed on the same chord and on the same side of the chord, then they are equal.
*An inscribed angle subtended by a semicircle is a right angle.
*For a cyclic quadrilateral, the exterior angle is equal to the interior opposite angle.
===Secant, tangent, and chord properties===
{{See also|Power of a point}}
*The chord theorem states that if two chords, CD and EF, intersect at G, then <math>CG \times DG = EG \times FG</math>. (Chord Theorem)
*If a tangent from an external point D meets the circle at C and a secant from the external point D meets the circle at G and E respectively, then <math>DC^2 = DG \times DE</math>. (Tangent Secant Theorem)
*If two secants, DG and DE, also cut the circle at H and F respectively, then <math>DH \times DG = DF \times DE</math>. (Corollary of the Tangent Secant Theorem)
*The angle between a tangent and chord is equal to the subtended angle on the opposite side of the chord. (Tangent Chord Property)
*If the angle subtended by the chord at the centre is 90 degrees then l = sqrt(2) * r, where l is the length of the chord and r is the radius of the circle.
==See also==
{{Commons|Category:Circles (Geometry)}}
* [[Sphere]]
* [[Unit circle]]
* [[Descartes' theorem]]
* [[Isoperimetric theorem]]
* [[List of circle topics]]
* [[List of Stupid Projects]]
* [[I hate my life]]
==External links==
*[http://agutie.homestead.com/files/clifford1.htm Clifford's Circle Chain Theorems.] This is a step by step presentation of the first theorem. Clifford discovered, in the ordinary Euclidean plane, a "[[sequence]] or chain of theorems" of increasing [[complexity]], each building on the last in a natural progression. by Antonio Gutierrez from "Geometry Step by Step from the Land of the Incas"
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/pythagoras/Munching/circle.shtml Munching on Circles] at [[cut-the-knot]]
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[[zh:圆]]</text>
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<title>Cantigas de Santa Maria</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CantigasDeSantaMariaPanPipes.jpg|thumb|200px|An illustration from the E codex of the Cantigas de Santa Maria.]]
The '''''Cantigas de Santa Maria''''' (Songs to the Virgin Mary) are manuscripts were written in [[Galician]]-[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], with music notation, during the reign of [[Alfonso X of Castile|Alfonso X]] ''El Sabio'' (1221-1284) and are one of the largest collections of monophonic (solo) songs from the middle ages. All of the songs at least mention the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]], and every 10th is a religious hymn. Some of the manuscripts containing this music also contain color illuminations of pairs of musicians, playing a wide variety of [[musical instrument|instruments]].
The Cantigas are written in [[Galician]]-[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], the lyrical language of [[Castile]] at the time. A complete transcription is available, as is a recent English translation.
The Cantigas are composed of 420 poems. 356 of these are in a narrative format relating to Virgin Mary miracles; the rest of them, except an introduction and two prologs, are of ''lore'' or involve Marian festivities.
The authors are unknown, even if several studies indicate that Galician poet [[Airas Nunes]] might well have been the author of a large part of them. The King Alfonso X &mdash; named as Affonso in the Cantigas &mdash; is also believed to be an author of some of them as he refers himself in first person.
The metrics are extraordinarily diverse: 280 different formats for the 420 Cantigas. The most common are the ''[[virelai]]'' and the ''[[rondeau]]''. The length of the verses varies between two and 24 syllables.
The music is written in notation which is similar to the notation used for chant, but also contains some information about the length of the notes. Several transcriptions exist.
The narrative voice in many of the songs describes an erotic relationship, in the troubador fashion, with the Divine.
The Cantigas are frequently recorded and performed by [[Early Music]] groups, and quite a few CDs featuring music from the Cantigas are available.
Three codices (copies) of the Cantigas are preserved. They are known as the E Codex, the T Codex, and the Florencia manuscript. The E Codex &mdash; from [[El Escorial]], and originally from the royal court of [[Seville]], is in two volumes and is the largest collection of the Cantigas; it is richly illuminated in a Gothic hand, containing no less than 1262 carefully detailed miniatures, and has been dated to [[1280]]-[[1283]]. The T Codex, from [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], is considered to be a copy of the earliest redaction of the music, and was copied in the 14th century. The [[Florence]] manuscript has 109 of the cantigas but contains no music, only empty staves; however it is richly illuminated.
== See also ==
* [[Llibre Vermell de Montserrat]]
== References ==
* ''The Songs of Holy Mary by Alfonso X, the Wise: A Translation of the Cantigas de Santa Maria.'' Translated by Kathleen Kulp-Hill. Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, Tempe 2000. ISBN 086698-213-2
== External links ==
* http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/cantigas/ (facsimile, illuminations, links to transcriptions)
* http://www.falsobordone.com/eng_index.htm (Swedish early music group, four songs of their cantigas-CD are downloadable)
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<title>Claudio Monteverdi</title>
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<comment>/* Life and works */ dab. Catholic</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Claudio_Monteverdi.jpg|thumb|300px|Portrait of Claudio Monteverdi in Venice, 1640, by [[Bernardo Strozzi]].]]
'''Claudio Monteverdi''' ([[May 15]], [[1567]] (baptised) &ndash; [[November 29]], [[1643]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[composer]], [[violin]]ist and [[singer]].
His work marks the transition from [[Renaissance music|Renaissance]] to [[Baroque music]]. During his long life he produced work that can be classified in both categories, and he was one of the most significant revolutionaries that brought about the change in style. Monteverdi wrote the earliest dramatically viable [[opera]], ''[[Orfeo]]'', and was fortunate enough to enjoy fame during his lifetime.
==Life and works==
He was born in [[Cremona]] in northern Italy. The name Monteverdi means 'green mountain' in Italian. In childhood he studied with [[Marc Antonio Ingegneri]], who was ''maestro di cappella'' at the cathedral in Cremona. Since there is no record of him singing in the cathedral choir, the music lessons must have been private. Monteverdi produced his first music for publication&mdash;some [[motet]]s and sacred [[madrigal (music)|madrigal]]s&mdash;in only 1582 and 1583, so he must have been something of a child prodigy. In 1587 he produced his first book of secular madrigals, and shortly thereafter began to look for work outside of his native town.
In 1590 Monteverdi began working at the court of [[Vincenzo I of Gonzaga]] in [[Ma |
lular organisms like [[human]]s.
Understanding cell composition and how they function is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. Appreciating the similarities and differences between cell types is particularly important in the fields of cell and [[molecular biology]]. These fundamental similarities and differences provide a unifying theme, allowing the principles learned from studying one cell type to be extrapolated and generalized to other cell types.
[[Genetics]] is the [[science]] of [[gene]]s, [[heredity]], and the [[variation]] of [[organism]]s. In modern research, genetics provides important tools in the investigation of the function of a particular gene, or the analysis of [[genetic interaction]]s. Within [[organism]]s, genetic information generally is carried in [[chromosome]]s, where it is represented in the [[DNA sequence|chemical structure]] of particular [[DNA]] [[molecule]]s.
[[Gene]]s encode the information necessary for synthesizing proteins, which in turn play a large role in influencing (though, in many instances, not completely determining) the final [[phenotype]] of the organism.
Developmental biology studies the process by which organisms grow and develop. Originating in [[embryology]], modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of [[cell growth]], [[cellular differentiation|differentiation]], and "[[morphogenesis]]," which is the process that gives rise to [[biological tissue|tissue]]s, [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s, and [[anatomy]].
[[Model organism]]s for developmental biology include the round worm ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'', the fruit fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'', the zebrafish ''[[Brachydanio rerio]]'', the mouse ''[[Mus musculus]]'', and the weed ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]''.
===Physiology of organisms===
''Main articles:'' '''[[Physiology]]''', [[Anatomy]]
Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the structures function as a whole. The theme of "structure to function" is central to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into [[plant physiology]] and [[animal physiology]], but the principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular [[organism]] is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of [[yeast]] cells can also apply to [[human]] cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of [[human physiology]] to non-human [[species]]. Plant physiology also borrows techniques from both fields.
[[Anatomy]] is an important branch of physiology and considers how [[organ (biology)|organ]] systems in animals, such as the [[nervous system|nervous]], [[immune system|immune]], [[endocrine system|endocrine]], [[respiratory system|respiratory]], and [[circulatory system|circulatory]] systems, function and interact. The study of these systems is shared with [[medicine|medically]] oriented disciplines such as [[neurology]] and [[immunology]].
===Diversity and evolution of organisms===
[[Image:fitness-landscape-cartoon.png|thumb|300px|In [[population genetics]] the [[evolution]] of a [[population]] of organisms is sometimes depicted as if travelling on a [[fitness landscape]]. The arrows indicate the preferred flow of a population on the landscape, and the points A, B, and C are local optima. The red ball indicates a population that moves from a very low fitness value to the top of a peak]]
''Main articles:'' '''[[Evolutionary biology]]''', [[Biodiversity]], [[Botany]], [[Zoology]]
Evolutionary biology is concerned with the origin and descent of [[species]], as well as their change over time, and includes scientists from many [[taxonomy|taxonomically]]-oriented disciplines. For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular [[organism]]s such as [[mammalogy]], [[ornithology]], or [[herpetology]], but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution. Evolutionary biology is mainly based on [[paleontology]], which uses the [[fossil]] record to answer questions about the mode and tempo of evolution, as well as the developments in areas such as [[population genetics]] and evolutionary theory. In the [[1990s]], [[developmental biology]] re-entered evolutionary biology from its initial exclusion from the modern synthesis through the study of [[evolutionary developmental biology]]. Related fields which are often considered part of evolutionary biology are [[phylogenetics]], [[systematics]], and [[taxonomy]].
The two major traditional taxonomically-oriented disciplines are [[botany]] and [[zoology]].
Botany is the scientific study of [[plant|plants]]. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study the [[growth]], [[reproduction]], [[metabolism]], [[morphogenesis|development]], [[phytopathology|diseases]], and [[evolution]] of plant life.
Zoology involves the study of [[animal]]s, including the study of their [[physiology]] within the fields of [[anatomy]] and [[embryology]]. The common [[genetics|genetic]] and developmental mechanisms of animals and plants is studied in [[molecular biology]], [[molecular genetics]], and [[developmental biology]]. The [[ecology]] of animals is covered under [[behavioral ecology]] and other fields.
==== Classification of life ====
The dominant classification system is called [[Linnaean taxonomy]], which includes ranks and [[binomial nomenclature]]. How organisms are named is governed by international agreements such as the [[International Code of Botanical Nomenclature]] (ICBN), the [[International Code of Zoological Nomenclature]] (ICZN), and the [[International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria]] (ICNB). A fourth Draft BioCode was published in 1997 in an attempt to standardize naming in these three areas, but it has yet to be formally adopted. The [[International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature]] (ICVCN) remains outside the BioCode.
===Interactions of organisms===
[[Image:Foodweb.png|frame|A [[food web]], a generalization of the food chain, depicting the complex interrelationships among organisms in an [[ecosystem]].]]
''Main articles:'' [[Ecology]], [[Ethology]], [[Behavior]], [[Biogeography]]
[[Ecology]] studies the distribution and abundance of [[life|living organisms]], and the interactions between organisms and their [[natural environment|environment]]. The environment of an organism includes both its habitat, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors such as [[climate]] and [[geology]], as well as the other the organisms that share its habitat. Ecological systems are studied at several different levels, from individuals and [[population]]s to [[ecosystem]]s and the [[biosphere]]. As can be surmised, ecology is a science that draws on several disciplines.
[[Ethology]] studies [[animal]] [[behavior]] (particularly of social animals such as [[primate]]s and [[canidae|canids]]), and is sometimes considered a branch of [[zoology]]. Ethologists have been particularly concerned with the [[evolution]] of behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of the theory of [[natural selection]]. In one sense, the first modern ethologist was [[Charles Darwin]], whose book ''The expression of the emotions in animals and men'' influenced many ethologists.
[[Biogeography]] studies the spatial distribution of organisms on the [[Earth]], focusing on topics like [[plate tectonics]], [[climate change]], dispersal and migration, and [[cladistics]].
== History of the word "biology" ==
Formed by combining the Greek &#946;&#943;&#959;&#962; ''(bios)'', meaning 'life', and &#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962; ''(logos)'', meaning 'study of', the word "biology" in its modern sense seems to have been introduced independently by [[Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus]] (''Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur'', [[1802]]) and by [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] (''Hydrogéologie'', 1802). The word itself is sometimes said to have been coined in [[1800]] by [[Karl Friedrich Burdach]], but it appears in the title of Volume 3 of [[Michael Christoph Hanov]]'s ''Philosophiae naturalis sive physicae dogmaticae'': ''Geologia, biologia, phytologia generalis et dendrologia'', published in [[1766]].
==History==
''Main articles: [[History of biology]], [[History of medicine]], [[History of genetics]]''
Major discoveries in biology include:
* [[Cell theory]]
* [[Germ theory of disease]]
* [[Genetics]]
* [[Evolution]]
* [[DNA]]
==See also==
''Main articles:'' [[List of biology topics]]
{| width="100%" bgcolor="#fff4f4" id="toc"
!align="center" colspan="2"|[[List of biology topics|Topics related to biology]] ([[:Category:Biology|Category]])
|-align="center"
!align="left" valign="top"|People and history
|align="left" valign="top"|[[Biologist]] - [[List of biologists|Notable biologists]] - [[History of biology]] - [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] - [[Timeline of biology and organic chemistry]] - [[List of geneticists and biochemists]]
|-align="center"
!align="left" valign="top"|Institutions, publications
|align="left" valign="top"|[[NASA Ames Research Center]] - [[Bachelor of Science]] - [[List of publications in biology|Publications]]
|-align="center"
!align="left" valign="top"|Terms and phrases
|align="left" valign="top"|''[[Omne vivum ex ovo]]'' - ''[[In vivo]]'' - ''[[In vitro]]'' - ''[[In utero]]'' - ''[[In silico]]''
|-align="center"
!align="left" valign="top"|Related disciplines
|align="left" valign="top"|[[Medicine]] ([[Physician]]) - [[Physical anthropology]] - [[Environmental science]]
|-align="center"
!align="left" valign |
'' (Cold Spring Harbor, New York: Cold Spring Harbor Press, 2001). ISBN 0879695870
*[[Michael Crichton]], ''State of Fear'', (New York: HarperCollins, 2004). ISBN 0066214130 (contains an appendix on eugenics, politics, and science in the US.)
*Nancy Ordover, ''American Eugenics: Race, Queer Anatomy, and the Science of Nationalism'' (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 2003). ISBN 0816635595
*Tom Shakespeare, "Back to the Future? New Genetics and Disabled People", ''Critical Social Policy'' 46:22-35 (1995)
* Wahlsten, D. (1997). Leilani Muir versus the Philosopher King: eugenics on trial in Alberta. ''Genetica'' '''99''': 185-198.
==External links==
{{commons|Eugenics}}
===Anti-eugenics and historical websites===
*[http://www.eugenicsarchive.org/eugenics/ Eugenics Archive - Historical Material on the Eugenics Movement] (funded by the [[Human Genome Project]])
*[http://www.africa2000.com/ENDX/aedata.htm Eugenics Watch]
*[http://www.shoaheducation.com/pNEW.html Shoaheducation.com:Eugenics]
*[http://cit.uvm.edu:6336/dynaweb/eugenics/@Generic__CollectionView;cs=default;ts=default;pt=eugenics Vermont Eugenics: A Documentary History]
*[http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/library/historical/eugenics/index.cfm University of Virginia Historical Collections: Eugenics]
*[http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/online/deadlymedicine/ "Deadly Medicine: Creating the Master Race"] (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum exhibit)
*[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/dna/episode5/ DNA: Pandora's Box] - PBS documentary about DNA, the [[Human Genome Project]], and questions about a "new" eugenics
* [http://www.wfu.edu/~caron/ssrs/Dorr.rtf ''Fighting Fire with Fire: African Americans and Hereditarian Thinking, 1900-1942''] - article on the support of eugenics by [[African American]] thinkers
* [http://personal.uncc.edu/jmarks/eugenics/eugenics.html "Eugenics -- Breeding a Better Citizenry Through Science"], a historical critique from physical anthropologist [[Jonathan Marks]]
===Pro-eugenics websites===
*[http://www.onelife.com/ethics/eugenics.html Eugenics - a planned evolution for life]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/e-l/ The Eugenics List - Yahoo group]
*[http://www.eugenics.net Future Generations Eugenics Portal]
*[http://www.childrenofmillennium.org/eugenics.htm Millennium Eugenics Section]
*[http://www.mankindquarterly.com/ Mankind Quarterly]
*[http://www.whatwemaybe.org/ Future Human Evolution: Eugenics in the Twenty-First Century by John Glad]
*[http://www.euvolution.com Creative Conscious Evolution: A Eugenics Directory]
*[http://theoccidentalquarterly.com/vol4no1/toq-editnote4-1.html ''Scandalizing the Science of Eugenics''], editor's note, ''The Occidental Quarterly'' 4:1 (Spring 2004).
===Other===
*[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DEED8113AF932A15754C0A9629C8B63&sec=health&pagewanted=1 "As Gene Test Menu Grows, Who Gets to Choose?"] Amy Harmon, ''New York Times'' ([[21 July]] [[2004]]).
<!-- Categorization -->
[[Category:Eugenics|*]]
[[Category:Bioethics]]
[[Category:Evolution]]
[[Category:Applied genetics]]
[[Category:Human evolution]]
[[Category:Utopian movements]]
[[Category:Race and intelligence controversy]]
<!-- Interwiki links -->
[[da:Eugenik]]
[[de:Eugenik]]
[[es:Eugenesia]]
[[fr:Eugénisme]]
[[it:Eugenetica]]
[[he:אאוגניקה]]
[[nl:Eugenetica]]
[[ja:優生学]]
[[no:Eugenikk]]
[[pl:Eugenika]]
[[pt:Eugenia]]
[[fi:Eugeniikka]]
[[sv:Rashygien]]
[[zh:優生學]]
[[sk:Eugenika]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>E-mail</title>
<id>9738</id>
<revision>
<id>42121293</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:32:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Omniplex</username>
<id>571527</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ remove Cyberspace infobox with internal links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:'''''Email''' redirects here. For the corporation, see [[Email (corporation)]].''
{{mergefrom|E-mail address}}
'''Electronic mail''', abreviated '''e-mail''' or '''email''', is a method of composing, sending, and receiving messages over [[electronics|electronic]] communication systems. The term e-mail applies both to the [[Internet]] e-mail system based on the [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]] (SMTP) and to [[intranet]] systems allowing users within one company or organization to send messages to each other. Often these workgroup collaboration systems natively use non-standard protocols but have some form of gateway to allow them to send and receive Internet e-mail. Some organizations may use the Internet protocols for internal e-mail service.
== Origins of e-mail ==
E-mail predates the Internet; existing e-mail systems were a crucial tool in creating the Internet.
E-mail started in [[1965]] as a way for multiple users of a [[time-sharing]] [[mainframe computer]] to communicate. Although the exact history is murky, among the first systems to have such a facility were [[System Development Corporation|SDC]]'s [[Q32]] and [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]'s [[CTSS]].
E-mail was quickly extended to become ''network e-mail'', allowing users to pass messages between different computers. The early history of network e-mail is also murky; the [[AUTODIN]] system may have been the first allowing electronic text messages to be transferred between users on different computers in [[1966]], but it is possible the [[Semi Automatic Ground Environment|SAGE]] system had something similar some time before.
The [[ARPANET]] [[computer network]] made a large contribution to the evolution of e-mail. There is one report [http://www.multicians.org/thvv/mail-history.html] which indicates experimental inter-system e-mail transfers on it shortly after its creation, in [[1969]]. [[Ray Tomlinson]] initiated the use of the [[@|@ sign]] to separate the names of the user and their machine in [[1971]] [http://openmap.bbn.com/~tomlinso/ray/firstemailframe.html]. The common report that he "invented" e-mail is an exaggeration, although his early e-mail programs [[SNDMSG]] and [[READMAIL]] were very important. The first message sent by Ray Tomlinson is not preserved; it was "a message announcing the availability of network email"[http://openmap.bbn.com/~tomlinso/ray/firstemailframe.html]. The [[ARPANET]] significantly increased the popularity of e-mail, and it became the [[Killer application|killer app]] of the ARPANET.
== Growing popularity ==
As the utility and advantages of e-mail on the ARPANET became more widely known, the popularity of e-mail increased, leading to demand from people who were not allowed access to the ARPANET. A number of protocols were developed to deliver e-mail among groups of time-sharing computers over alternative transmission systems, such as [[UUCP]] and [[IBM]]'s [[VNET]] e-mail system.
Since not all [[computer]]s or [[computer network|networks]] were directly inter-networked, e-mail addresses had to include the "route" of the message, that is, a path between the computer of the sender and the computer of the receivers. E-mail could be passed this way between a number of networks, including the [[ARPANET]], [[Bitnet|BITNET]] and [[NSFNET]], as well as to hosts connected directly to other sites via UUCP.
The route was specified using so-call "bang path" addresses, specifying hops to get from some assumed-reachable location to the addressee, so called because each hop is signified by a "bang sign" (the [[exclamation mark]], '''!'''). Thus, for example, the path ...!bigsite!foovax!barbox!me directs people to route their mail to machine bigsite (presumably a well-known location accessible to everybody) and from there through the machine foovax to the account of user me on barbox.
Before auto-routing mailers became commonplace, people often published compound bang addresses using the { } convention (see [[glob]]) to give paths from several big machines, in the hopes that one's correspondent might be able to get mail to one of them reliably (example: ...!{seismo, ut-sally, ihnp4}!rice!beta!gamma!me). Bang paths of 8 to 10 hops were not uncommon in [[1981]]. Late-night dial-up UUCP links would cause week-long transmission times. Bang paths were often selected by both transmission time and reliability, as messages would often get lost.
E-mail became an increasingly important feature of work group collaboration products developed by
vendors such as [[Wang Laboratories|Wang]], [[Lotus Software|Lotus]], [[IBM]], and [[Microsoft]]. These systems often provided enhanced e-mail features (such as [[E-mail attachment|file attachments]], [[Rich Text Format]], and delivery confirmation), but only when sending e-mail to other users of the same system. These systems communicated with other, non-like, systems via specialized [[e-mail gateway]]s which translated one vendor's (usually proprietary) e-mail format into a form understandable by another vendor.
The [[ITU-T|CCITT]] developed the [[X.400]] standard in the 1980s to allow different e-mail systems to interoperate. Roughly at the same time, the [[IETF]] developed a much simpler protocol called the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) which has become the [[de facto]] standard for e-mail transfer on the Internet. With the advent of widespread use of home personal computers connected to the Internet, interoperability via SMTP-based Internet e-mail has become a critical feature for all e-mail systems.
In 1969 US Air Force users were sending text messages by keypunching cards with long text messages using one card for each 80 character line and transmitting them as card decks from one computer to another. By 1979, US Air Force users were logging onto central computers and leaving messages for government contractors and other US Air Force users to read in special file areas where their replies were often received back within hours. B |
wrote some compositions for it.
These early electronic instruments produced only pure tones and were frequently used to make [[avant garde music]]. In April [[1935]], Laurens Hammond introduced the [[Hammond Organ|Hammond tonewheel organ]], which generated complex tones using an electro-mechanical principle derived from the design of the [[Telharmonium]]. Later Hammond used the [[Leslie speaker]] to achieve special modulation effects, and the resulting [[Hammond organ]] sound is still regarded as the benchmark for the "electric organ" sound. This sound can be simulated by many modern synthesizers and digital samplers.
==Synthesizers==
The most commonly used electronic instruments are [[synthesizer]]s, so-called because they artificially generate sound using techniques such as [[additive synthesis|additive]], [[subtractive synthesis|subtractive]], [[FM synthesis|FM]] and [[physical modelling synthesis|physical modelling]] synthesis to create sounds.
Dr. [[Robert Moog]] introduced the first practical commercial modern music [[synthesizer]] with his [[Moog synthesizer]]. This instrument used a series of tone generators with keys that would adjust the tone generators' pitch. To gain enough money to engineer this synthesizer, Moog sold [[Theremin]]s, a very peculiar instrument that uses no switches to trigger pitch or volume, relying instead upon a pair of antennae and the variable capacitance occasioned by the presence of the instrumentalist's hands.
The first [[digital synthesizer]]s were academic experiments in sound synthesis using digital computers. [[FM synthesis]] was developed for this purpose, as a way of generating complex sounds digitally with the smallest number of computational operations per sound sample.
[[Category:Electronic music instruments| ]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.obsolete.com/120_years/ 120 Years of Electronic Music]
* [http://sonhors.free.fr/ History of Electronic Music]
* [http://www.nime.org New Interfaces for Musical Expression]
* [http://www.steim.org/ STEIM Foundation, Amsterdam]
[[de:Elektronisches Musikinstrument]]
[[es:Instrumento electrónico]]
[[fr:Instrument de musique électronique]]
[[he:כלי נגינה אלקטרוניים]]
[[nl:Elektrofoon]]
[[ja:電子楽器]]
[[pl:Elektroniczne instrumenty muzyczne]]
[[sl:Elektronska glasbila]]
[[sv:Elektroniska musikinstrument]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electric Guitar</title>
<id>10007</id>
<revision>
<id>15907853</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electric guitar]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electrode</title>
<id>10008</id>
<revision>
<id>41642416</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:11:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Heron</username>
<id>2954</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Primary cell */ made anode polarity explicit</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
An '''electrode''' is a [[Conductor (material)|conductor]] used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a [[Electrical network|circuit]] (e.g. a [[semiconductor]], an [[electrolyte]] or a [[vacuum]]). The word was coined by the scientist [[Michael Faraday]] from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''elektron'' (meaning [[amber]], whence the word [[electricity]] is derived) and ''hodos'', a way.{{ref|faraday}}
== Anode and cathode in electrochemical cells ==
An electrode in an [[electrochemical cell]] is referred to as either an ''[[anode]]'' or a ''[[cathode]]'', words that were also coined by Faraday. The anode is defined as the electrode at which electrons come up from the cell and [[oxidation]] occurs, and the cathode is defined as the electrode at which electrons enter the cell and [[reduction]] occurs. Each electrode may become either the anode or the cathode depending on the voltage applied to the cell. A bipolar electrode is an electrode that functions as the anode of one cell and the cathode of another cell.
=== Primary cell ===
A [[primary cell]] is a special type of electrochemical cell in which the reaction cannot be reversed, and the identities of the anode and cathode are therefore fixed. The anode is always the negative electrode. The cell can be discharged but not recharged.
=== Secondary cell ===
A [[secondary cell]], for example a [[rechargeable battery]], is one in which the reaction is reversible. When the cell is being charged, the anode becomes the positive (+) electrode and the cathode the negative (−). This is also the case in an [[electrolytic cell]]. When the cell is being discharged, it behaves like a primary or [[voltaic cell|voltaic]] cell, with the anode as the negative electrode and the cathode as the positive.
== Other anodes and cathodes ==
In a [[vacuum tube]] or a [[semiconductor]] having polarity ([[diode]]s, [[electrolytic|electrolytic capacitor]]s) the anode is the positive (+) electrode and the cathode the negative (−). The electrons enter the device through the cathode and exit the device through the anode.
In a three-electrode cell, a counter electrode, also called an auxiliary electrode, is used only to make a connection to the electrolyte so that a current can be applied to the working electrode. The counter electrode is usually made of an inert material, such as a [[noble metal]] or [[graphite]], to keep it from dissolving.
== Welding electrodes ==
In [[ arc welding]] an electrode is used to conduct current through a workpiece to fuse two pieces together. Depending upon the process, the electrode is either consumable, in the case of [[gas metal arc welding]] or [[shielded metal arc welding]], or non-consumable, such as in [[gas tungsten arc welding]]. For a direct current system the weld rod or stick may be a cathode for a filling type weld or an anode for other welding processes. For an alternating current arc welder the welding electrode would not be considered an anode or cathode.
== Alternating current electrodes ==
For electrical systems which use [[alternating current]] the electrodes are the connections from the circuitry to the object to be acted upon by the electrical current but are not designated anode or cathode since the direction of flow of the electrons changes [[alternating current|periodically]], usually [[hertz|many times per second]].
== Types of electrode ==
*Electrodes for medical purposes, such as [[Electroencephalography|EEG]], [[EKG]], [[ECT]], [[defibrillator]]
*Electrodes for [[Electrophysiology]] techniques in biomedical research
*Electrodes for execution by the [[electric chair]]
*Electrodes for [[electroplating]]
*Electrodes for [[arc welding]]
*Electrodes for [[cathodic protection]]
*Inert electrodes for [[hydrolysis]] (made of [[platinum]])
== See also ==
*[[Battery (electricity)|battery]]
*[[redox]]
*[[cathodic protection]]
*[[Galvanic cell]]
*[[anion]] vs. [[cation]]
*[[electron]] vs. [[electron hole|hole]]
*[[electrolyte]]
*[[electron microscope]]
== References ==
* {{note|faraday}}Michael Faraday, "[http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/Chem-History/Faraday-electrochem.html On Electrical Decomposition]", ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society'', [[1834]] (in which Faraday coins the words ''[[electrode]]'', ''[[anode]]'', ''[[cathode]]'', ''[[anion]]'', ''[[cation]]'', ''[[electrolyte]]'', ''[[electrolyze]]'').
[[Category:Electrochemistry]]
[[Category:Electronics]]
[[Category:Electricity]]
[[cs:Elektroda]]
[[de:Elektrode]]
[[es:Electrodo]]
[[fr:Électrode]]
[[io:Elektrodo]]
[[it:Elettrodo]]
[[nl:Elektrode]]
[[ja:電極]]
[[pl:Elektroda]]
[[pt:Eletrodo]]
[[sv:Elektrod]]
[[he:אלקטרודה]]
[[zh:電極]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electroconvulsive Therapy</title>
<id>10009</id>
<revision>
<id>15907855</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-22T12:26:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Anome</username>
<id>76</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electroconvulsive therapy]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eurasia</title>
<id>10010</id>
<revision>
<id>40736514</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T17:55:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The wub</username>
<id>219723</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.1.206.150|72.1.206.150]] ([[User talk:72.1.206.150|talk]]) to last version by FWBOarticle</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[Asian]], [[Eurasian]], [[Afrasian]] and [[Australasian]].''
[[Image:LocationEurasia.png|thumbnail|Eurasia]]
[[Image:Eurasia.jpg|right|thumb|African-Eurasian aspect of [[the Blue Marble|Earth]]]]
'''Eurasia''' is the [[landmass]] composed of [[Europe]] and [[Asia]]. It can be considered a [[supercontinent]], comprising European and Asian continent, part of a supercontinent of [[Africa-Eurasia]], or simply a [[continent]]. In [[plate tectonics]], the [[Eurasian Plate]] includes Europe and most of Asia, but not the [[South Asia|Indian subcontinent]], the [[Arabian subcontinent]], and the area east of the [[Cherskiy Range]] in [[Sakha]]. ''Eurasia'' is also used in international politics as a neutral way to refer to organizations of or affairs concerning the [[post-Soviet states]]. When used to describe a single landmass, an analogous term to ''Eurasia'' is ''[[Americas|America]]'' or ''(the) Americas'', which consists of [[North America|North]] and [[South America]] collectively.
Europeans, unaware of the extent of Eurasia, traditionally considered Europe and Asia to be separate continents, with the dividing line placed along the [[Aegean Sea]], [[Dardanelles]], [[Bosphorus]], [[Black Sea]], [[Caucasus Mountains]], [[Caspian Sea]], [[Ural River]], and |
|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} [[Jason Mayélé]], [[Football (soccer) positions#Winger and wide midfielder|left/right winger]], 2001-2002
==Notable former players==
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Simone Barone]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Oliver Bierhoff]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Eugenio Corini]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Bernardo Corradi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Stefano Fiore]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Nicola Legrottaglie]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Massimo Marazzina]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luca Marchegiani]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Simone Perrotta]]
==External links==
*[http://www.chievoverona.it Official site] {{it icon}} {{en icon}}
*[http://digilander.libero.it/chievo_ws/ Chievo fan club West Side] {{it icon}}
*[http://www.amicichievo.it/ Amici Chievo Verona Fansite] {{it icon}}
*[http://www.resultsfromfootball.com/seriea-team/acchievoverona.html Chievo statistics] {{en icon}}
{{Serie A}}
[[Category:Italian football clubs|Chievo]]
[[cs:AC ChievoVerona]]
[[de:AC Chievo Verona]]
[[es:Associazione Calcio Chievo Verona]]
[[fr:Chievo Vérone]]
[[it:Associazione Calcio ChievoVerona]]
[[nl:Chievo Verona]]
[[pl:Chievo Werona]]
[[sv:AC Chievo Verona]]
[[zh:切沃足球俱乐部]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Context switch</title>
<id>6904</id>
<revision>
<id>41714849</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T06:22:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Allan McInnes</username>
<id>647621</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+cat concurrent computing</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''context switch''' is the [[computing]] process of storing and restoring the state of a [[Central processing unit|CPU]] (the context) such that multiple [[Process (computing)|process]]es can share a single CPU resource. The context switch is an essential feature of a [[computer multitasking|multitasking]] [[operating system]]. Context switches are usually computationally intensive and much of the design of [[operating system]]s is to optimize the use
of context switches. A context switch can mean a register context switch, a task context switch, a thread context switch, or a process context switch.
== When to switch? ==
There are several scenarios where a context switch needs to occur.
=== Multitasking ===
Most commonly, within some [[scheduling]] schema, one process needs to be switched out of the CPU so another process can run. Within a [[preemptive multitasking]] operating system, the scheduler allows every task to run for some certain amount of time, called its ''time slice''.
However, if a process does not voluntarily yield the CPU (for example, by performing an [[I/O]] operation), a timer interrupt fires, and the operating system schedules another process for execution instead. This ensures that the CPU cannot be monopolized by any one processor-intensive application.
=== Interrupt handling ===
Some architectures (like the [[Intel]] [[x86]] architecture) are [[interrupt]] driven. This means that if the CPU requests data from a disk, for example, it does not need to [[busy-wait]] until the read is over, it can issue the request and continue with some other execution; when the read is over, the CPU can be ''interrupted'' and presented with the read. For interrupts, a short program called an ''[[interrupt handler]]'' is installed, and it is the interrupt handler that handles the interrupt from the disk.
Clearly, there is a necessity to switch contexts when issuing interrupts: so that the interrupt handler can be executed, the state of the currently running process must be suspended.
=== User and kernel mode switching ===
When a transition between [[user mode]] and [[kernel mode]] is required in an operating system, a context switch is not necessary; a mode transition is ''not'' a context switch.
== Context switch: steps ==
In a context switch, the state of the first process must be saved somehow, so that, when the scheduler gets back to the execution of the first process, it can restore this state and continue normally.
The state of the process includes all the registers that the process may be using, especially the [[program counter]], plus any other operating system specific data that may be necessary. Often, all the data that is necessary for state is stored in one data structure, called a ''switchframe'' or a [[process control block]].
Now, in order to switch processes, the switchframe for the first process must be created and saved. The switchframes are sometimes stored upon a per-process stack in kernel memory (as opposed to the user-mode stack), or there may be some specific operating system defined data structure for this information.
Since the operating system has effectively suspended the execution of the first process, it can now load the switchframe and context of the second process. In doing so, the program counter from the switchframe is loaded, and thus execution can continue in the new process.
== Software vs hardware context switching ==
Context switching can be performed primarily by software or hardware. Some processors, like the [[Intel]] 80386 and higher CPUs, have hardware support for context switches, by making use of a special data segment designated the [[Task State Segment]] or TSS. When a task switch occurs (implicitly due to a CALL instruction, referring to a [[task gate]], or explicitly due to an interrupt or exception) the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] can automatically load the new state from the TSS. With other tasks performed in hardware, one would expect this to be rather fast; however, mainstream operating systems, including [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], do not use this feature. This is due mainly to two reasons: that hardware context switching does not save all the registers (only general purpose registers, not [[floating point]] registers), and associated performance issues.
Some architectures contain logic to allow several hardware contexts to exist simultaneously, eliminating the need to store and restore the CPU context to memory on context switch.
The extreme case is the [[barrel processor]] architecture, which switches between threads of execution on every cycle.
[[Category:Operating system technology]]
[[Category:Concurrent computing]]
[[fr:Commutation de contexte]]
[[it:Commutazione di contesto]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carnatic</title>
<id>6905</id>
<revision>
<id>22051596</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-28T21:04:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tom Radulovich</username>
<id>43579</id>
</contributor>
<comment>direct link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Carnatic''' may mean:
*[[Carnatic region|Carnatic]], a region of Southern India
*[[Carnatic music]]
*[[SS Carnatic|SS ''Carnatic'']], a shipwrecked steamer
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chakra</title>
<id>6907</id>
<revision>
<id>42066488</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:06:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.135.211.41</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References in fiction */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''See also ''[[chakram]]'', a disc-like weapon wielded by the [[Hindu]] god [[Vishnu]].''
In [[Hinduism]] and its spiritual systems of [[yoga]] and in some related eastern cultures, as well as in some segments of the [[New Age]] movement—and to some degree the distinctly different [[New Thought]] movement—'''chakra''' is thought to be an energy node in the [[human body]].
==Introduction==
The word comes from the [[Sanskrit]] ''cakra'' &#2330;&#2325;&#2381;&#2352; meaning "[[wheel]], circle", and sometimes also referring to the "[[wheel of life]]". The pronunciation of this word can be approximated in English by ''<u>chuh</u>kruh'', with ''ch'' as in ''chart'' and both instances of ''a'' as in ''yoga'' (the commonly found pronunciation ''<u>shock</u>rah'' is incorrect).
[[Image:ChakraDiag.jpg|right]]
The seven main chakras are described as being aligned in an ascending column from the base of the [[spine (anatomy)|spine]] to the top of the head. Each chakra is associated with a certain [[color]], multiple specific functions, an aspect of [[consciousness]], a [[classical element]], and other distinguishing characteristics.
The chakras are thought to vitalise the physical body and to be associated with interactions of both a physical and mental nature. They are considered loci of life energy, or [[prana]], which is thought to flow among them along pathways called [[Nadi (yoga)|nadis]].
[[Traditional Chinese medicine]] also relies on a similar model of the human body as an energy system.
The [[New Age]] movement has led to an increased interest in the West regarding chakras. Many in this movement point to a correspondence between the position and role of the Chakras, and those of the glands in the [[endocrine system]]. Some people in New Age also claim that other chakras, besides the above, exist &mdash; for instance, ear chakras.
The chakras are described in the tantric texts the ''Sat-Cakra-Nirupana'', and the ''Padaka-Pancaka'', in which they are described as emanations of consciousness from Brahman, an energy which comes down from the spiritual and gradually crudifies, creating these distinct levels of chakras, and which eventually finds its rest in the [[Muladhara]] chakra. They are therefore part of an [[emanationist theory]], like that of the [[kabbalah]] in the west, [[lataif-e-sitta]] in [[Sufism]] or [[neo-platonism]]. The energy that was unleashed in creation, called the [[Kundalini]], lies coiled and sleeping, and it is the purpose of a tantric yogi to arouse this energy, and cause it to rise back up through the increasingly subtler chakras, until union with god is achieved in the [[Sahasrara]] chakra at the crown of the head.
Apart from this primary text from India, different western authors have tried to descri |
rs, which has led to their widespread use as artificial flavorings and fragrances. For example:
:[[methyl butyrate]] smells of [[pineapple]] or [[apple]]
:[[methyl salicylate]] ([[oil of wintergreen]]) smells of the ointments called Germolene&trade; and Ralgex&trade; in the UK
:[[methyl benzoate]] smells of fruity-[[ylang ylang]]
:[[ethyl formate]] smells of [[rum]]
:[[ethyl butyrate]] smells of [[pineapple]] or [[strawberry]]
:[[ethyl salicylate]] smells of [[oil of wintergreen]]
:[[ethyl heptanoate]] smells of [[grape]]
:[[propyl isobutyrate]] (rum)
:isobutyl formate (raspberries)
:butyl butyrate (pineapple)
:[[pentyl acetate]] smells of [[banana]]
:[[pentyl pentanoate]] smells of [[apple]]
:[[pentyl butyrate]] smells of [[pear]] or [[apricot]]
:[[isopentyl acetate]] smells of [[pear]] or [[banana]] (it is used as the flavouring in the manufacturing of old fashioned [[Pear Drops]])
:[[octyl acetate]] smells of [[orange (fruit)|fruity-orange]]
:[[benzyl acetate]] smells slightly of [[jasmine]]
== Ester synthesis ==
Esters can be prepared in the laboratory in several ways:
* by [[esterfication]] of [[carboxylic acid]] derivatives and [[alcohol]]s
* by [[transesterification]]s between other esters
* by [[Dieckmann condensation]] or [[Claisen condensation]] of esters carrying acidic α-protons
* by [[Favorskii rearrangement]] of α-haloketones in presence of base
* by [[nucleophilic displacement]] of [[alkyl halide]]s with carboxylic acid salts
* by [[Baeyer-Villiger oxidation]] of ketones with peroxides
* by [[Pinner reaction]] of [[nitrile]]s with an alcohol
== Ester reactions==
[[Image:Ester_hydrolysis.PNG|right|400px|frame|Ester saponification (basic hydrolysis)]]
Esters may undergo [[hydrolysis]] - the breakdown of an ester by water. This process can be catalyzed both by acids and bases. The base-catalyzed process is called [[saponification]]. The hydrolysis yields an alcohol and a [[carboxylic acid]] or its [[carboxylate]] [[salt]].
Esters also react if heated with primary or secondary [[amine]]s, producing [[amide]]s.
Phenyl esters react to hydroxyarylketones in the [[Fries rearrangement]]. Specific esters undergo the [[Chan rearrangement]] and the [[Lossen rearrangement]].
== External links ==
* [http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/ethylacetate/ethylh.htm Molecule of the month: Ethyl acetate and other esters]
* [http://www.projectshum.org/Ester/ Making an Ester] A simple guide to naming and making Esters, as well as the Chemistry behind it.
== References ==
# {{Note|IUPAC1}} [http://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/93/r93_511.htm IUPAC naming of esters]
# {{Note|IUPAC2}} [http://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/93/r93_705.htm IUPAC parent groups using traditional names]
[[Category:Functional groups]]
[[Category:Esters]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[da:Ester]]
[[de:Ester]]
[[et:Estrid]]
[[es:Éster]]
[[eo:Estero]]
[[fr:Ester]]
[[ko:에스터]]
[[it:Esteri]]
[[he:אסטר]]
[[lv:Esteri]]
[[nl:Ester (chemie)]]
[[ja:エステル]]
[[no:Ester]]
[[nn:Ester]]
[[pl:Ester]]
[[pt:Éster]]
[[su:Éster]]
[[fi:Esteri]]
[[sv:Ester (kemikalie)]]
[[vi:Este]]
[[uk:Естери]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Endosymbiont</title>
<id>9677</id>
<revision>
<id>42145471</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:59:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Josh Grosse</username>
<id>517</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Amoeba has mitochondria</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''endosymbiont''' is any [[organism]] that lives within the body or [[cell (biology)|cell]]s of another organism, i.e. forming an '''endosymbiosis''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''endo'' = inner and ''biosis'' = living). For instance, some nitrogen fixing [[bacterium|bacteria]] (known as [[rhizobia]]) live in [[root nodules]] on [[legume]] roots, reef-building [[corals]] contain single-celled [[algae]], and several [[insect]] species contain bacterial endosymbionts. Many other examples of endosymbiosis exist.
Many instances of endosymbiosis are obligate, where neither the endosymbiont nor the host can survive without the other, such as gutless marine worms which get nutrition from their endosymbiotic bacteria. However, not all endosymbioses are obligate. Also, some endosymbioses can be harmful to either of the organisms involved. See [[symbiosis]] for further discussion of this issue.
It is generally agreed that certain [[organelle]]s of the [[Eukaryote|eukaryotic]] cell, especially [[mitochondria]] and [[chloroplast]]s, originated as bacterial endosymbionts. This theory is known as the [[endosymbiotic theory]], confirmed and popularized by [[Lynn Margulis]].
== The endosymbiont theory and mitochondria and chloroplasts ==
{{Main|Endosymbiotic theory}}
The endosymbiont theory explains the origins of [[organelle]]s such as mitochondria and chloroplasts in [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] cells. The theory proposes that chloroplasts and mitochondria evolved from certain types of bacteria that prokaryotic cells engulfed through endophagocytosis. These cells and the bacteria trapped inside them entered an symbiotic relationship, a close association between different types of organisms over an extended time. However, more specifically, the relationship was endosymbiotic, meaning that one of the organisms (the bacteria) lived within the other (the prokaryotic cells).
According to the endosymbiont theory, an anaerobic cell probably ingested an aerobic bacterium but failed to digest it. The aerobic bacterium flourished within the cell because the cell’s cytoplasm was abundant in half-digested food molecules. The bacterium digested these molecules with oxygen and gained great amounts of energy. Because the bacterium had so much energy, it probably leaked some of it as ATP into the cell’s cytoplasm. This benefited the anaerobic cell because it enabled it to digest food aerobically. Eventually, the aerobic bacterium could no longer live independently from the cell, and it therefore became a mitochondrion. The origin of the chloroplast is very similar to that of the mitochondrion. A cell must have captured a photosynthetic cyanobacterium and failed to digest it. The cyanobacterium thrived in the cell and eventually evolved into the first chloroplast. Other eukaryotic organelles may have also evolved through endosymbiosis. Scientists believe that cilia, flagella, centrioles, and microtubules may have come from a symbiosis between a spirilla-like bacterium and an early eukaryotic cell.
There are several examples of evidence that support the endosymbiont theory. Mitochondria, chloroplasts, and centrioles contain their own small supply of DNA, which may be remnants of the DNA the organelles had when they were independent aerobic bacteria. In addition, there are organisms alive today, called living intermediates, that are in a similar endosymbiotic condition to the prokaryotic cells and the aerobic bacteria. Living intermediates show that the evolution proposed by the endosymbiont theory is possible. For example, the giant amoeba ''[[Pelomyxa]]'' lacks mitochondria but has aerobic bacteria that carry out a similar role. A variety of corals, clams, snails, and one species of ''[[Paramecium]]'' permanently host algae in their cells.
Further evidence of endosymbiosis are the prokaryotic ribosomes found within chloroplasts and mitochondria as well as the double membrane enclosing them. The inner membrane is thought to be the original membrane of the once independent prokaryote, while the outer one is thought to be the food vacuole it was enclosed in initially. Triple or quadruple membranes are found among certain algae, probably resulting from repeated endosymbiosis (although little else was retained of the engulfed cell).
These modern organisms with endosymbiotic relationships with aerobic bacteria suggest that the endosymbiont theory, which explains the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts, is accurate.
== Bacterial endosymbionts in marine oligochaetes ==
Some marine [[oligochaetes]] (e.g [[Olavius]] or [[Inanidrillus]]) have obligate extracellular endosymbionts that fill the entire body of their host. These marine worms are nutritionally dependent on their symbiotic [[chemoautotroph]]ic bacteria lacking any digestive or excretory system (no gut, mouth or [[nephridia]]).
== Bacterial endosymbionts in other marine invertebrates ==
Extracellular endosymbionts are also represented in all 5 extant classes of [[Echinodermata]] ([[Crinoidea]], [[Ophiuroidea]], [[Asteroidea]], [[Echinoidea]], and [[Holothuroidea]]). Little is known of the nature of the association (mode of infection, transmission, metabolic requirements, etc.) but [[phylogenetic]] analysis indicates that these symbionts belong to the alpha group of the class [[Proteobacteria]], relating them to ''Rhizobium'' and ''Thiobacillus''. Other studies indicate that these [[subcuticular bacteria]] may be both abundant within their hosts and widely distributed among the Echinoderms in general.
== ''Symbiodinium'' dinoflagellate endosymbionts in marine metazoa and protists ==
[[Dinoflagellate]] endosymbionts of the genus ''Symbiodinium'', commonly known as [[zooxanthella]]e, are found in [[corals]], [[mollusk]]s (esp. [[giant clam]]s, the ''Tridacna''), [[sponges]], and [[foraminifera]]. These endosymbionts drive the amazing formation of [[coral reefs]] by capturing sunlight and providing their hosts with energy for [[carbonate]] deposition.
Previously thought to be a single species, molecular [[phylogenetic]] evidence over the past couple decades has shown there to be great diversity in ''Symbiodinium''. In some cases there is specificity between host and ''Symbiodinium'' clade. More often, however, there is an ecological distribution of ''Symbiodinium'', the symbionts switching between hosts with apparent ease. When reefs become environmentally stressed, this distribution of symbionts is related to the observed pattern of |
ilding [[Copps Coliseum|Victor K. Copps Coliseum]] downtown on Bay Street North. The sports and entertainment arena, named for a former mayor and father of [[Sheila Copps]], has hosted the World Junior Championship Games and is home ice for the [[Hamilton Bulldogs]] of the [[American Hockey League]]. The [[Hamilton Tigers]] played in the NHL during the early '20s.
The [http://www.aroundthebayroadrace.com/ Around the Bay Race] circumnavigates Hamilton Harbour or [[Burlington Bay]]. Although it is not a proper [[marathon (sport)|marathon]], it is the longest continuously held long distance foot race in North America. The local newspaper also hosts the amateur Spectator Indoor Games.
Hamilton is twinned with [[Flint, Michigan]], and its amateur athletes compete in the [http://www.internationalgames.net/canusa.htm Canusa Games], held alternatively there and here since 1957. Hamilton hosted the very successful [[World Cycling Championship|World Road Cycling Championship Games]] in 2003.
[[Image:Hamilton_2010.gif|left|frame|Logo for unsuccessful bid for Commonwealth Games 2010]]
The Hamilton Golf Club in [[Ancaster, Ontario|Ancaster]] hosted the 2003 [[Canadian Open]] golf championship in which [[Bob Tway]] won. The traditional course layout, designed by famed course architect Hary Colt, proved very popular with touring pros and will again host the Canadian Open in 2006.
In 1998, the Ontario Raiders of the [[National Lacrosse League]] were based in Hamilton and played at [[Copps Coliseum|Victor K. Copps Coliseum]]. In 1999, the team moved to [[Toronto]] and became the [[Toronto Rock]].
Since 2002 the [[Hamilton Thunder]] have played in the [[Canadian Professional Soccer League]] (CPSL). They play at the '''Brian Timmis Stadium''' right next to the larger [[Ivor Wynne Stadium]]. The Hamilton Steelers played in the [[Canadian Soccer League]] during the late '80s and early '90s.
The Hamilton Thunderbirds play in the [[Intercounty Baseball League]].
The Hamilton Wildcats play in the [[Ontario Australian Football League]].
Hamilton were the hosts of the first [[Commonwealth Games]] (then called British Empire Games) in [[1930 British Empire Games|1930]], and bid unsuccessfully for the Commonwealth Games in 2010, losing out to [[2010 Commonwealth Games|New Delhi]] in [[India]]
==Transportation==
===Air===
[[Hamilton/John C. Munro International Airport|John C. Munro Hamilton International Airport]] is located on the Mountain at Mount Hope in the former [[Glanbrook|Glanbrook Township]]. Scheduled passenger service is provided by [[WestJet]], who for several years used the airport as their primary point of access to Southern Ontario over the more expensive [[Toronto Pearson International Airport]], and [[Air Canada Jazz]]; other airlines also offer vacation charters. The airport is also a major lower-cost alternative to [[Toronto Pearson International Airport|Pearson]] for [[cargo airline|cargo air service]].
===Rail===
[[Canadian National Railways|CN]] serves Hamilton for lifting and setting off traffic for the Rail America (Southern Ontario Railway Shortline), but as heavy industry declined and the preferred mode of transportation changed to road, the number of branch lines and feeder tracks has declined dramatically. Until the early [[1970s]], the [[Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo Railway]] offered passenger service and since the late [[1980s]] [[GO Transit]] has offered sporadic passenger train service from its James Street North station. In the late [[1990s]], GO Transit operations were consolidated at the refurbished [[Art Deco]] building on Hunter Street which formerly served as the TH&B station. The nearest [[VIA Rail]] Canada station is at [[Aldershot (GO Station)]] in west [[Burlington, Ontario|Burlington]].
===Bus===
Hamilton has good bus connections with cities in southern [[Ontario]] and western [[New York State|New York]]. [[GO Transit]] offers frequent and reliable express bus service to [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]], now from the TH&B station and formerly from King William Street. Various other companies, such as [[Greyhound]] and [[Coach Canada]] offer less frequent service to [[St. Catharines]], [[Niagara Falls, Ontario|Niagara Falls]], [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], [[Kitchener, Ontario|Kitchener-Waterloo]], [[Guelph, Ontario|Guelph]], [[Brantford, Ontario|Brantford]] and [[London, Ontario|London]].
Within the city, the [[Hamilton Street Railway]] or [http://www.myhamilton.ca/myhamilton/CityandGovernment/CityServices/Transit/ HSR] offers good service in the lower city (especially on east-west routes), reduced service on the Mountain and skeletal service outside the old city of Hamilton (except for [[Dundas, Ontario|Dundas]], which is served about as well as the Mountain). [[Burlington Transit]] also serves Burlington via York Boulevard and the former [[Ontario provincial highway 2|Highway 2]], and HSR connects downtown Burlington under the [[Burlington Skyway Bridge]].
===Highways and expressways===
The following controlled access highways and expressways serve Hamilton:
* [[Queen Elizabeth Way]], north Hamilton and Stoney Creek
* [[Highway 403]], Ancaster and west Hamilton
* [[Ontario provincial highway 6|Highway 6]], Flamborough, Hamilton and Glanbrook
* [[Lincoln M. Alexander Parkway]], ‘The LINC,' Mountain
* Burlington Street (upper deck), north Hamilton
There are several other current or former Ontario highways in Hamilton, but they are not divided, controlled access highways. The controversial Red Hill Creek extension of the LINC is under construction, and will join the existing mountain portion of the LINC with the QEW in east Hamilton.
===City streets===
All of the old city of Hamilton is on a broken great grid pattern, with major north-south streets spaced approximately one mile apart. Great grid streets on the Mountain bear the name of their lower city counterparts with the prefix "Upper" except for Garth Street, which would be Upper Dundurn Street if the pattern held.
East-west streets on the Mountain are pretty regular, while those in the lower city (especially major ones) are very irregular. King and Main Streets run approximately parallel to one another though they intersect at the Delta. They are usually one way streets in opposite directions, so they are best conceptualized as a single very wide boulevard and are envied by other Ontario cities for their usually efficient flow of traffic.
==City Neighbourhoods==
Former towns before amalgamation in 2001 are indicated below, all other neighbourhoods part within old city boundaries;
'''Lower City''' (below Escarpment)
*[[Dundas, Ontario|Dundas]] (former town)
*[[Westdale, Ontario|Westdale]]
*[[North End]]
*Central
*Corktown
*The Delta, where King and Main Streets (normally parallel) cross
*Barton Street
*Normanhurst
*Rosedale
*Greenhill
*[[Stoney Creek, Ontario|Stoney Creek]] (lower portion of former town)
'''Upper City''' or '''Mountain''' (above Escarpment)
*[[Flamborough, Ontario|Flamborough]] (former town)
*[[Waterdown, Ontario|Waterdown]] (formerly part of Flamborough)
*Glenwood Heights (formerly part of Flamborough)
*[[Ancaster, Ontario|Ancaster]] (former town)
*Hill Park
*Inch Park
*Hampton Heights
*Ryckmans Corners
*[[Stoney Creek, Ontario|Stoney Creek]] (upper portion of former town)
*Fruitland (formerly part of Stoney Creek)
*[[Mount Hope, Ontario|Mount Hope]] (formerly part of Glanbrook, site of John C. Munro International Airport)
*[[Glanbrook, Ontario|Glanbrook]] (former township)
==External links==
{{Mapit-Canada-cityscale|43.25999|-79.8499999}}
* [http://www.myhamilton.ca/myhamilton/CityandGovernment/ The City of Hamilton]
* [http://hamilton.ontariotenants.ca Hamilton Community Information and apartments for rent]
* [http://www.hamiltonhockey.com The New City of Hamilton Hockey Directory]
{{Ontario}}
[[Category:Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton, Ontario]]
[[af:Hamilton, Ontario]]
[[cs:Hamilton]]
[[de:Hamilton (Ontario)]]
[[fa:همیلتون (انتاریو)]]
[[fr:Hamilton (Ontario)]]
[[pl:Hamilton (Ontario)]]
[[pt:Hamilton (Ontário)]]
[[simple:Hamilton, Ontario]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hominidae</title>
<id>14289</id>
<revision>
<id>40854886</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T13:02:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UtherSRG</username>
<id>33145</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Classification */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For an explanation of very similar terms see ''[[Hominid]]''.}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Hominids
| image = AustrolopithecusAfricanusHominidReconstruction.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''[[Australopithecus|Australopithecus africanus]]'' reconstruction
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primate]]s
| unranked_familia = [[Catarrhini]]
| superfamilia = [[Hominoidea]]
| familia = '''Hominidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], [[1825]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision =
*Subfamily [[Ponginae]]
**''[[Pongo]]'' - [[orangutan]]s
**''[[Gigantopithecus]]'' (extinct)
**''[[Sivapithecus]]'' (extinct)
**''[[Lufengpithecus]]'' (extinct)
**''[[Ankarapithecus]]'' (extinct)
*Subfamily [[Homininae]]
**''[[Gorilla]]'' - [[gorilla]]s
**''[[chimpanzee|Pan]]'' - [[chimpanzee]]s
**''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'' - [[Human]]s and their immediate ancestors
**''[[Ouranopithecus]]'' (extinct)
**''[[Paranthropus]]'' (extinct)
**''[[Australopithecus]]'' (extinct)
**''[[Sahelanthropus]]'' (extinct)
**''[[Orrorin]]'' (extinct)
**''[[Ardipithecus]]'' (extinct)
**''[[Kenyanthropus]]'' (extinct)
*Subfamily [[Oreopithecinae]]
**''[[Oreopithecus]]'' - [[swamp ape]] (extinct)
}}
The '''hominids''' are the members of the [[biological family]] '''Hominidae''' (the '''great [[ape]]s'''), which includes [[human]]s, [[chimpanzee]]s, [[gorilla]]s, and [[orangutan]]s. <!--These are |
, which justified the political decisions made by the [[Comintern]] that resulted in the spectacular failure of the revolution attempted in [[Shanghai]] in [[1927]].
== Later life ==
[[Image:Brechtgrave.jpg|thumb|left|Grave of Bertolt Brecht and Helen Weigl]]Although Brecht lived in [[East Germany]], a copyright on his writings was held by a Swiss company and he received valuable hard currency remittances; he remained an Austrian citizen. He used to drive around East Berlin in a pre-war [[DKW]] car &mdash; a rare luxury in the austere divided capital.
Brecht wrote very few plays in his last years in Berlin, none of them as famous as his previous works. Some of his most famous poems, however, including the "[[Buckower Elegies]]", were from this time.
Brecht died in [[1956]] of a [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]] at the age of
58.
In his [[will (law)|will]] he provided instructions that a stiletto be placed in his heart and that he be buried in a steel coffin so that his corpse could not be eaten by worms. He is buried in the [[Dorotheenfriedhof]] in Berlin.
== Impact ==
Brecht left the [[Berliner Ensemble]] to his wife, the actress [[Helene Weigel]], which she ran until her death in [[1971]]. Perhaps the most famous German touring theater of the postwar era, it was primarily devoted to performing Brecht plays.
His son, [[Stefan Brecht]], became a poet and theatre critic interested in New York's avant-garde theatre.
Brecht's influence can be seen in the cinema. Such filmmakers as [[Rainer Werner Fassbinder]] and [[Jean-Luc Godard]] were influenced by Brecht and his theory of the [[Verfremdungseffekt]].
== Theory of theatre ==
Brecht created an influential theory of theatre, the '''[[epic theatre]]''', wherein a play should not cause the spectator to emotionally identify with the action before him or her, but should instead provoke rational self-reflection and a critical view of the actions on the stage.
For this purpose, Brecht employed the use of techniques that remind the spectator that the play is a representation of reality and not reality itself, which he called the '''[[Verfremdungseffekt]]''' (translated as ''distancing effect,'' ''estrangement effect,'' or ''alienation effect'').
Such techniques included the direct address by actors to the audience, exaggerated, unnatural stage lighting, the use of song, and explanatory placards.
In one of his first productions, Brecht famously put up signs that said "Glotzt nicht so romantisch!" ("Don't stare so romantically!"). His manner of stagecraft has proven both fruitful and confusing to those who try to produce his works or works in his style. His theory of theatre has heavily influenced modern theatre, though it is believed that the effect of the epic theatre wears off after watching a few similar plays. Some of his innovations, though, have become so common that they've become theatrical canon.
<!-- Not necessary, for its own article maybe? :: Another useful translation of Verfremdungseffekt is ''estrangement effect.'' This translation places an emphasis on how Brecht tried to make situations strange in order to distance the audience from the play.-->
Although Brecht's work and ideas about theatre are generally thought of as belonging to [[modernism]], there is recent thought that he is the forerunner of contemporary [[postmodern]] theatre practice. This is particularly so because he questioned and dissolved many of the accepted practices of the theatre of his time and created a uniquely [[political theatre]], that involved the audience in understanding its meaning. Moreover, he was one of the first theatre practitioners to incorporate multimedia into the [[semiotics]] of theatre.
[[Lars von Trier]]'s films Dogville and Manderlay apply the use of the Brechtian approach to theatre.
== Major works ==
Because several Brecht works were not performed until long after they were written, the dates below show both the year they were written, followed by the year they were first produced.
* ''[[Baal (play)|Baal]]'' ([[1918]]/[[1926]])
* ''[[Drums in the Night]]'' (''Trommeln in der Nacht'', [[1918-20]])
* ''[[In the Jungle of the Cities/ In the Swamp]]'' ([[1921-23]])
* ''[[Man is Man]]'' (''Mann ist Mann'', [[1924-25]])
* ''[[The Threepenny Opera]]'' (''Die Dreigroschenoper'', [[1928]])
* ''[[Happy End]]'' ([[1929]])
* ''Lindbergh's Flight'' (''[[Der Lindberghflug]]'', [[1929]])
* ''[[The Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny]]'' (''Die Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny'', [[1928-29]])/([[1930]])
* ''[[The Baden Lehrstück on Consent]]'' ([[1928-29]])
* ''[[He Who Says Yes]]'' (''Der Jasager'', [[1929]])
* ''[[Saint Joan of the Stockyards]]'' (''Die heilige Johanna der Schlachthöfe'', [[1929]]/[[1959]])
* ''[[He Who Says No]]'' (''Der Neinsager'', [[1930]])
* ''[[The Measures Taken]]'' (''Die Massnahme'', [[1930]])
* ''[[The Mother (Play)|The Mother]]'' (''Die Mutter'', [[1930]]/[[1932]])
* ''[[The Exception and the Rule]]'' (''Die Ausnahme und die Regel'', [[1930-31]])/([[1936]])
**A short play about the exploitation of men. The characters undergo harsh treatment from a wealthy merchant with a lucrative interest in the imaginary deserts of Yahi.
<!--moved this unedited in its entirety from a stub-->
* ''[[The Seven Deadly Sins]]'' (''Die Sieben Todsüden der Kleinbürger'', [[1933]])
* ''[[The Roundheads and the Peakheads]]'' (''Die Rundköpfe und die Spitzköpfe'', [[1931-36]])
* ''[[Fear and Misery in the Third Reich]]'' (''Furcht und Elend des Dritten Reiches'', [[1935-38]])
* ''[[Señora Carrara's Rifles]]'' (''Die Gewehre der Frau Carrar'', [[1937]]/[[1937]])
**based loosely on [[John Millington Synge|J.M. Synge]]'s ''Riders to the Sea'', but relocated by Brecht in the Spanish Civil War
* ''[[Mother Courage and Her Children]]'' (''Mutter Courage und ihre Kinder'', [[1939]]/[[1941]])
* ''[[The Trial of Lucullus]]''([[1939]])
* ''[[Life of Galileo|Galileo]]'' (''Leben des Galilei'', [[1938]]/[[1943]])
* ''[[The Good Person of Setzuan]]'' ([[1940]]/[[1943]])
* ''[[Puntila and Matti, his Hired Man | Puntila and His Man Matti]]'' (''Herr Puntila und sein Mann Matti'', [[1941]])
* ''[[The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui]]'' ([[1941]]/[[1961]])
* ''[[Schweik in the Second World War]]'' ([[1941-44]])
* ''[[The Visions of Simone Machard]]'' ([[1941-44]]) with Lion Feuchtwanger
* ''[[The Caucasian Chalk Circle]]'' (''Der kaukasische Kreidekreis'') ([[1944-45]])
* ''[[The Days of the Commune]]'' ([[1948-49]])
* ''[[The Tutor]]'' ([[1950]])
== Further reading ==
* [[Martin Esslin]] (1971) ''Brecht: The Man and His Work''
* Peter Thomson and Glendyr Sacks, eds. (1994) ''The Cambridge Companion to Brecht'', Cambridge University Press
== External links ==
{{Commons|Bertolt Brecht}}
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://german.lss.wisc.edu/brecht International Brecht Society]
*[http://eislermusic.com Brecht's friendship with Hanns Eisler]
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/BrechtGuide Brecht's Works in English: A Bibliography]: This Bibliography of Bertolt Brecht's Works in English Translation is a cooperative project of the International Brecht Society and the Bertolt-Brecht-Archiv (Akademie der Künste, Berlin). The project strives to become a comprehensive listing of Brecht's works published in English translation. Presented by the [http://uwdc.library.wisc.edu University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center].
[[Category:German communists]]
[[Category:American communists]]
[[Category:Natives of Bavaria|Brecht,Bertolt]]
[[cs:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[de:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[et:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[es:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[eo:Bertolt BRECHT]]
[[fr:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[hr:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[it:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[he:ברטולט ברכט]]
[[ku:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[lb:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[hu:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[nl:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[nds:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[ja:ベルトルト・ブレヒト]]
[[no:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[pl:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[pt:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[sh:Bertold Breht]]
[[sk:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[fi:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[sv:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[tr:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[zh:贝尔托·布莱希特]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Boron</title>
<id>3755</id>
<revision>
<id>41980910</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:49:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pirkid</username>
<id>804095</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
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]&ndash;[[200]])
* The ''[[Amora|Amoraim]]'' (literally the "sayers") are the sages of the Talmud ([[200]]&ndash;[[500]])
* The ''[[Savoraim]]'' are the classical Persian rabbis ([[500]]&ndash;[[600]])
* The ''[[Geonim]]'' (literally the "prides" or "geniuses") are the rabbis of Sura and Pumbeditha, in Babylonia ([[650]]&ndash;[[1250]])
* The ''[[Rishonim]]'' (literally the "firsts") are the rabbis of the early medieval period ([[1250]]&ndash;[[1550]]) preceding the [[Shulkhan Arukh]]
* The ''[[Acharonim]]'' (literally the "afters") are the rabbis of [[1550]] to the present.
===The thirteen rules by which Jewish law was derived===
During the time of the Mishnah, some principles of the oral law were said to be derived from the written [[Torah]] by virtue of one or more of the following methods ("Introduction to ''Sifra''" by [[Ishmael ben Elisha]], c. 200 CE):
#''Kal va-Chomer'' ([[List of Latin phrases (A–E)#A|a fortiori]]): We find a similar stringency in a more lenient case; how more so should that stringency apply to our stricter case!
#''Gezera shava'', similarity in phrase: We find a similar law in a verse containing a similar phrase to one in our verse. This method can only be used in a case where there is a tradition to use it.
#''Binyan av'', either by one or two Scriptures: We find a similar law in another case, why shouldn't we assume that the same law applies here? Now the argument may go against this inference, finding some law which applies to that case but not to ours. This type of refutation is valid only if the inference was from one Scripture, not if it was from two Scriptures.
#''Klal ufrat'', a generality and a particularity: If we find a phrase signifying a particularity following that of a generality, the particularity particularises the generality and we only take that particular case into account.
#''Prat ukhlal'', a particularity and a generality: If the order is first the particularity and then the generality, we add from the generality upon the particularity, even to a broad extent.
#''Klal ufrat ukhlal'', a generality, a particularity and a generality: If there is a particularity inserted between two generalities, we only add cases similar to the particularity.
#''Klal shehu tzarich lifrat'', a generality that requires a particularity, and a particularity that requires a generality:
#Every thing that was within the general rule and was excluded from the rule to teach us a rule, we don't consider this rule as pertaining only to this excluded case, but to the entire general case.
#Anything that was included in a general rule, and was excluded to be susceptible to one rule that is according to its subject, it is only excluded to be treated more leniently but not more strictly.
#Anything that was included in a general rule and was excluded to be susceptible to one rule that is not according to its subject, it is excluded to be treated both more leniently and more strictly.
#Anything that was included in a general rule and was excluded to be treated by a new rule, we cannot restore it to its general rule unless Scripture restores it explicitly.
#A matter that is inferred from its context, and a matter that is inferred from its ending.
#The resolution of two Scriptures that contradict each other [must wait] until a third Scripture arrives and resolves their apparent contradiction.
Scholars have noted the similarity between these rabbinic rules of interpretation and the hermeneutics of ancient Hellenistic culture.
==How Halakha is viewed today==
:''See also [[Talmud#The Talmud in modern-day Judaism|The Talmud in modern-day Judaism]]''.
[[Orthodox Judaism]] holds that the words of the [[Torah]] (Pentateuch) were indeed dictated by God to Moses in almost precisely the way that they exist in the Torah today. The laws contained in the Written Torah were given along with detailed explanations as how to apply and interpret them, the [[Oral Law]]. The religious laws that Jews know today are thus directly derived from Sinai. As such, one must be extremely conservative changing or adapting Jewish law. Orthodox Judaism holds that, given Jewish law's Divine origin, no underlying principle may be compromised in accounting for changing political, social or economic conditions; in this sense, "creativity" and development in Jewish law is limited. See [[Orthodox Judaism#Beliefs about Jewish law and tradition | Orthodox beliefs about Jewish law and tradition]].
To the [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jew]], Halakha is a guide, [[God]]'s Law, governing the structure of daily life from the moment he or she wakes up to the moment he goes to sleep. It includes codes of behavior applicable to a broad range of circumstances (and many hypothetical ones).
[[Conservative Judaism]] holds that the current text of the Torah is a composite that was [[documentary hypothesis|redacted together from earlier sources]]. Conservative Jews hold that it is possible to believe that God is real and that prophets like Moses really were inspired by God. However, whatever records and traditions relating to such events were apparently transmitted in various forms for many centuries. This says nothing about whether the Torah is based on God or not, and so this idea not a theological threat. Therefore Conservative Judaism teaches that one should make use of literary and historical analysis to understand how these texts developed, and to help them understand how they may applied in our own day. Conservative Jews view the laws and customs from the various law codes as the basis for normative Jewish law. [[Solomon Schechter]] writes "however great the literary value of a code may be, it does not invest it with infallibility, nor does it exempt it from the student or the Rabbi who makes use of it from the duty of examining each paragraph on its own merits, and subjecting it to the same rules of interpretation that were always applied to Tradition". [Solomon Schechter].
[[Reform Judaism]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism]] both hold that modern views of how the Torah and rabbinic law developed imply that the body of rabbinic Jewish law is no longer normative (seen as binding) on Jews today. Therefore Jews are not expected or taught to follow most of halakha. Those in the traditionalist wing of these movements hold that each Jew is obligated to interpret the Torah, Talmud and other Jewish works for themselves, and this interpretation will create separate commandments for each person. Those in the neo-traditional wing of Reform include [[Rabbi]]s [[Eugene Borowitz]] and [[Gunther Plaut]].
Those in the liberal and classical wings of Reform believe that in this day and era most Jewish religious rituals are no longer necessary, and many hold that following most Jewish laws is actually counter-productive. They propose that Judaism has entered a phase of ethical monotheism, and that the laws of Judaism are only remnants of an earlier stage of religious evolution, and need not be followed. This is considered wrong (and arguably heretical) not only by Orthodoxy, but by Conservative Judaism, and perhaps by some in the traditional wing of Reform.
===Flexibility within the Halakha===
Throughout history, halakha had been a remarkably flexible system, despite its internal rigidity, addressing issues on the basis of circumstance and precedent. For instance, rulings regarding modern technology have been incorporated into the ever-expanding halakhah. New rulings guide the observant about the proper use of electricity on the Sabbath and holidays within the parameters of halakhah. (Many scholarly tomes have been published and are constantly being reviewed ensuring the maximum coordination between electrical appliances and technology with the needs of the religiously observant Jew, with a great range of opinions.) Often, as to the applicability of the law in any given situation, the proviso is: "Consult your local Orthodox rabbi or posek."
Modern critics, however, charge that with the rise of movements that challenge the "Divine" authority of halakha, traditional Jews have greater reluctance to change, not only the laws themselves but also other customs and habits.
*As above, Orthodox Jews hold that, unlike secular precedent-based systems, ''halakha'' is a religious system, whose axiom is that Jewish law represents the will of God, either directly, or as close to directly as possible. If the laws in Jewish law codes are not the word of God ''per se'', they are nonetheless derived from the literal word of God in the Torah, using a set of rules also [[Revelation|revealed]] by God to Moses on [[Mount Sinai, Egypt|Mount Sinai]], and have been derived with the utmost accuracy and care. As such, one must be extremely conservative changing or adapting Jewish law. There have, nevertheless, been many changes including the application of halakha to modern technology.
*The view held by [[Conservative Judaism]] (and to some extent within the left wing of Orthodoxy) is that while God is real for theological reasons, the Torah is not the word of God in a literal sense. However, in this view the Torah is still held as mankind's record of its understanding of God's revelation, and thus still has divine authority. In this view, traditional Jewish law is still seen as binding. Jews who hold by this view generally try to use modern methods of historical study to learn how Jewish law has changed over time, and are more willing to change Jewish law in the present.
==Codes of Jewish law==
The [[Torah]] and the [[Talmud]] are not formal codes of law; they are sources of law. There are many formal codes of Jewish law that have developed over the past few thousand years. The major codes are:
* The [[Mishnah]], composed by [[Judah haNasi|Rabbi Judah the Prince]], in [[200|AD 200]], as a basic outline of the state of the [[Oral Law#Oral law in Judais |
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<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- This page needs disambiguation, since the word "concept" has at least six more meanings) -->
A '''concept''' is an [[abstraction|abstract]], [[idea]], notion, or [[entity]] that serves to designate a [[category]] or [[class (philosophy)|class]] of entities, [[event]]s, [[phenomena]] or [[relation]]s between them. Concepts are [[abstract]] in that they omit the [[difference]]s of the [[thing]]s in their [[extension (semantics)|extension]], treating them as if they were identical. They are universal in that they apply equally to every thing in their extension. Concepts are also the basic [[element]]s of [[proposition]]s, much the same way a [[word]] is the basic [[semantics|semantic]] element of a [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]].
Concepts may relate to [[supernatural]], say the concept of [[God]] or may be [[subjective]]: they may refer to [[facts]] of this world, as processed by man's means of cognition or to the personal beliefs. (The foregoing is a brief indication; for a full discussion see [[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]].)
Concepts are [[bearer]]s of [[meaning]], as opposed to [[agent (grammar)|agent]]s of meaning. A single concept can be expressed by any number of [[language]]s. The concept of ''dog'' can be expressed as ''Hund'' in [[German language|German]], as ''chien'' in [[French language|French]], and ''perro'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. The fact that concepts are in some sense independent of language makes [[translation]] possible - words in various languages have identical meaning, because they express one and the same concept.
==Locke==
[[John Locke]]'s description of a [[general idea]] corresponds to a description of a concept. According to Locke, a general idea is created by abstracting, drawing away, or removing the common characteristic or characteristics from several particular ideas. This common characteristic is that which is similar to all of the different individuals. For example, the abstract general idea or concept that is designated by the word "red" is that characteristic which is common to apples, cherries, and fire engines. The abstract general idea or concept that is signified by the word "dog" is the collection of those characteristics which are common to Airedales, Collies, and Terriers.
==Kant==
===''[[A posteriori]]'' Concepts===
According to Immanuel [[Kant]], an empirical or ''a posteriori'' concept is a general representation (''Vorstellung'') or general mental picture of that which is common to several specific perceived objects. ([[Logic]], I, 1., §1, Note 1)
A concept is a common feature or characteristic.
===''[[A priori]]'' Concepts===
Kant called a pure or ''a priori'' concept a category. There are 12 categories that constitute the understanding of phenomenal objects. Each category is that which is common to multiple empirical concepts.
==Schopenhauer==
For [[Schopenhauer]], empirical concepts "...are mere abstractions from what is known through intuitive [[perception]], and they have arisen from our arbitrarily thinking away or dropping of some [[qualities]] and our retention of others." (''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'', Vol. I, "Sketch of a History of the [[Ideal]] and the [[Real]]").
==John Stuart Mill's Conceptions==
[[John Stuart Mill]] stated that general conceptions are formed through abstraction. A general conception is the common element among the many images of members of a class. "...[W]hen we form a set of phenomena into a class, that is, when we compare them with one another to ascertain in what they agree, some general conception is implied in this mental operation" (''[[A System of Logic]]'', Book IV, Ch. II).
Mill did not believe that concepts exist in the mind before the act of abstraction. "It is not a law of our intellect, that, in comparing things with each other and taking note of their agreement, we merely recognize as realised in the outward world something that we already had in our minds. The conception originally found its way to us as the ''result'' of such a comparison. It was obtained (in metaphysical phrase) by ''abstraction'' from individual things" (''Ibid.'').
==William James's Truth==
A concept may be abstracted from several perceptions, but that is only its origin. In regard to its meaning or its truth, [[William James]] proposed his [[Pragmatic Rule]]. This rule states that the meaning of a concept may always be found in some particular difference in the course of human experience which its being true will make (''[[Some Problems of Philosophy]]'', "Percept and Concept -- The Import of Concepts"). In order to understand the meaning of the concept and to discuss its importance, a concept may be tested by asking, "What sensible difference to anybody will its truth make?" There is only one criterion of a concept's meaning and only one test of its truth. That criterion or test is its consequences for human behavior.
In this way, James bypassed the controversy between [[Rationalist]]s and [[Empiricist]]s regarding the origin of concepts. Instead of solving their dispute, he ignored it. The Rationalists had asserted that concepts are a revelation of [[Reason]]. Concepts are a glimpse of a different world, one which contains timeless [[truth]]s in areas such as [[logic]], [[mathematics]], [[ethics]], and [[aesthetics]]. By pure thought, humans can discover the relations that really exist among the parts of that divine world. On the other hand, the Empiricists claimed that concepts were merely a distillation or abstraction from perceptions of the world of experience. Therefore, the significance of concepts depends solely on the perceptions that are its references. James's Pragmatic Rule does not connect the meaning of a concept with its origin. Instead, it relates the meaning to a concept's purpose, that is, its function, use, or result.
== Gilles Deleuze's definition of Philosophy ==
According to [[Deleuze]] and [[Guattari]]'s ''What Is Philosophy?'' (1991), philosophy is the activity of creating concepts. This creative activity differs from previous definitions of philosophy as simple [[reasoning]], [[communication]] or [[contemplation]] of [[Universal (metaphysics)|Universals]]. Concepts are specific to philosophy: science has got "[[percept]]s", and art "[[Affect (philosophy)|affects]]". A concept is always ''signed'': thus, [[Descartes]]' [[Cogito ergo sum|''Cogito'']] or [[Kant]]'s "[[transcendence (philosophy)#"Transcendence" in Modern Philosophy|transcendental]]". It is a [[Mathematical singularity|singularity]], not an universal, and connects itself with others concepts, on a "plane of [[immanence]]" traced by a particular philosophy. Concepts can jump from one plane of immanence to another, combining with other concepts and therefore engaging in a "becoming-[[Other]]".
==[[Ayn Rand]]==
The [[Ayn Rand Institute]] has disseminated the following information on Ayn Rand's understanding of human concept formation.
"According to [[Objectivism]], concepts are derived from and do refer to the facts of [[reality]].
The mind at birth (as [[Aristotle]] first stated) is [[tabula rasa]]; there are no [[innate ideas]]. The [[senses]] are man's primary means of contact with reality; they give him the precondition of all subsequent [[knowledge]], the evidence that something is. What the something is he discovers on the conceptual level of awareness.
Conceptualization is man's method of organizing sensory material. To form a concept, one isolates two or more similar concretes from the rest of one's perceptual field, and integrates them into a single mental unit, symbolized by a [[word]]. A concept subsumes an unlimited number of instances: the concretes one isolated, and all others (past, present, and future) which are similar to them.
Similarity is the key to this process. The mind can retain the characteristics of similar concretes without specifying their measurements, which vary from case to case. 'A concept is a mental integration of two or more units possessing the same distinguishing characteristic(s), with their particular measurements omitted.'
The basic principle of concept-formation (which states that the omitted measurements must exist in some quantity, but may exist in any quantity) is the equivalent of the basic principle of [[algebra]], which states that algebraic symbols must be given some numerical value, but may be given any value. In this sense and respect, perceptual awareness is the [[arithmetic]], but conceptual awareness is the algebra of [[cognition]].
== Concepts in Sciences ==
Concepts are extremely useful for the development of science. It would be difficult to imagine science without the concepts like: [[energy]], [[force]], acceleration, [[time]], [[charge]], [[gravity]], field ( The [[list of concepts in science|list]] can be almost endless). Some illustrative examples of concepts in physical science are: [[absorption]], [[acid]], [[acceleration]], [[activation]], [[activity]], [[adsorption]], [[celestial body atmosphere|atmosphere]], [[alkali]], [[amorphous]], [[angular]], [[anisotropy]] [[aromatic]], [[atom]], [[azeotrope]], [[ballast]], [[bandwidth]], [[base]], [[baryons]], [[bond]], [[body]], [[capacitance]], [[catalyst]], [[choke]], [[circuit] |
'[[tanto]]'' (knife). In some lines of aikido, all techniques can be performed with a sword as well as unarmed.
Aikido was first brought to the West in [[1951]] by [[Minoru Mochizuki]] with a visit to [[France]]. It was introduced to the [[United States]] in [[1953]] by [[Kenji Tomiki]] and, a little later in the same year by [[Koichi Tohei]]. The [[United Kingdom]] followed in [[1955]], [[Germany]] and [[Australia]] in [[1965]]. Today there are many aikido [[dojo]]s available to train at throughout the world.
==Technique==
Aikido incorporates a wide range of techniques which use principles of energy and motion to redirect, neutralise and control attackers. One of the central martial philosophies of aikido is to be able to handle multiple-attacker circumstances fluidly. ''[[Randori]]'', practice against multiple opponents, is a key part of the curriculum in most aikido schools and is required for the higher level belts. Another tenet of aikido is that the aikidoka should gain control of their opponent as quickly as possible, while causing the least amount of damage possible to either party. If performed correctly, size and strength are not important for the techniques to be effective.
===Training===
The methods of training vary from organisation to organisation, and indeed even between different [[dojo]] in a single organisation. Typically, however, a class consists of a teacher demonstrating techniques or principles which the students then practice. Training is done through mutual technique, where the focus is on entering and blending (harmonising) with the attack, rather than on meeting force with force. ''Uke'', the receiver of the technique, usually initiates an attack against ''nage'' (also referred to as ''tori'' or ''shite'' depending on Aikido style), who neutralises it with an aikido technique. The uke and the nage have equally important roles. Uke's role is to be honest and committed in attack, to use positioning to protect oneself, and to learn proper technique through the imbalanced feeling created by nage's technique. Nage's role is to blend with and neutralise uke's attack without leaving an opening to further attacks. Simultaneously nage will be studying how to create a feeling of being centred (on balance) and controlled in the application of the Aikido technique. Therefore, students must practise both positions in order to learn proper technique. When O-Sensei taught, all his students were uke until he deemed them knowledgeable enough of the technique to be nage. Movement, awareness, precision, distance and timing are all important to the execution of techniques as students progress from rigidly defined exercises to more fluid and adaptable applications. Eventually, students take part in ''jiyu-waza'' (free attack) and/or [[randori]], where the attacks are less predictable. Most schools employ training methods wherein uke actively attempts to employ counter-techniques, or ''kaeshi-waza''.
O-Sensei did not allow competition in training because some techniques were considered too dangerous and because he believed that competition did not develop good character in students. Most styles of aikido continue this tradition although [[Tomiki Aikido|Shodokan Aikido]] (see [[#Styles|Styles]]) started with competitions early on. In the [[Ki Society]] there are forms (''[[taigi]]'') competitions held from time to time.
====Defense====
Aikido techniques are largely designed towards keeping the attacker off balance and locking joints. Much of aikido's repertoire of defenses can be performed either as throwing techniques (''nage-waza'') or as pins (''katame-waza''), depending on the situation. Entering, ''irimi'', and turning, ''tenkan'', are widely used aikido concepts, as is striking, ''atemi''. The use of striking techniques is dependent on the organization and, to some extent, the individual dojo. Some dojo teach the strikes that are integral to all aikido techniques as mere distractions used to make the application of an aikido technique easier, while others teach that strikes are to be used for more destructive reasons. O-Sensei himself wrote, while describing the aikido technique ikkyo, "...first smash the eyes." (This might well refer to the fact that the classic opener for ikkyo is a knife-hand thrust towards the face, to make uke block and thus expose his or her arm to the joint control - thus, ''as though'' moving to smash uke's eyes.) Manipulation of uke's balance by entering is often referred to as "taking uke's center". It is sometimes said that Aikido contains only defense, and the attacks that are performed are not really aikido. From a historical perspective this claim is questionable, but many if not most aikidoka have the defense techniques as the focus of their training.
====Attacks====
In the early days when Ueshiba began teaching to the public, students tended to be proficient in another martial art. Due to this, attacks per se are generally not focused on in contemporary aikido dojos. Students will learn the various attacks from which an Aikido technique can be practiced. Although attacks seldom are studied to the same extent as some arts, good attacks are needed to study correct and effective application of technique. "Honest" attacks are considered important. An "honest" attack would be an attack with full intention or a strong neutral (neither pulling or pushing) grab or hold. The speed of an attack may vary depending on the experience and level of the "nage" (the partner who executes the throw or technique). Whether the attack is fast or slow, the uke's intention to strike or control (if grabbing or pinning) should remain, in order to provide the nage a realistic training scenario.
Aikido attacks used in normal training include various stylized strikes and grabs such as ''shomenuchi'' (a vertical strike to the head), ''yokomenuchi'' (a lateral strike to the side of the head and/or neck), ''munetsuki'' (a straight punch), ''ryotedori'' (a two handed grab) or ''katadori'' (a shoulder grab). Many of the ''-uchi'' strikes resemble blows from a sword or other weapon. Kicks are sometimes used, but are not usually part of basic curricula. Most aikido techniques can also be applied to a response to an attack, e.g. to a block, and some schools use this as the "basic" form of a given class of technique. Beginners also tend to work with techniques executed in response to a grab. Grabs are considered good for basic practice because the connection with uke is very clear and strong, and it is easier to "feel out" body mechanics and lines of force.
There is also the matter of ''atemi'', or strikes employed during an aikido technique. The role and importance of atemi is a matter of some debate in aikido. Some view atemi as strikes to "vital points" that can be delivered during the course of a technique's application, to increase effectiveness. Others consider atemi to be methods of distraction, particularly when aimed at the face. For instance, if a movement would expose the aikido practitioner to a counter-blow, he or she may deliver a quick strike to distract the attacker or occupy the threatening limb. (Such a strike will also usually break the target's concentration, making them easier to throw than if they are able to focus on resisting.) Atemi can be interpreted as not only punches or kicks but also, for instance, striking with a shoulder or a large part of the arm. Some throws are arguably effected through an unbalancing or abrupt application of atemi. [http://www.tsuki-kage.com/ueshiba.html Many sayings about atemi] are attributed to [[Morihei Ueshiba]], although their precise content varies considerably based on the one doing the telling.
====Weapons====
Weapons training in aikido usually consists of [[jo (weapon)|jo]] (4-foot staff), [[bokken]] (wooden sword), and wooden (or sometimes rubber) [[tanto]] (knife). Both weapons-taking and weapons-retention are sometimes taught, to integrate the armed and unarmed aspects of aikido. For example, a technique done with a straight punch may be done with a tanto or jo thrust instead, or a grab technique may be illustrated as a way to draw/strike with a weapon while being grabbed.
Many schools use versions of [[Morihiro Saito]]'s weapons system: aiki-jo and aiki-ken. The system contains solo [[Kata (martial arts)|kata]] with jo, and paired exercises for both jo and bokken. Some lineages use bokken kata derived from older sword schools. Also, quite a few aikido teachers, such as [[Mitsugi Saotome]] and [[Kazuo Chiba]], have developed their own weapons systems. This is largely due to the fact that O'Sensei did not teach weapons to his students, excepting a few.
===Clothing===
The [[aikidogi]] used in Aikido is similar to the [[keikogi]] used in most other modern [[budo]] arts; simple trousers and a wraparound jacket, usually white. In some places a keikogi of [[karate]] cut is preferred, in others most people use [[judo]] keikogis. Keikogi made specially for aikido exist, but usually not in the lower price ranges. Many dojos insist that the sleeves are cut short to elbow length, to reduce the risk of trapped fingers and injuries in grab techniques to the wrist.
To the keikogi adds the traditional garment [[hakama]], wide pleated trousers. The hakama is usually black or dark blue and in most dojos, the hakama is reserved for practitioners with dan (black belt) ranks. Systems also exist where hakama is never worn or are worn from a specific kyu rank; others exist where women are allowed to wear it earlier than men.
The belt, ''obi'' is wrapped twice around the body similar to in karate or judo. Although some systems use many belt colours similar to the system in judo, the most common version is that dan ranks wear black belt, and kyu ranks white - sometimes with an additional brown belt for the highest kyu ranks. In some dojos it i |
t;right" width="300" style="margin-left:1.0em;"
! colspan="2" bgcolor="gold" style="font-size:120%"|'''''Saint Ephrem the Syrian'''''
|-
|align="center" colspan="2" |[[Image:Ephrem.jpg|thumb|none|[[Icon]] of Ephrem the Syrian from Meryem Ana Kilesesi, [[Diyarbakır]]]]
|-
|align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="gold"|'''[[Doctor of the Church]] and Venerable Monk'''
|-
|'''Born'''
|''c.'' [[306]], [[Nisibis]]
|-
|'''Died'''
|[[9 June]] [[373]], [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]]
|-
|'''Venerated in'''
|All [[Christianity]], especially [[Syriac Christianity]]
|-
|'''Major [[shrine]]'''
|The [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian]] monastery of Der Sarkis ([[Saint Sergius]])
|-
|'''[[Calendar of saints|Feast]]'''
|7th Saturday before Easter ([[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox]])<br>
[[1 February]] (''Roman Martyrology'')<br>
[[10 February]] ([[Eastern Orthodoxy]])<br>
[[8 June]] ([[Scottish Episcopal Church]])<br>
[[9 June]] ([[Church of England]]<br>
[[9 June]] ([[Roman Catholic Church]])<br>
[[10 June]] ([[Church in Wales]])<br>
[[10 June]] ([[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal Church in the USA]])<br>
[[18 June]] ([[Maronite]] Church)<br>
[[18 June]] (former Catholic date)
|-
|'''Attributes'''
|Vine and scroll, deacon's habit and thurible, with [[Basil of Caesarea|St Basil]], composing with a harp
|-
|'''[[Patron saint|Patronage]]'''
|Spiritual directors and spiritual leaders
|-
|colspan="2"|
:''O Lord, may the works of your herdsman''
::''not be squandered.''
:''I will not then have troubled your sheep,''
::''but as far as I was able,''
:''I will have kept the wolves away from them,''
::''and I will have built, as far as I was capable,''
:''Enclosures of hymns''
::''for the lambs of your flock.''
:''I will have made a disciple''
::''of the simple and unlearned,''
:''And I will have given them a strong hold''
::''on the shepherd's staff,''
:''the healers' medicine,''
::''and the combatants' armour''
<small>Ephrem the Syrian. ''Hymns against Heresy'', LVI.</small>
|}
Soon after Ephrem's death, legendary accounts of his life began to circulate. One of the earlier 'modifications' is the statement that Ephrem's father was a [[Paganism|pagan]] priest of Abnil or Abizal. However, internal evidence from his authentic writings suggest that he was raised by Christian parents. This legend may be anti-pagan polemic or reflect his father's status prior to converting to Christianity.
The second legend attached to Ephrem is that he was a [[monk]]. In Ephrem's day, monasticism was in its infancy in [[Egypt]]. He seems to have been a part of the ''[[members of the covenant]]'', a close-knit, urban community of Christians that had 'covenanted' themselves to service and [[sexual abstinence|refrained from sexual activity]]. Some of the Syriac terms that Ephrem used to describe his community were later used to describe monastic communities, but the assertion that he was monk is anachronistic. Later hagiographers often painted a picture of Ephrem as an extreme ascetic, but the internal evidence of his authentic writings show him to have had a very active role, both within his church community and through witness to those outside of it. Ephrem is venerated as an example of monastic discipline in [[Eastern Christianity]]. In the [[Eastern Orthodox]] scheme of hagiography, Ephrem is counted as a ''Venerable Monk''.
Ephrem is popularly believed to have taken legendary journeys. In one of these he visits [[Basil of Caesarea]]. This links the Syrian Ephrem with the [[Cappadocian Fathers]], and is an important theological bridge between the spiritual view of the two, who held much in common. Ephrem is also supposed to have visited Anba Bishoi (Pisoes) in the monasteries of the Wadi Natun, Egypt. As with the legendary visit with Basil, this visit is a theological bridge between the origins of monasticism and its spread throughout the church.
On [[5 October]] [[1920]], Pope [[Benedict XV]] proclaimed that Ephrem is a [[Doctor of the Church]]. This proclamation was made before critical editions of Ephrem's authentic writings were available.
The most popular title for Ephrem is ''Harp of the Spirit'' (Syriac {{unicode|Kenārâ d-Rûḥâ}}). He is also referred to as the ''Deacon of Edessa'', the ''Sun of the Syrians'' and a ''Pillar of the Church''.
Today, Saint Ephrem presents an engaging model of Asian Christianity, which might prove a valuable source of theological insight for Christian communities that wish to break out of the European cultural mould. Ephrem also shows that poetry is not only a valid vehicle for theology, but is in many ways superior to philosophical discourse for the purpose of doing theology. He also encourages a way of reading the [[Bible]] that is rooted more in faith than in critical analysis. Ephrem displays a deep sense of the interconnectedness of all created things, which could develop his role in the church into that of a 'saint of ecology'. There are modern studies into Ephrem's view of women that see him as a champion of women in the church. Other studies have focused on the importance of 'healing' imagery in Ephrem. Ephrem, then, confronts the contemporary church as an orthodox saint engaged in a theology that is at once nonwestern, poetic, ecological, feminist, and healing.
== Appendices ==
=== Quotations ===
* ''The greatest poet of the patristic age and, perhaps, the only theologian-poet to rank beside Dante.'' &mdash; Robert Murray.
* ''The boldness of our love is pleasing to you, O Lord, just as it pleased you that we should steal from your bounty.'' &mdash; Ephrem the Syrian, ''Hymns on Faith'' 16:5.
===See also===
* [[Syriac language]]
* [[Syriac Christianity]]
* [[Hymn]]
* [[List of Syriacs]]
=== References ===
* Brock, Sebastian P (1985). ''The luminous eye: the spiritual world vision of Saint Ephrem''. Cistercian Publications. ISBN 0-87907-624-0.
* Brock, Sebastian (trans) (1990). ''Hymns on paradise: St. Ephrem the Syrian''. St Vladimir's Seminary Press, Crestwood, New York. ISBN 0-88141-076-4.
* Griffith, Sidney H (1997). ''Faith adoring the mystery: reading the Bible with St. Ephraem the Syrian''. Marquette University Press, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. ISBN 0-87462-577-7.
* Matthews, Edward G and Joseph P Amar (trans), Kathleen McVey (ed) (1994). ''Saint Ephrem the Syrian: selected prose works''. Catholic University of America Press. ISBN 0-8132-0091-1.
* McVey, Kathleen E (trans) (1989). ''Ephrem the Syrian: hymns''. Paulist Press. ISBN 0-8091-3093-9.
=== External links ===
* [http://sor.cua.edu/Personage/MEphrem/ ''Margonitho'': Mor Ephrem the Syrian]
* [http://tserkovnost.org/stephrem/ ''Saint Ephrem the Syrian Library'']
* [http://www.anastasis.org.uk/ephrem.htm ''Anastasis'' article]
* [http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol1No2/index.html ''Hugoye'': Influence of Saint Ephraim the Syrian, part 1]
* [http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol2No1/index.html ''Hugoye'': Influence of Saint Ephraim the Syrian, part 2]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05498a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'': Saint Ephraem]
* [http://87.1911encyclopedia.org/E/EP/EPHRAEM_SYRUS.htm ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' 1911: "Ephraem Syrus"]
* [http://www.theandros.com/ephraem.html St. Ephraem 'Faith Adoring the Mystery']
[[Category:Church Fathers]]
[[Category:300s births]]
[[Category:373 deaths]]
[[Category:Christian writers]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Late Antiquity]]
[[Category:Doctors of the Church]]
[[Category:306 births|Ephrem the Syrian]]
[[Category:373 deaths|Ephrem the Syrian]]
[[Category:Syriacs]]
[[de:Ephräm der Syrer]]
[[fr:Éphrème le Syrien]]
[[ko:에브라임 시리아]]
[[hu:Szíriai Szent Efrém]]
[[ja:エフレム]]
[[ru:Ефрем Сирин]]
[[fi:Efraim Syyrialainen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Enhanced Chip Set</title>
<id>10359</id>
<revision>
<id>41093149</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T00:20:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>87.249.58.61</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Enhanced Chip Set''' ('''ECS''') is the name used for the enhanced version of the [[Amiga]] [[computer]]'s original chipset ([[Original Amiga chipset|OCS]]). ECS was introduced in [[1990]] debuting in the [[A3000|Amiga 3000]]. Amigas produced from 1990 onwards featured a mix of OCS and ECS chips, or even a full Enhanced Chipset. In [[1991]] ECS was officially introduced to the low end Amigas with the introduction of the [[A500plus|A500 Plus]]. The last Amiga to use ECS was the [[A600|Amiga 600]].
ECS included the improved ''[[Super Agnus]]'' (with support for 2 MB of [[CHIP RAM]]) and ''[[Super Denise]]'' chips. Other additional features include:
* Support for ''Productivity'' (640x480 noninterlaced) and ''SuperHires'' (1280x200 or 1280x256) display modes, which were however limited to only 4 colors.
* Ability of the blitter to copy regions larger than 1024x1024 pixels in one operation.
* Ability to display sprites in border regions (outside of any display window where bitplanes are shown).
It was followed by the [[Advanced Graphics Architecture|AGA]] chipset.
[[Category:Commodore Amiga]]
[[de:ECS]]
[[es:ECS]]
[[pl:ECS (informatyka)]]
[[ru:ECS]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Space Operations Centre</title>
<id>10361</id>
<revision>
<id>42068332</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:24:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bomble</username>
<id>213566</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Darmstadt ESOC-Gebaeude.jpg|thumb|200px|Centre in Darmstadt, Germany]]
The '''European Space Operations Centre''' ('''ESOC''') is responsible for controlling [[European Space Agency|ESA]] [[satellite]]s and [[space probe]]s. The centre is located in |
s VIII of France]] (b. [[1470]])
*[[1614]] - [[El Greco]], Greek-born artist (b. [[1541]])
*[[1638]] - [[Shimazu Tadatsune]], Japanese ruler of Satsuma (b. [[1576]])
*[[1651]] - [[Lennart Torstenson]], Swedish soldier and engineer (b. [[1603]])
*[[1658]] - [[Juan Eusebio Nieremberg]], Spanish mystic (b. [[1595]])
*[[1661]] - [[William Brereton]], English soldier and politician (b. [[1604]])
*[[1663]] - [[Francis Cooke]], Mayflower pilgrim
*[[1668]] - [[William Davenant]], English poet (b. [[1606]])
*[[1719]] - [[Jean-Baptiste de la Salle]], French saint (b. [[1651]])
*[[1739]] - [[Dick Turpin]], English highwayman (hanged) (b. [[1706]])
*[[1747]] - [[Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau]], Prussian field marshall (b. [[1676]])
*[[1761]] - [[Thomas Bayes]] English mathematician (b. [[1702]])
*[[1766]] - [[Tiberius Hemsterhuis]], Dutch philologist and critic (b. [[1685]])
*[[1767]] - [[Franz Sparry]], composer (b. [[1715]])
*[[1782]] - [[Taksin]], King of Thailand (b. [[1734]])
*[[1789]] - [[Abd-ul-Hamid I]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1725]])
*1789 - [[Petrus Camper]], Dutch anatomist (b. [[1722]])
*[[1801]] - [[Noël François de Wailly]], French lexicographer (b. [[1724]])
*[[1823]] - [[Jacques Charles]], French chemist (b. [[1746]])
*[[1833]] - [[Antoni Radziwiłł]], Polish politician (b. [[1775]])
*[[1836]] - [[William Godwin]], English political writer (b. [[1756]])
*[[1850]] - [[William Lisle Bowles]], English poet and critic (b. [[1762]])
*[[1858]] - [[Anton Diabelli]], Austrian music publisher, editor, and composer (b. [[1781]])
*[[1871]] - [[Alexander Lloyd]], Mayor of Chicago (b. [[1805]])
*[[1885]] - [[Carl Theodor Ernst von Siebold]], German physiologist (b. [[1804]])
*[[1891]] - [[P. T. Barnum]], American circus impresario (b. [[1810]])
*[[1928]] - [[Alexander Bogdanov]], Russian physician and philosopher (b. [[1873]])
*[[1939]] - [[Joseph Lyons]], tenth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (b. [[1879]])
*[[1943]] - [[Jovan Ducic]], Serbian poet
*1943 - [[Alexandre Millerand]], [[President of France]] (b. [[1859]])
*[[1947]] - [[Henry Ford]], American automobile manufacturer and industrialist (b. [[1863]])
*[[1950]] - [[Walter Huston]], Canadian-born actor (b. [[1884]])
*[[1955]] - [[Theda Bara]], American film actress (b. [[1885]])
*[[1968]] - [[Jim Clark (racing driver)|Jimmy Clark]], Scottish race car driver (b. [[1936]])
*[[1981]] - [[Norman Taurog]], American film director (b. [[1899]])
*[[1984]] - [[Frank Church]], U.S. Senator from Idaho (b. [[1924]])
*[[1986]] - [[Leonid Kantorovich]], Russian economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (b. [[1912]])
*[[1990]] - [[Ronald Evans]], astronaut (b. [[1933]])
*[[1994]] - [[Albert Guðmundsson]], Icelandic professional football player and politician (b. [[1923]])
*1994 - [[Golo Mann]], German historian (b. [[1909]])
*1994 - [[Agathe Uwilingiyimana]], [[Prime Minister of Rwanda]] (b. [[1953]])
*[[1997]] - [[Witto Aloma]], baseball player (b. [[1923]])
*1997 - [[Georgi Shonin]], cosmonaut (b. [[1935]])
*[[1998]] - [[Marjory Stoneman Douglas]], American conservationist and environmentalist (b. [[1890]])
*[[2001]] - [[David Graf]], American actor (b. [[1950]])
*2001 - [[Beatrice Straight]], American actress (b. [[1914]])
*[[2002]] - [[John Agar]], American actor (b. [[1921]])
*[[2003]] - [[Cecile de Brunhoff]], French storyteller (b. [[1903]])
*[[2005]] - [[Bob Kennedy]], baseball player and manager (b. [[1920]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Araw ng Kagitingan]] was moved this year from [[April 9]] to April 7 to give the residents a long weekend and help [[tourism]] in the [[Philippines]].
*[[World Health Day]] - April 7th of every year is designated as World Health Day and celebrated by the 191 member countries of the [[World Health Organization]] to emphasize significant issues in public health of worldwide concern. Observed annually since [[1948]].
*[[Mozambique]] - Women's Day
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/7 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/7 Today in History: April 7]
----
[[April 6]] - [[April 8]] - [[March 7]] - [[May 7]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:7 April]]
[[ar:7 ابريل]]
[[an:7 d'abril]]
[[ast:7 d'abril]]
[[bg:7 април]]
[[be:7 красавіка]]
[[bs:7. april]]
[[ca:7 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 7]]
[[cv:Ака, 7]]
[[co:7 d'aprile]]
[[cs:7. duben]]
[[cy:7 Ebrill]]
[[da:7. april]]
[[de:7. April]]
[[et:7. aprill]]
[[el:7 Απριλίου]]
[[es:7 de abril]]
[[eo:7-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 7]]
[[fo:7. apríl]]
[[fr:7 avril]]
[[fy:7 april]]
[[ga:7 Aibreán]]
[[gl:7 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 7일]]
[[hr:7. travnja]]
[[io:7 di aprilo]]
[[id:7 April]]
[[ia:7 de april]]
[[ie:7 april]]
[[is:7. apríl]]
[[it:7 aprile]]
[[he:7 באפריל]]
[[jv:7 April]]
[[ka:7 აპრილი]]
[[csb:7 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:7'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 7]]
[[lb:7. Abrëll]]
[[li:7 april]]
[[hu:Április 7]]
[[mk:7 април]]
[[ms:7 April]]
[[nap:7 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:7 april]]
[[ja:4月7日]]
[[no:7. april]]
[[nn:7. april]]
[[oc:7 d'abril]]
[[pl:7 kwietnia]]
[[pt:7 de Abril]]
[[ro:7 aprilie]]
[[ru:7 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 7.]]
[[sco:7 Aprile]]
[[sq:7 Prill]]
[[scn:7 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 7]]
[[sk:7. apríl]]
[[sl:7. april]]
[[sr:7. април]]
[[fi:7. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:7 april]]
[[tl:Abril 7]]
[[tt:7. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 7]]
[[th:7 เมษายน]]
[[vi:7 tháng 4]]
[[tr:7 Nisan]]
[[uk:7 квітня]]
[[ur:7 اپریل]]
[[wa:7 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 7]]
[[zh:4月7日]]
[[pam:Abril 7]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andalusia</title>
<id>2736</id>
<revision>
<id>41974359</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:57:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bota47</username>
<id>341052</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: ro</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+'''Comunidad Autónoma de<br/><big><big>Andalucía</big></big>'''
|-
| bgcolor="#ffffff" align=center colspan=2 |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|-
| align=center width=148 | [[Image:Flag es-andalucía 300px.png|150px]]
| align=center width=148 | [[Image:Escudo Andalucía.png|70px|Escudo de Andalucía]]
|-
| align=center width=148 | [[Flag of Andalusia|Flag]]
| align=center width=148 | [[Coat of Arms of Andalusia|Coat of Arms]]
|}
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | <small>''[[Motto]]: Dominator Hercules Fundator
Andalucía por sí, para España y la humanidad<br/>(Andalusia for herself, for Spain, and for humanity)''</small>
|-
| bgcolor="#c6c6c6" align="center" colspan="2" | [[Image:Locator map of Andalusia.png]]
|-
| [[Capital]] || [[Seville]]
|-
| [[Area]]<br/>&nbsp;&ndash; Total<br/>&nbsp;&ndash; % of Spain
| [[List of Spanish autonomous communities by area|Ranked 2nd]]<br/>&nbsp;[[1 E10 m²|87 268]] [[square kilometre|km²]]<br/>&nbsp;17,2%
|-
| [[Population]]<br/>&nbsp;&ndash; Total (2005)<br/>&nbsp;&ndash; % of Spain<br/>&nbsp;&ndash; [[Density]]
| [[List of Spanish autonomous communities by population|Ranked 1st]]<br/>&nbsp;7.849.799<br/>&nbsp;17,9%<br/>&nbsp;89,95/km²
|-
| [[Demonym]]<br/>&nbsp;&ndash; [[English language|English]]<br/>&nbsp;&ndash; [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
|<br/>&nbsp;Andalusian<br/>&nbsp;''andaluz, andaluza''
|-
| Statute of Autonomy || [[January 11]], [[1982]]
|-
| [[Cortes Generales|Parliamentary<br/>representation]]<br/>&nbsp;&ndash; [[Spanish Congress|Congress seats]]<br/>&nbsp;&ndash; [[Spanish Senate|Senate seats]]
| valign=bottom | &nbsp;62<br/>&nbsp;8
|-
| valign=top | [[List of Andalusian Presidents|President]]
| [[Manuel Chaves González]] ([[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party|PSOE]])
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [http://www.juntadeandalucia.es Junta de Andalucía]
|}
'''Andalusia''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Andalucía'') is a region of [[Spain]]. Andalusia is the most populated and second largest of the seventeen [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous communities]] that constitute Spain. Its capital is [[Seville]]. Andalusia is bounded on the north by [[Extremadura]] and [[Castile-La Mancha]], on the east by [[Murcia]], on the south Morroco and the [[Strait of Gibraltar]], and on the west by southern [[Portugal]].
The name Andalusia is derived from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] name "Al Andalus", which referred to the parts of the Iberian peninsula which were under [[Muslim]] rule. The Islamic history of Muslim Spain can be found in the entry [[al-Andalus]]. [[Tartessos]], the capital of a once great and powerful Tartessian Civilization, was located in Andalusia, and was known in the Bible by the name of Tarsis. More information about this region can be found in the entry ''[[Hispania Baetica]]'', the name of the Roman province that corresponds to the region.
Andalusian culture has been deeply marked by the eight centuries of Muslim rule over the region, which ended in 1492 with the conquest of Granada by the Catholic monarchs.
The Spanish spoken in the [[Americas]] is largely descended from the [[Andalusian dialect]] of [[Spanish language|Castilian Spanish]] due to the role played by Seville as the gateway to Spain's American territories in the 16th and 17th centuries.
Andalusia is known for its moorish architecture. Famous monuments include the [[Alhambra]] in [[Granada]], the [[Mezquita]] in [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] and the [[Torre del Oro]] and [[Giralda]] towers in Seville and the [[Reales Alcázares]] in Seville. Archaeological remains include [[Medina Azahara]], near Córdoba and [[Itálica]], near Sevi |
ered a mainstream interpretation along with the Copenhagen and [[consistent histories]] interpretations.
==Many worlds and the problem of interpretation ==
As with the other interpretations of quantum mechanics, the many-worlds interpretation is motivated by behavior that can be illustrated by the [[double-slit experiment]]. When [[photon|particles of light]] (or anything else) are passed through the double slit, a calculation assuming wave-like behavior of light is needed to identify where the particles are likely to be observed. Yet when the particles are observed, they appear as particles and not as non-localized waves. The [[Copenhagen interpretation]] of quantum mechanics proposed a process of "[[wavefunction collapse|collapse]]" from wave behavior to particle-like behavior to explain this phenomenon of observation.
By the time [[John von Neumann]] wrote his famous treatise ''Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik'' in [[1932]], the phenomenon of "wavefunction collapse" was accommodated into the [[mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics]] by postulating that there were two processes of wavefunction change:
# The discontinuous [[probability|probabilistic]] change brought about by observation and [[measurement]].
# The [[deterministic]] [[time evolution]] of an isolated system that obeys [[Schrödinger's equation]].
The phenomenon of wavefunction collapse for (1) proposed by the Copenhagen interpretation was widely regarded as artificial and ad-hoc, and consequently an alternative interpretation in which the behavior of measurement could be understood from more fundamental physical principles was considered desirable.
Everett's Ph. D. work was intended to provide such an alternative interpretation. Everett proposed that for a composite system (for example that formed by a particle interacting with a measuring apparatus) the statement that a subsystem has a well-defined state is meaningless. This led Everett to suggest the notion of ''relativity of states'' of one subsystem relative to another.
Everett's formalism for understanding the process of wavefunction collapse as a result of observation is mathematically equivalent to a quantum superposition of wavefunctions. Since Everett stopped doing research in theoretical physics shortly after obtaining his degree, much of the elaboration of his ideas was carried out by other researchers.
== Brief overview ==
In Everett's formulation, a measuring apparatus '''M''' and an object system '''S''' form a composite system, each of which prior to measurement exists in well-defined (but time-dependent) states. Measurement is regarded as causing '''M''' and '''S''' to interact. After '''S''' interacts with '''M''', it is no longer possible to describe either system by an independent state. According to Everett, the only meaningful descriptions of each system are relative states: for example the relative state of '''S''' given the state of '''M''' or the relative state of '''M''' given the state of '''S'''. [[Image:Many-worlds-bloch.png|thumb|400px|Schematic representation of pair of "smallest possible" quantum mechanical systems prior to interaction : Measured system '''S''' and measurement apparatus '''M'''. Systems such as '''S''' are referred to as 1-[[qubit]] systems.]] In DeWitt's formulation, the state of '''S''' after measurement is given by a quantum superposition of alternative histories of '''S'''.
For example, consider the smallest possible truly quantum system '''S''', as shown in the illustration. This describes for instance, the spin-state of an electron. Considering a specific axis (say the ''z''-axis) the north pole represents spin "up" and the south pole, spin "down". The superposition states of the system are described by (the surface of) a sphere called the [[Bloch sphere]]. To perform a measurement on '''S''', it is made to interact with another similar system '''M'''. After the interaction, the combined system is described by a state that ranges over a six-dimensional space (the reason for the number six is explained in the article on the Bloch sphere). This six-dimensional object can also be regarded as a quantum superposition of two "alternative histories" of the original system '''S''', one in which "up" was observed and the other in which "down" was observed. Each subsequent binary measurement (that is interaction with a system '''M''') causes a similar split in the history tree. Thus after three measurements, the system can be regarded as a quantum superposition of 8= 2 &times; 2 &times; 2 copies of the original system '''S'''.
The accepted terminology is somewhat misleading because it is incorrect to regard the universe as splitting at certain times; at any given instant there is one state in one universe. [[Image:Splittings-1.png|thumb|left|350px|Schematic illustration of splitting as a result of a repeated measurement.]]
== Relative state ==
The goal of the relative-state formalism, as originally proposed by Everett in his [[1957]] doctoral dissertation, was to interpret the effect of external observation entirely within the mathematical framework developed by [[Dirac]], [[von Neumann]] and others, discarding altogether the ad-hoc mechanism of wave function collapse. Since Everett's original work, there have appeared a number of similar formalisms in the literature. One such idea is discussed in the next section.
From the relative-state formalism, we can obtain a relative-state interpretation by two assumptions. The first is that the wavefunction is not simply a description of the object's state, but that it actually is entirely equivalent to the object, a claim it has in common with other interpretations. The second is that observation has no special role, unlike in the [[Copenhagen interpretation]] which considers the wavefunction collapse as a special kind of event which occurs as a result of observation.
The many-worlds interpretation is DeWitt's rendering of the relative state formalism (and interpretation). Everett referred to the system (such as an observer) as being split by an observation, each split corresponding to a possible outcome of an observation. These splits generate a possible tree as shown in the graphic below. Subsequently DeWitt introduced the term "world" to describe a complete measurement history of an observer, which corresponds roughly to a path starting at the root of that tree. Note that "splitting" in this sense, is hardly new or even quantum mechanical. The idea of a space of complete alternative histories had already been used in the theory of probability since the mid 1930s for instance to model [[Brownian motion]]. The novelty in DeWitt's viewpoint was that the various complete alternative histories could be superposed to form new quantum mechanical states. [[Image:Many-worlds.png|thumb|300px| Partial trace as relative state. Light blue rectangle on upper left denotes system in pure state. Trellis shaded rectangle in upper right denotes a (possibly) mixed state. Mixed state from observation is partial trace of a linear superposition of states as shown in lower left-hand corner.]]
Under the many-worlds interpretation, the [[Schrödinger equation]] holds all the time everywhere. An observation or measurement of an object by an observer is modelled by applying the Schrödinger wave equation to the entire system comprising the observer ''and'' the object. One consequence is that every observation can be thought of as causing the universal wavefunction to change into a quantum superposition of two or more non-interacting branches, or "worlds". Since many observation-like events are constantly happening, there are an enormous number of simultaneously existing states.
If a system is composed of two or more subsystems, the system's state will be a superposition of products of the subsystems' states. Once the subsystems interact, their states are no longer independent. Each product of subsystem states in the overall superposition evolves over time independently of other products. The subsystems have become [[quantum entanglement|entangled]] and it is no longer possible to consider them independent of one another. Everett's term for this entanglement of subsystem states was a ''relative state'', since each subsystem must now be considered relative to the other subsystems with which it has interacted. [[Image:Paths-many-worlds.png|thumb|left|300px|Successive measurements with successive splittings]]
== Comparative properties and experimental support ==
One of the salient properties of the many-worlds interpretation is that observation does not require an exceptional construct (such as wave function collapse) to explain it. Many physicists, however, dislike the implication that there are infinitely many non-observable alternate universes.
As of [[as of 2002|2002]], there were no practical experiments that would distinguish between many-worlds and Copenhagen, and in the absence of observational data, the choice is one of personal taste. However, one area of research is devising experiments which could distinguish between various interpretations of quantum mechanics, although there is some skepticism whether it is even meaningful to ask such a question. Indeed, it can be argued that there is a mathematical equivalence between Copenhagen (as expressed for instance in a set of algorithms for manipulating density states) and many-worlds (which gives the same answers as Copenhagen using a more elaborate mathematical picture) which would seem to make such an endeavor impossible. However, this algorithmic equivalence may not be true on a cosmological scale. It has been proposed that in a world with infinite alternate universes, the universes which collapse would exist for a shorter time than universes which expand, and that would cause detectable prob |
nition. The prize money for the Nobel helped establish the Kocher Institut in Berne.
A number of instruments and surgical techniques are named after him as well as the [[Kocher-Debre-Semelaigne syndrome]].
:''See also:'' [[Kocher manoeuvre]]
==External links==
*http://crishunt.8bit.co.uk/kocher_theodor.html
[[Category:1841 births|Kocher, Emil Theodor]]
[[Category:1917 deaths|Kocher, Emil Theodor]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners|Kocher, Emil Theodor]]
[[Category:Natives of Bern|Kocher, Emil Theodor]]
[[de:Emil Theodor Kocher]]
[[es:Emil Theodor Kocher]]
[[fr:Emil Theodor Kocher]]
[[id:Theodor Kocher]]
[[pl:Emil Theodor Kocher]]
[[pt:Emil Theodor Kocher]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eight queens puzzle</title>
<id>10474</id>
<revision>
<id>41176802</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T15:40:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andreas Kaufmann</username>
<id>72502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Related problems */ No reason to have [[Chess problem]] here</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Chess diagram|=
| tright
|
|=
1 |__|__|__|ql|__|__|__|__|=
2 |__|__|__|__|__|__|ql|__|=
3 |__|__|ql|__|__|__|__|__|=
4 |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|ql|=
5 |__|ql|__|__|__|__|__|__|=
6 |__|__|__|__|ql|__|__|__|=
7 |ql|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|=
8 |__|__|__|__|__|ql|__|__|=
|One of the 12 unique solutions
}}
The '''eight queens puzzle''' is the problem of putting eight [[chess]] [[Queen (chess)|queen]]s on an 8&times;8 chessboard such that none of them is able to capture any other using the standard chess queen's moves. The colour of the queens is meaningless in this puzzle, and any queen is assumed to be able to attack any other. Thus, a solution requires that no two queens share the same row, column, or diagonal. The eight queens puzzle is an example of the more general '''''n'' queens puzzle''' of placing ''n'' queens on an ''n''&times;''n'' chessboard.
==History==
The problem was originally proposed in [[1848]] by the chess player [[Max Bezzel]], and over the years, many [[mathematician]]s, including [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] have worked on this puzzle. In 1874, S. Gunther proposed a method of finding solutions by using [[determinant]]s, and [[J.W.L. Glaisher]] refined this approach.
This puzzle appeared in the popular early [[1990s]] computer game, [[The 7th Guest]].
==Constructing a solution==
There is a simple algorithm yielding a solution to the ''n'' queens puzzle for ''n''&nbsp;=&nbsp;1 or any ''n''&nbsp;&ge;&nbsp;4:
# Divide ''n'' by 12. Remember the remainder (it's 8 for the eight queens puzzle).
# Write a list of the even numbers from 2 to ''n'' in order.
# If the remainder is 3 or 9, move 2 to the end of the list.
# Write the odd numbers from 1 to ''n'' in order, but, if the remainder is 8, switch pairs (i.e. 3, 1, 7, 5, 11, 9, &hellip;).
# If the remainder is 2, switch the places of 1 and 3, then move 5 to the end of the list.
# If the remainder is 3 or 9, move 1 and 3 to the end of the list.
# Place the first-column queen in the row with the first number in the list, place the second-column queen in the row with the second number in the list, etc.
For ''n''&nbsp;=&nbsp;8 this results in the solution shown above. A few more examples follow.
* 14 queens (remainder 2): 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 3, 1, 7, 9, 11, 13, 5.
* 15 queens (remainder 3): 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 2, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 1, 3.
* 20 queens (remainder 8): 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 3, 1, 7, 5, 11, 9, 15, 13, 19, 17.
==Counting all solutions==
The eight queens puzzle has 92 '''distinct''' solutions. If solutions that differ only by [[symmetry|symmetry operation]]s (rotations and reflections) of the board are [[up to|counted as one]], the puzzle has 12 '''unique''' solutions. The following table gives the number of solutions for ''n'' queens, both unique {{OEIS|id=A002562}} and distinct {{OEIS|id=A000170}}.
<table cellspacing="0" rules="all" frame="border">
<tr align="right">
<td style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em">''n'':
<td style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em">1
<td style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em">2
<td style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em">3
<td style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em">4
<td style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em">5
<td style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em">6
<td style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em">7
<td style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em">8
<td style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em">9
<td style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em">10
<td style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em">11
<td style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em">12
<td style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em">13
<td style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em">14
<td style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em">15
<tr align="right">
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">unique:
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">1
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">0
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">0
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">1
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">2
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">1
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">6
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">12
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">46
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">92
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">341
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">1,787
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">9,233
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">45,752
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">285,053
<tr align="right">
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">distinct:
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">1
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">0
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">0
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">2
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">10
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">4
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">40
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">92
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">352
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">724
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">2,680
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">14,200
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">73,712
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">365,596
<td style="padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em">2,279,184
</table>
Note that the 6 queens puzzle has, interestingly, fewer solutions than the 5 queens puzzle!
==Related problems==
; Using pieces other than queens
:For example, on an 8&times;8 board one can place 32 [[knight (chess)|knight]]s, or 14 [[bishop (chess)|bishop]]s, or 16 [[king (chess)|king]]s, so that no two pieces attack each other. [[Fairy chess piece]]s have also been substituted for queens. In the case of knights, an easy solution is to place one on each square of a given color, since they move only to the opposite color.
; Nonstandard boards
:[[George Pólya|Pólya]] studied the ''n'' queens problem on a [[torus|toroidal]] ("donut-shaped") board. Other shapes, including three-dimensional boards, have also been studied.
; Domination
:Given an ''n''&times;''n'' board, find the '''domination number''', which is the minimum number of queens (or other pieces) needed to attack or occupy every square. For the 8&times;8 board, the queen's domination number is 5.
; [http://www.chessvariants.org/problems.dir/9queens.html Nine queens problem]
:Place nine queens and one pawn on an 8&times;8 board in such a way that queens don't attack each other. Further generalization of the problem (solution is currently unknown): given an ''n''&times;''n'' chess board and ''m''&nbsp;>&nbsp;''n'' queens, find the minimum number of pawns, so that the ''m'' queens and the pawns can be set up on the board in such a way that no two queens attack each other.
; [http://www.vector.org.uk/archive/v213/hui213.htm Queens and knights problem]
:Place m queens and m knights on an n by n board such that no piece attacks another.
; [[Magic square]]s
: In 1992, Demirörs, Rafraf, and Tanik published a method for converting some magic squares into ''n'' queens solutions, and vice versa.
; [[Latin square]]s
; [[Exact cover]]
: Consider a matrix with one primary column for each of the ''n'' ranks of the board, one primary column for each of the ''n'' files, and one secondary column for each of the 4''n''-6 nontrivial diagonals of the board. The matrix has ''n''<sup>2</sup> rows: one for each possible queen placeme |
n of display technology]]
* [[Monoscope]]
* [[Image Dissector]]
* [[Charactron]]
<!-- interwiki -->
==External links==
*[http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijkstra19/page3.html The Cathode Ray Tube site]
[[Category:Display technology]]
[[Category:Television technology]]
[[Category:Vacuum tubes]]
[[ca:Tub de raigs catòdics]]
[[da:Billedrør]]
[[de:Kathodenstrahlröhre]]
[[es:Tubo de rayos catódicos]]
[[fr:Tube cathodique]]
[[he:שפופרת קתודית]]
[[id:Tabung sinar kathoda]]
[[it:Tubo catodico]]
[[ja:ブラウン管]]
[[ko:음극선관]]
[[lt:CRT monitorius]]
[[lv:Kineskops]]
[[nl:Kathodestraalbuis]]
[[no:Bilderør]]
[[pl:CRT]]
[[pt:Tubo de raios catódicos]]
[[ru:ЭЛТ-монитор]]
[[sl:Katodna cev]]
[[sv:Katodstrålerör]]
[[zh:阴极射线管]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Crystal</title>
<id>6015</id>
<revision>
<id>40936579</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T00:02:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Samsara</username>
<id>19527</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge from crystallisation processes</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of this word, see [[crystal (disambiguation)]].}}
{{mergefrom|crystallization processes}}
[[image:Quartz Crystal.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Quartz]] crystal]]
A '''crystal''' is a [[solid]] in which the constituent [[atom]]s, [[molecule]]s, or [[ion]]s are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions.
Generally, crystals form when they undergo a process of solidification. Under ideal conditions, the result may be a [[single crystal]], where all of the atoms in the solid fit into the same [[crystal lattice]] or [[crystal structure]] but, generally, many crystals form simultaneously during solidification, leading to a [[polycrystal]]line solid. For example, most [[metals]] encountered in everyday life are polycrystals. Crystals are often symmetrically intergrown to form [[Crystal twinning|crystal twins]].
Which [[crystal structure]] the fluid will form depends on the [[chemistry]] of the fluid, the conditions under which it is being solidified, and also on the ambient [[pressure]]. The process of forming a crystalline structure is often referred to as '''[[crystallization]]'''.
[[image:Bismuth_Crystal.jpg|thumb|300px|left|[[Bismuth]] crystal]]
While the cooling process usually results in the generation of a crystalline material, under certain conditions, the fluid may be frozen in a noncrystalline state. In most cases, this involves cooling the fluid so rapidly that atoms cannot travel to their lattice sites before they lose mobility. A noncrystalline material, which has no [[long-range order]], is called an [[amorphous]], [[vitreous]], or [[glass]]y material. It is also often referred to as an amorphous solid, although there are distinct differences between solids and glasses: most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the [[latent heat of fusion]]. For this reason, many scientists consider glassy materials to be [[viscosity|viscous]] liquids rather than solids, although this is a controversial topic; see the entry on [[glass]] for more details.
[[Image:Insulincrystals.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Insulin]] crystals]]
Crystalline structures occur in all classes of materials, with all types of [[chemical bond]]s. Almost all [[metallic bond | metal]] exists in a polycrystalline state; amorphous or single-crystal metals must be produced synthetically, often with great difficulty. [[ionic bond | Ionically bonded]] crystals can form upon solidification of salts, either from a molten fluid or when it condenses from a solution. [[Covalent]]ly bonded crystals are also very common, notable examples being diamond, silica, and graphite. [[Polymer]] materials generally will form crystalline regions, but the lengths of the molecules usually prevents complete crystallization. Weak [[Van der Waals force]]s can also play a role in a crystal structure; for example, this type of bonding loosely holds together the hexagonal-patterned sheets in [[graphite]].
Most crystalline materials have a variety of [[crystallographic defect]]s. The types and structures of these defects can have a profound effect on the properties of the materials.
[[Image:Gallium1_640x480.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Gallium]], a metal that easily forms large single crystals]]
[[Image:Monocristal dsc03676.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A large artificial monocrystal grown by [[Saint-Gobain]] for the megajoule laser of [[Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique|CEA]].]]
While the term "crystal" has a precise meaning within [[materials science]] and [[solid-state physics]], colloquially "crystal" refers to solid objects that exhibit well-defined and often pleasing geometric shapes. Various shapes of such crystals are found in nature. The shape of these crystals is dependent on the types of molecular bonds between the atoms to determine the structure, as well as on the conditions under which they formed. [[Snowflake]]s, [[diamond]]s, and common [[salt]] are common examples of crystals.
Some crystalline materials may exhibit special electrical properties such as the [[ferroelectric effect]] or the [[piezoelectricity|piezoelectric effect]].
The behaviour of [[light]] in crystals is described by [[crystal optics]]. In periodic [[dielectric]] structures a range of unique optical properties can be expected as described in [[photonic crystal]]s.
[[Crystallography]] is the scientific study of crystals and crystal formation.
==Historical and mythical uses==
According to [[Bahya_ben_Asher|Rebbenu Bachya]], the word "Achlmah" in the verse [[Exodus]] 28:19 means "Crystal" and was the stone on the [[Ephod]] representing the tribe of [[Gad]].
== See also ==
* [[Crystal habit]]
* [[Crystal structure]]
* [[Crystallite]]
* [[Crystallization processes]]
* [[Liquid crystal]]
* [[Quasicrystal]]
* [[Seed crystal]]
* [[Single crystal]]
* [[Polymorphism (materials science)]]
==External links==
* [http://www.rockhounds.com/rockshop/xtal/index.html Introduction to Crystallography and Mineral Crystal Systems]
* [http://www.iucr.ac.uk/iucr-top/comm/cteach/pamphlets.html Crystallographic Teaching Pamphlets]
* [http://cst-www.nrl.navy.mil/lattice/spcgrp/ Crystal Lattice Structures]
* [http://www.thecrystalweb.org/ A virtual museum about the crystal]
[[Category:Crystals| ]]
[[th:ผลึก]]
[[bg:Кристал]]
[[da:Krystal]]
[[cs:Krystal]]
[[de:Kristall]]
[[et:Kristall]]
[[eo:Kristalo]]
[[es:Cristal]]
[[fa:بلور]]
[[fi:Kide]]
[[fr:Cristal]]
[[he:גביש]]
[[io:Kristalo]]
[[id:kristal]]
[[it:Cristallo]]
[[ja:結晶]]
[[la:Crystallum]]
[[mk:Кристал]]
[[nl:Kristal (natuurwetenschappen)]]
[[pl:Faza krystaliczna]]
[[pt:Cristal]]
[[sl:Kristal]]
[[zh:晶体]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cytosine</title>
<id>6016</id>
<revision>
<id>35974609</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T17:15:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>David R. Ingham</username>
<id>300162</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Here is a table of datad; skip past it to edit the text. -->
<!-- <nowiki> Submit {{subst:chembox_simple_organic}} to get this template or go to [[Template:Chembox_simple_organic]]. </nowiki> -->
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" style="margin-left:1em"
! colspan="2" align=center bgcolor="#cccccc" | '''Cytosine'''
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| 4-Aminopyrimidin-2(1''H'')-one
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>5</sub>N<sub>3</sub>O
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 111.10 g/mol
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| 320 - 325°C (decomp)
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 71-30-7
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| NC1=NC(NC=C1)=O
|-
| colspan="2" align="center" | [[Image:Cytosine_chemical_structure.png|101px|Chemical structure of cytosine]]
|-
|}
'''Cytosine''' is one of the 5 main [[nucleobase]]s used in storing and transporting [[genetics|genetic]] information within a cell in the [[nucleic acid]]s [[DNA]] and [[RNA]]. It is a [[pyrimidine]] derivative, with a [[heterocyclic]] [[aromatic ring]] and two substituents attached (an [[amine]] group at position 4 and a [[Ketone|keto]] group at position 2). The [[nucleoside]] of cytosine is [[cytidine]]. In Watson-Crick base pairing, it forms three hydrogen bonds with [[guanine]].
Cytosine was first discovered in 1894 when it was isolated from calf [[thymus]] tissues. A structure was proposed in 1903, and was synthesized (and thus confirmed) in the laboratory in the same year.
Cytosine recently found use in [[quantum computation]]. The first time any
[[quantum]] mechanical properties were harnessed to process [[information]]
took place on August 1st in 1998 when researchers at Oxford implemented [[David Deutsch|David Deutsch's]] algorithm on a two [[qubit]] NMRQC ([[Nuclear Magnetic Resonance]] Quantum Computer) based on the cytosine [[molecule]].
Cytosine can be found as part of DNA, RNA, or as a part of a [[nucleotide]]. As [[cytosine triphosphate]] (CTP), it can act as a co-factor to enzymes, and can transfer a phosphate to convert [[adenosine diphosphate]] (ADP) to [[adenosine triphosphate]] (ATP).
In DNA and RNA, cytosine is paired with [[guanine]]. However, it is inherently unstable, and can change into [[uracil]] ([[deamination|spontaneous deamination]]). This can lead to a [[point mutation]] if not repaired by the [[DNA repair]] [[enzymes]].
Cytosine can also be [[methylated]] into [[5-methylcytosine]] by an enzyme called [[DNA methyltransferase]].
==External links==
* {{PubChemLink|597}} &mdash; 4-amino-3H-pyrimidin-2-one
* {{PubChemLink|5274263}} &mdash; 4-aminopyrimidin-2-ol
* {{EINECSLink|200-749-5}}
*[http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Cytosine Computati |
than we can fix these ongoing problems. Give a person a bad taste in their mouth from their first experience with Wikipedia, and we may not see them again. (That's why I never went back to Ask Jeeves!, Encylopedia Britannica, and many other search and reference sites after finding more reliable ones.) -- [[User:Jeffq|Jeff Q]] 17:55, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC)
:I know what you mean. I still consider myself a 'new member', but I spend a lot of time just looking through the hordes of confusing help pages before I made my first edit (I have never used the sandbox). Luckily, I added an entry to my user page telling people that I am a new user, and asking for suggestions, and someone told me what they felt was the most important tips and links.
: Now, I do things with more ease, because I can look at pages I've created (esp images) and see how others have edited my work, and I can adapt to that format in new pages. However, I'm a follow-the-instructions kind of guy; we should have procedural stuff to tell people what they need to know about different things, like editing a page, and adding an image, etc. [[Wikipedia:Picture tutorial]] is a good example. - [[User:RealGrouchy|RealGrouchy]] 23:14, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC)
::I think Wikipedia does a pretty good job of explaining all the pieces that one needs to do various things. The problem is perhaps more the sheer size and quantity of things one should learn to feel truly Wiki-knowledgeable. I'm always coming across useful pages by accident. I just ran into [[Wikipedia:Style and How-to Directory]], some items of which I've read before, and some I've picked up by Wiki-osmosis, but I suspect this will give me another boost along the learning curve. I have two tips about the Sandbox I hadn't noticed mentioned anywhere:
::# Most of the time, what you're testing is completely demonstrated in "Show preview", so you don't even need to worry about overwriting the main Sandbox &mdash; just keep your Edit window open until you're done, then Cancel or just close it.
::# I ran across another Wikipedian (I forgot who) who had created their own Sandbox at User:<username>/Sandbox. It's easy to create such a page, and you never have to worry about what's in the main Sandbox or that someone might overwrite it, plus you can save stuff for extended testing.
::I'll bet there are similar "best practices" tips scattered around, maybe even not so scattered. It's hard to know with some much to learn and find. But that's a Good Thing, mostly. -- [[User:Jeffq|Jeff Q]] 00:05, 10 Jun 2004 (UTC)
:There is a real need to make inforamtion about the project, especially help pages more ordered and useful. To give an example although I can find many pages which tell me that I can have a personal Sandbox there is no documentation on how to achieve this. There isn't even a forum where newbies can post a question and get an answer to their problem/request from someone more experienced, or if it exists it is not well publicised.--[[User:ChemRad|ChemRad]] 13:56, 24 Feb 2005 (UTC)
==From Wikipedia:Publicity==
There are numerous ways you can help publicize [[Wikipedia]], and thereby get more people to edit your work and make this into a real live encyclopedia. Just think--in a few years, Wikipedia is probably going to be ''amazing.'' (Feel free to add to this list.)
* Ask people to read and help:
** If you've done a lot of work in some particular area, post an announcement to a mailing list or newsgroup telling people about your work and asking them to help.
** If there hasn't been a lot of work in a particular area, post an announcement telling people about Wikipedia and asking them to help!
** Tell friends and colleagues. E-mail an announcement to them. Ask them to check your work, or to write pages on their areas of specialization, or their hobbies, or whatever.
* Publicize wiki pages:
** Submit particular wiki pages (e.g., your "baby" pages) to search engines.
** Link to Wikipedia from your websites. Linking to articles helps people find them and improves their ranking on search engines.
** Ask other people to link to Wikipedia.
* Publicize Wikipedia as a whole:
** Observe (in writing and smugly) on other wikis that Wikipedia is easily the fastest-growing wiki in the world.
** Add a link to Wikipedia to your e-mail or message board signature.
** Share your joy of using Wikipedia with your friends and other people.
* Cite Wikipedia as a source:
** If you are a student writing a paper then use Wikipedia as one of your sources.
** If you know such students, encourage them to do so.
==From Wikipedia talk:Publicity==
=== Hard to find help on how to publicise the Wikipedia ===
So, I got it into my head that I wanted to add a link to the Wikipedia from my blog...easier said than done! It took me quite a while to find the right graphic. That is weird. I ended up finding
* [[Wikipedia:Banners and buttons]]
* [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership]]
But nowhwere from the Main pages or the "Community Portal" is this or an alternative page listed!
An shouldn't the first one above be linked from all over the place? With instructions on how to create the links?[[User:IFaqeer|<nowiki></nowiki>]]&mdash;[[User:IFaqeer|iFaqeer]] [[User talk:IFaqeer|(Talk to me!)]] 21:35, Jan 19, 2005 (UTC)
:PS: before I come out sounding self-important, I wasn't looking to do the 'Pedia any favours; my blog is new and I am trying to make it a home for good wholesome thought and content. I feel the Wikipedia is an important thing to point to.[[User:IFaqeer|<nowiki></nowiki>]]&mdash;[[User:IFaqeer|iFaqeer]] [[User talk:IFaqeer|(Talk to me!)]] 21:40, Jan 19, 2005 (UTC)
=== I do agree!! ===
Hello,
I do agree with Ifaqeer. The link to [[Wikipedia:Banners and buttons]] should be more accessible.
Bye
[[User:Java|Java]]
[[Category:Wikipedia publicity|{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[da:Wikipedia:Hvordan gør jeg Wikipedia kendt]]
==Targeting publicity efforts==
Wikipedia is now one of the top 30 web sites on the net, period. It seems that anyone in the developed world who hasn't heard about us yet soon will, either through word of mouth or the inevitable media coverage for such an important site. Wikipedia is also currently dominating Google and other search engines, so there's really no need to solicit links anymore. At this point, I think publicity efforts would be more useful if they were targeted. For example we would like to recruit:
* Experts for fields where articles are languishing
* Translators
* Editors from cultural minorities not well represented here
* English-speaking residents of non-English-speaking countries
The amount of publicity that Wikipedia gets from media outlets is very large. Even if we could muster enough posters and volunteers to distribute them to compete with sheer volume, we have little direct control over what the media will say about us (though Jimbo has been doing a good job acting as a spokesperson, at least for those outlets who ask us for our point of view). The best way I think we can make sure that the large amounts of free publicity we are getting is ''good'' publicity, is to improve what it is people see when they visit the site. Given that most criticism recently has been about accuracy and trust and the site claiming to be more than it's not (since people assume an "encyclopedia" is professionally reviewed), an excellent first step would be to make sure anything that's in an unacceptable state is clearly marked, even if we can't fix it right away. [[:Category:Wikipedia maintenance]] catalogs the hundreds of different ways this can be done. -- [[User:Beland|Beland]] 21:40, 15 December 2005 (UTC)</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Encyclopedia links solicited</title>
<id>4136</id>
<revision>
<id>15902431</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Links solicited (and pending):
* [http://www.pantheon.org/mythica.html Encyclopedia Mythica]
* [http://www.clever.net/cam/encyclopedia.html The FREE Internet Encyclopedia]
* [http://i-cias.com/index.htm Encyclopedia of the Orient]
* [http://www.gahtan.com/cyberlaw/ Cyberlaw Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.psychology.org/ Encyclopedia of Psychology]
* [http://www.ency-astro.com/ Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics]
* [http://www.si.umich.edu/chico/instrument/ Chico Instrument Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.symbols.com/ Symbols.com]
Links obtained:
* [http://www.refdesk.com/ Refdesk]
Jumping-off points:
* http://www.google.com/search?q=encyclopedia&hl=en&safe=off&start=40&sa=N
:[[Building_Wikipedia_membership/Sample solicitation|Sample solicitation]]
:[[Building_Wikipedia_membership/Another sample solicitation|Another sample solicitation]]
:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Sample solicitation</title>
<id>4137</id>
<revision>
<id>31244841</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-13T21:51:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>IanManka</username>
<id>291073</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>article count</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Hello! I would like to exchange links with you, if that's possible. Wikipedia and Nupedia are free, open content encyclopedias. Wikipedia now has over 800.000 articles, including many in the life sciences, and Nupedia's (peer reviewed) biology category is its most active.
Wikipedia would be happy to include a link to the Encyclopedia of Life Sciences on our "Friends of Wikipedia" page. Wikipedia now receives something like 2,000 unique visitors a day, and we started in January; this e |
eligious tests or subscriptions shall be required of the Professors Fellows, Scholars, Graduates or Officers of the said College; but that all the privileges and advantages thereof shall be open and free to all and every Person and Persons whomsoever, without regard to religious persuasion... And it shall and may be lawful for the trustees and Governors of the said College to select as Professors, and other Teaches or Officers, competent persons of any religious persuasion whatever, provided such person or persons shall be of moral and religious character.''
This was unique at the time, and a direct result of Baptists being denied entry into other schools that required religious tests of their students and staff.
[[As of 2005]], Acadia has approximately 4,000 students. Some would consider Acadia University's most outstanding factor to be its Acadia Advantage programme. The initiative (which was unique in Canada for several years after beginning in 1996) integrates the use of [[laptop computers]], which are loaned to all students, into the [[undergraduate]] curriculum. Acadia also has the highest tuition in Canada, in part because of the additional fees students must pay to participate in the Acadia Advantage programme.
[[As of 2005]], Acadia's president is [[Gail Dinter-Gottlieb]]; she took on her position after the retirement of past president [[Kelvin Ogilvie]] in 2003. In February and March of 2004, Acadia experienced its first ever [[Strike action|strike]] by the faculty. Professors and librarians were off the job for two weeks before they reached a settlement.
The university is also home to the [[Baptist]] [[Seminary]] [[Acadia Divinity College]].
Acadia's sports teams are called the [[Acadia Axemen|Axemen]] and [[Acadia Axewomen|Axewomen]]. They participate in the Atlantic University Sports conference of [[Canadian Interuniversity Sport]].
===The Acadia Advantage===
The Acadia Advantage is an academic programme unique in Canada whereby each of the undergraduate (and many of the graduate) students receive [[laptop]] computers to use from September to May. Honours students may use their computers in the summer before their last year. Other students have the option to rent their laptops over the summer months. From 1996-2004, the university had a contract with [[IBM]]; the 2004-2005 year saw a shift to the [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]] Lattitude D600 computers.
Throughout the entirety of the Acadia Advantage program, the following laptops have been employed, each for a two year "turnover" (lease) period:<br>
*IBM Thinkpad 365ED
*IBM Thinkpad 365XD
*IBM Thinkpad 385ED
*IBM Thinkpad iSeries (exact model unsure)<sup>*</sup>
*IBM Thinkpad a20m
*IBM Thinkpad r31
*Dell Lattitude D600
<sup>*</sup>The iSeries based laptop was used as a stop-gap measure for the 98-99 semesters, as the 1998 enrollment numbers outstripped the number of available 385ED laptops already in use.
Currently, an insurance policy is available through the [http://bartleby.acadiau.ca:7778/pls/portal/usc.usc_home_proc USC] (User Support Centre), the university's first and only point of contact for hardware and software technical support. This insurance policy, a "total care package" will cover most all accidental damage to the laptops. This is a boon to the student body, as the fast pace of university life, coupled with general lack of regard towards the laptops, results in hundreds of thousands of dollars in damage each year.
Students come to Acadia with different computer backgrounds, but almost every student leaves with some highly developed computer skills. Students have access to resources like the User Support Centre, and faculty receive a lot of support from the [[Acadia Institute for Teaching and Technology]].
Most of the classrooms at Acadia are equipped with ergonomic chairs, [[acoustics|acoustic]] tile, data projectors, and network drops or wireless network access. There are over 7,000 data connections on the campus, and many areas support wireless internet access including the Student Union Building ([[Acadia Students' Union]]), the [[Vaughan Memorial Library]], the [[Acadia Divinity College]], and the [[KC Irving Centre]] (named for [[Kenneth Colin Irving|K.C. Irving]]).
Former Acadia President Dr. Kelvin Ogilvie, explains, "We are moving the classroom into a new, dynamic, and exciting environment that brings students and faculty together in a fashion that has never before occurred. The dynamism of the classroom is unprecedented. The possibilities are limited only by the imagination."
The Acadia Advantage Programme has received recognition from the [[Smithsonian]] Institution, and is part of the permanent collection of the Smithsonian National Museum of American History. In addition, [[Acadia University]] received the Pioneer Award for Ubiquitous Computing in 2001, it has achieved high rankings in the annual ''[[Maclean's]]'' University Rankings, including Best Overall for Primarily Undergraduate University in their opinion survey, and it received the Canadian Information Productivity Award in 1997 as it was praised as the first university in Canada to fully utilize information technology in the undergraduate curriculum.
==External links==
*[http://www.acadiau.ca/ Acadia University]
''See also [[Acadia Students' Union]]''
{{NS Uni}}
[[Category:Acadia University|*]]
[[Category:Kings County, Nova Scotia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Acoustic guitar</title>
<id>2237</id>
<revision>
<id>40484330</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T22:29:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ILike2BeAnonymous</username>
<id>715870</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revert</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AcousticGuitar.jpg|right|Acoustic Guitar]]
An '''acoustic guitar''' is a modern form of [[Guitar|guitar]] descended from the [[Classical guitar]], but generally strung with steel strings for a brighter, louder sound. Much heavier construction is required to withstand the added tension. Sometimes the term '''steel-stringed guitar''' or '''folk guitar''' is used to differentiate from the classical guitar. The term "acoustic guitar" is a [[retronym]], since before the invention of the [[electric guitar|electric]] instrument, "guitar" meant only the non-amplified variety.
[[Image:Playing acoustic guitar.jpg|right|thumb|Playing an acoustic guitar without a pick ([[fingerpicking]])]]
There are many different variations on the construction of and materials used in acoustic guitars. More expensive guitars feature solid wood tops (often [[spruce]]), sides and backs (often Indian [[rosewood]], [[maple]], or [[mahogany]]). Lower-priced guitars can combine solid tops with [[laminate]]d backs and/or sides. Entry-level guitars are usually made entirely of laminated wood. Necks are generally made of mahogany (either Phillipine or Honduras), and [[fingerboards]] are usually made of dense tropical hardwoods such as rosewood or [[ebony]]. The various combinations of the different woods and their quality, along with design and construction elements (for example, how the top is braced) are among the factors affecting the [[timbre]] or "tone" of the guitar. Due to decreasing availability and rising prices of the premium-quality woods, many manufacturers have begun experimenting with alternate species of woods or more commonly available variations on the standard species. For example, some makers have begun producing models with [[redcedar]] or mahogany tops. Some have also begun using non-wood materials, such as [[plastic]] or [[graphite]]. Most [[luthier]]s and experienced players agree that a solid top is the most important factor in the tone of the guitar, and that solid backs and sides can also contribute to a pleasant sound, although laminated sides and backs are acceptable alternatives. Some [[jazz]] players prefer laminated backs and sides (please see [[Guitar]] for more details on the construction of acoustic guitars).
Another style of acoustic guitar is the [[archtop guitar]]. This is most commonly used by swing and jazz players, and often incorporates electronics in the form of a [[pickup (music)|pickup]].
There are several prominent [[United States of America|American]] makers of acoustic guitars. [[Martin Guitars|Martin]], [[Guild]], [[Taylor Guitars|Taylor]], and [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson]] are known for both the quality and price of their instruments.
The [[Selmer-Maccaferri Guitar]] is an unusual looking guitar played by [[Django Reinhardt]] style musicians, distinctive by its "D" hole or longitudinal oval soundhole.
The standard tuning for an acoustic guitar is EADGBE (low to high), although many players, particularly fingerpickers, use alternate tunings, such as "Open G" (DGDGBD), "[[open D tuning]]" (DADF#AD), or "Drop D" (DADGBE).
One variation on the standard acoustic guitar is the [[12 string guitar]], which sports an additional doubling string for each of the traditional six strings. This guitar was made famous by artists such as Huddie Leadbetter (a.k.a. [[Leadbelly]]), [[Pete Seeger]], and [[Leo Kottke]].
Throughout the 20th century the predominant forms of music played on the most common type of acoustic guitar (the flattop steel-string guitar) remained relatively stable and included acoustic [[blues]], [[country music|country]], [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]], [[folk music|folk]], and several genres of [[rock (music)|rock]]. In the last decade or two more intricate fingerstyle guitar music, rooted in [[European classical music|classical music]], [[Celtic music]], and American styles and characterized by musicians such as '''Al Petteway''', '''Alex de Grassi''', and [[Pierre Bensusan]], has become popular enough that several luthiers have been experimenting with redesigning the acoustic guitar. Thes |
iments in a wide variety of environments supports this generalisation (although cross-bedding is inclined, the overall orientation of cross-bedded units is horizontal).
'''The Principle of Superposition''' states that, a sedimentary rock layer in a tectonically undisturbed sequence is younger than the one beneath it and older than the one above it. Logically a younger layer cannot slip beneath a layer previously deposited. This principle allows sedimentary layers to be viewed as a form of vertical time line, a partial or complete record of the time elapsed from deposition of the lowest layer to deposition of the highest bed.
'''The Principle of Faunal Succession''' is based on the appearance of fossils in sedimentary rocks. As organisms exist at the same time period throughout the world, their presence or (sometimes) absence may be used to provide a relative age of the formations in which they are found. Based on principles laid out by [[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith]] almost a hundred years before the publication of [[Charles Darwin]]'s [[theory of evolution]], the principles of succession were developed independently of evolutionary thought. The principle becomes quite complex, however, given the uncertainties of fossilisation, the localisation of fossil types due to lateral changes in habitat ([[facies]] change in sedimentary strata), and that not all fossils may be found globally at the same time.
== Fields or related disciplines ==
* [[Earth science]]
* [[Economic geology]]
** [[Mining|Mining geology]]
** [[Petroleum geology]]
* [[Engineering geology]]
* [[Environmental geology]]
* [[Geoarchaeology]]
* [[Geochemistry]]
** [[Biogeochemistry]]
** [[Isotope geochemistry]]
* [[Geochronology]]
* [[Geodetics]]
* [[Geomicrobiology]]
* [[Geomorphology]]
* [[Geophysics]]
* [[Glaciology]]
* [[Historical geology]]
* [[Hydrogeology]] or [[geohydrology]]
* [[Oceanography]]
** [[Marine geology]]
* [[Mineralogy]]
* [[Paleoclimatology]]
* [[Paleontology]]
** [[Micropaleontology]]
** [[Palynology]]
* [[Petrology]]
* [[Petrophysics]]
* [[Plate tectonics]]
* [[Sedimentology]]
* [[Seismology]]
* [[Soil science]]
** [[Pedology (soil study)]]
* [[Speleology]]
* [[Stratigraphy]]
** [[Biostratigraphy]]
* [[Structural geology]]
* [[Volcanology]]
== Regional geology ==
* [[Geology of the Alps]]
* [[Geology of the Appalachians]]
* [[Geology of the Himalaya]]
=== By Nations ===
* [[Geology of Australia]]
** [[Geology of the Australian Capital Territory]]
** [[Geology of Victoria]]
** [[Yilgarn craton|Geology of the Yilgarn Craton]]
*[[Geology of the Falkland Islands]]
* [[Geology of Iran]]
* [[Geology of India]]
** [[Sikkim#Geology|Geology of Sikkim]]
* [[Geology of Japan]]
* [[Geology of Scotland]]
* [[Geology of the United Kingdom]]
** [[Geology of Dorset]]
** [[Geology of Hampshire]]
** [[Geology of Hertfordshire]]
** [[Geology of Shropshire]]
* [[Geology of the United States of America]]
** [[List of California-related topics#Geology of California|Geology of California]]
** [[Geology of Connecticut]]
** [[Geology of the Bryce Canyon area]]''(Utah)''
** [[Geology of the Canyonlands area]] ''(Utah)''
** [[Geology of the Capitol Reef area]] ''(Utah)''
** [[Geology of the Death Valley area]] ''(California)''
** [[Geology of the Grand Canyon area]] ''(Arizona)''
** [[Geology of the Grand Teton area]] ''(Wyoming)''
** [[Geology of the Lassen area]] ''(California)''
** [[Mount Adams (Washington)#Geology|Geology of Mount Adams]] ''(Washington)''
** [[Geology of Mount Shasta]] ''(California)''
** [[Geology of the Yosemite area]] ''(California)''
** [[Geology of the Zion and Kolob canyons area]] ''(Utah)''
** [[Glacial geology of the Genesee River]] ''(New York, Pennsylvania)''
== Planetary geology ==
* [[Geology of Mercury]]
* [[Geology of Venus]]
* [[Geology of the Moon]]
* [[Mars (planet)#Geology|Geology of Mars]]
* [[Jupiter#Physical Characteristics|Geology of Jupiter]]
* [[Saturn#Physical Characteristics|Geology of Saturn]]
* [[Uranus#Physical Characteristics|Geology of Uranus]]
* [[Neptune#Physical Characteristics|Geology of Neptune]]
* [[Pluto#Physical Characteristics|Geology of Pluto]]
== See also ==
* [[Timeline of geology]]
* [[List of rocks]]
* [[List of minerals]]
* [[List of geology topics]]
* [[List of rock textures]]
* [[Geologist]]
* [[Geologic modeling]]
* [[Geologic timescale]]
* [[Mineral]]
* [[International Union of Geological Sciences]] ([[IUGS]])
* [[List of publications in geology|Important publications in geology]]
== External links ==
* James Hutton's [http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/essays/Hutton.htm ''Theory of the Earth'']
* James Hutton's [http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geography/hutton/hutton.htm ''Theory of the Earth & Abstract of the Theory of the Earth'']
[[Category:Geology| Earth_sciences|]]
[[af:Geologie]]
[[ar:جيولوجيا]]
[[an:Cheolochía]]
[[bg:Геология]]
[[bs:Geologija]]
[[ca:Geologia]]
[[cs:Geologie]]
[[cy:Daeareg]]
[[da:Geologi]]
[[de:Geologie]]
[[et:Geoloogia]]
[[el:Γεωλογία]]
[[es:Geología]]
[[eo:Geologio]]
[[fa:زمینشناسی]]
[[fr:Géologie]]
[[gl:Xeoloxía]]
[[ko:지질학]]
[[hr:Geologija]]
[[io:Geologio]]
[[id:Geologi]]
[[ia:Geologia]]
[[ie:Geologie]]
[[is:Jarðvísindi]]
[[it:Geologia]]
[[he:גאולוגיה]]
[[hu:Geológia]]
[[ku:Geolojî]]
[[la:Geologia]]
[[lt:Geologija]]
[[nl:Geologie]]
[[ja:地質学]]
[[no:Geologi]]
[[ps:چاپېريال پوهنه]]
[[pl:Geologia]]
[[pt:Geologia]]
[[ro:Geologie]]
[[ru:Геология]]
[[sk:Geológia]]
[[sr:Геологија]]
[[su:Géologi]]
[[fi:Geologia]]
[[sv:Geologi]]
[[tl:Heolohiya]]
[[th:ธรณีวิทยา]]
[[tr:Jeoloji]]
[[uk:Геологія]]
[[vo:Talav]]
[[vi:Địa chất học]]
[[yi:געאלאגיע]]
[[zh:地质学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gene Kelly</title>
<id>12209</id>
<revision>
<id>41875251</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:51:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lowellian</username>
<id>29210</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+comma</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography
|subject_name=Eugene Curran "Gene" Kelly
|image_name=Gene-kelly.jpg
|image_caption=Gene Kelly
|dead=dead
|date_of_birth=[[August 23]], [[1912]]
|place_of_birth=[[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[United States|USA]]
|date_of_death=[[February 2]], [[1996]]
|place_of_death=[[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]], [[California]], [[United States|USA]]}}
'''Eugene Curran Kelly''' ([[August 23]], [[1912]] – [[February 2]], [[1996]]), better known as '''Gene Kelly''', was born and raised in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]]. He was an [[United States|American]] [[dancer]], [[actor]], [[singer]], [[film director|director]], [[Film producer|producer]], and [[choreographer]]. Kelly was known for his energetic and athletic dancing style, his good looks and the likeable characters that he played on screen.
Gene was the third son of James Kelly, a phonograph salesman, and Harriet Curran, who were both children of [[Irish people|Irish]] [[Catholic]] immigrants. He attended college at the [[University of Pittsburgh]] where he joined the [[Phi Kappa Theta]] fraternity. Early in his Broadway career, he appeared in Cole Porter's ''Leave It To Me'' as an Eskimo who supports Mary Martin while she sings "My Heart Belongs to Daddy." In [[1940]] he was given the leading role in [[Rodgers and Hart]]'s ''[[Pal Joey]],'' which brought him to national attention. During this period he also choreographed several hit plays, including the [[1941]] production of ''Best Foot Forward''.
Kelly's first motion picture was ''For Me and My Gal'' ([[1942]]) with [[Judy Garland]]. He went on to make a number of classic musicals, including ''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American in Paris]]'' ([[1951]]) and ''[[Singin' in the Rain (movie)|Singin' in the Rain]]'' ([[1952]]).
His most notable moments on film include:
*Dancing with a group of French schoolchildren to "I Got Rhythm" in ''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American in Paris]]''.
*The climactic ballet/finale of ''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American in Paris]]''.
*Singing and dancing in the rain in a much-parodied scene from the film ''[[Singin' in the Rain (movie)|Singin' in the Rain]]''; a scene he filmed while sick with a 103-degree (39.4 °C) fever.
*Dancing with a squeaky floorboard and a newspaper in ''[[Summer Stock]]''.
*Dancing on [[roller skate]]s in ''It's Always Fair Weather''.
*Dancing with [[Jerry Mouse]] in ''[[Anchors Aweigh (film)|Anchors Aweigh]]''.
*Dancing with his own reflection in ''[[Cover Girl]]''
He was the first American to choreograph and stage a [[ballet]] in the [[Paris]] Opera.
Kelly was awarded a special [[Academy Award]] &ldquo;in appreciation of his versatility as an actor, singer, director and dancer, and specifically for his brilliant achievements in the art of choreography on film&rdquo; in [[1951]] and reawarded in 1984's Academy Awards due to a fire which burned down his home in the previous year.
Kelly was awarded the [[Légion d'honneur]] by the [[France|French]] government in [[1960]].
He also received the Life Achievement Award from [[American Film Institute]] in [[1985]]. He was awarded the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]], America's highest civilian award, from President Clinton in [[1994]], but was too ill to accept it in person.
Kelly died on [[February 2]], [[1996]], in [[Beverly Hills, California]], after suffering two strokes, at the age of 83.
Kelly married three times:
* [[Betsy Blair]] ([[1940]]&ndash;[[1957]]) (one child, Kerry)
* Jeanne Coyne ([[1960]]&ndash;[[1973]]) (two children, Bridget and Tim)
* Patricia Ward ([[1990]]&ndash;[[1996]])
The Gene Kelly Awards, given annually to high school musicals in [[Allegheny County, Pennsylvania]], are named in his honor.
In [[2005]], [[Volkswagen]] used Gene Kelly's as part of their Golf GTi promotion. The television clip featured a partly CGI version of Kelly breakdancing to a new version of "[[Singin' |
* [http://www.bahrain-writer.com Bahrain Writer's Society]
* [http://www.karrana.net/ Karrana village - ''Bahrain''] includes Background Notes, Album and heritage page.
* [http://www.karrana.net/albm/ Karrana village album - ''Bahrain''] includes hundreds of images about karrana.
'''General information'''
* [http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ba.html] CIA World Fact Book (contains 2001 census)
* [http://www.bna.bh/ Bahrain News Agency] [http://english.bna.bh/ in English]
* [http://www.gulf-daily-news.com/ Gulf Daily News - Bahrain's main English language daily newspaper]
* [http://www.al-bab.com/arab/countries/bahrain.htm al-Bab - ''Bahrain'']
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Bahrain Open Directory Project - ''Bahrain''] directory category
* [http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Bahrain.html Encyclopedia of the Nations - ''Bahrain'']
* [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c3219.htm US State Department - ''Bahrain''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
* [http://ixpats.com/bh iXpats.com - ''Bahrain''] Online community for expats living and working in Bahrain
* [http://www.lulu.com/content/150420 Lulu.com - ''The State is Not Immune''] A Case history of the Bahrain Penal and Judicial System
{{Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf}}
{{Southwest_Asia}}
{{Middle_East}}
{{Asia}}
[[Category:Bahrain|*]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern countries]]
[[an:Bahrein]]
[[ar:البحرين]]
[[ast:Bahrein]]
[[bg:Бахрейн]]
[[bn:বাহরাইন]]
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[[cy:Bahrain]]
[[da:Bahrain]]
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[[fi:Bahrain]]
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[[fy:De Barein]]
[[gd:Bahrain]]
[[gl:Bahrain - البحرين]]
[[he:בחריין]]
[[hi:बहरीन]]
[[hr:Bahrein]]
[[hu:Bahrein]]
[[id:Bahrain]]
[[io:Bahrain]]
[[is:Barein]]
[[it:Bahrain]]
[[ja:バーレーン]]
[[ko:바레인]]
[[ks:बहरैन]]
[[ku:Behreyn]]
[[li:Bahrein]]
[[lt:Bahreinas]]
[[lv:Bahreina]]
[[ms:Bahrain]]
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[[no:Bahrain]]
[[oc:Bahrayn]]
[[os:Бахрейн]]
[[pl:Bahrajn]]
[[pt:Bahrein]]
[[ro:Bahrain]]
[[ru:Бахрейн]]
[[sa:बहरैन]]
[[scn:Bahrain]]
[[simple:Bahrain]]
[[sk:Bahrajn]]
[[sl:Bahrajn]]
[[sq:Bahraini]]
[[sr:Бахреин]]
[[sv:Bahrain]]
[[tg:Баҳрайн]]
[[th:ประเทศบาห์เรน]]
[[tl:Bahrain]]
[[tr:Bahreyn]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baker Island</title>
<id>3453</id>
<revision>
<id>41953000</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:20:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tobias Conradi</username>
<id>10784</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Geography */ [[UTC-12]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BakerIsland.jpeg|right]]
'''Baker Island''' is an uninhabited [[atoll]] located just north of the equator in the central [[Pacific Ocean]] at {{coor dm|0|13|N|176|31|W|}}, about 3,100 km (1,675 [[nautical mile]]s) southwest of Honolulu. Part of the [[United States Minor Outlying Islands]], it is about one-half of the way from [[Hawaii]] to [[Australia]].
'''Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge''' consists of the 405 acre (1.64 km²) island and a surrounding 30,504 acres (123.45 km²) of submerged land. The island is now a [[National Wildlife Refuge]] managed by the [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] as an [[insular area]] under the [[U.S. Department of the Interior]]. Baker Island is an [[unincorporated territory|unincorporated]] and [[unorganized territory]] of the [[United States|U.S.]].
Its defense is the responsibility of the [[United States]]; though uninhabited, it is visited annually by the [[U.S. Coast Guard]].
==History==
The [[United States|United States of America]] took possession of the island in 1857, claimed under the [[Guano Islands Act]] of 1856, and it became a [[British Overseas Territory]] from 1886 to 1934. Its [[guano]] deposits were mined by U.S. and [[United Kingdom|British]] companies during the second half of the 19th century. In 1935, a short-lived attempt at colonization was begun on this island, with a population of four in the settlement '''Meyerton'''—as well as on nearby [[Howland Island]]—but was disrupted by [[World War II]] and thereafter abandoned. [[Feral]] [[cat]]s were eradicated from the island in 1964.
American civilians evacuated in 1942 after [[Japan]]ese air and naval attacks during World War II; occupied by U.S. military during World War II, but abandoned after the war; public entry is by special-use permit from [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] only and generally restricted to scientists and educators; a cemetery and remnants of structures from early settlement are located near the middle of the west coast; visited annually by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (July 2000 est.)
''See also the [[History of the Pacific Islands]].''
==Geography==
[[Image:Nwrbakerisle a320.gif|right|U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Aerial View of Baker Island]]
Located in the North Pacific Ocean at {{coor dm |0|13|N|176|31|W|}}, the island is tiny at just 1.64 km² (405 acres) and 4.8 km (4800 m) of coastline. The climate is equatorial, with little rainfall, constant wind and a burning sun. The terrain is low-lying and sandy: a coral island surrounded by a narrow fringing reef with a depressed central area. The highest point is 8 meters above sea level.
There are no natural fresh water resources. The island is treeless, with sparse vegetation consisting of grasses, prostrate vines, low growing shrubs and some scattered ruins. The island is primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife.
The U.S. claims an exclusive economic zone of 200 nautical miles (370 km) and territorial sea of 12 nautical miles (22 km).
The island's [[Time zone]]: [[UTC-12]]
==Transportation==
There are no ports or harbors, with anchorage available only offshore. There is one boat landing area along the middle of the west coast. There is an abandoned [[World War II]] runway (1,665 m) which is completely covered with vegetation and unusable.
Natural hazards: The narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard and there is a [[day beacon]] near the middle of the west coast.
==External links==
*[http://pacificislands.fws.gov/wnwr/pbakernwr.html Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fq.html Baker Island] This article incorporated material from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Update as needed.
{{United_States}}
{{Pacific_Islands}}
[[Category:Insular areas of the United States]]
[[Category:Islands]]
[[Category:National Wildlife Refuges of the United States]]
[[zh-min-nan:Baker-tó]]
[[ca:Illa Baker]]
[[de:Bakerinsel]]
[[es:Isla Baker]]
[[eo:Bakerinsulo]]
[[fr:Île Baker]]
[[gl:Illa Baker]]
[[ko:베이커 섬]]
[[id:Pulau Baker]]
[[is:Bakereyja]]
[[he:בייקר (אי)]]
[[lv:Beikera sala]]
[[hu:Baker-sziget]]
[[nl:Bakereiland]]
[[ja:ベーカー島]]
[[no:Bakerøya]]
[[pl:Baker (terytorium USA)]]
[[pt:Ilha Baker]]
[[ru:Остров Бейкер]]
[[fi:Baker Island]]
[[tr:Baker Adası]]
[[zh:貝克島]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bangladesh</title>
<id>3454</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42140110</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:10:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.57.238.225|84.57.238.225]] ([[User talk:84.57.238.225|talk]]) to last version by El C</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country|
native_name = People's Republic of Bangladesh<br />গনপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ<br />Gôno Projatontri Bangladesh |
common_name = Bangladesh |
image_flag = Flag of Bangladesh.svg |
image_coat = Bangladesh coa.png |
national_motto = none |
national_anthem = [[Amar Shonar Bangla]]<br />(My Golden Bengal) |
image_map = LocationBangladesh.png |
official_languages = [[Bengali language|Bengali]] |
capital = [[Dhaka]] |
latd = 23|latm=42|latNS=N|longd=90|longm=22|longEW=E |
government_type = [[Parliamentary system|Parliamentary Republic]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Bangladesh|President]]<br />[[Prime Minister of Bangladesh|Prime Minister]] |
leader_names = [[Iajuddin Ahmed]]<br />[[Khaleda Zia]] |
largest_city = [[Dhaka]] |
area = 144,000 |
areami² = 55,598 | <!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
area_rank = 91st |
area_magnitude = |
percent_water = 7.0 |
population_estimate = 144,319,628 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 7th |
population_census = |
population_census_year = |
population_density = 1,002 |
population_densitymi² = 2,595 | <!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
population_density_rank = 6th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |
GDP_PPP = $280&nbsp;[[1 E9|billion]] |
GDP_PPP_rank = 32nd |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1875 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 151st |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.520 |
HDI_rank = 139th |
HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence of Bangladesh|Independence]] |
established_events = &nbsp;- Declared<br />&nbsp;- [[Victory Day (Bangladesh)|Victory Day]] |
established_dates = From [[Pakistan]]<br />[[March 26]], [[1971]]<br />[[December 16]], [[1971]] |
currency = [[Taka]] |
currency_code = BDT |
time_zone = BDT |
utc_offset = +6 |
time_zone_DST = not observed |
utc_offset_DS |
рейка]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Damascus</title>
<id>8914</id>
<revision>
<id>42106449</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:42:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.119.96.172</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Damascus, the capital of [[Syria]]. See [[Damascus (disambiguation)]] for alternate meanings.''
[[Image:Damascus by night.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Damascus by night, pictured from Jabal Qasioun; the green spots are [[minaret]]s]]
'''Damascus''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] officially دمشق ''Dimashq'', colloquially ''ash-Sham'' الشام) is the [[capital]] and largest city of [[Syria]]. It is often referred to as "the oldest continuously-inhabited city in the world". Its current population is estimated at about 4.5 million.
==Name==
In [[Arabic language|Arabic]], the city is called دمشق الشام ''Dimashq ash-Sham''. Although this is often shortened to ''Dimashq'' by many, the citizens of Damascus, and of Syria and some other Arab neighbors, colloquially call the city ''ash-Sham''. ''Ash-Sham'' is derived from the Arabic root for [[North]], and Syria - particularly historical [[Greater Syria]] - is called ''bilad ash-sham'' in Arabic. The English name for Damascus is taken from the [[Greek language|Greek]] Δαμασκός, via [[Latin]]. This comes from the old [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] name for the city — דרמשק ''Darmeśeq'', which means "a well-watered place". However, pre-Aramaic tablets unearthed at [[Ebla]] refer to a city to the south of Ebla named ''Damaski'' [http://www.damascus-online.com/damascus.htm]. It is possible that the name 'Damascus' pre-dates the Aramaic era of the city. Damascus is designated as having been part of the ancient [[province]] of [[Amurru]] in the [[Hyksos]] Kingdom, from 1720 to 1570 BC. (MacMillan, pp. 30-31).
==Geography==
[[Image:Damascus Khan asad Pacha.JPG|250px|thumb|left|Khan as'ad Pacha built in 1752]]
Damascus lies about 80 km inland from the [[Mediterranean Sea]], sheltered by the [[Anti-Lebanon]] Mountains. It lies on a plateau 680 meters above sea-level. Damascus is located at 33°30' North, 36°18' East (33.5, 36.3). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html]
The old city of Damascus, enclosed by the city walls, lies on the south bank of the river [[Barada]]. To the south-east, north and north-east it is surrounded by suburban areas whose history stretches back to the Middle Ages: [[Midan]] in the south-west, [[Sarouja]] and [[Imara]] in the north and north-west. These districts originally arose on roads leading out of the city, near the tombs of religious figures. In the nineteenth century outlying villages developed on the slopes of [[Jabal Qasioun]], overlooking the city, already the site of the [[Salihiyye]] district centred around the important shrine of Sheikh [[Ibn Arabi|Muhi al-Din ibn Arabi]]. These new districts were initially settled by Kurdish soldiery and Muslim refugees from the European regions of the Ottoman Empire which had fallen under Christian rule. Thus they were known as ''al-Akrad'' ''(the Kurds)'' and ''[[al-Muhajirin]]'' ''(the migrants)''. They lay two to three kilometres north of the old city.
From the late nineteenth century on, a modern administrative and commercial centre began to spring up to the west of the old city, around the Barada, centred on the area known as ''al-merjeh'' or ''the meadow''. ''Al-Merjeh'' soon became the name of what was initially the central square of modern Damascus, with the city hall on it. The courts of justice, post office and railway station stood on higher ground slightly to the south. A Europeanised residential quarter soon began to be built on the road leading between al-Merjeh and [[Salihiyye]]. The commercial and administrative centre of the new city gradually shifted northwards slightly towards this area.
In the twentieth century, newer suburbs developed north of the Barada, and to some extent to the south, invading the Ghouta oasis. From 1955 the new district of [[Yarmouk]] became a second home to thousands of Palestinian refugees. City planners preferred to preserve the Ghouta as far as possible, and in the later twentieth century some of the main areas of development were to the north, in the western Mezze district and most recently along the Barada valley in Dumar in the northwest and on the slopes of the mountains at Berze in the north-east. Poorer areas, often built without official approval, have mostly developed south of the main city.
Damascus is surrounded by an [[oasis]], the Ghouta (الغوطة ''{{unicode|al-ġūṭä}}''), watered by the Barada. The Fijeh spring, west along the Barada valley, provides the city with drinking water. The Ghouta oasis has been decreasing in size with the rapid expansion of housing and industry in the city. It has also become polluted due to the city's traffic, industry, and sewage.
[[Image:Satdamascus.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Satellite image of Damascus, with Umaween Square just above the centre. The Barada river can be seen entering the picture in the upper left corner, and the western half of the old city is in the centre of the right hand edge of the photograph. The modern district of Mezze extends north of the motorway on the centre of the left edge.]]
== History ==
===Ancient===
Excavations at Tell Ramad on the outskirts of the city have demonstrated that Damascus has been inhabited as early as 8000 to 10,000 BC. It is due to this that Damascus is considered to be the oldest continually inhabited city in the world. However, Damascus is not documented as an important city until the coming of the [[Aramaeans]], Semitic nomads who arrived from the [[Arabian peninsula]]. It is known that it was the Aramaeans who first established the water distribution system of Damascus by constructing canals and tunnels which maximized the efficiency of the Barada river. The same network was later improved by the Romans and the Umayyads, and still forms the basis of the water system of the old part of Damascus today. In 1100 BC, the city became the center of a powerful Aramaean state called [[Aram Damascus]]. The Kings of Aram Damascus were involved in many wars in the area against the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] and the [[Israelites]]. One of the Kings, [[Ben-Hadad II]], fought [[Shalmaneser III]] at the [[Battle of Karkar]]. The ruins of the Aramean town most probably lie under the eastern part of the old walled city. After [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] captured and destroyed the city in [[732 BC]], it lost its independence for hundreds of years, and it fell under the [[Babylonia and Assyria|Neo-Babylonian]] rule of Nebuchadnezzar starting in 572 BC. The Babylonian rule of the city came to an end in 538 BC when the Persians under Cyrus captured the city and made it the capital of the Persian province of Syria.
===Greco-Roman===
Damascus first came under western control with the giant campaign of [[Alexander the Great]] that swept through the near east. After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, Damascus became the site of a struggle between the [[Seleucid]] and [[Ptolemaic]] empires. The control of the city passed frequently from one empire to the other. [[Seleucus Nicator]], one of Alexander's generals, had made [[Antioch]] the capital of his vast empire. This led to the importance of Damascus declining as compared with the newly founded Seleucid cities such as [[Latakia]] in the north.
In 64 BC, [[Pompey]] and the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] annexed the western part of Syria. They occupied Damascus and subsequently incorporated it into the league of ten cities known as the [[Decapolis]] because it was considered such an important center of Greco-Roman culture. According to the [[New Testament]], [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]] was on the road to Damascus when he received a vision, was struck blind and as a result converted to [[Christianity]]. In the year [[37]] AD, [[Roman Emperor]] [[Caligula]] transferred Damascus into [[Nabataea]]n control by decree. The Nabataean king [[Aretas IV Philopatris]] ruled Damascus from his capital [[Petra]]. However, around the year [[106]], Nabataea was conquered by the Romans, and Damascus returned to Roman control.
Damascus became a metropolis by the beginning of the second century and in 222 it was upgraded to a ''colonia'' by the Emperor [[Septimius Severus]]. With the coming of the [[Pax Romana]], Damascus and the Roman province of Syria in general began to prosper. Damascus's importance as a caravan city was evident with the trade routes from southern [[Arabian peninsula|Arabia]], [[Tadmor|Palmyra]], [[Petra]], and the silk routes from China all converging on it. The city satisfied the Roman demands for eastern luxuries.
Little remains of the architecture of the Romans, but the town planning of the old city did have a lasting effect. The Roman architects brought together the Greek and Aramaean foundations of the city and fused them into a new layout measuring approximately 1500 by 750 meters, surrounded by a city wall. The city wall contained seven gates, but only the eastern gate (Bab Sharqi) remains from the Roman period. Roman Damascus lies mostly at depths of up to five meters below the modern city.
===From the Muslim conquest to the Fatimids===
Damascus was conquered by the [[Caliph]] [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|Umar I]] in AD [[636]]. Immediately thereafter, the city's power and prestige reached its peak when it became the capital of the [[Umayyad Empire]], which extended from [[Spain]] to [[India]] from AD [[661]] to AD [[750]]. In AD [[744]], the last Umayyad caliph, [[Marwan II]], moved the capital to [[Harran]] in the [[al Jazira, Mesopotamia|Jazira]] (Hugh Kennedy, "The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates"), and Damascus was never to regain the political prominence it had held in that period.
After the fall of the Umayyads and the establishment of the [[Abbasid]] cali |
Category:Sexual orientation and identity]]
[[Category:Sexual orientation]]
[[Category:Gender]]
[[Category:Issue in the Culture Wars]]
[[ar:مثلية]]
[[ast:Homosexualidá]]
[[bg:Хомосексуалност]]
[[ca:Homosexualitat]]
[[cs:Homosexualita]]
[[da:Homoseksualitet]]
[[de:Homosexualität]]
[[el:Ομοφυλοφιλία]]
[[eo:Samseksemo]]
[[es:Homosexualidad]]
[[fa:همجنسگرایی]]
[[fi:Homoseksuaalisuus]]
[[fr:Homosexualité]]
[[gd:Co-sheòrsachd]]
[[gl:Homosexualidade]]
[[he:הומוסקסואליות]]
[[hu:Homoszexualitás]]
[[it:Omosessualità]]
[[ja:性的指向]]
[[ko:동성애]]
[[lt:Homoseksualai]]
[[mk:Хомосексуалност]]
[[ms:homoseksual]]
[[nl:Homoseksualiteit]]
[[no:Homofili]]
[[pl:Homoseksualizm]]
[[pt:Homossexualidade]]
[[ro:Homosexualitate]]
[[ru:Гомосексуальность]]
[[simple:Homosexuality]]
[[sk:Homosexualita]]
[[sl:Homoseksualnost]]
[[sv:Homosexualitet]]
[[vi:Đồng tính luyến ái]]
[[zh:同性戀]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hotspot</title>
<id>13994</id>
<revision>
<id>38724229</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T05:02:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>63.224.228.15</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''hot spot''' forms a region of high or special activity within a larger area of low or normal activity. The term applies to different things in different contexts:
* [[Hotspot (geology)]], a location that has experienced active volcanism for a long time
* [[DNA]] has positions called "hotspots" where mutations occur very frequently
* [[Biodiversity hotspot]], a region of significant biodiversity threatened with destruction
* [[Hotspot (wifi)]], a Wi-Fi access point or area, in particular for connecting to the Internet
* ''[[Hot Spot (musical)|Hot Spot]]'', a 1963 musical with lyrics by Martin Charnin and music by Mary Rodgers
* ''[[The Hot Spot]]'', a 1990 film with Don Johnson and Jennifer Connelly
* [[Screen hotspot]]s, especially in GUI applications, provide areas on which computer-users click or hover for extra information-processing
* [[HotSpot]], the primary Java Virtual Machine produced by Sun Microsystems
*[[Hotspot (character)|Hotspot]], a character in the ''[[Teen Titans (animated series)|Teen Titans]]'' animated series
{{disambig}}
[[da:Hot spot]]
[[de:Hot-Spot]]
[[es:Hotspot]]
[[et:Kuum punkt]]
[[ja:&#12507;&#12483;&#12488;&#12473;&#12509;&#12483;&#12488;]]
[[pl:Plama gor&#261;ca]]
[[zh:HotSpot]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heapsort</title>
<id>13995</id>
<revision>
<id>41158148</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T12:06:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ycl6</username>
<id>785799</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Heapsort''' is one of the best general-purpose [[sort algorithm]]s, a [[comparison sort]] and part of the [[selection sort]] family. Although somewhat slower in practice on most machines than a good implementation of [[quicksort]], it has the advantages of worst-case [[big O notation|'''O''']](''n'' log ''n'') runtime and being an [[in-place algorithm]]. Heapsort is not a [[stable sort]].
== Overview ==
One simple way to sort a list of objects is to use a [[heap (data structure)|heap]] data structure. We add all of our objects into the heap, and the heap organizes the elements added to it in such a way that we can quickly extract either the largest value (in a max-heap) or the smallest value (in a min-heap). Moreover, because this operation preserves the heap's structure, we can extract the largest/smallest value over and over again until none remain. This gives us the elements in order.
In doing so, the only extra space required is that needed to store the heap. In order to achieve constant space overhead, we use a trick: we store a [[binary heap]] (or alternatively, a heap with more than two children) inside the part of the input array which has not yet been sorted. (The structure of this heap is described at [[Binary heap#Heap implementation|Binary heap: Heap implementation]].) Heapsort makes use of two standard heap operations: ''insertion'' and ''root deletion''. Each time we delete (extract) the maximum, we place it in the last location of the array not yet occupied, and use the remaining prefix of the array as a heap holding the remaining unsorted elements:
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"
|Heap of remaining unsorted elements
|Sorted elements
|}
== Variations ==
Although not widely known, it is possible to define a ternary heapsort which uses a ternary heap instead of a binary heap; that is, each element in the heap has three children. Ternary heapsort is somewhat more complicated to program, but it is potentially faster. Each step in the sift operation of a ternary heap requires three comparisons and one swap, whereas in a binary heap two comparisons and one swap are required. The ternary heap can do two steps in less time than the binary heap requires for three steps. But two steps of a ternary tree multiply the index by a factor of 9, which is more than the factor 8 of three binary steps. Ternary heapsort is about 12% faster than binary heapsort.
== Comparison with other sorts ==
Heapsort primarily competes with [[quicksort]], another very efficient general purpose nearly-in-place comparison-based sort algorithm.
Quicksort is typically somewhat faster, due to better cache behavior and other factors, but the worst-case running time for quicksort is O(''n''<sup>2</sup>), which is unacceptable for large data sets and can be deliberately triggered given enough knowledge of the implementation, creating a security risk. See [[quicksort]] for a detailed discussion of this problem, and possible solutions.
The quicksort algorithm also requires &Omega;(log ''n'') extra storage space, making it not a strictly in-place algorithm. This typically does not pose a problem except on the smallest [[embedded system]]s, or on systems where memory allocation is highly restricted. Constant space (in-place) variants of quicksort are possible to construct, but are rarely used in practice due to their extra complexity.
Thus, because of the O(''n'' log ''n'') upper bound on heapsort's running time and constant upper bound on its auxiliary storage, embedded systems with [[real-time]] constraints or systems concerned with security often use heapsort.
Heapsort also competes with [[merge sort]], which has the same time bounds, but requires &Omega;(n) auxiliary space, whereas heapsort requires only a constant amount. Heapsort also typically runs more quickly in practice on machines with small or slow [[data cache]]s. On the other hand, merge sort has several advantages over heapsort:
* Like quicksort, merge sort on arrays has considerably better data cache performance, often outperforming heapsort on a modern desktop PC, because it accesses the elements in order.
* Merge sort is simpler to understand than heapsort.
* Merge sort is a [[stable sort]].
* Merge sort [[parallel algorithm|parallelizes better]]; the most trivial way of parallelizing merge sort achieves close to [[linear speedup]], while there is no obvious way to parallelize heapsort at all.
* Merge sort can be easily adapted to operate on [[linked list]]s and very large lists stored on slow-to-access media such as [[disk storage]] or [[network attached storage]]. Heapsort relies strongly on [[random access]], and its poor [[locality of reference]] makes it very slow on media with long access times.
== Implementation in pseudocode ==
The following is one way to implement the algorithm, in pseudocode, where ''swap'' is used to swap two elements of the array. Notice that the arrays are '''zero-based''' in this example.
'''function''' heapSort(a, count) {
'''var''' ''int'' start := count &divide; 2 - 1, end := count - 1
'''while''' start &ge; 0
sift(a, start, count)
start := start - 1
'''while''' end > 0
swap(a[end], a[0])
sift(a, 0, end)
end := end - 1
}
'''function''' sift(a, start, count) {
'''var''' ''int'' root := start, child
'''while''' root * 2 + 1 < count {
child := root * 2 + 1
'''if''' child < count - 1 '''and''' a[child] < a[child + 1]
child := child + 1
'''if''' a[root] < a[child]
swap(a[root], a[child])
root := child
'''else'''
'''return'''
}
}
== Implementation in C ==
This is a fast implementation of heapsort in C, adapted from ''Numerical Recipes in C'' but designed to be slightly more readable and to index from <tt>0</tt>.
'''void''' heapsort('''int''' arr[], '''unsigned int''' N)
{
'''unsigned int''' n = N, i = n/2, parent, child;
'''int''' t;
'''for''' (;;) {
'''if''' (i > 0) {
i--;
t = arr[i];
} '''else''' {
n--;
'''if''' (n == 0) '''return''';
t = arr[n];
arr[n] = arr[0];
}
parent = i;
child = i*2 + 1;
'''while''' (child < n) {
'''if''' (child + 1 < n && arr[child + 1] > arr[child]) {
child++;
}
'''if''' (arr[child] > t) {
arr[parent] = arr[child];
parent = child;
child = parent*2 + 1;
} '''else''' {
'''break''';
}
}
arr[parent] = t;
}
}
== References ==
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Pages 144&ndash;155 of section 5.2.3: Sorting by Selection.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. |
ise, his son's ascension, and Odin's disappearance. It should be noted that the prose sections were most likely not part of the original oral versions of Grímnismál. [[Linguistics|Linguistic]] evidence suggests that the prose sections were added in the [[12th century|12th]] or [[13th century]], several hundred years after the poem was first written down.
== Synopsis ==
The narrative commences at a point when [[Odin]] and his wife, [[Frigg]], were sitting in [[Hliðskjálf]], looking out on the worlds. They turned their eyes towards King Geirröth, who was reigning in the stead of his late father, King Hrauthung. Geirröth and his older brother Agnarr had been raised by Odin and Frigg, respectively. The god and goddess disguised themselves as a peasant and his wife, and taught the children wisdom. Geirröth returned to his father's kingdom where he became king upon his father's death, while Agnarr dwelt in company with a giantess in a cave.
In Hliðskjálf, Odin remarked to Frigg that his foster-child Geirröth seemed to be prospering more so than her Agnarr. Frigg retorted that Geirröth was so parsimonious and inhospitable that he would torture his guests if he thought there were too many of them. Odin disputed this, and the couple entered into a wager in this respect. Frigg then sent her maid [[Fulla]] to Geirröth, advising him that a magician would soon enter his court to bewitch him, and saying that he could be recognised by the fact that no dog was fierce enough to leap up at him.
Geirröth heeded Fulla's false warning. He ordered his men to capture the man the dogs wouldn't attack, which they did. Odin-as-Grímnir, dressed in a dark blue cloak, allowed himself to be captured. He stated that his name was Grímnir, but he would say nothing further of himself.
Geirröth then had him tortured to force him to speak, putting him between two fires for eight nights. After this time, Geirröth's son, Agnarr, named after his brother, came to Grímnir and gave him a full horn from which to drink, saying that his father, the king, was not right to torture him.
Grímnir then spoke, saying that he had suffered eight days and nights, without succour from any save, Agnarr, Geirröth's son, whom he prophesied would be Lord of the Goths. He then revealed himself for who he was, as the Highest One, promising him reward for the drink which he brought him.
In the body of the poem, Odin describes at great length the [[cosmogony]] of the worlds, the dwelling places of its inhabitants, and talks about himself and his many guises.
Eventually, he turns to Geirröth and promises him misfortune, revealing his true identity. Geirröth then realized the magnitude of his mistake. Having learned that he is undone, he rose quickly to pull Odin from the fire, but the sword which he had lain upon his knee slipped, fell hilt down, the king stumbled and impaled himself upon it. Odin then vanished, and Agnarr, his son, ruled in his stead.
Grimnir is also one of the [[Ancestor Gods]] in [[Warhammer Fantasy]]. He was a great warrior with two fabled axes, one of which is currently owned by [[Thorgrim Grudgebearer]] and the other by the famous Trollslayer [[Gotrek Grunnison]]. He helped the [[High Elves]] defeat [[Chaos]] at the northern Chaos Gates. It is assumed he died there.
== External links ==
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe06.htm Sacred Texts: Grimnismol] (Bellows' English translation and analysis)
* [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/poeticon/003.php Grímnismál] ([[Old West Norse]]/[[Old Icelandic]])
* [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/grm21.html Jörmungrund: Eysteinn Björnsson (2000). "When is a fish a bridge? An investigation of Grímnismál 21."]
[[Category:Sources of Norse mythology]]
[[Category:Old Norse poems]]
[[de:Grímnismál]]
[[nl:Grimnismál]]
[[sv:Sången om Grimner]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gravitational interaction</title>
<id>12530</id>
<revision>
<id>15910212</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-07T13:30:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Roadrunner</username>
<id>1411</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[gravity]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>George Peppard</title>
<id>12531</id>
<revision>
<id>40363915</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''George Peppard''' ([[October 1]], [[1928]] - [[May 8]], [[1994]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[film]] and [[television]] [[actor]]. His most notable role occurred early in his career when he starred alongside [[Audrey Hepburn]] in ''[[Breakfast at Tiffany's]]'' ([[1961]]), although he is probably more familiar among younger viewers for his role as Col. John "Hannibal" Smith in the [[cult television |cult]] [[1980s]] television show ''[[The A-Team]]'', where he is the [[cigar]]-smoking leader of a renegade [[commando]] squadron.
==Biography==
Peppard was born in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], [[Michigan]], as the son of an [[opera]] singer and a building contractor. He graduated from Dearborn High School in [[Dearborn, Michigan]]. He attended [[Purdue University]] (where he was studying [[Civil Engineering]]) and [[Carnegie Mellon University]].
George Peppard also attended [[The Actor's Studio]], where one of his classmates was [[Rip Torn]].
Peppard also served honorably in the [[United States Marine Corps]].
Before ''the A-Team'', Peppard had the leading role in the TV series ''[[Banacek]]'' ([[1972]] - [[1974]]), (part of the ''[[NBC Mystery Movie]]'' series of the [[1970s]]), and played in ''[[Doctors' Hospital]]'', in [[1975]], and in several other television films, which became in the later part of his career his major dedication.
He was married five times, and the father of three children:
* 1) [[Helen Davies]] ([[1954]]-[[1964]]) (two children)
* 2) [[Elizabeth Ashley]] ([[1966]]-[[1972]]), his co-star in ''[[The Carpetbaggers]]'' (One son Christian)
* 3) [[Sherrry Boucher]] ([[1975]]-[[1979]])
* 4) [[Alexis Adams]] ([[1984]]-[[1986]])
* 5) [[Laura Taylor]] ([[1992]]-[[1994]])
His last wife, Laura Taylor, was a banker from West Palm Beach, Florida. They were married in September, 1992 in Mendocino, California.
He was a recovering [[alcoholic]], who spent his later years trying to help others in the same situation.
After being diagnosed with [[lung cancer]] in [[1992]], he had part of a lung removed. He died of [[pneumonia]] on May 8, 1994, at the age of 65 in [[Los Angeles]], due to complications in the treatment of the [[cancer]]. He is buried in Northview Cemetery in [[Dearborn, Michigan]].
==Filmography==
*''[[The Tigress ]]'' (1992)
*''[[Ultra Warrior ]]'' (1990)
*''[[The A-Team]]'' ([[1983]]-[[1987]])
*''[[Hit Man (film)|Hit Man]]'' (1982)
*''[[Race for the Yankee Zephyr ]]'' (1981)
*''[[Your Ticket Is No Longer Valid ]]'' (1981)
*''[[Battle Beyond the Stars ]]'' (1980)
*''[[From Hell to Victory ]]'' (1979)
*''[[Five Days from Home ]]'' (1979)
*''[[Damnation Alley ]]'' (1977)
*''[[Doctors' Hospital]]'' ([[1975]]-76)
*''[[Newman's Law ]]'' (1974)
*''[[The Groundstar Conspiracy ]]'' (1972)
*''[[One More Train to Rob ]]'' (1971)
*''[[Cannon for Cordoba ]]'' (1970)
*''[[The Executioner (1970 film)|The Executioner]]'' (1970)
*''[[Pendulum (movie)|Pendulum]]'' (1969)
*''[[House of Cards (1968 movie)|House of Cards ]]'' (1968)
*''[[What's So Bad About Feeling Good? ]]'' (1968)
*''[[P.J. ]]'' (1968)
*''[[Rough Night in Jericho ]]'' (1967)
*''[[Tobruk (1967 movie)|Tobruk]]'' (1967)
*''[[The Blue Max ]]'' (1966)
*''[[The Third Day ]]'' (1965)
*''[[Operation Crossbow ]]'' (1965)
*''[[The Carpetbaggers ]]'' (1964)
*''[[The Victors ]]'' (1963)
*''[[How the West Was Won (movie)|How the West Was Won ]]'' (1962)
*''[[Breakfast at Tiffany's ]]'' (1961)
*''[[The Subterraneans ]]'' (1960)
*''[[Home from the Hill ]]'' (1960)
*''[[Pork Chop Hill ]]'' (1959)
*''[[The Strange One ]]'' (1957)
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0000577|name=George Peppard}}
[[Category:1928 births|Peppard, George]]
[[Category:1994 deaths|Peppard, George]]
[[Category:American actors|Peppard, George]]
[[Category:Carnegie Mellon alumni|Peppard, George]]
[[Category:Film actors|Peppard, George]]
[[Category:People from Michigan|Peppard, George]]
[[Category:Television actors|Peppard, George]]
[[Category:The A-Team actors|Peppard, George]]
[[Category:Deaths by lung cancer|Peppard, George]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 60s|Peppard, George]]
[[de:George Peppard]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geocaching</title>
<id>12533</id>
<revision>
<id>41678502</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T00:32:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pfalstad</username>
<id>189114</id>
</contributor>
<comment>-esoteric, it's not private or intended for a small group</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Geocaching.jpg|thumb|A Geocache in Germany]]
'''Geocaching''' is an outdoor [[activity]] that most often involves the use of a [[Global Positioning System]] ("GPS") receiver or traditional navigational techniques to find a "geocache" (or "cache") placed anywhere in the world. A typical cache is a small, waterproof container containing a logbook and "treasure", usually trinkets of little value. Participants are called geocachers.
Geocaching is similar to a much older activity called [[letterboxing]]. The major difference is its use of the [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] and the [[Internet]].
== History ==
Geocaching was made possible by the "turning off" of the [ |
fulltext] The review commented that the results of the three randomised controlled trials will be essential. The results of the first trial were published in November 2005, reporting 60% protection against HIV infection.[http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020298] The [[World Health Organization]] stresses that the protective effect offered by male circumcision in Africa has to be confirmed by further studies, and is not reliable enough to replace, or undermine, [[sex education]] and [[safer sex]] practice as a means to combat [[AIDS]]. Currently, several more studies are under way to investigate the protective effect of circumcision against [[HIV]] infections, but the results will not be available until 2007.[http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2005/pr32/en/] <!-- Cites needed. It has been postulated that the increased exposure to condom and safer sex education in interactions with nurses and doctors on the part of the circumcised males in these studies could have contributed to the decreased incidence of HIV those participants. Some also contend thet the results yielded are inconclusive because the majority of circumcised men in Africa are circumcised because they are of Muslim faith, which has a practice of more widespread monogamus relationships than in the general population, as well as not interacting, especially sexually, outside of their own community, which has a significantly lower occurrence of HIV. -->
In 2000, Szabo and Short suggested that the foreskin's langerhans cells might provide an entry point for the virus, which Patterson et al confirmed in their 2002 study.[http://ajp.amjpathol.org/cgi/content/full/161/3/867] McCoombe et al found that these cells were close to the surface and that the layer of protective keratin above them was thin or nonexistent.[http://www.iasociety.org/ejias/show.asp?abstract_id=2175257] [[Langerhans cells]], a part of the human immune system, can be infected by the HIV virus.[http://www.hivguidelines.org/public_html/center/clinical-guidelines/ped_adolescent_hiv_guidelines/ped_immun/ped-imm-appx-c.htm]
There is some debate, even among the medical community, as to whether or not circumcision can prevent certain infectious diseases, including HIV. Some authors are of the opinion that the prepuce has an important immunological function, and that its removal increases the chances of infections<ref name=Fleiss>{{web reference | author=P M Fleiss, F M Hodges, R S Van Howe | publisher=Sexually Transmitted Infections, vol. 74, no. 5 (October 1998): pp. 364-367 | publishyear=1998 | url=http://www.foreskin.org/immuno.htm | title=Immunological functions of the human prepuce}}</ref>. Their hypothesis has been criticised on technical grounds.[http://sti.bmjjournals.com/cgi/eletters/74/5/364#112] [http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/HIV/cochrane2003/]
===[[HPV]]===
Several studies have shown that non-circumcised men are at greater risk of [[human papilloma virus]] (HPV) infection.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11948269&query_hl=1] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16030106&query_hl=1] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=7721284&query_hl=1] While most genital [[HPV]] strains are considered harmless, some can, but not necessarily do, cause genital warts or even [[cancer]]. One study found no statistically significant difference between men with foreskins for HPV infection than those who are circumcised, but did note a significantly higher incidence of HPV lesions and urethritis [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10444125&query_hl=5].
===[[Hygiene]]===
Circumcision reduces the amount of [[smegma]] produced by the body. Smegma, a transliteration of the [[Greek language|Greek]] word σμήγμα for [[soap]], is a combination of exfoliated (shed) , [[epithelial cells]], transudated skin oils and moisture that can accumulate under the [[foreskin]] of males and within the female [[vulva]] area, with a characteristic strong odor and taste. Smegma is common to all [[mammals]], male and female. While smegma is generally not believed to be harmful to health, the strong odour may be considered to be a nuisance giving the impression of lacking hygiene. In rare cases, accumulating smegma may play into causing [[balanitis]].
The [[Royal Australasian College of Physicians]] and the [[Canadian Pediatric Society]] emphasize that a non-circumcised infants penis should be left alone and requires no special care. Attempts to [[forcible retraction of the foreskin|forcibly retract the foreskin]], e.g. to clean it, are painful, often injure the foreskin, and can lead to scarring, infections and pathologic phimosis. It is recommended that, while there is no special age where the foreskin should be retractible, once the foreskin becomes retractible, the child should gently wash it with soap and water. It has been suggested, however, that excessive washing of the foreskin and the glans will make infections such as balanitis more likely.
===Infectious and chronic conditions===
Non-circumcised children and men tend to have higher rates of various infections and inflammations of the penis, and of the foreskin, than circumcised men.[http://www.circs.org/library/waskett3/index.html] The reasons are unclear, but several hypotheses have been suggested:
*The foreskin may harbor bacteria and infect if it is not cleaned enough.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16105191&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum]
*The foreskin may become inflamed if it is cleaned too often with soap.[http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/balanitis/birley/]
*The [[forcible retraction of the foreskin|forcible retraction]] in boys can lead to infections.[http://www.cps.ca/english/statements/FN/fn96-01.htm]
There are less invasive treatments than circumcision for [[posthitis]] (an inflamed foreskin) [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/321/7264/792] and [[balanitis]] (inflammation of the glans) [http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/balanitis/edwards1/][http://www.hkmj.org.hk/skin/balaniti.htm][http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/balanitis/birley/]. However, these are not as successful in treating [[balanitis xerotica obliterans]] ('''BXO''') [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15852285&query_hl=1] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=8179528&query_hl=3] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12010594&query_hl=5], which is harder to treat [http://www.emedicine.com/derm/topic46.htm] [http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/ate/menshealth/203993.html].
[[Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus]] ('''LSA''') produces a whitish-yellowish patch on the skin, and is not believed to be always harmful or painful, and may sometimes disappear without intervention. Some consider [[balanitis xerotica obliterans]] to be a form of LSA that happens to be on the foreskin, where it may cause pathological [[phimosis]]. Circumcision is believed to reliably reduce the threat of BXO. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12021978&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum]
===[[Penile cancer]]===
Penile cancer is cancer of the penis, i.e. on the glans or the foreskin. The lifetime risk is estimated to be 0.17% for a non-circumcised male, [http://www.circs.org/library/kochen/index.html] and 80% of the cases are men over the age of 70. [http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/aboutcancer/specificcancers/penilecancer]
Circumcision and [[penectomy]] may be necessary to treat [[penile cancer]]. Less invasive treatments may include freezing of the tumor, chemical treatment, radiotherapy, and minimally invasive surgery. [http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/aboutcancer/specificcancers/penilecancer]
In 1998, the [[American Cancer Society]] labelled some claims about a relationship of circumcision with penile cancer misleading. It said:
:''However, the penile cancer risk is low in some non-circumcised populations, and the practice of circumcision is strongly associated with socio-ethnic factors, which in turn are associated with lessened risk. The consensus among studies that have taken these other factors into account is circumcision is not of value in preventing cancer of the penis.'' (1998, [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/nws/content/nws_1_1x_misleading_information.asp])''
However, in 2005, the society said:
:''Recent studies have found that circumcised men are less likely to be infected with HPV, even after this risk is adjusted for differences in sexual behavior. Other studies suggest that circumcision may reduce the risk of more invasive forms of penile cancer. However, it is important that the issue of circumcision not distract the public's attention from avoiding known penile cancer risk factors – poor hygiene, having unprotected sex with multiple partners (increasing the likelihood of human papillomavirus infection), and cigarette smoking.'' (2005, [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_2X_What_are_the_risk_factors_for_penile_cancer_35.asp?sitearea=])
While in another 2005 statement, they state:
:''In the past, circumcision has been suggested as a way to prevent penile cancer. This suggestion was based on studies that reported much lower penile cancer rates among circumcised men than among non-circumcised men. However, most researchers now believe those studies were flawed because they failed to consider other factors that are now know |
cautious to judge from extensive circumstantial evidence that the Germans were breaking through his rear. While the nature of Scheer's escape and Jellicoe's inaction indicate the overall superiority of German night-fighting proficiency, the night battle's results were no more clear-cut than the battle as a whole. ''Southampton'', Commodore Goodenough's flagship, that had scouted so proficiently, was heavily damaged but managed to sink the German light cruiser [[SMS Frauenlob|''Frauenlob'']] which went down at 22:23 with all hands (320 officers and men). But at 02:00 on [[1 June]], ''Black Prince'' of the ill-fated 1st Cruiser Squadron met a grim fate at the hands of the battleship [[SMS Thüringen|''Thüringen'']], blowing up with all hands (857 officers and men) as her squadron leader [[HMS Defence|''Defence'']] had done hours earlier. At 02:10, flotillas of British destroyers launched torpedo runs on the German battle lines, and at the cost of five destroyers sunk and some others damaged, they managed to sink the predreadnought [[SMS Pommern|''Pommern'']] with all hands (844 officers and men), as well as to torpedo the light cruiser [[SMS Rostock|''Rostock'']] and causing another, [[SMS Elbing|''Elbing'']], to be rammed by the dreadnought [[SMS Posen|''Posen'']] and abandoned. The battlecruiser ''Lützow'' was scuttled at 01:45 after being abandoned by her 1,150 survivors. In addition to Jellicoe's caution, the Germans were helped by the failure of British naval intelligence in London to relay a critical radio intercept giving away the true position of the High Seas Fleet. By the time Jellicoe finally learned of Scheer's whereabouts at 04:15 it was clear the battle could no longer be resumed. There would be no "[[Glorious First of June]]" in 1916.
==Battle damage assessment==
[[Image:SMS Seydlitz damage.jpg|thumb|300px|SMS ''Seydlitz'' was heavily damaged in the battle, hit by twenty-one heavy shells and one torpedo. 98 men were killed and 55 injured.]]
[[Image:Marynarz Wilhelmshaven SMS Westfalen.jpg|thumb|200px|Member of crew of SMS Westfalen]]
The British lost fourteen ships including several battlecruisers totalling 111,000 tons and 6,094 men. The Germans lost eleven ships of 62,000 tons total and 2,551 men. Several other ships were badly damaged, such as HMS ''Lion'' and SMS ''Seydlitz''. At the end of the battle the British had twenty-four dreadnoughts and battlecruisers still able and ready to fight while the Germans had only ten.
For the British, the outcome was a marginal tactical gain. Although they had lost several ships and had not destroyed the German fleet as intended, the Germans had retreated to port and the British were in command of the area. At a strategic level the outcome was more clear cut. The damaged British ships were restored to operational use quicker than the Germans and the High Seas Fleet did not leave port again. It remained active and a fighting force, however, and its presence as a [[fleet in being]] prevented a complete blockade of Germany.
British examination of their performance identified two main problems:
* Their armour-piercing shells exploded outside the German armour rather than penetrating and exploding within. As a result some German ships with only 8 inch (203 mm) of armour survived hits from 15 inch (381 mm) shells. Had these shells performed to design, coupled with the British accuracy of fire, German losses would probably have been greater.
* Communication between ships and the British commander in chief were poor. For most of the Battle Jellicoe had no idea where the German ships were, even though British ships were in contact. They failed to report positions contrary to the Grand Fleet Battle Plan. Some of the signalling was carried out by flag instead of wireless &mdash; a questionable procedure given the mixture of haze and smoke that obscured the battlefield.
===Battlecruiser design and handling===
The weak design and faulty use of the battlecruisers were important in the serious losses of the British. The battle is often regarded as demonstrating that the Royal Navy was technologically and operationally inferior to the German Navy. Jellicoe wrote in his despatch:
:"The disturbing feature of the battle-cruiser action is the fact that five German battle-cruisers engaging six British vessels of this class, supported after the first twenty minutes, although at great range, by the fire of four battleships of the "Queen Elizabeth" class, were yet able to sink ''Queen Mary'' and ''Indefatigable'' … The facts which contributed to the British losses were, first, the indifferent armour protection of our battle-cruisers, particularly as regards turret armour and deck plating, and, second, the disadvantage under which our vessels laboured in regard to the light … The German organisation at night is very good. Their system of recognition signals is excellent. Ours is practically nil. Their [[searchlight]]s are superior to ours and they use them with great effect. Finally, their method of firing at night gives excellent results. I am reluctantly compelled to the opinion that under night conditions we have a good deal to learn from them".
During the summer of 2003, a diving expedition examined the wrecks of ''Invincible'', ''Queen Mary'', ''Defence'', and ''Lützow'' to investigate the cause of the British ships' tendency to suffer from internal explosions. On this evidence, a major part of the blame may be laid on lax handling of the [[cordite]] propellant for the shells of the main guns. This, in turn, was a product of current British naval doctrine, which emphasised a rapid rate of fire in the direction of the enemy rather than slower, more accurate fire. In practice, the cordite could not be supplied to the guns rapidly enough through the hoists and hatches; in order to bring up the propellant for the next broadside before the time when it had to be loaded, many safety doors which should have been kept shut to safeguard against flash fires were open. Furthermore, whereas the German propellant ''RP C/12'' was supplied in brass cylinders, British cordite was supplied in silk bags, making it more susceptible to flash fires. The doctrine of a high rate of fire also led to the decision in 1913 to increase the supply of shells and cordite held on the British ships by 50 per cent, for fear of running out of ammunition; when this caused the capacity of the ships' magazines to be exceeded, cordite was stored in insecure places.
The memoirs of Alexander Grant, gunner on ''Lion'', show that some British officers were well aware of the dangers of careless handling of cordite:
:"With the introduction of cordite to replace powder for firing guns, regulations regarding the necessary precautions for handling explosives became unconsciously considerably relaxed, even I regret to say, to a dangerous degree throughout the Service. The gradual lapse in the regulations on board ship seemed to be due to two factors. First, cordite is a much safer explosive to handle than gun-powder. Second, but more important, the altered construction of the magazines on board led to a feeling of false security … The iron or steel deck, the disappearance of the wood lining, the electric lights fitted inside, the steel doors, open because there was now no chute for passing cartridges out; all this gave officers and men a comparative easiness of mind regarding the precautions necessary with explosive material".
After the battle the [[Admiralty]] produced a report critical of the cordite handling practices. By this time, however, Jellicoe had been promoted to [[First Sea Lord]] and Beatty to command of the Grand Fleet; the report, which indirectly placed part of the blame for the disaster on the fleet's officers, was suppressed.
The battle showed that the British concept and use of the [[battlecruiser]] was wholly flawed. The battlecruiser had been designed according to [[John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher|Jackie Fisher]]'s dictum that "speed is armour". They were intended to be faster than battleships, with superior [[fire-control system|fire control]], and able to pound enemy cruisers at ranges at which the enemy could not reply. But at Jutland they were not used in this fashion &mdash; and indeed, British [[fire-control system|fire control]] was not sufficiently developed to permit them to be so used &mdash; but instead closed recklessly with enemy battleships while lacking the armour to stand up to the pounding they received.
===The Jellicoe controversy===
At the time Jellicoe was criticised for his caution and for allowing Scheer to escape. Beatty in particular was convinced that Jellicoe had missed a tremendous opportunity to win another [[battle of Trafalgar|Trafalgar]] and annihilate the High Seas Fleet. Jellicoe's career stagnated; he was promoted away from active command to become [[First Sea Lord]], while Beatty replaced him as commander of the [[British Grand Fleet]].
The controversy raged within the navy for about a decade after the war. Criticism focused on Jellicoe's decision at 19:15. Scheer had ordered his cruisers and destroyers forward in a torpedo attack to cover the turning away of his battleships. Jellicoe chose to turn away to the southeast and so keep out of range of the torpedoes. If Jellicoe had instead turned to the west, could his ships have dodged the torpedoes and destroyed the German fleet? Supporters of Jellicoe, including the naval historian [[Julian Corbett]], pointed out the folly of risking defeat in battle when you already have the command of the seas. (Corbett's volume of the official history of the war, ''Naval Operations'', contains the extraordinary disclaimer, "Their Lordships find that some of the principles advocated in the book, especially the tendency to minimise the importance of seeking battle and forcing it to a conclusion, are directly in conflict with their views.")
Whatever |
provinces conquered by previous Umayyad Caliphs (in 712 and 712). From [[756]] to [[929]], this Umayyad domain in Spain was an independent emirate, until [[Abd-ar-rahman III]] reclaimed the title of Caliph for his dynasty. The Umayyad Emirs of Spain are not listed in the summary below because they did not claim the caliphate until [[929]]. For a full listing of all the Umayyad rulers in Spain see the [[Umayyad]] article.
==Claims to the caliphate==
Many local rulers throughout Islamic history have claimed to be caliphs. Most claims were ignored outside their limited domains. In many cases, these claims were made by rebels against established authorities and died when the rebellion was crushed. Notable claimants include:
* al-Zubayr -- held the [[Hijaz]] against the Ummayads
* Caliph of the Sudan -- a [[Songhai]] king of the [[Sahel]]
* [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca]] -- claimed Caliphate at [[Medina]] two days after it was abandoned by the [[Republic of Turkey]]; subsequently defeated and ousted from Arabia by the [[Saudis]], who ignored the title.
==See also==
* [[Emir]]
* [[Sultan]]
* [[Shah]]
* [[History of Islam]]
* [[Succession to Muhammad]]
* [[:Category:Caliphs]]
==References==
* Crone, Patricia & Hinds, Martin -- ''God's Caliph'', Cambridge University Press, 1986
* Donner, Fred -- ''The Early Islamic Conquests'', Princeton University Press, 1981
==External links==
* [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Religious_Organizations.html#Caliphate Worldstatesmen.org]
*[http://www.hizb.org.uk/ Hizb-ut-tahrir]
[[Category:Muslims]]
[[Category:Caliphate]]
[[Category:Heads of state]]
[[Category:Monarchy]]
[[Category:Noble titles]]
[[Category:Religious leadership roles]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]
[[ca:Califa]]
[[da:kalifat]]
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[[eo:Kalifo]]
[[fi:Kalifi]]
[[fr:Califat]]
[[gd:Cèileafaid]]
[[he:&#1495;'&#1500;&#1497;&#1507;]]
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[[ru:Халиф]]
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[[zh:哈里发]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charles Messier</title>
<id>7246</id>
<revision>
<id>42103734</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:23:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bota47</username>
<id>341052</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: cs</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Charles messier.jpg|thumb|Charles Messier]]
'''Charles Messier''' ([[June 26]], [[1730]] &ndash; [[April 12]], [[1817]]) was a
[[France|French]] [[astronomy|astronomer]] who in [[1774]] published a catalogue of 45 [[deep sky objects]] such as [[nebula]]e and [[star cluster]]s. The purpose of the catalogue was to help [[comet]] hunters (like himself) and other astronomical observers to distinguish between permanent and transient objects in the sky.
Messier was born in [[Badonviller, Meurthe-et-Moselle, Lorraine, France]], the 10th of 12 children of [[catchpole]] Nicolas Messier and Francoise b. Grandblaise. Six of his brothers and sisters died young, and in 1741, his father died. Charles interest in astronomy was stimulated by the appearance of a great 6-tailed comet in 1744 and by an annular Solar eclipse visible from his hometown on July 25, 1748.
In 1751 came under the employ of the astronomer of the Navy, [[Joseph Nicolas Delisle]], who instructed him to keep careful records of his observations. Messier's first documented observation was that of the Mercury transit of May 6, 1753.
==His catalogue==
By [[1781]] the [[List of Messier objects|catalogue]] had grown to 110 '[[Messier Object]]s'. The objects' designations, from M1 to M110, are mostly still in use today.
The catalog comprises some of the most important objects in the night sky - from the Crab Nebula (M1) to a small elliptical galaxy near Andromeda (M110). In [[Messier marathon]]s, many amateur astronomers compete to view all 110 of these objects in a single dusk-to-dawn session, usually in March, when conditions are most favorable.
The [[Messier (crater)|Messier crater]] on the [[Moon]] and the [[asteroid]] [[7359 Messier]] were named in his honour.
==External links==
* [http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/history/CMessier.html SEDS: Charles Messier]
* [http://www.licha.de/astro_gallery_messier.php Amateur Photos of Charles Messier Objects]
* [http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/marathon/marathon.html Messier Marathon]
[[Category:1730 births|Messier, Charles]]
[[Category:1817 deaths|Messier, Charles]]
[[Category:French astronomers|Messier, Charles]]
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[[ja:シャルル・メシエ]]
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[[ru:Мессье, Шарль]]
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[[zh:查尔斯·梅西耶]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cemetery H culture</title>
<id>7247</id>
<revision>
<id>41695531</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T02:54:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Farhat Jawed Sheikh</username>
<id>710439</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* References */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}
The '''Cemetery H culture''' developed out of the northern part of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] around 1900 BC, in and around the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] region. It was named after a cemetery found in "area H" at [[Harappa]].
The distinguishing features of this culture include:
* The use of [[cremation]] of human remains. The bones were stored in painted pottery burial urns. This is completely different to the Indus civilization where bodies were buried in wooden coffins. This burial practice is not vedic and may be [[Mazdean]]/ Zoroastrian.
* Reddish pottery, painted in black with [[antelope]]s, [[peacock]]s etc., [[sun]] or [[star]] motifs, with different surface treatments to the earlier period.
* Expansion of settlements into the east.
* Use of new crops such as [[rice]].
* Apparent breakdown of the widespread trade of the Indus civilization, with materials such as marine shells no longer used.
* Continued use of mud brick for building.
The archaeologist Kenoyer noted that this culture "may only reflect a change in the focus of settlement organization from that which was the pattern of the earlier Harapppan phase and not cultural discontinuity, urban decay, invading aliens, or site abandonment, all of which have been suggested in the past." (Kenoyer 1991: 56).
Remains of the culture have been dated from about 1900 BCE until about 1300 BCE. Together with the [[Gandhara grave culture]] and the [[Ochre Coloured Pottery culture]], it is considered by some scholars a nucleus of [[Iron Age]] [[Vedic civilization]].
== References ==
*[[Jonathan Mark Kenoyer|Kenoyer, J.M.]] 1991. Urban Process in the Indus Tradition: A Preliminary Mmodel from Harappa. In Harappa Ecavations 1986-1990. (ed. R. Meadow). Madision, Wis.:Prehistory.
* [http://www.harappa.com http://www.harappa.com]
* [http://pubweb.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/indus/english/3_1_01.html http://pubweb.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/indus/english/3_1_01.html]
[[Category:History of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Archaeological cultures]]
[[Category:Bronze Age]]
[[Category:History of India]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Corrado Gini</title>
<id>7248</id>
<revision>
<id>23369011</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-16T23:41:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tsunade</username>
<id>179924</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Corrado Gini''' ([[May 23]], [[1884]] - [[March 13]], [[1965]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[statistician]], [[demography|demographer]] and [[sociology|sociologist]] who developed the [[Gini coefficient]], a measure of the [[income]] inequality in a [[society]]. Gini was also a leading [[fascist]] theorist and ideologue who wrote ''The Scientific Basis of Fascism'' in 1927.
==Early career==
Gini was born on [[23 May]] [[1884]] at Motta di Livenza, near [[Treviso]], into an old [[landed family]]. He entered the Faculty of Law at the University of [[Bologna]], where in addition to law he studied [[mathematics]], [[economics]], and [[biology]].
His subsequent scientific work ran in two directions, towards the social sciences, and towards statistics.
His interests ranged well beyond the formal aspects of statistics to the laws that govern biological and social phenomena.
His first published work was, ''Il sesso dal punto di vista statistico'' ([[1908]])
This work is a thorough review of the natal sex ratio looking at past theories and at how new hypothesis fit the statistical data.
In [[1910]] he acceded to the Chair of Statistics in the University of [[Cagliari]] and then at [[Padua]] in [[1913]].
He founded the statistical journal Metron in [[1920]] which he directed until his death and which never accepted articles that did not have practical applications.
He became a professor at the University of [[Rome]] in [[1925]]. At the University, he founded a lecture course on sociology, which he maintained until his retirement. He also set up the School of Statistics, in [[1928]], and, in [[1936]], the Faculty of Statistical, Demographic and Actuarial Sciences.
In [[1929]] Gini founded the Italian Committee for the Study of Population Problems (''Comitato italiano per lo studio dei problemi della popolazione) '' which, two years later, organised the first Population Congress in [[Rome]].
In [[1926]] he was appointed President of the Central Institute of Statistics in Rome. This he organised as a single centre for |
umb|left|Gah Lak Tus's 'Killing Tool'. Art by Brandon Peterson.]]
He has been mentioned a few times in ''[[Ultimates|The Ultimates]]'' in the current arc, as well as alluded to by an alien visitor in other series.
It has also been revealed in the ''Official Guide to the Ultimate Marvel Universe: The Ultimates and X-Men 2005'' that Gah Lak Tus is an immense (approx. 100,000 miles long) robotic entity that targets worlds with a flesh-eating virus which destroys all life, after which the entity breaks open the dying world to its core and sucks dry all its energy, leaving a permanently lifeless husk.
{{spoiler}}
Galactus in his "classic" form appears at the close of issue three of the ''[[Marvel Zombies]]'' miniseries, which takes place in an alternate universe within the Ultimate Fantastic Four setting. In this particular alternate world, virtually all Marvel superheroes and supervillians, including [[Captain America]], [[Spider-Man]], [[Iron Man]], [[The Hulk]], and [[Wolverine (comics)|Wolverine]] have been turned into flesh-eating zombies by an infectious virus, a la ''[[Resident Evil]]''. At the end of issue two of the series, the [[Silver Surfer]] appears in this Universe's New York City to herald the coming of Galactus. The Marvel Zombies, who are always hungry for new meat, attack the Silver Surfer. While the Surfer holds them off for a time, and even maims several of the zombies (to little lasting effect), they ultimately work together to capture and eat him, thereby gaining some of his powers. Immediately thereafter, Galactus appears, asking the zombies what happened to his herald. At this point, it is understood that the Zombies must now take on Galactus himself.
==Quotations==
*"Of all the creatures in the vastness of the universe, there is none like me. I was present at the birth of the universe, and I shall be there at its end. Though I ravage worlds to live, I bear no malice to any living thing. I simply do what I must to survive. And why must Galactus survive? For, no matter how many worlds I devour... How many civilizations I destroy... It is my destiny to one day give back to the universe &mdash; infinitely more than I have ever taken from it. So speaks Galactus."
:--Galactus, ''The Origin of Galactus'' ([[Marvel Comics|Marvel Comic]], 1996)
*"I am he who is Galactus! I am he who is the power throughout a thousand thousand worlds! Mine is the will that is the word! Mine the hand that is the might! I am the then! I am the now! I am the yet to be! [...] I am him who is Galactus! My every whim is living law thoughout a thousand thousand worlds! I shall regain my fallen herald! I will choose the time! I will choose the place! Then, I will choose... the strategem! And if Earth must die that I shall live... so shall it be! For, am I not... Galactus?!!"
:--Galactus, ''The Silver Surfer'' Trade Paperback (Lee/Kirby Productions, 1978)
==Influence==
[[Image:CanMonsterMovieAlbumCover.jpg|left|100px|cover of Can's ''Monster Movie'' album]]
A faceless Galactus was featured on the cover of 1969's "Monster Movie," [[Can (band)|Can's]] debut album.
[[The Tick]] animated series had an episode (''Alone Together'') featuring a character named "Omnipotus" which was an extremely obvious parody of Galactus, down to the eating of worlds, although much less intelligent. After being shot into space, the Tick briefly becomes the herald of Omnipotus, rebelling and later convincing Omnipotus to spare Earth. He also appeared with the Tick's comic-book incarnation.
Although technically not an influence, per se, the [[Transformers (toyline)|Transformers]] character [[Unicron]] plays a very similar role in the series' mythos, even to the point of parodying his origins. However, unlike Galactus, Unicron is thoroughly evil, and is more or less considered to be the Transformers' equivalent to the [[devil]] (with his counterpart, [[Primus_(Transformers) |Primus]], being the equivalent of [[God]]).
The syndicated comic ''Brewster Rockit: Space Guy!'' has a current storyline featuring a giant humanoid alien named Cosmicus who is attempting to devour the Earth.
==Other==
Galactus appeared in the 1994 Marvel cartoon show ''Fantastic Four'' with Silver Surfer. He also regularly appeared as a Computer animated figure in the ''Silver Surfer'' cartoon series on [[Fox Kids|FOX Kids]] Network in 1997.
In the episode of "Fairly Oddparents" on [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]], called "Mighty Mom and Dyno Dad", [[Timmy Turner]] wishes himself to be a great superbeing called Timactimus, the eater of planets, so he can make his parents vulnerable to magic.
In a comedic issue of Marvel's [[What If (comics)|''What If?'']] series, Galactus was banished to earth and lands outside a trailer park, suffering from amnesia. After he is discovered by a local, she declares that he looks exactly like a young Elvis Presley. Galactus/Elvis begins a music career but when he is finally confronted by a galactic being and given his memory back, he chooses to remain on Earth as the king of Rock N' Roll.
In the 1997 [[Fox Kids|FOX Kids]] cartoon "Sam and Max: Freelance Police"; the character of Galactus was also spoofed with in the form of the character 'Lactose the Intolerant'.
==External links==
* [[MarvelDatabase:Galactus|MDP: Galactus]] - Marvel Database Project
* [http://www.marveldirectory.com Marvel Directory] - [http://www.marveldirectory.com/individuals/g/galactus.htm Galactus]
* [http://www.knightmare6.com/faq/cosmic_entities_marvel GameFAQ's Comic Book FAQ: Marvel Cosmic Entities]
[[Category:Fantastic Four villains]]
[[Category:Marvel Comics aliens]]
[[Category:Marvel Comics cosmic entities]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Game Boy Color</title>
<id>13097</id>
<revision>
<id>42148691</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:30:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hbdragon88</username>
<id>175197</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added infobox system</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CVG system| title = Game Boy Color
|logo =
|image =
|manufacturer = [[Nintendo]]
|type = [[Handheld game console]]
|generation = [[History of video games (32-bit / 64-bit era)|32-bit / 64-bit era]]
|lifespan = [[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|22px|Japan]] [[October 21]], [[1998]] <br />[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|22px|North America]] November 1998 <br /> [[Image:European flag.svg|22px|Europe]] NEVAR!
|media = [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]]
|conrollers =
|onlineservice =
|unitssold = Millions...some number
|topgame =
}}
[[Image:Gameboy color collage.PNG|thumb|The Game Boy Color came in a myriad of different colors, as did earlier incarnations of the Game Boy.]]
[[Image:2809-vg gameboy color.jpg.jpg|thumb|Game Boy Colors]]
The '''Game Boy Color''' (also referred to as '''GBC''') is [[Nintendo]]'s successor to the [[Game Boy]] and was released on [[October 21]], [[1998]] in [[Japan]] and in November 1998 in the [[United States]]. It features a color screen and is slightly larger than the [[Game Boy#Game Boy Pocket|Game Boy Pocket]], though smaller than the original [[Game Boy]].
==History==
The Game Boy Color was a response to pressure from game developers for a new system, as they felt that the Game Boy, even in its latest incarnation, the Game Boy Pocket, was insufficient. The resultant product was backward compatible, a first for a handheld console system, and leveraged the large library of games and great installed base of the predecessor system. This became a major feature of the Game Boy line, since it allowed each new launch to begin with a significantly larger library than any of its competitors.
==Specifications==
The processor, which is a zilog z80, is twice as fast as a Game Boy's, and has three times as much memory.
The Game Boy Color also featured an [[infrared]] communications port for wireless linking. However, the feature was only supported in a few games, and the infrared port was dropped for the [[Game Boy Advance]] and later releases.
The console was capable of showing up to 56 different colors simultaneously on screen from its palette of 32,768, and could add basic four-color shading to games that had been developed for the original Game Boy. It could also give the sprites and backgrounds separate colors, for a total of more than four colors. However, this resulted in graphic artifacts in certain games; a sprite that was supposed to meld into the background was now colored separately, exposing the trick.
==Cartridges==
Game Boy Color games came in a clear plastic cartridge with a raised bump. Nintendo also made black cartridges that were compatible with the Game Boy Color and the older [[Super Game Boy]] and original [[Game Boy]]. The black color distinguished these special cartidges with the gray Game Boy carts and the transparent Game Boy Color carts. A Game Boy Color palette is built-in, making it impossible to change the palette like with old Game Boy games.
==Color palette==
When inserting an original Game Boy cartridge into the Game Boy Color, the user could choose which color set to use for the game. During the Game Boy logo, the user could change the color by holding either the A or B button and a direction. It was also possible to choose a black and white color scheme that preserved the original look of the game.
The palettes for original GB games played on a later system are as follows (This applies for the Game Boy Color, [[Game Boy Advance]], [[Game Boy Advance SP]], and [[Game Boy Player]]):
*Up: Brown
*Up + A: Red
*Up + B: Dark Brown
*Down: Pastel Mix
*Down + A: Orange
*Down + B: Yellow
*Left: Blue
*Left + A: Dark Blue
*Left + B: Gray
*Right: Green
*Right + A: Dark Green
*Right + B: Reverse
In addition, most Nintendo-published GB games have a s |
Wissenschaften, philosophisch-historische klasse, sitzungsberichte '''347'''. Vienna, 1979.
* Ari Belenkiy. "A Unique Feature of the Jewish Calendar &mdash; ''Dehiyot''". ''Culture and Cosmos'' '''6''' (2002) 3-22.
* Arthur Spier. ''The Comprehensive Hebrew Calendar''. Feldheim, 1986.
* L.A. Resnikoff. "Jewish calendar calculations", ''Scripta Mathematica'' '''9''' (1943) 191-195, 274-277.
* Edward M. Reingold and Nachum Dershowitz. ''Calendrical Calculations: The Millennium Edition''. Cambridge University Press; 2 edition (July 1, 2001). ISBN 0521777526
==See also==
* [[Jewish holidays 2000-2050]]
==External links==
*[http://www.angelfire.com/pa2/passover/jewish-calendar-hebrew.html Jewish Calendar] Details various Jewish points-of-view about the history of the Jewish calendar/Hebrew calendar. Includes several charts.
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/1584/ Hebrew Calendar Science and Myth] gives complete rules of the Hebrew calendar and a lot more.
*[http://www.crystalinks.com/sumercalendars.html Sumerian astronomy & calendars]
*[http://individual.utoronto.ca/kalendis/hebrew/molad.htm The Molad of the Hebrew calendar]
*[http://www.abcog.org/saadia.htm The Jewish Controversy about Calendar Postponements]
*[http://www.chabad.org/calendar/ Jewish Calendar with Zmanim - Halachic times and date converter] chabad.org
*[http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Sjewcale.htm Jewish calendar] scientific explanation at the [[NASA]] web site
*[http://endtimepilgrim.org/70wks5.htm The Hebrew Calendar and the metatonic cycles]
====Date converters====
*[http://www.gassner.co.il/jewish-calendar Jewish Calendar for Outlook] - A solution for incorporating Jewish dates and holidays into [[Microsoft Outlook]].
*[http://kaluach.org/ Kaluach - Hebrew/civil calendars]
*[http://www.hebcal.com/converter/ Hebcal Hebrew Date Converter]
*[http://www.abdicate.net/cal.aspx Jewish/Gregorian/Julian Perpetual Calendar Converter] - Also contains a full year view for the Hebrew Calendar.
*[http://www.geocities.com/DafAWeek/HebCal.html Sample VB.Net and Javascript code to convert the Hebrew Date to the Gregorian Date]
*[http://www.chabad.org/calendar/1000year.asp?AID=6225 Use this powerful tool to convert any regular calendar date to its corresponding Jewish-calendar date, or vice versa.]
*[http://www.diagnosis2012.co.uk/conv.htm Gregorian-Mayan-Julian-Islamic-Persian-Hebrew Calendar Converter]
[[Category:Hebrew calendar|*]]
{{Link FA|es}}
{{Link FA|he}}
[[ca:Calendari hebreu]]
[[de:Jüdischer Kalender]]
[[eo:Hebrea kalendaro]]
[[es:Calendario hebreo]]
[[fi:Juutalainen kalenteri]]
[[fr:Calendrier hébreu]]
[[he:הלוח העברי]]
[[hu:Zsidó naptár]]
[[io:Judala kalendario]]
[[it:Calendario ebraico]]
[[ja:ユダヤ暦]]
[[nl:Joodse maanden]]
[[nn:Det jødiske året]]
[[no:Det jødiske året]]
[[pl:Kalendarz żydowski]]
[[ru:Еврейский календарь]]
[[zh:希伯來曆]]
{{featured article}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Herbert Marcuse</title>
<id>13784</id>
<revision>
<id>41210693</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T20:34:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.51.146.239</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Biography and career */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Herbert Marcuse''' ([[July 19]],[[1898]] &ndash; [[July 29]],[[1979]]) was a prominent [[German people|German]]-[[Hyphenated American|American]] [[philosophy|philosopher]] and [[sociology|sociologist]] of [[Jewish]] descent, member of the [[Frankfurt School]].
== Biography and career ==
Herbert Marcuse was born in [[Berlin]] to a Jewish family, served in the German Army caring for horses in Berlin during the [[World War I|First World War]]. He then became a member of a Soldiers' Council that participated in the aborted [[Socialism|socialist]] [[Spartacist uprising]], which was ultimately crushed by the forces of the [[Weimar Republic]]. After completing his Ph.D. thesis at the [[University of Freiburg]] in [[1922]] on the Germany [[Kunstlerroman]], he moved back to Berlin, where he worked as a bookseller. He returned to [[Freiburg]] in [[1929]] to write a [[habilitation]] with [[Martin Heidegger]]. In [[1933]], since he would not be allowed to complete that project under the [[Nazis]], Marcuse joined the [[Frankfurt]] [[Institute for Social Research]] run by [[Max Horkheimer]] and [[emigration|emigrated]] from Germany that same year, going first to [[Switzerland]], then the [[United States]], where he became a [[naturalized citizen]] in [[1940]].
Although he never returned to Germany to live, he became one of the major theorists of the [[Frankfurt School]], along with [[Max Horkheimer]] and [[Theodor Adorno]]. In [[1940]] he published ''Reason and Revolution'', a dialectical work studying [[Hegel]] and [[Marx]].
During [[World War II]] Marcuse first worked for the [[U.S. Office of War Information]] (OWI) on anti-Nazi propaganda projects. In 1943 he transferred to the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS). His work for the OSS involved research on Nazi Germany and denazification. After the dissolution of the OSS in 1945, Marcuse was employed by the US Department of State until 1951 as head of the Central European bureau, retiring after the death of his wife<!--http://www.marcuse.org/herbert/biog/BioVanguardANBioOnline03z.htm-->.
In [[1952]] he began a teaching career as a political theorist, first at [[Columbia University]] and [[Harvard]], then at [[Brandeis University]] from [[1958]] to [[1965]], where he was professor of philosophy and politics, and finally (already retirement-age), at the [[University of California, San Diego]]. He was a friend and collaborator of the historical sociologist [[Barrington Moore, Jr.]] and of the political philosopher [[Robert Paul Wolff]]. In the post-war period, he was the most explicitly political and left-wing member of the Frankfurt School, continuing to identify himself as a [[Marxist]], a socialist, and a [[Hegelian]].
Marcuse's critiques of [[capitalist]] society (especially his [[1955]] synthesis of [[Karl Marx|Marx]] and [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]], ''[[Eros and Civilization]]'', and his [[1964]] book ''[[One-Dimensional Man]]'') resonated with the concerns of the leftist student movement in the [[1960s]]. Because of his willingness to speak at student protests, Marcuse soon became known as "the father of the [[New Left]]" (a term he disliked and rejected). His work heavily influenced intellectual discourse on [[popular culture]] and scholarly [[popular culture studies]]. He had many speaking engagements in the US and Europe in the late [[1960s]] and in the [[1970s]]. He died on [[July 29]], [[1979]], after having suffered a stroke during a visit to Germany. Second-generation Frankfurt School theorist [[Jürgen Habermas]] was with him during his final illness.
Many progressive scholars and activists were influenced by him, for example [[Angela Davis]] and [[Abbie Hoffman]]. (See the list in the final link, below.) A fellow German emigre, [[Paul Mattick]], subjected ''One-Dimensional Man'' to a Marxist critique. Marcuse's 1965 essay "Repressive Tolerance", where he claimed capitalist [[democracy|democracies]] are actually [[totalitarian]] in nature, has been heavily criticised for its argument that all opinions should be tolerated, except conservative ones.
He was not related to the émigré literary scholar [[Ludwig Marcuse]] (1894-1971); but may have been a distant relation of the Berlin sexologist [[Max Marcuse]] (1877-1963).
==Major works==
*''[[Reason and Revolution]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[Eros and Civilization]]'' ([[1955]])
*''[[Soviet Marxism]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[One-Dimensional Man]]'' ([[1964]])
*''[[Negations (Marcuse)|Negations]]'' ([[1968]])
*''[[An Essay on Liberation]]'' ([[1969]])
*''[[Counter-Revolution and Revolt]]'' ([[1972]])
*''[[The Aesthetic Dimension]]'' ([[1978]])
==See also==
*[[Georg Lukács]]
*[[Walter Benjamin]]
*[[Theodor Adorno]]
*[[Max Horkheimer]]
*[[Erich Fromm]]
*[[Jürgen Habermas]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Herbert Marcuse}}
*[http://www.marcuse.org/herbert/index.html Comprehensive 'Official' Herbert Marcuse Website], by one of Marcuse's grandsons, with full bibliographies of primary and secondary works, and full texts of many important works
*[http://www.worldsocialism.org/wsm-pages/marcuse.html Excellent narrative biography by A. Buick], at worldsocialism.org
*[http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/kellner/Illumina%20Folder/marc.htm Detailed intellectual biography and essays], by Douglas Kellner, Marcuse scholar at UCLA
* [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/marcuse/index.htm "Herbert Marcuse (on-line) Archive"] at marxists.org
* [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/marcuse/works/eros-civilisation/index.htm Eros and Civilization (1955)] text excerpts online at marxists.org
*[http://www.marcuse.org/herbert/pubs/onedim/odmcontents.html One-Dimensional Man (1964)], complete text online at marcuse.org
*[http://www.marcuse.org/herbert/pubs/60spubs/65repressivetolerance.htm Repressive Tolerance (1965)], complete text online at marcuse.org
*[http://www.marcuse.org/herbert/pubs.htm Complete bibliography of Marcuse's published works], at marcuse.org
*[http://www.marcuse.org/herbert/booksabout.htm Long list of secondary works about Marcuse], at marcuse.org
*[http://www.marcuse.org/herbert/scholaractivists.htm List of scholars and activists influenced by Marcuse], at marcuse.org
[[Category:1898 births|Marcuse, Herbert]]
[[Category:1979 deaths|Marcuse, Herbert]]
[[Category:20th century philosophers|Marcuse, Herbert]]
[[Category:Frankfurt School|Marcuse, Herbert]]
[[Category:German philosophers|Marcuse, Herbert]]
[[Category:German sociologists|Marcuse, Herbert]]
[[Category:Marxist theorists|Marcuse, Herbert]]
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[[he:הרברט מרקו |
rac{1}{\|F \psi\|^2} | F \psi \rangle \langle F \psi |, </math>
which is the operator ''S''<sub>1</sub> above.
'''Remark'''. The use of the word ''collapse'' in this context is somewhat different that its use in explanations of the Copenhagen interpretation. In this discussion we are not referring to collapse or transformation of a wave into something else, but rather the transformation of a pure state into a mixed one.
The considerations so far, are completely standard in most formalisms of quantum mechanics. Now consider a "branched" system whose underlying Hilbert space is
:<math> \tilde{H} = H \otimes H_2 \cong H \oplus H </math>
where ''H''<sub>2</sub> is a two-dimensional Hilbert space with basis vectors <math> | 0 \rangle </math> and <math> | 1 \rangle </math>. The branched space can be regarded as a composite system consisting of the original system (which is now a subsystem) together with a non-interacting ancillary single [[qubit]] system. In the branched system, consider the entangled state
:<math> \phi = | E \psi \rangle \otimes | 0 \rangle + | F \psi \rangle \otimes | 1 \rangle \in \tilde{H} </math>
We can express this state in density matrix format as <math> | \phi \rangle \langle \phi | </math>. This multiplies out to:
:<math> \bigg( | E \psi \rangle \langle E \psi | \ \otimes \ | 0 \rangle \langle 0 |\bigg) \, + \, \bigg(| E \psi \rangle \langle F \psi | \ \otimes \ | 0 \rangle \langle 1 |\bigg) \, + \, \bigg(| F \psi \rangle \langle E \psi | \ \otimes \ | 1 \rangle \langle 0 |\bigg) \, + \, \bigg(| F \psi \rangle \langle F \psi | \ \otimes \ | 1 \rangle \langle 1 | \bigg) </math>
The [[partial trace]] of this mixed state is obtained by summing the operator coefficients of <math> | 0 \rangle \langle 0 | </math> and <math> | 1 \rangle \langle 1 | </math> in the above expression. This results in a mixed state on ''H''. In fact, this mixed state is identical to the "post filtering" mixed state ''S''<sub>1</sub> above.
To summarize, we have mathematically described the effect of the filter for a particle in a pure state &psi; in the following way:
* The original state is augmented with the ancillary qubit system.
* The pure state of the original system is replaced with a pure entangled state of the augmented system and
* The post-filter state of the system is the partial trace of the entangled state of the augmented system.
=== Multiple branching ===
In the course of a system's lifetime we expect many such filtering events to occur. At each such event, a branching occurs. In order for this to be consistent with the branching structure as depicted in the illustration above, we must show that if a filtering event occurs in one path from the root node of the tree, then we may assume it occurs in all branches. This shows that the tree is highly symmetric, that is for each node ''n'' of the tree, the shape of the tree does not change by interchanging the subtrees immediately below that node ''n''.
In order to show this branching uniformity property, note that the same calculation carries through even if original state ''S'' is mixed. Indeed, the post filtered state will be the density operator:
:<math> S_1 = E S E + F S F \quad </math>
The state ''S''<sub>1</sub> is the partial trace of
:<math> \bigg( E S E \, \otimes \, | 0 \rangle \langle 0 |\bigg) + \bigg( E S F \, \otimes \, | 0 \rangle \langle 1 |\bigg) + \bigg(F S E \, \otimes \, | 1 \rangle \langle 0 |\bigg) + \bigg(F S F \, \otimes \, | 1 \rangle \langle 1 |\bigg). </math>
This means that to each subsequent measurement (or branching) along one of the paths from the root of the tree to a leaf node corresponds to a homologous branching along every path. This guarantees the symmetry of the many-worlds tree relative to flipping child nodes of each node.[[Image:Path-integral-mwi.png|thumb|250px|Superposition over paths through observation tree]]
=== General quantum operations ===
In the previous two sections, we have represented measurement operations on quantum systems in terms of relative states. In fact there is a wider class of operations which should be considered: these are called [[quantum operation]]s. Considered as operations on density operators on the system Hilbert space ''H'', these have the following form:
:<math> \gamma(S) = \sum_{i \in I} F_i S F_i^* </math>
where ''I'' is a finite or countably infinite index set. The operators ''F''<sub>''i''</sub> are called '''Kraus operators'''.
'''Theorem'''. Let
:<math> \Phi(S) = \sum_{i,j} F_i S F_j^* \, \otimes \, | i \rangle \langle j | </math>
Then
:<math> \gamma(S) = \operatorname{Tr}_H(\Phi(S)). </math>
Moreover, the mapping ''V'' defined by
:<math> V | \psi \rangle = \sum_\ell | F_\ell \psi \rangle \, \otimes \, | \ell \rangle </math>
is such that
:<math> \Phi(S) = V S V^* \quad </math>
If &gamma; is a trace-preserving quantum operation, then ''V'' is an isometric linear map
:<math> V : H \rightarrow H \otimes \ell^2(I) \cong H \oplus H \oplus \cdots \oplus H </math>
where the Hilbert direct sum is taken over copies of ''H'' indexed by elements of ''I''. We can consider such maps &Phi; as imbeddings. In particular:
'''Corollary'''. Any trace-preserving quantum operation is the composition of an isometric imbedding and a partial trace.
This suggests that the many worlds formalism can account for this very general class of transformations in exactly the same way that it does for simple measurements.
=== Branching ===
In general we can show the uniform branching property of the tree as follows: If
:<math> \gamma(S) = \operatorname{Tr}_H V S V^* \quad </math>
and
:<math> \delta(S) = \operatorname{Tr}_H W S W^*, \quad </math>
where
:<math> V | \psi \rangle = \sum_{\ell \in I}| F_\ell \psi \rangle \, \otimes \, | \ell \rangle </math>
and
:<math> W | \phi \rangle = \sum_{i \in J}| G_i \phi \rangle \, \otimes \, | i \rangle </math>
then an easy calculation shows
:<math> \delta \circ \gamma (S) = \operatorname{Tr}_H \bigg\{\bigg( W \otimes \operatorname{id}_{\ell^2(I)} \, \circ \,V \bigg) S \bigg( W \otimes \operatorname{id}_{\ell^2(I)} \, \circ \, V \bigg)^*\bigg\}. </math>
This also shows that in between the measurements given by proper (that is, non-unitary) quantum operations, one can interpolate arbitrary unitary evolution.
== Acceptance of the many-worlds interpretation==
There is a wide range of claims that are considered "many worlds" interpretations. It is often noted (see the Barrett reference) that Everett himself was not entirely clear as to what he meant. Moreover, popularizers have often used many-worlds to justifiy claims about the relationship between consciousness and the material world. Apart from these [[new-age|new-agey]] interpretations, "many world"-like interpretations are now considered fairly mainstream.
For example, a poll of 72 leading physicists conducted by the American researcher David Raub in [[1995]] and published in the French periodical ''[[Sciences et Avenir]]'' in January [[1998]] recorded that nearly 60% thought many worlds interpretation was "true". [[Max Tegmark]] (see reference to his web page below) also reports the result of a poll taken at a 1997 quantum mechanics workshop. According to Tegmark, "The many worlds interpretation (MWI) scored second, comfortably ahead of the [[consistent histories]] and Bohm interpretations." Other such unscientific polls have been taken at other conferences: see for instance [[Michael Nielsen]]'s blog [http://www.qinfo.org/people/nielsen/blog/archive/000060.html] report on one such poll. Nielsen remarks that it appeared most of the conference attendees "thought the poll was a waste of time".
One of MWI's strongest advocates is [[David Deutsch]]. According to Deutsch the single photon interference pattern observed in the double slit experiment, can be explained by interference of photons in multiple universes. Viewed in this way, the single photon interference experiment is indistinguishable from the multiple photon interference experiment. In a more practical vein, in one of the earliest papers on quantum computing (Deutsch 1985), he suggested that parallelism that results from the validity of MWI could lead to "''a method by which certain probabilistic tasks can be performed faster by a universal quantum computer than by any classical restriction of it''".
[[Asher Peres]] was an outspoken critic of MWI, for example in a section in his [[1993]] textbook with the title ''Everett's interpretation and other bizarre theories''. In fact, Peres questioned whether MWI is really an "interpretation" or even if interpretations of quantum mechanics are needed at all. Indeed, the many-worlds interpretation can be regarded as a purely formal transformation, which adds nothing to the instrumentalist (i.e. statistical) rules of the quantum mechanics. Perhaps more significantly, Peres seems to suggest that positing the existence of an infinite number of non-communicating parallel universes is scientifically unfriendly as it seems to violate [[Occam's Razor]].
MWI is considered by some to be unfalsifiable, because the multiple parallel universes are non-communicating in the sense that no information can be passed between them. Moreover, it has also been noted (for instance by Peres himself) that polls regarding the acceptance of a particular interpretation within the scientific community, such as those mentioned above, cannot be used as evidence supporting a specific interpretation's validity.
== Many |
.
Iraq's two largest ethnic groups are [[Arabs]] and [[Kurds]]. Other distinct groups are [[Turkomans]], [[Syriacs]], [[Iranian peoples|Iranians]], [[Lurs]], and [[Armenians]]. [[Arabic language|Arabic]] is the most commonly spoken language. [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] is spoken in the north, and English is the most commonly spoken Western language.
Most Iraqi [[Muslim]]s are members of the [[Shiites]] (Shi'a), but there is a large [[Sunni]] Muslim population as well, made up of both [[Arab]]s and [[Kurd]]s. Small communities of Christians, Jews, [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]], [[Mandaeans]], and [[Yezidis]] also exist, although most [[Jews]] have fled Iraq in the last century. Most Kurds are Sunni Muslim but differ from their Arab neighbors in language, dress, and customs.
'''Population:'''
26,074,906 (July 2005 est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
40% (male 5,293,709; female 5,130,826)
<br>''15-64 years:''
57% (male 7,530,619; female 7,338,109)
<br>''65 years and over:''
3% (male 367,832; female 413,811) (2005 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
2.7% (2005 est.)
'''Birth rate:'''
32.5 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
'''Death rate:'''
5.49 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
'''Net migration rate:'''
0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1.03 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
1.03 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.89 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
1.02 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''
50.25 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
68.7 years
<br>''male:''
67.49 years
<br>''female:''
69.97 years (2005 est.)
'''Total fertility rate:'''
4.28 children born/woman (2005 est.)
'''Nationality:'''
<br>''noun:''
Iraqi(s)
<br>''adjective:''
Iraqi
'''Ethnic groups:'''
Arabs 75-80%, [[Kurdish people|Kurds]] 15%-20%, Turkoman, [[Syriacs]] or other 3%-5%
'''Religions:'''
Muslim 95% (Shi'a 66%,Sunni 29%), Christian or other 5%
'''Languages:'''
[[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]](official in Kurdish regions), [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]]
'''Literacy:'''
<br>''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
<br>''total population:''
40.4%
<br>''male:''
55.9%
<br>''female:''
24.4% (2003 est.)
'''Median Age:'''
<br>''Total Population:''
19.43 years
<br>''Male:''
19.35 years
<br>''Female:''
19.51 years (2005 est.)
:''See also :'' [[Iraq]], [[Arab Tribes in Iraq]], [[Kurdistan]]
==External links==
* [http://www.institutkurde.org/ Kurdish Institute] Kurdish language, history, books and latest news articles.
[[Category:Demographics by country|Iraq]]
[[Category:Geography of Iraq]]
[[Category:Iraqi society]]
[[es:Demografía de Iraq]]
[[sv:Iraks demografi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Iraq</title>
<id>14667</id>
<revision>
<id>40960688</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T03:22:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>152.163.100.12</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Ba'athist rule */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Iraq}}
'''Politics of Iraq''' includes the [[Social movement|social relation]]s involving [[authority]] or [[Power (sociology)|power]] in [[Iraq]]. Before the fall of [[Saddam Hussein]] in [[2003]], the [[Ba'ath Party]] officially ruled. The occupation yielded to an [[Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period|interim Iraqi constitution]], which was replaced by a permanent [[constitution of Iraq|constitution]] following approval in a [[Iraqi constitution ratification vote, 2005|referendum]] held on [[October 15]], [[2005]].
The current leaders of Iraq are serving on a caretaker basis, following the [[Iraqi legislative election, December 2005|general election]] in December 2005 and pending the formation of a new [[Government of Iraq, 2006-2010|government]].
The [[Prime Minister of Iraq]] is [[Ibrahim al-Jaafari]], who holds most of the executive authority and appoints the cabinet. The current [[President of Iraq]] is [[Jalal Talabani]], who serves in a largely [[figurehead]] capacity, with few powers. The Vice-Presidents are [[Sheikh]] [[Ghazi Mashal Ajil al-Yawer]], (president under the [[Iraqi Interim Government]]) and [[Adel Abdul Mehdi]], deputy leader of [[SCIRI]], the largest party in the [[Iraqi National Assembly]].
==Ba'athist rule==
Before the fall of [[Saddam Hussein]] in [[2003]], the [[Ba'ath Party]] officially ruled [[Iraq]] through a nine-member [[Revolutionary Command Council]], which enacted legislation by decree. The RCC's president (chief of state and supreme commander of the armed forces) was elected by a two-thirds majority of the RCC. A Council of Ministers ([[closet]]), appointed by the RCC, had administrative and some legislative responsibilities. The Vice-President of Iraq was [[Taha Yassin Ramadan]].
A 250-member [[Iraqi National Assembly|National Assembly]] consisting of 220 elected by popular vote who serve a four year term, and 30 appointed by the president to represent the three northern provinces, was last elected in March 2000. Iraq is divided into 18 provinces, each headed by a governor with extensive administrative powers.
Iraq's judicial system during Saddam's rule was based on the French model introduced during [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule and had three types of lower courts--civil, religious, and special. Special courts try broadly defined national security cases. An appellate court system and the court of cassation (court of last recourse) complete the judicial structure.
Under baathist rule, often times Iraqis were subject to death sentences such as having hand grenades placed into shirt pockets and detonated, arms summarily broken, fingers, tongues and ears cut off. Uday and Qusay Hussein took much pride in being defacto judge and jury to fancy their own develish whims, such as purposely starving lions then intorducing Iraqi detainees in to cages. Several videos are easily found on the internet that display the heinous treatment of purported criminals that break every human rights assumption.
==Occupation==
From April [[2003]] to [[June 28]], [[2004]], Iraq was under [[2003 occupation of Iraq|occupation]] following the ousting of the Ba'ath Party and President Saddam Hussein. 130,000 American soldiers as well as few thousand other troops from various countries still occupy the nation of Iraq presently. After the overthrow, a [[power vacuum]] emerged, which remains in some form till this day, with [[terrorism|terrorists]] and [[insurgent]]s attacking civilian targets and battling against coalition forces and newly-formed Iraqi institutions in some pockets, hampering the emergence of post-war stability. The occupation was led by the coalition's Civil Administrator, [[L. Paul Bremer]], until mid-2004. An [[Interim Iraq Governing Council]] was also appointed by the coalition with a monthly rotating [[interim]] presidency. The Council in turn appointed a cabinet of ministers and other officials.
==Return of sovereignty==
[[Image:IraqSovereignty.jpg|thumb|250px|U.S. National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice gives confirmation of Iraqi sovereignty to U.S. President George W. Bush, who then wrote, &#8220;Let Freedom Reign!,&#8221; during the opening session of the NATO Summit in Istanbul, Turkey, on Monday, [[June 28]] [[2004]].]]
The path to full sovereignty for Iraq was a gradual one:
*On [[November 15]] [[2003]] an agreement was released spelling out Iraq's path to sovereignty.
*On [[March 8]] [[2004]] an interim [[constitution]], the [[Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period]] was approved by the governing council, which further expanded on the structure established the proceeding November.
*Prior to April, 2004 U. S. government officials referring to the transition date Iraq had used the language "sovereignty" or "full sovereignty." For example, on [[March 15]], [[2004]] U.S. Deputy Secretary of State Richard Armitage stated [http://washingtontimes.com/upi-breaking/20040315-045145-6435r.htm] that on [[June 30]], "the Iraqi interim government will assume full sovereignty and the United States will open a diplomatic mission in Baghdad, the largest U.S. mission anywhere in the world."
*In April 2004, U.S. officials began to use the term ''limited sovereignty,'' notably Armitage's undersecretary Marc Grossman to a Congressional committee [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A35233-2004Apr22?language=printer] on [[April 23]], [[2004]].
*On [[May 25]], [[2004]], George W. Bush used the language "full sovereignty," saying that "next month ... our coalition will transfer full sovereignty to a government of Iraqi citizens."
*On [[May 28]], [[2004]] George W. Bush used the language "complete and full sovereignty," stating that this was his response to a query by UN special representative, [[Lakhdar Brahimi]].
*On [[June 3]], [[2004]], Brahimi publicly expressed disappointment about the transfer of power stating that "Bremer is the dictator of Iraq" and "He has the money. He has the signature." He also added "I will not say who was my first choice, and who was not my first choice .... I will remind you that the Americans are governing this country." According to a person who spoke with Brahimi recently, "He was very disappointed, very frustrated. I asked him why he didn't say that publicly (and) he said, `I am the U.N. envoy to Iraq, how can I admit to failure?'" [http://www.realcities.com/mld/krwashington/8821031.htm]
*On [[June 15]], [[2004]], Iraq's interim Prime Minister, [[Iyad Allawi]], said that the transfer of Saddam Hussein to Iraq |
Devised as a memorial to Queen Victoria, this route is used by the cavalcades and motorcades of all visiting heads of state, and by the Royal Family on state occasions such as the annual [[State Opening of Parliament]]. On these occasions the processions pass through Admiralty Arch and into the Mall, which has been closed for the occasion, often bringing traffic chaos to other parts of London.
[[Image:Buckingham Palace garden party ILN 1868.jpg|thumb|250px|left|A garden party at Buckingham Palace in 1868.]]
At the rear of the palace is the large park-like [[Buckingham Palace Gardens|garden]], the largest private garden in London. The landscape design was by [[Capability Brown]] but the garden was redesigned at the time of the palace rebuilding by [[William Townsend Ailton]] of [[Kew Gardens]] and John Nash. The great man-made lake was completed in 1828 and is supplied with water by the [[Serpentine Lake]] in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]]. Like the palace itself, the gardens are rich in works of art. One of the most notable is the [[Waterloo Vase]], the great urn commissioned by [[Napoleon]] to commemorate his anticipated victories, which in 1815 was presented unfinished to [[George IV of the United Kingdom|the Prince Regent]] by [[Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany|Ferdinand, Grand Duke of Tuscany]]. The king had the vase completed by the sculptor [[Richard Westmacott]] with the intention that it be the focal point of the new Waterloo chamber at Windsor Castle. But weighing 15 tons and at 15 ft high, no floor could bear the weight, and it was presented to the [[National Gallery, London|National Gallery]]. The Gallery finally returned the [[white elephant]] to the sovereign in 1906. [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]] then solved the problem by placing the vase outside in the garden where it now remains. Also in the gardens is a small summerhouse attributed to [[William Kent]], circa 1740.
[[Image:Buck palace + change guards 028.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A View of the Palace from the Mall]]
Adjacent to the palace is the [[Royal Mews]], also designed by Nash, where the royal carriages, including the [[Gold State Coach]], are housed. This [[rococo]] gilt coach, designed by Sir [[William Chambers (architect)|William Chambers]] in 1760, has painted panels by [[Giovanni Battista Cipriani|G. B. Cipriani]]. It was first used for the State Opening of Parliament by George III in 1762 and is used by the monarch only for [[coronation]]s or jubilee celebrations. Also housed in the mews are the carriage horses used in the royal ceremonial processions which take place in London.
==Flags at Buckingham Palace==
[[Image:Royal_Standard.gif|200px|thumb|The [[Royal Standard]] flies over the Palace when the sovereign is in residence]]
The [[Queen's Flag Sergeant]] is responsible for all flags flown from the palace. Until 1997 the only [[flag]] to fly from Buckingham Palace was the [[Royal Standard]], the official flag of the reigning British sovereign, and only when the sovereign was in residence at the palace. Even in times of mourning, the Royal Standard would not fly at [[half mast]]. The only time another flag would fly from the Palace would be upon the death of the sovereign, when the flag of the next senior member of the Royal Family would be raised. In 1952, the Standard of [[Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother]] was raised upon the death of [[George VI of the United Kingdom]] because the new sovereign, Elizabeth II, was still in residence at [[Clarence House]].
This tradition changed in 1997, following the death of [[Diana, Princess of Wales]], when there was public outrage because the palace did not fly a flag at half mast. The Queen was at [[Balmoral Castle]] at the time, so there was no flag flying. In response to this display of public opinion, the Queen ordered a break with protocol and the [[Union Flag]] was flown at half mast over the Palace on the day of Diana's funeral. Since then, the Union Flag flies from the Palace when the Queen is not in residence, and has flown at half mast upon the deaths of members of the Royal Family, and other times of national mourning such as following the [[7 July 2005 London bombings|terrorist bombings in London on 7 July 2005]].
==The Palace today==
[[Image:Buckinghampalacebalcony.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The royal family on the balcony]]
Today, Buckingham Palace is not only the home of the Queen and Prince Philip but also the London residence of [[Prince Andrew of the United Kingdom|Duke of York]] and the [[Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex|Earl and Countess of Wessex]]. The palace also houses the office of the monarchy and its associated functions. Compared to other British royal palaces and [[castle]]s, Buckingham Palace is comparatively new, yet the words "Buckingham Palace" have come to symbolise the British monarchy. At the end of both [[World War I]] and World War II vast crowds spontaneously gathered at the palace, as they had at the end of the [[Second Boer War]]. An estimated crowd of one million people gathered in London, many in front of the palace, to see the Queen on her [[Golden Jubilee]] in June 2002. At the Golden Jubilee [[concert]], guitarist [[Brian May]] performed [[God Save the Queen]] on the guitar on top of Buckingham Palace.
==See also==
* World Heritage Programme: [[Castle preservation]] Worldwide
* [[Great house]]
[[Image:buckingham.palace.london.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Buckingham Palace in 2005]]
* [[Palace|List of Palaces]]
*: ''including the other past and present London palaces:''
** [[Kensington Palace]]
** [[Palace of Placentia]]
** [[Savoy Palace]]
** [[Palace of Westminster]] – Royal residence from 1049 until 1530
** [[Palace of Whitehall]] – Royal residence from 1530 until 1698
** [[St. James's Palace]] – Royal residence from 1702 until 1837
* [[UK topics]]
* [[History of the United Kingdom]]
==Footnotes==
#{{note|redecorationEdwardVII}}Robinson (Page 9) asserts that the decorations, including plaster swags and other decorative motifs, are "finicky" and "at odds with Nash's original detailing".
#{{note|rooms}} Robinson. Page 11
==References==
*Blaikie, Thomas (2002). ''You look awfully like the Queen: Wit and Wisdom from the House of Windsor''. London: Harper Collins. ISBN 0007148747.
*Harris, John; de Bellaigue, Geoffrey; & Miller, Oliver (1968). ''Buckingham Palace''. New York: Viking Press. Library of Congress catalogue card no: 62-23206.
*Headley, Olwen (1970) ''Buckingham Palace''. Garrod & Lofthouse Ltd. ISBN 85372 086 X
*Robinson, John Martin (1999). ''Buckingham Palace''. Published by The Royal Collection, St. James's Palace, London ISBN 1902163362.
*Williams, Neville (1971). ''Royal Homes''. Lutterworth Press. ISBN 0718808037.
*Woodham-Smith, Cecil (1973). ''Queen Victoria'' ''(vol 1)'' Hamish Hamilton Ltd.
==External links==
{{commons|Buckingham Palace}}
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=51.500956,-0.142500&spn=0.004731,0.004903&t=k&hl=en Google Maps Satellite View of Buckingham Palace]
*[http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/page555.asp Buckingham Palace], official site
{{mmuk maphot|529000|179500}}
*[http://www.thisislondon.com/londoncuts/articles/17410992 One's home is a dump] ([[22 March]] [[2005]])
*[http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/allnews/content_objectid=13637617_method=full_siteid=50143_headline=-INSIDE-THE-PRESIDENT-S-BEDROOM-name_page.html Images of the Belgian Suite from The Mirror Newspaper]
{{Royal Palaces UK}}
[[Category:English cultural icons]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in London]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings]]
[[Category:Palaces in England]]
[[Category:Royal buildings in London]]
[[Category:Royal residences in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Westminster]]
[[cy:Buckingham Palace]]
[[da:Buckingham Palace]]
[[de:Buckingham Palace]]
[[eo:Palaco Buckingham]]
[[fi:Buckinghamin palatsi]]
[[fr:Buckingham Palace]]
[[he:ארמון בקינגהאם]]
[[it:Buckingham Palace]]
[[ja:バッキンガム宮殿]]
[[nl:Buckingham Palace]]
[[no:Buckingham Palace]]
[[pl:Buckingham Palace]]
[[pt:Palácio de Buckingham]]
[[ru:Букингемский дворец]]
[[sl:Buckinghamska palača]]
[[sv:Buckingham Palace]]
[[ta:பக்கிங்ஹாம் அரண்மனை]]
[[zh:白金汉宫]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Airways</title>
<id>3970</id>
<revision>
<id>42093637</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:03:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KnowledgeOfSelf</username>
<id>452631</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/195.93.21.70|195.93.21.70]] ([[User talk:195.93.21.70|talk]]) to last version by Dbinder</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Airline |
airline=British Airways|
logo=British_Airways_logo.png|
logo_size=250px|
IATA=BA|
ICAO=BAW|
callsign=[[Speedbird]] / Shuttle|
parent=British Airways Plc.|
founded=[[1924]] (as [[Imperial Airways]])|
headquarters=[[London]], [[England]], [[United Kingdom]]|
key_people=[[Willie Walsh]] ([[CEO]])|
hubs=[[London Heathrow Airport]]<br>[[London Gatwick Airport]]|
focus_cities=[[Manchester International Airport]]|
frequent_flyer=[[Executive Club]]|
lounge=[[Executive Club Lounge]]|
alliance=[[Oneworld (airlines)|'''one'''world]]|
fleet_size=363|
destinations=222|
website= http://www.ba.com|
}}
{{dablink|For the 1930s airline of similar name see [[British Airways Ltd]]}}
'''British Airways''' ({{lse|BAY}}, {{nyse|BAB}}) is the largest [[airline]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. It is also one of the largest airlines in the world, with more flights from [[Europe]] across the Atlantic than any other operator. Its main [[Airline hub|hubs]] are [[London Heathrow Airport|London Heathrow]] and [[London Gatwick Airport|London Gatwick]], with wide-reaching European and domestic shorthaul networks, including smaller hubs at other UK airports including [[Glasgow International Airport|Glasgow]] and [[Manchester International Airport|Manchester]], from which so |
anacaste Province]], most of the population descends from a mix of the [[Chorotega]] Indians, [[Bantu]] Africans and Spaniards. Descendants of black 19th-century [[Jamaican]] immigrant workers constitute an English-speaking minority and at three percent of the population number about 96,000. Altogether, Costa Ricans of European decent and [[mestizo]]s account for a combined 94 percent (the vast majority being of Spanish decent). Another one percent is [[Overseas Chinese|ethnically Chinese]]. [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0857591.html] In addition there are many [[Americans]] and [[Canadians]] who either come to retire or move to the country to live.
<!--http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~bzimmerm/Costa_Rica/images/mjrs.jpg-->
==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Costa Rica}}
The locals refer to themselves as ''[[tico]]'', maje or ''mae'' (sort of "man", actually ''maje'' means "dumb") idiom in a very popular and "only with close friends" way, or ''tica'' (female). "Tico" comes from the locally popular usage of "tico" diminutive suffixes (eg. 'momentico' instead of 'momentito'). The ''tico'' ideal is that of a very friendly, helpful, laid back, unhurried, educated and environmentally aware people, with little worry for deadlines or the "normal" stresses of United States life. Visitors from the United States are often referred to as ''gringos'', which is virtually always congenial in nature. The phrase "Pura Vida" (literally pure life) is a motto ubiquitous in Costa Rica. It encapsulates the pervading ideology of living in peace in a calm, unflustered manner, appreciating a life surrounded by nature and family and friends.
Costa Rican traditions and culture tend to retain a strong degree of Spanish influence. Their spoken accent is rather closer to certain areas of Colombia than its Central American counterparts. Costa Rica boasts a varied history. Costa Rica was the point where the Mesoamerican and South American native cultures met. The northwest of the country, Nicoya, was the southernmost point of [[Nahuatl]] cultural influence when the Spanish conquerors ([[conquistadores]]) came in the 16th century. The center and southern portions of the country had [[Chibcha]] influences. However, the indigenous people have influenced modern Costa Rican culture to a relatively small degree, as most of the Indians died from disease and mistreatment by the Spaniards. The Atlantic coast, meanwhile, was populated with African slaves in the 17th and 18th centuries, although most Caribbean Costa Ricans of African ascent descend from Jamaican workers brought in during the 19th century to work in the construction of railways connecting the urban populations of the Central Plateau to the port of [[Limon]] on the Caribbean coast. During the 19th century Chinese and Italian immigrants came to the country to work on the construction of the railroad system as well
==Famous Costa Ricans==
* [[Óscar Arias Sánchez]], Nobel Peace Prize winner (1987) and President of the Republic (1986&ndash;1990)
* [[Jose figueres|José Figueres Ferrer]], National caudillo and President of the Republic (1948&ndash;1949, 1953&ndash;1958, and 1970&ndash;1974.
* [[Franklin Chang-Diaz|Franklin Chang Díaz]], Astronaut
* [[Clodomiro Picado Twight]], Toxicologist
* [[Claudia Poll]]. Olympic gold medallist
* [[Juan Santamaría]]. National hero
* [[Chavela Vargas]], singer
* [[Maribel Guardia]], singer, actress, model
* [[Debi Nova]], singer
==See also==
*[[Art of Costa Rica]]
*[[Culture of Costa Rica]]
*[[Communications in Costa Rica]]
*[[Cuisine of Costa Rica]]
*[[Demographics of Costa Rica]]
*[[Economy of Costa Rica]]
*[[Foreign relations of Costa Rica]]
*[[Geography of Costa Rica]]
*[[History of Costa Rica]]
*[[Language schools in Costa Rica]]
*[[List of Presidents of Costa Rica]]
*[[Military of Costa Rica]]
*[[Museums of Costa Rica]]
*[[Music of Costa Rica]]
*[[Politics of Costa Rica]]
*[[Transportation in Costa Rica]]
*[[Costa Rica national football team]]
*[[Universities of Costa Rica]]
*[[University of Costa Rica|Wikipedia page on the University of Costa Rica]]
==References==
*{{note|puravida}} [http://www.costarica.com/Home/Culture/National_Symbols/National_Motto Article concerning the saying "pura vida"]
*''Some of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
*Economic information for 2005 comes from the UN Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Preliminary Balance Document for 2005 (in Spanish)[http://www.eclac.cl/cgi-bin/getProd.asp?xml=/publicaciones/xml/8/23218/P23218.xml&xsl=/de/tpl/p9f.xsl&base=/tpl-i/top-bottom.xslt]
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Costa Rica}}
* [http://wikitravel.org/en/Costa_Rica Wikitravel guide to Costa Rica]
* [http://www.visitcostarica.com/ ICT official tourism site (English|Spanish|Deutsch|Français)]
* [http://www.bccr.fi.cr Banco Central de Costa Rica] Central Bank Costa Rica
* [http://www.asamblea.go.cr/proyecto/constitu/const2.htm Constitution of the Republic of Costa Rica (In Spanish)]
* [http://www.costarica-online.com/en/english.htm Costa Rica City Guide] - Message Board and Photo Gallery (free site)
* [http://www.tourism-costarica.com/ Instituto Costarricense de Turismo] Official Costa Rican Tourism Portal
* [http://www.go.cr/enlaces.html Links by the government web site]
* [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/ca/camap.shtml Map of Costa Rica]
* [http://www.destination360.com/central-america/costa-rica/costa-rica.php Virtual Tours of Costa Rica]
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<page>
<title>History of Costa Rica</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T08:47:42Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{unref}}
In [[Pre-Columbian]] times the [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]]s in what is now [[Costa Rica]] were part of the Intermediate Area, between the [[Mesoamerican]] and [[Andean]] cultural regions.
[[image:NicoyaCeramics.jpg|thumb|300px|Pre-Columbian Ceramics from Nicoya, Costa Rica]]
In [[1502]], on his fourth and last voyage to the New World, [[Christopher Columbus]] made the first European landfall in the area. Settlement of Costa Rica began in [[1522]]. The native peoples were conquered by [[Spain]] in the [[16th century]]. Costa Rica was then the southern-most province in the Spanish territory of [[New Spain]]. The provincial capital was in [[Cartago, Costa Rica|Cartago]].
For nearly three centuries, Spain administered the region as part of the [[Captaincy General of Guatemala]] under a military governor. The Spanish optimistically called the country "Rich Coast". Finding little gold or other valuable minerals in Costa Rica, however, the Spanish turned to agriculture.
The small landowners' relative poverty, the lack of a large indigenous labor force, the population's ethnic and linguistic homogeneity, and Costa Rica's isolation from the Spanish colonial centers in Mexico and the Andes -- all contributed to the development of an autonomous and individualistic agrarian society. Even the Governor had to farm his own crops and tend to his own Garden due to the poverty that he lived in. An egalitarian tradition also arose. This tradition survived the widened class distinctions brought on by the 19th century introduction of banana- and coffee-cultivation and consequent accumulations of local wealth.
Costa Rica joined other Central American provinces in 1821 in a joint declaration of independence from Spain. After a brief time in the Mexican Empire of [[Agustín de Iturbide]] (''see:'' [[History of Mexico]] and [[Mexican Empire]]) Costa Rica became a state in the [[United States of Central America]] (''see:'' [[History of Central America]]) from [[1823]] to [[1839]]. In [[1824]] the capital was moved to [[San José, Costa Rica|San José]], but following a rivalry with [[Cartago, Costa Rica|Cartago]] that was violent. Although the newly independent provinces formed a Federation, border disputes broke out among them, adding to the region's turbulent history and conditions. Costa Rica's northern Guanacaste Province was annexed from Nicaragua in one such regional dispute. In 1838, long after the Central American Federation ceased to function in practice, Costa Rica formally withdrew and proclaimed itself sovereign.
In 1856, [[William Walker]], an American filibuster began incursions into Central America. After landing in Nicaragua, he proclaimed himself president of Nicaragua and re-instated slavery. He intended to expand into Costa Rica and after entering Costa Rican soil, Costa Rica declared war. Led by Commander in Chief of the Army of Costa Rica, President Juan Rafael Mora, the filibusters were defeated and forced out of the coun |
gh being represented in Parliament despite it having no corporation or mayor (or vice versa).
By the [[19th century]] the population changes brought about by the [[Industrial Revolution]] had created a situation in which a major conurbation might have no representation in Parliament, whilst towns which had declined in size to mere villages still retained their seat. Additionally, the electoral franchise varied from borough to borough, some of which had become [[rotten borough]]s.
The [[Reform Act 1832]] sought to rationalise this system to some extent, as well as eliminating corrupt practices. Many boroughs, some of which existed in little more than name, were disenfranchised, whilst some of the industrial towns which had developed in the [[North of England|North]] came to be represented in Parliament for the first time.
Subsequent Reform Acts gave more parliamentary seats to the expanding boroughs, whilst disenfranchising the smaller ones. From [[1884]], voters in county and borough seats had the same franchise, so the distinction between the two was essentially eliminated; however, on the assumption that the smaller, urban boroughs would require less travelling for electoral candidates than in the larger, more rural county seats, the distinction between the two sorts of constituency was retained for the purposes of calculating maximum permitted electoral expenses.
====Metropolitan boroughs====
In [[1899]], as part of a reform of local government in the County of [[London]], the various parishes in the county were reorganised as a new entity, the '''metropolitan borough'''. These became reorganised as London Boroughs in a subsequent reform, in [[1965]].
As part of the [[1974]] reform of local government in England, six major urban areas were established as "metropolitan counties", subdivided into "metropolitan districts". A number of those districts over time were granted the dignity of "borough", and thus became known as a '''metropolitan borough'''.
===New Zealand===
[[New Zealand]] formerly used the term borough to designate self-governing towns of more than 1,000 people. A borough of more than 20,000 people could become a [[city]] by proclamation. Boroughs and cities were collectively known as municipalities, and were [[enclave]]s separate from their surrounding counties.
In the 1980s some boroughs and cities began to be merged with their surrounding counties to form [[district]]s with a mixed urban and rural population. In [[1989]] a nationwide reform of local government completed the process. Counties and boroughs were abolished and all boundaries were redrawn. Under the new system, most territorial authorities cover both urban and rural land. The more populated councils are classified as cities, and the more rural councils are classified as districts. Only [[Kawerau]] District, an enclave within [[Whakatane]] District, continues to follow the tradition of a small town council that does not include surrounding rural area.
==Borough as a place name==
There is a neighbourhood in the [[London Borough of Southwark]] simply called [[The Borough]], south of London Bridge across the Thames from the [[City of London|City]]. There are several villages in England, such as those in [[Cumbria]] and the [[East Riding of Yorkshire]], called Brough, pronounced {{IPA|[b&#633;&#652;f]}}.
[[El Burgo de Osma|El Burgo]] in Spain is across the river Ucero from the smaller City of Osma; also in Spain lies the city of [[Burgos]]. See also below under the places mentioned in the next section on Etymology.
==Etymology==
The [[word]] '''borough''' has [[cognates]] in other [[Germanic languages]]. For example, ''burgh'' in [[Scots language|Scots]], ''burg'' in [[German language|German]], and ''borg'' in both [[Danish language|Danish]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]; the equivalent word is also to be found in [[Frisian language|Frisian]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]].
The [[English language|English]] ''borough'' and the [[Scots language|Scots]] ''[[burgh]]'' are derived from the [[Old English language|Old English]] word ''burh'' (with dialectal variants including ''burg'', ''beorh'', ''beorg'', and ''byrig''). The Old English word was originally used for a fortified town, and was related to the verb ''beorgan'' (cf. Dutch and German ''bergen''), meaning "to keep, save, make secure".
A number of other [[Europe]]an languages have cognate words which were borrowed from the Germanic languages during the [[Middle Ages]], including ''brog'' in [[Irish language|Irish]], ''bwr'' or ''bwrc'', meaning "wall, rampart" in [[Welsh language|Welsh]], ''bourg'' in [[French language|French]], ''borgo'' in [[Italian language|Italian]], and ''burgo'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (hence the place-name [[Burgos]]).
Also related are the words ''bourgeois'' and ''belfry'' (both from the French), and ''burglar''; more distantly, it is related to words meaning "hill" or "mountain" in a number of languages (cf. the second element of ''[[iceberg]]'').
==See also==
* [[Boroughs incorporated in England and Wales 1835 - 1882]]
* [[Boroughs incorporated in England and Wales 1882 - 1974 ]]
* [[Burgh]]
* [[List of burghs in Scotland]]
* [[Political subdivisions of New York State#Borough|Boroughs in New York City]]
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<page>
<title>Bodmin</title>
<id>4858</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-02T13:15:48Z</timestamp>
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<comment>More on railways</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{GBmap|Bodmin - Cornwall|SX074667}}
'''Bodmin''' is a [[town]] in [[Cornwall]] in the [[United Kingdom]], with a population of 12,778 (2001 census). It was formerly the [[county town]] of Cornwall, but that is now [[Truro]].
Bodmin lies in the centre of the county, along the western edge of [[Bodmin Moor]]. [[Saint Petroc|St. Petroc]] founded a priory here in the [[6th century]]; he gave the alternate name to Bodmin which is ''Petrockstow''. Bodmin is one of the oldest towns in the county, and the only Cornish settlement of size recorded in the Domesday Book of the late 11th century. In the [[15th century]] the Norman church of St. Petroc was heavily rebuilt and stands as one of the largest churches in Cornwall. Also built at that time was an abbey, now mostly ruined. For most of Bodmin's history, the [[tin]] industry was a mainstay of the economy.
It has been suggested that the town's name comes from an archaic word in the [[Cornish language|Cornish]] "bod" (meaning a dwelling; the later word is "bos") and a contraction of "menegh" (monks). This speculation is both unproven and unprovable since the name is also thought to predate the institution of the monastery which is popularly supposed to support it; it may however refer to an earlier monastic settlement instituted by [[Saint Guron|St. Guron]], which St. Petroc took as his site.
[[Bodmin Parkway railway station]] is served by main line trains and is situated on the [[Great Western Main Line]] about 3.5 miles south-east from the town centre. A [[heritage railway]], the [[Bodmin and Wenford Railway]], runs from Bodmin Parkway station via [[Bodmin General railway station]] to Boscarne Junction where there is convenient access to the [[Camel Trail]]..
[[Bodmin Gaol]], now a semi-ruin was built in the late 18th century, and was the first British prison to hold prisoners in separate cells (though often up to 10 at a time) rather than communally. This grim place was also site of Britain's last public hanging in 1809. Also, during the [[First World War]] the prison was deemed worthy to hold some of Britain's priceless national treasures including the [[Domesday Book]] and the [[Crown Jewels]].
Other buildings of interest include the former [[Shire Hall]], now a tourist information centre, and the Regimental Barracks of the now defunct [[Duke_of_Cornwall%27s_Light_Infantry|Duke Of Cornwall's Light Infantry]], now a regimental museum.
[[Category:Towns in Cornwall]]
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<page>
<title>Bodmin Moor</title>
<id>4859</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-24T06:36:03Z</timestamp>
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<username>Betacommand</username>
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<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:The_Cheesewring_2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Cheeswring, a granite tor on the southern edge of Bodmin Moor (Photo by Mick Knapton)]]
'''Bodmin Moor''' is a [[granite]] [[heath (habitat)|moorland]] in northeastern [[Cornwall]], [[United Kingdom|UK]], 208 km&sup2; in size, dating from the [[Carboniferous]] period of [[geology|geological]] history.
Dramatic [[granite]] [[tor]]s rise from the rolling moorland. During the [[Bronze Age]], Bodmin Moor was densely populated and now many prehistoric stone [[tumulus|barrow]]s and [[stone circle|circles]] lie scattered across the moor. Today it is thinly populated aside from the small village of [[Bolventor]]. On the southern slopes of the moor lies Dozmary Pool, where according to [[King Arthur|Arthurian]] legend [[Sir Bedivere]] threw [[Excalibur]] to [[The Lady of the Lake]].
Bodmin Moor has been officially designated an [[Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]] (AONB), as part of Cornwall AONB.
The highest point is [[Brown Willy]] at 420 m (1378 ft), also the highest point in [[Cornwall]].
|
digan, Michael T., and Barry L. Narrs. "Extremeophiles." Scientific American. April 1997: 82-88
Todar, Kenneth. "MAJOR GROUPS OF PROKARYOTES."
<http://www.bact.wisc.edu/Bact303/MajorGroupsOfProkaryotes>
<http://www.haloarchaea.com>
Anton, J., Llobet-Brossa, E., Rodriguez-Valera, F., and Amann, R. (1999) Fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis of the prokaryotic community inhabiting crystallizer ponds. Environmental Microbiology 1: 517-523.
Anton, J., Rossello-Mora, R., Rodriguez-Valera, F., and Amann, R. (2000) Extremely halophilic bacteria in crystallizer ponds from solar salterns. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66: 3052-3057.
Casamayor, E.O., Massana, R., Benlloch, S., Ovreas, L., Diez, B., Goddard, V.J., Gasol, J.M., Joint, I., Rodriguez-Valera, F., and Pedros-Alio, C. (2002) Changes in archaeal, bacterial and eukaryal assemblages along a salinity gradient by comparison of genetic fingerprinting methods in a multipond solar saltern. Environmental Microbiology 4: 338-348.
Gutierrez, M.C., Kamekura, M., Holmes, M.L., Dyall-Smith, M.L., and Ventosa, A. (2002) Taxonomic characterisation of Haloferax sp. ("H. alicantei") strain Aa 2.2: description of Haloferax lucentensis sp. nov. Extremophiles. 2002 Dec;6(6):479-83
Santos, H., and da Costa, M.S. (2002) Compatible solutes of organisms that live in hot saline environments. Environmental Microbiology 4: 501-509.
Oren, A. (2002) Molecular ecology of extremely halophilic Archaea and Bacteria. FEMS Microbiology Ecology: 1-7.
''See also:'' [[biosalinity]], [[halotolerance]]
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<page>
<title>Herbert Simon</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HerbertSimon.jpg|right|Herbert Simon, c. 2000]]
'''Herbert Alexander Simon''' ([[June 15]], [[1916]] &ndash; [[February 9]], [[2001]]) was a researcher in the fields of [[cognitive psychology]], [[computer science]], [[public administration]], [[economics]] and [[philosophy]] (sometimes described as a [[polymath]]).
He was awarded the [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]'s [[Turing Award|A.M. Turing Award]] along with [[Allen Newell]] in [[1975]] for making "basic contributions to artificial intelligence, the psychology of human [[cognition]], and list processing." In [[1978]] he was awarded [[The Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]] "for his pioneering research into the decision-making process within economic organizations". He coined the terms ''[[bounded rationality]]'' and ''[[satisficing]]''.
He was born in [[Milwaukee]], [[Wisconsin]] in [[1916]]. He received his B.S. in [[1936]] from the [[University of Chicago]], where he was a member of the debate team. He earned a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in Political Science from the [[University of Chicago]] in [[1942]] with his dissertation in [[public administration]]. His dissertation was published as ''[[Administrative Behavior]]'', the book upon which his pioneering concepts and his Nobel Prize were based. He held positions at [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]] and the [[Illinois Institute of Technology]]. Simon served on the faculty of [[Carnegie Mellon University]] from [[1949]] until his death, pioneering the quantitative modeling of human behavior through research in a variety of fields.
Simon was a pioneer in the field of [[artificial intelligence]], creating with [[Allen Newell]] the [[Logic Theory Machine]] ([[1956]]) and the [[General Problem Solver]] (GPS) ([[1957]]) programs. GPS was possibly the first method of separating problem solving strategy from information about particular problems. Both programs were developed using the [[Information Processing Language]](IPL) ([[1956]]) developed by Newell, [[Cliff Shaw]] and Simon. [[Donald Knuth]] mentions (in Volume 1 of ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'') the development of list processing in IPL with the [[linked list]] originally called "NSS memory" for its inventors.
With [[Allen Newell]], Simon developed a [[theory]] for the [[simulation]] of human [[problem solving]] behavior using production rules (Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon, Human Problem Solving, [[1972]]). The study of human [[problem solving]] required new kinds of human measurements and he, [[Allen Newell]], and colleagues helped to develop the experimental technique of verbal protocol analysis (K. A. Ericsson and H. A. Simon, Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data, [[1993]]). Simon was interested in the role of knowledge in expertise. He said to become an expert required about 10 years of experience and he and colleagues estimated that expertise was the result of learning roughly 50,000 chunks ([[chunking (psychology)]]) of information. A [[chess]] [[expert]] was said to have learned about 50,000 chunks or chess position patterns. (Chase and Simon. Perception in Chess. [[Cognitive Psychology]] Volume 4, [[1973]].)
He was awarded the [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]'s [[Turing Award|A.M. Turing Award]] along with [[Allen Newell]] in [[1975]] for "In joint scientific efforts extending over twenty years, initially in collaboration with [[Cliff Shaw|J. C. (Cliff) Shaw]] at the [[RAND|RAND Corporation]], and subsequentially with numerous faculty and student colleagues at [[Carnegie Mellon University]], they have made basic contributions to [[artificial intelligence]], the psychology of [[human cognition]], and list processing."
While living in [[Pittsburgh, PA]], he advised the citizenry on various issues including the use of public funds to build stadiums and the method of raising tax revenue. Simon emphasized the usefulness of the [[land tax]], reflecting the early influence of [[Henry George]] on his economic thought.
==DECISIONS==
{{cleanup-section}}
''Administrative Behavior''<sup>1</sup>was Herbert Simon’s doctoral dissertation and his first book. It served as the foundation for his lifetime of work. The centerpiece of this book is the behavioral and cognitive processes of making rational human choices, that is, decisions. An operational administrative decision should be correct and efficient, and it must be practical to implement with a set of coordinated means.
Any decision involves a choice selected from a number of alternatives, directed toward an organizational goal or subgoal. Realistic options will have real consequences consisting of personnel actions or non-actions modified by environmental facts and values. In actual practice, some of the alternatives may be conscious or unconscious; some of the consequences may be unintended as well as intended; some of the means and ends may be imperfectly differentiated,incompletely related,or poorly detailed.
The task of rational decision making is to select the alternative that results in the more preferred set of all the possible consequences. This task can be divided into three required steps:(1)the identification and listing of all the alternatives; (2)the determination of all the consequences resulting from each of the alternatives; and(3)the comparison of the accuracy and efficiency of each of these sets of consequences.<sup>2</sup>Any given individual or organization attempting to implement this model in a real situation would be unable to comply with the three requirements.To have the knowledge of all the alternatives,or of all the consequences to follow each alternative is a highly improbable situation. Even much less likely will be the capacity to make an evaluation of all the consequences.
The terrifying question that presents itself at this point is : Given the inevitable limits on rational decision making,what other techniques or behavioral processes can a man,woman,group or organization bring to bear to achieve the approximately best result? Simon writes:“The human being striving for rationality and restricted within the limits of his knowledge has developed some working procedures that partially overcome these difficulties. These procedures consist in assuming that he can isolate from the rest of the world a closed system containing a limited number of variables and a limited range of consequences.”<sup>3</sup>
Administrative Behavior, as a text, addresses a wide range of human behaviors, cognitive abilities, management techniques, personnel policies, training goals and procedures, specialized roles, criteria for evaluation of accuracy and efficiency, and,of course, all of the ramifications of communication processes. Simon is particularly interested in how these factors directly and indirectly influence the making of decisions.
Weaving in and out of the practical functioning of all of these organizational factors are two universal elements of human social behavior that Simon addresses in Chapter VII—The Role of Authority<sup>4</sup>, and in Chapter X—Loyalities, and Organizational Identification.<sup>5</sup>
Authority is a well studied, primary mark of organizational behavior, and is straightforwardly defined in the organizational context as the ability and right of an individual of higher rank to determine the decision of an individual of lower rank. The actions, attitudes, and relationships of the dominant and subordinate individuals constitute components of role behavior that can vary widely in form,style,and content,but do not vary in the expectation of obedience by the one of superior status, and willingness to obey from the suborninate. Authority is highly influential on the formal structure of the organization, including patterns of communication, sanctions,and rew |
and adherence to Buddhist tantric [[sadhana]].
==Origin==
According to [[legend]], members of the Indian royal [[caste]]s and the wealthy [[nobility]] brought their deceased to the far North to visit the Shrine of the Dakini (located at the foothills of the [[Himalaya]]). Other legends mention a [[Tibet]]an myth which says dakini first appeared in a remote area "pure of man".
==Doctrine==
Dakini are timeless, inorganic, immortal, non-human [[being]]s who have co-existed since the very beginning with the Spiritual Energy. In some [[New Age]] belief systems, they are [[angel|angelic]]. This New Age [[paradigm]] differs from that of the [[Judeo-Christian]] by not insisting on angels being ''bona fide'' servants of [[God]]. Moreover, an angel is the Western equivalent of a dakini. The behavior of dakini has always been revelatory and mysterious; they respond to the state of spiritual energy within individuals. Love is their usual domain &mdash; one explanation for dakini or angels supposedly living in the [[sky]] or [[heaven]]. Manifestations of dakini in human form occur because they supposedly can assume any form. Most often they appear as a human female. By convention, a male of this type is called a '''daka''.
In [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and other schools closely related to [[Yogacara]] and [[Vajrayana]] practises, a dakini is considered a [[supernatural]] being who tests a practitioner's abilities and commitments. Many stories of the [[Mahasiddha]]s in [[Tibet]] contain passages where a dakini will come to perturb the would-be Mahasiddha. When the dakini's test has been fulfilled and passed, the practitioner is often then recognised as a Mahasiddha, and often is elevated into the [[Paradise of the Dakinis]], a place of enlightened bliss. It should be noted that while dakinis are often depicted as beautiful and naked, they are not sexual symbols, but rather natural ones. There are instances where a dakini has come to test a practitioner's control over their sexual desires, but the dakini itself is not a being of passion.
Tantric [[sex]] may involve a "helper" dakini &mdash; a human female trained in Tantra [[Yoga]] &mdash; or an "actual" dakini. Both increase the level of erotic pleasure for the sexual participants by helping them focus on a non-physical state of spiritual joy and the physical pleasure of sex at the same time.
[[Image:Varjayogini.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Tibetan Board Carving of Varjayogini Dakini]]
==Iconography==
Iconographic representations tend to show the dakini as a young, naked figure in a dancing posture, often holding a skull cup filled with menstrual blood or the elixir of life in one hand, and a curved knife in the other. She may wear a garland of human skulls, with a trident staff leaning against her shoulder. Her hair is usually wild and hanging down her back, and her face often wrathful in expression, as she dances on top of a corpse, which represents her complete mastery over ego and ignorance. Practitioners often claim to hear the clacking of her bone adornments as the dakinis indulge in their vigorous movement. Indeed these unrestrained damsels appear to revel in freedom of every kind.
==References==
* [http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/dakini Dance of the Yogini: Images of Aggression in Tantric Buddhism]
==External links==
*[http://www.dakini.demon.co.uk/ Dakini and the Female Spirit]
*[http://www.buddhanature.com/buddha/bluedakini.html A Contemplative View of the Blue Dakini]
*[http://www.buddhanature.com/buddha/blackdakini.html A Contemplative View of the Black Dakini]
*[http://www.buddhanature.com/buddha/emeralddakini.html A Contemplative View of the Emerald Dakini]
[[Category:Tibetan Buddhism]]
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<title>Donny the Punk</title>
<id>8605</id>
<revision>
<id>36119406</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-21T19:46:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.51.154.110</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Reference */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[de:Donny the Punk]]
'''Donny the Punk''' is a nickname for '''Stephen Donaldson''', founder of [[Stop Prisoner Rape, Inc.]].
Stephen Donaldson was born in the US, just in time to make him at the right age to be able to protest against the [[Vietnam War]]. And so he did, in a [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] peace rally, until the peaceful demonstrators were arrested by the police. Most got out on $10 bail, but Donny refused to pay out of principle.
He was moved into a jail wing full of hardened criminals on orders from the warden. That night he was anally and orally [[rape]]d dozens of times. He had injuries to his [[rectum]] so severe that he had to spend weeks in a hospital after the attack. This sort of treatment of anti-war protesters has not been acknowledged in the United States, and it is unknown how often it happened. Due to the stigma of being a rape victim, the crime was and continues to be extremely underreported.
He went on to have severe emotional problems, landing back in jail a couple times, but also taking a number of graduate school classes at [[Columbia University]] to study religion. During his subsequent incarcerations, he would 'hook up' with powerful male inmates to keep from being beaten and attacked again; although, he would have to have sex in exchange for this protection. This is where the word "Punk" in his name comes from. A [[jail house punk]] is the term used to refer to the inmates who trade sex for inclusion into a group that ensures their physical safety.
He went on to found "Stop Prisoner Rape, Inc.", an organization that helps prisoners deal with the psychological and physical trauma of rape, and works to prevent it happening. He was perhaps the first anti male-rape activist with any amount of public attention in the United States.
As Donny the Punk, he was also a respected writer and personality in the [[Punk rock]] and anti-racist [[skinhead]] movements and was published in [[Fanzines|fanzines]] such as [[Maximum RocknRoll]] and [[J.D.s]].
He died in the 1990s from [[AIDS]].
==Reference==
*http://www.spr.org
[[Category:People known in connection with identity politics]] [[Category:Punk]] [[Category:Queercore]] [[Category:Activists]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Deir Yassin incident</title>
<id>8607</id>
<revision>
<id>15906583</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-04T15:19:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jennifer</username>
<id>2295</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Deir Yassin massacre]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dolmen</title>
<id>8608</id>
<revision>
<id>41630415</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T17:25:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.33.49.251</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Added Category:Monument types</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dolmens''' (also known as '''cromlechs''', '''Hünengräber''', '''Hunebedden''' and '''quoits''') are [[megalithic tomb]]s consisting of large stones ([[megalith]]s) set in formation and originally covered with earth or more, smaller stones. In many cases the covering has been weathered away leaving only the stone 'skeleton' of the monument. They are a single-chamber type of [[megalithic tomb]].
As indicated above, "dolmen" is not the only word used to identify these structures. "Dolmen" means "stone table" in [[Breton language|Breton]] <!--Query "quoit" for: and [[Cornish language|Cornish]]--> and was first used archælogically by [[Théophile Corret de la Tour d'Auvergne]]. The [[etymology]] of the [[German language|German]] ''Hünenbett'' or ''Hünengrab'' and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''Hunebed'' all invoke the imagery of [[Giant (mythology)|giant]]s building the structures. Of other [[Celtic languages]], "[[cromlech]]" derives from [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and "quoit" is commonly used in [[Cornwall]].
These [[megalithic]] [[tomb]]s are found on the [[North Sea]] and [[Baltic Sea]] coasts. ''Hunebedden'' are [[chamber tomb]]s similar to dolmens and date to the middle [[Neolithic]] ([[Funnelbeaker culture]], [[4th millennium BC]]). They consist of a [[kerb]] surrounding an [[Oval (geometry)|oval]] mound which covered a [[rectangle|rectangular]] chamber of stones with the entrance on one of the long sides. Some have a more complex layout and include an entrance passage giving them a T-shape. It has been suggested that this means they are related to the [[Passage grave]]s found in [[Denmark]] and elsewhere.
In [[Mecklenburg]] and [[Pomerania]], large numbers of these graves were disturbed when towns and cities were built. The boulders came in handy for [[construction]] and [[road]] building. There are still many thousands left today in Europe: for example, more than a thousand on the island of [[Rügen]] alone.
Similar tombs can be found all over the world. [[Korea]] is said to contain half of the world's total, dating from the [[1st millennium BC]]. The dolmen in [[Ganghwa]] is a northern-type, table-shaped dolmen where ancestral rites were held. It is the biggest stone of this kind in [[South Korea]], measuring 2.6 by 7.1 by 5.5 [[metre]]s.
Dolmens are also present in [[Syria]] in the [[Golan Heights]].
<gallery>
image:hunebed-d27.jpg|T-shaped Hunebed D27 in [[Borger-Odoorn]], [[Netherlands]], recent.
image:hunebed-d27-vg.jpg|Same Hunebed D27 in [[1924]].
image:Dolmen axeitos.JPG|Dolmen de Axeitos, [[Galicia, Spain|Galicia]], [[Spain]].
image:Antadaaboboreira.jpg|Dolmen da Aboboreira, [[Baião]], [[Portugal]].
image:paulnabrone.jpg|Poulnabrone dolmen in [[County Clare]], [[Ireland]].
</gallery>
== See also ==
* [[Dolmen deity]]
* [[Portal dolmen]]
* [[Stone circle] |
about the world and, at the same time, intrinsically motivating, they would have to be very weird facts. So we have every reason not to believe in them.
For relevant contemporary work, see [[J. L. Mackie]]'s ''[[Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong]]'', Mackie's ''[[Hume's Moral Theory]]'', [[David Brink]]'s ''[[Moral Realism and the Foundation of Ethics]]'', and [[Michael Smith (philosopher)|Michael Smith's]] ''[[The Moral Problem]]''.
===Free will versus determinism===
Just about everyone has noticed the apparent conflict between [[free will]] and [[determinism]] &ndash; if your actions were determined to happen billions of years ago, then how can they be up to you? But Hume noted another conflict, one that turned the problem of free will into a full-fledged dilemma: free will is incompatible with indeterminism. Imagine that your actions are not determined by what events came before. Then your actions are, it seems, completely random. Moreover, and most importantly for Hume, they are not determined by your character &ndash; your desires, your preferences, your values, etc. How can we hold someone responsible for an action that did not result from his character? How can we hold someone responsible for an action that randomly occurred? Free will seems to require determinism, because otherwise, the agent and the action wouldn't be connected in the way required of freely chosen actions. So now, nearly everyone believes in free will, free will seems inconsistent with determinism, and free will seems to require determinism. Hume's view is that human behavior, like everything else, is caused, and therefore holding people responsible for their actions should focus on rewarding them or punishing them in such a way that they will try to do what is morally desirable and will try to avoid doing what is morally reprehensible. (See also [[Compatibilism]].)
For a critical analysis of Hume's arguments and general compatibilist strategy see, ''[[Paul Russell]]'s ''Freedom and Moral Sentiment: Hume's Way of Naturalizing Responsibility''. For a relevant contemporary work, see [[Daniel C. Dennett]]'s ''[[Freedom Evolves]]''.
===The is-ought problem===
Hume noted that many writers talk about ''what ought to be'' on the basis of statements about ''what is'' ([[is-ought problem]]). But there seems to be a big difference between descriptive statements (what is) and prescriptive statements (what ought to be). Hume calls for writers to be on their guard against changing the subject in this way without giving an explanation of how the ought-statements are supposed to follow from the is-statements. But how exactly can you derive an 'ought' from an 'is'? That question, prompted by Hume's small paragraph, has become one of the central questions of ethical theory, and Hume is usually assigned the position that such a derivation is impossible. (Others interpret Hume as saying not that one cannot go from a factual statement to an ethical statement, but that one cannot do so without going through human nature, that is, without paying attention to human sentiments.) Hume is probably one of the first writers to make the distinction between normative (what ought to be) and positive (what is) statements, which is so prevalent in social science and moral philosophy. [[G. E. Moore]] defended a similar position with his "open question argument", intending to refute any identification of moral properties with natural properties&mdash;the so-called "[[naturalistic fallacy]]".
===Utilitarianism===
It was probably Hume who, along with his fellow members of the [[Scottish Enlightenment]], first advanced the idea that the explanation of moral principles is to be sought in the [[utility]] they tend to promote. Hume's role is not to be overstated, of course; it was his countryman [[Francis Hutcheson]] who coined the [[utilitarian]] slogan "greatest happiness for the greatest numbers". But it was from reading Hume's ''Treatise'' that [[Jeremy Bentham]] first felt the force of a utilitarian system: he "felt as if scales had fallen from [his] eyes". Nevertheless, Hume's proto-utilitarianism is a peculiar one from our perspective. He doesn't think that the aggregation of cardinal units of utility provides a formula for arriving at moral truth. On the contrary, Hume was a moral sentimentalist and, as such, thought that moral principles could not be intellectually justified. Some principles simply appeal to us and others don't; and the reason why utilitarian moral principles do appeal to us is that they promote our interests and those of our fellows, with whom we sympathize. Humans are hard-wired to approve of things that help society &ndash; public utility. Hume used this insight to explain how we evaluate a wide array of phenomena, ranging from social institutions and government policies to character traits and talents.
===The problem of miracles===
One way to support a religion is by appeal to [[miracle]]s. But Hume argued that, at minimum, [[miracle]]s could never give religion much support. There are several arguments suggested by Hume's essay, all of which turn on his conception of a miracle: namely, a violation of [[physics|the laws of nature]] by [[God]]. One argument claims that it's impossible to violate the laws of nature. Another claims that human testimony could never be reliable enough to countermand the evidence we have for the laws of nature. The weakest and most defensible claims that, due to the strong evidence we have for the laws of nature, any miracle claim is in trouble from the start, and needs strong supporting evidence to defeat our initial presumptions. In a slogan, extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence. This point has been most applied to the question of the [[resurrection of Jesus]], where Hume would no doubt ask, ''"Which is more likely &ndash; that a man rose from the dead or that this testimony is mistaken in some way?"'' Or, more blandly, ''"Which is more likely &ndash; that [[Uri Geller]] can really bend spoons with his mind or that there is some trick going on?"'' This is somewhat similar to [[Occam's Razor]]. This argument is the backbone of the skeptic's movement and a live issue for historians of religion.
For a critical and technical ([[Bayesian probability|Bayesian]]) analysis of Hume, see [[John Earman]]'s ''[[Hume's Abject Failure]]'' &ndash; the title of which gives you an idea of his assessment. For a rebuttal of Earman's interpretation of Hume, see [[Robert Fogelin]]'s ''[[A Defense of Hume on Miracles]]''.
<!-- not about Hume -- and Lewis abandoned his arguments after Anscombe vanquished them
In addition, [[C.S. Lewis]], [[Norman Geisler]], [[William Lane Craig]], and Christians who engage in jurisprudence [[Christian apologetics]] have argued that miracles are reasonable and plausible. [http://www.comereason.org/phil_qstn/phi060.asp] [http://www.christiananswers.net/q-eden/edn-t011.html] [http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/docs/miracles.html][http://www.tektonics.org/gk/hume01.html][http://www.ses.edu/journal/articles/2.1Hoffman.pdf].
-->
===The design argument===
One of the oldest and most popular [[existence of God|arguments for the existence of God]] is [[teleological argument|the design argument]] &ndash; that all the order and 'purpose' in the world bespeaks a divine origin. Hume gave the classic criticism of the design argument in ''[[Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion]]'' and ''[[An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding]]'' and though the issue is far from dead, many are convinced that Hume killed the argument for good. Here are some of his points:
#For the design argument to be feasible, it must be true that order and purpose are observed only when they result from design. But order is observed regularly, resulting from presumably mindless processes like snowflake or crystal generation. Design accounts for only a tiny part of our experience with order and 'purpose'.
#Furthermore, the design argument is based on an incomplete analogy: because of our experience with objects, we can recognise human-designed ones, comparing for example a pile of stones and a brick wall. But in order to point to a designed Universe, we would need to have an experience of a range of different universes. As we only experience one, the analogy cannot be applied.
#Even if the design argument is completely successful, it could not (in and of itself) establish a robust theism; one could easily reach the conclusion that the universe's configuration is the result of some morally ambiguous, possibly unintelligent agent or agents whose method bears only a remote similarity to human design.
#If a well-ordered natural world requires a special designer, then God's mind (being so well-ordered) ''also'' requires a special designer. And then this designer would likewise need a designer, and so on ''ad infinitum''. We could respond by resting content with an inexplicably self-ordered divine mind; but then why not rest content with an inexplicably self-ordered natural world? <!-- Is it possible to form a ''reductio ad absurdum'' by assuming that God's mental state is inexplicable? I think that would make this point clearer. How does Hume proceed? [[User:MrJones|Mr. Jones]] 19:19, [[13 July]] [[2004]] (UTC) -->
#Often, what appears to be purpose, where it looks like object X has feature F in order to secure some outcome O, is better explained by a filtering process: that is, object X wouldn't be around did it not possess feature F, and outcome O is only interesting to us as a human projection of goals onto nature. This mechanical explanation of [[teleology]] anticipated [[natural selection]]. (see also [[Anthropic principle]])
For relevant contemporary work, see [[J. C. A. Gaskin]]'s ''[[Hume's Philosophy of Religion]]'', and Richard Swinburne's ''[[The Existence of God]]''; for a view from a philosopher of [[ |
- [[Jason Lee (actor)|Jason Lee]], American actor
*[[1973]] - [[Fredrik Larzon]], Swedish drummer ([[Millencolin]])
*[[1976]] - [[Tim Duncan]], West Indian basketball player
*1976 - [[Rainer Schuettler]], German tennis player
*[[1977]] - [[Constantinos Christoforou]], Cypriot singer
*[[1989]] - [[Gedhun Choekyi Nyima]], 11th Panchen Lama
*[[1996]] - [[Allisyn Ashley Arm]], American actress
==Deaths==
*[[1185]] - [[Emperor Antoku]] of Japan (b. [[1178]])
*[[1265]] - [[Roger de Quincy, 2nd Earl of Winchester]], English Crusader
*[[1295]] - King [[Sancho IV of Castile]]
*[[1472]] - [[Leon Battista Alberti]], Italian artist, poet, and philosopher (b. [[1404]])
*[[1516]] - [[John Yonge]], English diplomat (b. [[1467]])
*[[1566]] - [[Diane de Poitiers]], mistress of King [[Henry II of France]] (b. [[1499]])
*1566 - [[Louise Labé]], French poet
*[[1595]] - [[Torquato Tasso]], Italian poet (b. [[1544]])
*[[1605]] - [[Naresuan]], King of Siam (b. [[1555]])
*[[1644]] - [[Chongzhen]], Emperor of China (b [[1611]])
*[[1660]] - [[Henry Hammond]], English churchman (b. [[1605]])
*[[1690]] - [[David Teniers the Younger]], Flemish artist (b. [[1610]])
*[[1744]] - [[Anders Celsius]], Swedish astronomer (b. [[1701]])
*[[1770]] - [[Jean-Antoine Nollet]], French abbot and physicist (b. [[1700]])
*[[1800]] - [[William Cowper]], English poet (b. [[1731]])
*[[1840]] - [[Siméon-Denis Poisson]], French mathematician (b. [[1781]])
*[[1878]] - [[Anna Sewell]], English author (b. [[1820]])
*[[1911]] - [[Emilio Salgari]], Italian novelist (b. [[1862]])
*[[1937]] - [[Michal Drzymala|Micha&#322; Drzyma&#322;a]], Polish rebel (b.[[1857]])
*[[1943]] - [[Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko]], Russian theatre director (b. [[1858]])
*[[1968]] - [[John Tewksbury]], American athlete (b. [[1876]])
*[[1972]] - [[George Sanders (actor)|George Sanders]], British actor (b. [[1906]])
*[[1980]] - [[Katia Mann]], wife of German writer [[Thomas Mann]] (b. [[1883]])
*[[1982]] - [[John Cardinal Cody]], American cardinal (b. [[1907]])
*[[1990]] - [[Dexter Gordon]], American saxophonist (b. [[1923]])
*[[1995]] - [[Art Fleming]], American game show host (b. [[1925]])
*1995 - [[Ginger Rogers]], American actress and dancer (b. [[1911]])
*[[1996]] - [[Saul Bass]], American graphics designer (b. [[1920]])
*[[1998]] - [[Morris Wright]], American writer (b. [[1910]])
*[[1999]] - [[Lord Killanin]], Irish International Olympic Committee president (b. [[1914]])
*[[2000]] - [[David Merrick]], American theatrical producer (b. [[1911]])
*[[2001]] - [[Michele Alboreto]], Italian race car driver (b. [[1956]])
*[[2002]] - [[Indra Devi]], yoga teacher (b. [[1899]])
*[[2002]] - [[Lisa "Left Eye" Lopes]], Rapper (b. [[1971]])
*[[2003]] - [[Samson Kitur]], Kenyan athlete (b. ([[1966]])
*[[2005]] - [[Swami Ranganathananda]], Indian monk and president of the Ramakrishna Mission (b. ([[1908]])
==Holidays and observances==
* [[ANZAC Day]] ([[Australia]], [[New Zealand]])
* ''[[Carnation Revolution]]'' commemorated in Portugal (National Holiday)
* [[Liberazione|''Festa della Liberazione'']], ([[Italy]]), annual commemoration to mark the liberation of Italy at the end of the [[World War II|Second World War]].
* [[Faroe Islands]] - National [[Flag Day]]
* [[Swaziland]] - National Flag Day
* [[Easter]] [[Sunday]] - [[1886]], [[1943]], [[2038]]. In the [[Gregorian Calendar]] 25th April is the latest date on which Easter Sunday can fall ([[22nd March]] is the earliest)
* [[Feast day]] of [[Mark the Evangelist|St Mark]]
* [[Rastafari movement]] - Celebration of [[Haile Selassie]]'s visit to [[Jamaica]]
* [[Roman Empire]] - [[Robigalia]] in honor of [[Robigus]]
* Official [[Red Hat Society]] day
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/25 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[April 24]] - [[April 26]] - [[March 25]] - [[May 25]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:25 April]]
[[ar:25 إبريل]]
[[an:25 d'abril]]
[[ast:25 d'abril]]
[[bg:25 април]]
[[be:25 красавіка]]
[[bs:25. april]]
[[ca:25 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 25]]
[[cv:Ака, 25]]
[[co:25 d'aprile]]
[[cs:25. duben]]
[[cy:25 Ebrill]]
[[da:25. april]]
[[de:25. April]]
[[et:25. aprill]]
[[el:25 Απριλίου]]
[[es:25 de abril]]
[[eo:25-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 25]]
[[fo:25. apríl]]
[[fr:25 avril]]
[[fy:25 april]]
[[ga:25 Aibreán]]
[[gl:25 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 25일]]
[[hr:25. travnja]]
[[io:25 di aprilo]]
[[id:25 April]]
[[ia:25 de april]]
[[ie:25 april]]
[[is:25. apríl]]
[[it:25 aprile]]
[[he:25 באפריל]]
[[jv:25 April]]
[[ka:25 აპრილი]]
[[csb:25 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:25'ê avrêlê]]
[[la:25 Aprilis]]
[[lt:Balandžio 25]]
[[lb:25. Abrëll]]
[[li:25 april]]
[[hu:Április 25]]
[[mk:25 април]]
[[ms:25 April]]
[[nap:25 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:25 april]]
[[ja:4月25日]]
[[no:25. april]]
[[nn:25. april]]
[[oc:25 d'abril]]
[[pl:25 kwietnia]]
[[pt:25 de Abril]]
[[ro:25 aprilie]]
[[ru:25 апреля]]
[[sco:25 Aprile]]
[[sq:25 Prill]]
[[scn:25 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 25]]
[[sk:25. apríl]]
[[sl:25. april]]
[[sr:25. април]]
[[fi:25. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:25 april]]
[[tl:Abril 25]]
[[tt:25. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 25]]
[[th:25 เมษายน]]
[[vi:25 tháng 4]]
[[tr:25 Nisan]]
[[uk:25 квітня]]
[[ur:25 اپریل]]
[[wa:25 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 25]]
[[zh:4月25日]]
[[pam:Abril 25]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 24</title>
<id>2734</id>
<revision>
<id>42070922</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:51:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Computerjoe</username>
<id>145799</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.36.195.9|82.36.195.9]] to last version by Fadix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom -->
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=24}}
|}
'''[[April 24]]''' is the 114th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (115th in [[leap year]]s). There are 251 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1184 BC]] - [[Ancient Greece|Greek]]s enter [[Troy]] using the [[Trojan Horse]] (traditional).
*[[1704]] - The first regular [[newspaper]] in the [[13 colonies|United States]], the [[Boston, Massachusetts]] ''New-Letter'', is published.
*[[1800]] - The [[United States]] [[Library of Congress]] is established when President [[John Adams]] signs legislation to appropriate [[USD|$]]5,000 to purchase "such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress".
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: A flotilla commanded by [[United States|Union]] Admiral [[David Farragut]] passes two [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] forts on the [[Mississippi River]] on its way to capture [[New Orleans, Louisiana]].
*[[1863]] - The [[Keyesville Massacre]]: a [[massacre]] of 53 [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] men from the [[Tehachapi]] tribe in [[Keyesville, California]].
*[[1898]] - [[Spanish-American War]]: [[Spain]] [[declaration of war|declares war]] on the [[United States]].
*[[1913]] - The [[skyscraper]] [[Woolworth Building]] in [[New York City]] was opened.
*[[1915]] - The Young Turk government arrested several hundred - or, according to Turkish records, over two thousand - Armenian intellectuals which marked the beginning of what is known as the [[Armenian Genocide]].
*[[1916]] - [[Easter Uprising]] begins: The [[Irish Republican Brotherhood]] led by nationalist [[Patrick Pearse]] start a rebellion in [[Ireland]].
*[[1940]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Demon]] &ndash; The [[United Kingdom]] begins evacuating [[Greece]].
*[[1953]] - [[Winston Churchill]] is knighted by Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]].
*[[1955]] - [[Bandung Conference]] ends: Twenty-nine non-aligned nations of [[Asia]] and [[Africa]] finish a meeting that condemned [[colonialism]], [[racism]], and the [[Cold War]].
*[[1961]] - The [[17th century]] [[Sweden|Swedish]] ship [[Vasa (ship)|Vasa]] is [[salvage]]d.
*[[1963]]- Marriage of Her Royal Highness [[Princess Alexandra of Kent]] to [[Angus Ogilvy]] at [[Westminster Abbey]] in [[London]].
*[[1964]] - [[Mexico]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1967]] - [[Astronaut|Cosmonaut]] [[Vladimir Komarov]] dies in [[Soyuz 1]].
* 1967 - [[Vietnam War]]: [[United States|American]] General [[William Westmoreland]] says in a news conference that the enemy had "gained support in the United States that gives him hope that he can win politically that which he cannot win militarily."
*[[1968]] - [[Mauritius]] becomes a member state of the [[United Nations]].
*[[1970]] - The first [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] [[satellite]], [[ Dong Fang Hong I]], is launched.
* 1970 - [[The Gambia]] becomes a [[republic]] within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], with [[Dawda Jawara]] as the first [[Heads of State of the Gambia|President]].
*[[1975]] - The [[Baader-Meinhof Gang]] blow up the [[West Germany|West German]] embassy in [[Stockholm]].
*[[1980]] - Eight [[United States|U.S.]] servicemen died in [[Operation Eagle Claw]] as they attempted to end the [[Iran hostage crisis]].
*[[1981]] - The first [[IBM PC]] is introduced.
*[[1982]] - In [[Harrogate]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Nicole (artist)|Nicole]] wins the twenty-seventh [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for [[Germany]] singing "Ein bißchen Frieden" (A little bit of peace).
*[[1984]] - [[Apple Computer]] unveils its [[Apple IIc]] [[portable computer]].
*[[1990]] - [[STS-31]]: The [[Hubble Space Telescope]] is launched by the [[Space Shuttle program|Space Shuttle]] [[Space Shuttle Discovery|''Discovery'']].
*1990 - [[Gruinard Island]], [[Scotland]], is officially declared free of [[Anthrax disease|anthrax]] after 48 years of [[quarantine]].
*[[1991]] - [[Freddie Stowers]] is awarded the [[posthumous]] [[Medal of Honor]] for which he had been recommended in [[1918]].
*[[1993]] - An [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] bomb devast |
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