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d style the [[Minuscule|lower-case]]d version "baroque", which can instead mean merely "elaborate" [or especially "overly elaborate"] without implying connection to the period.)
The popularity and success of the "Baroque" was encouraged by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] when it decided that the drama of the Baroque artists' style could communicate religious themes in direct and emotional involvement. The secular aristocracy also saw the dramatic style of Baroque architecture and art as a means of impressing visitors and would-be competitors. Baroque palaces are built round an entrance sequence of courts, anterooms, grand staircases, and reception rooms of sequentially increasing magnificence. Many forms of art, music, architecture, and literature inspired each other in the "Baroque" [[cultural movement]].
==Evolution of the Baroque==
In recent history, western European civilizations have faced three critical questions (in chronological order): Which religion to follow; which government to uphold; and how to bring equality to everyone. The matter of religion was resolved after [[Martin Luther]], [[John Calvin]], and others initiated a [[Protestant Reformation]] that gave many European monarchs an excuse to become more independent from [[The Holy Roman Empire]]. This led to a [[Counter Reformation]] by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] which included a push for new forms of art that exalted the Church's holy position.
Beginning around the year 1600, the demands for new art resulted in what is now known as the Baroque. The canon promulgated at the [[Council of Trent]] (1545–63), by which the [[Roman Catholic Church]] addressed the representational arts by demanding that paintings and sculptures in church contexts should speak to the illiterate rather than to the well-informed, is customarily offered as an inspiration of the Baroque, which appeared, however, a generation later. This turn toward a populist conception of the function of ecclesiastical art is seen by many [[Art history|art historians]] as driving the innovations of [[Michelangelo Merisi|Caravaggio]] and the [[Carracci]] brothers, all of whom were working (and competing for commissions) in Rome at that time.
The appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the witty, intellectual qualities of 16th century [[Mannerism|Mannerist]] art to a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, and dramatic (''see the ''Prometheus'' sculpture below''). Baroque art drew on certain broad and heroic tendencies in [[Annibale Carracci]] and his circle, and found inspiration in other artists like [[Antonio da Correggio|Correggio]] and [[Michelangelo Merisi|Caravaggio]] and [[Federico Barocci]], nowadays sometimes termed 'proto-Baroque'.
[[Image:Adampromethe.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Prometheus'', by Nicolas-Sébastien Adam, 1737 ([[Louvre Museum|Louvre]]): a hectic tour-de-force of violent contrasts of stress, multiple angles and viewpoints, and extreme emotion.]]
Germinal ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work of [[Michelangelo Buonarroti|Michelangelo]].
Some general parallels in music make the expression "Baroque music" useful. Contrasting phrase lengths, harmony and [[counterpoint]] ousted [[polyphony]], and orchestral color made a stronger appearance. (See [[Baroque music]].) Similar fascination with simple, strong, dramatic expression in poetry, where clear, broad syncopated rhythms replaced the enknotted elaborated metaphysical similes employed by [[Mannerism|Mannerist]]s such as [[John Donne]] and imagery that was strongly influenced by visual developments in painting, can be sensed in [[John Milton]]'s ''[[Paradise Lost]],'' a Baroque epic.
Though Baroque was superseded in many centers by the [[Rococo]] style, beginning in France in the late 1720s, especially for interiors, paintings and the decorative arts, Baroque architecture remained a viable style until the advent of [[Neoclassicism]] in the later 18th century. See the Neapolitan [[Caserta Palace|palace of Caserta]], a Baroque palace (though in a chaste exterior) that was not even begun until 1752. Critics have given up talking about a "Baroque ''period''."
In paintings, Baroque gestures are broader than Mannerist gestures: less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious, more like the stage gestures of [[opera]], a major Baroque artform. Baroque poses depend on ''[[contrapposto]]'' ("counterpoise"), the tension within the figures that moves the planes of shoulders and hips in counterdirections. See Bernini's ''David'' (''below, left''). [[image:Berndavi.JPG|thumb|left|200px|[[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]'s ''David'' (1623–24): Baroque freeze-frame stopped action, ''contrapposto'' and theatrical emotion]]
The dryer, chastened, less dramatic and coloristic, later stages of 18th century Baroque architectural style are often seen as a separate '''Late Baroque''' manifestation. (See [[Claude Perrault]].) Academic characteristics in the neo-[[Palladian]] architectural style, epitomized by [[William Kent]], are a parallel development in Britain and the British colonies: within doors, Kent's furniture designs are vividly influenced by the Baroque furniture of Rome and Genoa, hieratic tectonic sculptural elements meant never to be moved from their positions completing the wall elevation. Baroque is a style of unity imposed upon rich and massy detail.
The Baroque was defined by [[Heinrich Wölfflin]] as the age where the oval replaced the circle as the center of composition, centralization replaced balance, and coloristic and "painterly" effects began to become more prominent. Art historians, often [[Protestant]] ones, have traditionally emphasized that the Baroque style evolved during a time in which the [[Roman Catholic Church]] had to react against the many revolutionary cultural movements that produced a new science and new forms of [[religion]]—the [[Reformation]]. It has been said that the monumental Baroque is a style that could give the [[Papacy]], like [[political absolutism|secular absolute monarchies]], a formal, imposing way of expression that could restore its prestige, at the point of becoming somehow symbolic of the [[Catholic Reformation]]. Whether this is the case or not, it was successfully developed in [[Rome]], where Baroque architecture widely renewed the central areas with perhaps the most important urbanistic revision during this period of time.
==Baroque visual art ==
[[Image:BarocciAeneas.jpg|thumb|250px|''Aeneas flees burning Troy,'' [[Federico Barocci]], 1598: a moment caught in a dramatic action from a classical source, bursting from the picture plane in a sweeping diagonal perspective.]]
''Main article:'' [[Baroque art]]
A defining statement of what ''Baroque'' signifies in painting is provided by the series of paintings executed by [[Peter Paul Rubens]] for [[Marie de Medici]] at the [[Luxembourg Palace]] in Paris (now at the [[Louvre]]) [http://www.students.sbc.edu/vandergriff04/mariedemedici.html], in which a Catholic painter satisfied a Catholic patron: Baroque-era conceptions of monarchy, iconography, handling of paint, and compositions as well as the depiction of space and movement. There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting, from [[Caravaggio]] to [[Cortona]]; both approaching emotive dynamism with different styles. Another frequently cited work of Baroque art is [[Bernini]]'s ''[[Saint Theresa in Ecstasy]]'' for the Cornaro chapel in S. Maria della Vittoria, which brings together architecture, sculpture, and theater into one grand conceit [http://www.boglewood.com/cornaro/xteresa.html].
The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more decorative [[Rococo]], which, through contrast, further defines Baroque.
==Baroque sculpture ==
In Baroque sculpture, groups of figures assumed new importance, and there was a dynamic movement and energy of human forms— they spiralled around an empty central vortex, or reached outwards into the surrounding space. For the first time, Baroque sculpture often had multiple ideal viewing angles. The characteristic Baroque sculpture added extra-sculptural elements, for example, concealed lighting, or water [[fountains]].
The architecture, sculpture and fountains of [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini|Bernini]] (1598–1680) give highly-charged characteristics of Baroque style. Bernini was undoubtedly the most important sculptor of the Baroque period. He approached [[Michelangelo Buonarroti|Michelangelo]] in his omnicompetence: Bernini sculpted, worked as an architect, painted, wrote plays, and staged spectacles. In the late 20th century Bernini was most valued for his sculpture, both for his virtuosity in carving marble and his ability to create figures that combine the physical and the spiritual. He was also a fine sculptor of bust portraits in high demand among the powerful.
===Bernini's Cornaro chapel: the complete work of art===
A good example of Bernini's work that helps us understand the Baroque is his ''[[Ecstasy of St Theresa|St. Theresa in Ecstasy]]'' (1645–52), created for the Cornaro Chapel of the church of [[Santa Maria della Vittoria]], [[Rome]]. Bernini designed the entire chapel, a subsidiary space along the side of the church, for the Cornaro family.
He had, in essence, a brick box shaped something like a proscenium stage space with which to work. Saint Theresa, the focal point of the chapel, is a monochromatic marble statue (a soft white) surrounded by a polychromatic marble architectural framing concealing a window to light the statue from above. In shallow relief, sculpted figure-groups of the Cornaro family inhabit in opera boxes along the two side walls of the chapel. The setting places the viewer as a spectator in front of the statue with the Cornaro family leaning out of their box seats an |
ents on the Gershwin collection at the Library of Congress==
From Library of Congress publication (presumably in the public domain, as are all US Govt. publications) http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9809/gershwin.html
The music of George and Ira Gershwin runs deep in the American consciousness. The opening clarinet glissando from ''[[Rhapsody in Blue]],'' the taxi horn theme from ''[[An American in Paris]]'' and the songs — "I Got Rhythm," "Embraceable You," "The Man I Love," "Someone to Watch Over Me," "Fascinating Rhythm," and many others — are instantly recognizable. Mere mention of the name "Gershwin" brings to mind the sophisticated glamour of the '20s and '30s, personified by the brothers who helped to give those decades their musical voice.
But if the Gershwins symbolize a time, their music and words transcend it. The proliferating performances and recordings of their music testify to its enduring popularity, and George and Ira continue to be the subjects of both popular and scholarly study.
Ira Gershwin was a joyous listener to the sounds of the modern world. He noted in a diary: "Heard in a day: An elevator's purr, telephone's ring, telephone's buzz, a baby's moans, a shout of delight, a screech from a `flat wheel,' hoarse honks, a hoarse voice, a tinkle, a match scratch on sandpaper, a deep resounding boom of dynamiting in the impending subway, iron hooks on the gutter."
George's beautiful manuscript full score for ''[[Porgy and Bess]]'' conveys his care in creating the opera and the importance he attached to it. Song manuscripts with erasures and corrections present the youthful composer whom [[Edward Jablonski]] has called the "Jazz Age Meteor." Similarly, Ira's lyric sheets, with experimental [[rhyme]]s, unused [[couplet]]s and various corrections, show us Jablonski's "Contemplative Craftsman." No fewer than 17 pages of lyric drafts survive for the Ira Gershwin-[[Jerome Kern]] classic "Long Ago (And Far Away)." Also included are the so-called Secaucus manuscripts (scores and lyric sheets found in a Secaucus, N. J., Warner Bros. warehouse), George's harmony exercises, and eight of his musical sketchbooks.
==Further reading==
*Ira Gerswhin - ''Lyrics on Several Occasions: a selection of stage and screen lyrics written for sundry situations and now arranged in arbitrary categories, to which have been added many informative annotations and disquistions on their why and wherefore, their whom-for, their how, and matters associative'' (1959)
==References==
{{cite book | author=Rosenberg, Deena | title=Fascinating Rhythm: The Collaboration of George and Ira Gershwin | publisher= Penguin Books USA Inc. | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0-525-93356-5}}
==External links==
* [http://www.gershwinfan.com/ Gershwin fan site]
* [http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9809/gershwin.html Library of Congress Gershwin collection]
{{Porgy}}
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[[Category:1896 births|Gershwin, Ira]]
[[Category:1983 deaths|Gershwin, Ira]]
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<page>
<title>Indus River</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Indus''' (sometimes considered a [[misnomer]]{{Citation needed}}) is the [[English language|English]] name for the Sengge Chu which flows from Tibet into Ladakh and Baltistan, finally arriving into Pakistan. Also called [[Sindh]] Nadi (''nadi'' literally means "river"), known as the ''Sindhu'' in [[Sanskrit]], ''Sinthos'' in [[Greek language|Greek]], and ''Sindus'' in [[Latin]], is the principal [[river]] of [[Pakistan]]. Before the [[partition of India]] into the modern states of [[India]] and Pakistan in 1947, the Indus was second only to the [[Ganges]] in terms of cultural and commercial importance for the subcontinent, and the name [[India]] is derived from the root of the river's name. The river originates in [[Tibet]], flowing from the [[Himalaya]] in a north-westernly direction through [[Kashmir]], and then turning south for nearly the entire length of Pakistan. Figures for the total length of the river vary between 2900 and 3200 km. The [[Indus Valley Civilization]] had some of the earliest urban settlement in the world.
[[Image: Indus.jpg|thumb|300px|The Indus River in northern [[Pakistan]], near the rock Aornus.]]
== Course and Hydrology ==
The ultimate source of the Indus is actually in [[Tibet]]; it begins at the confluence of the [[Sengge River]] and [[Gar River]] that drain the [[Nganglong Kangri]] and [[Gangdise Shan]] ranges. The Indus then flows northwest through [[Ladakh-Baltistan]] into Gilgit just south of the [[Karakoram]] range, then gradually bends to the south, coming out of the hills between [[Peshawar]] and [[Rawalpindi]]. It is dammed in this area also, forming the [[Tarbela Reservoir]]. The remainder of its route to the sea is in plains of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and [[Sind]], and the river becomes slow-flowing and highly braided. It is joined by [[Panjnad]] river at [[Mithankot]]. Passing by [[Hyderabad, Pakistan|Hyderabad]], it ends in a large delta to the southeast of [[Karachi]].
=== Tributaries ===
[[Image:Indus.A2002274.0610.1km.jpg|thumb|200px|Satellite image of the Indus River basin.]]
* [[Shigar River]]
* [[Zangskar River]]
* [[Suru Chu River]]
* [[Wakha River]]
* [[Shingo River]]
* [[Gar River]]
* [[Astore River]]
* [[Gilgit River]]
* [[Ghizar River]]
* [[Hunza River]]
'''* [[Gumal River]]
* [[Zhob River]]'''
* [[Kabul River]]
* [[Kunar River]]
* [[Sutlej River]]
* [[Shyok River]]
* [[Beas River]]
* [[Chenab River]]
* [[Jhelum River]]
* [[Ravi River]]
=== Other ===
The Indus is one of the few rivers in the world that exhibit a [[tidal bore]].
The Indus is, by volume, the largest ''exotic river'' (one that mainly flows through a country from which it receives no water) in the world.
== History and Archeology ==
The [[Indus Valley Civilization]] was one of the three earliest civilizations of the ancient world, the other two being [[Sumer]] (in [[Mesopotamia]]/[[Iraq]]) and [[ancient Egypt]]. The major cities of the Indus Valley civilization, such as [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo Daro]], date back to around 3300 BC, and represent some of the largest human habitations of the ancient world.
== Wildlife ==
The [[Indus River Dolphin]] is a sub-species of Dolphins found only in the Indus River. It formerly also occurred in the tributaries of the Indus river. [[Palla fish]] (''[[Hilsa ilisha]]'') of the river is a delicacy for people living along the river.
Located southeast of [[Karachi]], the large delta has been recognised by conservationists as one of the world's most important ecological regions.
== See also ==
* [[Geography of India]]
* [[Geography of China]]
* [[Geography of Pakistan]]
* [[Indus River Delta]]
* [[Indus Water Treaty]]
==External links==
* [http://www.northernareas.org.pk/ Northern Areas Development Gateway]
* [http://www.macp-pk.org/home.asp The Mountain Areas Conservancy Project]
* [http://earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_fullscale.cfm?mapID=355&theme=2 Indus River watershed map (World Resources Institute)]
[[Category:Rivers of Pakistan]][[Category:Rivers of Tibet]]
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[[ko:인더스 강]]
[[hi:सिन्धु नदी]]
[[it:Indo]]
[[he:נהר האינדוס]]
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[[ta:சிந்து நதி]]
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[[zh:印度河]]
[[mr:सिंधु नदी]]
[[Category:Geography of Sindh]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Integer factorization</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">In [[number theory]], the '''integer factorization''' problem is the problem of finding a
[[divisor|non-trivial divisor]] of a [[composite number]]; for example, given a number like 91, the challenge is to find a number such as 7 which [[divides]] it.
When the numbers are very large, no efficient [[algorithm]] is known; a recent effort which factored a 200 digit number ([[RSA-200]]) took eighteen months and used over half a century of computer time. The supposed difficulty of this problem is at the heart of certain algorithms in [[cryptography]] such as [[RSA]]. Many areas of [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]] have been brought to bear on the problem, including [[elliptic curves]], [[algebraic number theory]], and [[quantum computer|quantum computing]].
Not all numbers of a given length are equally hard to factor. Given the state of the art as of [[2006]], the hardest instances of these problems are those where the factors are two randomly-chosen prime numbers of about the same size.
==Prime decomposition==
By the [[funda |
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<ip>172.160.197.182</ip>
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<comment>/* Erichthonius */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the goddess Athena. For other uses see [[Athena (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Athena.png|right|thumb|200px|Drawing from a sculpture of Athena at the Louvre.]]
'''Athena''', ([[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|Ἀθηνᾶ}} Athēnâ or {{polytonic|Ἀθήνη}} Athénē; [[Doric Greek|Doric]]: {{polytonic|Ἀσάνα}} Asána), the [[Greece|Greek]] [[goddess]] of [[wisdom]], [[strategy]], [[crafts]] and [[war]] associated by the [[Etruria|Etruscan]]s with their [[Etruscan mythology|goddess]] [[Menrva]] and later by the Romans as [[Minerva]], is attended by an [[Little Owl|owl]], wore a goatskin breastplate called the [[Aegis]] given to her by her father and is accompanied by the goddess of victory, [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]]. Athena is also a goddess associated with mentoring heroes. Athena is an armed warrior goddess, never a child, always a [[virgin]] (''parthenos''); she is said to have found the advances of men to be childish. The [[Parthenon]] at Athens, Greece is her most famous shrine. She never had a consort or lover, although once [[Hephaestus]] tried and failed.[[Herodotus]] and [[Plato]] incorrectly identified '''Athena''' with the [[Libyan (Ancient people)|Libyan]] (modern [[Berber]]s) goddess [[Neith]]. According to [[Plato]], Athena was derived from ''A-θεο-νόα'' (A-theo-noa) or ''H-θεο-νόα'' (E-theo-noa) meaning the mind of God ([[Cratylus|Crat.407b]]).
==History==
[[Image:Athena head.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Athena from the east pediment of the Afea temple in [[Aegina]]]]
Athena was probably a goddess in the Aegean in the prehistoric times, although her name is not attested in [[Eteocretan]]. She has been compared to [[Anatolian]] mother goddesses like [[Cybele]], her name possibly of [[Lydian]] origin (G. Neumann, ''Kadmos'' 6, 1967), and her byname ''Pallas'' has been compared to Hittite ''palahh'', a divine raiment [http://www.dainst.org/index_79_en.html]. In [[Mycenaean Greek]], ''A-ta-na-po-ti-ni-ja'' ''/Athana potniya/'' (Mistress Athena) is referred to in the [[Knossos]] [[Linear B]] text V 2. and ''A-ta-no-dju-wa-ja'' ''/Athana diwya/'', the final part being the Linear B spelling of what we know from ancient Greek as ''Diwia'' (Mycenaean ''di-u-ja'' or ''di-wi-ja'') "divine" (see [[dyeus]]). There is evidence that in early times, Athena was an [[owl]] herself, or a [[bird goddess]] in general. In book 3 of the [[Odyssey]], she takes the form of a [[sea-eagle]]. Her tassled [[aegis]] may be the remnants of wings [http://www.fjkluth.com/athena.html]. Athena is associated with [[Athens]], a plural name because it was the place where she presided over her sisterhood, the Athenai, in earliest times.
In the [[List of Greek mythological characters|Olympian pantheon]], Athena was remade as the favorite daughter of [[Zeus]], born from his forehead. The story of her birth comes in several versions. In the one most commonly cited, Zeus lay with [[Metis (mythology)|Metis]], the goddess of crafty thought, but immediately feared the consequences. It had been prophesied that Metis would bear children more powerful than Zeus himself. In order to forestall these dire consequences, Zeus transformed Metis into a fly and swallowed her immediately after lying with her. He was too late: Metis had already conceived a child. Metis immediately began making a helmet and robe for her fetal daughter. The hammering as she made the helmet caused Zeus great pain and [[Prometheus]], [[Hephaestus]], [[Hermes]] or [[Palaemon]] (depending on the sources examined) cleaved Zeus's head with the double-headed Minoan axe ([[labrys]]). Athena leaped from Zeus's head, fully grown and armed, and Zeus was none the worse for the experience.
Athena was patron of the art of weaving and other crafts, wisdom and battle. Unlike [[Ares]], who was hot-headed and undependable in battle, Athena's domain was strategy and tactics. Having taken the side of the Greeks in the war against [[Troy]], Athena assisted the wily [[Odysseus]] on his journey home.
=== Athena in art ===
[[Image: AttalusICorrected.jpg|thumb|200px|right|'''Athena''' was depicted on the obverse side of the [[Coin]] of [[Attalus I]], depicting the head of Attalus' great uncle [[Philetaerus]].]]
Athena is classically portrayed wearing full armor, carrying a lance and a shield with the head of the [[gorgon]] [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]] mounted on it. It is in this posture that she was depicted in [[Phidias]]'s famous gold and ivory statue of her, the [[Athena Parthenos]], now lost to history, in the [[Parthenon]] on the Athenian [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]]. Athena is also often depicted with an [[owl]] (a symbol of wisdom) sitting on one of her shoulders. The [[Mourning Athena]] is a relief sculpture that dates around 460 BC and portrays a tired, emotional Athena.
In earlier, archaic portraits of Athena in [[vase-painting]]s, the goddess retains some of her Minoan character, such as great birdwings.
=== Appellations ===
Homer's most common [[epithets in Homer|epithet]] for Athena, ''γλαυκώπις'' (glaukopis) is usually translated "bright-eyed" and is a combination of ''γλαύκος'' (glaukos) (which can be translated as "gleaming," "silvery," and later as "bluish-green" or "gray") and ''ώψ'' (ôps - "eye," or sometimes, "face"). It is interesting to note that ''γλαύξ'' (glaux - owl) is from the same root, presumably because of its own distinctive eyes. The bird which sees in the night is closely associated with the goddess of wisdom: in archaic images, she is frequently depicted with an owl perched on her head. In earlier times, Athena may well have been a [[bird goddess]], similar to [[Lilith|Lilitu]] and/or the goddess depicted with owls, wings and bird talons on the [[Burney relief]].
In her role as judge at [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]]' trial on the murder of his mother, [[Clytemnestra]] (which he won), Athena won the epithet "Athena Areia."
Athena was often associated with the local [[Aegina|Aeginian]] goddess, ''Αφαία'' ([[Aphaea]]). She had the epithet "Athena Ergane" as the patron of craftsmen and artisans.
She was often referred to with the epithet "Παλλάς Αθηνά" (Pallas Athena). [[Pallas]] was an ambiguous figure, sometimes male sometimes female, never imagined apart from Athena. She killed Pallas in a mistake, and ever after wore her/his goatskin fringed with [[chthonic]] serpents, as the protective [[aegis]]. With the epithet "[[Athena Parthenos]]" ("virgin"), Athena was worshipped at the [[Parthenon]]. With the epithet "Athena Promachos" she led in battle. With the epithet "Athena Polias" ("of the city"), Athena was the protectress of Athens and the Acropolis.
In the [[Homeric Hymns]] and in [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]'', she is described with the curious epithet "Tritogeneia." The exact meaning of this term is unclear. It seems to mean "[[Triton (mythology)|Triton]]-born," perhaps indicating that the sea-god was her father according to some early myths, or that she was born near Lake Triton in [[Africa]]. Another possible meaning is "triple-born" or "third-born," which may refer to her status as the third daughter of Zeus.
==Episodes==
=== Erichthonius ===
According to [[Apollodorus]], [[Hephaestus]] attempted to [[rape]] Athena but was unsuccessful. His [[semen]] fell on the ground, and [[Erichthonius of Athens|Erichthonius]] was born from the earth. Athena then raised the baby as a foster mother. Alternatively, the semen landed on Athena's leg, and she wiped it off with a piece of wool which she tossed on the ground. Erichthonius arose from the ground and the wool. Another version says that Hephaestus wanted Athena to marry him but she disappeared on his bridal bed; he ejaculated onto the ground instead. Athena gave three sisters, [[Herse]], [[Pandrosus]] and [[Aglaulus]] the baby in a small box and warned them to never open it. Aglaulus and Herse opened the box which contained the infant and future-king, Erichthonius. The sight caused Herse and Aglaulus to go insane and they threw themselves off the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]].
An alternative version of the same story is that while Athena was gone to bring a mountain to use in the Acropolis, the two willful sisters opened the box. A crow witnessed the opening and flew away to tell Athena, who fell into a rage and dropped the mountain (now [[Mt. Lykabettos]]). Once again, Herse and Aglaulus went insane and threw themselves to their deaths off a cliff.
Erichthonius later became [[King of Athens]] and implemented many beneficial changes to Athenian culture. During this time, Athena frequently protected him.
=== Athens ===
Athena competed with [[Poseidon]] to be the patron deity of [[Athens, Greece|Athens]]. They agreed that each would give the Athenians one gift and the Athenians would choose whichever gift they preferred. Poseidon struck the ground with his [[trident]] and a spring sprung up; the water was salty and not very useful, whereas Athena offered them the first domesticated [[olive tree]]. The Athenians (or their king, [[Cecrops]]) accepted the olive tree and along with it Athena as their patron, for the olive tree brought wood, oil and food. This is thought to remember a clash between the inhabitants during [[Mycenae]]an times and newer immigrants. It is interesting to note that Athens at its height was a significant sea power, defeating the [[Iran|Persia]]n fleet at the [[Battle of Salamis]] near [[Salamis Island]] in [[480 BC]]. Athena was also the patron goddess of several other cities, notably [[Sparta]].
In an alternate version, Pose |
ent and combat with small craft ahead of the usual idea of sea combat between equal opponents, an example of this school of thought is the American [[Littoral Combat Ship]], as exemplified by the first ship of the type, [[USS Freedom (LCS-1)|USS ''Freedom'']].
===See also===
* [[Current frigates]] (will be superseded by lists below)
* [[List of frigates of the Royal Navy]]
* [[List of frigates of the United States Navy]]
* [[List of sailing frigates of the United States Navy]]
* [[Halifax class frigate|''Halifax''-class frigates of the Canadian Navy]]
* [[Rating system of the Royal Navy]]
* [[United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification]]
===Further reading===
*Gresham, John D., "The swift and sure steeds of the fighting sail fleet were its dashing frigates", ''Military Heritage'' magazine, (John D. Gresham, Military Heritage, February 2002, Volume 3, No.4, pp. 12 to 17 and p. 87).
===External links===
*[http://www.battleships-cruisers.co.uk/frigates.htm Frigates] from battleships-cruisers.co.uk - history and pictures of United Kingdom frigates since World War II
*[http://www.destroyersonline.com/usndd/fftypes.htm? Frigates] from Destroyers OnLine - pictures, history, crews of United States frigates since 1963
*[http://www.cronab.demon.co.uk/ches1.htm "So Uneasy a Ship: The Unfortunate Career of the Frigate Chesapeake" by Joseph C. Mosier]
* [http://www.greatgridlock.net/Sqrigg/squrig2.html The Development of the Full-Rigged Ship From the Carrack to the Full-Rigger]
===Lists of frigates===
Note that Algerian, Tripolitan and Tunisian sail frigates are listed under Turkey. All Italian city-state frigates are listed under Italy.
<center>
<table border=2 cellspacing=2 bgcolor=883333>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=DD9966 width="25%">'''Sail frigates<br>(1640-1860)'''</td>
<td bgcolor=DD9966 width="25%">'''Steam frigates<br>(1830-1880)'''</td>
<td bgcolor=DD9966 width="25%">'''Modern frigates<br>(1940-present)'''</td>
<td bgcolor=DD9966 width="25%">'''Current frigates'''</td></tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Australian frigates|Australia]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Australian current frigates|Australia]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of ships of the Canadian Navy#1939-1945 (World War II)|Canada]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of ships of the Canadian Navy#Halifax-class multi-role patrol frigates|Canada]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Danish sail frigates|Denmark]]</td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Danish modern frigates|Denmark]]</td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td></tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Egyptian sail frigates|Egypt]]</td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td></tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of French sail frigates|France]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of French steam frigates|France]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of French modern frigates|France]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of French current frigates|France]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of German sail frigates|Germany]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of German steam frigates|Germany]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of German modern frigates|Germany]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of German current frigates|Germany]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Greek frigates|Greece]]</td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td></tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Italian sail frigates|Italy]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Italian steam frigates|Italy]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Italian modern frigates|Italy]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Italian current frigates|Italy]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Netherlands sail frigates|Netherlands]]</td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Netherlands current frigates|Netherlands]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Norwegian current frigates|Norway]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Peruvian steam frigates|Peru]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Peruvian modern frigates|Peru]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Peruvian current frigates|Peru]]</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Portuguese sail frigates|Portugal]]</td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td></tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Russian sail frigates|Russia]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Russian steam frigates|Russia]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Russian modern frigates|Russia]]</td>
<td></td></tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[Republic of Singapore Navy#Frigates|Singapore]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Spanish sail frigates|Spain]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Spanish steam frigates|Spain]]</td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Spanish current frigates|Spain]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Swedish sail frigates|Sweden]]</td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td></tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of Turkish frigates|Turkey]]</td>
<td bgcolor=FFFFFF></td></tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of British sail frigates|United Kingdom]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of British steam frigates|United Kingdom]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of British frigates|United Kingdom]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of frigate classes of the Royal Navy|United Kingdom]]</td></tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of sailing frigates of the United States Navy|United States]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of steam frigates of the United States Navy|United States]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of modern frigates of the United States Navy|United States]]</td>
<td bgcolor=DDCC99>[[List of frigates of the United States Navy|United States]]</td></tr>
</table>
</center>
Partially from: http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/factfile/ships/ship-ffg.html
[[image:Tackling.png|thumb|center|400px|''Sailing frigate and its [[rigging]]'']]
[[Category:Ship types]]
[[cs:Fregata]]
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[[ru:Фрегат]]
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[[sv:Fregatt]]
[[zh:护卫舰]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hō·-ōe-lām]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fosters Lager</title>
<id>11465</id>
<revision>
<id>15909209</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-14T12:31:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Burschik</username>
<id>69256</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>changed to redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Foster's Lager]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Francisco Franco</title>
<id>11466</id>
<revision>
<id>42152134</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:03:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Error</username>
<id>9385</id>
</contributor>
<comment>I doubt several changes</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''"Franco" redirects here. For other uses, see [[Franco (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:1francisco-franco.jpg|frame|right|150px|Francisco Franco]]
'''Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco y Bahamonde''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] : {{IPA|[fran'θisko 'franko]}}; [[December 4]] [[1892]] &ndash; [[November 20]] (or possibly [[November 19]] {{ref_label|Deathdate|*|none}}) [[1975]]), abbreviated '''Francisco Franco y Bahamonde''' and sometimes known as ''[[Generalissimo|Generalísimo]]'' '''Francisco Franco''', was the [[regent]] and [[Head of State]] of [[Spain]] (in parts of the country from [[1936]] and in its entirety from [[1939]]) until his death in [[1975]]. During his rule he was known officially as ''"El [[Caudillo]] de la Ultima Cruzada y de la Hispanidad, El Caudillo de la Guerra de Liberacion contra el Comunismo y sus Complices"{{citationneeded}}'' (The Leader of Last Crusade and Hispanidad, The Leader of Freedom War against comunism) and presided over the [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] government of the [[Spanish State]] following victory in the [[Spanish Civil War]].
==Early life==
Franco was born in [[Ferrol, Spain|Ferrol]], [[Galicia (Spa |
ategory:1605 books]]
[[Category:Don Quixote|Don Quixote]]
[[Category:Satirical books]]
[[Category:Novels]]
[[Category:Fictional knights]]
{{Link FA|es}}
[[bg:Дон Кихот]]
[[bs:Don Kihot]]
[[ca:El Quixot]]
[[da:Don Quijote]]
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[[eo:Don-Kiĥoto el Manĉo]]
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[[gl:El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha]]
[[gn:Don Quijote]]
[[ko:돈 키호테]]
[[ia:Don Quixote]]
[[is:Don Kíkóti]]
[[it:Don Chisciotte della Mancia]]
[[he:דון קישוט]]
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[[ja:ドン・キホーテ]]
[[no:Don Quijote]]
[[pl:Don Kichot (powieść)]]
[[pt:Don Quixote de la Mancha]]
[[ru:Дон Кихот]]
[[simple:Don Quixote]]
[[sl:Don Kihot]]
[[sr:Дон Кихот]]
[[fi:Don Quijote]]
[[sv:Don Quijote]]
[[tr:Don Kişot (kitap)]]
[[zh:堂吉诃德]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Distributed programming</title>
<id>8238</id>
<revision>
<id>42072893</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:10:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot-assisted fix of link to disambiguation page Transparency ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Distributed programming''' is a [[programming paradigm]] focusing on [[design]]ing [[Distributed computing|distributed]], [[Distributed computing#openness|open]], [[scalable]], [[Transparency (computing)|transparent]], [[fault tolerant]] systems. This paradigm is a natural result of the use of computers to form networks.
Nearly any [[programming language]] that has access to the full [[hardware]] of the system could handle distributed programming given enough time and code. [[Remote procedure call]]s distribute [[operating system]] commands over a network connection. Systems like [[CORBA]], Microsoft [[DCOM |D/COM]], [[Java RMI]] and others, try to map [[object oriented]] design to the network. Loosely coupled systems that communicate through intermediate documents that are typically human readable are [[XML]], [[HTML]], [[SGML]], [[X.500]], and [[EDI]].
Distributed programming typically falls into one of several basic architectures or categories: [[Client-server]], [[Three-tier (computing)|3-tier architecture]], [[Multitier architecture|N-tier architecture]], [[Distributed object]]s, [[Loosely Coupled|Loosely coupled]], or [[Computer cluster|Tightly coupled]].
Distributed programming interrelates tightly with [[concurrent programming]] so much that they are sometimes not taught as distinct subjects [http://www.cs.technion.ac.il/~cs236370/main.html].
Languages specifically tailored for distributed programming are:
*[[Oz programming language]]
*[[E programming language]]
*[[Ada programming language]]
==See also==
*[[:Category:Concurrent programming languages]]
==External links==
*[http://www.mozart-oz.org/mogul/info/category/dp.html MOGUL Oz Distributed Programming]
{{Major programming languages small}}
[[Category:Programming paradigms]]
[[de:Verteiltes System]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dylan</title>
<id>8239</id>
<revision>
<id>41092162</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T00:14:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lion King</username>
<id>484194</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* People with the surname Dylan: */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The name '''Dylan''' is a [[Welsh language|Welsh]] name, from the Welsh elements dy "great" and llanw "sea". A [[given name]] in [[Wales]], where the first syllable is pronounced closer to "dull" than to "dill" ([[IPA]]: /ə/), it is now also a [[family name|surname]] in other parts of the world.
===People with the surname Dylan:===
*[[Bob Dylan]], a composer and performer of [[popular music]] and [[folk music]]. An assumed [[legal]] [[surname]], August 1962. Robert Dylan.
*[[Sara Dylan]], first wife of Bob Dylan.
*[[Jesse Dylan]], film director. Eldest son of Bob and Sara Dylan.
*[[Jakob Dylan]], lead singer of [[The Wallflowers]]. Youngest son of Bob and Sara Dylan.
===People with the first (given) name Dylan:===
* [[Dylan Thomas]], an Anglo-Welsh [[poet]].
* [[Dylan McDermott]], an [[United States|American]] [[actor]]
* [[Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold|Dylan Klebold]], one of the perpetrators of the [[Columbine High School massacre]]
* [[Dylan Moran]], an [[Ireland|Irish]] [[comedian]]
* [[Dylan Hunt]], several [[science fiction]] characters
* [[Dylan Carlson]], frontman of drone-rock band Earth [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=11:1wfqoayabijm].
* [[Dylan Evans]], Flash cartoonist [http://www.silvermile.tk].
===Dylan can also refer to:===
* [[Dylan programming language|Dylan]], computer programming language
* Dylan McKay, played by actor [[Luke Perry]], a character in the popular tv show [[Beverly Hills 90210]]
* Dylan the rabbit, a character in the television programme ''[[The Magic Roundabout]]''.- named after [[Bob Dylan]]
* [[Dylan Eil Ton]], a sea-god in [[Celtic mythology]].
* [[Dylan (play)]], a theatre play.
* [[Dylan Dog]], a comic book character
* [[Dylan (album)|''Dylan'' (album)]], an album by [[Bob Dylan]], released in [[1973 in music|1973]]
* [[Bob Dylan (album)|''Bob Dylan'' (album)]], an album by [[Bob Dylan]], released in [[1962 in music|1962]]
* [[Dylan (drum and bass)|Dylan]], a [[drum and bass]] artist.
* [[Dylan Rush (patriot)|Dylan Rush]], an American philosopher and patriot.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Dylan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dada</title>
<id>8240</id>
<revision>
<id>42049062</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:12:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tickle me</username>
<id>179172</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv 213.106.248.45</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dada1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cover of the first edition of the publication, ''Dada''. Edited by [[Tristan Tzara]]. Zürich, 1917.]]
'''Dada''' or '''Dadaism''' is a [[cultural movement]] that began in neutral [[Zürich, Switzerland]] during [[World War I]] and peaked from [[1916]] to [[1920]]. The movement primarily involved [[Visual arts|visual art]]s, literature (mainly [[poetry]]), [[theatre]], and [[graphic design]], and was characterized by [[nihilism]], deliberate irrationality, disillusionment, [[cynicism]], chance, randomness, and the rejection of the prevailing standards in art.
==Overview==
Dada activities included public gatherings, demonstrations, and publication of art/literary journals. Passionate coverage of art, politics and culture filled their publications. The movement was a protest against the [[Barbarism|barbarism]] of World War I, the [[bourgeoisie|bourgeois]] interests that Dada adherents believed inspired the war, and what they believed was an oppressive intellectual rigidity in both art and everyday society. The movement influenced later styles, movements and groups including [[surrealism]], [[Pop Art]] and [[Fluxus]]. Dada was an international movement, and it is difficult to classify artists as being from one country or another, as they were constantly moving from one place to another.
==What is Dada?==
According to its proponents, Dada was not [[art]]&mdash;it was "anti-art". For everything that art stood for, Dada was to represent the opposite. Where art was concerned with [[aesthetics]], Dada ignored aesthetics. If art were to have at least an implicit or latent message, Dada strove to have no meaning &mdash; interpretation of Dada is dependent entirely on the viewer. If art is to appeal to sensibilities, Dada is to offend. It is perhaps then ironic that Dada became an influential movement in modern art. Dada became a commentary on order and carnage they believed it reaped. Through this rejection of traditional culture and aesthetics they hoped to destroy traditional culture and aesthetics.
According to [[Tristan Tzara]], "God and my toothbrush are Dada, and New Yorkers can be Dada too, if they are not already." A reviewer from the ''American Art News'' stated that "The Dada philosophy is the sickest, most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man." Art historians have described Dada as being "in reaction to what many of the artists saw as nothing more than an insane spectacle of collective homicide." Years later, Dada artists described the movement as "a phenomenon bursting forth in the midst of the post-war economic and moral crisis, a savior, a monster, which would lay waste to everything in its path. [It was] a systematic work of destruction and demoralization...In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege." Dada was "a revolt against a world that was capable of unspeakable horrors." Reason and logic had led people into the horrors of war; the only route to salvation was to reject logic and embrace anarchy and the irrational.
==History==
===Zürich===
In 1916, [[Hugo Ball]], [[Emmy Hennings]], [[Tristan Tzara]], [[Hans Arp]], [[Richard Huelsenbeck]], [[Sophie Taeuber-Arp|Sophie Täuber]]&mdash;all living in exile in Zürich&mdash;along with others discussed art and put on performances in the [[Cabaret Voltaire (Zürich)|Cabaret Voltaire]] expressing their disgust with the war and the interests that inspired it. By some accounts Dada coalesced on October 6 at the cabaret.
At the first public soiree at the cabaret on July 14, 1916, Ball recited the first manifesto (see [[wikisource:Dada Manifesto (1916, Hugo Ball)|text]]). Tzara, in 1918, wrote a [[Wikisource:Dada_Manifesto|Dada manifesto]] considered one of the most important of the Dada writings. Other manifestos followed.
[[Marcel Janco]] recalled,
:''We had lost confidence in our culture. Everything had to be demolished. We would begin again after |
ellion]]: The [[Battle of Culloden]], the last battle of the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite Uprising]] is fought, ultimately leading to the destruction of the [[Highland clan]]s.
*[[1780]] - The [[University of Münster]] in [[Münster]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], [[Germany]] is founded
*[[1799]] - [[Napoleonic Wars]]: [[Battle of Mount Tabor]] &ndash; [[Napoleon]] drives [[Ottoman Turks]] across the [[River Jordan]] near [[Acre]].
*[[1853]] - The first passenger rail opens in [[India]], from [[Bori Bunder]], [[Bombay]] to [[Thane]].
*[[1863]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Siege of Vicksburg]] &ndash; 12 ships led by [[United States|Union]] Admiral [[David Dixon Porter]] move through heavy [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] artillery fire on approach to [[Vicksburg, Mississippi]]. Only one ship is lost.
*[[1881]] - In [[Dodge City, Kansas]], [[Bat Masterson]] fights his last gun battle.
*[[1912]] - [[Harriet Quimby]] becomes the first woman to fly an [[Aircraft|airplane]] across the [[English Channel]].
*[[1917]] - [[Vladimir Lenin]] returns to [[Petrograd]] (present-day Saint Petersburg) from exile in [[Finland]].
*[[1919]] - [[Mohandas Gandhi]] organizes a day of "prayer and fasting" in response to the [[United Kingdom|British]] slaughter of [[India]]n protestors in the [[Amritsar Massacre]].
*[[1922]] - The [[Treaty of Rapallo, 1922|Treaty of Rapallo]], in which [[Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]] re-establish diplomatic relations between [[Berlin]] and [[Moscow]], is signed.
*[[1926]] - ''[[Lolly Willows]]'' by [[Sylvia Townsend Warner]] is distributed as the first [[Book-of-the-Month Club]] selection.
*[[1935]] - [[Radio]] program ''[[Fibber McGee and Molly]]'' debuts.
*[[1943]] - Dr. [[Albert Hofmann]] discovers the psychedelic effects of [[LSD]].
*[[1945]] - [[World War II|WWII]]: The [[Red Army]] begins the final assault on [[Germany|German]] forces around [[Berlin]].
*1945 - The [[United States Army]] liberates [[Nazi]] ''Sonderlager'' (high security) [[Prisoner of war camp|Prisoner of War camp]] Oflag IVc ([[Colditz Castle]]).
*1945 - German ship [[Goya (ship)|Goya]] sinks, killing more than 7,000 people.
*[[1947]] - [[Texas City Disaster]]: An explosion on board a freighter in port causes the city of [[Texas City, Texas]], to catch fire, killing almost 600.
*1947 - [[Bernard Baruch]] coins the term "[[Cold War]]" to describe the relationship between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1949]] - [[Dave Garroway]] moves from [[radio]] to [[television]] to host the musical-variety show ''[[Garroway at Large]]''.
*[[1963]] - [[Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.]] pens his famous [[Letter From a Birmingham Jail]] while incarcerated in [[Birmingham, Alabama]] for protesting against segregation''.
*[[1972]] - [[Apollo program]]: [[Apollo 16]] launches toward the [[Moon]] from [[Cape Canaveral, Florida]].
*1972 - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Nguyen Hue Offensive]] &ndash; Prompted by the [[North Vietnam]]ese offensive, the [[United States]] resumes bombing of [[Hanoi]] and [[Haiphong]].
*[[1988]] - In [[Forlì]] ([[Italy]]), [[Red Brigades]] kill Italian senator [[Roberto Ruffilli]], an advisor of [[Prime Minister of Italy|Prime Minister]] [[Ciriaco de Mita]].
*[[1992]] - The [[Katina P.]] runs aground off of [[Maputo]], [[Mozambique]]. 60,000 tons of crude oil spill into the ocean.
*[[1996]] - [[France Télécom]] introduces its [[Wanadoo]] [[Internet]] service.
*[[1998]] - One of the most serious urban [[tornado]]es in history does significant damage to downtown [[Nashville, Tennessee]] (see [[Nashville Tornado of 1998]]).
*[[2000]] - Protests against the [[World Bank]] and [[IMF]] in [[Washington, DC]].
*[[2001]] - First [[3G]] voice call on [[Vodafone]] UK's 3G network.
*[[2003]] - [[Makobo Modjadji]] is crowned the new [[Rain Queen]] of [[Balobedu]].
*2003 - [[The Accession Treaty]] is signed in Athens admitting 10 new member states to the [[European Union]].
*[[2005]] - The [[BBC]] announces [[David Tennant]]'s casting as the [[Tenth Doctor]] in the long-running [[science-fiction]] [[television]] series, ''[[Doctor Who]]''.
==Births==
*[[778]] - King [[Louis the Pious]] (d. [[840]])
*[[1319]] - King [[John II of France]] (d. [[1364]])
*[[1495]] - [[Petrus Apianus]], German mathematician (d. [[1557]])
*[[1646]] - [[Jules Hardouin Mansart]], French architect (d. [[1708]])
*[[1660]] - [[Hans Sloane]], British collector and physician (d. [[1753]])
*[[1661]] - [[Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax]], English poet and statesman (d. [[1715]])
*[[1682]] - [[John Hadley]], inventor (d. [[1744]])
*[[1728]] - [[Joseph Black]], Scottish chemist (d. [[1799]])
*[[1730]] - [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Henry Clinton]], British general (d. [[1795]])
*[[1755]] - [[Elisabeth Vigee-Lebrun]], French painter (d. [[1842]])
*[[1800]] - [[George Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan]], British soldier (d. [[1888]])
*[[1823]] - [[Ferdinand Eisenstein]], German mathematician (d. [[1852]])
*[[1844]] - [[Anatole France]], French writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1924]])
*[[1865]] - [[Henry George Chauvel]], Australian general (d. [[1945]])
*[[1867]] - [[Wilbur Wright]], American aviation pioneer (d. [[1912]])
*[[1871]] - [[John Millington Synge]], Irish writer (d. [[1909]])
*[[1878]] - [[Tip Foster]], English cricketer (d. [[1914]])
*[[1886]] - [[Ernst Thälmann]], German politician (d. [[1944]])
*[[1889]] - [[Charles Chaplin]], English actor, writer, and film producer (d. [[1977]])
*[[1904]] - [[Fifi D'Orsay]], Canadian actress (d. [[1983]])
*[[1905]] - [[Frits Philips]], Dutch businessman (d. [[2005]])
*[[1912]] - [[Garth Williams]], American illustrator (d. [[1996]])
*[[1918]] - [[Spike Milligan]], British comedian (d. [[2002]])
*[[1919]] - [[Merce Cunningham]], American dancer and choreographer
*[[1921]] - [[Peter Ustinov]], English writer, actor, and film director (d. [[2004]])
*[[1922]] - [[Kingsley Amis]], English author (d. [[1995]])
*[[1924]] - [[Henry Mancini]], American composer (d. [[1994]])
*[[1927]] - [[Edie Adams]], American actress
*1927 - [[Pope Benedict XVI]]
*1927 - [[Peter Mark Richman]], American actor
*[[1928]] - [[Dick Lane|Dick "Night Train" Lane]], American football player (d. [[2002]])
*[[1930]] - [[Herbie Mann]], American jazz flute player (d. [[2003]])
*[[1933]] - [[Joan Bakewell]], British broadcaster
*[[1935]] - [[Sarah Kirsch]], German poet
*1935 - [[Bobby Vinton]], American singer
*[[1937]] - [[Joseph Whipp]], American actor
*[[1939]] - [[Dusty Springfield]], English singer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1940]] - Queen [[Margaret II of Denmark]]
*[[1946]] - [[Margot Adler]], American journalist
*[[1947]] - [[Kareem Abdul-Jabbar]], American basketball player
*1947 - [[Gerry Rafferty]], British musician and songwriter
*[[1951]] - [[Pierre Toutain-Dorbec]], French photographer, painter, sculptor
*1951 - [[Ioan Mihai Cochinescu]], Romanian writer and photographer
*1951 - [[Björgvin Halldórsson]], Icelandic singer
*[[1952]] - [[Bill Belichick]], American football coach
*1952 - [[Billy West]], American voice actor
*[[1953]] - [[J. Neil Schulman]], American writer and activist
*[[1954]] - [[Ellen Barkin]], American actress
*[[1955]] - [[Bruce Bochy]], baseball player and manager
*[[1956]] - [[Lise-Marie Morerod]], Swiss skier
*[[1959]] - [[Alison Ramsay]], Scottish field hockey player
*[[1960]] - [[Rafael Benitez]], Spanish football manager
*[[1961]] - [[Doris Dragović]], Croatian singer
*[[1962]] - [[Ian MacKaye]], American musician ([[fugazi]] and [[Minor Threat]])
*[[1965]] - [[Jon Cryer]], American actor
*1965 - [[Martin Lawrence]], American actor, comedian, and producer
*[[1971]] - [[Selena Quintanilla|Selena]], American singer (d. [[1995]])
*[[1975]] - [[Sean Maher]], American actor
*[[1976]] - [[Lukas Haas]], American actor
*[[1977]] - [[Fredrik Ljungberg]], Swedish footballer
*[[1978]] - [[Matthew Lloyd]], Australian football player
*[[1979]] - [[Howlin' Pelle Almqvist]], Swedish musician [[The Hives]]
*[[1994]] - [[Liliana Mumy]], American actress
==Deaths==
*[[69]] - [[Otho]], [[Roman Emperor]] (b. [[32]])
*[[744]] - [[al-Walid II]], Umayyad caliph
*[[924]] - [[Berengar of Friuli]], King of Italy
*[[1113]] - [[Sviatopolk II of Kiev]], Russian prince (b. [[1050]])
*[[1118]] - [[Adelaide del Vasto]], queen of [[Roger II of Sicily]]
*[[1198]] - Duke [[Frederick I of Austria (Babenberg)|Frederick I of Austria]]
*[[1645]] - [[Tobias Hume]], English composer
*[[1687]] - [[George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham]], English statesman (b. [[1628]])
*[[1689]] - [[Aphra Behn]], English dramatist
*[[1783]] - [[Christian Mayer]], Czech astronomer (b. [[1719]])
*[[1788]] - [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon]], French naturalist (b. [[1707]])
*[[1828]] - [[Francisco Goya|Francisco de Goya]], Spanish painter (b. [[1746]])
*[[1846]] - [[Domenico Dragonetti]], Italian composer (b. [[1763]])
*[[1859]] - [[Alexis de Tocqueville]], French historian (b. [[1805]])
*[[1888]] - [[Zygmunt Florenty Wróblewski]], Polish physicist (b. [[1845]])
*[[1904]] - [[Samuel Smiles]], Scottish writer and reformer (b. [[1812]])
*[[1914]] - [[George William Hill]], American astronomer (b. [[1838]])
*[[1915]] - [[Nelson W. Aldrich]], U.S. Senator from Rhode Island (b. [[1841]])
*[[1938]] - [[Steve Bloomer]], English footballer (b. [[1874]])
*[[1946]] - [[Arthur Chevrolet]], Swiss-born race car driver and automobile designer (b. [[1884]])
*[[1958]] - [[Rosalind Franklin]], British chemist (b. [[1920]])
*[[1968]] - [[Edna Ferber]], American author (b. [[1885]])
*[[1972]] - [[Kawabata Yasunari]], Japanese writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1899]])
*[[1978]] - [[Lucius Clay]], American general (b. [[1897]])
*[[1985]] - [[Scott Brady]], American actor (b. [[1924]])
*[[1991]] - [[David Lean]], British film director (b. [[1908]])
*[[1992]] - [[Neville Brand]], American actor (b. [[1920]])
*[[1994]] - [[Ralph Ellison]], American writer (b. |
f a King when his rule becomes tyrannical) re-emerged and gained recognition. Many a head of state of the time fell at the hands of an assassin, such as [[Henri III of France|Henri III]] and [[Henry IV of France]]. There were notable detractors, however; [[Abd-ul-Mejid]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] refused to put to death plotters against his life during his reign.
=== Modern history ===
[[Image:Shot Dead on Arrival.JPG|left|thumb|[[Ninoy Aquino]], [[Philippines]]' President [[Ferdinand Marcos]]' top political nemesis, was shot dead by an alleged assassin in 1983, who was later killed by military escorts of Aquino. Investigations later concluded that one of the escorts shot the late senator.]]
As the world moved into the present day and the stakes in political clashes of will continued to grow to a global scale, the number of assassinations concurrently multiplied. In [[Imperial Russia|Russia]] alone, five emperors were assassinated within less than 200 years - [[Ivan VI of Russia|Ivan VI]], [[Peter III of Russia|Peter III]], [[Paul I of Russia|Paul I]], [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] and [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]]. The most notable assassination victim within early [[American history|U.S. history]] was President [[Abraham Lincoln]]. Three other U.S. Presidents have been assassinated: [[James Garfield]], [[William McKinley]], and [[John F. Kennedy]]. An assassination plot against [[Jefferson Davis]], known as the [[Dahlgren Affair]], may have been initiated during the [[American Civil War]]. In [[Europe]] the assassination of [[Archduke]] [[Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria|Franz Ferdinand]] triggered [[World War I]]. However, the 20th century likely marks the first time [[nation-state]]s began training assassins to be specifically used against so-called enemies of the state. During [[World War II]], for example, [[MI6]] trained a group of [[Czechoslovakia]]n operatives to kill the [[Nazi]] [[general]] [[Reinhard Heydrich]] (who did later perish by their efforts - see [[Operation Anthropoid]]), and repeated attempts were made by both the British MI6, the American [[Office of Strategic Services]] (later the [[CIA|Central Intelligence Agency]]) and the Soviet [[SMERSH]] to kill [[Adolf Hitler]].
=== Cold War ===
The [[Cold War]] saw a dramatic increase in the number of political assassinations, likely due in large part to the [[ideology|ideological]] polarization of most of the [[first world|First]] and [[second world|Second worlds]], whose adherents were more than willing to both justify and finance such killings. During the Kennedy era [[Fidel Castro]] narrowly escaped death on several occasions at the hands of the CIA (a function of the agency's "[[executive action]]" program) and CIA-backed rebels (there are accounts that exploding clams and poisoned shoes were employed); some allege that [[Salvador Allende]] of [[Chile]] was another example, though specific proof is lacking. At the same time, the [[KGB]] made creative use of assassination to deal with high-profile defectors such as [[Georgi Markov]], and [[Israel]]'s [[Mossad]] made use of such tactics to eliminate [[Palestinian]] [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]], politicians and revolutionaries, though some Israelis argue that the targeted often crossed the line between one or another or were even all three.
Most major powers were not long in repudiating such tactics, for example during the presidency of [[Gerald Ford]] in the United States in 1976 ([[Executive Order 12333]], which proscription was relaxed however by the [[George W. Bush administration]]). Many allege, however, that this is merely a smoke screen for political and moral benefit and that the covert and illegal training of assassins by major intelligence agencies continue, such as at the [[School of the Americas]] run by the United States. In fact, the debate over the use of such tactics is not closed by any means; many accuse [[Russia]] of continuing to practice it in [[Chechnya]] and against Chechens abroad, as well as Israel in Palestine and against Palestinians abroad (as well as those Mossad deems a threat to Israeli national security, as in the aftermath of the [[Munich Massacre]] during "Operation Wrath of God"). Besides [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] members assassinated abroad, [[Tsahal]] has also often targeted [[Hamas]] activists in the [[Gaza strip]].
=== In the Israeli-Palestinian conflict ===
''See also [[Israel Defense Forces#Code of Conduct against terrorists|IDF: Code of Conduct against terrorists]]''
In the course of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]], the [[Israel Defense Forces]] (IDF) employed what they call "focused foiling" ({{lang-he|סיכול ממוקד }} ''[http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%9C_%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%93 sikul memukad]'') against those who has been proven to have intentions of performing a specific act of violence in the very near future or to be linked indirectly with several acts of violence (organizing, planning, researching means of destruction etc), thus raising the likelihood that his or her assassination would foil similar activities in the future. Usually, the strike is carried out by [[Israeli Air Force]] attack helicopters that fire [[guided missile]]s toward the target, after the [[Shin Bet]] supplies [[military intelligence|intelligence]] for the target.
The exact nature of said proof in focused foiling situations is both controversial and classified, as it involves clandestine [[military intelligence]] oriented means and operational decisions made by intelligence officers and commanders rather than being a part of a published justice system executed by lawyers and judges.
The IDF claims that targeted killings are only pursued to prevent future [[terrorism]] acts, not as revenge for past activities. It also claims that this practice is only used when there is absolutely no practical way of foiling the future acts by other means (e.g., arrest) with minimal risk to the soldiers or civilians. Finally, IDF claims that the practice is only used when there is a certainty in the indentification of the target, in order to minimize harm to innocent bystanders. However, these IDF claims have never been monitored or validated by an independent authority, and the IDF deliberations about the killings remain secret. Moreover, actual injury and death of innocent bystanders, unintended as they may be, remains a strong claim by opponents of these targeted killings.
Targeted killings are largely supported by Israeli society to various extents, but there are exceptions: In 2003, 27 [[Israeli Air Force|IAF]] Air Force pilots composed a letter of protest to the Air Force commander [[Dan Halutz]], announcing their refusal to continue and perform attacks on targets within Palestinian population centers, and claiming that the occupation of the Palestinians "morally corrupts the fabric of Israeli society". This letter, the first of its kind emanating from the Air Force, evoked a storm of political protest in Israel, with most circles condemning it as dereliction of duty. IDF ethics forbid soldiers from making public political affiliations, and subsequently the IDF chief of staff announced that all the signatories would be suspended from flight duty, after which some of the pilots recanted and removed their signature.
Some of the best known targeted killings by Israeli military were [[Hamas]] leaders [[Salah Shahade]] ([[July 2002]]), [[Sheikh Ahmed Yassin]] ([[March 2004]]), [[Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi]] ([[April 2004]]) and [[Adnan al-Ghoul]] ([[October 2004]]).
While the term "targeted killing" is mostly used within the context of the [[Al-Aqsa Intifada]] by airborne attacks, [[Israeli security forces]] have reportedly assassinated top terrorists in the past, although this was never confirmed officially. Some of the best known operations include:
* [[Operation Wrath of God]] against [[Black September (group)|Black September]] perpetrators of the [[1972]] [[Munich massacre]]
* [[Operation Spring of Youth]] against top PLO leaders in [[Beirut, Lebanon]], [[1973]]
* [[Abu Jihad]] ([[Fatah]]) in [[Tunis]], [[1988]]
* [[Fathi Shaqaqi]] ([[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]]) in [[Malta]], [[1995]]
* [[Yahya Ayyash]] (Hamas bombmaker, "the engineer") in [[Gaza]], [[1996]]
* [[Khaled Mashal]] (Hamas, foiled) in [[Jordan]], [[1997]]
=== United States ===
In [[1981]], President [[Ronald Reagan]] issued [[Executive Order 12333]], which codified a policy first laid down in 1976 by the [[Gerald Ford|Ford]] administration. It stated, "No person employed by or acting on behalf of the United States Government shall engage in, or conspire to engage in, assassination."[http://cfrterrorism.org/policy/assassination_print.html]
In [[1986]], the American air strikes against [[Libya]] included an attack on the barracks where [[Muammar Qaddafi]] was known to be sleeping. During the [[1991 Gulf War]], the United States struck many of Iraq’s most important command bunkers with [[bunker buster|bunker-busting bomb]]s in hopes of killing Iraqi President [[Saddam Hussein]].
Since the rise of [[al-Qaeda]], both the [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] and [[George W. Bush|Bush]] administrations have backed targeted killings. In [[1998]], in retaliation for the al-Qaeda attacks on U.S. embassies in [[East Africa]], the Clinton administration launched [[cruise missile]]s against a training camp in [[Afghanistan]] where [[bin Laden]] had been hours before. Reportedly, the United States nearly killed the leader of [[Taliban]], [[Mullah Omar]], with a Predator-launched Hellfire missile on the first night of [[Operation Enduring Freedom]]. In May [[2002]], the CIA launched a Hellfire missile from a Predator drone in an effort to kill the Afghan warlord [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]].
On [[November 3]], [[2002]], a US [[Central Intelligence Agency]]-operated [[RQ-1 Predator]] [[unmanned aeri |
so I started a very rigorous record."'' [http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/2003/january22/bucky-122.html][http://www-sul.stanford.edu//depts/spc/fuller/about.html]
*Buckminster and [[John Denver]] were very close friends and the song "What One Man Can Do" on John's 1982 album "Seasons of the Heart" was written on the occasion of R. Buckminster's 85th birthday. John dedicated this song to him.
==Neologisms==
'''''World-around''''' is a term coined by Fuller to replace ''worldwide''. The general belief in a [[flat Earth]] died out in the [[Middle Ages]], so using ''wide'' is an [[anachronism]] when referring to the surface of the Earth — a [[spheroid]]al surface has [[area]] and encloses a [[volume]], but has no width. Fuller held that unthinking use of [[superseded scientific theory|obsolete scientific ideas]] detracts from and misleads intuition. The terms '''sunsight''' and '''sunclipse''' are other neologisms, according to [[Allegra Fuller Snyder]] collectively coined by the Fuller family, replacing ''sunrise'' and ''sunset'' in order to overturn the geocentric bias of most pre-[[Copernicus|Copernican]] [[celestial mechanics]].
Fuller also coined the phrase [[Spaceship Earth]], and coined the term (but did not invent) ''[[tensegrity]].''
It has also been claimed that Fuller coined the phrase [[debunk]] in 1927, however many credit [[William Woodward]] for the term in 1923.
==Concepts and buildings ==
''[http://www.bfi.org/patentlist.htm List of patents]''
His concepts and buildings include:
*[[Dymaxion house]] (1928) See [[autonomous building]]
*Aerodynamic [[Dymaxion car]] (1933)
*Prefabricated compact bathroom cell (1937)
*[[Dymaxion Map]] of the world (1946)
*Buildings (1943)
*[[Tensegrity]] structures (1949)
*[[Geodesic dome]] for Ford Motor Company (1953)
*Patent on [[Geodesic dome|geodesic domes]] (1954)
*The [[World Game]] (1961) and the World Game Institute (1972)
*Patent on [[octet truss]] (1961)
==Literature ==
His publications include:
*''4-D Timelock'' (1928)
*''Nine Chains to the Moon'' (1938)
*''The Dymaxion World of Buckminster Fuller'' (1960) With Robert W. Marks. Anchor Press, Doubleday & Company, Inc.
*''Untitled Epic Poem on the History of Industrialization'' (1962)
*''Education Automation: Freeing the Scholar to Return to his Studies'' (1962, ISBN 0809301377) - online at http://reactor-core.org/education-automation.html
*''Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth'' (1963/1969/1971, ISBN 0525474331) - online at http://bfi.org/node/422
*''Your Private Sky'' (ISBN 3907044886)
*''Ideas and Integrities'' (1969, ISBN 0020926308)
*''Utopia or Oblivion: The Prospects for Humanity'' (1969, ISBN 0713901349)
*''Approaching the Benign Environment'' (1970)
*''I Seem to Be a Verb'' (1970)
*''No More Secondhand God and Other Writings''
*''Intuition'' (1973, ISBN 0385012446)
*''Buckminster Fuller to Children of Earth'' (1972)
*''Earth, Inc.'' (1973)
*''Synergetics: Explorations in the Geometry of Thinking'' (1975, ISBN 002541870X) - online at http://www.rwgrayprojects.com/synergetics/synergetics.html
*''Tetrascroll: Goldilocks and the Three Bears: A Cosmic Fairy Tale'' (1975) - online at http://www.fullereducation.org/fec_folder/tetrascroll.pdf
*''And It Came to Pass — Not to Stay'' (1976, ISBN 0025418106)
*''R. Buckminster Fuller on Education'' (1979, ISBN 0870232762)
*''Critical Path'' (1981, ISBN 0312174918)
*''Synergetics 2: Further Explorations in the Geometry of Thinking'' (1983, ISBN 0025418807)
*''Grunch of Giants'' (1983, ISBN 0312351941) - online at http://reactor-core.org/grunch-of-giants.html
*''Inventions: the Patented Works of R. Buckminster Fuller'' (1983)
*''Cosmography'' (1992, posthumous)
*''Humans in Universe'' (1983, Mouton; ISBN 3110097729); with Anwar Dil
==Secondary literature ==
*Sidney Rosen ''Wizard of the Dome: R. Buckminster Fuller, Designer for the Future''. 1969 (ISBN 0316757071)
*Hugh Kenner ''Bucky: A guided tour of Buckminster Fuller''. 1973 (ISBN 0688001416)
*Donald Robertson ''Mind's Eye Of Buckminster Fuller''. 1974 Vantage Press, Inc., New York.
*Alden Hatch ''Buckminster Fuller At Home In The Universe''. 1974 Crown Publishers, New York.
*E. J. Applewhite ''Cosmic Fishing: An account of writing Synergetics with Buckminster Fuller''. 1977 (ISBN 0025027107)
*[http://www.angelfire.com/mt/marksomers/40.html ''A Fuller Explanation''] by Amy C. Edmondson offers a discussion of his work in geometry and systems.
*Buckminster Fuller also appears as a character in [[Paul Wühr]]'s book "Das falsche Buch".
*Lloyd Sieden ''Buckminster Fuller's Universe, His Life and Work''. 1989 (ISBN 0738203793), explores Fuller's personal life, his beliefs and drives.
*Martin Pawley ''Buckminster Fuller''. 1991 (ISBN 080081116X), offers an architectural critic's assessment of Fuller's ideas and projects.
*His former student [[J. Baldwin]] wrote ''BuckyWorks: Buckminster Fuller's Ideas for Today'' 1997 (ISBN 0471198129).
*{{cite book | author=Erle, Schuyler; Gibson, Rich; & Walsh, Jo | title=Mapping Hacks | publisher=Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly Media, Inc. | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0596007035}} Preface dedicates book to Bucky and relates the potential of networked [[virtual globe]]s to Bucky's Geoscope.
*McHale, John. ''R. Buckminster Fuller''. George Brazillier, Inc., New York. hardback. 1962.
*Lord, V. Athena. ''Pilot For Spaceship Earth''. Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc., New York. hardback. 1978.
*Snyder, Robert. ''Buckminster Fuller: An Autobiographical Monologue/Scenario''. St. Martin's Press, New York. hardback. 1980.
*''Synergetic Stew: Explorations In Dymaxion Dining''. The Buckminster Fuller Institute, Philadelphia. paperback. 1982.
*Ward, James. Ed. ''The Artifacts Of R. Buckminster Fuller, A Comprehensive Collection of His Designs and Drawings in Four Volumes: Volume One. The Dymaxion Experiment,1926-1943; Volume Two. Dymaxion Deployment, 1927-1946; Volume Three. The Geodesic Revolution, Part 17 1947-1959; Volume Four. The Geodesic Revolution, Part 2, 1960-1983'': Edited with descriptions by James Ward. Garland Publishing, New York.1984
*Brenneman, Richard. ''Fuller's Earth, A Day With Bucky And The Kids'' St. Martin's Press, New York, c. 1984. hardcover
*E. J. Applewhite, ed. ''Synergetics Dictionary, The Mind Of Buckminster Fuller; in four volumes''. Garland Publishing, Inc. New York and London.1986
*Potter, R. Robert. ''Buckminster Fuller (Pioneers in Change Series)''. Silver Burdett Publishers. 1990
*Pawley, Martin. ''Buckminster Fuller''. Taplinger Publishing Company, New York.1991. hardcover.
*Krause, Joachim and Lichtenstein, Claude. ed. ''Your Private Sky, R. Buckminster Fuller: The Art Of Design Science''. Lars Mueller Publishers. 2001.
*Zung, T.K. Thomas. ''Buckminster Fuller: Anthology for a New Millenium''. St. Martin’s Press. 2001.
==Former students==
*[[J. Baldwin]]
*[[Pierre Cabrol]]
*[[Joseph Clinton]]
*[[David Johnston (builder)|David Johnston]]
*[[Peter Pearce]]
*[[Shoji Sadao]]
*[[Kenneth Snelson]]
*[[Ruth Asawa]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.bfi.org Buckminster Fuller Institute]: With several complete works online.
*[http://www.rwgrayprojects.com/rbfnotes/toc.html Notes to R. Buckminster Fuller's Work]
*[http://www.grunch.net/synergetics/ Synergetics on the Web]
*[http://www.zometool.com/ Build Genius: Zome System]
*[http://www.cjfearnley.com/buckyrefs.html Chris Fearnley's List of Buckminster Fuller Resources on the Internet]
*[http://www.cjfearnley.com/fuller-faq.html FAQ — R. Buckminster Fuller]
*[http://www.newciv.org/worldtrans/whole/bucky.html Fuller, R. Buckminster] — includes list of books written by and about Fuller
*[http://www.thirteen.org/bucky R. Buckminster Fuller on PBS]
*[http://shop.usps.com/cgi-bin/vsbv/postal_store_non_ssl/display_products/productDetail.jsp?OID=4849106 Information about Fuller's commemorative postage stamp]
*[http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,64155,00.html?tw=wn_tophead_5 Wired News Article on the Buckminster stamp]
*[http://www.hfmgv.org/dymaxion/ The Dymaxion house at the Henry Ford museum]
*Buckminster Fuller discussed on [http://www.ibiblio.org/wunc_archives/sot/index.php?p=390 The State of Things]
*Buckminster Fuller and interstellar communication explored: [http://www.oracleinsights.com/blog/index.php/2006/01/08/an-unlikely-oracle-r-buckminster-fuller/ 'An Unlikely Oracle: R. Buckminster Fuller' ]
*[http://www.lazyreader.com/blog/index.php/archives/169 The Buckminster Alternative] Fuller's life as a lesson in living
===Audio and video===
*[http://www.philosophersforum.net/.3c52912f/cmd.233/enclosure.3c529131/BuckyFuller.mp3 Technology and peace]
*[http://www.bfi.org/audio/ Directory of Audio and Video real streams from the Buckminster Fuller Institute]
*[http://memeticdrift.net/bucky/index.html The "Everything I Know" 42-hour lecture session] — video, audio, and full transcripts.
[[Category:Buckminster Fuller|Fuller, Buckminster]]
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[[Category:1983 deaths|Fuller, Buckminster]]
[[Category:American architects|Fuller, Buckminster]]
[[Category:American inventors|Fuller, Richard]]
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[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Fuller, Richard]]
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<title>Bill Watterson</title>
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< |
ubs, and fleeter than birds,
:Tinker and Evers and Chance.
:Ruthlessly pricking our [[gonfalon]] bubble,
:Making a Giant hit into a double--
:Words that are heavy with nothing but trouble:
:"Tinker to Evers to Chance."
The fourth line is sometimes misquoted as also reading "Tinker to Evers to Chance". Also, in the still-in-modern-usage expression "Tinker to Evers to Chance", meaning a well-oiled routine or a "sure thing", people tend to pronounce it "EH-verz", when the proper pronunciation was "EE-verz".
Tinker and Evers reportedly could not stand each other, and rarely spoke off the field. Evers, a high-strung, argumentative man, suffered a nervous breakdown in [[1911]] and rarely played that year. Chance suffered a near-fatal beaning the same year. The trio played together little after that. In [[1913]], Chance went to manage the [[New York Yankees]] and Tinker went to [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]] to manage the [[Cincinnati Reds|Reds]], and that was the end of one of the most notable infields in baseball. They were inducted into the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]] together in [[1946]]. Tinker and Evers reportedly became amicable in their old age, with the baseball wars far behind them.
===Every three years===
The Cubs fell into a lengthy doldrum after their early 1900s Glory Years, broken only by their pennant in the [[World War I|war]]-shortened season of [[1918]]. Around that time, chewing-gum tycoon [[William Wrigley]] obtained majority ownership of the Cubs, and things started to turn around, especially after they acquired the services of astute baseball man [[William Veeck]].
With Wrigley's money and Veeck's savvy, the Cubs were soon back in business in the National League, the front office having built a team that would be strong contenders for the next decade. During that stretch, they achieved the unusual accomplishment of winning a pennant every three years - 1929, 1932, 1935 and 1938 - sometimes in thrilling fashion, such as 1935 when they won a record 21 games in a row in September, and 1938 when they won a crucial late-season game with a walk-off "Homer in the Gloamin'" by [[Gabby Hartnett]].
Unfortunately, their success did not extend to the post-season, as they fell to their [[American League]] rivals each time, often in humilating fashion. By the late 1930s, the double-Bills (Wrigley and Veeck), were both dead. As the decade wound down, the front office under [[P.K. Wrigley]] was unable to rekindle the kind of success that P.K.'s father had created, and the Cubs slipped into mediocrity. They enjoyed one more pennant, at the close of another [[World War II|wartime]] year, [[1945]], lost the World Series, and have not been back since then, at least through the [[2005]] season.
===Day games at Wrigley===
[[Image:Wrigley_Field.jpg|center|585px]]
The Cubs' home ballpark, [[Wrigley Field]], played host to only day games until [[1988]] because the stadium owner donated the lights to the [[World War II|war]] effort in the [[1940s]], and it then became tradition. The first night game was scheduled to be played [[August 8]], [[1988]], versus [[Philadelphia Phillies|Philadelphia]], but it was rained out after 3 1/2 innings. The high point of that contest, beyond the cry of "Let there be lights", was when famous top-heavy entertainer [[Morganna Roberts]], "The Kissing Bandit", ran onto the field and attempted to plant one on [[Ryne Sandberg]]. She was thwarted by Chicago's Finest, but Sandberg hit the next pitch out of the park to thunderous approval. Unfortunately, the rainout nullified his home run. The first official night game thus occurred the following evening, [[August 9]], [[1988]]; the Cubs defeated the [[New York Mets]], 6-4. While night games are now possible at [[Wrigley Field|Wrigley]], the Cubs still play more day games at home than any other Major League team.
===Championship dry spell===
The Cubs have the longest dry spell between championships in all of the four major U.S. sports leagues ([[Major League Baseball|MLB]], [[National Football League|NFL]], [[National Hockey League|NHL]], [[National Basketball Association|NBA]]), having failed to win a [[World Series]] since [[1908]]. To make matters worse, the Cubs haven't even been in a World Series since [[1945]], and finished in the [[second division (baseball)|second division]], or bottom half, of the National League for 20 consecutive years beginning in [[1947]]. Their 2003 [[National League Division Series|NLDS]] victory over the Atlanta Braves was the team's first postseason series win since [[1908]].
[[Image:Chicago_cubs_celebrate_2004.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Derrek Lee]], [[Aramis Ramírez|Aramis Ramirez]] and [[Moisés Alou|Moises Alou]] celebrate a Lee [[home run]]]]
In 1969, The Cubs had a 8-game lead in August led by Hall Of Famers [[Ernie Banks]], [[Ferguson Jenkins]] and [[Billy Williams (baseball player)|Billy Williams]], but they wilted under pressure, lost key games against the surprising New York Mets, and floundered a shot at the postseason by 8 games (92-70). Many superstitious fans attribute this collapse to an incident at Shea Stadium when a fan released a black cat onto the field, thereby cursing the club. In [[1984]], the Cubs won the first two games of the then-best of 5 [[National League Championship Series]] at Wrigley Field against the [[San Diego Padres]] (it should be noted that at the time, the team with home field advantage played the first two games on the road), only to lose the final three games in [[San Diego]]. The Cubs' 2003 playoff run ended in an emotional game 7 of the [[National League Championship Series|NLCS]] against the [[Florida Marlins]]. While at one point ahead in the 7-game series 3 games to 1, the Marlins came back to win the final three games. Marlins pitcher [[Josh Beckett]] shut out the Cubs in game 5. An implosion of the Cubs defense late in game 6, following the now-infamous incident in which a [[Steve Bartman|fan]] attempted to catch a ball in foul territory, allowed the Marlins to score 8 runs in the eighth inning (see [[The Inning]]) and tie the series. The Cubs were unable to win the final game at home, and were without a pennant again.
To historians of the game, this incident echoed another Cubs disaster, Game 4 of the [[1929 World Series]], in which the Cubs yielded 10 runs to the [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia Athletics]] in the seventh inning. A key play in that inning was centerfielder [[Hack Wilson]] losing a fly ball in the sun, resulting in a 3-run inside-the-park [[home run]].
In 2004, misfortune struck the Cubs again. Having the Wild Card lead by a game and a half on September 24, the Cubs proceeded to drop 7 of their last 9 games, and relinquished the Wild Card to the then-red hot Houston Astros. This time, the fallout was decidedly unlovable, as the Cubs traded superstar [[Sammy Sosa]] in the off-season, after he had left the final game early and then attempted to lie about it publicly. Sosa was a controversial figure, and his place in Chicago Cubs lore was possibly tarnished.
Inconsistency struck the Cubs for their 2005 season, as the team finished under .500 for the first time since 2002 with a 79-83 record and fourth place in the NL Central. Again, the Cubs were hit by injury to pitchers Mark Prior and Kerry Wood, and shortstop Nomar Garciaparra suffered a groin injury in late April, which kept him out for three months. Despite the bleak ending for the injury-plagued Cubs, the team witnessed a career year from first baseman Derrek Lee (.335 batting average, 46 home runs, 107 RBIs) and the rise of closer Ryan Dempster (33 saves in 35 save opportunities).
The long history of the Cubs is a [[dichotomy]]. For their first 80 years, prior to and including [[1945]], the Cubs were generally assumed to be contenders, playing well and winning the occasional pennant. For much of the 60 year span since then, it was as if the baseball gods had forsaken the Cubs, granting them just an occasional glimmer of hope. It did not take astute observers long to realize that something bad had happened to this once-proud franchise...
In his [[1950]] book ''The World Series and Highlights of Baseball'', LaMont Buchanan wrote the following prose next to photos of Wrigley during the [[1945 World Series]] and of their newly-hired manager: "From the sublime to last place! Wrigley Field, the ivy of its walls still whispering of past greatness, watches its Cubs grow less ferocious in '47, '48, '49. New doctor of the cure is smiling Frank Frisch, veteran of previous baseball transfusions who thinks, 'It's nice to have the fans with you.' Chicago has a great baseball tradition. The fans remember glorious yesterdays as they wait for brighter tomorrows. And eventually their Cubs will bite again." Little did anyone realize how long "eventually" might turn out to be.
What may be the least known, but possibly the most telling, statistic of futility for the Cubs, though, is that their first back-to-back winning seasons since 1973 came in 2003 and 2004. Nonetheless, they remain one of the best-loved and best-attended teams in the league, with attendance figures consistently in the top 10, despite the 3rd smallest stadium in Major League Baseball.
As with the [[Boston Red Sox]] (prior to their astonishing [[2004]] post-season triumph), the Cubs of recent generations have seemed to be a team that "bad things happen to." Although there is a tendency to compare the Cubs and the Red Sox, there is a stark difference. Since [[World War II]], the Red Sox have been frequent contenders and frequent visitors to the post-season, including five trips to the [[World Series]]. They have had more of a reputation as "chokers" than as "losers", the tag that the Cubs bear.
Despite their image as "Lovable Losers" during the post-WWII era, the club's l |
p or slow down (particularly with a wheeled vehicle going downhill). Yoked oxen cannot slow a load like harnessed horses can, the load has to be controlled downhill by other means.
Oxen must be painstakingly trained from a young age. Their teamster must make or buy as many as a dozen yokes of different sizes as the animals grow. Ox teams are steered by commands or noise (whip cracks) and many [[teamsters]] were known for their voices and language.
Oxen can pull harder and longer than [[horse]]s, particularly on obstinate or almost un-movable loads. This is one of the reasons that teams were dragging logs from forests long after horses had taken over most other draught uses in Europe and the New World. Though not as fast as horses, they are less prone to injury because they are more sure-footed and do not try to jerk the load. Many oxen are still in use worldwide, especially in developing nations.
==Miscellaneous==
[[Image:Bull Oostvaardersplassen.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Bull]]
*For the mythology and lore connected with the bull, see [[Bull (mythology)]].
*The ox is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the [[Chinese zodiac]] related to the [[Chinese calendar]]. See: [[Ox (Zodiac)]].
*The constellation [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] represents a bull.
*An apocryphal story has it that a cow started the [[Great Chicago Fire]] by kicking over a [[kerosene]] lamp. Michael Ahern, the reporter who created the cow story, admitted in 1893 that he had made it up because he thought it would make colorful copy.
*In the popular kids show [[The Fairly Odd Parents]] A cow tips over a kerosene lamp and the town mascott, a goat named "Chompy", saves the day by pushing the cow on to the fire, hence putting it out.
*Cows are venerated within the [[Hindu]] religion of [[India]]: According to [[Vedic]] scripture they are to be treated with the same respect 'as one's mother' because of the milk they provide. They appear in numerous stories from the [[Purana]]'s and [[Veda]]'s, for example the deity Sri [[Krishna]] takes birth in a family of cowherders and Lord [[Shiva]] is said to ride on the back of a [[Bull]]. Bulls in particular are seen as a symbolic emblem of [[duty]] and [[religion]].
*On [[February 18]], [[1930]] [[Elm Farm Ollie]] became the first cow to fly in an [[airplane]] and also the first cow to be milked in an airplane.
*A [[humour|humourous]] anecdote among farmers suggests that instant death will come to anyone bitten by a cattle's upper front teeth. The joke is apparent to anyone knowing that a cow possesses no such teeth.
*The first known law requiring branding in North America was enacted on [[February 5]], [[1644]] by Connecticut. It said that all cattle and pigs have to have a registered brand or earmark by [[May 1]], [[1644]]. (Kane, 5)
==Cattle in popular culture==
[[Image:Lightmatter wild cow.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A cow in the [[San Diego Zoo]].]]
[[Image:Brahman Baby.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Brahman. Heredia Province, Costa Rica.]]
[[Image:Cows in green field - nullamunjie olive grove03.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Herd of Herefords in a green field]]
*[[Gary Larson]]'s famous comic strip [[The Far Side]] frequently included cows in humorous situations.
*The lilac-colored "Milka Cow" is a well-known symbol of the [[Milka]] brand of chocolate.
*Since 1995, advertisements for [[Chick-fil-A]] restaurants have featured cows encouraging people to "Eat Mor Chikin."
*The sound a cow makes is often used to create comedic effect. In ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'', the [[France|French]] shoot cows out of catapults. In the movie ''[[Twister (film)|Twister]]'', cows are flung about, mooing, by tornadoes.
*In the game [[Fallout (computer game)|Fallout]] and Fallout 2, cows mutate into Brahman. These cows will sometimes say "Moo, I say!"
*In a [[Grape nuts|Grape-Nuts]] television commercial and in the movie ''[[Kingpin (film)|Kingpin]]'' with [[Woody Harrelson]], in which he pretends to be [[Amish]], there are scenes of men "milking" a bull, thinking it is a cow.
*In the Computer Game [[Diablo II]] there is an area called the "Secret Cow Level" in which players can gain experience more quickly than usual by fighting an army of bipedal cows.
*In the Computer Game [[Starcraft]] and Starcraft:Broodwar the cheat code "there is no cow level" will immediately take the player to the next level.
*In ''[[Kung Pow: Enter the Fist]]'', a famous scene parodying ''[[The Matrix]]'' [[bullet time]] scene involves a [[Matrix Cow|3D animated cow]] being fought by the hero.
*A [[Texas longhorn (cattle)|Texas Longhorn]] with burnt orange coloring named [[Bevo (mascot)|Bevo]] is the mascot of the [[Texas Longhorn Athletics|sports teams]] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]].
*The popular nursery rhyme 'Hey, diddle-diddle' features a cow jumping over the moon.
*In the movie [[Bubble Boy]] an Indian ice cream man is threatened by the Indian god Shiva because he accidentally ran over a cow. Later the cow is mangled and run over several times by a semi truck and some bikers while the man begs for Shiva's forgivness.
*The ''[[Drawn Together]]'' episode "[[A Tale of Two Cows (Drawn Together episode)|A Tale of Two Cows]]" features a character called Live Action Cow. The cow is a photograph that the animators manipulate in such a way as to suggest that the cow is performing all kinds of unusual feats when obviously, it is just a photograph being moved around.
==See also==
* [[Age of cattle]]
* [[Barbed wire]]
* [[Bullfighting]]
* [[Bull-baiting]]
* [[Cow tipping]]
* [[Dairy Cattle]]
* [[Factory farming]]
* [[Grass fed beef]]
* [[List of breeds of cattle]]
* [[List of domesticated animals]]
* [[Yak]]
* [[Ox (Zodiac)]]
==References==
*[http://www.cattle-today.com/ Cattle Today]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13b041.htm Mahabharata, Book 13-Anusasana Parva, Section LXXVI]
* Kane, J., Anzovin, S., & Podell, J. (1997). Famous First Facts. New York, NY: H.W. Wilson. ISBN 0824209303.
==External links==
{{Commons|Bos taurus}}
{{Wikibooks|Raising Cattle}}
*[http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/cattle/ Cattle Breeds website] - Oklahoma State University
*[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/holycow/index.html PBS Nature: Holy Cow (about cows in general)]
*[http://www.lincolnredcattlesociety.co.uk UK Lincoln Red Cattle Society]
*[http://www.searchcattle.com SearchCattle.com - Specialized Cattle Search Engine]
*[http://www.prairieoxdrovers.com Prairie Ox Drovers -Information, help, and encouragement to get started with oxen.]
==Other meanings of cow, bull, etc.==
* [[Bull (mythology)]]
* [[Groupe Bull]]
* [[Cows (movie)|Cows]] (a movie by [[Julio Medem]])
* [[Irish bull]] (an incongruent statement)
* [[Papal bull]]
* [[sura]]t [[al-Baqara]] (The Cow) in the [[Qur'an]]
[[Category:Cattle]]
[[Category:Domesticated animals]]
[[als:Kuh]]
[[bo:གླང་གོག]]
[[cs:Kráva]]
[[cy:Buwch]]
[[da:Tamkvæg (Bos taurus)]]
[[de:Hausrind]]
[[eo:Bovo]]
[[es:Vaca]]
[[fr:Vache]]
[[gl:Vaca]]
[[he:&#1489;&#1511;&#1512;]]
[[hu:Szarvasmarha]]
[[id:Sapi]]
[[ja:&#12454;&#12471;]]
[[ko:&#49548; (&#46041;&#47932;)]]
[[kw:Bugh]]
[[ms:Lembu]]
[[nds:Rindveeh]]
[[nl:Rundvee]]
[[no:Storfe]]
[[pl:byd&#322;o]]
[[pt:Gado]]
[[ru:&#1050;&#1086;&#1088;&#1086;&#1074;&#1072;]]
[[simple:Cattle]]
[[sr:Крава]]
[[sv:Nötboskap]]
[[tr:sığır]]
[[zh:&#23478;&#29275;]]
[[bs:Krava]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Combination</title>
<id>5308</id>
<revision>
<id>39520541</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T01:38:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Doug Bell</username>
<id>752893</id>
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<comment>fix stub</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of this term, see [[combination (disambiguation)]].}}
In [[combinatorics|combinatorial mathematics]], a '''combination''' is an un-ordered collection of unique elements. Given ''S'', the [[set]] of all possible unique elements, a '''combination''' is a [[subset]] of the elements of ''S''. The order of the elements in a combination is not important (two lists with the same elements in different orders are considered to be the same combination). Also, the elements cannot be repeated in a combination (every element appears uniquely once). A ''k''-combination (or [[n-set|''k''-subset]]) is a subset with ''k'' elements. The number of ''k''-combinations (each of size ''k'') from a set ''S'' with ''n'' elements (size ''n'') is the [[binomial coefficient]].
== See also ==
*[[Combinadic]]
*[[Combinations and permutations]]
*[[Multiset]]
[[Category:Combinatorics]]
[[de:Kombinatorik#Kombination ohne Zurücklegen]]
[[fr:Combinaison]]
[[ko:조합]]
[[it:Combinazione]]
[[nl:Combinatie (wiskunde)]]
[[ja:組合せ (数学)]]
[[pl:Kombinacja]]
[[pt:Combinação]]
[[ru:Сочетание]]
[[sr:Комбинација]]
[[sv:Kombination]]
[[zh:組合]]
{{combin-stub}}</text>
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<page>
<title>Computer software</title>
<id>5309</id>
<revision>
<id>41866994</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T06:10:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gwernol</username>
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<comment>Revert to revision 41141624 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|"Software" redirects here. For other senses of this word, see [[software (disambiguation)]].}}
[[Image:ScreenHunter_001.JPG|thumb|200px|A screenshot of computer software in action.]]
'''Computer software''' (or simply '''software''') is that part of a computer system that consists of encoded information (or computer instructions), as opposed to the physical computer equipment ([[Computer hardware|hardware]]) which is used to store and process this information. The term is roughly synonymous with [[computer program]] but is more |
chalcogens (particularly the [[sulfide]]s, [[selenide]]s, and [[telluride]]s) are collectively known as '''chalcogenides'''. Unless grouped with a heavier chalcogen, [[oxide]]s are not considered chalcogenides.
The name is generally considered to mean "ore former" from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''chalcos'' "''ore''" and ''-gen'' "formation". [http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journal/Issues/1997/Sep/abs1063.html]
Oxygen and sulfur are [[nonmetal]]s, and polonium, selenium and tellurium are [[metalloid]] [[semiconductor]]s
(i.e., their electrical properties are between those of a metal and an [[insulator]]). Nevertheless, tellurium, as well as selenium, is often referred to as a metal when in elemental form.
Chalcogenides are quite common as minerals. For example, FeS<sub>2</sub> ([[pyrite]]) is an iron ore and AuTe<sub>2</sub> gave its name to the gold rush town of [[Telluride, Colorado]] in the [[United States]].
The formal [[oxidation number]] of the chalcogen is generally -2 in a chalcogenide but other values (e.g. -1 in pyrite) can be attained.
The highest formal oxidation number +6 is found in sulfates, selenates and tellurates, e.g. in Na<sub>2</sub>SeO<sub>4</sub> (sodium selenate). Modern chemical understanding based on [[quantum chemistry|quantum theory]] somewhat outdates the use of formal oxidation numbers in favour of a [[Hartree-Fock|many-electron wavefunction]] approach allowing detailed computer simulation, though the concept, while flawed, is still useful in thought experiments.
{|style="text-align: center;" border="0" cellpadding="2"
|+ '''Explanation of above periodic table slice:'''
! bgcolor="{{element color/Nonmetals}}" | [[Nonmetal]]s
! bgcolor="{{element color/Metalloids}}" | [[Metalloid]]s
! bgcolor="{{element color/Poor metals}}" | [[Poor metal]]s
| atomic number in <font color="{{element color/Gas}}">{{element color/Gas}}</font> are gases
| atomic number in <font color="{{element color/Solid}}">{{element color/Solid}}</font> are solids
| style="border:{{element frame/Primordial}};" | solid borders are [[primordial element]]s (older than the [[Earth]])
| style="border:{{element frame/Natural radio}};" | dashed borders are naturally [[radioactive decay|radioactive element]]s
| style="border:{{element frame/Synthetic}};" | dotted borders are [[radioactive decay|radioactive]], [[synthetic element]]s
|}
{{PeriodicTablesFooter}} [[Category:Periodic table]]
== See also ==
* [[Gold chalcogenides]]
* [[Periodic table]]
== External links ==
* [http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journal/Issues/2001/Oct/abs1333_1.html A Second Note on the Term "Chalcogen"]
[[Category:Chalcogens|*]]
[[ar:مجموعة كالوجين]]
[[ca:Calcogen]]
[[de:Chalkogene]]
[[eo:Elemento de grupo 16]]
[[fr:Chalcogène]]
[[ko:16족 원소]]
[[it:Gruppo dell'ossigeno]]
[[nl:Zuurstofgroep]]
[[ja:第16族元素]]
[[nn:Chalkogen]]
[[pt:Calcogênio]]
[[sr:16. група хемијских елемената]]
[[sv:Syregruppen]]
[[th:แชลโคเจน]]
[[zh:氧族元素]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Carbon dioxide</title>
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<id>42056301</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:27:58Z</timestamp>
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<username>Uris</username>
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<comment>/* Uses */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. -->
<!-- The template for this table can be found under [[:Template:Chembox simple organic]]. -->
<!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. -->
{| class="toccolours" border="1" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;"
! {{chembox header}}| '''Carbon dioxide'''
|-
| Other names
| Carbonic acid gas,<br/>Carbonic anhydride,<br/>dry ice (solid)
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]]
| CO<sub>2</sub>
|-
| [[Molar mass]]
| 44.01 g/mol
|-
| [[Solid state]]
| Dry ice
|-
| Appearance
| colorless gas
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| [124-38-9]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-
| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]]
| 1600 kg/m³, solid<br/>1.98 kg/m³, gas at 298 K
|-
| [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water (molecule)|water]]
| 1.45 kg/m³
</tr><tr><td>Latent heat of<br>vaporization</td><td> 25.13 kJ/mol
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| −57°C (216 K), pressurized
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| −78°C (195 K), sublimes
|-
| [[Acid dissociation constant|Acidity]] (p''K''<sub>a</sub>)
| 6.35 and 10.33
|-
| [[Viscosity]]
| 0.07 c[[Poise|P]] at −78°C
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Structure
|-
| [[Orbital hybridisation#Molecule shape|Molecular shape]]
<!-- for simple covalent molecules (omit for most large molecules, ionics and complexes) -->
| linear
|-
| [[Crystal structure]]
| [[quartz]]-like
|-
| [[Dipole#Molecular dipoles|Dipole moment]]
| zero
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Hazards <!-- Summary only- MSDS entry provides more complete information -->
|-
| [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS]]
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Material Safety Data Sheet|External MSDS]]
|-
| Main [[Worker safety and health|hazard]]s
| asphyxiant, irritant
|-
| [[NFPA 704]]
| [[Image:nfpa_h0.png]][[Image:nfpa_f0.png]][[Image:nfpa_r0.png]] (liquid)<br/>
|-
| [[Risk and Safety Statements|R/S statement]]
| R: As, Fb<br>S: 9, 23, 36a (liquid)
|-
| [[RTECS]] number
| FF6400000
|-
! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)|Supplementary data page]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Structure and properties|Structure & properties]]
| [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|''ε<sub>r</sub>'']], etc.
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Spectral data|Spectral data]]
| [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Related compounds
|-
| Related [[oxide]]s
| [[methanal]]<br/>[[iron(III) oxide]]
|-
| Related compounds
| [[carbon]]<br/>[[methane]]<br/>[[carbon monoxide]]
|-
| {{chembox header}} | <small>Except where noted otherwise, data are given for<br> materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa)]]<br/>[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]</small>
|-
|}
'''Carbon dioxide''' is an atmospheric [[gas]] comprised of one [[carbon]] and two [[oxygen]] atoms. A very widely known [[chemical compound]], it is frequently called by its formula '''CO<sub >2</sub >'''. In its [[solid]] state, it is commonly known as '''dry ice'''.
Carbon dioxide derives from multiple sources including [[volcanic]] outgassing, the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]] and [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living aerobic organisms. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s utilize carbon dioxide during [[photosynthesis]], using both the carbon and the oxygen to construct [[carbohydrate]]s. In addition, plants also release oxygen to the atmosphere, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[cycle]]. It is present in the [[Earth's atmosphere]] at a low concentration and acts as a [[greenhouse gas]]. It is a major component of the [[carbon cycle]].
== Chemical and physical properties ==
Carbon dioxide is a [[color]]less gas which, when inhaled at high concentrations (a dangerous activity because of the associated [[asphyxiation]] risk), produces a sour taste in the mouth and a stinging sensation in the nose and throat. These effects result from the gas dissolving in the [[mucous membranes]] and [[saliva]], forming a weak solution of [[carbonic acid]].
Its density at 25 °C is 1.98 kg m<sup>−3</sup>, about 1.5 times that of [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]. The carbon dioxide molecule (O=C=O) contains two [[covalent bond|double bonds]] and has a linear shape. It has no electrical [[dipole]]. As it is fully oxidized, it is not very reactive and, in particular, not [[flammable]].
At temperatures below −78 °C, carbon dioxide condenses into a white solid called [[dry ice]]. [[Liquid]] carbon dioxide forms only at [[pressure]]s above 5.1 [[atmosphere (unit)|atm]]; at atmospheric pressure, it passes directly between the gaseous and solid phases in a process called [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublimation]].
[[Water]] will absorb its own [[volume]] of carbon dioxide, and more than this under pressure. About 1% of the dissolved carbon dioxide turns into [[carbonic acid]]. The carbonic acid in turn dissociates partly to form [[bicarbonate]] and [[carbonate]] [[ion]]s.
'''Test For Carbon Dioxide.'''
When a lighted splint is inserted into a test tube containing carbon dioxide, the flame is immediately extinguished, as carbon dioxide does not support combustion. (Certain [[fire extinguishers]] contain carbon dioxide to extinguish the flame). To further confirm that the gas is carbon dioxide, the gas may be bubbled into [[calcium hydroxide]] solution. The calcium hydroxide turns milky because of the formation of calcium carbonate.
== Uses ==
Liquid and solid carbon dioxide are important [[refrigerant]]s, especially in the [[food industry]], where they are employed during the transportation and storage of [[ice cream]] and other [[frozen food]]s. Solid carbon dioxide is called "dry ice" and is used for small shipments where refrigeration equipment is not practical.
Carbon dioxide is used to produce [[carbonated]] [[soft drink]]s and [[soda water]]. Candy called [[Pop Rocks]] is pressurized with carbon dioxide gas at about 600 PSI. When you put the ca |
s view is that there appears to be no such scope distinction in the case of proper names. The sentences "Socrates is not bald" and "it is not the case that Socrates is bald" both appear to have the same meaning, and they both appear to assert or presuppose the existence of someone (Socrates) who is not bald, so that negation takes narrow scope. The theory of descriptions has generally fallen into disrepute, though there have been recent attempts to revive it by [[Stephen Neale]] and [[Frank Jackson]].
According to the [[Direct reference]] view, an early version of which was originally proposed by [[Peter Strawson]], and (some have argued) even earlier by [[Gottlob Frege]], a proper name strictly has no meaning when there is no object to which it refers. This view is sometimes justified by the argument that the semantic function of a proper name is to tell us ''which'' object bears the name, and thus to identify some object. But no object can be identified if none exists. Thus, a proper name must have a bearer if it is to be meaningful. To adapt an argument of Strawson's, someone who points to an apparently empty space, uttering "that's a fine red one" communicates nothing to someone who cannot see or understand what he is pointing to. Variants of the Direct reference view have been proposed by [[Saul Kripke]], [[Gareth Evans]], [[Scott Soames]] and others.
According to the "two sense" view of existence, existential statements fall into two classes.
:1. Those asserting existence in a wide sense. These are typically of the form "N is P" for singular N, or "some S is P".
:2. Those asserting existence in a narrow sense. These are typically of the form "N exists" or "S's exist".
The problem is then evaded as follows. "Pegasus flies" implies existence in the wide sense, for it implies that ''something'' flies. But it does not imply existence in the narrow sense, for we deny existence in this sense by saying that Pegasus does not exist. In effect, the world of all things divides, on this view, into those (like [[Socrates]], [[Venus]] the planet, New York) that have existence in the narrow sense, and those (like [[Sherlock Holmes]], [[Venus]] the goddess, [[Minas Tirith]]) that do not.
Supporters of this view (which derives from [[Alexius Meinong]]) include [[Terence Parsons]] and [[Edward N. Zalta | Edward Zalta]].
The difficulty with this view is (a) that common sense suggests that there are no such things as fictional characters, places, (b) there is no strong evidence for two kinds of existential sentence as used in ordinary language.
== Earlier views ==
The first comprehensive treatment of the subject was by [[Aristotle]] in the [[Metaphysics]]. He developed a complicated theory of being, according to which only individual things, called [[substances]] fully have being, but other things such as relations, quantity, time and place (called the [[Categories]]) have a derivative kind of being, dependent on individual things (See the article on [[Ontology]] for a detailed discussion). The medieval philosopher [[Thomas Aquinas]], perhaps following the Persion philosopher [[Avicenna]], argued that God is pure being, and that in God essence and existence are the same.
At about the same time, the [[nominalist]] philosopher [[William of Ockham]], argued, in Book I of his [[Sum of Logic | Summa Totius Logicae]] (Treatise on all Logic) the Categories are not a form of Being in their own right, but derivative on the existence of individuals.
The [[early modern]] treatment of the subject derives from [[Antoine Arnauld]] and [[Pierre Nicole]]'s Logic, or 'The Art of Thinking', better known as the ''[[Port-Royal Logic]]''.
Arnauld thought that a [[proposition]] or [[judgment]], consists of taking two different ideas and either putting them together or rejecting them:
:After conceiving things by our ideas, we compare these ideas and, finding that some belong together and others do not, we unite or separate them. This is called affirming or denying, and in general judging.
:This judgment is also called a proposition, and it is easy to see that it must have two [[terms]]. One term, of which one affirms or denies something, is called the [[subject]]; the other term, which is affirmed or denied, is called the [[attribute]] or [[predicate | Praedicatum]]. [Logic, II.3, Buroker p. 82]
The two terms are joined by the verb "is" (or "is not", if the predicate is denied of the subject). Thus every proposition has three components: the two terms, and the "[[copula]]" that connects or separates them. Even when the proposition has only two words, the three terms are still there. For example "God loves humanity", really means "God is a lover of humanity", "God exists" means "God is a thing".
This theory of judgment dominated logic for centuries. It has the obvious difficulty, noted above, that a proposition of the form "Some A is B" is not necessarily existential. If neither A nor B includes the idea of existence, then "some A is B" simply joins A to B. Conversely, if A or B do include the idea of existence in the way that "triangle" contains the idea "three angles equal to two right angles, then "A exists" is automatically true, and we have an [[ontological proof]] of A's. (Indeed Arnauld's contemporary [[Descartes]] famously argued so, regarding the concept "God" (discourse 4, Meditation 5).
The theory was current until the middle of the nineteenth century. [[David Hume|Hume]] argued that the claim that a thing exists, when added to our notion of a thing, does not add anything to the concept. For example, if we form a complete notion of Moses, and superadd to that notion the claim that Moses existed, we are not adding anything to the notion of Moses.
Kant also argued that existence is not a "real" predicate, but gave no explanation of how this is possible, indeed his famous discussion of the subject is merely a restatement of Arnauld's doctrine that in the proposition "God is omnipotent", the verb "is" signifies the joining or separating of two concepts such as "God" and "omnipotence".
Mill (and also Kant's pupil [[Herbart]]) argued that the predicative nature of existence was proved by sentences like "A centaur is a poetic fiction" (Mill) or "A greatest number is impossible" (Herbart). [[Franz Brentano]] challenged this, so also (as is better known) did [[Gottlob Frege | Frege]]. Brentano argued that we can join the concept represented by a noun phrase "an A" to the concept represented by an adjective "B" to give the concept represented by the noun phrase "a B-A". For example, we can join "a man" to "wise" to give "a wise man". But the noun phrase "a wise man" is not a sentence, whereas "some man is wise" is a sentence. Hence the copula must do more than merely join or separate concepts. Furthermore, adding "exists" to "a wise man", to give the complete sentence "a wise man exists" has the same effect as joining "some man" to "wise" using the copula. So the copula has the same effect as "exists". Brentano argued that every categorical proposition can be translated into an existential one without change in meaning and that the "exists" and "does not exist" of the existential proposition take the place of the copula. He showed this by the following examples:
: The categorical proposition "Some man is sick", has the same meaning as the existential proposition "A sick man exists" or "There is a sick man".
: The categorical proposition "No stone is living" has the same meaning as the existential proposition "A living stone does not exist" or "there is no living stone".
: The categorical proposition "All men are mortal" has the same meaning as the existential proposition "An immortal man does not exist" or "there is no immortal man".
: The categorical proposition "Some man is not learned" has the same meaning as the existential proposition "A non-learned man exists" or "there is a non-learned man".
Frege developed a similar view (thought later) in his great work [[The Foundations of Arithmetic]], as did [[Charles Peirce]]. The Frege-Brentano view is the basis of the dominant position in modern Anglo-American philosophy that existence asserted by the existential quantifier. (As expressed by Quine's slogan "To be is to be the value of a variable).
== European views ==
Influenced by the views of Brentano's pupil [[Alexius Meinong]], and by [[Edmund Husserl]], Germanophone and Francophone philosophy took a different direction regarding the question of existence. See the article on [[existentialism]] for further detail.
== Quotations ==
*For manifestly you have been long aware of what you mean when you use the expression Being. We, however, who used to think we understood it, have now become perplexed ([[Plato]]).
*It is impossible for a thing's existence to be caused by its essential constituent principles, for nothing can be the sufficient cause of its existence, if its existence is caused by another. But this cannot be true of God; because we call God the first efficient cause. Therefore it is impossible that in God his existence should differ from his essence ([[Thomas Aquinas]]).
* The root of the error is in multiplying entities according to the multiplicity of terms and supposing that every term has something real corresponding to it. This, however, is erroneous and leads far away from the truth ([[Will |
with their American counterparts, instead being sunk by massed air attack.
Yamamoto was responsible for a number of innovations in Japanese Naval Aviation. Although remembered for his association with aircraft carriers due to Pearl Harbor and Midway, Yamamoto did more to influence the development of land-based naval aviation, particularly the [[G3M]] and [[G4M]] medium bombers. His demand for great range and the ability to carry a torpedo was intended to conform to Japanese conceptions of attriting the American fleet as it advanced across the Pacific in war. The planes did achieve truly remarkable range, but at the price of outstripping the range of any potential fighter escorts while also being so lightly constructed and so loaded with fuel that they were tragically vulnerable to enemy fire. This earned the G4M the sardonic nick-name "the Flying Cigarette Lighter" and Yamamoto ironically died in one of these aircraft.
The range of the G3M and G4M contributed to a demand for great range in a fighter aircraft. This partly drove the requirements for the [[A6M Zero]] which was as noteworthy for its astonishing range as for its legendary maneuverability. Both qualities were again purchased at the expense of light construction and flammability that later contributed to the A6M's downfall as the war progressed.
As Japan moved toward war during 1940, Yamamoto gradually moved toward strategic as well as tactical innovation, again with mixed results. Prompted by talented young officers such as Minoru Genda, Yamamoto approved the reorganization of Japanese carrier forces into the First Air Fleet, a consolidated striking force that gathered Japan's six largest carriers into one unit. This innovation gave great striking capacity, but also concentrated the vulnerable carriers into a compact target; both boon and bane would be realized in war. Yamamoto also oversaw the organization of a similar large land-based organization in the 11th Air Fleet, which would later use the G3M and G4M to neutralize American air forces in the [[Philippines]] and sink the British Force "Z."
In January 1941, Yamamoto went even farther and proposed a radical revision of Japanese naval strategy. For two decades, the Naval General Staff had planned in terms of Japanese light surface forces, submarines and land-based air units whittling down the American Fleet as it advanced across the Pacific until engaging in a climactic "Decisive Battle" in the northern Philippine Sea between the Ryukyu Islands on the west and the [[Marianas Islands]] on the east. This battle was intended to take place when the American forces had finally been worn down to parity with the Japanese Navy.
Correctly citing that this plan had never worked even in Japanese wargames, and painfully aware of American strategic advantages in military productive capacity, Yamamoto proposed instead to seek a decision with the Americans by first reducing their forces with a preemptive strike, and then following that with a "Decisive Battle" that would be sought offensively, rather than defensively. Yamamoto hoped, but probably did not believe, that if the Americans could be dealt such terrific blows early in the war, they might be willing to negotiate an end to the conflict. All hope of such vanished when he became aware that the note breaking diplomatic relations with the United States was delivered late and he correctly perceived the Americans would be resolved upon revenge. Yamamoto's thoughts on this matter were later dramatically encapsulated in the apocryphal "[[Isoroku Yamamoto's sleeping giant quote|sleeping giant]]" quote uttered in the movie "[[Tora! Tora! Tora!]]"
The Naval General Staff proved reluctant to go along and Yamamoto was eventually driven to capitalize on his popularity in the fleet by threatening to resign to get his way. Admiral Osami Nagano and the Naval General Staff eventually caved in to this pressure, but only insofar as approving the Pearl Harbor Raid. Surprise attacks were a Japanese military tradition when starting a war and they could see their way clear to supporting such to give themselves six months to secure the resources of the Netherlands East Indies without the interference of the American navy.
The First Air Fleet commenced preparations for the Pearl Harbor Raid, solving a number of technical problems along the way, including how to launch torpedoes in the shallow water of Pearl Harbor and how to craft armor piercing bombs by machining down battleship gun projectiles.
:''References: Evans & Peattie (1997), Peattie (2002)''.
===The attack on Pearl Harbor, 1941===
{{main|Attack on Pearl Harbor}}
As Yamamoto had planned, the First Air Fleet of six carriers armed with about 400 planes, commenced hostilities against the Americans on [[7 December]] [[1941]], launching 353 of those aircraft against Pearl Harbor in two waves. The attack was a complete success according to the parameters of the mission which sought to sink at least four American battleships and prevent the U.S. Fleet from interfering in Japan's southward advance for at least six months. American aircraft carriers were also considered a choice target, but were not prioritized ahead of battleships as some observers have mistakenly suggested.
In fact, five American battleships were sunk, three more damaged, and ten other cruisers, destroyers and auxiliaries were sunk or seriously damaged. Although Yamamoto later lamented that First Air Fleet Commander Vice Admiral [[Chuichi Nagumo]] did not seize the initiative to seek out and destroy the American carriers that were absent from the harbor, or further bombard various strategically important facilities on Oahu, Nagumo prudently withdrew after his stunning success. The Japanese lost only 29 aircraft when they had expected to lose far more and perhaps two carriers as well. Nagumo also had absolutely no idea where the American carriers might be and risked their finding and attacking him first at a vulnerable moment. His aircraft also lacked appropriate ordnance for attacking the machine tools and [[drydock]]s of the shipyard, or even the revetted fuel tanks, whose destruction could have been far more serious losses than the fighting ships themselves. Insufficient daylight remained after recovering the aircraft from the first two waves to launch and recover a third, and Nagumo's escorting [[destroyer]]s lacked the fuel capacity for him to loiter long. Too much has been made of Yamamoto's hindsight and wishful thinking and it is instructive to note that he did not punish Nagumo in any way for his withdrawal, which was after all according to plan.
On the political level, the attack was a disaster for Japan, rousing American passions for revenge due to it being a "sneak attack". In fact, the Japanese had begun all their modern wars in this fashion and it was fully expected they would do so again - just not at Pearl Harbor. The shock of the attack coming in an unexpected place, with such devastating results and without the "fair play" of a declaration of war galvanized American determination to avenge the attack.
As a strategic blow intended to prevent American interference in the Netherlands East Indies for six months, the attack was a success, but unbeknownst to Yamamoto, a pointless one. The U.S. Navy had abandoned any intention of attempting to charge across the Pacific to the Philippines at the outset of war in 1935. In 1937, the [[U.S. Navy]] had further determined that even fully manning the U.S. Fleet to wartime levels could not be accomplished in less than six months, and myriad other logistic assets needed to execute a trans-Pacific movement simply did not exist and would require two years to construct after the onset of war. In 1940, U.S. Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral [[Harold Rainsford Stark|Harold Stark]] had penned "Plan Dog" which emphasized a defensive war in the Pacific while the U.S. concentrated on defeating Nazi Germany first, and consigned Admiral [[Husband Kimmel]]'s [[U.S. Pacific Fleet|Pacific Fleet]] to merely keeping the I.J.N. out of the eastern Pacific and away from the shipping lanes to [[Australia]].
As a tactical raid, the attack was a smashing victory, handily achieving its limited objectives at an amazingly low price of 29 aircraft (and five miniature submarines that contributed nothing of value). Hindsight and wishful thinking on the part of the Japanese regarding the attack's flaws, and American unpreparedness should not detract from the appreciation that military forces seldom achieve such complete surprise and devastation in an operation. Credit for husbanding the ambitious brain-child of his talented air subordinates to fruition is Yamamoto's.
:''References: Evans & Peattie (1997), Miller (1991), Peattie (2002)''.
==Six months of running wild, December 1941 to May 1942==
With the American Fleet largely neutralized at Pearl Harbor, Yamamoto's Combined Fleet turned to the task of executing the larger Japanese war plan devised the Army and Navy General Staffs. The First Air Fleet proceeded to make a circuit of the Pacific, striking American, Australian, Dutch and British installations from [[Wake Island]] to Australia to Ceylon (now [[Sri Lanka]]) in the [[Indian Ocean]]. The 11th Air Fleet caught the American 7th Air Force on the ground in the Philippines hours after Pearl Harbor, and then proceeded to sink the British Force "Z" (battleship [[HMS Prince of Wales (1939)|HMS Prince of Wales]] and battlecruiser [[HMS Repulse (1916)|HMS Repulse]]) underway at sea.
Under Yamamoto's able subordinates, Vice Admirals Ozawa, Kondo and Takahashi, the Japanese swept the inadequate remaining American, British, Dutch and Australian naval assets from the Netherlands East Indies in a series of amphibious landings and surface naval battles that culminated in the [[Battle of the Java Sea]] on [[27 Februar |
he wholesale massacre of Cathars during the war, Catharism was not extinguished.
In 1215, the bishops of the Catholic Church met at the [[Fourth Council of the Lateran]] under Pope Innocent. One of the key goals of the council was to combat heresy.
The [[Inquisition]] was established in 1229 to root out the Cathars. Operating in the south at Toulouse, Albi, [[Carcassonne]] and other towns during the whole of the [[13th century|13<sup>th</sup> century]], and a great part of the [[14th century|14<sup>th</sup> century]], it succeeded in extirpating the movement. From May 1243 to March 1244, the Cathar citadel of [[Montségur]] was besieged by the troops of the seneschal of Carcassonne and the archbishop of Narbonne. On March 16, 1244 a large and symbolically important execution took place, where leaders of Catharism together with more than 200 Cathar laity were thrown into an enormous fire at the ''prat des cramats'' near the foot of the castle. Moreover, the church decreed severe chastisement against all laymen suspected of sympathy with Cathars (Council of [[Narbonne]], 1235; see the Bulla of [[Pope Innocent IV|Innocent IV]] ''[[Ad exstirpanda]]'', 1252).
Hunted down by the Inquisition and abandoned by the nobles of the district, the Albigenses became more and more scattered, hiding in the forests and mountains, and only meeting surreptitiously. The people made some attempts to overthrow the Inquisition and the French, and insurrections broke out under the leadership of [[Bernard of Foix]], [[Aimerv of Narbonne]] and [[Bernard Délicieux]] at the beginning of the 14<sup>th</sup> century. But at this point vast inquests were set on foot by the Inquisition, which increased its efforts in the district. Precise indications of these are found in the registers of the Inquisitors, [[Bernard of Caux]], [[Jean de St Pierre]], [[Geoffroy d'Ablis]], and others. The sect was exhausted and could find no more adepts, and after 1330 the records of the Inquisition contain few proceedings against Cathars. The last Cathar Perfect, [[Guillaume Bélibaste]], was executed in 1321. Other movements, such as the [[Waldensians]] and the pantheistic [[Brethren of the Free Spirit]] survived into the 14<sup>th</sup> and [[15th century|15<sup>th</sup> century]], until they were gradually replaced by, or absorbed into, early [[Protestant]] sects, such as the [[Hussites]].
==The Holy Grail==
*It has been suggested in some modern fiction and non-fiction books that the Cathars could have been the protectors of the [[Holy Grail]] of Christian mythology, especially in the book ''[[Holy Blood, Holy Grail]]'', although modern investigation into this book has largely discredited its findings.
==Visigoths==
[[Visigoth]]s had settled in the region described as central to Catharism, which separated the political ideology from the Frankish northern provinces or [[Burgundy]]. The Crusade to rid [[Christendom]] of Cathars was a synonym for eradicating the last remnants of [[Arianism]]. The disparity between religious practices had not only been between the Visigoths of Toulouse and [[Franks]] of Paris. However, many later Calvinists in this region were of Berber origin.
==References==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01267e.htm "Albigenses"] by N.A. Weber. [[The Catholic Encyclopedia]], 1907.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03435a.htm "Cathari"] by N.A. Weber. [[The Catholic Encyclopedia]], 1908.
* Histories of the Cathars: ''Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error'', [[Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie]], trans. Barbera Bray, Vintage Books, 1979
* ''Montsegur and the Mystery of the Cathars'', [[Jean Markale]], ISBN 0-89281-090-4, Inner Traditions, http://www.innertraditions.com/titles/momyca.html
*''The Cathars'', [[Malcolm Lambert]], ISBN 0-631-14343-2, Blackwell, 1998
*''The Treasure of Montsegur: A Novel of the Cathars'', [[Sophy Burnham]], ISBN 0060000791, Harper, 2002
*''All Things Are Lights'', [[Robert Shea]], ISBN 0345329031, Ballantine, 1986
*''[http://www.profilebooks.co.uk/title.php?titleissue_id=26 The Perfect Heresy]'', Stephen Shea, ISBN 1-86197-350-0, Profile Books 2000
*[http://www.askwhy.co.uk/christianity/0811Inquisition.html Heresy and the Inquisition II Persecution of Heretics] by Dr M D Magee, [[12 December]] [[2002]].
*[http://www.languedoc-france.info/12_cathars.htm The Cathars of the Langudoc] James McDonald, 2005.
*[[Hilaire Belloc]], ''The Great Heresies'', [http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMELIBR/HERESY5.TXT chapter 5: The Albigensian Attack]
*[[lastours]] The four cathar castles above Lastours.
*''Foucault's Pendulum'', [[Umberto Eco]], ISBN 0345368754, Ballantine, 1988
===External links===
*[http://www.nd.edu/~medvllib/seals/soeast.html Seals of Southeastern France]
*[http://www.katharer.de Site of German Cathars (Katharer)]
* [http://www.cathar.info/dualism.htm Dualism] and the relationship between Manichaeism, Bogomilism and Catharism
*[http://www.renneslechateaubooks.info/languedoccathar Reviews of Books on the Cathars, Catharism and the Cathar Crusade]
*[http://www.cathar.net/ Assembly of good Christians, the modern Cathar Church]
{{1911}}
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[[Category:History of Catholicism in France]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cerebrospinal fluid</title>
<id>7632</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:55:25Z</timestamp>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cerebrospinal fluid''' ('''CSF'''), ''Liquor cerebrospinalis'', is a clear bodily fluid that occupies the [[subarachnoid space]] in the [[brain]] (the space between the [[skull]] and the [[cerebral cortex]]&mdash;more specifically, between the [[arachnoid (brain)|arachnoid]] and [[pia mater|pia]] layers of the [[meninges]]). It is basically a [[Saline (medicine)|saline]] solution and acts as a "cushion" or buffer for the cortex.
==Physiology==
Cerebrospinal fluid also occupies the [[ventricular system]] of the brain and the [[spinal cord]]. It is mainly produced by the [[choroid plexus]], but also by the [[ependyma|ependymal lining]] of the brain's ventricles. The CSF is formed by the choroid plexus of the ventricles circulates through the [[interventricular foramina]] into the [[third ventricle]] and then via the [[mesencephalic duct]] (cerebral aqueduct) into the fourth ventricle space through two lateral apertures and one median aperture and is then absorbed by the [[venous system]] to the blood circulation.
The total amount of cerebrospinal fluid is about 150 ml, and about 500 ml is produced every day, which indicates its very active circulation.
==Pathology==
The cerebrospinal fluid has many putative roles including mechanical protection of the brain, distribution of [[neuroendocrine]] factors, and facilitation of pulsatile [[cerebral blood flow]]. Understanding cardiovascular dynamics is valuable as the flow pattern of arterial blood must be tightly regulated within the brain in order to assure consistent brain [[oxygenation]]. CSF movement allows arterial expansion and contraction by acting like a spring, which prevents wide changes in intracranial blood flow. When disorders of CSF flow occur, they may therefore impact not only CSF movement, but also the intracranial blood flow, with subsequent neuronal and glial vulnerabilities. The venous system is also important in this equation. Infants and patients shunted as small children may have particularly unexpected relationships between pressure and ventricular size, possibly due in part to venous pressure dynamics. This may have significant treatment implications but the underlying pathophysiology needs to be further explored.
CSF connections with the [[lymphatic system]] have been demonstrated in several [[mammal]]ian systems. Preliminary data suggest that these CSF-lymph connections form around the time that the CSF secretory capacity of the [[choroid plexus]] is developing (in [[uterus|utero]]). There may be some relationship between CSF disorders, including [[hydrocephalus]] and impaired CSF lymphatic transport.
==Diagnosis and therapy==
Cerebrospinal fluid can be tested for the diagnosis of a variety of [[neurological disease]]s. Usually, it is obtained by a procedure called [[lumbar puncture]] in an attempt to count the cells in the fluid and to detect the levels of protein and glucose. These parameters alone may be extremely beneficial in the diagnosis of [[central nervous system]] infections (especially [[meningitis]] and [[subarachnoid hemorrhage]]). Moreover, a cerebrospinal fluid [[Microbiological culture|culture]] examination may yield the microorganism that has caused the infection. By using more sophisticated methods, such as the detection of the [[oligoclonal bands]], an ongoing inflammatory condition (for example, [[multiple sclerosis]]) can be recognized. A [[beta-2 transferrin]] assay is highly specific and sensitive for the detection for e.g. cerebrospinal fluid leakage.
Lumbar puncture can also be performed to measure the intracranial pressure, which might be increased in certain types of [[hydrocephalus]].
[[Category:Central nervous system]]
[[Category:Neurology]]
[[da:Cerebrospinalvæske]]
[[de:Liquor cerebrospinalis]]
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<title>C |
reintegrating them through labour into the Soviet society. Initially the inmates, the significant part being Russian [[intelligentsia]], enjoyed relative freedom (within the natural confinement of the islands). Local newspapers and magazines were edited and even some scientific research was carried out (e.g., a local botanical garden was maintained, unfortunately lost completely). Eventually it turned into an ordinary Gulag camp; in fact some historians maintain that Solovki was a pilot camp of this type. See [[Solovki]] for more detail. [[Maxim Gorky]] visited the camp in 1929 and published an apology of it.
With the new emphasis on Gulag as the means of concentrating cheap labour, new camps were then constructed throughout the Soviet sphere of influence, wherever the economic task at hand dictated their existence (or was designed specifically to avail itself of them, such as [[White Sea-Baltic Canal|Belomorkanal]] or [[Baikal Amur Mainline]]), including facilities in big cities &mdash; parts of the famous [[Moscow Metro]] and the [[Moscow State University]] new campus were built by forced labour. Many more projects during the rapid industrialization of the [[1930s]], [[World War II|war-time]] and post-war periods were fulfilled on the backs of convicts, and the activity of Gulag camps spanned a wide cross-section of Soviet industry.
The majority of Gulag camps were positioned in extremely remote areas of north-eastern Siberia (the best known clusters are ''Sevvostlag'' (''The North-East Camps'') along [[Kolyma]] river and ''Norillag'' near [[Norilsk]]) and in the south-eastern parts of the Soviet Union, mainly in the [[steppe]]s of [[Kazakhstan]] (''Luglag'', ''Steplag'', ''Peschanlag''). These were vast and uninhabited regions with no roads (in fact, the construction of the roads themselves was assigned to the inmates of specialized railroad camps) or sources of food, but rich in minerals and other natural resources (such as timber). However, camps were generally spread throughout the entire [[Soviet Union]], including the European parts of [[Russia]], [[Belarus]], and [[Ukraine]]. There were also several camps located outside of the Soviet Union, in [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Hungary]], [[Poland]], and [[Mongolia]], which were under the direct control of the Gulag.
Not all camps were fortified; in fact some in Siberia were marked only by posts. Escape was deterred by the harsh elements, as well as tracking dogs that were assigned to each camp. While during the 1920s and 1930s native tribes often aided escapees, many of the tribes were also victimized by escaped thieves. Tantalized by large rewards as well, they began aiding authorities in the capture of Gulag inmates. Camp guards were also given stern incentive to keep their inmates in line at all costs; if a prisoner escaped under a guard's watch, the guard would often be stripped of his uniform and become a Gulag inmate himself, as well as payments that were often equivalent to one or two weeks wages if an escaping prisoner was shot.
In some cases, teams of inmates were dropped to a new territory with a limited supply of resources and left to initiate a new camp or die. Sometimes it took a few attempts before the next wave of colonists could survive the elements.
The area along the [[Indigirka river]] was known as ''the Gulag inside the Gulag''. In 1926, the [[Oimiakon]] (Оймякон) village in this region registered the record low temperature of &minus;71.2°C (&minus;96°F).
== Influence ==
=== Culture ===
The Gulag spanned nearly four decades of Soviet history and affected millions of individuals. Its cultural impact was enormous.
[[Alexander Solzhenitsyn]]'s book ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]'' was not the first literary work about labour camps. His previous book on the subject, "[[One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich]]", about a typical day of the GULAG inmate, was originally published in the most prestigious Soviet monthly, "Novij Mir", "New World", in November of 1962, but was soon banned and withdrawn from all libraries. It was the first work to demonstrate the Gulag as an instrument of governmental repression against its own citizens on a massive scale.
The Gulag has become a major influence on contemporary Russian thinking, and an important part of modern Russian [[folklore]]. Many songs by the authors-performers known as the [[Bard (Soviet Union)|''bards'']], most notably [[Vladimir Vysotsky]] and [[Alexander Galich]], neither of whom ever served time in the camps, describe life inside the Gulag and glorified the life of "Zeks". Words and phrases which originated in the labor camps became part of the Russian/Soviet vernacular in the 60's and 70's.
The memoirs of [[Alexander Dolgun]], [[Alexander Solzhenitsyn]], [[Varlam Shalamov]] and [[Yevgenia Ginzburg]], among others, became a symbol of defiance in Soviet society. These writings, particularly those of Solzhenitsyn, harshly chastised the Soviet people for their tolerance and apathy regarding the Gulag, but at the same time provided a testament to the courage and resolve of those who were imprisoned.
Another cultural phenomenon in the USSR linked with the Gulag was the forced migration of many artists and other people of culture to Siberia. This resulted in a Renaissance of sorts in places like [[Magadan]], where, for example, the quality of theatre production was comparable to [[Moscow]]'s.
=== Colonization ===
Soviet [[wikisource:Об использовании труда уголовно-заключенных|state documents]] show that among the goals of the GULAG was colonization of sparsely populated remote areas. To this end, the notion of "[[free settlement]]" was introduced.
When a well-behaved person had served the majority of their term, they could be released for "free settlement" (вольное поселение, "volnoye poseleniye") outside the confinement of the camp. They were known as "free settlers" (вольнопоселенцы, "volnoposelentsy", not to be confused with the term ссыльнопоселенцы, "sslylnoposelentsy", "[[Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union|exile settlers]]"). In addition, for persons who served full term, but who were denied the free choice of place of residence, it was recommended to assign them for "free settlement" and give them land in the general vicinity of the place of confinement.
This implement was also inherited from the [[katorga]] system.
=== Life after term served ===
Persons who served a term in a camp or in a prison were restricted from taking a wide range of jobs. A concealment of a previous imprisonment was a triable offense. Persons who served terms as "politicals" were nuisances for "[[First Department]]s (Первый Отдел-"Pervyj Otdel", outlets of the [[secret police]] at all enterprises and institutions), because former "politicals" had to be monitored.
Many people released from camps were restricted from [[101 km|settling in larger cities]].
After serving long terms, many people had lost their former job skills and social contacts. Therefore upon final release many of them voluntarily decided to become (or stay) "free settlers". This decision was also influenced by the knowledge of the restrictions for them everywhere else. When many of the previously released prisoners were re-seized during the wave of arrests that began in [[1947]], this happened much more often to those who had chosen to move back to their home town proximity rather than to those who remained near the camps as the free settlers.
== Latest developments ==
Anne Applebaum's monograph described the releases of political prisoners from the camps as late as [[1987]]. In November [[1991]] the Russian parliament, the Supreme Soviet of RSFSR, passed the ''"Declaration of Rights and Freedoms of the Individual"'' which guaranteed theoretically, among other liberties, the right to disagree with the government.
== References ==
* [[Anne Applebaum]], ''Gulag: A History'', Broadway Books, 2003, hardcover, 720 pp., ISBN 0767900561.
* [[Stephane Courtois]], ''The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression'', Harvard University Press, 1999, 858 pp., ISBN 0674076087.
* [[J. Arch Getty]], [[Oleg V. Naumov]], ''The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932-1939'', Yale University Press, 1999, 635 pp., ISBN 0300077726.
* [[Gustaw Herling-Grudziński|Gustaw Herling]], ''A World Apart: Imprisonment in a Soviet Labor Camp During World War II'', Penguin, 1996, 284 pp., ISBN 0140251847.
* [[Paul Gregory]], [[Valery Lazarev]], eds, ''The Economics of Forced Labour: The Soviet Gulag'', Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 2003, full text available at [http://www-hoover.stanford.edu/publications/books/gulag.html]
* [[Oleg V. Khlevniuk]], <cite>The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror</cite>, Yale University Press, 2004, hardcover, 464 pp., ISBN 0300092849.
* [[Tomasz Kizny]], ''Gulag: Life and Death Inside the Soviet Concentration Camps 1917-1990'', Firefly Books Ltd., 2004, 496 pp., ISBN 1552979644.
* [[Jacques Rossi]], ''The Gulag Handbook: An Encyclopedia Dictionary of Soviet Penitentiary Institutions and Terms Related to the Forced Labour Camps'', 1989, ISBN 1557780242.
* [[Varlam Shalamov]], ''Kolyma Tales'', Penguin Books, 1995, 528 pp., ISBN 0140186956.
* [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn|Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn]], <cite>The Gulag Archipelago</cite>, Harper & Row, 660 pp., ISBN 0060803320.
* [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn|Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn]], <cite>The Gulag Archipelago</cite>: Two, Harper & Row, 712 pp., ISBN 0060803452.
* [http://lib.ru/PROZA/SOLZHENICYN/ Solzhenitsyn's], [http://lib.ru/PROZA/SHALAMOW/ Shalamov's], [http://lib.ru/PROZA/GINZBURG_E/ Ginzburg's] works at Lib.ru (in original Russian)
* ''Istorija stalinsk |
ders believed their oaths were made invalid when Alexius did not help them during the [[siege of Antioch]]; Bohemund, who had set himself up as [[Principality of Antioch|Prince of Antioch]], briefly went to war with Alexius, but agreed to become Alexius' vassal under the [[Treaty of Devol]] in [[1108]].
During the last twenty years of his life he lost much of his popularity. The years were marked by persecution of the followers of the Paulician and Bogomil heresies&mdash;one of his last acts was to burn [[Basil the Physician|Basil]], a Bogomil leader, with whom he had engaged in a theological controversy; by renewed struggles with the Turks ([[1110]]&ndash;[[1117]]); and by anxieties as to the succession, which his wife Irene wished to alter in favour of her daughter Anna's husband, [[Nicephorus Bryennius]], for whose benefit the special title ''[[Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy|panhypersebastos]]'' ("honored above all") was created. This intrigue disturbed even his dying hours.
Alexius was for many years under the strong influence of an ''eminence grise'', his mother [[Anna Dalassena]], a wise and immensely able politician whom, in a uniquely irregular fashion, he had crowned as ''Empress Augusta'' instead of the rightful claimant to the title, his wife Irene. Dalassena was the effective administrator of the Empire during Alexius' long absences in war campaigns: she was constantly at odds with her daughter-in-law and had assumed total responsibility for the upbringing and education of her granddaughter [[Anna Comnena]].
== External links ==
* [http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/byz/alexius_I/t.html Alexius coinage]
==References==
*{{1911}}
{{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Nicephorus III]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[John II Comnenus]]}}
[[Category:Comnenid dynasty]]
[[Category:Byzantine emperors]]
[[Category:Crusades]]
[[Category:1048 births]]
[[Category:1118 deaths]]
[[de:Alexios I. (Byzanz)]]
[[el:Αλέξιος Α' Κομνηνός]]
[[es:Alejo I Comneno]]
[[fr:Alexis Ier Comnène]]
[[he:אלכסיוס הראשון]]
[[hu:I. Alexiosz]]
[[nl:Alexius I van Byzantium]]
[[ja:アレクシオス1世コムネノス]]
[[pl:Aleksy I Komnen]]
[[pt:Aleixo I Comneno]]
[[fi:Aleksios I Komnenos]]
[[sv:Alexios I Komnenos]]
[[zh:阿历克塞一世]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexis</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other senses of this name, see [[Alexis (disambiguation)]].''
'''Alexis''' (ca. [[375 BC]]-ca. [[275 BC]]) was a [[Greece|Greek]] [[comedian|comic]] [[poet]] of the [[Middle Comedy]], born at [[Thurii]] and taken early to [[Athens]], where he became a citizen.
He won his first [[Lenaean]] victory in the [[350s BC]], most likely, where he was sixth after [[Eubulus]], and fourth after [[Antiphanes]].
[[Plutarch]] says that he lived to the age of 106, and that he died on the stage while being crowned. According to the ''[[Suda]]'', he wrote 245 comedies, of which some 130 titles are preserved. Only fragments of any of the plays have survived - about 340 in all, totalling about 1,000 lines. They attest to the wit and refinement of the author (see [[Theodor Kock]], ''Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta'').
The ''Suda'' also calls him [[Menander]]'s uncle, but an anonymous [[tractate]] on comedy more plausibly states that Menander was his pupil. Alexis was known in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times; [[Aulus Gellius]] noted that Alexis' plays were used by Roman comedians, including [[Turpilius]] and possibly [[Plautus]].
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:375 BC births]]
[[Category:275 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek poets]]
[[hu:Alexisz]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Alexius II Comnenus</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexius II Comnenus''' ([[September 10]], [[1169]] &ndash; October [[1183]]), [[Byzantine emperor]] ([[1180]]-[[1183]]), was the son of emperor [[Manuel I Comnenus]] and [[Maria of Antioch|Maria]], daughter of [[Raymond of Antioch|Raymund]], [[Principality of Antioch|prince of Antioch]]. He was the long-awaited male heir, and was named Alexius as a fulfilment of the [[AIMA prophecy]].
On Manuel's death in [[1180]], Maria, who had been immured in a [[convent]] under the name of Xene, had herself proclaimed regent (1179-1180), and handing over her son to counsellors, who encouraged him in every vice, supported the government of Alexius the ''[[Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy|protosebastos]]'' (a cousin of Alexius II), who was popularly believed to be Maria's lover. The young Alexius and his friends now tried to form a party against the empress mother and the protosebastos; and his sister Maria, wife of Caesar John ([[Renier of Montferrat]]), stirred up riots in the streets of the capital.
Their party was defeated ([[May 2]], [[1182]]), but [[Andronicus I Comnenus|Andronicus Comnenus]] took advantage of these disorders to aim at the crown, entered Constantinople, where he was received with almost divine honours, and overthrew the regents. His arrival was celebrated by a massacre of the Latins in Constantinople, especially the [[Venice|Venetian]] merchants, which he made no attempt to stop. He allowed Alexius to be crowned, but forced him to consent to the death of all his friends, including his mother, his sister and the Caesar, and refused to allow him the smallest voice in public affairs.
The betrothal in 1180 of Alexius with [[Agnes of France]] , daughter of [[Louis VII of France]] and his third wife [[Adèle of Champagne]] and at the time a child of nine, was quashed. Andronicus was now formally proclaimed as co-emperor, and not long afterwards, on the pretext that divided rule was injurious to the Empire, he caused Alexius to be strangled with a bow-string (October 1183).
==Sources==
* Magdalino, Paul. ''The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos'', 1993
----
{{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Manuel I Comnenus]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Andronicus I Comnenus]]}}
{{1911}}
[[Category:Comnenid dynasty]]
[[Category:Byzantine emperors]]
[[Category:1169 births|Alexius II Comnenus]]
[[Category:1183 deaths|Alexius II Comnenus]]
[[de:Alexios II. (Byzanz)]]
[[el:Αλέξιος Β']]
[[es:Alejo II Comneno]]
[[fr:Alexis II Comnène]]
[[it:Alessio II di Bisanzio]]
[[hu:II. Alexiosz]]
[[nl:Alexius II van Byzantium]]
[[ja:アレクシオス2世コムネノス]]
[[pl:Aleksy II Komnen]]
[[fi:Aleksios II Komnenos]]</text>
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<title>Alexius III Angelus</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexius III Angelus''' (Greek: Αλέξιος Γ' Άγγελος or Alexios III Angelos), [[Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine emperor]], was the second son of Andronicus Angelus, nephew of [[Alexius I]].
In [[1195]], while his brother [[Isaac II]] was away hunting in [[Thrace]], he was proclaimed emperor by the troops; he captured Isaac at [[Stagira]] in [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], put out his eyes, and kept him henceforth a close prisoner, though he had been redeemed by him from captivity at [[Antioch]] and loaded with honours.
To compensate for this crime and to confirm his position as emperor, he had to scatter money so lavishly as to empty his treasury, and to allow such licence to the officers of the army as to leave the Empire practically defenceless. He consummated the financial ruin of the state. The able and forceful empress [[Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamaterina]] tried in vain to sustain his credit and his court; Vatatzes, the favourite instrument of her attempts at reform, was [[assassination|assassinated]] by the emperor's orders.
Eastward the Empire was overrun by the [[Seljuk Turks]]; from the north [[Bulgarians]] and [[Vlachs]] descended unchecked to ravage the plains of Macedonia and Thrace; while Alexius squandered the public treasure on his palaces and gardens. Soon he was threatened by a new and yet more formidable danger. In [[1202]] the Western princes of the [[Fourth Crusade]] assembled at [[Venice]], bent on a new [[crusade]]. Alexius, son of the deposed Isaac, escaped from [[Constantinople]] and appealed to the crusaders, promising as a crowning bribe to heal the [[East-West Schism|schism]] of [[Eastern Orthodoxy|East]] and [[Roman Catholicism|West]] if they would help him to depose his uncle.
The crusaders, whose objective had been [[Egypt]], were persuaded to set their course for Constantinople, before which they appeared in June [[1203]], proclaiming Alexius as emperor [[Alexius IV]] and summoning the capital to depose his uncle. Alexius III, sunk in debauchery, took no efficient measures to resist. His son-in-law, [[Theodore I Lascaris|Lascaris]], who was the only one to do anything, was defeated at [[Scutari]], and the siege of [[Constantinople]] began. On the [[July 17]] the crusaders, the aged [[Doge of Venice|doge]] [[Enrico Dandolo]] at their head, scaled the walls and took the city by storm. During the fighting and carnage that followed Alexius hid in the palace, and finally, with one of his daughters, Irene, and such treasures as he could collect, got into a boat and escaped to [[Develton]] in Thrace, leaving his wife, his other daughters and his Empire to the victors. Isaac, drawn fr |
gus ''[[Amorphotheca resinae]]'' prefers the longer-chain alkanes in [[aviation fuel]], and can cause serious problems for aircraft in tropical regions.
In plants it is the solid long-chain alkanes that are found; they form a firm layer of wax, the [[cuticle]], over areas of the plant exposed to the air. This protects the plant against water loss, while preventing the [[leaching]] of important minerals by the rain. It is also a protection against bacteria, fungi and harmful [[insect]]s&mdash;the latter sink with their legs into the soft waxlike substance and have difficulty moving. The shining layer on fruits such as apples consists of long-chain alkanes. The carbon chains are usually between twenty and thirty carbon atoms in length and are made by the plants from [[fatty acid]]s. The exact composition of the layer of wax is not only species-dependent, but changes also with the season and such environmental factors as lighting conditions, temperature or humidity.
===Animals===
<!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] -->
Alkanes are found in animal products, although they are less important than unsaturated hydrocarbons. On example is the shark liver oil, which is approximately 14% [[pristane]] (2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane, C<sub>19</sub>H<sub>40</sub>). Their occurrence is more important in [[pheromone]]s, chemical messenger materials, on which above all insects are dependent for communication. With some kinds, as the support beetle ''[[Xylotrechus colonus]]'', primarily [[pentacosane]] (C<sub>25</sub>H<sub>52</sub>), 3-methylpentaicosane (C<sub>26</sub>H<sub>54</sub>) and 9-methylpentaicosane (C<sub>26</sub>H<sub>54</sub>), they are transferred by body contact. With others like the [[tsetse fly]] ''Glossina morsitans morsitans'', the pheromone contians the four alkanes 2-methylheptadecane (C<sub>18</sub>H<sub>38</sub>), 17,21-dimethylheptatriacontane (C<sub>39</sub>H<sub>80</sub>), 15,19-dimethylheptatriacontane (C<sub>39</sub>H<sub>80</sub>) and 15,19,23-trimethylheptatriacontane (C<sub>40</sub>H<sub>82</sub>), and
acts by smell over longer distances, a useful characteristic for [[pest control]].
===Ecological relations===
<!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] -->
[[Image:Ophrys sphegodes flower.jpg|thumb|right|Early spider orchid (''Ophrys sphegodes'')]]
One example, in which both plant and animal alkanes play a role, is the ecological relationship between the [[sand bee]] (''[[Andrena nigroaenea]]'') and the [[early spider orchid]] (''[[Ophrys sphegodes]]''); the latter is dependent for [[pollination]] on the former. Sand bees use pheromones in order to identify a mate; in the case of ''A. nigroaenea'', the females emit a mixture of [[tricosane]] (C<sub>23</sub>H<sub>48</sub>), [[pentacosane]] (C<sub>25</sub>H<sub>52</sub>) and [[heptacosane]] (C<sub>27</sub>H<sub>56</sub>) in the ratio 3:3:1, and males are attracted by specifically this odour. The orchid takes advantage of this mating arrangement to get the male bee to collect and disseminate its pollen; parts of its flower not only resemble the appearance of sand bees, but also produce large quantities of the three alkanes in the same ratio as female sand bees. As a result numerous males are lured to the blooms and attempte to copulate with their imaginary partner: although this endeavour is not crowned with success for the bee, it allows the orchid to transfer its pollen,
which will be dispersed after the departure of the frustrated male to different blooms.
==See also==
* [[Cycloalkane]]
* [[Higher alkanes]]
* [[Alkene]]
* [[Alkyne]]
* [[Functional group]]
* [[Cracking (chemistry)]]
* [[List of alkanes]]
{{Alkanes}}
[[Category:Hydrocarbons]]
[[Category:Alkanes]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[ar:ألكان]]
[[bg:Алкан]]
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[[cs:Alkan]]
[[da:Alkan]]
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[[et:Alkaanid]]
[[el:Αλκάνια]]
[[es:Alcano]]
[[eo:Alkano]]
[[fr:Alcane]]
[[ko:알케인]]
[[it:Alcani]]
[[he:אלקאן]]
[[lv:Alkāni]]
[[nl:Alkaan]]
[[ja:アルカン]]
[[nn:Alkan]]
[[pl:Alkan]]
[[pt:Alcano]]
[[ru:Алканы]]
[[sk:Alkán]]
[[sr:Алкан]]
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[[zh:烷烃]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Appeal</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the legal term. For other usages see [[Appeal (disambiguation)]].''
An '''appeal''' is the act or fact of challenging a judicially cognizable and binding [[judgment]] to a higher judicial authority. In [[common law]] jurisdictions, most commonly, this means formally filing a [[notice of appeal]] with a lower court, indicating one's intention to take the matter to the next higher court with jurisdiction over the matter, and then actually filing the appeal with the appropriate [[Court of Appeals|appellate court]].
==United States==
The [[United States]] legal system generally recognizes two types of appeals: a trial ''de novo'' or an appeal on the record.
A [[trial de novo]] is usually available for review of informal proceedings conducted by [[administrative agency|administrative agency]], referees, masters, commissioners and some minor judicial tribunals in proceedings that do not provide all the procedural attributes of a formal judicial [[trial (law)|trial]]. If unchallenged, these decisions have the power to settle more minor legal disputes once and for all. If a party is dissatisfied with the finding of such a tribunal, one generally has the power to request a trial ''de novo'' by a [[court of record]]. In such a proceeding, all issues and [[evidence (law)|evidence]] may be developed newly, as though never heard before, and one is not restricted to the evidence heard in the lower proceeding. Sometimes, however, the decision of the lower proceeding is itself admissible as evidence, thus helping to curb frivolous appeals.
In an appeal on the record from a decision in a judicial proceeding, both [[appellant]] and [[respondent]] are bound to base their arguments wholly on the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in the lower tribunal. Each seeks to prove to the higher court that the result they desired was the just result. [[Precedent]] and [[case law]] figure prominently in the arguments. In order for the appeal to succeed, the appellant must prove that the lower court committed [[reversible error]], that is, an impermissible action by the court acted to cause a result that was unjust, and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly. Some examples of reversible error would be erroneously instructing the [[jury]] on the law applicable to the case, permitting seriously [[improper argument]] by an attorney, admitting or excluding evidence improperly, acting outside the court's jurisdiction, injecting bias into the proceeding or appearing to do so, juror misconduct, etc. The failure to formally object at the time, to what one views as improper action in the lower court, may result in the affirmance of the lower court's judgment on the grounds that one did not "preserve the issue for appeal" by objecting.
In cases where a [[judge]] rather than a [[jury]] decided issues of fact, an appellate court will apply an ''abuse of discretion'' standard of review. Under this standard, the appellate court gives deference to the lower court's view of the evidence, and reverses its decision only if it was a clear abuse of discretion. This is usually defined as a decision outside the bounds of reasonableness. On the other hand, the appellate court normally gives less deference to a lower court's decision on issues of law, and may reverse if it finds that the lower court applied the wrong legal standard.
In some rare cases, an appellant may successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was [[unconstitutional]] or otherwise invalid, or may convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that evidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered. In the case of new evidence, there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have made a material difference in the trial. Another issue suitable for appeal in criminal cases is effective assistance of counsel. If a defendant has been convicted and can prove that his lawyer did not adequately handle his case ''and'' that there is a reasonable probability that the result of the trial would have been different had the lawyer given competent representation, he is entitled to a new trial.
An appellate court is a [[court]] that hears cases in which a [[lower court]] -- either a [[trial court]] or a lower-level appellate court &#8212; has already made a decision, but in which at least one party to the action wants to challenge this ruling based upon some legal grounds that are allowed to be appealed either by right or by leave of the appellate court. These grounds typically include errors of [[law]], [[fact]], or [[due process]].
In different jurisdictions, appellate courts are also called appeals courts, courts of appeals, superior courts, or supreme courts.
==Who can appeal==
A party who files an appeal is called an ''appellant'', and a party on the other side is an ''appellee'' or ''respondent'' or, in some jurisdictions, the party who files is known as a ''petitioner'' and the party being sued is designated the ''respondent''. Cross-appeals can also occur, when more than one party to a case is unhappy with the decision in some way, often when the winning party claims that more damages were deserv |
rised as scientific inquiry.
In [[scientific theories]] supported by the mainstream [[scientific community]], the [[universe]] and life is described as developing through solely [[Nature|natural]] causes, and the progress of science is hoped to continue to improve the explanation of things and events in the past.
[[Creation science]] is a [[creationism|creationist]] effort to integrate science and [[Abrahamic]] faith by allowing for both [[God]]'s action in the [[natural world]] as generally described by [[creation according to Genesis]] and looking for [[scientific evidence]] which supports the creation account. It is rejected as [[pseudoscience]] by the mainstream scientific community, as the belief in creation is itself taken [[a priori]], and is not able to be scientifically tested.
=== Mainstream scientific theories ===
[[Image:Universe expansion.png|thumb|right|200 px|Graphical rendering of the expansion of the universe due to the [[Big Bang]] with the [[physical paradox|paradoxical]] [[gravitational singularity|singularity]] at the [[origin (mathematics)|origin]] of [[time]].]]
The [[Big Bang]] theory is the dominant cosmological theory about the early development and current shape of the universe. The ultimate origin of the preconditions for the universe is currently a subject of speculation, and some believe it is beyond the bounds of scientific inquiry. The [[solar nebula]] is considered the best planetary system formation model available for explaining the origin of the [[solar system]]. The [[Earth]]-[[moon]] system was formed out of this as described by the [[Giant impact theory]].
The [[modern evolutionary synthesis]] is the dominant biological theory about the [[human evolution|origin of human life]] on Earth. This combines Charles Darwin's theory of the [[evolution]] of [[species]] by [[natural selection]] with [[Gregor Mendel]]'s theory of [[genetics]] as the basis for [[biological inheritance]].
The origin of life itself on Earth is more contested. Scientific conjectures, hypotheses, and observations pertaining to this topic are detailed in the article on the [[origin of life]].
It should be pointed out that the above [[scientific theories]] are not ''ex nihilo'' beliefs, that is they do not start from nothing. They provide no mechanism for the origin ''ex nihilo'' of energy or matter. In this respect they are unlike the Jewish, Christian, and Islamic beliefs which assert that the universe, Earth, and life originated in a unique creative act by God, or scientific speculations which propose an original cause of some other type. For a more precise understanding of modern science's concepts concerning "matter from vacuum" or "something from nothing" see [[virtual particle]] and [[vacuum energy]].
=== Beliefs grounded in philosophical naturalism ===
[[Atomism]] is an ancient Greek philosophy supported by [[Democritus]], [[Epicurus]] and [[Lucretius]] which held that events in the universe were not the consequence of any act by a Creator, but rather was the result of atoms moving about randomly. This philosophy was reformulated as [[determinism]] after the [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and still enjoys a following by some scientists, though the character of deterministic interactions in nature involving [[quantum mechanics]] is an outstanding question.
The [[Anthropic Principle]] and its more controversial derivative the [[Strong Anthropic Principle]] are explanations for the existence of humanity with respect to the conditions of the universe that we inhabit. The principle is used as a guide for some scientists to determine certain [[physical laws]] that have necessarily resulted in the existence of ourselves. In some sense, the Anthropic Principle is an empirical truism while the Strong Anthropic Principle is an idea that may defy [[falsification]].
[[Deism]] was a popular belief of many scientists and philosophers of the post-enlightenment, including [[Newton]], [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibnitz]], and [[Thomas Jefferson]] that kept the formality of a creator, but allowed creation to function solely based on [[natural laws]] that were established at the time of creation. In this formulation, every interaction was completely deterministic.
The [[Many worlds]] interpretation of [[quantum mechanics]] and the idea of [[parallel universes]] are ways of resolving questions of [[causality]] and determinism in the framework of [[probability|probabilistic interactions]]. In this speculative interpretation, the universe that we inhabit is one of many possible universes that all simultaneously exist, but are independent of each other, and each universe bifurcates with every quantum mechanical "observation".
==Creation ''ex nihilo''==
Creation ''[[ex nihilo]]'' ([[Latin]]: out of nothing) is at odds with our everyday experiences, in that nothing spontaneously comes into (or vanishes from) existence but instead [[matter]] and [[energy]] merely change forms. However, [[quantum mechanics]] allows for energy to be spontaneously created from the [[vacuum]] as long as the [[Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle]] is not violated (usually, by the spontaneous annihilation of the created particles, e.g. the [[Lamb shift]]). This may give a means by which creation ''ex nihilo'' can be achieved, but nevertheless we are not currently able to explain creation ''ex nihilo'', nor even to prove that it is required. [[Julian Barbour]] suggests that reality simply terminates on nothing at the alpha point, as a brute fact, in the same way that England abuts the sea at Land's End without requiring an explanation.
An explanation advanced by some theists is that God created the Universe out of nothing; some [[creationist|creationists]] hold also that life was created in something like its present state of variety, so that organisms were fully speciated from the beginning. While there are various attempts to square these ideas with available evidence and currently accepted theory, their explanatory utility, predictive power, and scientific standing are questioned by critics of [[creationism]]. Many scientists in the relevant fields, theist and otherwise, do not regard notions like divine power or divine will as playing genuine scientific roles in cosmology or biology.
The scientifically prevalent view is that life originated on Earth, although other views hold that organic compounds from comets may have been an important source of material for the appearance of life. The [[Miller-Urey experiment]] showed that [[amino acid]]s could arise from a type of primitive environment. Nevertheless, while scientific research on [[abiogenesis]] is ongoing, there is no consensus on how life began.
==Religious creation beliefs==
{{limitedgeographicscope}}
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Generalize to cover other traditions.
The introductory text below is limited to the J/C/I tradition.
-->
Several [[religion]]s have creation stories, some of which account for the existence and present form of the [[Universe]] by the act of creation by a [[supreme being]] or the [[Creator God]]. Most of these accounts depict one or several gods fashioning things out of themselves, or from pre-existing material (for example [[chaos]] or [[prakriti]]).
The scholastic traditions of [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]] for the most part speak of creation ''ex nihilo''. This is typified, for example, by the assumption that the first verse of the Christian [[Bible]] ("In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth") indicates the only self-existent entity is God with all other things deriving from God. [[2 Maccabees|2 Maccabees 7:28]] indicates that this philosophy may have been a common Jewish understanding of creation: "I beseech thee, my son, look upon the heaven and the earth, and all that is therein, and consider that God made them of things that were not ...". Similar to this is the language found in the [[Book of Hebrews]], which states, "Through faith we understand that the worlds were framed by the word of God, so that things which are seen were not made of things which do appear". Some (notably [[Augustine of Hippo]]) also hold that [[God]] is altogether [[eternity|outside of time]] and that time exists only within the created universe.
However, in these traditions, the belief that God gave shape to pre-existing things was not unheard of, and that idea became more fully articulated especially under the influence of Greek philosophy. In both Judaism and Christianity, belief in creation "from nothing" began to dominate the traditions sometime in the second century C.E., in part as a reaction against classical philosophy. The following story from the Talmud illustrates this:
:A philosopher said to R. Gamiliel: Your God was a great craftsman, but he found himself good materials which assisted him: Tohu wa-Bohu, and darkness, and wind, and water, and the primeval deep. Said R. Gamiliel to him: May the wind be blown out of that man! Each material is referred to as created. Tohu wa-Bohu: "I make peace and create evil"; darkness: "I form the light and create darkness"; water: "Praise him, ye heaven of heavens, and ye waters" -- why? -- "For he commanded, and they were created"; wind: "For, lo, He that formeth the mountains, and created the wind"; the primeval deep: "When there were no depths, I was brought forth". ''BR 1.9, Th-Alb:8''
Departing from this tradition, some modern scholars have argued that these statements and all others are still susceptible to ambiguous interpretation, so that creation ''ex nihilo'' may not be clearly supported by ancient texts, including the Bible. They point out the similarities of the biblical account, to other ancient religious beliefs that the universe was created by [[God]] or the gods out of pre-existing matter, as opposed to "out of nothing". Some scho |
n the different nationalities.
One inaccuracy in ''Ivanhoe'' created a new name in the English language: Cedric. The correct name is ''[[Cerdic]]'' but Sir Walter committed a [[Metathesis (linguistics)|metathesis]]. The satirist [[H. H. Munro]] , with his typical caustic wit, commented: "It is not a name but a misspelling."
==Adaptations==
The novel has been the basis for two movies, each also titled ''Ivanhoe'';
*The [[1913]] [[Ivanhoe (1913 film)|film]] production: Directed by [[Herbert Brenon]]. With [[King Baggot]], Leah Baird, Brenon.
*The [[1952]] [[Ivanhoe (1952 film)|film]] film starred [[Robert Taylor (actor)|Robert Taylor]] as Ivanhoe, [[Elizabeth Taylor]] as Rebecca, [[Joan Fontaine]] as Rowena, [[George Sanders (actor)|George Sanders]] as Bois-Guilbert, [[Finlay Currie]] as Cedric, and [[Sebastian Cabot (actor)|Sebastian Cabot]]. The film has a notable jousting scene as well as a well-choreographed battle sequence. These visualizations are given more attention than the dialogue and underlying story. The film was nominated for three [[Academy Award|Oscars]]:
**[[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] - [[Pandro S. Berman]]
**[[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography, Color]] - [[Freddie Young]]
**[[Academy Award for Original Music Score|Best Music Score]] - [[Miklós Rózsa]]
There have also been numerous television adaptations of the novel, including:
*Late [[1950s]]: A television series based on the character of Ivanhoe starred [[Roger Moore]] as Ivanhoe.
*[[1982]]: A [[television movie]] starring [[Anthony Andrews]] as Ivanhoe, [[Michael Hordern]] as his father Cedric, [[Sam Neill]] as Sir Brian, [[Olivia Hussey]] as Rebecca, [[James Mason]] as Rebecca's father, [[Lysette Anthony]] as Rowena, [[Julian Glover]] as King Richard, and [[David Robb]] as Robin Hood. In this version, Sir Brian is the true hero. Though he could easily have won the fight against the wounded and incapacitated Ivanhoe, Brian lowers his sword and allows himself to be slaughtered, thus saving the life of his beloved Rebecca.
*[[1997]]: This version of ''Ivanhoe'' was released as a 6-part, 5-hour series, a co-production of [[A&E Network|A&E]] and the [[BBC]]. It stars [[Steven Waddington]] as Ivanhoe, [[Ciarán Hinds]] as Bois-Guilbert, [[Susan Lynch]] as Rebecca, and [[Victoria Smurfit]] as Rowena.
There is one setting of Ivanhoe as an Opera, by Sir Arthur Sullivan. Though it ran for over 100 performances, it was never revived and has not been staged since.{{citeneeded}}
[[Category:Novels]]
==External links==
* {{gutenberg|no=82|name=Ivanhoe}}
* [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/s/scott_walter/ivanhoe/ Online edition at eBooks@Adelaide]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Isoelectric point</title>
<id>15056</id>
<revision>
<id>41375305</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:52:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Christopherlin</username>
<id>51957</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cat mol bio</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''isoelectric point''' (pI) is the [[pH]] at which a [[molecule]] carries no net [[electric charge|electrical charge]].
For an [[amino acid]] with only one [[amine]] and one [[carboxyl]] group, the pI can be calculated from the [[pKa]]'s of this molecule.
: <math> pI = {{\sum pK_a} \over 2} </math>
For amino acids with more than two ionizable groups such as [[lysine]] for example, the same formula is used but this time, the two pKa's used are those of the two groups that lose and gain a charge from the neutral form of the amino acid.
[[Proteins]] can be separated according to their isoelectric point in a process known as [[isoelectric focusing]].
At a [[pH]] below the pI, [[proteins]] carry a net positive charge. Above the pI they carry a net negative charge. This has implications for running electrophoretic gels (see [[Agarose gel electrophoresis]]). The [[pH]] of an electrophoretic gel is determined by the [[buffer]] used for that gel. If the [[pH]] of the [[buffer]] is above the pI of the protein being run, the [[protein]] will migrate to the positive pole (negative charge is attracted to a positive pole). If the [[pH]] of the buffer is below the pI of the [[protein]] being run, the [[protein]] will migrate to the negative pole of the gel (positive charge is attracted to the negative pole). If the [[protein]] is run with a [[buffer]] pH that is equal to the pI, it will not migrate at all. This is also true for individual amino acids.
[[Category:Ions]]
[[Category:Molecular biology]]
[[ca:Punt isoelèctric]]
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[[zh:&#31561;&#30005;&#28857;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International reply coupon</title>
<id>15058</id>
<revision>
<id>39599893</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T15:54:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>58.147.63.1</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''international reply coupon''' (IRC) is a coupon that can be used to post a standard 20 gram letter anywhere in the world. IRCs are accepted and available in all [[Universal Postal Union]] (UPU) member countries.
The purpose of the IRC is to be able to send someone (in ANOTHER country) a letter, along with the cost of postage for them to reply. If the addressee is within the same country, one simply sends them a self-addressed stamped envelop ("SASE"); but if you are sending a letter to another country, it can be difficult to acquire stamps for that country to send along with your letter. So you can purchase an IRC instead from your local post office, and send it to them; they can then take it to a post office in their own country, and use it to reply to your letter.
IRCs have many common and practical uses.
A parent may include one in a letter to a student or military son or daughter (in another country) who may be strapped for cash to cover postage for a reply letter.
Serious collectors often use IRCs. For example, suppose an autograph collector has found a famous person in another country willing to grant an autograph. Including an IRC with the request for the autograph would certainly improve the chances of receiving it. Or, suppose a lace collector in the U.S. has found a kind person in France willing to donate an interesting piece of lace. The collector would include an IRC so as not to inconvenience the kind person by making them pay postage, as the kind person is already granting the collector a great favor by giving him the lace, the object of his or her collecting passion.
One interesting example of IRCs the following: This is often requested when a [[Amateur radio|ham radio]] operator wishes to send a reception report in order to receive a [[QSL card]] - the IRC will cover postage. IRCs can also be used as international currency for small transactions, since they have at least a small nominal value in all UPU member countries.
As well as IRCs administered by the UPU, there are also reply coupons issued by other postal unions which are usable only in certain countries, e.g. those issued by the [[Arab Postal Union]].
==External links==
*http://www.n6hb.org/s-a/irc.htm
==See also==
*[[Charles Ponzi]]
[[Category:Postal system]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isaac Bonewits</title>
<id>15059</id>
<revision>
<id>41384001</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T23:56:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.0.113.204</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Fixed degree information & added coined phrase</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Phillip Emmons '''Issac Bonewits''' (born [[October 1]], [[1949]]) is an influential [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] leader and [[author]]. Born in [[Royal Oak, Michigan]], Bonewits has been heavily involved in [[occultism]] with an emphasis on [[Neo-druidism]] since the [[1960]]'s.
==Life==
In [[1966]], while enrolled at [[UC_Berkeley|UC Berkeley]], Bonewits was initiated into the [[Neo-Druidism#The_Mother_Grove_of_the_RDNA|Reformed Druids of North America RDNA]] or RDNA. Bonewits was ordained as a [[Druid]] [[priest]] in [[1969]]. During this time period, Bonewits joined the [[Church of Satan]], but left due to a personality conflict with [[Anton LaVey]].
Bonewits graduated in [[1970]] with a [[Bachelor_of_Arts|BA]], as the only person to have ever received any kind of [[Academic_degree|degree]] in [[Magic_%28paranormal%29|Magic]]. Gaining a bit of notoriety from this, Bonewits soon earned a book contract for his first book ''Real Magic'' which was published in [[1971]]. Between [[1973]]-[[1975]] Bonewits was employed as editor of ''Gnostica'' magazine in Minnesota. During this time period, Bonewits established an offshoot group of the RDNA called the ''Schismatic Druids of North America'' and was involved with a group called the ''Hasidic Druids of North America''. He also founded the short-lived ''Aquarian Anti-Defamation League (AADL)'' which was an early pagan civil-rights group.
In [[1976]], Bonewits moved back to Berkeley and rejoined the RDNA which was now known as the ''New Reformed Druids of North America'' or NRDNA. He was later elected ''ArchDruid'' of this organization.
In [[1983]], Bonewits founded [[Ar n |
uot;]]
Several ABBA videos were spoofed by others: The video "Knowing Me, Knowing You" was satirised on the [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] [[comedy]] show ''[[Not the Nine O'Clock News]]'' as "Super Dooper." The title ''[[Knowing Me, Knowing You]]'' was also borrowed for a spoof chat show on BBC starring [[Steve Coogan]] as [[Alan Partridge]] who always entered the studio shouting "Aha!" (an exclamation in the lyrics). UK comedy duo [[French and Saunders]] parodied ABBA with their song "C'est La Vie", an homage to "The Winner Takes it All." [[Erasure]] paid homage to the ABBA video style with their video for "[[Take a Chance on Me]]."
==Trivia==
*Songwriters Benny and Bj&ouml;rn were unable to [[Musical_notation|notate music]] on paper. Only Agnetha could (as revealed in a [[Dick Cavett]] interview with the group).
*Abba have been spoofed by many TV shows, including ''[[French & Saunders]]'', ''[[Not The Nine O'Clock News]]'' and ''[[Fast Forward]]''. In addition, the character of "[[Alan Partridge]]" is noted as being a huge ABBA fan, especially on his television show "[[Knowing Me, Knowing You with Alan Partridge]]" where all the hosts and all guests were introduced with different ABBA songs.
*At the height of their success ABBA was Sweden's biggest export, exceeding even [[Volvo]] cars.
*While selling their music into Russia during the late 1970s ABBA were paid in oil commodities because of an [[embargo]] on the [[rouble]].
*The song ''Chiquitita'' was first performed at the [[Music for UNICEF Concert]] in [[1979]]. ABBA's performance at the concert was, however, [[lip-synching|lip-synched]]. All royalties from the song were donated to the children's charity [[United Nations Children's Fund|UNICEF]] in perpetuity.
*In [[1981]], ABBA sponsored the [[ATS]] [[Formula One]] racing team, for whom [[Slim Borgudd]], a former drummer who appeared on some ABBA recordings, was a driver.
*The hit song "Bring Me Edelweiss" ([[1989]]) by [[Edelweiss (band)|Edelweiss]] features the tune and some lyrics from "S.O.S". This caused some controversy between Bjorn & Benny, and manager Stig - Stig had granted approval to use the song without consulting the others.
*The sound track of the successful Australian film ''[[Muriel's Wedding]]'' ([[1994]]) prominently featured ABBA songs: The two female leads [[lip sync]] "Waterloo" and the wedding scene is scored to an orchestral rendition of "Dancing Queen". The movie also features "Mamma Mia", "Fernando" and "I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do".
*Another 1994 Australian fillm ''[[The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert]]'' features a performance of ''Mamma Mia!'' by two [[drag queen|drag queens]], furthering ABBA's status as a [[gay icon]].
*The ABBA [[tribute band]] [[Bj&ouml;rn Again]] became so successful that as of 2004 there were five casts of Bj&ouml;rn Again performing in various parts of the world. The original Bj&ouml;rn Again had been touring for 15 years, longer than the original group.
*[[techno music|Techno]] and [[house music|house]] remakes of many original ABBA hits were released under the name [[Abbacadabra]].
*''[[Mamma Mia!]]'' was nominated for a Broadway [[Tony Award]] as Best Musical in [[2002]].
*In [[2000]] ABBA were reported to have turned down an offer of approximately one billion dollars (US) to do a reunion tour.
*In 2005 ABBA's 1976 hit single "Fernando" still held the record for the most weeks spent at number one in Australia (along with The Beatles' "Hey Jude"). [http://www.onmc.iinet.net.au/top/1976.htm]
*In addition to being an [[acronym]], the name "ABBA" is also a [[palindrome]]. In 1975, ABBA's "SOS" became the first song with a palindromic title recorded by a group with a palindromic name to hit the pop charts.
*ABBA was inducted into the [[Vocal Group Hall of Fame]] in [[2002]].
*In the film ''[[Johnny English]]'', the title character ([[Rowan Atkinson]]) is discretely characterized as an ABBA fan. He sings "Thank You for The Music", and lip-syncs to "Does Your Mother Know" in front of a mirror.
* [[The Fugees]] sampled [[ABBA]] (as well as [[Crystal Gayle]]) for their contribution to the [[1996]] "[[When We Were Kings]]" soundtrack, "Rumble in the Jungle"
*[[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] sampled the group's "[[Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)]]" in her [[2005]] single "[[Hung Up]]".
==See also==
*[[ABBA discography]] - ABBA's discography and chart positions for UK, USA, Germany and Netherlands.
*[[ABBA unreleased songs|List of ABBA Unreleased songs]]
*[[Music of Sweden]]
*[[List of Swedes in music]]
*[[Best selling music artists]] - World's top selling music artists chart.
*[[List of number-one hits (United States)]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.)]]
*[[List of Number 1 Dance Hits (United States)]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart]]
*[[List of Number 1 singles (UK)]]
*[[UK Best selling singles artists of all time]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one in Ireland]]
*[[List of artists who have covered ABBA songs]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the Australian singles chart]]
*[[List of songs with particularly long titles]]
==External links==
*[http://www.abba4therecord.com/ abba4therecord.com] - ABBA Discography.
*[http://www.abba-thesingles.com/ abba-thesingles.com] - ABBA Singles Discography.
*[http://www.abbasite.com/start/ ABBA - The Site] - Official site. This site is owned and maintained by "[[Universal Music]] AB" in Sweden.
*[http://www.abba-world.net// ABBA World] - Complete song list, website links reviewed and categorised, selected discography, bibliography, concert information, and much more.
*[http://www.abbaplaza.com/ ABBAPlaza.Com] - ABBA fan site in English and in Dutch.
*[http://www.icethesite.com/ icethesite.com] - ABBA and the musicals CHESS, Kristina and more...
*[http://www.vocalhalloffame.com/abba3.htm VocalHallOffame.Com] - "Vocal Group Hall of Fame" page on ABBA.
*[http://www.abba-story.com ABBA-Story.Com] - Site about ABBA.
*[http://www.photofeatures.com/abba/index.html Photo archive of ABBA by Rock Photographer Chris Walter.]
*[http://66.235.213.139/~abbagall/index.html Collection of ABBA's pictures]
*[http://www.abbamail.com/ ABBAmail.Com] ABBA-related site.
*[http://www.lyrics-explorer.com/lyrics/artists/a/abba/ ABBA Lyrics Page] Song lyrics collection.
*[http://www.codehot.co.uk/lyrics/abcd/abba/abba.htm Code Hot UK - ABBA Lyrics] Popular ABBA song lyrics.
*[http://www.mabba.fw.hu/ The Hungarian ABBA site] lyrics, pictures, extras etc.
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</page>
<page>
<title>Allegiance</title>
<id>881</id>
<revision>
<id>42009066</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:47:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Antandrus</username>
<id>57658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/220.94.125.128|220.94.125.128]] ([[User talk:220.94.125.128|talk]]) to last version by Ncox</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
'''Allegiance''' is the duty which a subject or a [[citizen]] owes to the [[state (law)|state]] or to the [[Monarch|sovereign]] of the state to which he belongs.
==Origin of the word==
Mid. English ''ligeaunce''; med. Latin ''ligeantia''; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, ''allegeance'', an ''allegation''; the [[French language|French]] ''allegeance'' comes from the English; the word is formed from "liege," of which the derivation is given under that heading; the connection with [[Latin]] ''ligare'', to bind, is erroneous.
==Usage==
The term ''allegiance'' is often used by English legal commentators in a larger sense, divided by them into natural and local, the latter applying to the deference which even a foreigner must pay to the institutions of the country in which he happens to live; but it is in its proper sense, in which it indicates national character and the subjection due to that character, that the word is important.
In that sense it represents the [[feudal]] [[liege homage]], which could be due only to one lord, while simple [[homage]] might be due to every lord under whom the person in question held land.
==United Kingdom==
The English doctrine, which was at one time adopted in the [[United States]], asserted that allegiance was indelible: "Nemo potest exuere patriam". Accordingly, as the law stood before [[1870]], every person who by birth or [[naturalization]] satisfied the conditions set forth, though he should be removed in infancy to another country where his family resided, owed an allegiance to the British crown which he could never resign or lose, except by act of parliament or by the recognition of the independence or the cession of the portion of British territory in which he resided.
Allegiance is t |
uthority. In Miller D. (ed.), (1983). Popper, Oxford, Fontana, pp. 46-57.
*Robinson, Dave & Groves, Judy (2003). ''Introducing Political Philosophy''. Icon Books. ISBN 1-84046-450-X.
*Russell, B. (1946). "A History of Western Philosophy". London, Allen and Unwin.
*Spiegel, Henry William, "The Growth of Economic Thought", 3rd Ed., Durham: Duke University Press, 1991.
*Stephen, L. (1962). "A History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century", Harcourt, New York.
*Stroud, B. (1977). "Hume, Routledge", London & New York.
*Taylor, A. E. (1927). "David Hume and the Miraculous", Leslie Stephen Lecture. Cambridge, pp. 53-4.
==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
*Online editions of Hume's work:
* {{gutenberg author| id=David+Hume | name=David Hume}}
**{{gutenberg|no=4705|name=A Treatise of Human Nature}}
**{{gutenberg|no=10574|name=The History of England, Volume I}}
**{{gutenberg|no=4320|name=An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals}}
**{{gutenberg|no=9662|name=An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding}}
**{{gutenberg|no=4583|name=Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion}}
**[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?amode=start&author=Hume%2c%20David e-texts of some of David Hume's works]
*[http://utilitarian.net/hume David Hume]: Resources on Hume, including books, articles, and encyclopedia entries.
*[http://humesociety.org Hume Society]: An international scholarly society.
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume/ David Hume]
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume-aesthetics/ Hume's Aesthetics]
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume-moral/ Hume's Moral Philosophy]
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume-religion/ Hume on Religion]
* [http://www.jamesboswell.info/People/people.php?person=59 David Hume] at James Boswell - a Guide
* [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/ READABLE versions of Treatise Book 1, First Enquiry, and Dialogues on Natural Religion]
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<page>
<title>Demographic Statistics</title>
<id>7926</id>
<revision>
<id>15905959</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographic statistics]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DES (disambiguation)</title>
<id>7927</id>
<revision>
<id>30917845</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-11T10:33:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Johnleemk</username>
<id>21916</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirecting as per afd</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[DES]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dalton Trumbo</title>
<id>7928</id>
<revision>
<id>41041115</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T17:51:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>206.131.30.1</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:3c14608t.jpg|right|thumb]]
'''Dalton Trumbo''' ([[December 9]], [[1905]] &ndash; [[September 10]], [[1976]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[screenwriter]] and [[novelist]], and a member of the [[Hollywood Ten]], one of group of film professionals who refused to testify before the [[1947]] [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] about alleged communist involvement. Though only convicted of [[contempt of Congress]], he was [[blacklist]]ed, and in 1950 spent 11 months in prison.
Born in [[Montrose, Colorado]], Trumbo got his start working for Vogue magazine. He started in movies in [[1937]]; by the [[1940s]] he was one of Hollywood's highest paid writers for work on such films as 1940's ''[[Kitty Foyle]]'', for which he was nominated for an [[Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay]], ''[[Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo]]'' (1944), and ''[[Our Vines Have Tender Grapes]]'' (1945).
After his blacklisting, he moved to Mexico with [[Hugo Butler]] and his wife [[Jean Rouverol]], who had also been blacklisted. There, Trumbo wrote thirty scripts under [[pseudonym]]s, such as the co-written ''[[Gun Crazy]]'' (1950) written under the pseudonym '''Millard Kaufman'''. He won an [[Academy_award|Oscar]] for ''[[The Brave One]]'' (1956), written under the name '''Robert Rich'''.
In 1960 he received full credit (due in part to the efforts of actor [[Kirk Douglas]]) for the motion-picture epics ''[[Exodus (movie)|Exodus]]'' and ''[[Spartacus]]'', much to the chagrin of many conservatives/right wingers in the film industry, and thereafter on all subsequent scripts, and he was reinstated as a member of the [[Writers Guild of America]].
Trumbo's vivid [[anti-war]] novel, ''[[Johnny Got His Gun]]'', won a National Book Award (then known as an American Book Sellers Award) in [[1939]]. Shortly after the [[Operation Barbarossa|1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union]], Trumbo ordered all copies of ''Johnny Got His Gun'' to be recalled and stopped any further publication of the book. After receiving letters from individuals requesting copies of the book, Trumbo contacted the FBI and turned these letters over to them, questioning the correspondents' loyalty to the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] war effort.
In [[1971]] Trumbo directed his own film adaptation of the novel, which starred [[Timothy Bottoms]], [[Diane Varsi]] and [[Jason Robards]]. The inspiration for the novel came to Trumbo when he read an article about a [[United Kingdom|British]] officer who was horribly disfigured during [[World War I]]. One of his last films, ''[[Executive Action (movie)|Executive Action]]'', was based on various [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]] about the [[Kennedy assassination]].
His account and analysis of the [[Smith Act]] trials is entitled ''[[The Devil in the Book]]''.
He is often quoted as having said, '''I never considered the working class anything other than something to get out of.'''
==Works==
Selected film works that he created and such:
*''[[Road Gang]]'', 1936
*''[[Love Begins at 20]]'', 1936
*''[[Devils Playground|Devil's Playground]]'', 1937
*''[[Fugitives for a Night]]'', 1938
*''[[A Man to Remember]]'', 1938
*''[[Five Came Back]]'', 1939 (with [[Nathanael West]] and J. Cody)
*''[[Curtain Call]]'', 1941
*''[[Bill of Divorcement]]'', 1940
*''[[Kitty Foyle]]'', 1940
*''[[The Remarkable Andrew]]'', 1942
*''[[Tender Comrade]]'', 1944
*''[[A Guy Named Joe]]'', 1944
*''[[Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo]]'', 1944
*''[[Our Vines Have Tender Grapes]]'', 1945
*''[[Gun Crazy]]'', 1950 (co-writer, front [[Millard Kaufman]])
*''[[He Ran All the Way]]'', 1951 (co-writer, front [[Guy Endore]])
*''[[Roman Holiday]]'', 1953 (front [[Ian McLellan Hunter]])
*''[[The Brave One]]'', 1956 (front [[Robert Rich]])
*''[[Spartacus (film)|Spartacus]]'', 1960, dir. by [[Stanley Kubrick]]
*''[[Exodus (movie)|Exodus]]'', 1960 (a film based on [[Leon Uris]]'s [[Exodus (novel)|novel by the same name]], 1958)
*''[[The Last Sunset]]'', 1961
*''[[Lonely are the Brave]]'', 1962
*''[[The Sandpiper]]'', 1965
*''[[Hawaii (film)|Hawaii]]'', 1966 (based on the novel by [[James Michener]], 1959)
*''[[The Fixer]]'', 1968
*''[[Johnny Got His Gun]]'', 1971 (also dir.)
*''[[The Horsemen]]'', 1971
*''[[F.T.A]]'', 1972
*''[[Executive Action (movie)|Executive Action]]'', 1973
*''[[Papillon (film)|Papillon]]'', 1973 (based on the novel by [[Henri Charrière]], 1969)
Novels, plays and essays:
*''[[Eclipse]]'', 1935
*''[[Washington Jitters]]'', 1936
*''[[Johnny Got His Gun]]'', 1939
*''[[The Remarkable Andrew]]'', 1940
*''[[Chronicle of a Literal Man]]'', 1941
*''[[The Biggest Thief in Town]]'', 1949 (play)
*''[[The Time Out of the Toad]]'', 1972 (essays)
*''[[Night of the Aurochs]]'', 1979 (unfinished, ed. R. Kirsch)
Non-fiction:
*''[[Harry Bridges]]'', 1941
*''[[The Time of the Toad]]'', 1949
*''[[The Devil in the Book]]'', 1956
*''[[Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo]]'', 1942-62, 1970 (ed. by H. Manfull)
[[Category:1905 births|Trumbo, Dalton]]
[[Category:1976 deaths|Trumbo, Dalton]]
[[Category:American screenwriters|Trumbo, Dalton]]
[[Category:American writers|Trumbo, Dalton]]
[[Category:Christian Science|Trumbo, Dalton]]
[[Category:Hollywood blacklist|Trumbo, Dalton]]
[[Category:People from Colorado|Trumbo, Dalton]]
[[Category:Writing Adapted Screenplay Oscar Nominee|Trumbo, Dalton]]
[[de:Dalton Trumbo]]
[[fr:Dalton Trumbo]]
[[it:Dalton Trumbo]]
[[ja:ダルトン・トランボ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Differentiability</title>
<id>7929</id>
<revision>
<id>15905962</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-27T00:38:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>changed into a redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[derivative]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Delaware</title>
<id>7930</id>
<revision>
<id>41972804</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:45:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cmdrjameson</username>
<id>101935</id>
</contributor>
<mino |
and may rebel, but ultimately fail to change anything. Sometimes they themselves end up changed to conform to the society's norms. This narrative arc to a sense of hopelessness in such classic dystopian works as ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''. It contrasts with much fiction of the future, in which a [[hero]] succeeds in resolving conflicts or otherwise changing things for the better.
There is usually a group of people somewhere in the society who are not under the complete control of the state, and in whom the hero of the novel usually puts his or her hope, although he or she still fails to change anything. In ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' by [[George Orwell]] they are the "proles" (short for "[[proletariat]]"), in ''[[Brave New World]]'' by [[Aldous Huxley]] they are the people on the reservation, and in ''[[We (novel)|We]]'' by [[Zamyatin]] they are the people outside the walls of the [[One State]].
==Criticism of the concept of dystopias==
Just as most modern philosophers, political theorists, and writers have dismissed the idea of the perfect society or "utopia", many have also expressed skepticism regarding the likelihood of a real-life dystopia of the kind described by Orwell and others. Although there have been many absolutist states in human history, writers such as [[Gregg Easterbrook]] and others have pointed out that such societies tend to rapidly self-destruct or be destroyed by neighbors. [[Dictatorship]]s and similar regimes tend to be short-lived as their policies and actions are almost continually leading to the creation of new potential opponents. For example, the killing or "[[forced disappearance|disappearance]]" of critics or activists only serves to anger their family or friends, who in turn continue the struggle against the regime and so on.
Absolutist states with [[socialist]] leanings often fail, it is argued, as a result of the unworkable nature of an [[economic system]] which fails to meet the need of the populations for food, work or income, rather than as a result of direct [[persecution]] of their own citizens.
== Depictions of dystopias in various media ==
Dystopias are a common theme in many kinds of fiction. The lists linked below contain extensive lists of works with dystopian themes.
*[[List of dystopian comics]]
*[[List of dystopian literature]]
*[[List of dystopian films]]
*[[List of dystopian music, TV programs, and games]]
== See also ==
* [[Social fiction]]
* [[Soft science fiction]]
* [[Utopia]]
* [[Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic science fiction]]
* [[fable]]
* [[cyberpunk]]
[[Category:Literary concepts]]
[[Category:Postmodernism]]
[[Category:Social philosophy]]
[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
[[bg:Антиутопия]]
[[da:Dystopi]]
[[de:Dystopie]]
[[es:Distopía]]
[[fr:Contre-utopie]]
[[it:Distopia]]
[[he:דיסטופיה]]
[[nl:Dystopie]]
[[ja:ディストピア]]
[[no:Dystopi]]
[[pl:Antyutopia]]
[[pt:Distopia]]
[[ro:Distopie]]
[[ru:Антиутопия]]
[[sv:Dystopi]]
[[zh:反乌托邦]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diagonal slash argument</title>
<id>7937</id>
<revision>
<id>15905970</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-06T08:29:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AxelBoldt</username>
<id>2</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cantor's diagonal argument]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diatomic</title>
<id>7938</id>
<revision>
<id>37369830</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T15:55:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kjkolb</username>
<id>107439</id>
</contributor>
<comment>corrected argon percentage</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Diatomic molecules''' are molecules formed of exactly two [[atom]]s, of the same or different [[chemical element]]s. '''Diatomic elements''' are those that almost exclusively exist as diatomic molecules, known as '''homonuclear''' diatomic molecules in their natural elemental state when they are not [[chemical bond|chemically bonded]] with other elements. Examples include H<sub>2</sub> and O<sub>2</sub>. [[Earth's atmosphere]] is comprised almost completely (99%) of diatomic [[oxygen]] (O<sub>2</sub>) (21%) and [[nitrogen]] (N<sub>2</sub>) (78%). The remaining 1% is predominantly argon (0.9340%)
Oxygen also exists as the ''triatomic'' molecule [[ozone]] (O<sub>3</sub>).
The diatomic elements are [[hydrogen]], [[nitrogen]], [[oxygen]], and the [[halogen]]s: [[fluorine]], [[chlorine]], [[bromine]], [[iodine]], and [[astatine]]. Astatine is so rare in nature (its most stable [[isotope]] has a [[half-life]] of only 8.1 hours) that it is usually not considered.
The bond in a homonuclear diatomic molecule is non polar and fully [[Covalent bond|covalent]].
Examples of '''heteronuclear''' diatomic molecules include [[carbon monoxide]] (CO) and [[nitric oxide]] (NO).
[[Category:Molecules]]
[[ar:ثنائي الذرة]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Duopoly</title>
<id>7939</id>
<revision>
<id>40906186</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T20:28:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.105.181.61</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Duopoly Models in Economics */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A true '''duopoly''' is a form of [[oligopoly]] where only two producers exist in a [[market]]. In reality, this definition is generally eased whereby two firms must only have dominant control over a [[market]]. In the field of [[industrial organization]], it is the most commonly studied form of oligopoly due to its simplicity.
== Duopoly Models in Economics ==
There are two principal duopoly models, [[Cournot duopoly]] and [[Bertrand duopoly]]:
*The '''[[Cournot]]''' model, which shows that two firms react to one another's production (quantity) changes until they reach a [[Nash equilibrium]].
*The '''[[Joseph Louis François Bertrand|Bertrand]]''' model, in which, in a game of two firms, each one of them will assume that the other will not change prices in response to its price cuts. When both firms use this logic, they will reach a [[Nash Equilibrium]].
== Politics ==
Modern [[Politics of the United States|American politics]] has been described as a duopoly since the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] and [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] parties have dominated and framed [[policy]] debate as well as the public discourse on matters of national concern for about a century and a half. [[Third Parties]] have encountered various obstacles to getting onto ballots at different levels of government, more so in recent decades.
''See [[List of political parties in the United States]] for a more comprehensive look at the politics of the [[Two-party system]], [[Duverger's law]].''
==Broadcasting==
'''Duopoly''' is also used in the broadcast television and radio industry, referring to a single company owning two outlets in the same city. In the United States, this has been frowned upon when using public airwaves, as it gives too much influence to one company. In [[Canada]], this definition is more commonly called a "[[twinstick]]".
See also [[concentration of media ownership]].
===Examples in American television===
*[[Cleveland, Ohio]]: [[WOIO]]-[[CBS]] 19 and [[WUAB]]-[[UPN]] 43 ([[Viacom]])
*[[Dayton, Ohio]]: [[WKEF]]-[[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] 22 and [[WRGT]]-[[Fox]] 45 ([[Sinclair Broadcast Group]])
*[[Buffalo, New York]]: [[WIVB]]-[[CBS]] 4 and [[WNLO]]-[[UPN]] ([[LIN TV]])
*[[Buffalo, New York]]: [[WUTV]]-[[FOX]] 29 and [[WNYO]]-[[WB Television Network|the WB]] ([[Sinclair Broadcast Group]])
*[[Raleigh, North Carolina]]: [[WRAL]]-[[CBS]] 5 and [[WRAZ]]-[[FOX]] 50 ([[Capitol Broadcasting Group]])
*[[Raleigh, North Carolina]]: [[WLFL]]-[[WB Television Network|the WB]] 22 and [[WRDC]]-[[UPN]] 28 ([[Sinclair Broadcast Group]])
*[[Washington, DC]]: [[WTTG]]-[[FOX]] 5 and [[WDCA]]-[[UPN]] 20 ([[Fox]])
*[[New Orleans]]: [[WNOL]]-[[WB Television Network|WB]] 38 and [[WGNO]] [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] 26 ([[Tribune Broadcasting]])
*[[Norfolk, Virginia]]: [[WAVY]]-[[National Broadcasting Company|NBC]] 10 and [[WVBT]] [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]] 43 ([[LIN TV]])
*[[New York, New York]]: [[WWOR]] - [[UPN]] 9 and [[WNYW]] - [[Fox]] 5 ([[Fox Television Stations Group]])
==External links==
* [[Monopoly]]
* [[Triopoly]]
[[Category:Market forms]]
[[da:Duopol]]
[[de:Duopol]]
[[es:Duopolio]]
[[fr:Duopole]]
[[he:דואופול]]
[[hu:Duopólium]]
[[ja:複占]]
[[no:Duopol]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dungeons & Dragons</title>
<id>7940</id>
<revision>
<id>42057977</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:43:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Android79</username>
<id>88250</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv linkspam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{infobox RPG
|title=Dungeons & Dragons
|image=[[Image:Players hndbk v35 cover.jpg|200px]]
|caption=Player's Handbook for D&D
|designer=[[Gary Gygax]] and [[Dave Arneson]]
|publisher=[[TSR, Inc.|Tactical Studies Rules]]<br>[[Wizards of the Coast]]
|date=[[1974]]
|genre=[[Hack and slash]] [[fantasy]]
|system=[[d20 system]]
|footnotes=
}}
'''''Dungeons & Dragons''''' (abbreviated as '''''D&D''''' or '''''DnD''''') is a [[fantasy]] [[tabletop role-playing game |tabletop]] [[role-playing game]] (RPG) published by [[Wizards of the Coast]]. The original ''Dungeons & Dragons'', designed by [[Gary Gygax]] and [[Dave Arneson]], was first published in January 1974 by Gygax's company, [[TSR, Inc.|Tactical Studies Rules]] (TSR). Originally derived from [[tabletop wargame]]s, this publication is generally regarded as the beginning of modern role-playing games, and by extension, the role-playing game industry.
Players |
h:吴宇森]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>JapaneseAnime</title>
<id>15572</id>
<revision>
<id>15913036</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anime]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Japan</title>
<id>15573</id>
<revision>
<id>42128321</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:27:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fnfd</username>
<id>487225</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv edits by Dannychoo. This is not a place to advertise blogs</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Japan (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox_Country|
|native_name = 日本国<br>Nihon-koku/Nippon-koku<br>Japan
|common_name = Japan
|image_flag = Flag of Japan.svg
|image_coat = Imperial Seal of Japan.svg
|image_map = LocationJapan.png
|national_motto =
|national_anthem = [[Kimi Ga Yo]]
|official_languages = [[Japanese language|Japanese]]
|capital = [[Tokyo]]
|latd=35 |latm=41 |latNS=N |longd=139 |longm=46 |longEW=E |
|largest_city = [[Tokyo]] ''See: [[23 special wards]]''
|government_type = [[Constitutional monarchy]]
|leader_titles = [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]]<br>[[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]]
|leader_names = [[Akihito]]<br>[[Junichiro Koizumi]]
|area_rank = 377,835
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area= 377,835
|percent_water = 0.8%
|population_estimate = 127,417,244
|population_estimate_year = 2005
|population_estimate_rank = 10th
|population_census =
|population_census_year =
|population_density = 337
|population_density_rank = 18th
|GDP_nominal_year= 2004
|GDP_nominal = 4.8 trillion
|GDP_nominal_rank = 2nd
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP = $3.867 trillion
|GDP_PPP_rank = 3rd
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $30,400
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 22nd
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Japan|Formation]]
|established_events = [[Meiji Restoration]]<br>[[Japanese Constitution|Current constitution]]<br>[[Treaty of San Francisco]]
|established_dates = <br>[[January 3]], [[1868]]<br>[[May 3]], [[1947]]<br>[[April 28]], [[1952]]
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI = 0.943
|HDI_rank = 11th
|HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font>
|currency = [[Japanese yen|Yen]] (¥)
|currency_code = JPY
|country_code = JPN
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = +9
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST = +10
|cctld = [[.jp]]
|calling_code = 81
|footnotes =
}}{{Portal}}
'''Japan''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 日本, '''Nihon''' or '''Nippon''', literally "sun source") is an [[East Asia]]n [[country]] surrounded by the [[Pacific Ocean]], the [[Sea of Japan]], the [[Philippine Sea]], the [[East China Sea]], and the [[Sea of Okhotsk]]. To the west is [[Korea]] ([[North Korea|North]] and [[South Korea|South]]), to the north [[Russia]], and to the southwest [[People's Republic of China|China]] and [[Taiwan]].
One of the world's [[G8|leading industrialized]] countries, the "[[Names of Japan|Land of the Rising Sun]]" is composed of over 3,000 islands. The largest and main islands are, from north to south, [[Hokkaido|Hokkaidō]], [[Honshu|Honshū]], [[Shikoku]], and [[Kyushu|Kyūshū]]. The [[Ryukyu Islands]], including [[Okinawa]], are southwest of the main islands.
==History==
<!--Please try to keep this section as general as possible. Specific information should be added to a more specific article-->
{{main|History of Japan}}
===Pre-history===
[[Image:MiddleJomonVessel.JPG|thumb|left|160px|A Middle [[Jomon]] vessel (3000 to 2000 BC)]]
[[Archaeology|Archaeological]] research indicates that the earliest inhabitants of the [[Japanese archipelago]] migrated over land bridges from [[Northeast Asia]] about 30,000 years ago. Other evidence also suggests that some may have later come by sea from [[Southeast Asia]] during a period of migration toward the [[Pacific Ocean]].
The first signs of civilization appeared around [[10th millennium BC|10,000 BC]] with the [[Jomon]] culture, characterized by a [[Mesolithic]] to [[Neolithic]] semi-sedentary [[hunter-gatherer]] lifestyle of pit dwelling and a rudimentary form of [[agriculture]]. [[Weaving]] was still unknown and clothes were often made of [[bark]]. Around that time, however, the Jomon people started to make [[clay]] vessels, decorated with patterns made by impressing the wet clay with braided or unbraided cord and sticks (Jomon means "patterns of plaited cord"). This led to the introduction of possibly the earliest known type of [[pottery]] in the world.
The start of the [[Yayoi]] period around 300 BC, marked the influx of new technologies such as [[rice]] farming, [[shamanism]], and [[iron]] and [[bronze]]-making brought by migrants from [[Korean peninsula]]. These formed the basic elements of traditional Japanese culture, still seen today. As the population increased and society became more complex, they wove cloth, lived in permanent farming villages, constructed buildings of wood and stone, accumulated wealth through landownership and the storage of grain, and developed distinct social classes.
The Yayoi period was succeeded around [[250|250 AD]] by the [[Kofun era]], characterized by the establishment of strong military states centered around powerful clans. The [[Yamato]] court, concentrated in the [[Asuka]] region, suppressed the clans and acquired agricultural lands, increasing their power. Based upon the Chinese model, they developed a central administration and an imperial court system and society was organized into occupation groups ([[Ritsuryo]]). Most people were farmers; others were fishermen, weavers, potters, artisans, armorers, and ritual specialists.
===Classical era===
[[Image:TodaijiDaibutsu0224.jpg|thumb|160px|The Great [[Buddha]] at [[Todaiji]], [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], originally cast in 752]]
The Japanese did not start writing their own histories until the 5th and 6th centuries, when the [[Chinese written language|Chinese writing system]], [[Buddhism]], advanced [[pottery]], ceremonial burial, and other aspects of culture were introduced by aristocrats, artisans, scholars, and monks from [[Baekje]], one of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]].
The beginning of Japanese historical writing culminated in the early 8th century with the massive chronicles, [[Kojiki]] (The Record of Ancient Matters, 712) and [[Nihonshoki]] (Chronicles of Japan, 720). Though Japan did not appear in written history until 57, when it is first mentioned in Chinese records as the nation of "[[Wa (Japan)|Wa]]" (in Chinese, "Wo"), or "dwarf state", these chronicles tell a much different and much more legendary history of Japan, deriving the people of Japan from the gods themselves.
According to traditional Japanese mythology, Japan was founded in the 7th century BC by the ancestral Emperor [[Jinmu]], a direct descendant of the Shinto deity [[Amaterasu]]. It is claimed that he started a line of emperors that remains unbroken, to this day. However, historians believe the first emperor who actually existed was Emperor [[Ojin]], though the date of his reign is uncertain. Nonetheless, for most of Japan's history, real power has been in the hands of the court nobility, the [[shogun]]s, the military, or, more recently, prime ministers.
Through the [[Taika Reform Edicts]] of 645, Japanese intensified the adoption of Chinese cultural practices and reorganized the government in accordance with the Chinese administrative structure. This paved the way for the dominance of [[Confucianism|Confucian]] philosophy in Japan until the 19th century.
The [[Nara period]] of the 8th century marked the first strong Japanese state, centered around an imperial court, in the city of Heijo-kyo (now [[Nara, Nara|Nara]]). The imperial court later moved briefly to [[Nagaoka]], and later Heian-kyo (now [[Kyoto]]), starting a "golden age" of classical Japanese culture called the [[Heian Period|Heian period]] which lasted for nearly four centuries and was characterized by the regency regime of the [[Fujiwara clan]].
===Medieval era===
Japan's [[medieval]] era was characterized by the emergence of a ruling class of [[warrior]]s, the [[samurai]]. In the year 1185, general [[Minamoto no Yoritomo]] was the first to break the tradition of ruling alongside the emperor in Kyoto, holding power in distant [[Kamakura, Kanagawa|Kamakura]]. After Yoritomo's death, another warrior clan, the [[Hojo clan|Hojo]], came to rule as regents for the [[shogun]]s. The shogunate managed to repel [[Mongols|Mongol]] invasions from [[Mongol invasions of Korea|Mongol-occupied]] [[Korea]] in 1274 and 1281. The [[Kamakura shogunate]] lasted another fifty years. Its successor, the [[Ashikaga shogunate]], was much weaker, and Japan soon fell into warring factions. The "Warring States" or [[Sengoku period]] ensued.
[[Image:NanbanGroup.JPG|thumb|160px|A group of [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[Nanban]] foreigners, 17th century]]
During the 16th century, traders and [[missionary|missionaries]] from [[Portugal]] reached Japan for the first time, initiating the ''[[Nanban trade period|Nanban]]'' ("southern barbarian") period of active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West (and even China). During the last quarter of this century, [[Oda Nobunaga]], [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]], and [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] established increasingly strong control over the warring states of Japan. Toyotomi reunified the country, and following his death, Tokugawa seized power by defeating his enemies at the [[Battle of Sekigahara]] in 1600, moving the capital to [[Edo]] (now [[Tokyo]]) and founding the [[Tokugawa shogunate]].
The Tokugawa shogunate, suspicious of the influence of [[Catholic]] missionaries, barred all relations with Europeans, except |
l]]:'''''<br/>
:*[[euphoria]]
:*strong sense of [[empathy]]
:*serotonin deficiency
|-
|colspan="2"|'''''[[Skin]]:'''''<br/>
:*sweaty palms
:*heavy sweating
|-
|colspan="2"|'''''Miscellaneous:'''''<br/>
:*restlessness
:*chattering teeth
|-
|}
'''MDMA''' ('''3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine'''), most commonly known today by the [[List of street names of drugs|street name]] '''ecstasy''', is a synthetic [[Empathogen-Entactogen|entactogen]] of the [[phenethylamine]] family whose primary effect is to stimulate the secretion of and inhibit the re-uptake of large amounts of [[serotonin]] as well as [[dopamine]] and [[noradrenaline]] in the [[brain]], causing a general sense of openness, empathy, energy, euphoria, and well-being. Tactile sensations are enhanced for some users, making general physical contact with others more pleasurable; but, contrary to popular mythology it generally does not have [[aphrodisiac]] effects. Its ability to facilitate self-examination with reduced fear has proven useful in some therapeutic settings, leading to its 2001 approval by the United States [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] for testing in patients with [[post-traumatic stress disorder]].
Acute [[dehydration]] is a risk among users who are highly physically active and forget to [[drinking|drink]] [[water]], as the drug may mask one's normal sense of exhaustion and thirst. Also the opposite, "[[water intoxication]]" resulting in acute [[hyponatremia]] has been reported. By far the biggest danger comes from the fact that other, more dangerous chemicals (such as [[PMA]], or [[methamphetamine]]) are either added to ecstasy tablets, or more often simply sold as ecstasy. Long-term effects in humans are largely unknown and the subject of much controversy &mdash;particularly with regard to the risks of severe long-term [[clinical depression|depression]] as a result of a reduction in the natural production of serotonin.
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PLEASE DO NOT ADD TO THIS SECTION without citing SOURCES and SUBSTANTIAL EVIDENCE that the term has been in use for a LONG TIME and is COMMON enough to be included in an encyclopedic article (Wikipedia is not a slang or idiom guide, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_is_not_a_dictionary):
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MDMA is also known by many other street names, including ''Adam'', ''Beans'', ''Biscuits'', ''Candy'', ''E'', ''Eccies'', ''Eileen'', ''Googs'', ''Irene'' (in East Asia), ''Jack and Jills'', "Kissing Potion", ''MaDMAn'', ''Mollies'', ''Pills'', ''Rolls'', ''Scoobies'', ''Smarties'', ''Tabs'', ''Thizz'', ''Vitamin E'', ''Vitamin X'', ''X'', ''XTC'', ''Yaotou'' (in East Asia), and ''Yokes''.
== History ==
A patent for MDMA was originally filed on [[December 24|Christmas eve]] [[1912]] by the [[Germany|German]] pharmaceutical company [[Merck KGaA|Merck]], and granted two years later (to the day). At the time, MDMA was not known to be a drug in its own right; rather, it was patented as an intermediate chemical used in the synthesis of a [[styptic]] (a drug intended to control bleeding from wounds.) Over half a century would pass before the first known ingestion of MDMA by humans.
Contrary to many rumours, the drug was never used as an [[appetite suppressant]] or as a [[stimulant]] for armed forces during wartime. (This was in fact [[methamphetamine]].) The U.S. Army did, however, do [[lethal dose]] studies of it and several other compounds in the mid-1950's. It was given the name EA-1475, with the EA standing for [[Edgewood Arsenal]]. The results of these studies were not declassified until 1969. MDMA was first brought to public attention through Dr. [[Alexander Shulgin]] in the 1960s who recommended it for use in certain therapy sessions, naming the drug 'window' (he discovered it while searching for compounds that might have a similar psychoactive effect as other compounds contained in [[nutmeg]]). It was widely used therapeutically by US psychotherapists because of its empathogenic effects until its criminalization in the late 1980s. The drug was hailed as a miracle by therapists and counselors who claimed couples could have six months worth
of progress in one use of the drug, and soldiers returning from the Vietnam war could overcome their [[PTSD]] sometimes more effectively than talk or group therapy. A small number of therapists continue to use it in their practices today. (See below for 2001 FDA approval and DEA licensing for use in patients with [[post-traumatic stress disorder]].)
Until 1985, MDMA was legal in the [[United States]]. Recreationally, it first came into prominence in certain trendy [[yuppie]] bars in the [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]] area, then in [[gay]] dance clubs. From there, use spread to [[rave]] clubs, and then to mainstream society. During the 1990s, along with the growing popularity of the rave [[subculture]], MDMA use became increasingly popular among young adults in [[university|universities]] and later in [[high school]]s. It rapidly became one of the four most widely used illegal drugs in the US, along with [[cocaine]], [[heroin]] and [[marijuana]].
In the late 80's and early 90's ecstasy was widely used in the U.K., such as [[The Haçienda]] night club in Manchester, where bands like [[The Stone Roses]] and [[The Happy Mondays]] mixed classic 60's psychedelic pop with dance bass groove to create a unique indie-dance crossover sound. It would be these gigs (and "sound") at The Haçienda that would give birth to [[rave culture]] in which ecstasy is so widely associated.
== Chemistry ==
The chemical structure of MDMA is similar to those of [[Mescaline]] and [[methamphetamine]], but the phenyl ring is [[Substitution|substituted]] with a [[methylenedioxy]] [[functional group|group]] in position 3,4.
It is a member of the [[phenethylamine]] family, a group of substances typically having pronounced biological activity.
MDMA is synthesized from [[MDP2P]] through a chemical reaction known as [[reductive amination]]. MDMA has a [[chiral]] center at the alpha carbon (next to the methylamino group).
== Pharmacokinetics ==
MDMA has complex nonlinear pharmacokinetics, due MDMA's ability to inhibit [[CYP2D6]] and CYP2d8. It is metabolised via N-demethylation to several active metabolites including MDA, although the conversion rate in humans is low. The metabolism is primarily by the [[Cytochrome P450 oxidase|cytochrome P450]] enzymes CYP2D6 (in humans, but CYP2D1 in mice), and [[CYP3A4]] . Large increases in blood and brain concentrations are mostly due to autoinhibition of CYP2D6 metabolism--if the user takes consecutive doses of the drug, disproportionately high plasma concentrations can result. A significant quantity is excreted unchanged in the urine, especially when the drug is taken at higher doses.
== Recreational use ==
The primary effects of MDMA include feelings of openness, [[euphoria]], [[empathy]], [[love]], and heightened [[self-awareness]]. Its initial adoption by the dance club sub-culture is probably due to the enhancement of the overall social and musical experience. Taking MDMA or Ecstasy is commonly referred to as ''pinging'', ''rolling'', ''popping'', ''peaking'', ''rushing'', ''buzzing'', ''dropping'', ''pilling'', ''flipping'', ''getting off-tap'', ''eating skittles'', or ''dosing''.
Some users employ practices to enhance the effects of MDMA, often called ''"Blowin' up"''. Because of the euphoric sensitivity to touch it is common, while on ecstasy, to have someone around the individual rub his or her fingers sensually and/or massage through the hair and scalp. Often times someone around the individual will flash lights on and off, use [[Lightstick|glow sticks]]--moving them in front of the individual vigorously--or spin the individual around, asking him/her to concentrate on one source of light. Because of the extreme intensity to colors, lights and touch this causes a 'sensory overload' to the individual, inducing an extreme sensation of euphoria.
MDMA use has increased markedly since the late 1980s and spread beyond its original sub-cultures to mainstream use. Prices have also fallen since the 1980s, with the street price in the US varying between $5 and $40 per tablet, depending on the quantity purchased, and with higher prices paid when the drug is purchased in a club or at a rave. In countries in which distribution is more extensive, such as in the Netherlands, prices can sometimes be as low as $1 per tablet. In Britain, a usual price is around £2.50 for a pill (although media reports in September 2005 show the price dropping as low as 50p in many parts of the country), the standard price in a nightclub is three pills for £10, and £20 for a half gram of pure MDMA powder, although like any illegal substance the price varies wildly depending on how many hands it has passed through. In the U.S. the price varies anywhere from $10 a pill to $30. In countries where distribution is more difficult prices are accordingly higher; for example in New Zealand prices start at around $60 NZD ($40 US) and can get as high as NZ $80.
== Supply and administration ==
MDMA is usually ingested in pill form. Pills come in a variety of "brands", usually identified by the icons stamped on the pills. The brands never consistently designate the actual active compound within the pill, as anyone can make their own pills which copy the features of a well-known brand.
Pills sold illegally on the street don't always have MDMA as the only active ingredient. There is a widely believed myth that black market pills usually contain [[methamphetamine]] - analysis of police seisures show this not to be the case, Analogues such as [[MDEA]], [[3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine|MDA]] and [[MBDB]] are often found, and rarely other unrelated psychoactive additives such as [[amphetamine]]s (''speed''), [[DXM]], [[ephedrine]], [[PMA]], [[caffeine]], [[ketamine]] (''Special K''), and others were |
greement, on [[September 25]], [[1864]], in [[Rochester, New York]], Ezra Cornell proposed establishing a new university on his farm in Ithaca, which he would endow with $300,000 (soon thereafter increased to $500,000) to be combined with the full proceeds of the land grant. Ezra Cornell had found a purpose for his fortune, and White had found an opportunity to fulfill his dream of building his vision of a great university for the state.
===Establishment of Cornell===
On [[February 7]], [[1865]], Andrew D. White introduced an act to the state senate "to establish the Cornell University," which appropriated the full income of the sale of lands given to New York under the Morrill Act to the university{{ref|establishment_of_cornell.act}}. The bill was immediately opposed by other colleges vying for a share of the land grant funds and by religious groups, who opposed the proposed composition of the university's board of trustees. Cornell's charter stated that "at no time shall a majority thereof be of any one religious sect, or of no religious sect."{{ref|establishment_of_cornell.trustees}} Despite this opposition, the bill was signed into law by [[Reuben Fenton|Governor Reuben E. Fenton]] on [[April 27]], [[1865]].
The university's Inauguration Day took place on [[October 7]], [[1868]]. There were 412 successful applicants; with this initial enrollment, Cornell's first class was, at the time, the largest entering class at an American university.{{ref|establishment_of_cornell.class_size}} On the occasion, Ezra Cornell delivered a brief speech. He said, "I hope we have laid the foundation of an institution which shall combine practical with liberal education. ... I believe we have made the beginning of an institution which will prove highly beneficial to the poor young men and the poor young women of our country".{{ref|establishment_of_cornell.ezra_cornell_quote}}
[[Image:Cornell_University_West_Campus_Sign.JPG|thumb|right|The entrance of Cornell University from Collegetown, during winter]]
Cornell was among the [[Coeducation#U.S. institutions of higher education coeducational from establishment|first universities]] in the United States to admit women alongside men. The first woman was admitted to Cornell in [[1870]], although the university did not yet have a women's dormitory. On [[February 13]], [[1872]], Cornell's Board of Trustees accepted an offer of $250,000 from [[Henry W. Sage]] to build such a dormitory. During the construction of [[Sage Residential College|Sage College]] (now home to the [[S.C. Johnson Graduate School of Management|Johnson School]] as Sage Hall) and after its opening in [[1875]], the admittance of women to Cornell continued to increase.
Significant departures from the standard curriculum were made at Cornell under the leadership of Andrew D. White. In [[1868]], Cornell introduced the ''elective system'', under which students were free to choose their own course of study. [[Harvard University]] would make a similar change in [[1872]], soon after the inauguration of [[Charles William Eliot|Charles W. Eliot]] in [[1869]].{{ref|establishment_of_cornell.curriculum}}
It was the success of the egalitarian ideals of the newly-established Cornell that would help drive some of the changes seen at other universities throughout the next few decades, and would lead educational historian Frederick Rudolph to call Cornell "the first American university".{{ref|establishment_of_cornell.frederick_rudolph}}
===Research===
The Automotive Crash Injury Research project was begun in 1952 by [[John O. Moore]] at the [[Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory|Cornell Aeronautical Research Laboratories]] (spun off in 1972 as Calspan Corporation). It pioneered the first-ever use of crash testing (originally using corpses rather than dummies). The project discovered that an extraordinary percentage of injuries could be prevented by improved door locks, energy-absorbing steering wheels, padded dashboards, and seat belts. The project led to Liberty Mutual's funding the building of a demonstration Cornell Safety Car in 1956, which received national publicity, and influenced carmakers. Carmakers started their own crash-test laboratories and gradually adopted the main Cornell innovations, all now taken for granted (although others, such as rear-facing passenger seats, never found favor with carmakers or the public).
In 1984, the [[National Science Foundation]] began work on establishing five new [[supercomputer]] centers, including the [[Cornell Theory Center]], to provide high-speed computing resources for research within the United States. In 1985, development of [[NSFNet]], a [[TCP/IP]]-based computer network that could connect to the [[ARPANET]], was undertaken by a team from the [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications]] at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] and the Cornell Theory Center. This high-speed network, unrestricted to academic users, became a backbone to which regional networks would be connected. Initially a 56-[[kilobit per second|kbps]] network, traffic on the network grew [[exponential function|exponentially]]; the links were upgraded to 1.5-[[megabit per second|Mbps]] [[Digital Signal 1|T1s]] in 1988 and to 45 Mbps in 1991. The NSFNet was a major milestone in the development of the [[Internet]] and its rapid growth coincided with the development of the [[World Wide Web]].{{ref|research.nsfnet}}
[[Image:NASA Mars Exploration Rover.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Artist's rendering of a [[Mars Exploration Rover]] as seen on the [[Mars|"Big Red" planet]]. Copyright Maas Digital LLC]]
For more than 40 years, Cornell has been involved in unmanned missions to [[Mars]]{{ref|research.timeline}}. Recently, Cornell had a hand in the [[Mars Exploration Rover|Mars Exploration Rover Mission]]. Cornell's own [[Steve Squyres]]{{ref|research.squyres}}, Principal investigator for the [[Athena Science Payload]], led the selection of the landing zones and requested data collection features for the [[Spirit rover|Spirit]] and [[Opportunity rover|Opportunity]] rovers. [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] engineers took those requests and designed the rovers to meet them. [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|JPL]] is also responsible for all of the designs relating to space travel, Mars terrain travel, and the software-control system. The rovers, which have both operated long past their original life expectancy, are responsible for the discoveries that were awarded [[2004]] Breakthrough of the Year honors{{ref|reserach.breakthrough}} by ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]''. Photos taken by Opportunity, near its landing site at [[Meridiani Planum]], showed a stratification pattern and cross bedding within the rocks that suggest a history of water flowing in the region. Control of the Mars rovers has shifted between NASA's [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] at [[California Institute of Technology|Caltech]] and Cornell's Space Sciences Building{{ref|research.rover_control}}.
==Organization==
===Academic units===
Cornell is a private institution, receiving most of its funding through tuition, research grants, and alumni contributions. However, three of its undergraduate colleges as well as the graduate-level [[New York State College of Veterinary Medicine|College of Veterinary Medicine]], called contract or [[statutory college]]s, also receive partial funding from the state of New York to support their research and service mission in niche fields. Residents of New York enrolled in the contract colleges enjoy reduced tuition. Further, the governor of the state serves as an ex-officio member of the board of trustees. It is a common misconception that Cornell's contract colleges are public institutions. They are not—they are private institutions that Cornell operates by contract with the state government.
Cornell is highly decentralized, with its colleges and schools enjoying wide autonomy. Each defines its own academic programs, organizes its own admissions and advising programs, and confers its own degrees. The only university-wide requirements for a baccalaureate degree are to pass a swimming test and take two physical education courses. Periodically, the university attempts to resolve naturally arising redundancies by creating special inter-school departments. While students may take courses offered by the division, their enrollment remains with their individual college or school. With that said, any student may take any course in any of the colleges, provided they have fulfilled the pre-requisites for enrollment.
Seven schools offer undergraduate programs. Students pursuing graduate degrees in departments of these schools are enrolled in the [[Cornell University Graduate School|Graduate School]]. In addition, there are six units offering graduate and professional programs.
====Undergraduate colleges and schools====
<table width=100%>
<tr>
<td valign=top>
=====Endowed colleges=====
* [[College of Architecture, Art and Planning]]
* [[Cornell University College of Arts and Sciences|College of Arts and Sciences]]
* [[Cornell University College of Engineering|College of Engineering]]
* [[Cornell University School of Hotel Administration|School of Hotel Administration]]
<td valign=top>
=====Contract colleges=====
* [[New York State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences]]
* [[New York State College of Human Ecology]]
* [[New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations]]
</table>
====Graduate/Professional colleges and schools====
All of Cornell's graduate and professional schools are endowed, except for the statutory veterinary school.
* [[Cornell University Graduate School|Graduate School]]
* [[Cornell Law School]]
* [[S.C. Johnson Graduate School of Management]]
* [[Weill Cornell Medical College]] (New York City)
* [[Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar|Weill Cornell Medical College (Qatar)]]
* [[Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medic |
250px|[[Chemical structure]] of Amygdalin]]
'''Amygdalin''' (from the Greek ''amugdale'', almond), C<sub>20</sub>H<sub>27</sub>NO<sub>11</sub>, is a [[glycoside]] isolated from bitter [[almond|almonds]] by H. E. Robiquet and A. F. Boutron-Charlard in [[1830]], and
subsequently investigated by [[Justus von Liebig|Liebig]] and [[Friedrich Woehler|Wöhler]], and others. Some sources claim [[Ernst T. Krebs]] was the discoverer of the substance, and Krebs is generally credited with popularizing it as a purported cancer cure and as "Vitamin B17." It is extracted from almond cake by boiling [[ethanol|alcohol]]; on evaporation of the solution and the addition of [[diethyl ether|ether]], amygdalin is precipitated as white minute crystals. [[Sulfuric acid]] decomposes it into [[Glucose|d-glucose]], [[benzaldehyde]], and prussic acid ([[hydrogen cyanide]]); while [[hydrochloric acid]] gives [[mandelic acid]], d-glucose, and [[ammonia]]. The decomposition induced by enzymes may occur in two ways. [[Maltase]] partially decomposes it, giving d-glucose and mandelic nitrile glucoside, C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>CH(CN)O·C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>11</sub>O<sub>5</sub>; this compound is isomeric with [[sambunigrin]], a glucoside found by E.E. Bourquelot and Danjou in the berries
of the common elder, ''Sambucus nigra''. [[Emulsin]], on the other hand, decomposes it into [[benzaldehyde]], [[cyanide]], and two molecules of [[glucose]]; this [[enzyme]] occurs in the [[bitter almond]], and consequently the seeds invariably contain free cyanide and benzaldehyde. An "amorphous amygdalin" is said to occur in the cherry-laurel. Closely related to these glucosides is [[dhurrin]], C<sub>14</sub>H<sub>17</sub>O<sub>7</sub>N, isolated by W. Dunstan and T. A. Henry from the common [[sorghum]] or "great millet," ''Sorghum vulgare''; this substance is decomposed by [[emulsin]] or hydrochloric acid into d-glucose, cyanide, and [[p-hydroxybenzaldehyde]].
Amygdalin is also called laevomandelonitrile, or '''Laetrile''' (some claim that ''Laetrile'' is derived from a [[Latin]] word meaning "joyfulness") for short, and has been advocated by some as a "cure" or a "preventative" for [[cancer]]: as there is no scientifically accepted evidence of its efficacy, it has not been approved for this use by the [[FDA]]. The US government's [[National Institutes of Health]] reports that two clinical trials with laetrile have been published. One Phase I study found that amygdalin caused minimal side effects; the side effects that were seen were similar to the symptoms of [[cyanide]] poisoning. One Phase II study with 175 patients had some patients reporting improvements in symptoms, but all patients showed cancer progression 7 months after completing treatment, and it was determined no further tests were necessary.
While no [[double-blind]] clinical trials may have been conducted, a clinical trial was carried out in 1982 by the [[Mayo Clinic]] and three other U.S. cancer centers under NCI sponsorship. Laetrile and "metabolic therapy" were administered as recommended by their promoters to 178 patients with advanced cancer for which there was no proven treatment. None were cured or stabilized or had any improvement of cancer-related symptoms. The [[median]] survival rate was about five months. In survivors after seven months, [[tumor]] size had increased. Several patients suffered from [[cyanide]] poisoning.
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=7033783&dopt=Abstract Moertel C and others. A clinical trial of amygdalin (Laetrile) in the treatment of human cancer. New England Journal of Medicine 306:201-206, 1982]
<!-- The trial discussed in the paragraph above may be the same as the one in the previous paragraph -- difficult to be sure without references or even dates -->
In [[1974]], the [[American Cancer Society]] officially labelled Laetrile as "quackery," but even today many American and Canadian cancer patients travel to [[Mexico]] for treatment with the substance, under the auspices of Dr. [[Ernesto Contreras]]. One of these patients was actor [[Steve McQueen]] who died while undergoing treatment in Mexico after developing [[mesothelioma]]. Curiously, Laetrile's foremost advocates within the [[United States]] can be found both on the far left of the political spectrum (e.g., The ''[[Village Voice]]'') and the far right (e.g., The [[John Birch Society]]).
Though it is sometimes sold as "Vitamin B17", it is not a [[vitamin]], as no disease is associated with a dietary deficiency of Laetrile. The product sold commercially is extracted from [[apricot]] seeds, which are in the same genus (''[[Prunus]]'') as the almond.
==Famous Case in History==
Jason Vale was the nation's leading [[spokesperson]] for the legalization of Laetrile. He was a national [[arm wrestling]] champion after he was cured of [[kidney]], [[pancreatic]] and [[spleen]] [[cancer]], purportedly by eating [[apricot]] seeds. However, in 2004 he was [http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=9825 convicted] of fraud and sentenced to 63 months in prison for his methods of marketing Laetrile, for defrauding the U.S. government by claiming that he qualified for Legal Aid, and for criminal contempt. Representatives of the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center testified on the side of the [[prosecution]] during Vale's criminal trial.
{{1911}}
== External links ==
*[http://credence.org/testimon/testimonwwc.htm Personal Experiences]
*[http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/laetrile/HealthProfessional/page5 National Cancer Institute - Laetrile]
[[Category:Alternative medicine]]
[[Category:Quackery]]
[[cs:Amygdalin]]
[[de:Amygdalin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amok</title>
<id>3253</id>
<revision>
<id>32504129</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-23T18:03:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Charles Matthews</username>
<id>12978</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>wikilink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the '''amok''' behaviour and state of mind. For other potential meanings see [[Amok (disambiguation)]].''
'''''Amok''''', sometimes spelled '''''amuck''''' and often used as "running amok," is a [[Malay language|Malay]] word which in that language means to be out of control.
It is often used in English to refer to the behaviour of someone who, in the grip of strong emotion, obtains a weapon and begins attacking people indiscriminately, often with multiple fatalities. This could be used to describe the [[École Polytechnique Massacre]], for example. The [[slang]] term [[going postal]] is similar in intent and more common, particularly in North America. Police describe such an event as a [[spree killing]].
Some sources have identified Malays as having a particular tendency to run amok, making this an example of a [[culture-bound syndrome]], but they are by no means the only people to do so. For example, [[W. W. Skeat]] writes in the ''[[1911 Encyclopedia Britannica]]'': "A Malay will suddenly and apparently without reason rush into the street armed with a [[kris]] or other [[weapon]]s, and slash and cut at everybody he meets till he is killed. These frenzies were formerly regarded as due to sudden insanity. It is now, however, certain that the typical amok is the result of circumstances, such as domestic jealousy or [[gambling]] losses, which render a Malay desperate and weary of his life. It is, in fact, the Malay equivalent of [[suicide]]. "The act of running amuck is probably due to causes over which the culprit has some amount of control, as the custom has now died out in the British possessions in the peninsula, the offenders probably objecting to being caught and tried in cold blood."
The observations of Skeat about the Malay race are not unique since [[beserker]] myths and the [[Zulu]] battle trance are two other examples of the tendency of certain groups to work themselves up into a killing frenzy. The 1911 Webster Encyclopedia comments:
:Though so intimately associated with the Malay there is some ground for believing the word to have an [[Hindi language|Indian]] origin, and the act is certainly far from unknown in [[India|Indian history]]. Some notable cases have occurred among the [[Rajput|Rajputs]]. Thus, in [[1634]], the eldest son of the [[raja]] of [[Jodhpur]] ran amok at the court of [[Shah Jahan]], failing in his attack on the emperor, but killing five of his officials. During the [[18th century]], again, at [[Hyderabad, Pakistan|Hyderabad]] (Sind), two envoys, sent by the Jodhpur chief in regard to a quarrel between the two states, stabbed the prince and twenty-six of his suite before they themselves fell.
:In [[Malabar]] there were certain professional assassins known to old travellers as ''Amouchi'' or ''Amuco''. The nearest modern equivalent to these words would seem to be the [[Malay language|Malayalim]] ''Amar-khan'', "a warrior" (from ''amar'', "fight"). The [[Malayalam]] term ''chaver'' applied to these ruffians meant literally those "who devote themselves to death." In Malabar was a custom by which the [[zamorin]] or king of Calicut had to cut his throat in public when he had reigned twelve years. In the [[17th century]] a variation in his fate was made. He had to take his seat, after a great feast lasting twelve days, at a national assembly, surrounded by his armed suite, and it was lawful for anyone to attack him, and if he succeeded in killing him the murderer himself became [[zamorin]] (see Alex. Hamilton, "A new Account of the East Indies," in <cite>Pinkerton's Voyages and |
synthesis]] of evolutionary biology, especially by work conducted by [[Ronald Fisher]] in 1918.
His experimental results have later been the object of considerable dispute. The renowned statistician [[Ronald Fisher]] analyzed the results of the F1 (first filial) ratio and found them to be implausibly close to the exact ratio of 3 to 1. Only a few would accuse Mendel of [[scientific malpractice]] or call it a [[scientific fraud]] &mdash; reproduction of his experiments has demonstrated the accuracy of his hypothesis &mdash; however, the results have continued to be a mystery for many, though it is often cited as an example of [[confirmation bias]], and he is generally suspected of having "smoothed" his data to some degree (not knowing about the importance of blind classification). The fact that his reported results concentrate on the few traits in peas which are determined by a single gene has also suggested that he may have censored his results, otherwise he would have stumbled across [[genetic linkage]].
The standard [[Binomial nomenclature#Authorship in scientific names|botanical author abbreviation]] Mendel is applied to [[species]] he described.
== Mendel, Darwin and Galton ==
[[Image:Gregor Johann Mendel bust.jpg|right|thumb|Bust of Mendel at [[Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry Brno]], [[Czech Republic]].]]
Mendel lived around the same time as the British naturalist [[Charles Darwin]] ([[1809]] &ndash; [[1882]]) and many have fantasized about a historical evolutionary synthesis of Darwinian [[natural selection]] and Mendelian genetics during their lifetimes. Mendel had read a German translation of Darwin's ''[[The Origin of Species|Origin]]'' (as evidenced by underlined passages in the copy in his monastery), after completing his experiments but before publishing his paper. Some passages in Mendel's paper are Darwinian in character, evidence that ''The Origin of Species'' influenced Mendel's writing. Darwin did not have a copy of Mendel's paper, but he did have a book by Focke with references to it. The leading expert in [[heredity]] at this time was Darwin's cousin [[Francis Galton]] who had mathematical skills that Darwin lacked and may have been able to understand the paper had he seen it. In any event, the [[modern evolutionary synthesis]] did not start until the [[1920s]], by which time [[statistics]] had become advanced enough to cope with genetics and evolution.
==Notes==
#{{note|bday}} [[July 20]] is his birthday; often mentioned is [[July 22]], the date of his baptism. <!-- see Talk page for more on this -->
==Bibliography==
* [[William Bateson]] ''Mendel's Principles of Heredity, a Defense'', First Edition, London: Cambridge University Press, 1902. [http://www.esp.org/books/bateson/mendel/facsimile/title3.html On-line Facsimile Edition: Electronic Scholarly Publishing, Prepared by Robert Robbins]
* Robin Marantz Henig, ''Monk in the Garden: The Lost and Found Genius of Gregor Mendel, the Father of Genetics'', Houghton Mifflin, May, 2000, hardcover, 292 pages, ISBN 0395977657; trade paperback, Houghton Mifflin, May, 2001, ISBN 0618127410
* Robert Lock, ''Recent Progress in the Study of Variation, Heredity and Evolution'', London, 1906
* [[Reginald Punnett]], ''Mendelism'', Cambridge, 1905
* [[Curt Stern]] and Sherwood ER ([[1966]]) ''The Origin of Genetics''.
* [[Colin Tudge]] ''In Mendel's footnotes'' ISBN 0099288753 book about Gregor Mendel
* [[Bartel Leendert van der Waerden]] ''Mendel's experiments'' Centaurus 12, 275-288 (1968) refutes allegations about "data smoothing"
* James Walsh, ''Catholic Churchmen in Science'', Philadelphia: Dolphin Press, 1906
==See also==
[[Image:StThomasAbbeyBrno.jpg|right|thumb|The Augustinian Abbey of St Thomas, Brno.]]
* [[List of Austrian Scientists]]
* [[Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry Brno]] (named after Mendel since 1994)
* [[Mendelian inheritance]]
==External links==
*[http://www.mendelweb.org/Mendel.html Mendelweb]
**[http://www.mendelweb.org/Mendel.html Mendel's Paper in English]
*[http://www.mendel-museum.org/index.htm Mendel Museum of Genetics]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10180b.htm 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia entry, "Mendel, Mendalism"]
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=OMIM Online Mendelian Inheritence in Man]
*[http://www.opatbrno.cz/ Augustinian Abbey of St. Thomas at Brno]
[[Category:1822 births|Mendel, Gregor]]
[[Category:1884 deaths|Mendel, Gregor]]
[[Category:Augustinians|Mendel, Gregor]]
[[Category:Austrian biologists|Mendel, Gregor]]
[[Category:Austrian botanists|Mendel, Gregor]]
[[Category:Botanists with author abbreviations|Mendel, Gregor]]
[[Category:Christians in science|Mendel]]
[[Category:Czech botanists|Mendel, Gregor]]
[[Category:Geneticists|Mendel, Gregor]]
[[bg:Грегор Мендел]]
[[ca:Gregor Mendel]]
[[cs:Gregor Mendel]]
[[cy:Gregor Mendel]]
[[da:Gregor Mendel]]
[[de:Gregor Mendel]]
[[et:Gregor Mendel]]
[[es:Gregor Mendel]]
[[eo:Johann Gregor MENDEL]]
[[fr:Gregor Mendel]]
[[ko:그레고르 요한 멘델]]
[[id:Gregor Mendel]]
[[it:Gregor Mendel]]
[[he:גרגור מנדל]]
[[la:Gregorius Mendel]]
[[hu:Gregor Mendel]]
[[nl:Gregor Mendel]]
[[ja:グレゴール・ヨハン・メンデル]]
[[no:Gregor Johann Mendel]]
[[pl:Grzegorz Mendel]]
[[pt:Gregor Mendel]]
[[ru:Мендель, Грегор]]
[[sr:Грегор Мендел]]
[[fi:Gregor Mendel]]
[[sv:Gregor Mendel]]
[[ta:கிரிகோர் ஜோஹன் மெண்டல்]]
[[tr:Gregor Mendel]]
[[zh:格里哥·孟德尔]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gregor Johann Mendel</title>
<id>12563</id>
<revision>
<id>15910242</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gregor Mendel]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Grappling</title>
<id>12564</id>
<revision>
<id>38193501</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T21:05:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mark83</username>
<id>239610</id>
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<minor />
<comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Martial Arts.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Hawaii]]an State Grappling Championships.]]
'''Grappling''' (in [[budo]] referred to as ''katame-waza'', 固め技, "grappling technique") refers to the gripping, handling and controlling of an opponent without the use of [[strike (attack)|striking]]. A '''grappler''' is a person who predominantly practices grappling in [[martial art]]s or [[combat sport]]s. Grappling can be used in both in a standing position, where it is known as '''stand-up grappling''', and on the ground, where it is known as '''ground grappling'''. Grappling is an essential part of both [[clinch fighting]] and [[ground fighting]].
== General ==
Grappling is a mode of [[fighting]] used by many different [[martial art]]s around the world. It is not a distinct martial art, but rather, similarly to [[strike (attack)|striking]], a collection of techniques and strategies aimed at defeating an opponent.
The degree to which grappling is utilized in different fighting systems varies. Some systems, such as [[Amateur wrestling]], [[Submission wrestling]], [[Judo]] and [[Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu]] are exclusively grappling arts, and do not allow striking. Many [[combat sport]]s such as [[Shooto]] and [[mixed martial art]]s competitions, put much emphasis on grappling, while still retaining striking as part of the sport.
It is however forbidden to grapple in many martial arts and combat sports; usually for the sake of focusing on other aspects of combat such as [[Punch (strike)|punching]], [[kick|kicking]] or [[Mêlée weapon|Mêlée weapons]]. Opponents in these types of matches, however, still grapple each other occasionally when [[Fatigue (physical)|fatigued]] or [[pain|hurt]]; when this occurs, the [[referee]] will step in and restart the match, sometimes giving a warning to one or both of the fighters. Examples of these include [[Boxing]], [[Kickboxing]], [[Taekwondo]], [[Karate]], and [[Fencing]]. While prolonged grappling in [[Muay Thai]] will result in a separation of the competitors, the art extensively uses the [[grappling hold#Clinch hold|clinch hold]] known as a [[collar tie#Double collar tie|double collar tie]].
Grappling techniques and defenses to grappling techniques are also considered important in [[self-defense]] applications and in [[law enforcement]]. The most common taught are escapes from [[grappling hold|holds]] and application of [[grappling hold#Pain compliance hold|pain compliance techniques]].
==Stand-up grappling==
'''Stand-up grappling''' or sometimes '''clinching''' (in [[budo]] called ''tachi-waza'', 立技, "standing technique") is arguably an integral part of all grappling arts, considering that two combatants generally start fighting from a stand-up position. The aim of stand-up grappling varies according to the [[martial arts]] or [[combat sport]]s in question, it's nature can be [[defense (sport)|defensive]] such as in [[Aikido]] or [[offensive]] such as in [[Judo]] or [[Wrestling]]. Defensive stand-up grappling concerns itself with [[grappling hold#Pain-compliance holds|pain-compliance holds]] and escapes from possible [[grappling hold]]s applied by an opponent, while offensive grappling techniques include [[grappling hold#Submission holds|submission holds]], [[takedown (grappling)|takedowns]] and [[throw (grappling)|throws]], all of which can be used to inflict serious damage, or to move the fight to the ground. Stand-up grappling can also be used both offensively and defensively in combination with [[strike (attack)|striking]], either to prevent the opponent form obtaining sufficient distance to strike effectively, or to bring the opponent close to apply, for instance, [[knee (strike)|knee strikes]] such as |
e calculated precisely and the equinox actually occurs at a particular moment. The days at which the Sun passes through these points may occur at different dates at different places on the Earth because of the timezone difference (occurring before midnight in one place and after midnight in the other).
Scientist [[Hipparchus]] used the equinoctial point to divide the day into twenty-four equinoctial hours (the length required for the Earth to perform one full rotation). Before the method was discovered, the hours of a day varied in length and according to the [[season]]; it was longer in the [[summer]] and shorter in the [[winter]].
==Apparent behaviour of the Sun==
[[Image:Earth-lighting-equinox EN.png|thumb|right|320px|Illumination of [[Earth]] by [[Sun]] on the day of equinox]]
On the equinoxes, everywhere over the globe, the Sun rises true east (parallel to lines of [[latitude]]), sets at true west, and the length of the day equals the length of the night.
===March equinox===
At the [[North pole]] the Sun passes from a 6-month-long night to a 6-month-long day.
At the [[Arctic circle]] the Sun reaches an altitude of 23.5° in the South.
At the [[Tropic of Cancer]] the Sun reaches an altitude of 66.5° in the South.
At the [[equator]] the Sun rises in a vertical line from the East on the horizon to the [[Zenith|zenith]], and then sets in a vertical line from the zenith to the West on the horizon.
At the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] the Sun reaches an altitude of 66.5° in the North.
At the [[Antarctic circle]] the Sun reaches an altitude of 23.5° in the North.
At the [[South pole]] the Sun passes from a 6-month-long day to a 6-month-long night.
===September equinox===
At the [[North pole]] the Sun passes from a 6-month-long day to a 6-month-long night.
At the [[Arctic circle]] the Sun reaches an altitude of 23.5° in the South.
At the [[Tropic of Cancer]] the Sun reaches an altitude of 66.5° in the South.
At the [[equator]] the Sun rises in a vertical line from the East on the horizon to the zenith, and then sets in a vertical line from the zenith to the West on the horizon.
At the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] the Sun reaches an altitude of 66.5° in the North.
At the [[Antarctic circle]] the Sun reaches an altitude of 23.5° in the North.
At the [[South pole]] the Sun passes from a 6-month-long night to a 6-month-long day.
==See also==
*[[Solstice]]
*[[Precession|Precession (of the Equinoxes)]]
*[[First Point of Aries]]
*[[First Point of Libra]]
==External links==
*[http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/equinoxes.html Details about the Length of Day and Night at the Equinoxes]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/2/3/4/12342/12342-h/12342-h.htm#E Equinoctial Points] - [[The Nuttall Encyclopaedia]]
*[http://www.spwebgames.com/daylight Java applet showing parts of the Earth in night and day]
*[http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/docs/EarthSeasons.html Table of times for Equinoxes, Solstices, Perihelion, and Aphelion in 1992-2020]
*[http://www.hermetic.ch/cal_sw/ve/ve.htm Dates and Times of Equinoxes and Solstices] has an [http://www.hermetic.ch/cal_sw/ve/ve.php online calculator].
[[Category:Spherical astronomy]]
[[bg:Равноденствие]]
[[ca:Equinocci]]
[[cs:Rovnodennost]]
[[da:Jævndøgn]]
[[de:Äquinoktium]]
[[eo:Ekvinokso]]
[[es:Equinoccio]]
[[et:Võrdpäevsus]]
[[fr:Équinoxe]]
[[gl:Equinoccio]]
[[he:נקודת השוויון]]
[[hu:Napéjegyenlőség]]
[[io:Equinoxo]]
[[it:Equinozio]]
[[ja:分点]]
[[jbo:dorduncte]]
[[nl:Equinox]]
[[pl:Równonoc]]
[[ru:Равноденствие]]
[[tr:Ekinoks]]
[[zh:春分]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Eugene Wigner</title>
<id>10101</id>
<revision>
<id>40357924</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:06:43Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EugeneWignerAlvinWeinberg.jpg|thumb|Eugene Wigner (left) and Alvin Weinberg]]
'''Eugene Paul Wigner''' ([[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] '''Wigner Pál Jenő''') ([[November 17]], [[1902]] &ndash; [[January 1]], [[1995]]) was a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[physicist]] and [[mathematician]] who received the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 1963 "for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles". Within the world of physics, Wigner was referred to as "the Silent Genius" as he was thought of by his contemporaries as the intellectual equal to Einstein, without the notoriety.
He was one of a generation of physicists of the [[1920s]] who remade the world of [[physics]]. This generation was a collection of people from [[Berlin]] to [[London]] to [[Zürich]] to [[Pisa]], though not quite yet to [[New York]] or [[Chicago, Illinois]]. The first physicists in this new generation &mdash; [[Werner Heisenberg]], [[Erwin Schrödinger]], and [[Paul Dirac]], to name three &mdash; created [[quantum mechanics]]. Quantum mechanics was a dazzling new world, which threw open dozens of fundamental physical questions. A new set of men (and a few women) came along behind them, to answer the first questions and pose others, often more complex.
Wigner was in this second set of physicists. He posed and answered some of the most profound questions of 20th-century physics. He laid the foundation for the theory of [[symmetry|symmetries]] in quantum mechanics. In the late [[1930s]], he extended his research into [[atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]].
Between [[1939]] and [[1945]], this generation of physicists helped to remake the world again. This time it was a far greater, more public world they remade: one of armies, peoples, ideologies. They did it first by seeing that an [[atomic bomb]] could be built; and then by arguing that it must be built, in the United States, immediately; and finally by playing the crucial role in getting the bomb built, under terrible pressure.
Wigner was a giant of atomic bomb production as well.
Wigner was one of a group of renowned Jewish-Hungarian scientists and mathematicians from turn-of-the-century Budapest, including [[Paul Erdős]], [[Edward Teller]], [[John von Neumann]], and [[Leó Szilárd]]. Szilárd was probably Wigner's best adult friend. Von Neumann was a schoolmate and mentor, whom Wigner later described as "the brightest man I have ever known on this Earth." Wigner was the only one of the four to win a [[Nobel Prize]].
==Early Life==
Wigner was born in [[Budapest]], [[Austria-Hungary]] (now [[Hungary]]), into a world where middle-class people had no automobiles, radio, gas or electricity &mdash; and did not miss those things. That fact startled and pleased him as an old man.
In 1902, the great scientists of the world were also content without [[atomic theory]], [[quantum theory]], or [[relativity theory]]. Yet many of the best scientists felt that all the fundamental things of life had already been discovered &mdash; all that remained was to fill in around the edges of the existing scheme.
At age 11, Eugene had a brush with [[tuberculosis]], and for six weeks was kept at a sanitarium in the Austrian mountains with his mother. But his childhood was mostly happy. His parents were well matched and he loved his two sisters intensely. His family culture was serious and stable, with a typical Hungarian love of jokes. He loved to walk as a boy.
In the Lutheran [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] he attended, he had the privilege of learning [[mathematics]] from [[László Rátz]], a devoted scholar and teacher who also tutored von Neumann. In [[1921]], after graduating from the Gymnasium, he studied at the Technische Hochschule in Berlin (today the [[Technische Universität Berlin]]).
Even more important, he attended the Wednesday afternoon colloquia of the German Physical Society. These colloquia featured such luminaries as [[Max Planck]], [[Max von Laue]], Rudolf Ladenburg, [[Werner Heisenberg]], [[Walther Nernst]], [[Wolfgang Pauli]] and &mdash; most of all &mdash; [[Albert Einstein]].
Wigner also met Leó Szilárd at the colloquium. Szilárd became at once Wigner's closest friend, and a man who remained an enigma and, sometimes, an irritant.
A third experience in Berlin was formative. Wigner worked at the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute]]<!-- which one? -there were several -->, and there met [[Michael Polanyi]], who would become, after László Rátz, Wigner's greatest teacher.
==Career==
In the late 1920s, Wigner explored deeply in the field of quantum mechanics, then being shaped by Heisenberg, Schrödinger and Dirac, to the mild disapproval of Einstein. A period at [[Göttingen]] as an assistant to the great mathematician [[David Hilbert]] proved a disappointment, as Hilbert was no longer intellectually active. But Wigner spent many, many hours in the library at Göttingen, and devoted himself to physics. Wigner laid the foundation for the theory of symmetries in quantum mechanics. In the late [[1930s]], he extended his research into atomic nuclei. He developed an important general theory of nuclear reactions. He was brilliant as a theorist (see for instance the [[Wigner-Eckart theorem]]), brilliant in the laboratory, and had a deep understanding of engineering as well.
By [[1929]], his papers were drawing wide notice in the physics world.
In [[1930]], Princeton University recruited Wigner and Von Neumann. When [[Adolf Hitler]] came to power in [[Germany]] in [[1933]], Wigner and von Neumann found safe haven in [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]], [[New Jersey]], though they still spent half the year in Europe, traveling, studying and teaching. A more peaceful, modest man you could not find, but Wigner was deeply affronted by Hitler and saw immediately how dangerous he was. In later life, when people thanked him for being so perceptive, he always protested that it took no special perception at all to see Hitler's danger and evil; rather, he felt it took a special perception n |
;1</sup> The [[Politics_of_Chile#Legislative branch|legislative body]] operates in [[Valparaíso]]<br><sup>2</sup> Includes [[Easter Island]] and [[Isla Sala y Gómez]]; does not include 1,250,000 km² of claimed territory in [[Antarctica]]
}}The '''Republic of Chile''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''{{Audio|RepChile.ogg|República de Chile}}'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[re'puβlika ðe 'tʄile]}}) is a country in [[South America]] occupying a long coastal strip between the [[Andes]] mountains and the [[Pacific Ocean]]. It borders [[Argentina]] to the east, [[Bolivia]] to the northeast and [[Peru]] to the north.
==Origin of the name==
There are various theories about the origin of the word ''Chile.'' According to one theory the [[Inca]]s of Peru, who had failed to conquer the [[Araucanian]]s, called the valley of the [[Aconcagua]] "Chili" by corruption of the name of a [[tribal chief]] ("cacique") called ''Tili'', who ruled the area at the time of the Incan conquest. Another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the [[Casma Valley]] in Peru, where there was a town and valley named ''Chili.'' Other theories say Chile may derive its name from the indigenous Mapuche word ''chilli,'' which may mean "where the land ends" or "the deepest point of the Earth," or from the Aymara ''tchili'' meaning "snow"; another meaning attributed to ''chilli'' is the onomatopoeic ''cheele-cheele''—the Mapuche imitation of a bird call. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas and the few survivors of [[Diego de Almagro]]'s first Spanish expedition south from Peru in 1535-1536 called themselves the "men of Chilli."
== History ==
{{main|History of Chile}}
About 10,000 years ago, migrating [[Indigenous Peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] settled in fertile valleys and along the coast of what is now Chile. The [[Inca]]s briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, but the area's remoteness and the fierce opposition of the native population prevented extensive settlement.
[[Image:Pedro de Valdivia.jpg|thumb|left|Pedro de Valdivia]]
In [[1520]], while attempting to circumnavigate the earth, the Portuguese [[Ferdinand Magellan]], discovered the southern passage now named after him, the [[Straits of Magellan]]. The next Europeans to reach Chile were [[Diego de Almagro]] and his band of Spanish [[conquistador]]s, who came from Peru in 1535 seeking [[gold]] but were turned back by the local population. The Spanish encountered hundreds of thousands of Indians from various cultures in the area that modern Chile now occupies. These cultures supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn [[agriculture]] and [[hunting]]. The first permanent European settlement, [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]], was founded in [[1541]] by [[Pedro de Valdivia]], one of [[Francisco Pizarro]]'s lieutenants. Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and [[silver]] they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's central valley, and Chile became part of the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]].
Conquest of the land that is today called Chile took place only gradually, and the Europeans suffered repeated setbacks at the hands of the local population. A massive [[Mapuche]] insurrection that began in [[1553]] resulted in Valdivia's death and the destruction of many of the colony's principal settlements. Subsequent major insurrections took place in [[1598]] and in [[1655]]. Each time the Mapuche and other native groups revolted, the southern border of the colony was driven northward. The abolition of [[slavery]] in [[1683]] defused tensions on the frontier between the colony and the Mapuche land to the south, and permitted increased trade between colonists and Mapuches.
The drive for independence from Spain was precipitated by usurpation of the [[Spanish monarchy|Spanish throne]] by [[Napoleon]]'s brother Joseph, in [[1808]]. A national junta in the name of Ferdinand—heir to the deposed king—was formed on [[September 18]], [[1810]]. The [[junta]] proclaimed Chile an autonomous republic within the Spanish [[monarchy]]. A movement for total independence soon won a wide following. Spanish attempts to reimpose arbitrary rule during what was called the [[Reconquista]] led to a prolonged struggle.[[Image:Ohiggins.jpg|thumb|Bernardo O'Higgins]]
The movement toward independence began in 1810 under the leadership of Juan Martínez de Rozas and [[Bernardo O'Higgins]]. The first phase (1810–14) ended in defeat at Rancagua, largely because of the rivalry of O'Higgins with José Miguel Carrera and his brothers. In 1817, José de San Martín, with incredible hardship, brought an army over the Andes from Argentina to Chile. The following year he won the decisive battle of Maipú over the Spaniards.
Toward the end of the 19th century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by ruthlessly suppressing the [[Mapuche]] Indians, finally completing the conquest begun more than three centuries earlier. In [[1881]], the government signed a treaty with Argentina confirming Chilean sovereignty over the [[Strait of Magellan]]. As a result of the [[War of the Pacific]] with Peru and Bolivia ([[1879]]–[[1883|83]]), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third, eliminating Bolivia's access to the Pacific, and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. The [[Chilean Civil War]] in [[1891]] brought about a redistribution of power between the President and Congress, and Chile established a parliamentary style democracy. However, the Civil War had also been a contest between those who favored the development of local industries and powerful Chilean banking interests, particularly the House of Edwards who had strong ties to foreign investors. Hence the Chilean economy partially degenerated into a system protecting the interests of a ruling [[oligarchy]]. By the [[1920s]], the emerging middle and [[working class]]es were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, [[Arturo Alessandri Palma]], whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. Alessandri Palma's reformist tendencies were partly tempered later by an admiration for some elements of [[Mussolini]]'s Italian Corporate State. In the 1920s, [[Marxism|Marxist]] groups with strong popular support arose.
A military coup led by General [[Luis Altamirano]] in [[1924]] set off a period of great political instability that lasted until [[1932]]. The longest lasting of the ten governments between those years was that of General [[Carlos Ibáñez]], who briefly held power in [[1925]] and then again between [[1927]] and [[1931]] in what was a de facto dictatorship, although not really comparable in harshness or corruption to the type of military dictatorship that has often bedeviled the rest of [[Latin America]], and certainly not comparable to the violent and repressive regime of [[Augusto Pinochet]] decades later. By relinquishing power to a democratically elected successor, Ibáñez del Campo retained the respect of a large enough segment of the population to remain a viable politician for more than thirty years, in spite of the vague and shifting nature of his ideology. When constitutional rule was restored in [[1932]], a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. During the period of [[Radical Party]] dominance (1932–52), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez, now reincarnated as a sort of Chilean [[Juan Perón|Perón]], to office for another 6 years. [[Jorge Alessandri]] succeeded Ibáñez in 1958, bringing Chilean conservatism back into power democratically for another term.
The [[1964]] presidential election of [[Christian Democratic Party of Chile| Christian Democrat]] [[Eduardo Frei Montalva]] by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty," the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and [[agrarian reform]], including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At the end of his term, Frei had accomplished many noteworthy objectives, but he had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals.
In [[1970]], Senator [[Salvador Allende|Salvador Allende Gossens]], a Marxist physician and member of Chile's [[Socialist Party of Chile|Socialist Party]], who headed the "[[Popular Unity]]" (UP or "Unidad Popular") coalition of the Socialist, Communist, Radical, and Social-Democratic Parties, along with dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement ([[MAPU]]), and the Independent Popular Action, won a [[plurality]] of votes in a three-way contest. Despite pressure from the government of the United States, the [[National Congress of Chile|Chilean Congress]], keeping with tradition, conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president [[Jorge Alessandri]] and chose Allende by a vote of 153 to 35. Frei refused to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende, on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers party and could not make common cause with the oligarchs.
Allende's program included advancement of workers' interests; a thoroughgoing implementation of agrarian reform; the reorganization of the national economy into socialized, mixed, and private sectors; a foreign policy of "international solidarity" and national independence; and a new institutional order (the "people's state" or "poder popular"), including the insti |
iginally released in [[1993]], and published by [[LucasArts]]. It is the eighth game to use the [[SCUMM]] engine.
The game was released simultaneously on [[floppy disk]] and [[CD-ROM]], with the CD-ROM version featuring a full [[voiceover]] [[soundtrack]]. ''Day of the Tentacle'' was designed by [[Dave Grossman]] and [[Tim Schafer]].
==Storyline==
{{spoiler}}
''Day of the Tentacle'' begins five years after the events in ''[[Maniac Mansion]]''. Of the seven playable characters in the first game, only Bernard Bernoulli, a stereotypical [[nerd]] character, makes a return appearance. This time, Bernard has a starring role, as he leads his two new friends, Hoagie and Laverne, back to the Mansion. One of Dr. Fred Edison's two creations, the Purple Tentacle, drinks radioactive waste from the Mansion, growing two stubby appendages for arms and an appetite for [[global domination]]. Bernard and friends plan to travel back in time, using Dr. Fred's [[Port-a-john|Port-a-Potty]]-turned-[[time machine]]s (dubbed "Chron-o-John"s), to stop Purple from drinking the toxic waste in the first place.
Unfortunately, the cheap imitation diamond in Dr. Fred's time machine fails, leaving Hoagie 200 years in the past (where he can meet such famous historical figures as [[George Washington]] and [[Benjamin Franklin]]), Laverne 200 years in the future (where Purple Tentacle's dreams for domination have come true) and Bernard still in the present. Bernard, with the assistance of budding rock star Green Tentacle, has to find a non-imitation diamond in order to make the time machine functional once more, and Hoagie and Laverne both have to get back to their time machines and connect them to a power source, in order to team up again and finally defeat Purple Tentacle. The game uses the three time streams effectively, with several puzzles depending on actions in one era affecting the other eras.
One of the most notable features of ''Day of the Tentacle'' is that it includes the entire original ''Maniac Mansion'' as a game-within-a-game. To play it, simply use Weird Ed's computer (in the Macintosh version of the game, the computer needs to be used five times in a row).
The game has several puzzles that require the player to perform actions in the past that affect the future. For example, a vacuum cleaner advertisment flyer can be inserted into the suggestion box for the American constitution; consequently a clause is added to the constitution that every American should have a vacuum cleaner in their basement. And consequently, in the future when vacuum cleaners have actually been ''invented'', you can find one and use it.
==Historical interaction==
{{spoiler}}
One of the unique aspects of ''Day of the Tentacle'''s plot is that it gives the game player the opportunity to interact with computer-generated versions of several important historical figures from [[Colonial America]], namely [[George Washington]], [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[John Hancock]] and [[Betsy Ross]]. Their personality traits are exaggerated for comic effect. Some of the more entertaining puzzles/challenges of the game involve these characters. Their descendants (or at least [[Sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]]s that look like them) can be seen in the other ages (present time and future time).
[[Image:Dottscreen.png|thumb|left|250px|''Day of the Tentacle'' characters (l to r) John Hancock, Thomas Jefferson, Hoagie and George Washington]]
In one sequence, Hoagie must give an exploding cigar to Washington in order to replace his famous [[false teeth]] with chattering novelty mechanical dentures, while in another he gives a drawing of a tentacle to Ross, who sews it into the [[American flag]].
By painting the fruits of a [[Kumquat]] tree red, the player forces Washington to chop down the created "Cherry" tree, also a myth concerning Washington's youth.
==Gameplay==
[[Image:Dott-screenshot.png|right|thumb|200px|The Purple Tentacle, seen here shortly after his mutation in the opening cinematic, is the main antagonist in ''Day of the Tentacle''.]]
''Day of the Tentacle'' follows the [[point-and-click]] two-dimensional [[adventure game]] formula, first established by the original ''Maniac Mansion''. Players direct the controllable characters around the game world by clicking with the computer mouse. To interact with the game world, players choose from a set of commands arrayed on the screen and then on an object in the world. This was the last SCUMM game to use the original interface of having the bottom half of the screen being taken up by a verb selection and inventory; starting with the next game to use the SCUMM engine, [[Sam and Max Hit the Road]], the engine was modified to scroll through a more concise list of verbs with the right mouse button and having the inventory on a separate screen. In ''Day of the Tentacle'', the player can switch between any one of the three playable characters at any time. The three protagonists can also share inventory items amongst themselves (at least, those items that can be stowed in a toilet), a feature that plays into many of the game's puzzles.
In ''Maniac Mansion'', the playable characters can be killed by various sequences of events. LucasArts adopted a different philosophy towards its adventure games in 1990, beginning with ''[[The Secret of Monkey Island]]''. Their philosophy was that the game should not punish the player for exploring the game world. Accordingly, in most of the adventure games released by LucasArts after ''Monkey Island'' (including ''Day of the Tentacle''), the player character(s) cannot die (there is one exceptional sequence in which the player character of ''Monkey Island'' could perish; see that game's article for more information).
==Sequels==
There have been a few fan groups in Germany who have started developing fan-games, but [[as of 2005]], none of them are complete. As of this time, LucasArts seems to be very unreceptive to the idea of making any more adventure games or allowing others to commercially develop their old licenses.
==See also==
*''[[Maniac Mansion]]''
*[[LucasArts adventure games]]
*[[ScummVM]]
==External links==
*[http://www.lucasstyle.com/maniaczombies/news.htm Maniac Zombies]
*[http://dadott.reelfilm.com/ Day After the Day of the Tentacle] (a webcomic)
*[http://dadott.zonadictos.net/ Day After the Day of the Tentacle] (Spanish translation)
*[http://www.mobygames.com/game/dos/day-of-the-tentacle MobyGames' entry for ''Day of the Tentacle'']
*[http://www.netjak.com/review.php/372 Netjak Review of Day of The Tentacle]
*[http://www.dott2.de/ Day of the Tentacle 2 - a german sequel game fan project]
*[http://top100.ign.com/2005/051-060.html IGN's Top 100 Games as of 2005] - Day of the Tentacle gets #60
[[Category:1993 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Adventure games]]
[[Category:Comedy computer and video games]]
[[Category:DOS games]]
[[Category:LucasArts games]]
[[Category: Apple Macintosh games]]
[[Category:Science fiction computer and video games]]
[[Category:ScummVM supported games]]
[[de:Day of the Tentacle]]
[[es:Day of the Tentacle]]
[[fr:Day of the Tentacle]]
[[he:יומו של הטנטקל]]
[[nl:Day of the Tentacle]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Douglas Adams</title>
<id>8091</id>
<revision>
<id>42155916</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:42:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SDS</username>
<id>408274</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Removed 'bob'</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Do *not* change spelling of "Hitchhiker's"; see talk page for details -->
[[Image:Douglasadams.jpg|thumb|200px|Douglas Noël Adams in an undated publicity photograph by [[Jill Furmanovsky]]. {{ref|PromoPhoto}} ]]
'''Douglas Noël Adams''' ([[March 11]], [[1952]] &ndash; [[May 11]], [[2001]]), known to some fans as ''Bop Ad'' (after his illegible signature), or by his initials "DNA", was a [[cult figure|cult]] [[United Kingdom|British]] comic [[radio drama|radio dramatist]], amateur musician and [[author]], most notably of the ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy|Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' series (''HHGG'' or ''H2G2''). ''Hitchhiker's'' began on radio, and developed into a [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (book)|"trilogy" of five books]] (which sold more than fifteen million copies during his lifetime) as well as a [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (TV series)|television series]], a [[towel]], a [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (computer game)|computer game]] and a [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (film)|feature film]] that was completed after Adams's death.
In addition to ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'', Douglas Adams wrote or co-wrote three stories of science fiction staple ''[[Doctor Who]]'', and served the series as Script Editor during the seventeenth season. His other written works include the ''[[Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency|Dirk Gently]]'' novels, and co-author credits on two ''[[Meaning of Liff|Liff]]'' books and ''[[Last Chance to See]]'', itself based on a radio series. Adams also originated the idea for the computer game ''[[Starship Titanic]]'', which was realized by a company that Adams co-founded, and adapted into a novel by [[Terry Jones]]. A posthumous collection of essays and other material, including an incomplete novel, was published as ''[[The Salmon of Doubt]]'' in 2002. His fans and friends also knew Adams as an environmental activist and a lover of fast cars, cameras, the [[Apple Computer|Apple]] [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]], and other "techno gizmos." He was a keen technologist, using such inventions as [[e-mail]] and [[Usenet]] before they became widely popular, or even widely known.
Adams was a self-described "radical [[atheist]]". Towards the end of his life, he was a sought-after lecturer on topics includ |
om of Great Britain''.
In [[1801]], under a new [[Act of Union 1800|Act of Union]], this kingdom merged with the [[Kingdom of Ireland]], over which the monarch of Great Britain had ruled. The new kingdom was from then onwards unambiguously called the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. In [[1922]], 26 of Ireland's [[Counties of Ireland|32 counties]] gained independence to form a separate [[Irish Free State]]. The remaining truncated kingdom has therefore since then been known as the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]. The United Kingdom now also formally includes a number of [[British overseas territory|Overseas Territories]].
==Usage and nomenclature==
===Usage of the term ''Great Britain''===
''Great Britain'' is also widely, but incorrectly, used as a synonym for the political state properly known as the [[United Kingdom]] (see below).
This common usage is technically inaccurate as the United Kingdom includes [[Northern Ireland]], in addition to the three countries that make up Great Britain, as shown by its full name "the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland", and also because the three countries that make up Great Britain itself collectively include over 100 other islands, such as the [[Isles of Scilly]], [[St Michael's Mount]], the [[Isle of Wight]], [[Lindisfarne]], [[Lundy]], the [[Isle of Portland]], and [[Steepholm]] in England; Flatholm and [[Anglesey]] in Wales; and the Isles of [[Arran]], [[Bute]], [[Cumbrae|the Cumbraes]], the [[Inner Hebrides]] (including [[Isle of Skye|Skye]], [[Mull]], [[Islay]], [[Jura, Scotland|Jura]], [[Coll]], [[Tiree]], [[Rhum|Rum]], [[Eigg]], [[Muck]], [[Colonsay]] and [[Oronsay]]), the [[Outer Hebrides]] (principally comprising [[Lewis]], [[Harris]], [[Benbecula]], [[North Uist]], [[South Uist]] and [[Barra]]), the [[Orkney Islands]], [[Shetland Islands]], the [[Monach Islands]], the [[Flannan Islands]] and the [[St. Kilda]] group. The [[islet]] of [[Rockall]], over 180 miles west of St. Kilda, is included, though other nations dispute the British claim.
The [[Britain|British]] themselves occasionally use the abbreviation ''GB'', such as in the [[Olympic Games]] where the British team is sometimes informally referred to as 'Team GB'. The UK also uses the [[international foreign vehicle identification code]] of ''GB'', although on number plates that include European Identification the code of ''UK'' is used. The ''UK'' short-code can be confused with [[Ukraine]]. This is discussed further under [[Britain]].
There is similar situation with the terms ''[[Britain]]'' and ''British'', which are used to relate to the whole of the UK and not just the island of Great Britain. This usage is generally considered to be correct. Examples of this are "British monarchs", "British culture" and "British citizens" - which would generally be considered to embrace the whole of the United Kingdom. As if this was not confusion enough, the term "British" also has specific historical and archaeological usage, referring to the Celtic tribes present on the island prior to and during the [[Roman Britain|Roman occupation]].
In [[rugby league]] the [[Rugby Football League|RFL]] fields its representative side under the name [[Great Britain national rugby league team|Great Britain]].
===Nomenclature===
The name ''Britain'' is derived from the name ''Britannia'', used by the Romans from ''circa'' [[55 BC]]. The etymology of this term has been the subject of (sometimes fanciful) speculation, but is generally thought to derive from a Celtic word, ''Pritani'', "painted", a reference to the inhabitants of the islands' use of body-paint and tattoos (see [[Britain]] for further discussion of etymology).
In [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'' (''circa'' [[1136]]), the island of Great Britain was referred to as ''Britannia maior'' ("Greater Britain"), to distinguish it from ''Britannia minor'' ("Lesser Britain"), the Gaulish region which approximates to modern [[Brittany]]. The term "Bretayne the grete" was used by chroniclers as early as [[1338]], but it was not used officially until [[King James I]] proclaimed himself "King of Great Britain" on [[20 October]] [[1604]] to avoid the more cumbersome title "King of England and Scotland".
==Territories associated with Great Britain==
*[[Kingdom of England]]
*[[History of Scotland|Kingdom of Scotland]]
*[[Wales|Wales]]
==Other lands of the archipelago==
* [[Ireland]]
** [[Republic of Ireland]]
** [[Northern Ireland]]
* [[Isle of Man]]
* [[Channel Islands]]
==See also==
* [[United Kingdom]]
* [[UK topics]]
* [[British Isles]]
* [[Britain]]
* [[History of Britain]]
* [[History of England]]
* [[History of Scotland]]
* [[History of Wales]]
* [[British Empire]]
* [[Commonwealth of Nations]] formerly called the British Commonwealth
* [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542]] merging Kingdom of England and [[Principality]] of Wales
* [[Act of Union 1707]] merging Scotland and England to form Great Britain
* [[Act of Union 1800]] merging Great Britain and Ireland to form the United Kingdom
* [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] facilitating the Irish Free State's exit from the United Kingdom
* [[SS Great Britain|SS ''Great Britain'']],
* [[.gb]] ccTLD
* [[New Britain]] an island of Papua New Guinea
==References==
{{unsourced}}
==External links==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/coast Coast] &ndash; the BBC explores the coast of Great Britain
* [http://www.know-britain.com/general/great_britain.html Know Britain] &ndash; one explanation of the terms "Great Britain", "United Kingdom" and so on
* [http://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/freegb/index.htm#maps Administrative map of Great Britain] &ndash; from the [[Ordnance Survey]]; various formats
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/nations/ BBC Nations]
* [http://www.macs.hw.ac.uk/britishisles/ The British Isles]
[[Category:British Isles]]
[[Category:Geography of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Islands in the British Isles]]
[[Category:Islands]]
[[Category:Island nations]]
[[af:Groot-Brittanje]]
[[ast:Gran Bretaña]]
[[bg:Великобритания]]
[[ca:Gran Bretanya]]
[[cs:Velká Británie (ostrov)]]
[[cy:Prydain]]
[[da:Storbritannien]]
[[de:Großbritannien (Insel)]]
[[et:Suurbritannia saar]]
[[es:Gran Bretaña]]
[[eo:Granda Britio (insulo)]]
[[fr:Grande-Bretagne]]
[[ga:An Bhreatain]]
[[ko:그레이트브리튼 섬]]
[[is:Stóra-Bretland]]
[[it:Gran Bretagna]]
[[kw:Breten Veur]]
[[lt:Didžioji Britanija]]
[[nl:Groot-Brittannië]]
[[nds:Grootbritannien]]
[[ja:グレートブリテン島]]
[[mk:Велика Британија]]
[[no:Storbritannia (øy)]]
[[nn:Øya Storbritannia]]
[[pl:Wielka Brytania (wyspa)]]
[[pt:Grã-Bretanha]]
[[ro:Marea Britanie]]
[[rm:Gronda Britannia]]
[[simple:Great Britain]]
[[sl:Velika Britanija]]
[[fi:Iso-Britannia (saari)]]
[[sv:Storbritannien (ö)]]
[[tl:Great Britain]]
[[tr:Büyük Britanya]]
[[vi:Vương quốc Anh]]
[[vi:Đảo Anh]]
[[zh:大不列顛島]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Goeldi's Marmoset</title>
<id>11894</id>
<revision>
<id>31811230</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-18T04:21:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UtherSRG</username>
<id>33145</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| image = Callimico goeldi smithsonian.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| name = Goeldi's Marmoset
| status = {{StatusNearConcern}}
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primate]]s
| familia = [[Cebidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Callitrichinae]]
| genus = '''''Callimico'''''
| genus_authority = [[Alipio de Miranda Ribeiro|Miranda Ribeiro]], [[1922]]
| species = '''''C. goeldii'''''
| binomial = ''Callimico goeldii''
| binomial_authority = [[Oldfield Thomas|Thomas]], [[1904]]
}}
'''Goeldi's Marmoset''' or '''Goeldi's Monkey''' (''Callimico goeldii'') is a small, [[South America|South American]] [[New World monkey]] that lives in the upper [[Amazon Basin]] region of [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Peru]]. It is the only species classified in the genus '''''Callimico''''', and the monkeys are sometimes referred to as "callimicos".
Goeldi's Marmosets are blackish or blackish-brown in color. Their bodies are around 8 to 9 inches long (about 22 cm), and their tails are 10-12 inches long (25-30 cm).
Goeldi's Marmoset was first described in 1904, making it one of the last monkey genera to be described. In older classification schemes it was sometimes placed in its own family '''Callimiconidae''' and sometimes in the (now abandoned) family [[Callitrichidae]], the family containing [[marmoset]]s and [[tamarin]]s. More recently, it has been classified into [[Cebidae]], which now contains all the marmosets and tamarins, as well as the [[capuchin]]s and [[squirrel monkey]]s.
Females reach sexual maturity at 8.5 months, males at 16.5 months. The gestation period lasts from 140 to 180 days. Unlike other New World monkeys, they have the capacity to give birth twice a year. The mother carries a single baby monkey per pregnancy, whereas most other species in the family Cebidae usually give birth to twins. The infant is weaned after about 65 days. The life expectancy in captivity is about 10 years.
[[Image:Springtamarin.jpg|250px|left|thumb]]
Goeldi's Marmosets prefer to forage in dense scrubby undergrowth; perhaps because of this, they are rare, with groups living in separate patches of suitable habitat, separated by miles of unsuitable flora. In the wet season, their diet includes fruit, insects, spiders, lizards, frogs, and snakes. In the dry season, they feed on [[fungi]], the only tropical primates known to depend on this source of food. They live in small social groups (approximately six individuals) that stay within a few feet of one another most of the time, staying in contact via high-pitch |
d the end number usually goes in the furthest column on the right in the row of the team who has the ''hammer'' (last rock advantage).
=== Conceding a game ===
When a team feels it is impossible or near impossible to win a game, they will usually [[handshake|shake hands]] with the opposing team to concede defeat. This may occur at any point during the game, but usually happens near the final end. When a game is completed by playing all ends, both teams also shake hands. This is often accompanied by saying "Good game!" Hands are also shaken before the game, accompanied by saying "Good curling!" to the opposing team. In the Winter Olympics, a team may concede after finishing any end during a round-robin game, but can only concede after finishing eight ends during the knockout stages.
=== Dispute resolution ===
Most decisions about rules are left to the skips. However, all scoring disputes are handled by the third, or vice-skip. No players other than the third from each team should be in the house while score is being debated. In tournament play the most frequent circumstance in which a decision has to be made by someone other than the third is the failure of the thirds to agree on which rock is closest to the button. An independent official then measures the distances using a specially designed device that pivots at the center of the button. When no independent officials are available, the thirds measure the distances.
== Curling culture ==
Curling is played in many countries including the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]] (especially [[Scotland]]), [[Norway]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Denmark]], [[Finland]] and [[Japan]], all of which compete in the world championships.
Curling is particularly popular in [[Canada]]. Improvements in ice making and changes in the rules to increase scoring and promote complex strategy have increased the already high popularity of the sport in Canada, and large television audiences watch annual curling telecasts, especially the [[Scott Tournament of Hearts]] (the national championship for women), [[the Brier]] (the national championship for men), and the women's and men's world championships.
Despite the Canadian province of [[Manitoba]]'s small population, teams from that province have won the Brier more times than teams from any other province. The Tournament of Hearts and the Brier are contested by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|provincial and territorial]] champions, and the world championships by national champions.
Curling is the provincial sport of [[Saskatchewan]], home of one of the most famous curlers, the late [[Sandra Schmirler]], who led her team to the first ever gold medal in women's curling in the [[1998 Winter Olympics]]. When she died two years later from [[cancer]], over 15,000 attended her funeral.
===An amateur sport===
While Canadian bonspiels (tournaments) offer cash prizes, there are no full-time professional curlers. However, some curlers make quite a lot of their income from curling. Some stay-at-home mothers or house-wives can claim curling as their profession. Still, curling survives as a people's sport, returning to the [[Winter Olympics]] in 1998 with men's and women's tournaments after not having been on the official Olympic program since 1924 (that year's curling competition, for men only, was confirmed as official by the [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]] in 2006). Because accuracy, strategy, skill, and experience are more valuable in curling than traditional sports virtues of speed, stamina, and strength, most competitive curlers are older than their counterparts in other sports. However, there are many young teams who turn heads, and junior curling is quite popular, with national finals being televised nationwide in Canada.
===Good sportsmanship===
More so than in many team sports, good sportsmanship is an integral part of curling. For example, celebrating an error by the opposing team, fully acceptable in some sports, is frowned upon in curling. Even at the highest levels of play, a player is expected to "call their own fouls", so to speak, such as alerting the opposing skip if they burned a stone. It is also traditional for the winning team to buy the losing team a drink after the game. (This is in interesting contrast to the game of darts, where the loser traditionally buys the winner a drink by way of congratulations.)
== Additional Information ==
The means of preparation one must take to be competitive in the sport of curling go beyond physical fitness and above-average agility. The competitor must not only be able to have an extensive understanding of classical mechanics with an emphasis on friction, but must be able to apply this knowledge to the playing field. This is a commonly overlooked fact, often making curling seem like a somewhat dull sport. As such, curling is an excellent example of the adage "easy to learn, but difficult to master".
=== By the Numbers ===
The participants and commentators of curling use various measures to relate information about the behavior of ice and the individual rocks thrown.
The ice in the game may be fast or slow. If the ice is fast, a rock will travel further with a given amount of weight on it. The speed of the ice is measured in seconds. This measure is the amount of time that a draw to the button will spend moving before it comes to a rest. If the ice is slow, the rock will have to have more weight in order to reach the button and would reach the button more quickly. Thus, the speed of the ice (in seconds) is lower than if the ice is fast, in which case the rock would have to be thrown more slowly and would take longer to get there.
Addtionally, the weight (speed) of an individual rock can also be measured in seconds. This time is the time the rock takes to cross first one hogline and then the other. If this number is lower, the rock is moving faster, so again low numbers mean more speed. The ice in a match will be somewhat consistent and thus this measure of speed can also be used to measure how far down the ice the rock will travel. Once it is determined that a rock taking (for example) 9 seconds to go from hogline to hogline will stop on the button, the curler can know that if they can match that time with later stones, they can throw stones that will stop near the button.
== Terminology ==
''Main article: [[Curling terminology]]
==Trivia==
* In 2001, curling was named the official sport of [[Saskatchewan]].
* In the early days before rock size was standardized, curlers chose to throw big or small rocks depending on the shot being made.
==See also==
*[[Glossary of curling terms]]
*[[Bonspiel]]
*[[List of curlers]]
*[[Canadian Curling Association]]
*[[World Curling Federation]]
*''[[Men With Brooms]]'' (Canadian comedy film, only known film based on curling)
==Champions and Major Championships==
*[[List of World Curling Women's Champions]]
*[[List of World Curling Men's Champions]]
*[[Curling at the Winter Olympics]]
*[[World Curling Championship]]
*[[World Junior Curling Championships]]
*[[Continental Cup of Curling]]
*[[European Curling Championships]]
*[[Pacific Curling Championships]]
*[[Scott Tournament of Hearts]]
*[[Tim Hortons Brier]]
*[[Canadian Junior Curling Championships]]
*[[Canadian Mixed Curling Championship]]
*[[Canadian Senior Curling Championships]]
*[[Canada Cup (curling)|Canada Cup]]
==Notable curling clubs==
:''Main article: [[List of curling clubs]]''
*[[Royal Caledonian Curling Club]] — [[Scotland]], the official Mother Club of curling
*[[Bemidji Curling Club]] - [[Bemidji, Minnesota]], Home of the 2006 United States Men's & Women's Olympic Curling Teams
*[[Broomstones Curling Club]] - [[Wayland, Massachusetts]]
*[http://www.calgarycurlingclub.com/ Calgary Curling Club] - [[Calgary]], [[Alberta]]
*[[Calgary Winter Club]] - [[Calgary]], [[Alberta]]
*[[Charlottetown Curling Club]] — [[Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island]]
*[[Chicago Curling Club]] — [[Chicago, Illinois]]
*[[Club de Curling Victoria]] — [[Sainte-Foy, Quebec]]
*[[Curling Club Utrecht]] — [[Utrecht, Netherlands]]
*[http://www.detroitcurlingclub.com/ Detroit Curling Club] - [[Ferndale, Michigan]]
*[[Grand National Curling Club]] - Organization in the US covering clubs on the east coast
*[[Granite Curling Club (Winnipeg)|Granite Curling Club]] - [[Winnipeg, Manitoba]]
*[[Ice Melters Curling Club]] — [[England]]
*[[Mayflower Curling Club]] — [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax, Nova Scotia]]
*[[Milwaukee Curling Club]] — [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]]
*[[Ottawa Curling Club]] — [[Ottawa, Ontario]]
*[[Port Moody Curling Club]]- Port Moody, British Columbia
*[[Ottewell Curling Club]] — [[Edmonton, Alberta]]
*[[Rideau Curling Club]] — [[Ottawa, Ontario]]
*[http://www.royalmontrealcurling.ca/ Royal Montreal Curling Club] — [[Montreal, Quebec]]
*[[Royal City Curling Club]] — [[New Westminster, British Columbia]]
*[[St. John's Curling Club]] — [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador]]
*[http://www.stpaulcurlingclub.org/ St. Paul Curling Club] — [[St. Paul, Minnesota]]
*[[Utica Curling Club]] — [[Utica, New York]]
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Curling.ogg|2005-06-16}}
==External links==
*[http://www.avery.ws/search/curling.html Learn about curling and get equipment, books and movies]
*[http://www.worldcurlingfederation.org/Curlhome/thegame/WCFRulesofPlayandCompetition.pdf World Curling Federation Rules of Play and Competition]
*[http://www.cbc.ca/olympics/sports/curling/stories/index.shtml?/story/olympics/national/2006/02/08/Sports/curling_1924medals060208.html 1924 Olympic Curling Medals Count: CBC News Feb 8, 2006]
*[http://www.curling.ca/ Canadian Curling Association]
** [http://www.curling.ca/learn_to_curl/how_to_curl/flash.asp Flash animation of basic curling shots]
** [http://www.curling.ca/fan_central/features/from_the_ntc/index.asp From the NTC]: Articles on curling from the Canadian Curling Association's National Trainin |
u has been forced to continue using its decaded old Automated Case Support system, which is considered to be woefully inadequate by [[Information Technology|IT]] experts. In [[March 2005]] the Bureau announced it is beginning a new, more ambitious software project code-named Sentinel, expected to be completed by 2009.
*In [[February 2001]], [[Robert Hanssen]] was caught selling information to the Russians. It was later learned that Hanssen, who had reached a high position within the Bureau, had been selling intelligence since as early as [[1979]]. He pleaded guilty to [[treason]] and received a [[life sentence]] in [[2002]], but the incident led many to question the security practices employed by the Bureau.
*The [[9/11 Commission]], in its final report in July 22, 2004, stated that the FBI and [[CIA]] were both partially to blame for not pursuing intelligence reports which could have prevented the [[September 11, 2001]] attacks. In its most damning assessment, the report concluded that the country had "not been well served" by either agency and listed numerous recommendations for changes within the Bureau. While the Bureau has acceded to most of the recommendations, including oversight by the new [[Director of National Intelligence]], some former members of the 9/11 Commission publicly criticized the Bureau in [[October 2005]], claiming it was resisting any meaningful changes.
==BOI and FBI directors==
===Bureau of Investigation (BOI) Directors (1908&ndash;35)===
* [[Stanley Finch]] (1908&ndash;12)
* [[A. Bruce Bielaski]] (1912&ndash;19)
* ''Acting director:'' [[William E. Allen]] (1919)
* [[William J. Flynn]] (1919&ndash;21)
* [[William J. Burns]] (1921&ndash;24)
* [[J. Edgar Hoover]] (1924&ndash;72)
===Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Directors (1936&ndash;present)===
On [[July 1]], [[1932]], the Bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation. One year later on [[July 1]], [[1933]], it was linked with the [[Bureau of Prohibition]] and became known as the '''Division of Investigation'''. Finally, in [[1935]], the bureau was renamed the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). After J. Edgar Hoover's death, the FBI imposed a policy limiting the tenure of future FBI directors to a maximum of ten years.
The FBI Directors from this period on are:
* [[J. Edgar Hoover]] (1924&ndash;72)
* ''Acting director:'' [[Clyde Tolson]] (May 2&ndash;3, 1972)
* ''Acting director:'' [[L. Patrick Gray]] (1972&ndash;3)
* ''Acting director:'' [[William Ruckelshaus|William D. Ruckelshaus]] (1973)
* [[Clarence M. Kelley]] (1973&ndash;78)
* ''Acting director:'' [[James B. Adams]] (1978)
* [[William H. Webster]] (1978&ndash;87)
* ''Acting Director:'' [[John Otto]] (1987)
* [[William S. Sessions]] (1987&ndash;93)
* ''Acting Director:'' [[Floyd I. Clarke]] (1993)
* [[Louis Freeh|Louis J. Freeh]] (1993&ndash;2001)
* ''Acting Director:'' [[Thomas J. Pickard]] (2001)
* [[Robert Mueller|Robert S. Mueller III]] (2001&ndash;present)
==Publications of the FBI==
* ''[[Uniform Crime Reports]]''
==Trivia==
*In [[2009 Lost Memories]], the JBI (Japanese Bureau of Investigation) was heavily modeled on the American FBI, retaining its structure.
== Further reading ==
=== Books ===
*David Burnham, ''Above the Law: Secret Deals, Political Fixes, and Other Misadventures of the U.S. Department of Justice'', Scribner, ISBN 0-684-80699-1, LoC KF5107.B87 1996
*[[Ward Churchill]] and Jim Vander Wall, ''Agents of Repression, Updated Edition, The FBI's Secret Wars Against the [[Black Panther Party]] and the [[American Indian Movement]]'', Boston: Southend Press 2002
*Frank J. Donner, ''The Age of [[Surveillance]]: The Aims and Methods of America's Political Intelligence System'', Vintage, ISBN 0-194-74771-2, LoC JK468.I6D65 1981
*[[Ronald Kessler]], ''The FBI'', Pocket Books, 1993, ISBN 0-671-78658-X.
*Ronald Kessler, ''The Bureau: The Secret History of the FBI'', St. Martin's Press 2002 ISBN 0-312-30402-1
*Athan G. Theohris, ''The FBI and American Democracy: A Brief Critical History'', University Press of Kansas 2004
*Watters and Gillers (eds), ''Investigating the FBI'', Ballentine, 1973, ISBN 345-23831-1-195
=== World Wide Web sites ===
* [http://www.zpub.com/notes/znote-fbi.html The FBI ...Past, Present & Future]
* [http://historyisaweapon.com/defcon1/zinnfbi.html Federal Bureau of Intimidation by Howard Zinn]
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/sleeper/fbi/gamal.html "Fixing the FBI: The Story of Gamal Abdel-Hafiz: Former Agent in the FBI's International Terrorism Squad", by Marlena Telvick PBS FRONTLINE October 16, 2003.]
===Related resources===
*[[Carnivore (FBI)|Carnivore]]
*[[COINTELPRO]]
*[[Critical Incident Response Group]]
*[[FBI Counterterrorism Division]]
*[[FBI Most Wanted Terrorists]]
*[[FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives]]
*[[Fred Hampton]]
*[[Hostage Rescue Team]]
*[[Infragard]] Alliance Program
*[[Joseph L. Gormley]]
*[[List of FBI Field Offices]]
*[[National Security Service (United States)|National Security Service]]
*[[Special Intelligence Service]] (SIS)
*[[State Bureau of Investigation]]
*[[THERMCON]]
*[[W. Mark Felt]]
==See also==
* [[RCMP]]
* [[People's Armed Police|PAP-China]]
* [[Scotland Yard]]
* [[Federal Agency of Investigation (Mexico)]]
==External links==
{{commons|Federal Bureau of Investigation}}
* [http://www.fbi.gov Official FBI website]
** [http://www.fbi.gov/mostwant/topten/fugitives/fugitives.htm Official FBI ten most wanted list]
** [http://www.fbi.gov/mostwant/topten/tenfaq.htm Frequently Asked Questions] This has been used as a source.
** [http://www.fbi.gov/mostwant/topten/topten.pdf History of the Top Ten List]
** [http://www.fbi.gov/fbihistory.htm The history of FBI]
** [http://foia.fbi.gov/ FBI Disclosures under Freedom of Information Act]
** [http://www.fbijobs.gov/ Official FBI recruiting]
* [http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fbi/index.html Federal Bureau of Investigation] at fas.org
[[Category:Federal Bureau of Investigation| ]]
[[ar:مكتب التحقيقات الفيدرالي]]
[[bg:Федерално бюро за разследване]]
[[zh-min-nan:Liân-pang Tiāu-châ-kio̍k]]
[[ca:FBI]]
[[da:FBI]]
[[de:FBI]]
[[et:FBI]]
[[el:FBI]]
[[es:FBI]]
[[eo:Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
[[fr:Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
[[ko:미국 연방 수사국]]
[[id:FBI]]
[[it:Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
[[he:FBI]]
[[hu:Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
[[nl:Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
[[ja:連邦捜査局]]
[[no:Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
[[pl:FBI]]
[[pt:Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
[[ru:Федеральное бюро расследований]]
[[sl:Zvezni preiskovalni urad]]
[[fi:FBI]]
[[sv:FBI]]
[[vi:FBI]]
[[zh:联邦调查局]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Flamsteed designation</title>
<id>11129</id>
<revision>
<id>36310748</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-23T03:49:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.25.218.174</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Flamsteed designations''' for [[star|stars]] are similar to [[Bayer designation|Bayer designations]], except that they use numbers instead of Greek letters. Each star is assigned a number and the Latin [[genitive]] of the [[constellation]] it lies in (see [[List of constellations]] for a list of constellations and the genitive forms of their names).
The numbers were originally assigned in order of increasing [[right ascension]] within each [[constellation]], but due to the effects of [[precession]] they are now slightly out of order in some places. This method of designating stars first appeared in a preliminary version of [[John Flamsteed]]'s ''Historia coelestis Britannica'' which was published by [[Edmond Halley]] and [[Isaac Newton]] in [[1712]] without Flamsteed's approval. The final version of Flamsteed's catalogue published in [[1725]] after his death omitted any number designations altogether.
The designations gained popularity throughout the eighteenth century, and are now commonly used when no Bayer designation exists; however, where a Bayer designation does exist for a star it is used almost exclusively and the Flamsteed designation is almost never used. Examples of well-known stars which are usually referred to by their Flamsteed numbers include [[51 Pegasi]] (see [[Extrasolar planet]]), and [[61 Cygni]] (see [[Parallax]]).
There are examples of stars bearing Flamsteed designations for constellations in which they do not lie, just as there are for Bayer designations, because of the compromises that had to be made when the modern constellation boundaries were drawn up. It should also be noted that Flamsteed's catalogue covered only the stars visible from [[Great Britain]], and therefore stars of the far southern constellations have no Flamsteed numbers. (Two exceptions are the globular cluster [[47 Tucanae]] and the nearby star [[82 Eridani]].)
Some entries in Flamsteed's catalog are errors: for instance, Flamsteed observed [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]] in [[1690]] but did not recognized it as a [[planet]] and it entered his catalog as "34 Tauri".
===See also===
* [[star designation]]
* [[:Category:Flamsteed objects|Flamsteed objects]]
* [[List of constellations]]
[[Category:Astronomical catalogues]]
[[ca:Nomenclatura de Flamsteed]]
[[de:Flamsteed-Bezeichnung]]
[[fr:Désignation de Flamsteed]]
[[it:Nomenclatura di Flamsteed]]
[[sk:Flamsteedovo označenie]]
[[fi:Flamsteedin designaatio]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Top priorities</title>
<id>11130</id>
<revision>
<id>19583657</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-25T17:02:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jnc</username>
<id>18024</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Page now retrieved to Wikipedia:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from P |
Canada]] were [[United Empire Loyalists]] who fled the [[American Revolution]]. The first recorded dentist in Canada was a Mr. Hume who advertised in a [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]] newspaper in [[1814]].
During the first half of the 19th century, dentistry expanded rapidly. In [[1867]] the [[Ontario Dental Association]] was formed and in [[1868]] they founded Canada's first dental school in [[Toronto]], the [[Royal College of Dental Surgeons of Ontario]]. The [[University of Toronto]] agreed to be affiliated with the dental school. As time passed, other Canadian universities also created dentistry programmes.
Visit [http://www.jobfutures.ca Job Futures.ca] for info on dentistry & similar careers.
Predental students should visit [http://www.dentalschooladmission.com Dental School Admission Guide] for information on successfully applying to dental school.
====Canadian dentistry schools====
*[[University of Toronto]] ([[1868]])
*[[McGill University]] ([[1905]])
*[[Université de Montréal]] ([[1905]])
*[[Dalhousie University]] ([[1908]])
*[[University of Alberta]] ([[1923]])
*[[University of Manitoba]] ([[1958]])
*[[University of British Columbia]] ([[1964]])
*[[University of Western Ontario]] ([[1966]])
*[[University of Saskatchewan]] ([[1968]])
*[[Université Laval]] ([[1971]])
===Dentistry in Chile===
Universidad de Concepcion (University of Concepcion) was the first university in exist this profession in 1919. Other important university is Universidad de Chile (University of Chile)
===Dentistry in Hong Kong===
The longest record for such ongoing and routine training and qualifying requirement for dental specialties in the world exists in [[Hong Kong]] where 5 years of pre-specialty, formal training and supervised practice are prescribed. It is accepted that only after 5 years of such training would the trainees achieve a superior level of professional competence.
===Dentistry in India===
Modern Indian dentists must earn the Bachelor of Dental Surgery degree (B.D.S.), which requires four years of study and one year of internship. This degree is overseen by the Dental Council of India. In most states, one has to appear for an entrance test conducted by the Directorate of Medical Education, whereas some autonomous universities conduct their own entrance tests.Post graduate courses (Master of Dental Surgery. MDS) are also available in different specialities.It requires 3 years of study after BDS.
===Dentistry in Malaysia===
In [[Malaysia]], there are 3 universities currently offering dentistry course. The universities are [[Universiti Malaya]], [[Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia]] and [[Universiti Sains Malaysia]], although many other Malaysian universities are showing interest in offering undergraduate course in dentistry in the future.
Dentists trained in Malaysia have to complete 5 years of undergraduate study (previously 4 years) before earning a B.D.S (Universiti Malaya) or a D.D.S (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia/Universiti Sains Malaysia). Undergraduates in Malaysia are required to spend the first 2 years in pre-clinical lectures and the next 3 years they are required to do clinical sessions as well as attending lectures.
Once graduated from the course, Malaysian dentists are required to serve the Malaysian Government for 3 years compulsory service, regardless where they completed their undergraduate study. They can choose to work under Kementerian Kesihatan (Ministry of Health) or Kementerian Pertahanan (Ministry of Defence) as a military dentist.
====Malaysian dentistry schools====
*[[Universiti Malaya]] ([[1972]])
*[[Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia]] ([[1997]])
*[[Universiti Sains Malaysia]] ([[1999]])
===Dentistry in Pakistan===
At present there are upwards of 20 dental schools (public & private) throughout Pakistan, according to the [http://www.pmdc.org.pk/ Pakistan Medical & Dental Council] the state regulatory body has upwards of 6200 registered dentists. The four year training culminates in achieveing a ''Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS)'' degree, which also requires a one year compulsary interneship to be a registered dentist in Pakistan.
===Dentistry in Slovakia===
In [[Slovakia]], dentists complete 6 years of undergraduate study to earn a MUDr (lat. ''Medicinae Universae Doctor'') degree. Junior graduates work under a skilled doctor for at least 3 years to receive their license from [[The Slovak Chamber of Dentists]].
===Dentistry in the United Kingdom===
In the [[United Kingdom]], dentists complete 5 years of undergraduate study to earn a B.D.S. degree. After graduating most dentists will enter a V.T. (vocational training) scheme, of either 1 or 2 years length, to receive their full [[National Health Service]] registration. Dentists must register with the G.D.C. ([http://www.gdc-uk.org General Dental Council]), and meet their requirements as the governing body of the profession, before being allowed to practice.
===Dentistry in the United States===
In the [[United States]], dentists earn either a D.D.S. ([[Doctor of Dental Surgery]]) or D.M.D.([[Doctor of Dental Medicine]]) degree. There are 56 Accredited Dental schools in the United States requiring 4 years of post graduate study (except for one unique 3 year program at the University of the Pacific)[http://www.ada.org/prof/ed/programs/search_ddsdmd_us.asp]. Most applicants to dental school have attained at least a B.S. or B.A. degree, however, a small percentage are admitted after only fulfilling specific prerequisite courses. So unlike many other countries, it can take more then 8 years to become a dentist. ([[List of dental schools in the United States]]) The degrees D.D.S. and D.M.D. require equivalent education and are identical in every way. The difference relates to the history involved in the division of medicine and surgery in medical practice. There has been a recent movement to include a 5th year of education that focuses on purely practical training in the clinical setting. In at least one state, a state dental license can be received without taking the licensing exam (State Board Exam) upon completing this additional year of training.
Dentists are licensed and regulated by the state in which they practice. The license is only valid in the issuing state and is non-transferable. There are many cooperative agreements between states that allow recognition of another state's license so as to procure a license either via "licensure by credentials" or "licensure by reciprocity."
A dentist may go on for further training in a dental specialty which require an additional 1 to 7 years of post-doctoral training. There are 9 recognized dental specialties. They are Endodontics(root canal treatment), Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology, Pediatric Dentistry, Periodontics(gums), Prosthodontics(complicated dental reconstruction), Orthodontics(braces), Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery(tooth removal and surgery of the oral and related structures), and Dental Public Health. There is no specialty in esthetic dentistry or implantology, and no additional training is required for a dentist to make the claim of being an esthetic or cosmetic dentist.
Any general dentist may perform those procedures designated within the enumerated specialties if they deem themselves competent. Many general dentists train in certain aspects of the above specialties such as the placement and restoration of dental implants, advanced prosthodontics and endodontics, and have limited or heavily focused their practices to these areas. When a general dentist performs any procedure that falls within the realm of a specialty, they are expected to perform with the same level of expertise as a certified specialist and are legally held to such standards with respect to any issues of malpractice.
===Dentistry in Italy===
In [[Italy]] dentists complete 5 years of undergraduate study to earn a degree. Nevertheless it is possible to agree on certain [[basic clinical competences]] common to all member states of the [[European Union]].
The following is an example of one such clinical competency ([[excision of a buried tooth root]]): If a clinician is deemed to be clinically competent in the surgercal removal of a buried root, this implies much more than the technical and surgical ability required to excise a buried piece of [[root]] from [[alveolus]]. It embraces a broad range of preclinical and [[clinical knowledge]] and understanding on which [[surgical treatment]] is based.
====Italian dentistry schools====
*[[University of Bologna]]([[1088]])
==Related dental topics==
[[Image:ToothSection.jpg|thumb|250px|Cross section of a tooth]]
*[[:Category:Dentistry]]
*[[bruxism]]
*[[calculus (dental)|calculus]]
*[[ceramic]]s
*[[crown (dentistry)|crown]]
*[[dental fillings |dental amalgam]]
*[[dental brace]]
*[[dental cavities]]
*[[extraction (dental)|dental extraction]]
*[[dental restoration]]
*[[floss]]
*[[fluoridation]]
*[[gingivitis]]
*[[halitosis]]
*[[dental implants]]
*[[laboratory technology]]
*[[mouthwash]]
*[[Novocain]], a [[local anesthetic]]
*[[occlusion]]
*[[Saint Apollonia|Patron Saint of dentistry (Saint Apollonia)]]
*[[periodontitis]]
*[[Dental plaque|plaque]]
*[[plaque remover]]
*[[stem cell#regenerative dentistry|regenerative dentistry]]
*[[teledentistry]]
*[[temporomandibular joint disease]]
*[[tooth]]
*[[toothbrush]]
*[[toothpaste]]
*[[waterpik]]
*[[xerostomia]]
==Organizations==
*[http://ada.org American Dental Association]
*[http://www.aacd.com/ American Academy of Cosmetic Dentistry]
*[http://www.agd.org/ Academy of General Dentistry]
*[http://www.aaoms.org/ American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons]
*[[American Association of Orthodontists]]
*[http://www.prosthodontics.org/ American College of Prosthodonists]
*[[British Dental Association]] [http://www.bda-dentistry.org.uk]
*[http://www.dentalhealth.org.uk/ British Dental Health Foundation |
ts at Kent State at the time the [[United States National Guard|National Guard]] [[Kent State shootings|shot and killed four students]] at a protest against the U.S. invasion of [[Cambodia]]--the "pivotal moment" in their founding, according to Casale.
It's sometimes maintained that the inspiration for the band's name and underlying philosophy came from [[Oscar Kiss Maerth]]'s "The Beginning Was the End", a [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] [[anthropology|anthropological]] thesis that attributes the rise of man to an [[evolution]]ary accident caused by a species of [[sex]]-crazed, [[cannibal]]istic [[ape]]s who developed tools to exploit each other sexually and feed on each others' brains. (''See [[Devolution (fallacy)]]''.) However, Casale and Lewis developed their own quack theories of regression and simplification long before actually finding a copy of Maerth's work, and their use of [[reductio ad absurdum]] as [[metaphor]] is carried throughout Devo's work as a commentary on modern [[society]].
Only [[Mark Mothersbaugh]], the band's [[lead singer]] and [[synthesizer]] player, and Gerald V. (Gerry) Casale, the group's [[bassist]] have been members of Devo since its inception. The first lineup included [[Gerald Casale]] (bass), [[Mark Mothersbaugh]] (keyboards), [[Bob Lewis (musician)|Bob Lewis]] (lead guitar), [[Bob Casale]] (rhythm guitar), [[Rod Reisman]] (drums) and [[Fred Weber]] (vocals). Later versions of the band added [[Bob Mothersbaugh]] (lead guitar) and [[Jim Mothersbaugh]] (drums). In 1978, Lewis successfully sued the band for theft of intellectual property.
Devo's big break came in [[1976 in music|1976]] when their short film ''The Truth About De-Evolution'' won a prize at the [[Ann Arbor Film Festival]]; it was then seen by [[David Bowie]] and [[Iggy Pop]], who championed them and enabled Devo to secure a recording contract with [[Warner Brothers Records]]. By this time [[Alan Myers]] had replaced Jim Mothersbaugh as drummer. After David Bowie backed out due to previous commitments, their first album, ''[[Are We Not Men We Are Devo!|Q: Are We Not Men? A: We Are Devo!]]'' was produced by [[Brian Eno]] and featured a radical [[cover version|cover]] of [[the Rolling Stones]]' "[[(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction]]" and the controversially titled "[[Mongoloid (song)|Mongoloid]]".
Although they started out with a mixture of traditional rock instruments and electronic effects, during the early [[1980s]] Devo adopted mostly or entirely synthetic instrumentation, becoming one of the first American acts to perform on stage using only synthesizers; they were also one of the first groups in the world to regularly use radio [[microphone]]s and microphone headsets on stage.
Devo actively embraces the [[Church of the SubGenius]], a parody religious cult. In concert, Devo sometimes performed as their own [[opening band|opening act]], pretending to be a [[Christian rock|Christian soft-rock]] group called "Dove (the Band of Love)". They also recorded "[[easy listening|E-Z Listening]] [[Muzak]]" versions of their own songs to play before their concerts. In [[1982]], they appeared in the [[Neil Young]] film ''[[Human Highway]]''.
Devo remained popular in many countries—for instance, they had a large and loyal following in [[Australia]]. The nationally broadcast [[1970s|'70s]]-[[1980s|'80s]] pop TV show ''[[Countdown]]'' there was one of the first programs in the world to broadcast their video clips, and they were given consistent radio support by [[Sydney]]-based non-commercial rock station [[Double Jay]] (2JJ), which was one of the first rock stations outside America to play their recordings. The late night music programme ''Nightmoves'' provided a showing of ''The Truth About De-Evolution''.
During the 1980s, Devo produced the albums ''[[New Traditionalists]]'' (1981), ''[[Oh, No! It's Devo]]'' (1982), ''[[Shout (Devo album)|Shout]]'' (1984), and ''[[Total Devo]]'' (1988). After the release of ''[[Smooth Noodle Maps]]'' in [[1990]], the band stopped recording and full scale touring, although it has been revived on several occasions for one-off performances and short [[music tour|tours]]. In [[2001]], members of Devo formed the [[surf music|surf]] band The Wipeouters, describing it as a reunion of the first [[garage band]] they started while in their early teens.
Mark Mothersbaugh has gone on to considerable success [[songwriter|writing]] and producing music for [[television]] programs (starting with ''[[Pee Wee's Playhouse]]'' and perhaps most famously with ''[[Rugrats]]''), [[Computer and video games|video games]], [[cartoon]]s and movies (notably working alongside director [[Wes Anderson]]). In 1985, he released an elaborately packaged solo [[audio cassette|cassette]], ''Musik for Insomniaks,'' which was later expanded and released as two [[CD]]s. His company, [[Mutato Muzika]], provides employment for Devo guitarists Bob Mothersbaugh and Bob Casale: The former works as a [[composer]], and the latter as a [[recording engineer]]. Gerry Casale has directed rock videos by other bands, including [[Rush (band)|Rush]] and [[Foo Fighters]]. Recently Devo recorded a new version of "Whip It" to be used in [[Swiffer]] television commercials, a decision they have said they regret.
==Devo 2.0==
The band is currently working on a project with [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] known as [[Devo 2.0]]. Details are scarce, but it seems that a band of child actors (among them [[Nathan Norman]] [http://www.nathannorman.net/pages/news.htm]) has been assembled and will be either re-recording Devo songs or pretending to play them. A quote from the [http://www.ohio.com/mld/beaconjournal/living/12412576.htm Akron Beacon Journal] elucidates, "Also Devo recently finished a new project in cahoots with Disney called Devo 2.0, which features the band playing old songs and two new ones with vocals provided by children. Mothersbaugh doesn't rule out the idea of the band gathering in the studio, eventually, to record a new Devo album." For more information, see: [http://disney.go.com/disneyrecords/Song-Albums/devo20/].
==Style and Influence==
Devo is probably as well known for their image as for their music, donning uniforms that mocked industrial [[culture]] and pop [[consumerism]], such as the yellow chemical-protection suits during the early ''Q: Are We Not Men?'' period, matching [[John F. Kennedy|JFK-esque]] plastic hairpieces, masks and the signature "flower pot" hats ([[energy dome]]s) for ''[[Freedom of Choice]]''--which were intended (according to the band) to channel their sexual energy into their voices (and famously worn on their now-legendary ''SNL'' appearance).
Mark Mothersbaugh also donned a baby [[mask]] to create his famous alter-ego, [[Booji Boy]] (pronounced "Boogie Boy"), said by some to symbolize the infantile regression that Devo saw in American culture. The character featured in many stage performances and video clips, as did Booji Boy's father, General Boy (played by Mothersbaugh's father [[Robert Mothersbaugh]]), who satirised American authority figures. For their performance at the 1996 [[Sundance Festival]], they wore black-and-white-striped prisoners' uniforms. In their more recent shows, they have returned to the hazmat outfits and energy domes of their earliest days.
Devo were pioneers of the [[music video]], thanks in part to their frequent early collaborator, director [[Chuck Statler]]. The video for "Whip It" became an early staple of [[MTV]], and their many promotional films and video clips are important landmarks in the development of this genre. They also pioneered the use of long-form [[promotion]]al [[video cassette]]s with releases such as ''[[The Complete Truth About De-Evolution|The Truth About De-Evolution]]'' and ''The Men Who Make The Music'', which mixed self-produced conceptual video clips with live performance footage and mock-[[Documentary film|documentary]] segments. Devo created and directed many of their own videos, and the band has cited the video for the song "Beautiful World" as their favorite example of their video work. The video for [["Weird Al" Yankovic]]'s Devo tribute song, "Dare to be Stupid", consists of elements inspired by, and directly parodying, various Devo videos.
Some hear influences from [[Krautrock]] in Devo's music, such as [[Neu!]], [[Can (band)|Can]] and the [[record producer|production]] work of [[Conny Plank]]. Other influences are said to include American rock [[iconoclast]]s [[Frank Zappa]], [[Captain Beefheart]], and [[the Residents]]. Gerald Casale was strongly influenced by American [[blues]] music. Devo were one of the first American groups to use the services of noted [[United Kingdom|British]] producer, musician and artist [[Brian Eno]], who produced several landmark New Wave music groups including [[Talking Heads]] and [[Ultravox]].
In the liner notes of their "Greatest Hits" album, there is a transcript of a late '70s interview in which the band describes their music as "[[industrial music|industrial]]", underscoring the [[dehumanization]] (devolution) of their art. (In this context, the term predates the posthumous application of the label to '70s avant-garde [[noise rock|noise bands]] such as [[Throbbing Gristle]].) Their extensive mechanization of popular music through [[Synthesizer|synthesizers]] helped to inspire the more modern industrial pop acts of the late 1980s and early 1990s.
== Line Up ==
'''Classic line-up'''
Devo's line up during their most commercially successful period (1976-1985) was:
*Mark Mothersbaugh: lead vocals, keyboards/synthesizers, occasional guitar
*Gerald (Jerry) Casale: lead vocals, bass guitar, synthesizers
*Robert Mothersbaugh ("Bob 1"): lead guitar, vocals
*Robert Casale ("Bob 2"): rhythm guitar, synthes |
otential growth industries.
Farming is mainly subsistence, and its importance is declining. The principal crops are coconuts, bananas, betel nuts, cassava, and sweet potatoes. Less than 10% of the formal labor force and less than 7% of export revenue come from the agriculture sector. Manufacturing activity is modest, consisting mainly of a garment factory in Yap and production of buttons from trochus shells.
The large inflow of official assistance to FSM allows it to run a substantial trade deficit and to have a much lighter tax burden than other states in the region (11% of GDP in FSM compared to 18%-25% elsewhere). The government also borrowed against future Compact disbursements in the early 1990s, yielding an external debt of $111 million in 1997 (over 50% of GDP).
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $240 million (1997 est.)
<br>''note:''
GDP is supplemented by grant aid, averaging perhaps $100 million annually
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
3% (1997 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $2,000 (1997 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
19%
<br>''industry:''
4%
<br>''services:''
77% (1996 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br>''highest 10%:''
NA%
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
4% (1996 est.)
'''Labor force:'''
NA
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
two-thirds are government employees
'''Unemployment rate:'''
27% (1989)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$58 million
<br>''expenditures:''
$52 million, including capital expenditures of $4.7 million (FY95/96 est.)
'''Industries:'''
tourism, construction, fish processing, craft items from shell, wood, and pearls
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%
'''Electricity - production:'''
NA kWh
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
NA%
<br>''hydro:''
NA%
<br>''nuclear:''
NA%
<br>''other:''
NA%
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
NA kWh
'''Electricity - exports:'''
NA kWh
'''Electricity - imports:'''
NA kWh
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[black pepper]], tropical fruits and vegetables, [[coconut]]s, [[cassava]] ([[tapioca]]), [[sweet potato]]es; [[pig]]s, [[chicken]]s
'''Exports:'''
$73 million (f.o.b., 1996 est.)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
fish, garments, [[banana]]s, [[black pepper]]
'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Japan]], [[United States]], [[Guam]]
'''Imports:'''
$168 million (c.i.f., 1996 est.)
'''Imports - commodities:'''
food, manufactured goods, machinery and equipment, beverages
'''Imports - partners:'''
US, Japan, Australia
'''Debt - external:'''
$111 million (1997 est.)
'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$79 million (1998); note - under terms of the Compact of Free Association, the US will provide $1.3 billion in grant aid during the period 1986-2001
'''Currency:'''
1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
'''Exchange rates:'''
US currency is used
'''Fiscal year:'''
[[1 October]] - [[30 September]]
[[es:Economía de los Estados Federados de Micronesia]]
[[Category:Federated States of Micronesia]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Micronesia Federated States of]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in the Federated States of Micronesia</title>
<id>11499</id>
<revision>
<id>15909243</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-12T22:19:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[Category:Federated States of Micronesia]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
8,000 (1995)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
NA
'''Telephone system:'''
<br>''domestic:''
islands interconnected by shortwave radiotelephone (used mostly for government purposes)
<br>''international:''
[[satellite]] earth stations - 4 [[Intelsat]] ([[Pacific Ocean]])
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 5, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
NA
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
2 (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
NA
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
Internet service provided by Government owned telecom company [http://www.fm/]
'''[[Country code]]:''' FM
:''See also :'' [[Federated States of Micronesia]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Federated States of Micronesia]]
[[Category:Federated States of Micronesia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Federated States of Micronesia/Transport</title>
<id>11500</id>
<revision>
<id>39213738</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T15:34:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
<id>477460</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: Fixing double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transport in the Federated States of Micronesia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in the Federated States of Micronesia</title>
<id>11501</id>
<revision>
<id>39078623</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T15:51:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Transportation in the Federated States of Micronesia]] to [[Transport in the Federated States of Micronesia]]: In line with similar articles</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''[[Railway]]s:'''
0 km
'''[[Highway]]s:'''
<br>''total:''
240 km
<br>''paved:''
42 km
<br>''unpaved:''
198 km (1996 est.)
'''Ports and [[harbor]]s:'''
[[Colonia]] (Yap), [[Kolonia]] ([[Pohnpei]]), [[Lele]], [[Moen]]
'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
none (1999 est.)
'''[[Airport]]s:'''
6 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
5
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
4
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (1999 est.)
:''See also :'' [[Federated States of Micronesia]]
{{Oceania in topic|Transport in}}
[[Category:Federated States of Micronesia]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Federated States of Micronesia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of the Federated States of Micronesia</title>
<id>11502</id>
<revision>
<id>33312755</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-30T23:41:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Quasipalm</username>
<id>199342</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[Federated States of Micronesia]] (FSM) is a sovereign, self-governing state in free association with the [[United States]], which is wholly responsible for its defense.
==See also==
* [[Military of the United States]]
* [[List of countries without an army]]
{{Oceania-stub}}
{{mil-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of the Federated States of Micronesia</title>
<id>11503</id>
<revision>
<id>15909247</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-21T22:24:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ryanaxp</username>
<id>51906</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removed sentence about support of Israel being "nonintuitive"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The Government of the [[Federated States of Micronesia]] (FSM) conducts its own foreign relations.
Since independence, the FSM has established diplomatic relations with a number of nations, including most of its Pacific neighbors.
Regional cooperation through various multilateral organizations is a key element in its foreign policy.
The FSM became a member of the [[United Nations]] in [[1991]].
The Governments of the FSM and the U.S. signed the final version of the [[Compact of Free Association]] on [[October 1]], 1982.
The Compact went into effect on [[November 3]], 1986, and the FSM became a sovereign nation in free association with the United States.
Under the Compact, the U.S. has full authority and responsibility for the defense of the FSM.
This security relationship can be changed or terminated by mutual agreement.
The Compact provides U.S. grant funds and federal program assistance to the FSM.
The basic relationship of free association continues indefinitely, but certain economic and defense provisions of the Compact expire in 2001, subject to renegotiation.
Negotiations on extending the Compact began in November 1999.
A notable aspect of Micronesian foreign relations is that it is one of the most consistent supporters of [[Israel]] (along with the [[United States]]) in international affairs.
'''Disputes - international:'''
none
:''See also :'' [[Federated States of Micronesia]]
[[Category:Federated States of Micronesia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fandom</title>
<id>11504</id>
<revision>
<id>41848741</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T03:19:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marcg106</username>
<id>194738</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Fandom''' (from the noun ''fan'' and the affix ''-dom'', as in ''kingdom'', ''dukedom'', etc.) refers to a community of keen [[aficionado]]s who share a common interest in any phenomenon, such as [[author]]s, [[hobby|hobbies]], [[genre]]s or [[fashion]]s. Fandom as a term can also be used to refer to the single interconnected network of these individual fandoms, many of which overlap. While the term is applied to social networks surrounding many [[novelty]] interests, it has its roots in appreciation for [[science fiction]].
[[Fan (aficionado)|Fan]]s (or the plural ''fen'') typically are interested in even minor details of the object of their fandom; this is what differentiates them from those with only casual interest.
The objects of a fand |
abic language|Mozarabic]], when the Moors ruled Spain (and later [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] proper; see [[aljamiado]]);
* [[Nubian languages|Nubian]];
* [[Polish language|Polish]] (among ethnic [[Tatars]]);
* [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] has also been written in Arabic script, though it is more well known as using [[Devanagari]] - the script also known for being currently used for writing the [[Hindi language]].
* [[Swahili language|Swahili]];
* [[Somali language|Somali]] (has used the [[Latin alphabet]] since 1972);
* [[Songhay languages|Songhay]] in West Africa, particularly in [[Timbuktu]];
* [[Tatar language|Tatar]] ([[iske imlâ]]) before 1928 (changed to Latin), reformed in 1880's, 1918 (deletion of some letters);
* [[Turkish language|Turkish]] in the [[Ottoman Empire]] was written in Arabic script until [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] declared the change to [[Roman script]] in 1928. This form of Turkish is now known as [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] and is held by many to be a different language, due to its much higher percentage of Persian and Arabic [[loanword]]s;
* [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]] in [[Turkmenistan]];
* [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] in [[Uzbekistan]];
* All the Muslim peoples of the [[USSR]] between 1918-1928 (many also earlier), including [[Bashkir language|Bashkir]], [[Chechen language|Chechen]], [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], [[Tajik language|Tajik]] etc. After 1928 their script became Latin, then later Cyrillic.
== Computers and the Arabic alphabet ==
The Arabic alphabet can be encoded using several [[character set]]s, including [[ISO-8859-6]] and [[Unicode]], in the latter thanks to the "Arabic segment", entries U+0600 to U+06FF. However, neither of these sets indicate the form each character should take in context. It is left to the [[rendering engine]] to select the proper [[glyph]] to display for each character.
When one wants to encode a particular written form of a character, there are extra code points provided in Unicode which can be used to express the exact written form desired. The ''Arabic presentation forms A'' (U+FB50 to U+FDFF) and ''Arabic presentation forms B'' (U+FE70 to U+FEFF) contain most of the characters with contextual variation as well as the extended characters appropriate for other languages. These effects are better achieved in Unicode by using the ''zero width joiner'' and ''non-joiner'', as these presentation forms are deprecated in Unicode, and should generally only be used within the internals of text-rendering software, when using Unicode as an intermediate form for conversion between character encodings, or for backwards compatibility with implementations that rely on the hard-coding of glyph forms.
Finally, the Unicode encoding of Arabic is in ''logical order'', that is, the characters are entered, and stored in computer memory, in the order that they are written and pronounced without worrying about the direction in which they will be displayed on paper or on the screen. Again, it is left to the rendering engine to present the characters in the correct direction, using Unicode's [[bi-directional text]] features. In this regard, if the Arabic words on this page are written left to right, it is an indication that the Unicode rendering engine used to display them is out-of-date. For more information about encoding Arabic, consult the Unicode manual available at http://www.unicode.org/
*[http://www.nclrc.org/readings/inst-arabic3.pdf Multilingual Computing in Arabic with Windows, major word processors, web browsers, Arabic keyboards, and Arabic transliteration fonts]
===Arabic keyboard layout===
[[Image:Microsoft_Arabic_Keyboards_Madhany.png|frame|none|]]
{{Arabic alphabet}}
== See also ==
*[[Arabic calligraphy]] - considered an art form in its own right
*[[Hindu-Arabic numerals]]
*[[Arabic transliteration]]
*[[Arabic Chat Alphabet]]
*[[ArabTeX]] - provides Arabic support for [[TeX]] and [[LaTeX]]
*[[Harakat]]
*[[Jawi]] - an adapted Arabic alphabet for the [[Malay language]]
*[[South Arabian alphabet]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.declan-software.com/arabic/ Declan Software's] Arabic alphabet learning software with audio and animations
* [http://www.lexilogos.com/clavier/araby.htm online Arabic Keyboard]
* [http://www.nicoweb.com/sirpus/learn%20arabic%20course%20mp3.htm Arabic Writing and Reading never been Easier with MP3]
* [http://www.al-bab.com/arab/visual/calligraphy.htm Arab writing and calligraphy]
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/arabic.htm Article about Arabic alphabet]
* [http://www.islamicart.com/main/calligraphy/ Arabic alphabet and calligraphy]
* [http://members.aol.com/OlivThill/ aralpha (freeware) to learn the characters]
* [http://www.uga.edu/islam/arabic_windows.html Guide to the use of Arabic in Windows, major word processors and web browsers]
* [http://www.theiling.de/schrift/#arabic Learn the Arabic Script Online]
----------------
''This article contains major sections of text from the very detailed article [[Arabic alphabet/from the French Wikipedia]], which has been partially translated into English. Further translation of that page, and its incorporation into the text here, are welcomed.''
[[Category:Abjad writing systems]]
[[Category:Arabic alphabet| ]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
{{Link FA|sl}}
[[ar:أبجدية عربية]]
[[ast:Alfabetu árabe]]
[[ca:Alfabet àrab]]
[[cs:Arabské písmo]]
[[cy:Yr wyddor Arabeg]]
[[de:Arabisches Alphabet]]
[[als:Arabisches Alphabet]]
[[es:Alfabeto árabe]]
[[eo:Araba alfabeto]]
[[fa:خط عربی]]
[[fr:Alphabet arabe]]
[[gl:Alfabeto árabe]]
[[he:אלפבית ערבי]]
[[hu:Arab írás]]
[[nl:Arabisch alfabet]]
[[ja:アラビア文字]]
[[no:Arabisk alfabet]]
[[nn:Det arabiske alfabetet]]
[[pl:Alfabet arabski]]
[[pt:Alfabeto árabe]]
[[ro:Alfabetul arab]]
[[ru:Арабский алфавит]]
[[sl:Arabska abeceda]]
[[sv:Arabiska alfabetet]]
[[tt:Ğäräp älifbası]]
[[zh:阿拉伯字母]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Al-Jazeerah</title>
<id>2205</id>
<revision>
<id>15900637</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-30T11:38:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Utcursch</username>
<id>54809</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>turned duplicate page into redirection</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Al Jazeerah]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ampage</title>
<id>2206</id>
<revision>
<id>15900638</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-03T14:21:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.253.40.53</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Ampere]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ampere]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Angels in art</title>
<id>2207</id>
<revision>
<id>32703973</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-25T20:30:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marudubshinki</username>
<id>190816</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted redirection bypass from [[D.N. Angel]] to [[D.N.Angel]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[angel|Angels]] have appeared in works of [[art]] for millennia.
Angel-shaped beings appear in ancient [[Mesopotamian]] and [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] art and were probably the inspiration for the popular [[Christianity|Christian]] image of angels.
Angels remained a popular subject for [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[European]] paintings and sculpture.
Several famous examples are:
* ''The Ecstasy of [[Teresa of Avila|S. Teresa di Avila]]'' by [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini|Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini]] (http://www.boglewood.com/cornaro/xteresa.html)
* ''The Annunciation'' by [[Leonardo da Vinci]] (http://www.lairweb.org.nz/leonardo/annunciation.html)
Angels have also become an intregal part of [[Anime]] culture, particularly in [[fan art]] and [[web comics]].
==Contemporary works of art with angels:==
===Books===
*''[[Good Omens]]''
*''[[His dark materials]]''
===Anime and Manga===
*''[[Angel Sanctuary]]''
*''[[D.N.Angel|D.N. Angel]]''
*''[[Haibane Renmei]]''
*''[[Megatokyo]]''
*''[[Neon Genesis Evangelion]]''
*''[[Oh My Goddess!]]''
*''[[Tenshi ni Narumon]]''
*''[[The Vision of Escaflowne]]''
===Movies===
*''[[Aniol w Krakowie]]''
*''[[Barbarella]]''
*''[[Dogma (movie)|Dogma]]''
*''[[Wings of Desire]]''
*''[[City of angels]]'' (an American remake of ''Wings of Desire'')
===TV Series===
*''[[Highway to Heaven]]''
*''[[Touched by an Angel]]''
===Plays===
*''[[Angels in America]]'' (later remade as an [[HBO]] mini-series)
==Gallery==
Here are some examples of angels in art
<gallery>
Image:Angelsatmamre-trinity-rublev-1410.jpg
Image:Angels.jpg
Image:Abraham and the Three Angels.png
Image:St. Michael the Archangel.jpg
Image:Fouquet Madonna.jpg
Image:Jacob-angel.jpg
Image:Seraphim - Petites Heures de Jean de Berry.jpg
Image:Coventry Cathedral St Michaels Victory.jpg
Image:Giotto.mourning.750pix.jpg
Image:The Annunciation.jpg
Image:Dore-empyrean.jpg
Image:Eros-piccadilly-circus.jpg
</gallery>
{{commonscat|Angels}}
[[Category:Angels]]
[[Category:Christian art]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arctic Fox</title>
<id>2208</id>
<revision>
<id>41913602</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:04:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ContiE</username>
<id>11061</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/67.10.154.194|67.10.154.194]] ([[User talk:67.10.154.194|talk]]) to last version by Wilmat09</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lime green
| name = Arctic Fox
| status = {{StatusConcern}}
| image = arcticfox.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Canidae]]
| genus = '''''Alopex'''''
| genus_authority = [[Joha |
party_name = Liberal Democrats |
party_articletitle = Liberal Democrats (UK) |
party_logo = [[Image:Libdemslogo.png|200px|Lib Dem "Bird of Freedom" logo]] |
leader = [[Menzies Campbell|Sir Menzies Campbell]]<br>|
foundation = 1988 |
ideology = [[Liberalism]]|
international = [[Liberal International]]|
european = [[European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party]] |
europarl = [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]] |
colours = [[Gold (color)|Gold]] |
headquarters = 4 Cowley Street <br> [[London]], SW1P 3NB |
website = [http://www.libdems.org.uk/ www.libdems.org.uk]
}}
The '''Liberal Democrats''', often shortened to '''Lib Dems''', are a [[liberalism|liberal]] [[political party]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. The party was formed in 1988 by the merger of the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] and the short lived [[Social Democratic Party (UK)|Social Democratic Party]]; the two parties had already been [[SDP-Liberal Alliance|in an alliance]] for some years prior to this.
The Lib Dems are currently the third-largest party in the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|UK Parliament]], behind [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] and the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]], with 63 [[Member of Parliament|Members of Parliament]] elected at the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|general election of 2005]] and one from the [[Dunfermline and West Fife by-election, 2006|Dunfermline and West Fife by-election]]. In the [[Scottish Parliament]], they form a coalition [[Scottish Executive]] with Labour, where the Lib Dems supply the [[Deputy First Minister of Scotland|Deputy First Minister]], currently [[Nicol Stephen]].
The party is led by Sir [[Menzies Campbell]], who became leader on [[2 March]], [[2006]]. Prior to this appointment he was the acting leader of the party. He won 44.7% of the first preference votes, which rose to 57.1% when second preferences were counted [http://www.libdems.org.uk/news/story.html?navPage=news.html&id=9802]. He was the early favourite but had to beat off a strong challenge from [[Chris Huhne]]. See ''[[Liberal Democrats leadership election, 2006]]'' for more information. After the election, [[Norman Baker]] stepped down from his role as shadow Environment Minister.
The Liberal Democrats claim they do not easily fit into the [[Political_spectrum#Left_and_Right|"left-right]]" political spectrum. However, most political observers believe that the party has moved to the left since the war in Iraq, taking up '[[Labour Party (UK)|Old Labour]]' issues such as lower subsidies on high earners, higher levels of government spending and extended enfranchisement (to 16-year-olds and, controversially, the imprisoned). Generally promoting politically and socially liberal policies, the Liberal Democrats describe themselves as being concerned with the use of power in British and international society. They are also wary of the power of the state over individuals, and as a principle seek to minimise state intervention in personal affairs. Because of this, the party opposed British participation in the war in Iraq, and are considered the most pro-European party in British politics.
Economically, it is not a party founded on economic class interest, but it does espouse some degreee of [[economic liberalism|economic liberal]] doctrine. However, unlike some [[List of liberal parties|liberal parties]] in other countries, it does not place economic liberalisation at the front of its policy objectives. Instead the party has historically combined a strong commitment to [[social justice]], social provision and the [[welfare state]] with a strong belief in economic freedom and competitive markets wherever possible, particularly when interference is seen as an example of the "nanny state", which many liberal MPs speak of with disgust.
In the 2006 leadership election, the party had three individuals, regarded as being representative of three wings of the party, standing for election.
Inside Liberal Democrats there exists a [[market liberalism|market liberal]] wing aligned around the [[Liberal Future]] think tank. In 2005, after the general elections, the then-leader of the party, [[Charles Kennedy]], promised a change of Liberal Democrat policy and chose in his [[Liberal Democrat Frontbench Team|Shadow Cabinet]] several MPs who had contributed to the [[The Orange Book - Reclaiming Liberalism|Orange Book]], which suggested a more market liberal direction for various areas of policy. Much of the Orange Book was a restatement of existing party policy, but some more dissenting chapters were intended to spark internal policy debate along market liberal lines; many commentators interpreted this as a swing to the right. This group has support with many of the party donors and in the press, as well as among many of the non-urban elected officials of the party.
The second wing of the party, with strong support in the metropolitian MPs and with many party activists, is more in line with [[modern liberalism]] of Keynesian economic theory, active government in support of free markets. They are centered around [[Simon Hughes]] who finished third in the 2006 leadership contest.
The third broad wing of the party consists of the core of the party apparatus, and many of the long standing party leaders. Committed neither to "Orange Book" reforms, nor to Hughes more active government, they are more concerned with reducing the size of the national government and protecting individual liberties, while more equitably distributing the tax burden.
According to accounts filed with the [[Electoral Commission]] for the year ending [[31 December]] [[2004]], the party had 72,721 members, and had a budget of about £3,700,000. [http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/templates/search/document.cfm/13199] 4,300 of these members are from [[Scotland]] [http://www.theherald.co.uk/politics/55743.html]
[[Image:Menzies Campbell.jpg|right|thumb|Menzies Campbell - Leader of the Liberal Democrats]]
==History of the Liberal Democrats==
===Founding===
The Liberal Democrats are descended from the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] which dominated British politics for much of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
Having declined to third party status after the rise of the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] in 1922, the Liberals found themselves challenged for their place as the centrist party of British politics in the 1980s, when in 1981, with the Labour Party moving to the left, a group of moderate Labour MPs broke away and established the [[Social Democratic Party (UK)|Social Democratic Party]] (SDP), claiming to preserve previous Labour Party traditions. The SDP and the Liberals soon realised that there was no place for two centrist political parties, and entered into [[SDP-Liberal Alliance|an alliance]] so that they would not stand against each other in elections. The two parties drew up their own policies and had different emphases, but produced a joint [[manifesto]] for the [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983]] and [[United Kingdom general election, 1987|1987]] General Elections. Initially the Alliance was led by [[David Steel]] (Liberal) and [[Roy Jenkins]] (SDP), and later by Steel and [[David Owen]] (SDP).
In 1987, following disappointing results in that year's general election, Steel proposed a merger of the two parties. Although opposed by David Owen, it was supported by a majority of members of each and the two parties formally merged in 1988, with David Steel and [[Robert Maclennan]] (who had become SDP leader in August 1987) as interim joint leaders. At the time of the merger, in 1988, the party took the name '''Social and Liberal Democrats''' (SLD). After briefly shortening its name to '''The Democrats''', it changed to the current name of '''Liberal Democrats''' in October 1989, which is now frequently shortened to "Lib Dems".
The minority of the SDP who rejected the merger remained under David Owen's leadership. Some Liberals disliked the direction the party was going in after [[Paddy Ashdown]]'s [[Liberal Democrats leadership election, 1988|election as leader]] and created a new party which revived the name "[[Liberal Party (UK, 1989)|Liberal Party]]".
===Post-1988 history===
[[Image:Simon Hughes.jpg|thumb|right|[[Simon Hughes]], Lib Dem president]]
The former Liberal MP Ashdown became leader of the party in 1988, and under his leadership the party's support grew steadily. Although the Lib Dems did not immediately manage to repeat the 20%+ shares of national vote which the SDP/Liberal alliance had achieved in the 1980s, they did manage to more than double their representation in Parliament at the [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|1997 General Election]] to 46 seats, and become a major force in local government throughout the decade.
Following [[Tony Blair]]'s election as leader of the Labour Party in 1994, Ashdown controversially pursued a policy of cooperation between the two parties (with the two leaders even allegedly agreeing to form a coalition government). However this [[Lib-Lab Pact]] failed to materialise when it became apparent to the Liberal Democrats that Labour would not introduce [[proportional representation]] and other key Liberal Democrat demands. Labour's massive majority after the 1997 general election also meant that Blair lost interest in pursuing the issue, and some senior Labour politicians (e.g. [[John Prescott]]) were strongly opposed to a coalition.
Ashdown retired as leader in 1999 and [[Charles Kennedy]] was [[Liberal Democrats leadership election, 1999|elected as his replacement]]. Kennedy was originally the only SDP MP who fully supported the merger. The party improved on their 1997 results at the [[United Kingdom general election, 2001|2001 general election]], winning more seats and increasing their share of the vote.
In recent times the Liberal Democrats hav |
granites represented evidence for the Earth being created instantaneously rather than gradually. This idea has been criticized by mainstream physicists and geologists on many grounds including that the rocks Gentry studies are not primordial and that the radionuclides in question need not have been the initial conditions of the rocks.
Thomas A. Baillieul, a geologist and retired senior environmental scientist with the Federal government, disputed Gentry's claims in an article entitled, ""Polonium Haloes" Refuted: A Review of "Radioactive Halos in a Radio-Chronological and Cosmological Perspective""[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/po-halos/gentry.html]. Baillieul noted that Gentry was a physicist with no background in geology and given the absence of this background, Gentry had misrepresented geological evidence. Additionally, he notes that Gentry relied on research from the beginning of the 20th century, long before radio isotopes were truly understood; that his assumption that a Polonium isotope cause the rings was speculative; and that Gentry falsely argues that the [[half-life]] of radioactive elements varies with time.
===Creationist cosmologies===
{{main|Creationist cosmologies}}
Several attempts have been made by creationists to construct a cosmology consistent with a young universe rather than the standard cosmological [[age of the universe]], based on the belief that Genesis describes the creation of the universe as well as the Earth. The primary challenge for young-universe cosmologies is that the accepted distances in the universe require millions or billions of years for light to travel to Earth.
Cosmology is not as widely discussed as [[creation biology]] or [[flood geology]], for several reasons. First, many creationists, particularly [[old earth creationists]] and [[intelligent design]] creationists do not dispute that the universe may be billions of years old. Also, some creationists who believe that the Earth was created in the timeframe described in a literal interpretation of Genesis believe that Genesis describes only the creation of the ''Earth'', rather than the creation of the entire universe, allowing for both a young Earth and an old universe. Finally, the technical nature of the discipline of [[physical cosmology]] and its ties to [[mathematical physics]] prevent those without significant technical knowledge from understanding the full details of how the observations and theories behind the current models work.
== See also ==
* [[Creationism]]
* [[Young Earth Creationism]]
* [[Intelligent Design]]
* [[Cargo cult science]]
* [[pseudoscience]]
== References ==
{{mnb|dicdef|1}} [http://www.bartleby.com/61/42/C0734200.html American Heritage Dictionary definition of ''creation science'']<br>
{{mnb|quinn|2}} "The philosopher of science as expert witness", p. 43, in Cushing, J., Delaney, C.F. & Gutting, G., Science and reality: Recent Work in the Philosophy of Science, University of Notre Dame Press, 1984.<br>
{{mnb|nap|3}} [http://www.nap.edu/books/0309064066/html/2.html ''Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences, Second Edition''], 1999, National Academy of Sciences.<br>
{{mnb|steve|4}} [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/5945_the_faqs_2_16_2003.asp Project Steve: FAQs] National Center for Science Education, 2003-2005<br>
== Further reading ==
===Creation science===
* Don Batten (ed.), ''The Answers Book'' ISBN 0-949906-23-9 (Brisbane, Australia: Answers in Genesis, 1999)
* Duane T. Gish, ''Creation Scientists Answer Their Critics'' ISBN 0-932766-28-5 (El Cajon, CA: Institute for Creation Research, 1993)
* Henry M. Morris (ed.), ''Scientific Creationism'' ISBN 0-89052-003-2 (Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 1985)
* Henry M. Morris and Gary E. Parker, ''What is Creation Science?'' ISBN 0-89051-081-4 (El Cajon, CA: Institute for Creation Research, 1987)
* Terry Mortenson, ''The Great Turning Point: The Church's Catastrophic Mistake on Geology &#8212; Before Darwin'' ISBN 0-89051-408-9 (Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 2004)
* Fazale Rana and Hugh Ross, ''Origins of Life: Biblical and Evolutionary Models Face Off'', ISBN 1-57683-344-5 (Navpress Publishing Group, 2004)
* Seraphim Rose, ''Genesis, Creation and Early Man'' ISBN: 1887904026 (Saint Herman, 2000)
* Ariel A. Roth, ''Origins &ndash; Linking Science and Scripture'' ISBN 0-8280-1328-4 (Hagarstown, MD: Review and Herald Publishing Association, 1998)
* [[Jonathan Sarfati]], ''Refuting Evolution'' ISBN 0-890512-58-2 (Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 1999) [http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/re1/intro.asp forward and introduction]
* Jonathan Sarfati, ''Refuting Evolution 2'' ISBN 0-890513-87-2 (Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 2002) [http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/RE2/index.asp table of contents with links to chapters]
* Jonathan Sarfati, ''Refuting Compromise'' ISBN 0-890514-11-9 (Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 2004) [http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/rc/intro.asp introductory chapter and some reviews]
* John C. Whitcomb and Henry Morris, ''The Genesis Flood'' ISBN 0-87552-338-2 (Philadelphia: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co., 1964)
* A. E. Wilder-Smith, ''Man's Origin, Man's Destiny'' ISBN 0-87123-356-8 (Wheaton, IL: Harold Shaw Co., 1968)
* A. E. Wilder-Smith, ''Scientific Alternative to Neo-Darwinian Evolutionary Theory'' ISBN 9-99213-967-6 (Costa Mesa, CA: TWFT Publishers, 1987)
* John Woodmorappe, ''Studies in Flood Geology'' ISBN 0-932766-54-4 (El Cajon, CA: Institute for Creation Research, 1993)
* John Woodmorappe, ''Noah's Ark: A Feasibility Study'' ISBN 0-932766-41-2 (El Cajon, CA: Institute for Creation Research, 1996)
* John Woodmorappe, ''The Mythology of Modern Dating Methods'' ISBN 0-932766-57-9 (El Cajon, CA: Institute for Creation Research, 1999)
===Criticism===
* V. L. Bates, ''Christian Fundamentalism and the Theory of Evolution in Public School Education: A Study of the Creation Science Movement'' (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis: 1976).
* R. M. Frye, ''Is God a creationist? The religious case against creation-science'' ISBN 0684179938 (New York: Scribner's, 1983)
* P. Kitcher, ''Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism'' ISBN 026261037X (Boston, MA: The MIT Press, 1983)
* R. Lewin, ''Where is the Science in Creation Science?'' (''Science'' v.215, pp.142&#8211;146.)
* R. Pennock, ''Tower of Babel: The Evidence against the New Creationism'' ISBN 0262661659 (The MIT Press, Reprint edition, [[February 28]] [[2000]])
* B. Vawter, ''Creationism: Creative Misuse of the Bible'', in R. M. Frye (ed.), ''ibid.'' p.71&#8211;82.
* R. L. Numbers, ''The Creationists'' ISBN 0679401040 (New York: A. A. Knopf / Random House, 1992)
* D. B. McKown, ''The mythmaker's magic: Behind the illusion of "creation science"'' ISBN 0879757701 (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1993)
* L. Tiffin, ''Creationism's Upside-Down Pyramid: How Science Refutes Fundamentalism'' ISBN 0879758988 (Prometheus Books, [[August 1]] [[1994]])
* M. Zimmerman, M. ''Science, Nonscience and Nonsense'' ISBN 0801857740 (The Johns Hopkins University Press: Reprint edition, [[December 1]] [[1997]])
* ''Synoptic Position Statement of the Georgia Academy of Science with Respect to the Forced Teaching of Creation-Science in Public School Science Education'', Georgia Academy of Science: [[March 22]] [[2000]] (ISBN B0008JBPNY)
== External links ==
===Neutral===
* [http://straylight.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0482_0578_ZS.html Edwards v. Aguillard] 1987 U.S. Supreme Court ruling preventing the teaching of creation science in public school science classrooms
* [http://www.antievolution.org/projects/mclean/new_site/index.htm McLean v. Arkansas] 1981 challenge to Arkansas' Act 590, which mandated that evolutionary biology instruction be balanced with "creation science".
=== Creation science ===
* [http://www.answersingenesis.org/ Answers in Genesis]
* [http://www.icr.org Institute for Creation Research]
* [http://www.answersincreation.org Answers In Creation]
* [http://www.answersingenesis.org/news/scientific_american.asp 15 ways to refute materialistic bigotry] Answers in Genesis' response to [[Scientific American]]'s article [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000D4FEC-7D5B-1D07-8E49809EC588EEDF 15 Answers to Creationist Nonsense]
* [http://www.nwcreation.net/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page CreationWiki]
* [http://www.trueorigin.org/ The True.Origin Archive]
** [http://www.trueorigin.org/camplist.asp List of Articles Supporting Creation]
* [http://www.creationresearch.org/ Creation Research Society]
* [http://www.creationdigest.com/ CreationDigest.com]
* [http://www.creationsafaris.com/crev200510.htm Creation-Evolution Headlines]
* [http://www.uark.edu/~cdm/creation/index.htm Creation Insights]
* [http://www.creationscience.com Center for Scientific Creation]
* [http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/2575 15 Answers to John Rennie and Scientific American's Nonsense] (ApologeticsPress.org rebuttal)
* [http://emporium.turnpike.net/C/cs/ Creation Science]
* [http://www.reasons.org/ Reasons To Believe]
* [http://www.caseforacreator.com Case for a Creator]
* [http://www.godandscience.org/ God and Science]
* [http://www.drdino.com/ Creation Science Evangelism] Hosts MP3s of Seminars spoken by Kent Hovind.
* [http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?kid=2451 Historical Proof - A Jewish viewpoint] chabad.org
=== Criticism ===
* [http://home.austarnet.com.au/stear/default.htm No Answers in Genesis website]
* [http://www.creationtheory.org Creationism vs. Science]
* [http://www.talkorigins.org Talk.Origins Archive]
** [http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/list.html Index of Creationist claims with rebuttals]
** [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/wic.html Talkorigins.org article on What is Creationism?]
* [http://www.nsta.org/positionstatement& |
s do.
But more importantly the spin-2, linear wave (classical gravitational wave) is only a perturbation on certain, highly restrictive metrics. In general there are wave-like fluctuations, but they are non-linear, as is often the case in General Relativity. Maxwell's equations always admit a spin-1, linear wave, but Einstein's equations rarely admit a spin-2, linear wave, and when they do it is only perturbative and not exact.
The more analogous gravitational object to the electromagnetic wave is actually the [[Weyl curvature]]. In classical electromagnetism you have fields determined by sources along with electromagnetic waves that are source-free. And in gravity you have the [[Ricci curvature]] determined by the stress-energy tensor along with the source-free Weyl tensor which contains the gravitational waves.
{{Elementary}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Göta Canal</title>
<id>12101</id>
<revision>
<id>34725191</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-11T07:02:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Abelson</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:la2-bergs.jpg|thumb|250px|Bergs locks at Berg, near [[Linköping]], descending to lake [[Roxen]]]]
The '''Göta Canal''' is a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[canal]] constructed in the early [[19th century]]. The canal stretches all the way from [[Gothenburg]] on the Swedish west coast, combined with the river [[Göta älv]] and the [[Trollhatte canal|Trollhätte canal]], through the great lakes [[Vänern]] and [[Vättern]], in parallel with [[Motala ström]], and to [[Söderköping]] on the [[Baltic Sea]].
[[image:Gota_Locks_1.jpg|thumb|250px|Flight of locks descending to Lake [[Boren]]]]
The architect was [[Baltzar von Platen (1766-1829)|Baltzar von Platen]], working to plans earlier developed at the request of the Swedish king by the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] [[civil engineer]] [[Thomas Telford]]; he got permission to begin to work on [[April 11]], [[1810]] and the canal was officially opened on [[September 26]], [[1832]]. Telford himself travelled to Sweden in 1810 to oversee some of the initial excavations on the project. Built only decades before the advent of railroads (see [[Rail Transport]]), the canal was soon outdated, and never upgraded. The canal is a tourist attraction, sometimes called the blue ribbon of [[Sweden]].
[[image:la2-demis-motalastrom.png|thumb|Map showing Göta kanal between lake Vättern and the Baltic Sea]]
To support the building of the canal with mechanical works, a small engineering workshop was established in [[Motala]] called [[Motala Verkstad]]. This industry has sometimes been referred to as ''cradle of the Swedish engineering industry''.
==In fiction==
Several movies depict the canal, most notably the [[1981]] comedy ''[[Göta Kanal (movie)|Göta Kanal]]'', in which two competing yacht constructors race the canal in order to win a huge construction stock order.
== Stops ==
From the west-coast of Sweden all the way to the east-coast the stops are as follows:
*[[Göteborg]]
*[[Göta älv]]
*[[Lilla Edet]]
*[[Trollhättan]]
*[[Vänersborg]]
*[[Vänern]]
*[[Läckö]]
*[[Årnäs]]
*[[Mariestad]]
*[[Tiveden]]
*[[Sjötorp]]
*[[Lyrestad]]
*[[Norrkvarn]]
*[[Töreboda]]
*[[Wassbacken]]
*[[Lanthöjden]]
*[[Tåtorp]]
*[[Viken (lake)|Viken]]
*[[Unden]]
*[[Forsvik]]
*[[Rödesund]]
*[[Karlsborg]]
*[[Vättern]]
*[[Vadstena]]
*[[Motala]]
*[[Borenshult]]
*[[Boren]]
*[[Borensberg]] or [[Husbyfjöl]]
*[[Långkanalen]]
*[[Bergs slussar]]
*[[Roxen]]
*[[Norsholm]]
*[[Asplången]]
*[[Klämman]]
*[[Söderköping]]
*[[Mem]]
*[[Slätbaken]]
*[[Baltic Sea]]
*[[Södertälje kanal]]
*[[Mälaren]]
*[[Hammarbyleden]]
*[[Hammarbyslussen]]
*[[Skeppsbron]]
== Photographs of the Göta Canal ==
*[[media:Gota_Scene_1.jpg|Tranquil scene on the canal at Lake Roxen]]
*[[media:MV_Diana_Motala_1.jpg|The MV Diana on the canal at Motala]]
== See also ==
*[[List of Swedish government enterprises]]
== Bibliography ==
*Eric de Maré, ''Swedish Cross Cut'', Sweden, 1965. (In English)
== External links ==
*[http://www.gotakanal.se/ Göta Canal] - Official site
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</page>
<page>
<title>General Motors</title>
<id>12102</id>
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<id>42125418</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:05:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anlace</username>
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<comment>/* Alternative vehicles */ removed argumentative and unsourced phrase</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = General Motors |
company_logo = [[Image:GM,_logo.png|70px|GM logo]] |
company_type = Public ([[New York Stock Exchange|NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=GM GM]) |
company_slogan = |
foundation = [[1908]] |
location = [[Detroit, Michigan]]; manufacturing facilities in 30 U.S. states and 32 countries |
key_people = [[Rick Wagoner]], Chairman & [[CEO]]|
num_employees = 324,000 ([[2004]]) |
industry = [[Automotive]] |
products = [[automobile]]s<br />[[engine]]s |
revenue = [[Image:green up.png]]US$193.5 [[billion]] [[U.S. dollar|USD]] ([[2004]]) |
homepage = [http://www.gm.com/ www.gm.com]
}}
'''General Motors Corporation''' ({{nyse|GM}}), also known as '''GM''', is a [[United States]]-based [[automobile maker]] with worldwide operations and brands including [[Buick]], [[Cadillac]], [[Chevrolet]], [[GMC Truck|GMC]], [[Holden]], [[Hummer]], [[Opel]], [[Pontiac]], [[Saturn automobile|Saturn]], [[Saab Automobile|Saab]] and [[Vauxhall Motors|Vauxhall]].
Chevrolet and GMC divisions produce [[truck]]s, as well as passenger vehicles. Other brands include [[Delco|AC Delco]] and [[Allison Transmission]]. GM also has a 8% stake in [[Isuzu]] and a 20% stake in [[Suzuki]] in [[Japan]] and a joint venture with [[AvtoVAZ]] in [[Russia]]. In December [[2003]], it acquired [[Delta Motor Corporation|Delta]] in [[South Africa]], in which it had taken a 45 % stake in [[1997]], and which is now a fully-owned subsidiary, General Motors South Africa. General Motors is also a majority shareholder (50.9%) in [[GM Daewoo]].
GM's headquarters are in the [[Renaissance Center]] in [[Detroit, Michigan]]. The company is the world's largest vehicle [[manufacturing|manufacturer]] and employs over 340,000 people. In [[2001]], GM sold 8.5 million vehicles through all its branches; in [[2002]], GM sold 15 % of all cars and trucks in the world. They also owned [[Electronic Data Systems]] from [[1984]] to [[1996]] and, prior to selling it to [[News Corporation]], [[DirecTV]]. GM owned [[Frigidaire]] from [[1918]] to [[1979]].
==History==
[[Image:Detroit GM headquarters.jpg|thumb|270px|General Motors Headquarters, Renaissance Center, Detroit, Michigan.]]
General Motors (GM) was founded in [[1908]] in Flint, Michigan as a holding company for Buick, then controlled by [[William C. Durant]], and acquired [[Oldsmobile]] later that year. The next year, Durant brought in [[Cadillac]], [[Elmore (automobile)|Elmore]], and [[Oakland automobile|Oakland]]. In 1909, General Motors acquired the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company of Pontiac, Michigan, the predecessor of GMC Truck. A Rapid became the first truck to conquer [[Pikes Peak]] in 1909.
During the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]], General Motors bought out the [[bus]] company [[Yellow Coach]], helped create [[Greyhound Lines|Greyhound bus lines]], replaced intercity train transport with buses, and established subsidiary companies to buy out [[trolley|streetcar]] companies and replace the rail-based services with buses. GM formed [[United Cities Motor Transit]] in 1932 (''see [[General Motors streetcar conspiracy]] for additional details'').
General Motors bought the [[internal combustion engine]]d [[railcar]] builder [[Electro-Motive Corporation]] and its engine supplier [[Winton Engine]] in [[1930]], renaming both as the [[General Motors Electro-Motive Division]]. Over the next twenty years, diesel-powered locomotives and trains &ndash; the majority built by GM &ndash; largely replaced other forms of traction on American railroads. (During [[World War II]], these engines were also important in American [[submarines]] and [[destroyer escorts]].) Electro-Motive was sold in early 2005.
On [[December 31]], [[1955]], General Motors became the first American corporation to make over one [[billion]] [[US dollar|dollars]] in a year.
After GM's massive lay-offs hit [[Flint, Michigan]] a [[Strike action|strike]] began at the General Motors parts factory in Flint on [[June 5]], [[1998]], which quickly spread to five other assembly plants and lasted seven weeks.
At one point GM was the largest corporation ever in the United States, in terms of its revenues as a percent of GDP. In [[1953]] [[Charles Erwin Wilson]], then GM president, was named by [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] as [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]]. When he was asked during the hearings before the [[Senate Armed Services Committee]] if as secretary of defense he could make a decision adverse to the interests of General Motors, Wilson answered affirmatively but added that he could not conceive of such a situation "because for years I thought what was good for the country was good for Gen |
космонавт ''(kosmonavt)'', which in turn derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''kosmos'' ("universe") and ''nautes'' ("sailor").
In the [[United States|USA]], a space traveller is called an '''astronaut'''. The term derives from the Greek words ''ástron'' ("star") and ''nautes,'' ("sailor"). For the most part, "cosmonaut" and "astronaut" are synonyms in all languages, and the usage of choice is often dictated by political reasons. However in the United States, the term "astronaut" is typically applied to the individual as soon as training begins, while in Russia, an individual is not labeled a cosmonaut until successful space flight. The first known use of the term was by [[Neil R. Jones]] in his short story ''The Death's Head Meteor'' in [[1930]]. On [[March 14]], [[1995]] astronaut [[Norman Thagard]] became the first American to ride to space on board a Russian launch vehicle, arguably becoming the first American cosmonaut in the process.
[[Europe]]an (outside of the [[UK]]) space travellers are sometimes, especially in [[French language|French]]-speaking countries, called '''spationauts''' (a [[hybrid word]] formed from the [[Latin]] ''spatium'', "space", and Greek ''nautes'', "sailor"). Apart from the Soviet Union, Europe has not yet produced manned spacecraft, but has sent men and women into space in cooperation with Russia and the United States.
'''Taikonaut''' is sometimes used in English for astronauts from [[China]] by Western news media. The term was coined in May 1998 by Chiew Lee Yih (赵里昱) from [[Malaysia]], who used it first in [[newsgroup]]s. Almost simultaneously, Chen Lan coined it for use in the Western [[mass media|media]] based on the term ''tàikōng'' (太空, literally "great emptiness"), [[Chinese language|Chinese]] for "[[outer space|space]]". In Chinese itself, however, a single term ''yǔháng yuán'' (宇航员, "universe navigator") has long been used for astronauts. The closest term using ''taikong'' is a [[colloquialism]] ''tàikōng rén'' (太空人, "space person"), which refers to people who have actually been in space. Official English texts issued by the Chinese government use ''astronaut'' ({{zh-sp|s=航天员|p=hángtiān yuán}}).
==Space milestones==
[[Image:GagarinPortrait.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Yuri Gagarin]] ]]
[[Image:Tereshkova.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Valentina Tereshkova]] ]]
The first attempt ever in human history to use rocket for a spaceflight was done in the [[16th century]] by a Chinese [[Ming dynasty]] official, a skilled stargazer named [[Wan Hu]].<sup>[http://edition.cnn.com/2003/TECH/space/09/30/china.wanhu/index.html]</sup> This attempt was not successful.
The first cosmonaut was [[Yuri Gagarin]], who was launched into space on [[April 12]] [[1961]] aboard [[Vostok 1]]. The first woman cosmonaut was [[Valentina Tereshkova]], launched into space in June [[1963]] aboard [[Vostok 6]]. [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American in space in May 1961. [[Vladimir Remek]] became the first non-Soviet European in space in [[1978]] on a Russian [[Soyuz launch vehicle|Soyuz]] rocket. On [[July 23]] [[1980]] [[Pham Tuan]] of Vietnam became the first [[Asian]] in space when he flew aboard [[Soyuz 37]]. Also in 1980, [[Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez]] became the first person of [[African]] descent to fly in space. (The first person born in Africa to fly in space was [[Patrick Baudry]].) In June [[1985]] [[Shannon Lucid]] became the first Chinese born person in space. In [[2002]] [[Mark Shuttleworth]] became the first citizen of an African country to fly in space. On [[15 October]] [[2003]] [[Yang Liwei]] became China's first astronaut on the [[Shenzhou 5]] spacecraft. The first mission to orbit the moon was ''[[Apollo 8]]'' which included [[William Anders]] - who was born in Hong Kong making him the first Asian-born astronaut in [[1968]].
The youngest person to fly in space is [[Gherman Titov]], who was roughly 26 years old when he flew [[Vostok 2]], and the oldest is [[John Glenn]] who was 77 when he flew on [[STS-95]]. The longest stay in space was 438 days by [[Valeri Polyakov]]. [[As of 2005]], the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut was seven, a record held by both [[Jerry L. Ross]] and [[Franklin Chang-Diaz]]. The furthest distance from Earth an astronaut has traveled was 401&nbsp;056&nbsp;km (during the [[Apollo 13]] emergency).
The first non-governmental astronaut was [[Byron K. Lichtenberg]], an [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] researcher who flew on [[Space Shuttle program|Space Shuttle]] mission [[STS-9]] in 1983. In [[December 1990]], [[Toyohiro Akiyama]] became the first commercial space‐farer as a reporter for [[Tokyo Broadcasting System|TBS]] who paid for his flight. The first self‐funded [[space tourist]] was [[Dennis Tito]] on [[28 April]] [[2001]], while the first astronaut to fly on an entirely privately-funded mission was [[Mike Melvill]], on [[SpaceShipOne flight 15P]], though this flight was sub‐orbital.
In the United States, persons selected as astronaut candidates receive silver [[Astronaut wings]]. Once they have flown in space they receive gold Astronaut wings. The [[United States Air Force]] also presents Astronaut wings to its pilots who exceed 50 miles (80 km) in altitude.
== International astronauts ==
[[Image:ZeroG.jpg|right|thumb|400px|Astronauts on the International Space Station. British astronaut [[Michael Foale]] can be seen exercising in the foreground]]
Up until the end of the [[1970s]] only Americans and Soviets were active astronauts. In [[1976]] the Soviets started the [[Intercosmos]] program with a first group of 6 cosmonauts from fellow [[Eastern Bloc]] countries and [[Cuba]], a second group started training in [[1978]]. At about the same time in [[1978]] the [[European Space Agency]] selected 4 astronauts to train for the first [[Spacelab]] mission on board of the [[Space Shuttle]]. In [[1980]] [[France]] started their own selection of astronauts, followed in [[1982]] by [[Germany]], in [[1983]] by the [[Canadian space program]], in [[1985]] by [[Japan]] and [[Italy]] in [[1988]]. Several international payload specialists were selected for the Space Shuttle, and also later for international [[Soyuz programme|Soyuz]] missions of Russia. In [[1998]] the [[European Space Agency]] formed a single astronaut corps of 18 by dissolving the former national corps of France, Germany and Italy. The [[United Kingdom]] does not contribute to ESA's [[human spaceflight]] programme and so its citizens must receive training from either the United States or Russia if they wish to become astronauts.
== Astronaut training==
The first astronauts, both in the USA and USSR, tended to be jet fighter pilots, often [[test pilot|test pilots]], from military backgrounds. U.S. military astronauts receive a special qualification badge, known as the [[Astronaut Badge]] upon completion of Astronaut training and participation in a space flight.
== Astronaut deaths ==
[[Image:DickScobee.jpeg|frame|[[Dick Scobee]], commander of the Space Shuttle Challenger during the [[STS-51-L]] mission. ]]
To date, eighteen astronauts have been killed on space missions, and at least ten more have been killed in ground-based training accidents. ''See also: [[space disaster]].''
==Trivia==
Many people who claim the [[Apollo moon landing hoax accusations|Apollo moon landings were faked]] often call the astronauts ''astroNOTs''.
==See also==
* [[List of astronauts by name]]
* [[List of astronauts by selection]]
* [[Timeline of astronauts by nationality]]
* List of human spaceflights: [[List of human spaceflights, 1961-1986|1961-1986]], [[List of human spaceflights, 1987-1999|1987-1999]], [[List of human spaceflights, 2000-present|2000-present]].
* [[List of spacewalks and moonwalks]]
* [[X-15]]
* [[Spaceflight records]]
* [[Shirley Thomas (USC professor)|Shirley Thomas]], author of ''Men of Space'' series (1960-1968)
==External links==
* [http://www.astronautix.com Encyclopedia Astronautica]
* [http://www.astronautix.com/astrogrp/phaonaut.htm Encyclopedia Astronautica: Phantom cosmonauts]
[[Category:Astronauts|*]]
[[Category:Transportation occupations]]
[[Category:Science occupations]]
[[af:Ruimtevaarder]]
[[bg:Космонавт]]
[[bn:মহাশূণ্যচারী]]
[[ca:Astronauta]]
[[cv:Космонавт]]
[[cs:Kosmonaut]]
[[da:Astronaut]]
[[de:Raumfahrer]]
[[es:Astronauta]]
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[[fr:Spationaute]]
[[id:Astronaut]]
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[[th:นักบินอวกาศ]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>A Modest Proposal</title>
<id>665</id>
<revision>
<id>41713510</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T06:08:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>58.166.74.32</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''A Modest Proposal: For Preventing the Children of Poor People in Ireland from Being a Burden to Their Parents or Country, and for Making Them Beneficial to the Publick''''', commonly referred to as '''''A Modest Proposal''''', is a [[satire|satirical]] [[pamphlet]] written by [[Jonathan Swift]] in [[1729]]. The work has now become one of the epitomes of satire, and the modern phrase "A modest proposal" derives from the work.
==Theme==
The work is written in [[first person]] [[Point of view (literature)|point of view]]; however, the narrator should not be confused with Swift himself, because the writer is merely a [[persona]]. He argues, through economic reasoning as well as a self-righteous moral stance, for a way to turn the problem of squalor among the [[Catholic]]s in [[Ireland]] into its own solution. His proposal is to fatten up |
(''Tsentral'naya Azia'' or "Central Asia", the wider definition which includes "Central Asian" lands that have never been part of historical Russia). However, there lacks a meaningful distinction between the two in the [[English language]]; and so "Central Asia" is used for both Russian usages, thus creating some confusion. The new post-USSR [[Russian Federation]] has now included Kazakhstan in its new definition of "Middle Asia".
Soon after independence, the leaders of the five former [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Central Asian Republics]] met in [[Tashkent]] and declared that the definition of Central Asia should include Kazakhstan as well as the original four included by the Soviets. Since then, this has become the most common definition of Central Asia.
The UNESCO general history of Central Asia, written just before the collapse of the USSR, defines the region based on climate and uses far larger borders. According to it, Central Asia includes [[Mongolia]], Western [[China]] (including [[Tibet]]), northeast [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]] and western [[Pakistan]], central-east Russia south of the [[Taiga]], the former Central Asian [[Soviet]] Republics (the five "Stans" of the former [[Soviet Union]]), but also even the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], northern [[India]] and [[Pakistan]].
An alternative method is to define the region based on ethnicity, and in particular, areas populated by [[Eastern Turkic]], Eastern [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]], or [[Mongolian]] peoples. These areas include [[Xinjiang]], the Turkic/[[Muslim]] regions of southern [[Siberia]], the five republics, and [[Afghan Turkestan]]. The [[Tibetans]] are also included. Insofar, the mentioned peoples are considered the "indigenous" peoples of the vast region.
Colonization and settlement by [[Chinese people|Chinese]], [[Iranian peoples|Iranians]], and [[Russians]] was to come later.
== Geography ==
[[Image:Central Asia Physical.jpg|thumb|375px|[[Physical map]] of '''Central Asia''' from the Caucasus in the northwest, to Mongolia in the northeast.]]
Central Asia is an extremely large region of varied geography, including high plateaus and [[mountain range|mountains]] ([[Tian Shan]]), vast [[desert]]s ([[Kara Kum]], [[Kyzyl Kum]], [[Taklamakan]]), and especially treeless, grassy [[steppe]]s. Much of the land is too dry or too rugged for farming. The [[Gobi desert]] extends from the foot of the [[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]]s, 77° east, to the [[Great Khingan]] (Da Hinggan) Mountains, 116°-118° east.
Central Asia has the following geographic extremes:
*The world's northernmost [[desert]] ([[dune|sand dunes]]), at Buurug Deliin Els, [[Mongolia]], 50°18' north.
*The [[Northern Hemisphere|Northern Hemisphere's]] southernmost [[permafrost]], at Erdenetsogt sum, [[Mongolia]], 46°17' north.
*The world's shortest distance between non-frozen [[desert]] and [[permafrost]]: 770 km (440 mi).
A majority of the people earn a living by herding livestock. Industrial activity centers in the region's cities.
Major rivers of the region include the [[Amu Darya]], the [[Syr Darya]] and the [[Hari Rud]]. Major bodies of water include the [[Aral Sea]] and [[Lake Balkhash]], both of which are part of the huge west/central Asian [[endorheic]] basin that also includes the [[Caspian Sea]]. Both of these bodies of water have shrunk significantly in recent decades due to diversion of water from rivers that feed them for irrigation and industrial purposes. Water is an extremely valuable resource in arid Central Asia, and can lead to rather significant international disputes.
[[Image:Central Asia climate.jpg|thumb|375px|[[Climate]] map of Central Asia. This map clearly illustrates the boundaries of Central Asia. From the northwest, the mountain climate (purple) extends from the Caucasus, through Iranian Azerbaijan, along the Iranian border, through Afghanistan, and into Tibet in the southeast. The steppe climate (peach) extends from the North Caucasus in the northwest, over the Caspian Sea, through Kazakhstan, and around [[Mongolia (region)|Mongolia]] in the northeast. The arid climates of the Ferghana Valley, Takla Makan and Gobi deserts are also prominently visible.]]
<!-- FAIR USE of Central_Asia_climate.jpg: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Central_Asia_climate.jpg for rationale -->
===Climate===
Since Central Asia is not buffered by a large body of water, temperature fluctuations are more severe.
According to the [[Köppen climate classification]] system, Central Asia is part of the [[Palearctic]] [[ecozone]]. The largest [[biome]] in Central Asia is the [[Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]] biome. Central Asia also contains the [[Montane grasslands and shrublands]], [[Deserts and xeric shrublands]] and [[Temperate coniferous forests]] biomes.
== History ==
:''Main article:[[History of Central Asia]]''
The history of Central Asia is defined by the area's climate and geography. The aridness of the region made agriculture difficult and its distance from the sea cut it off from much trade. Thus few major cities developed in the region, instead the area was for millennia dominated by the nomadic horse peoples of the [[steppe]].
Relations between the steppe nomads and the settled people in and around Central Asia were long marked by conflict. The nomadic lifestyle was well suited to warfare and the steppe horse riders became some of the most militarily potent peoples in the world, only limited by their lack of internal unity. Periodically great leaders or changing conditions would organize several tribes into to one force, and create an almost unstoppable power. These included the [[Huns|Hun]] invasion of Europe, the [[Wu Hu]] attacks on China and most notably the [[Mongol]] conquest of much of [[Eurasia]].
The dominance of the nomads ended in the sixteenth century, as [[firearm]]s allowed settled peoples to gain control of the region. [[Russia]], [[China]], and other powers expanded into the region and had captured the bulk of Central Asia by the end of the nineteenth century. After the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] the Central Asian regions were incorporated into the Soviet Union. Mongolia remained independent but became a Soviet [[satellite state]]. The Soviet areas of Central Asia saw much industrialization and construction of infrastructure, but also the suppression of local cultures, hundreds of thousands of deaths from failed collectivization programs, and a lasting legacy of ethnic tensions and environmental problems.
With the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]] five countries gained independence. In all the new states former Communist Party officials retained power as local strongmen. In no state is repression as great as it was in Soviet times, but none of the new republics could be considered functional democracies. Other parts of Central Asia remain part of China or Russia.
== Geostrategy ==
:''Main article:'' [[Geostrategy in Central Asia]]
Central Asia has long been a strategic location merely because of its proximity to several great powers on the Eurasian landmass. The region itself never held a dominant stationary population, nor was able to make use of natural resources. Thus it has rarely throughout history become the seat of power for an empire or influential state. Much like Poland throughout European history, Central Asia has been divided, redivided, conquered out of existence, and fragmented time and time again. Central Asia has served more as the battleground for outside powers, than as a power in its own right.
Central Asia had both the advantage and disadvantage of a central location between four historical seats of power. From its central location, it has access to trade routes, or lines of attack, to all the regional powers. On the other hand, it has been continuously vulnerable to attack from all sides throughout its history, resulting in political fragmentation or outright power vacuum, as it is successively dominated.
*To the North, the steppe allowed for rapid mobility, first for nomadic horseback warriors like the Huns and Mongols, and later for Russian traders, eventually supported by railroads. As the Russian empire expanded to the East, it would also push down into Central Asia towards the sea, in a search for warm water ports. The Soviet bloc would reinforce dominance from the North, and attempt to project power as far south as Afghanistan.
*To the East, the demographic and cultural weight of Chinese empires continually pushed outward into Central Asia. The Mongol Yuan dynasty would conquer parts of East Turkestan and Tibet, and the later Manchu dynasty would reconquer those areas several centuries later. As part of the Sino-Soviet bloc, China would swallow Tibet. However, with the Sino-Soviet split, China would project power into Central Asia, most notably in the case of Afghanistan, to counter Russian dominance of the region.
*To the Southeast, the demographic and cultural influence of India was felt in Central Asia, notably in Tibet, the Hindu Kush, and slightly beyond. Several historical Indian dynasties, especially those seated along the Indus river would expand into Central Asia. India's ability to project power into Central Asia has been limited due to the mountain ranges in Pakistan, and the cultural differences between Hindu India, and what would become a mostly Muslim Central Asia.
*To the Southwest, Middle Eastern powers have expanded into the Southern areas of Central Asia (usually, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan). Several Persian empires would conquer and reconquer parts of Central Asia; Alexander the Great's Hellenic empire would extend into Central Asia; two Arab Islamic empires would exert substantial influence throughout the region; and the modern state of Iran has projected influence throughout the region as well.
In the post-Cold War era, Central Asia is an ethnic cauldron, |
e next appeared in [[1710]] the ''Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge'', which was followed in [[1713]] by ''Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous'', in which he propounded his system of philosophy, the leading principle of which is that the world as represented to our senses depends for its existence, as such, on being perceived. Of this theory the ''Principles'' gives the exposition and the ''Dialogues'' the defence. One of his main objects was to combat the prevailing materialism of the time. The theory was largely received with ridicule, though some, such as Dr. S. Clarke, considered him a genius. Shortly afterwards he visited England, and was received into the circle of Addison, Pope, and Steele. In the period between 1714 and 1720 he interspersed his academic endeavours with periods of extensive travel in Europe. In 1721, he took [[Holy Orders]], earning his doctorate in divinity, and once again chose to remain at Trinity College Dublin lecturing this time in Divinity and in Hebrew. In [[1724]] he was made Dean of [[Derry]].
In [[1725]] he formed the project of founding a college in [[Bermuda]] for training ministers for the colonies, and missionaries to the Indians, in pursuit of which he gave up his deanery with its income of £1100, and went to America on a salary of £100. He landed near [[Newport, Rhode Island]] where he bought a plantation - the famous "Whitehall." On October 4, 1730, Berkeley purchased "a Negro man named Philip aged Fourteen years or thereabout." A few days later he purchased "a negro man named Edward aged twenty years or thereabouts." On June 11, 1731, "Dean Berkeley baptized three of his negroes, 'Philip, Anthony, and Agnes Berkeley' " (The bills of slave can be found in the [[British Museum]] (Ms. 39316). George C. Mason, Annals of Trinity Church, 1698-1821, 51).
Berkeley's sermons explained to the colonists why Christianity supported slavery, and hence slaves should become baptized Christians: "It would be of advantage to their [slave masters'] affairs to have slaves who should 'obey in all things their masters according to the flesh, not with eye-service as men-pleasers, but in singleness of heart, as fearing God;' that gospel liberty consists with temporal servitude; and that their slaves would only become better slaves by being Christian" (Berkeley, Proposal, 347. See his sermon in Newport, preached October, 1729).
He lived at the plantation while he waited for funds for his college to arrive. The funds, however, were not forthcoming and in [[1732]] he returned to London. In [[1734]], he was appointed Bishop of [[Cloyne]]. Soon afterwards he published ''Alciphron, or The Minute Philosopher'', directed against Shaftesbury, and in [[1734]]-[[1737|37]] ''The Querist''. His last publications were ''Siris'', a treatise on the medicinal virtues of tar-water, and ''Further Thoughts on Tar-water''.
He remained at Cloyne until [[1752]], when he retired and went to Oxford to live with his son. His affectionate disposition and genial manners made him much beloved.
==Contributions to Philosophy==
Berkeley's theorizing was [[Empiricism]] at its most extreme. As a young man, Berkeley theorized that we cannot know if an object ''is'', we can only know if an object ''is perceived'' by a mind. We can't think or talk about an object's ''being''. We can only think or talk about an object's ''being perceived'' by someone. We can't know any "real" object ([[matter]]) "behind" the object as we perceive it, which "causes" our perceptions. All that we know about an object is our perception of it.
The object we perceive is the only object that we know and experience. If we need to speak at all of the "real" or "material" object (the latter in particular being a confused term which Berkeley sought to dispose of), it is this perceived object to which all such names should exclusively refer.
This arouses the question whether this perceived object is "objective" in the sense of being "the same" for our fellow humans, in fact if even the concept of other human beings (beyond our perception of them) is valid. Berkeley argues that since we experience other humans in the way they speak to us&mdash;something which is not originating from any activity of our own&mdash;and since we learn that their view of the world is consistent with ours, we can believe in their existence and in the world being identical (similar) for everyone.
It follows that:
# Any knowledge of the empirical world is to be obtained only through direct perception.
# Error comes about through thinking about what we perceive.
# Knowledge of the empirical world of people and things and actions around us may be purified and perfected merely by stripping away all thought (and with it language) from our pure perceptions.
From this it follows that:
# The ideal form of scientific knowledge is to be obtained by pursuing pure de-intellectualized perceptions.
# If we would pursue these, we would be able to obtain the deepest insights into the natural world and the world of human thought and action which is available to man.
# The goal of all science, therefore, is to de-intellectualize or de-conceptualize, and thereby purify, our perceptions.
Theologically, one consequence of Berkeley's views is that they require [[God]] to be present as an immediate [[causality|cause]] of all our experiences. God is not the distant engineer of [[Isaac Newton|Newtonian]] machinery that in the fullness of time led to the growth of a tree in the university's quadrangle. Rather, my perception of the tree is an idea that God's mind has produced in mine, and the tree continues to exist in the Quad when "nobody" is there simply because God is always there.
The philosophy of [[David Hume]] concerning causality and objectivity is an elaboration of another aspect of Berkeley's philosophy. As Berkeley's thought progressed, he may have almost entirely assimilated his theories to those of [[Plato]], though this is far from certain. Luce, the most eminent Berkeley scholar of the twentieth century, constantly stressed the continuity of Berkeley's mature philosophy. This suggests a continuity between the Principles, Alciphron and the rest of Berkeley's philosophical works. Furthermore, Berkeley’s unwavering [[panentheism]] is evidence that counts against a complete assimilation with Platonism, and Alciphron is a development rather than a revision of anything in the earlier works. The fact that the main works were re-issued just a few years before Berkeley's death without major changes also counts against any theory which attributes to him a volte face.
Over a century later Berkeley's thought experiment was summarised in a [[Limerick (poetry)|limerick]] and reply by [[Ronald Knox]];
:''There was a young man who said "God''
:''Must think it exceedingly odd''
::''If he finds that this tree''
::''Continues to be''
:''When there's no one about in the Quad."''
:''"Dear Sir, your astonishment's odd;''
:''I am always about in the Quad''
::''And that's why this tree''
::''Will continue to be''
:''Since observed by Yours faithfully, God."''
In reference to Berkeley, Dr. [[Samuel Johnson]] kicked a heavy stone and exclaimed, "Thus I refute him." But, Johnson only exhibited the commonplace misunderstanding of Berkeley. The only thing that Dr. Johnson knew about the stone was what he saw with his eyes, felt with his foot, and heard with his ears. That is, the ''existence'' of the stone consisted exclusively of Dr. Johnson's ''perceptions''. Other than that, the stone could possibly be anything imaginable: [[atom]]s, [[quarks]], electrical impulses, etc.. Whatever the stone was, apart from the sensations that he felt and the ideas or mental pictures that he perceived, was completely unknown to him and, therefore, was nothing to him. The kicked stone existed as an idea in his mind. Otherwise, it was nothing.
Berkeley's ''[[Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge]]'' was published three years before the publication of [[Arthur Collier]]'s ''[[Clavis Universalis]]'', which made assertions similar to those of Berkeley. However, there seemed to have been no influence between the two writers.
[[Schopenhauer]] wrote: "Berkeley was, therefore, the first to treat the subjective starting-point really seriously and to demonstrate irrefutably its absolute necessity. He is the father of [[idealism]]...." (''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'', Vol.I, "Fragments for the History of Philosophy," § 12)
==The Analyst Controversy==
In addition to his contributions to philosophy, Bishop Berkeley was also very influential in the development of mathematics, although in a rather negative sense. In [[1734]] he published ''[[The Analyst]]'', subtitled ''A DISCOURSE Addressed to an Infidel Mathematician''. The infidel mathematician in question is believed to have been either [[Edmond Halley]], or Isaac Newton himself, although the discourse would then have been posthumously addressed as Newton died in [[1727]]. ''The Analyst'' represented a direct attack on the foundations and principles of [[calculus]], and in particular the notion of [[fluxion]] or [[infinitesimal]] change which Newton and [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]] had used to develop the calculus.
Berkeley regarded his criticism of calculus as part of his broader campaign against the [[religion|religious]] implications of Newtonian mechanics &ndash; as a defence of traditional Christianity against [[deism]], which tends to distance God from His worshippers.
As a consequence of the resulting controversy, the foundations of calculus were rewritten in a much more formal and rigorous form using [[limit]]s. It was not until [[1966]], with the publication of [[Abraham Robinson]]'s book ''[[non-standard analysis|Non-standa |
television series [[Reading Rainbow]].
*Additionally short book, [[Colin the Librarian]] parodies the genre as a whole - the Conan character replaced by "Krap the Conqueror" and "Colin," a socially disfunctional librarian from Earth.
*Independent comic legend [[Dave Sim]]'s '[[Cerebus the Aardvark]]' also began as a Conan parody, Sim modelling his early art style on that of Windsor-Smith. Sim further parodied the famous introductory lines "Know, o prince..." in a two-page story featuring "Arnold the Isshurian", in the pages of the magazine Epic Illustrated #16 published by Marvel. The story parodied both Conan and the [[Little Nemo]] strip by [[Windsor McKay]].
*Yet another popular parody of Conan has been '[[Groo the Wanderer]]' by [[Sergio Aragones]].
*The [[bacterium]] [[Deinococcus radiodurans]] was nicknamed ''Conan the Bacterium'' after the character.
*There are many video games based on the Conan character. [[Rastan]], a coin-op and console game, is an example of these.
*[[The Eye of Argon]], famous as one of the worst fantasy stories ever written, is inspired by Conan.
* Italian metal band [[Domine]]'s song ''The Aquilonia Suite Pt. 1'' from their ''Emperor of the Black Runes'' album is based on the story told in the movie version of Conan the Barbarian. The song is primarily an original composition, but parts of the film score are woven into the song as well. Since the song is titled part 1, the band presumably plans to continue the Conan story on a later album.
* Stoner rock band [[Electric Wizard]] feature Conan in their song ''Barbarian'' from their ''Dopethrone'' album.
* American heavy metal band [[Manilla Road]] did a song based on the Conan story ''Queen of the Black Coast''. The song shares the title of the story, and is found on their ''Metal'' album.
*[[Thundarr the Barbarian]] early 1980's animated series of a barbarian living on a post-apoclytic earth ala "Escape from New York." Thundar would spout Conan reminiscent curses such as "Demon-dogs!" and "Lords of Light!"
* The videogame [[Rastan]] parodies Conan. It even has a King Conan like sequence at the end of the game.
* In [[volleyball]], an overhand hit with the bottom of both clenched fists is often called a "Conan," ostensibly after the sword swinging barbarian.
==Characters==
The following characters have prominent or recurring roles in the Conan series.
* [[Bêlit]], self-styled queen of the Black Coast and captain of the pirate ship "Tigress". ("Queen of the Black Coast").
* Prince Conan II, called Conn, firstborn son of King Conan of Aquilonia by his wife Zenobia. (Conn is a creation of L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter. "Witch of the mists", "Black sphinx of Nebthu", "Red moon of Zembabwei", "Shadows in the skull", "Conan of the isles" as well as the "Conan the king" comic-books).
* Fafnir Demonhand (comics only)
* [[Red Sonja]], a Hyrkanian warrior. Red Son'''j'''a is a character from the Conan comics, and was created by [[Roy Thomas]] and [[Barry Windsor-Smith]]. She was inspired by a R. E. Howard character, '''Red Sonya of Rogatino''' who appeared in the historical story "The shadow of the vulture", set in the XVIth century.
* [[Thoth-Amon]] of the ring, a Stygian wizard of great power and influence. He appeared in the very first Conan story written ( ''[[The Phoenix on the Sword]]'' ) and was mentioned in ''[[The God in the Bowl]]'' and ''[[The Hour of the Dragon]]'' ). L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter, in their pastiche stories, made Thoth-Amon the most prominent adversary of Conan ("the treasure of Tranicos", "Conan the buccaneer", "Witch of the mists", "Black sphinx of Nebthu", "Red moon of Zembabwei", "Shadows in the skull"). In the Marvel comic-book series, Thoth-Amon was also Conan's life-long opponent. He had a striking appearance designed by [[Barry Windsor-Smith]], with a ram-horn ornemental headdress. In the Dark Horse comic-book series, Thoth-Amon is also an important character, but with a more traditional Stygian (Egyptian-looking) appearance.
* [[Thulsa Doom (Character)|Thulsa Doom]] ( Originally, he was a wizard, described as a [[necromancer]] in the [[King Kull]] story ''[[Delcardes' Cat]]'' ). He was a recurring character in the Kull comic-books. John Milius used a similarly-named character as the villain in the first Conan movie. He appears as a skull-faced sorcerer with awesome powers.
* Valeria of the Red Brotherhood, a female pirate ( ''[[Red nails]]'' ).
* Princess Yasmela of Khoraja. She made Conan commander of her country's armies to repel the invasion of a desert horde. (''[[Black Colossus]]'').
* Yasmina, queen (or "devi") of Vendhya. She tried to coerce Conan, then a hill-chieftain, to destroy the Black Seers of Yimsha. Brave and determined, she gained Conan's respect and gruff affection. (''[[The People of the Black Circle]]'').
* King Yezdigerd of Turan (''[[The People of the Black Circle]]'' , ''[[The Devil in Iron]] , "Conan the avenger"). Yezdigerd was also prominent in the Conan comics, in which he bears a scar given him by Conan.
* Zenobia, whom Conan married and made his queen after she helped him escape the dungeons of king Tarascus of Nemedia (''[[The Hour of the Dragon]]'')
* Zephra (comics only)
==Trivia==
* On the subject of Howard and Conan, [[L. Sprague de Camp]] states the following in his book ''Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy'' concerning an interview with [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] : "We sat in the garage for a couple of hours, smoking pipes, drinking beer, and talking about a variety of things. Practically anything in English literature, from Beowulf down, Tolkien had read and could talk intelligently about. He indicated that he 'rather liked' Howard's Conan stories."
==Quotes==
===Quotes from Howard's original Conan stories===
* Arus saw a tall powerfully built youth, naked but for a loin-cloth, and sandals strapped high about his ankles. His skin was burned brown as by the suns of the wastelands and Arus glanced nervously at his broad shoulders, massive chest and heavy arms, A single look at the moody, broad-browed features told the watchman the man was no Nemedian. From under a mop of unruly black hair smoldered a pair of dangerous blue eyes. A long sword hung in a leather scabbard at his girdle. (''[[The God in the Bowl]]'')
* "You cannot escape me!" he roared. "Lead me into a trap and I'll pile the heads of your kinsmen at your feet! Hide from me and I'll tear apart the mountains to find you! I'll follow you to hell!" (''[[The Frost Giant's Daughter]]'')
* Then suddenly the borealis, the snow-clad hills and the blazing heavens reeled drunkenly to Conan's sight; thousands of fire-balls burst with showers of sparks, and the sky itself became a titanic wheel which rained stars as it spun. Under his feet the snowy hills heaved up like a wave, and the Cimmerian crumpled into the snows to lie motionless. (''[[The Frost Giant's Daughter]]'')
* Conan stood paralyzed in the disruption of the faculties which demoralizes anyone who is confronted by an impossible negation of sanity. (''[[The Devil in Iron]]'')
* Conan did not hesitate, nor did he even glance toward the chest that held the wealth of an epoch. With a quickness that would have shamed the spring of a hungry jaguar, he swooped, grasped the girl's arm just as her fingers slipped from the smooth stone, and snatched her up on the span with one explosive heave. (''[[Jewels of Gwahlur]]'')
* "Keep back!" ordered Shah Amurath, watching him narrowly. "Ha!" It was like the bark of a timber wolf. "Shah Amurath, the great Lord of Akif! Oh, damn you, how I love the sight of you -- you, who fed my comrades to the vultures, who tore them between wild horses, blinded and maimed and mutilated them -- Ai, you dog, you filthy dog!" His voice rose to a maddened scream, and he charged. (''[[Iron Shadows in the Moon]]'')
* "...Free my hands and I'll varnish this floor with your brains!" (''[[The Scarlet Citadel]]'')
* "Crom!" his mighty shoulders twitched. "A murrain of these wizardly feuds! Pelias has dealt well with me, but I care not if I see him no more. Give me a clean sword and a clean foe to flesh it in. Damnation! What would I not give for a flagon of wine!" (''[[The Scarlet Citadel]]'')
* "Civilized men are more discourteous than savages because they know they can be impolite without having their skulls split, as a general thing." (''[[The Tower of the Elephant]]'')
* "Did you deem yourself strong, because you were able to twist the heads off civilized folk, poor weaklings with muscles like rotten string? Hell! Break the neck of a wild Cimmerian bull before you call yourself strong. I did that, before I was a full-grown man...!" (''[[Shadows in Zamboula]]'')
* "... you speak of Venarium familiarly. Perhaps you were there?" - "I was," grunted [Conan]. "I was one of the horde that swarmed over the hills. I hadn't yet seen fifteen snows, but already my name was repeated about the council fires." (''[[Beyond the Black River]]'')
* "He grunted with satisfaction. The feel of the hilt cheered him and gave him a glow of confidence. Whatever webs of conspiracy were drawn about him, whatever trickery and treachery ensnared him, this knife was real. The great muscles of his right arm swelled in anticipation of murderous blows." (''[[The Hour of the Dragon]]'')
===''Conan the Barbarian'' movie quotes===
* Mongol General: "What is best in life?" <BR/>Conan: "To crush your enemies, to see them driven before you, and to hear the lamentations of their women." (Note that this is actually a quote |
intendo would enter the video game market. Yokoi was also responsible for the [[Game &amp; Watch]] series of handhelds when Nintendo made the move from toys to video games.
When Gunpei designed the original Game Boy, he knew that, to be successful, the system needed to be small, light, inexpensive, and durable, as well as have a varied, recognizable library of games upon its release. By following this simple mantra, the Game Boy line managed to gain a vast following despite technically superior alternatives.
Game Boy continues its success to this day and many at Nintendo have dedicated the handheld in Yokoi's memory. Game Boy celebrated its 15th anniversary in 2004, which nearly coincided with the 20-year anniversary to the original Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). To celebrate, Nintendo released the [[Classic NES Series]] and a NES-themed color scheme for the [[Game Boy Advance SP]].
==Versions==
The Game Boy console went through several design iterations, without significant changes to its computing power, since its release in 1989.
===Game Boy===
The original Game Boy was released on [[April 21]], [[1989]] in [[Japan]] and in August 1989 in the [[United States]]. Based around a [[Zilog Z80|Z80]] processor, it had a black and green reflective [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]] screen, an eight-way directional pad, and two action buttons. It played games from [[Read-only memory|ROM]]-based media contained in small plastic detachable units called [[cartridge (electronics)|cartridges]] (sometimes abbreviated as carts).
The game that really pushed it into the upper reaches of success was ''[[Tetris]]''. Tetris was widely popular, and on the handheld format could be played anywhere. It came packaged with the Game Boy, and broadened its reach; adults and kids alike were buying Game Boys in order to play ''Tetris'' anywhere. It is considered to be a [[killer game]] for the Game Boy that made it hugely popular. Releasing ''Tetris'' on the Game Boy was selected as #4: [http://archive.gamespy.com/articles/july03/25smartest/index23.shtml Tetris Makes Game Boy a Must-Have] on [[GameSpy]]'s ''25 Smartest Moments in Gaming''.
The original Game Boy was the first cartridge-based system that supported more than four players at one time (via the link port). In fact, it has been shown that the system could support 16 simultaneous players at once. However, this feature was only supported in ''[[MIDI_Maze#Faceball_2000|Faceball 2000]]''.
[[Image:Gameboyline_with_ds.png|thumb|center|600px|From left to right: Game Boy, Game Boy Pocket, Game Boy Light, [[Game Boy Color]], [[Game Boy Advance]](GBA), [[Game Boy Advance SP]], [[Game Boy micro]]. The [[trademark]] '''Game Boy''' became ambiguous to fans of the Game Boy series.]]
;[[Central processing unit|CPU]]: Custom 8-bit Sharp [[Zilog Z80|Z80]] at 4.194304 MHz (has a slightly different instruction set than a standard [[Zilog Z80|Z80]], and integrated sound generation)
;[[Random Access Memory|RAM]]: 8 kByte internal S-RAM
;Video RAM: 8 kByte internal
;[[Read-only memory|ROM]]: 256 [[kilobit|kbit]], 512 kbit, 1 [[megabit|Mbit]], 2 Mbit and 4 Mbit and 8 Mbit cartridges
;Sound: 4 channel stereo sound. The unit only has one speaker, but headphones provide stereo sound
;Display: Reflective [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]] 160 &times; 144 [[pixel]]s
;Screen Size: 66 mm (2.6 in) diagonal
;Color Palette: 4 shades of "gray" (green to black)
;Communication: Up to 16 Game Boys can be linked together via serial ports
;Power: 6 V, 0.7 W (4 AA batteries provide ~35 hours)
;Dimensions: 90mm(W) &times; 148mm(H) &times; 32mm(D)/3.5 &times; 5.8 &times; 1.3 (inch)
====''Play It Loud!''====
[[Image:Game_Boy_play_it_loud.jpg|thumb|80px|right|A black ''Game Boy Play It Loud!!''.]]
In 1995, Nintendo released several colored Game Boy models, advertising them in the ''Play it Loud!'' campaign. This new unit is merely a cosmetic change; specifications remain exactly the same. This new line of colored Game Boys would set a precedent for later Nintendo handhelds; the [[Game Boy Color]], [[Game Boy Advance]] (and [[Game Boy Advance SP|SP]] and [[Game Boy Micro|Micro]]), and the [[Nintendo DS]] all feature different colored units.
====''Game Boy Pocket''====
In 1996, Nintendo released the Game Boy Pocket, a smaller, lighter unit that required fewer batteries. It had space for 2 AAA batteries, which would provide roughly 10 hours of game play. The Game Boy Pocket has a smaller link port, which requried an adapter for linkage with the older Game Boy. The port's design was used on all subsequent Game Boy models up until the [[Game Boy micro]]. The screen was changed to a true black-and-white display, rather than the "pea soup" monochromatic display of the original Game Boy. The first version did not have a LED to show battery levels, but was soon added due to public demand.
====''Game Boy Light''====
[[Image:Gblight.jpg|thumb|right|The Game Boy Light emits a green glow (very similar to an indiglow watch) when the light is turned on ]]
Released in 1997, and only available in [[Japan]], the Game Boy Light was about the same size as the Pocket and had a backlit screen for improved visibility. It uses 2 AA batteries which give it approximately 20 hours with the light off and 12 with it on.
The Game Boy Light was the rarest Game Boy variant outside of Japan at one time, but due to the internet and online auction sites, the console has become widely available and sells in [[Akihabara]] nowadays for round about three thousand yen (approximately $25-26 US Dollars) for the normal model and slightly more for the limited editions.
===Game Boy Color===
{{main|Game Boy Color}}
Released in November 1998, the Game Boy Color (also referred to as '''GBC''') added a color screen to a form factor slightly larger than the Game Boy Pocket. It also has double the processor speed, twice as much memory, and an [[infrared]] communications port. A major draw of the Game Boy Color was its [[backward compatibility]] (that is, a Game Boy Color is able to read older Game Boy cartridges and even play them in selectable color). This became a major feature of the Game Boy line, since it allowed each new launch to begin with a significantly larger library than any of its competitors. Technologically, it was likened to the [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]] from the 1980s.
===Game Boy Advance===
{{main|Game Boy Advance}}
In June 2001, Nintendo released a significant upgrade to the Game Boy line. The Game Boy Advance (also referred to as '''GBA''') featured a 32 bit 16.8 [[Megahertz|MHz]] [[ARM architecture|ARM]]. It included a [[Zilog Z80|Z80]] processor for backward-compatibility support. It was technically likened to the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]] and showed its power with successful ports of ''[[Super_Mario_remake_series#Super_Mario_World:_Super_Mario_Advance_2|Super Mario World]]'' and ''[[Super_Mario_remake_series#Yoshi.27s_Island:_Super_Mario_Advance_3|Yoshi's Island]]''. It has also been accompanied alongside new titles such as ''[[Mario Kart Super Circuit]]'' and ''[[F-Zero: Maximum Velocity]]''.
====''Game Boy Advance SP''====
[[Image:93 phull.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Game Boy Advance SP]]
{{main|Game Boy Advance SP}}
Launched in March 2003, the Game Boy Advance SP resolved several problems with the original model. It features a new smaller [[clamshell]] design with a flip-up screen (protecting the screen, an issue with the original), an internal [[frontlight]], and a rechargeable battery, but was otherwise unchanged. The ''SP'' stands for '''''Sp'''ecial'' [http://www.nintendo.com/consumer/systems/gameboyadvance_sp/faq.jsp#sp]. In mid September 2005, Nintendo released a new model that featured a new and improved [[backlight|backlit]] screen. As of this writing, the Game Boy Advance SP is the last Game Boy handheld to offer backward compatibility with all Game Boy games.
====''Game Boy micro''====
{{main|Game Boy micro}}
[[Image:GameBoyMicro.jpg|150px|thumb|right|The Nintendo Game Boy micro]]
A second Game Boy Advance redesign (third design), the Game Boy micro is four inches wide, two inches tall, and less than an inch deep and weighs 2.8 ounces, by far the smallest Game Boy created. It is slightly smaller than the SP or GBA screens while maintaining the same resolution (240 &times; 160 pixels). The Game Boy micro is not backward compatible with all game boy games. It was released on [[September 19]], [[2005]] in Japan and North America.
<!-- until Nintendo announces it, the Game Boy Evolution is a rumor and a rumor ONLY. Wikipedia (WP:NOT) is not a crystal ball -->
== Other Nintendo handheld consoles ==
There also other Nintendo handheld consoles that not part of the Game Boy line, but have features and structures that make them similar.
===Game &amp; Watch===
{{main|Game &amp; Watch}}
Designed by [[Gunpei Yokoi]], these LCD games are considered to be the predecessor to the Game Boy. There were 58 different games released from 1980-1989. The games also included an alarm clock (thus why it is called "Watch"). The horitzontal orientation was later used for the [[Game Boy Advance]] and [[Game Boy Micro]] and the clamshell design of other games was used for the [[Nintendo DS]]. Numerous Game & Watch games have been re-released through the [[Game & Watch Gallery]] series.
===Nintendo DS===
{{main|Nintendo DS}}
[[Image:BlueSkinnedDS.png|150px|thumb|right|The Nintendo DS, skinned blue.]]
The Nintendo DS launched on [[November 20]], [[2004]] in North America and [[December 4]], [[2004]] in Japan, making it unusual as a Nintendo device to launch in North America before Japan. In fact, its unusual design and touch-screen control distinguish it from the Game Boy line. [[Nintendo]] refers to it as their ''third pillar''; their home consoles, such as the [[Nintendo GameCube]], being the first, and their Game Boy l |
set '''N''' of all natural numbers, because the inclusion map ''i'' : '''N''' &rarr; '''R''' is injective, but it can be shown that there does not exist a bijective function from '''N''' to '''R'''.
==Countable and uncountable sets==
Assuming the [[axiom of choice]] holds, the [[trichotomy|law of trichotomy]] holds for cardinality, so we have the following definitions.
*Any set with cardinality less than that of the [[natural number]]s is said to be a [[finite]] set.
*Any set that has the same cardinality as the set of the [[natural numbers]] is said to be a [[countable|countably infinite]] set.
*Any set with cardinality greater than that of the natural numbers is said to be [[uncountable]].
==Cardinal numbers==
{{main|Cardinal number}}
Note that, up until this point, we have only defined the term "cardinality" in a strictly functional role: we have not actually defined the "cardinality" of a set as a specified object itself. We now outline such an approach.
The relation of having the same cardinality is called [[equinumerosity]], and this is an [[equivalence relation]] on the [[class (set theory)|class]] of all sets. The [[equivalence class]] of a set ''A'' under this relation then consists of all those sets which have the same cardinality as ''A''. There are then two main approaches to the definition of "cardinality of a set":
#The cardinality of a set ''A'' is defined as its equivalence class under equinumerosity.
#A particular class of representatives of the equivalence classes is specified. The most common choice is the [[Von Neumann cardinal assignment]]. This is usually taken as the definition of [[cardinal number]] in [[axiomatic set theory]].
Cardinality of [[set (mathematics)|set]] <math>S</math> is denoted <math>|S|</math>. Cardinality of its [[power set]] is denoted <math>2^{|S|}</math>.
Cardinalities of the infinite sets are denoted <math>\aleph_0 < \aleph_1 < \aleph_2 < ... </math> (for each [[ordinal]] <math>\alpha</math>, <math>\aleph_{\alpha+1}</math> is the first cardinality greater than <math>\aleph_\alpha</math>).
The cardinality of the [[natural numbers]] is denoted [[Aleph number|aleph-null]] (<math>{\aleph_0}</math>), while the cardinality of the [[real numbers]] is denoted <math>\mathbf{c}</math>. It can be shown that <math>\mathbf{c} = 2^{\aleph_0} > {\aleph_0}</math>. (see: [[Cantor's diagonal argument]]). The [[continuum hypothesis]] states that there is no [[cardinal number]] between the cardinality of the reals and the cardinality of the natural numbers, and so <math>\mathbf{c} = \aleph_1</math>.
==Examples and other properties==
* If, for instance, set <math>X</math> is defined as <code><math>X</math> = {a, b, c}</code>, and set <math>Y</math> is defined as <code><math>Y</math> = {apples, oranges, peaches}</code>, then <math>|X| = |Y|</math> because they both have three elements.
* If for two sets <math>X</math> and <math>Y</math>, <math>|X|</math> &le; <math>|Y|</math>, then there exists a set <math>Z</math> as a [[subset]] of <math>Y</math> such that <math>|X| = |Z|</math>.
Such a property allows for the comparison of how many elements are contained in two or more sets without resorting to an intermediate set (''viz''. the natural numbers).
* Within the realm of uncountable sets, there exists a class of sets <math>Y</math> such that <math>|Y| = \mathbf{c}</math> (cardinality of set of real numbers). Such sets are said to have "[[cardinality of the continuum]]."
* It can be proved that there exists no set <math>X</math> such that for any set <math>Y</math>, <math>|Y|</math> &le; <math>|X|</math>.
'''Proof'''. Assume there exists such a set, call it <math>X</math>. Then let Y be the [[power set]] of <math>X</math>, <math>|Y| = 2^{|X|}</math>, from which the contradiction <math>|Y| > |X|</math> follows.
==See also==
* [[Cardinal number]]
* [[Continuum hypothesis]]
* [[Aleph number]]
[[Category:Set theory]]
[[de:Kardinalität]]
[[fr:Cardinalité]]
[[is:Fjöldatölur]]
[[it:Cardinalità]]
[[nb:Kardinalitet]]
[[fi:Mahtavuus]]
[[zh:基数]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cecil B. DeMille</title>
<id>6176</id>
<revision>
<id>42072717</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:08:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zoicon5</username>
<id>15789</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Robert Preston]] to [[Robert Preston (actor)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cecil Blount DeMille''' ([[August 12]], [[1881]] - [[January 21]], [[1959]]) was one of the most successful [[film]]makers during the first half of the [[20th century]].
Born in [[Ashfield, Massachusetts]] to a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] father who was a lay [[Episcopalian]] minister and a [[Sephardic]] [[Jewish]] mother who was born in [[England]], DeMille directed hundreds of [[silent film|silent]] films, including [[Paramount Pictures]]' first production: ''[[The Squaw Man]]'' ([[1914]]), before coming into huge popularity during the late [[1910s]] and early [[1920s]], when he reached the apex of his popularity with such films as ''Don't Change Your Husband'' ([[1919]]), ''[[The Ten Commandments (1923 film)|The Ten Commandments]]'' ([[1923]]), and ''[[The King of Kings]]'' ([[1927]]). Though most commonly referred to by the press as DeMille with a capital "D", DeMille preferred and even signed his checks as "deMille" with a small "d". DeMille's business address for most of his career was 2010 DeMille (capital "D") Drive, [[Hollywood, California]] (which is actually in the adjacent [[Los Angeles]] neighborhood of [[Los Feliz, Los Angeles, California|Los Feliz]]). In either case, the persona of the larger than life showman was reinforced by such affectations and his status as an icon thrived.
Cecil B. DeMille had a keen eye for talent and was known for being an instrumental catalyst for the rising status of many a previously young, struggling, or unknown actor. Actor [[Richard Dix]]'s best-remembered early role was in the silent version of Demille's ''[[The Ten Commandments (1923 movie)|The Ten Commandments]]''. [[Richard Cromwell (actor)|Richard Cromwell]] owed his 1930s movie fame in part to being personally selected by DeMille for the role as the leader of the youth gang in Demille's poignant, now cult-favorite, ''[[This Day and Age]]'' (1933).
DeMille displayed a loyalty to certain supporting performers, casting them over and over in his pictures. They included [[Henry Wilcoxen]], [[Julia Faye]], [[Joseph Schildkraut]], [[Ian Keith]], [[Charles Bickford]], [[Theodore Roberts]], [[Akim Tamiroff]], and [[William Boyd (actor)|William Boyd]]. He also cast leading actors such as [[Claudette Colbert]], [[Gloria Swanson]], [[Gary Cooper]], [[Jetta Goudal]], [[Robert Preston (actor)|Robert Preston]], [[Paulette Goddard]], and [[Charlton Heston]] in multiple pictures. He was not known as a particularly good director, often hiring actors whom he relied on to develop their own characters and act accordingly. He was, however, adept at directing "thousands of extras," and many of his pictures include spectacular set pieces, including the parting of the [[Red Sea]] in both versions of ''The Ten Commandments'', the toppling of the pagan temple in ''[[Samson and Delilah (movie)|Samson and Delilah]]'', train wrecks in ''[[Union Pacific (movie)|Union Pacific]]'' and ''[[The Greatest Show on Earth]]'' and the destruction of a zeppelin in ''[[Madam Satan]]''. He knew what the movie-going public wanted, and gave it to them over and over.
DeMille was one of the first directors in Hollywood to become a celebrity in his own right, performing as himself, long before the likes of [[Erich von Stroheim]] and [[Alfred Hitchcock]] made it fashionable. From [[1936]] to [[1944]], DeMille hosted and even acted as pitchman for Cecil B. DeMille's ''Lux Radio Theater'', which was one of the most popular dramatic [[radio]] shows at the time. Gloria Swanson immortalized DeMille with the oft-repeated line, "All right, Mr. DeMille, I'm ready for my close-up" in [[Billy Wilder]]'s ''[[Sunset Boulevard (film)|Sunset Boulevard]],'' wherein DeMille played himself.
While he continued to be prolific throughout the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]], he is probably best known for his [[1956]] film ''[[The Ten Commandments (1956 movie)|The Ten Commandments]]'' (which is very different from his [[1923]] film by the same title). Also representative of his penchant for the spectacular was the [[1952]] production of ''[[The Greatest Show on Earth]]'' which gave deMille an [[Academy_award|Oscar]] for best picture and a nomination for best director.
During on location filming in Egypt of the exodus sequence for 1956's "The Ten Commandments," the then 73 year-old DeMille climbed a 107 foot ladder to the top of the massive Per Rameses set and suffered a near fatal heart attack. Miraculously, aided by his daughter, Cecilia, but against his doctor's orders, he was back directing the film within a week.
Cecil B. Demille died of heart failure in 1959 and was interred in the [[Hollywood Forever Cemetery]] in [[Hollywood, California]]. At the time of his death, he was negotiating to direct the remake of ''[[Ben-Hur (1959 film)|Ben-Hur]]'' for [[MGM]], and was planning to direct a movie about space travel.
==Trivia==
*Cecil B. DeMille inspired the name of the John Wat |
]'''
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Hitting
|-
! [[Games played|G]]
! [[At bat|AB]]
! [[Hit (baseball statistics)|H]]
! [[Double (baseball)|2B]]
! [[Triple (baseball)|3B]]
! [[Home run|HR]]
! [[Run (baseball statistics)|R]]
! [[Runs batted in|RBI]]
! [[Base on balls|BB]]
! [[Strikeout|SO]]
! [[Batting average|AVG]]
! [[On base percentage|OBP]]
! [[Slugging percentage|SLG]]
! [[On-base plus slugging|OPS]]
|-
| 2,503
| 8,399
| 2,873
| 506
| 136
| 714
| 2,174
| 2,213
| 2,062
| 1,330
| .342
| .474
| .690
| 1.164
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Pitching
|-
! [[Win (baseball statistics)|W]]
! [[Win (baseball statistics)|L]]
! [[Win (baseball statistics)|WP]]
! [[Games pitched|GP]]
! [[Games started|GS]]
! [[Complete game|CG]]
! [[Shutout|Sh]]
! [[Save (sport)|SV]]
! [[Innings pitched|IP]]
! [[Base on balls|BB]]
! [[Strikeout|SO]]
! [[Earned run average|ERA]]
! [[Walks plus hits per inning pitched|WHIP]]
|-
| 94
| 46
| .671
| 163
| 148
| 107
| 17
| 4
| 1,221.1
| 441
| 488
| 2.24
| 1.16
|}
==Trivia==
*For the first 40 years of his life, Ruth believed his birthday to have been [[February 7]], [[1894]]. Most contemporary accounts, therefore, will contain inaccurate accounts of Ruth's age. Ruth continued to use the 1894 date when asked his age, because he was used to it.
*The statue of Babe Ruth at the Eutaw Street entrance of Camden Yards has him holding a catcher's mitt for a right handed player. Despite popular belief, this is not a mistake. The statue portrays Ruth during his days at St. Mary's Industrial School for Boys. In his autobiography Ruth states that lefty gloves were not available.
*Threw and batted left-handed, and was also a left-handed golfer and bowler, but wrote right-handed.
*A member of the [[Knights of Columbus]].
*Spoke German fluently, having learned from his parents, who were the children of German immigrants.
*In 1918, Babe's father George, Sr., was killed when intervening in a dispute at his [[tavern]]. Angry at all the noise some people were making, George, Sr., got into a fight outside his tavern with one of the family members. During the scuffle, he fell and suffered a fatal [[head]] injury.
*In her book ''My Dad, The Babe'', his adopted daughter Dorothy Ruth Pirone claimed she was his biological child, the product of an affair between Ruth and a longtime family friend.
*Played himself in a cameo appearance in the [[Harold Lloyd]] film ''Speedy'' (1928).
*In 1929, the Yankees became the first team to regularly use uniform numbers (the [[Cleveland Indians]] used them briefly in 1916). Since Ruth batted third in the order, he was assigned number 3. Eventually, uniform numbers were associated with players without regard to the batting order. The Yankees retired Ruth's number on June 13, 1948. The first number the Yankees had retired was [[Lou Gehrig]]'s number.
*Ruth's wife Claire was a cousin of [[Baseball Hall of Fame]]r [[Johnny Mize]].
*Some speculate as to how Ruth's home run total would be different if he played under current rules. For example, in 1918 Ruth had a game-ending hit over the fence that was only scored as a triple because rules in effect until 1920 stated that in that situation, only the minimun hit needed to score the winning run would be credited, and there was a runner on first. Today that hit would be scored as a home run. On the other hand, until 1931, a ball that hit the playing surface in fair territory and bounced over the fence was credited as a home run, whereas today such a hit would be scored as a double.
*It is a myth the Yankees wore pinstripes because owner [[Jacob Ruppert]] wanted to minimize Ruth's girth. The Yankees, then the Highlanders, began wearing pinstripes in 1912. They discontinued them for two years, but they brought back the pinstripes in 1915 and have worn them since.
*During [[World War II]], [[United States|American]] [[GI]]'s on [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal]] reported that [[Japanese people|Japanese]] soldiers would shout at them "To hell with Babe Ruth!"
*The Yankees dedicated a monument to Ruth on [[April 19]], [[1949]]. It calls him "A great ball player, a great man, a great American." It now rests in Monument Park at Yankee Stadium.
*In the early 1990s, biographical films were released about Ruth in consecutive years:
:''Babe Ruth'' was a 1991 made-for-TV movie, starring Stephen Lang. It featured [[Pete Rose]] as [[Ty Cobb]]. It also won an [[Emmy]] for costuming. [[Donald Moffat]] played Yankee owner [[Jacob Ruppert]], and would later play Baseball Commissioner and Ruth confidant [[Ford Frick]] in the 2001 film ''[[61*]]''.
:''The Babe'' was a 1992 theatrical film, starring [[John Goodman]], which garnered rather more publicity in part due to the fact he was starring in ''[[Roseanne]]'', a populuar television [[sitcom]] at the time. Goodman, 39 years old at the time of filming, played Ruth between the ages of 19 and 40.
*Ruth's 1919 contract that sent him from Boston to New York was auctioned off for $996,000 at [[Sotheby's]] on June 10, 2005. Most of the money went to an organization that fights world hunger.
*During an exhibition game on April 2, 1931, Ruth and [[Lou Gehrig]] were both struck out by a 17-year-old female pitcher, Jackie Mitchell, while playing the [[Chattanooga Lookouts]] in [[Engel Stadium]].
<table border = 1>
<tr>
<td width = 30% align = center>
Preceded by:<br>[[Ned Williamson]]
<td width = 40% align = center>
[[Home Run#Progression of the single-season home run record|List of homerun leaders]]
<td width = 30% align = center>
Succeeded by:<br>[[Roger Maris]]
</table>
</center>
==See also==
*[[MLB All-Time leaders in Homeruns for a Pitcher|All-Time leaders in Homeruns for a Pitcher]]
*[[Curse of the Bambino]]
*[[Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame]]
*Babe Ruth has been featured in several video games including [[Baseball Stars]] (1988)
*[[Baby Ruth]] (candy bar)
== References ==
*Allen, Maury. ''Baseball's 100''. A & W Publishers, 1981, 316 pages.
*''The Baseball Biographical Encyclopedia''. Total/Sports Illustrated, 2000, 1298 pages.
*''The Baseball Encyclopedia, 10th Edition''. Macmillan, a Simon and Schuster Macmillan Company, 1996, 3027 pages.
*Cohen, Richard M, David Neft and Jordan Deutsch. ''The World Series''. The Dial Press, 1979, 416 pages.
*Creamer, Robert W. ''Babe: The Legend Comes to Life''. Simon and Schuster, 1974, 440 pages.
*Graham Jr., Frank. ''Great Hitters of the Major Leagues''. Random House, 1969, 171 pages.
*James, Bill. ''The New Bill James Baseball Abstract''. The Free Press, a division of Simon and Schuster, 2001, 998 pages.
*Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen, editors. ''The Encyclopedia of World Sport''. Oxford University Press, 1996, 488 pages.
*Reidenbach, Lowell. ''Cooperstown: Where the Legends Live Forever''. The Sporting News Publishing, 1993, 344 pages.
*Ritter, Lawrence, and Mark Rucker. ''The Babe: A Life in Pictures''. Ticknor and Fields, 1988, 282 pages.
*Ritter, Lawrence. ''The Glory of Their Times''. The Macmillan Company, 1966, 300 pages.
*Schlossberg, Dan. ''The Baseball Catalog''. Jonathan David Publishers, 1980, 310 pages.
*''The STATS All-Time Major League Baseball Handbook''. STATS Publishing, 1998, 2696 pages.
*Stout, Glenn. ''Yankees Century''. Houghton Mifflin, 2002, 478 pages.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.baberuth.com/ BabeRuth.com] - Official site
*[http://www.sportslegendsatcamdenyards.com/ Babe Ruth Birthplace and Museum]
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/hofer_bios/ruth_babe.htm National Baseball Hall of Fame]
*{{baseball-reference|id=r/ruthba01}}
*[http://espn.go.com/sportscentury/features/00016451.html Lovable Ruth was everyone's Babe] - article by Larry Schwartz on ESPN.com
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[George Sisler]] | title = [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|American League Most Valuable Player]]| years = 1923 | after = [[Walter Johnson]]}}
[[Category:1895 births|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:German-Americans|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:People from Baltimore|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:Knights of Columbus|Ruth]]
[[Category:Baseball Hall of Fame|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:Major league right fielders|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:Major league pitchers|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:Major league left fielders|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:New York Yankees players|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:Boston Braves players|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:Boston Red Sox players|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:1933 American League All-Stars|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:1934 American League All-Stars|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:1948 deaths|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:500 home run club|Ruth, Babe]]
[[da:Babe Ruth]]
[[de:George Herman Ruth]]
[[fr:Babe Ruth]]
[[hr:George Herman Ruth]]
[[it:Babe Ruth]]
[[ja:ベーブ・ルース]]
[[fi:Babe Ruth]]
[[sv:Babe Ruth]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bacon number</title>
<id>4174</id>
<revision>
<id>40360822</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:29:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Kevin Bacon]], a well known actor, inspired a college movie game called [[Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon]], which is centered around finding the '''Bacon number''' of an arbitrary actor or actress. The Bacon number of an actor or actress is determined by the follow rules:
* Kevin Bacon himself has a Bacon number of zero.
* The Bacon number of actor or actress A is defined to be the minimum of the Bacon numbers of all the actors or actresses with whom A appeared in a movie produced by a major studio, plus one. The most common sign of a film's validity is its presence in the [[Internet Movie Database]].
By this definition, there is at least one IMDb actor with an infinite Bacon number, [[Fred Ott]]. He a |
]]
* 40 [[David Wojcinski]]
* 41 [[Tim Sheringham]] (rookie list)
* 42 [[Nick Batchelor]] (rookie list)
* 44 [[Corey Enright]]
|width="50"|&nbsp;
|valign="top"|
* 45 [[Cameron Ling]]
|}
*[[:Category:Geelong Cats players|Listing of past and present Geelong players]]
*To see full profiles [http://gfc.com.au/default.asp?pg=players&spg=seniorlist click here]
''See also
*[[Geelong Football Club 2004 roster]].
*[[Geelong Football Club 1999 roster]].''
==Notable players==
* [[Gary Ablett]]
* [[Bob Davis]]
* [[Damian Drum]], player, coach and politician
* [[Graham Farmer|Graham 'Polly' Farmer]]
* [[Bill Goggin]]
* [[Ben Graham (football)|Ben Graham]]
* [[Reg Hickey]]
* [[Garry Hocking|Garry 'Buddha' Hocking]]
* [[Ian Nankervis]]
* [[John 'Sammy' Newman]]
* [[Bernie Smith]]
* [[Doug Wade]]
==Famous Fans==
* [[Guy Pearce]]
* [[Douglas Wood]]
* [[Steve Bracks]]
==External links==
*[http://www.gfc.com.au/ Official Website of the Geelong Football Club]
*[http://afl.com.au/ Official Website of the Australian Football League]
*[http://geelong.keldar.net/ The Cattery - Unofficial Geelong Football Club Website]
*[http://p209.ezboard.com/bgeelongcatsmessageboard Cats Claw - Unofficial Messageboard]
{{AFL}}
[[Category:Australian Football League clubs]]
[[Category:Victorian Football League]]
[[Category:Geelong]]
[[Category:Sport in Victoria]]
[[fr:Geelong Cats]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Galileo positioning system</title>
<id>13009</id>
<revision>
<id>41979066</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:35:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.16.66.1</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Galileo''' positioning system is a proposed [[satellite navigation system]], to be built by the [[European Union]] (EU) as an alternative to the US military-controlled [[Global Positioning System]] and the Russian [[GLONASS]]. The system should be operational by [[2010]], two years later than originally anticipated.
It is named after the Italian astronomer [[Galileo Galilei]].
The Galileo positioning system is not abbreviated to GPS; use of the acronym "''GPS''", here and elsewhere, refers to the existing United States system.
Galileo is intended to provide:
* Greater precision to all users than is currently available.
* Improved coverage of satellite signals at higher latitudes, which northern regions such as [[Scandinavia]] will benefit from.
* A global positioning system that can be relied upon, even in times of war.
== History ==
The first stage of the Galileo program was agreed upon officially on [[May 26]], [[2003]] by the [[European Union]] and the [[European Space Agency]] (ESA). In 1999 the different concepts (from Germany, France, Italy and The United Kingdom) for Galileo were compared and reduced to one by a joint team of engineers from all four countries. The system is intended primarily for civilian use, unlike the US system, which is run by and primarily for the US military. The US reserves the right to limit the signal strength or accuracy of the GPS systems, or to shut down public GPS access completely, so that non-military users cannot use it in time of conflict. The precision of the signal available to non-military users was limited before [[2000]] (a process known as ''selective availability''). The European system will not be subject to shutdown for military purposes (though it may still be [[jamming|jammed]] by anyone with the right equipment), will provide a significant improvement to the signal available from GPS, and will, upon completion, be available at its full precision to all users, both civil and military.
The [[European Commission]] had some difficulty trying to secure funding for the next stage of the Galileo project. European states were wary of investing the necessary funds at a time of economic difficulty, when national budgets were being threatened across Europe. Following the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]], the United States Government wrote to the European Union opposing the project, arguing that it would end the ability of the US to shut down GPS in times of military operations. On [[January 17]], [[2002]] a spokesman for the project sombrely stated that "Galileo is almost dead" as a result of US pressure.
A few months later, however, the situation changed dramatically. Partially in reaction to the pressure exerted by the US Government, European Union member states decided it was important to have their own independent satellite-based positioning and timing infrastructure. All European Union member states became strongly in favour of the Galileo system in late 2002 and, as a result, the project actually became over-funded, which posed a completely new set of problems for the ESA, as a way had to be found to convince the Member States to reduce the funding.
The European Union and European Space Agency then agreed in March 2002 to fund the project, pending a review in 2003 (which was finalised on [[May 26]], [[2003]]). The starting cost for the period ending in 2005 is estimated at [[Euro|EUR]] 1.1 billion. The required satellites&mdash;the planned number is 30&mdash;will be launched throughout the period [[2006]]&ndash;[[2010]] and the system will be up and running and under civilian control from 2010. The final cost is estimated at EUR 3 billion, including the infrastructure on Earth, which is to be constructed in the years [[2006]] and [[2007]]. At least two thirds of the cost will be invested by private companies and investors, the remaining costs are divided between the European Space Agency and the European Union. An encrypted higher bandwidth ''Commercial Service'' with improved accuracy will be available at an extra cost, while the base ''Open Service'' will be freely available to anyone with Galileo compatible receiver.
The European Union has agreed to switch to a range of frequencies known as Binary Offset Carrier 1.1 in [[June 2004]], which will allow both European and American forces to block each other's signals in the battlefield without disabling the entire system.
==International involvement==
In September 2003, [[People's Republic of China|China]] joined the Galileo project. China will invest [[Euro|&euro;]] 230 million ([[United States dollar|USD]] 296 million, [[Pound Sterling|GBP]] 160 million) in the project over the next few years (see external link, below).
In July 2004, [[Israel]] signed an agreement with the EU to become a partner in the Galileo project<ref>[http://www.eu-del.org.il/hebrew/6180%20press%20release%20Israel%2018052005.pdf Press release]</ref>.
On [[3 June]] [[2005]] the EU and [[Ukraine]] initialled an agreement for Ukraine to join the project, as noted in a press release<ref>[http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/05/666&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en Press release] </ref>.
On [[September 7]] [[2005]], [[India]] signed an agreement to take part in the project and to establish a regional augmentation system based on [[EGNOS]].
As of November 2005, [[Morocco]] and [[Saudi Arabia]] have also joined the program.
On [[January 12]] [[2006]] [[South Korea]] joined the program.
There is speculation that other countries might join the Galileo project, including [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Brazil]], [[Canada]], [[Chile]], [[Japan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Mexico]], [[Norway]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Russia]]. <ref>http://nww1.com/news/2004/0714israesigns.html [http://www.siliconvalley.com/mld/siliconvalley/business/technology/13124053.htm http://www.siliconvalley.com]</ref>.
== Political implications of Galileo project ==
As well as being an impressive technological achievement and a hugely practical tool, Galileo will be a political statement of European independence from the United States and its GPS system. A strong motivator for an independent system is that, though GPS is now widely used worldwide for civilian applications, it is a military system, which as recently as 2000 had [[Global_Positioning_System#Selective_availability|selective availability]] that may be enabled in particular areas of coverage during times of war. Galileo's proponents argue that civil infrastructure, including aeroplane navigation and landing, should not rely solely upon GPS.
== System description ==
=== Galileo satellites ===
* 30 spacecraft
* orbital altitude: 23222 km ([[Intermediate circular orbit|MEO]])
* 3 orbital planes, 56° inclination (9 operational satellites and one active spare per orbital plane)
* satellite lifetime: >12 years
* satellite mass: 675 kg
* satellite body dimensions: 2.7 m x 1.2 m x 1.1 m
* span of solar arrays: 18.7 m
* power of solar arrays: 1500 W (end of life)
=== Services ===
There will be four different navigation services available:
* The '''Open Service (OS)''' will be free for anyone to access. The OS signals will be broadcast in two bands, at 1164–1214 MHz and at 1563–1591 MHz. Receivers will achieve an accuracy of <4 m horizontally and <8 m vertically if they use both OS bands. Receivers that use only a single band will still achieve <15 m horizontally and <35 m vertically, comparable to what the civilian GPS C/A service provides today. It is expected that most future mass market receivers, such as [[automotive navigation system]]s, will process both the GPS C/A and the Galileo OS signals, for maximum coverage.
* The encrypted '''Commercial Service (CS)''' will be available for a fee and will offer an accuracy of better than 1 m. The CS can also be complemented by ground stations to bring the accuracy down to less than 10 cm. This signal will be broadcast in three frequency bands, the two used for the OS signals, as well as at 1260–1300 MHz.
* The encrypted '''Public Regulated Service (PRS)''' and '''Safety of Life Service (SoL)''' will both provide an accuracy comparable to the O |
called city (''civitas'') in documents of Prince of [[Legnica]] [[Henryk V Gruby]], but no sooner than [[1333]] it gained [[city laws]] (?).
It is located 18 kilometers from [[Legnica]] (east), 26 from [[Boleslawiec]] (west) and 18 from [[Zlotoryja]] (south), 5 kilometers from A4 highway. It has railroad connections to Boleslawiec and Legnica.
The local government-run weekly newspaper is [[Gazeta Chojnowska]], and has been published since [[1992]].
Every year in first days of [[June]], ''Days of Chojnów'' (''Dni Chojnowa'') are celebrated. The Whole-Poland bike race ''Masters'' is organized yearly in Chojnów for the past few years.
Chojnów is an industrial and agricultural city. Among products produced in Chojnów are: paperware, agricultural machinery, chains, metal furniture for hospitals, equipment for the meat industry, beer, wine, leather clothing, clothing for infants, children and adults.
The most interesting monuments of Chojnów are prince of Legnica's castle from the [[13th century]] (currently used as a museum), two old churches, ''Baszta Tkaczy'' (''Weavers' Tower'') and preserved fragments of city walls.
The biggest green area in Chojnów is small forest ''Park Piastowski'' (''Piast's Park''), named after [[Piast dynasty]] as part of Communist anti-German propaganda.
Wild animals that can be found around Chojnów are roe-deers (''sarna'', [[Capreolus capraea]] ?), [[fox|foxes]], [[rabbit|rabbits]] and wild domestic animals, especially cats.
==External links==
{{Commons|Chojnów}}
* City hall home page: http://www.chojnow.net.pl/
* Chojnow Online: http://www.chojnow.pl/
* DMOZ directory: http://www.dmoz.org/World/Polska/Regionalne/Dolny_Śląsk/Chojnów/
[[Category:Towns in Poland]]
[[nl:Chojnów]]
[[pl:Chojnów (miasto)]]
[[ro:Chojnów]]
[[simple:Chojnów]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Canes Venatici</title>
<id>6435</id>
<revision>
<id>40473794</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T20:46:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Possibilty of Planets */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Canes venatici |
abbreviation = CVn |
genitive = Canum Venaticorum |
symbology = the Hunting Dogs |
RA = 13 |
dec= +40 |
areatotal = 465 |
arearank = 38th |
numberstars = 1 |
starname = [[Cor Caroli]] (&alpha; CVn) |
starmagnitude = 2.90 |
meteorshowers =
*[[Canes Venaticids]] |
bordering =
*[[Ursa Major]]
*[[Boötes]]
*[[Coma Berenices]] |
latmax = 90 |
latmin = 40 |
month = May |
notes=}}
'''Canes Venatici''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[hunting]] [[dog]]s'') is a small northern [[constellation]] that was introduced by [[Johannes Hevelius]] in the [[17th century]]. It is supposed to represent the dogs ''Chara'' and ''Asterion'' held on a leash by [[Boötes]].
==Notable features==
Canes Venatici is one of three constellations that represent dogs, along with [[Canis Major]] and [[Canis Minor]]. The constellation's brightest [[star]] is &alpha; CVn, whose proper name is [[Cor Caroli]], named by [[Edmund Halley]] in memory of the [[England|English]] [[Monarch|King]] [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] or his son, [[Charles II of England|Charles II]]. It is of [[apparent magnitude|magnitude]] 2.90.
Y CVn, sometimes known as "[[La Superba]]", is a [[semiregular variable star]] that varies between magnitudes 4.7 and 6.2 over a period of around 158 days. It is a very red star.
==Notable deep sky objects==
Canes Venatici contains five [[Messier object]]s, including five [[galaxy|galaxies]]. One of the more significant galaxies in Canes Venatici is the [[Whirlpool Galaxy]], [[Messier object|M51]] (NGC 5194 and [[Irregular Galaxy NGC 5195|NGC 5195]]), a [[spiral galaxy]] that is seen face on. This was the first galaxy recognised as having a spiral structure, this structure being first observed by [[William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse|Lord Rosse]] in [[1845]].
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:m51.arp.500pix.jpg|thumb|200px|left|M51, known as the Whirlpool Galaxy. The companion galaxy (top of picture) is being disrupted by the gravitational forces of M51.]] -->
Other galaxies in Canes Venatici include the [[Sunflower Galaxy]] (M63 or NGC 5055), [[Spiral Galaxy M94]], and [[Spiral Galaxy M106]],
[[Messier 3]] (M3, or NGC 5272) is a [[globular cluster]]. It is 18&prime; in diameter, and at magnitude 6.3 is bright enough to be seen in [[binoculars]].
==Table of leading stars==
This table lists all stars in Canes Venatici with either a [[Bayer designation]] or a [[Flamsteed designation]].
{| border="1" style="clear:both;" cellspacing="0"
! Common name !! Bayer designation !! Flamsteed designation !! [[Variable star designation|Variable designation]] !! Other designations !! [[Right ascension]] !! [[Declination]] !! Magnitude
|-
| || || 2 || || ADS 8489 || 12h 16m 07.6s || +40&deg; 39&prime; 37&Prime; || 5.66
|-
| || || 3 || || || 12h 19m 48.7s || +48&deg; 59&prime; 03&Prime; || 5.29
|-
| || || 4 || AI || || 12h 23m 47.0s || +42&deg; 32&prime; 34&Prime; || 6.06v
|-
| || || 5 || Var || || 12h 24m 01.5s || +51&deg; 33&prime; 44&Prime; || 4.80v
|-
| || || 6 || || || 12h 25m 50.9s || +39&deg; 01&prime; 07&Prime; || 5.02
|-
| || || 7 || || || 12h 30m 02.9s || +51&deg; 32&prime; 08&Prime; || 6.21
|-
| || [[Beta Canum Venaticorum|&beta;]] || 8 || || || 12h 33m 44.5s || +41&deg; 21&prime; 27&Prime; || 4.26
|-
| || || 9 || || || 12h 38m 46.3s || +40&deg; 52&prime; 28&Prime; || 6.37
|-
| || || 10 || || || 12h 44m 59.5s || +39&deg; 16&prime; 44&Prime; || 5.95
|-
| || || 11 || || || 12h 48m 41.8s || +48&deg; 28&prime; 01&Prime; || 6.27
|-
| [[Cor Caroli]] || &alpha; || 12 || || ADS 8706 || 12h 56m 01.7s || +38&deg; 19&prime; 06&Prime; || 2.90
|-
| || || 14 || || || 13h 05m 44.5s || +35&deg; 47&prime; 56&Prime; || 5.25
|-
| || || 15 || || ADS 8805 || 13h 09m 42.0s || +38&deg; 32&prime; 02&Prime; || 6.28
|-
| || || 17 || || ADS 8805 || 13h 10m 03.2s || +38&deg; 29&prime; 56&Prime; || 5.91
|-
| || || 19 || || || 13h 15m 32.0s || +40&deg; 51&prime; 19&Prime; || 5.79
|-
| || || 20 || AO || || 13h 17m 32.5s || +40&deg; 34&prime; 21&Prime; || 4.73v
|-
| || || 21 || BK || || 13h 18m 14.5s || +49&deg; 40&prime; 55&Prime; || 5.15v
|-
| || || 23 || || || 13h 20m 19.0s || +40&deg; 09&prime; 02&Prime; || 5.60
|-
| || || 24 || || || 13h 34m 27.3s || +49&deg; 00&prime; 58&Prime; || 4.70
|-
| || || 25 || || ADS 8974 || 13h 37m 27.6s || +36&deg; 17&prime; 42&Prime; || 4.82
|-
|}
Source: ''The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.''
== Possibilty of Planets ==
Canes Venatici constellation has been selected a a strong candidate for planets. [[Margaret Turnbull]], an astronomer at the Carnagie Institution of Washington, has recommended SETI's radio telescopes scans. (see [http://www.stltoday.com/stltoday/news/stories.nsf/stlouiscitycounty/story/B9223C0D00A224D38625711A00286766?OpenDocument Is beta CVn lively]).
==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* (12/&alpha; CVn) 2.89 (&alpha;<sup>2</sup>), 5.61 (&alpha;<sup>1</sup>) '''[[Cor Caroli]]''' or '''''Chara'''''?
:*: = The heart of Charles II [the star brightened after his coronation]
::* The brighter star [[Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum|&alpha;<sup>2</sup> CVn]] is the prototype of [[Alpha2 CVn variable|&alpha;<sup>2</sup> CVn variable]] stars (magnetic spectrum stars)
:* ([[Beta Canum Venaticorum|8/&beta; CVn]]) 4.26 '''Chara''' or '''''Asterion'''''? &ndash; nearby star
:*: < &#967;&#945;&#961;&#940; Joy, dear
:* ([[La Superba|Y CVn]]) 4.99 '''La Superba''' &ndash; carbon star
:Stars with Bayer designations:
::
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
::[[1 Canum Venaticorum|1 CVn]] 6.18; [[2 Canum Venaticorum|2 CVn]] 5.69; [[3 Canum Venaticorum|3 CVn]] 5.28; [[4 Canum Venaticorum|4 CVn]] 6.03; [[5 Canum Venaticorum|5 CVn]] 4.76; [[6 Canum Venaticorum|6 CVn]] 5.01; [[7 Canum Venaticorum|7 CVn]] 6.21; [[9 Canum Venaticorum|9 CVn]] 6.35; [[10 Canum Venaticorum|10 CVn]] 5.95; [[11 Canum Venaticorum|11 CVn]] 6.25; [[14 Canum Venaticorum|14 CVn]] 5.20; [[15 Canum Venaticorum|15 CVn]] 6.25; [[17 Canum Venaticorum|17 CVn]] 5.91; [[19 Canum Venaticorum|19 CVn]] 5.77; [[20 Canum Venaticorum|20 CVn]] 4.72; [[21 Canum Venaticorum|21 CVn]] 5.14; [[23 Canum Venaticorum|23 CVn]] 5.60; [[24 Canum Venaticorum|24 CVn]] 4.68; [[25 Canum Venaticorum|25 CVn]] 4.82
{{ConstellationsByHevelius}}
{{ConstellationList}}
== External links ==
{{Commons|Canes Venatici}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/canesvenatici/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Canes Venatici]
[[Category:Canes Venatici constellation| ]]
[[ca:Llebrers (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Honící psi (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Jagthundene]]
[[de:Jagdhunde (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Canes Venatici]]
[[fr:Chiens de chasse]]
[[ko:사냥개자리]]
[[id:Canes Venatici]]
[[it:Canes Venatici]]
[[la:Canes Venatici (sidus)]]
[[lt:Skalikai]]
[[hu:Vadászebek (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Jachthonden]]
[[ja:りょうけん座]]
[[nn:Jakthundane]]
[[pl:Psy Gończe (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Canes Venatici]]
[[ru:Гончие Псы (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Poľovné psy]]
[[fi:Ajokoirat]]
[[sv:Jakthundarna]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวหมาล่าเนื้อ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chamaeleon</title>
<id>6436</id>
<revision>
<id>42044544</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:19:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor |
- ''Il castello dei destini incrociati''
* 1970 [[Difficult Loves]] - ''Gli amori difficili'' (stories from the [[1940s]] and [[1950s]])
* 1972 [[Invisible Cities]] - ''Le Città Invisibili''
* 1973 ''Il nome, il naso''
* 1974 ''Autobiografia di uno spettatore''
* 1975 ''La corsa delle giraffe''
* 1963 [[The Watcher and other stories]] (stories)
* 1979 [[If On a Winter's Night a Traveler]] - ''Se una notte d'inverno un viaggiatore'' (English translation ISBN 0919630235)
* 1980, 1982 [[The Uses of Literature]] (essays)
* 1982 libretto for ''La Vera Storia'', opera by [[Luciano Berio]]
* 1983 [[Mr. Palomar]] - ''Palomar''
* 1983 [[Fantastic Stories]] (stories) - ''Racconti Fantastici Dell'Ottocento: Volume Primo, Il Fantastico Visionario'' and ''Racconti Fantastici Dell'Ottocento: Volume Secondo, Il Fantastico Quotidiano''
* 1983 ''Science et métaphore chez [[Galileo Galilei|Galilée]]'', lecture at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes de la Sorbonne
* 1984 ''Collezione di sabbia''
Posthumous editions:
* 1988 [[Under the Jaguar Sun]] - ''Sotto il sole giaguaro'' (stories)
* 1988 [[Six Memos for the Next Millennium]] - ''Lezioni Americane''
* 1990 [[The Road to San Giovanni]] - ''La strada di San Giovanni'' (autobiographical stories)
* 1993 [[Numbers in the Dark]], containing ''Prima che tu dica "Pronto"'' (Before You Say Hello)
== Quotations ==
===Italo Calvino===
:I set my hand to the art of writing early on. Publishing was easy for me, and I at once found favor and understanding. But it was a long time before I realized and convinced myself that this was anything but mere chance.
:Everything can change, but not the language that we carry inside us, like a world more exclusive and final than one's mother's womb.
:Your first book already defines you, while you are really far from being defined. And this definition is something you may then carry with you for the rest of your life, trying to confirm it or extend or correct or deny it; but you can never eliminate it. (preface to ''The Path to the Nest of Spiders'')
:In an age when other fantastically speedy, widespread media are triumphing and running the risk of flattening all communication onto a single, homogeneous surface, the function of literature is communication between things that are different simply because they are different, not blunting but even sharpening the differences between them, following the true bent of the written language. (''Six Memos for the Next Millennium'')
:Then we have computer science. It is true that software cannot exercise its powers of lightness except through the weight of hardware. But it is the software that gives the orders, acting on the outside world and on machines that exist only as functions of software and evolve so that they can work out ever more complex programs. The second industrial revolution, unlike the first, does not present us with such crushing images as rolling mills and molten steel, but with "bits" in a flow of information traveling along circuits in the form of electronic impulses. The iron machines still exist, but they obey the orders of weightless bits.
:(''Six Memos for the Next Millennium {Lightness}'')
===[[Gore Vidal]]===
:Italo Calvino has advanced far beyond his American and English contemporaries. As they continue to look for the place where the spiders make their nests, Calvino has not only found this special place but learned how himself to make fantastic webs of prose to which all things adhere.
== External links ==
* [http://des.emory.edu/mfp/calvino/cal.html Italo Calvino, Excerpts]
* [http://www.korculainfo.com/marco-polo-korcula-invisible-cities.htm Italo Calvino - Invisible Cities]
* [http://www.comradeche.com/index.php?id=articles/italocalvino Italo Calvino's reflections on Che Guevara]
* [http://www.italo-calvino.com Outside the Town of Malbork]
* [http://www.italo-calvino.com/ifon.htm If on a winter's night a traveler] (A selection from the first chapter)
* [http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/calvaldrada.html Cities & Eyes] (from ''Invisible cities'')
* [http://members.ozemail.com.au/~xenophon/calvino.html Calvino on Myth]
* [http://www.online-library.org/fictions/bet.html How Much Shall We Bet]? by Italo Calvino
* [http://www.sccs.swarthmore.edu/users/00/pwillen1/lit/index2.htm In Calvino veritas] - in this site, [http://www.sccs.swarthmore.edu/users/00/pwillen1/lit/calchap.htm Calvino and Chaplin]
* [http://greatsfandf.com/AUTHORS/ItaloCalvino.shtml Italo Calvino]: discussion of Calvino's fantastic and quasi-fantastic works.
* [http://www.themodernword.com/calvino/index.html Libyrinth (sic): Italo Calvino]
[[Category:1923 births|Calvino, Italo]]
[[Category:1985 deaths|Calvino, Italo]]
[[Category:Italian novelists|Calvino, Italo]]
[[Category:Postmodernists|Calvino, Italo]]
[[be:Італё Кальвіна]]
[[ca:Italo Calvino]]
[[de:Italo Calvino]]
[[es:Italo Calvino]]
[[eo:Italo CALVINO]]
[[fa:ایتالو کالوینو]]
[[fr:Italo Calvino]]
[[it:Italo Calvino]]
[[mk:Итало Калвино]]
[[nl:Italo Calvino]]
[[ja:イタロ・カルヴィーノ]]
[[pl:Italo Calvino]]
[[pt:Italo Calvino]]
[[sk:Italo Calvino]]
[[fi:Italo Calvino]]
[[sv:Italo Calvino]]
[[tr:Italo Calvino]]
[[zh:伊塔罗·卡尔维诺]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ICBM</title>
<id>14938</id>
<revision>
<id>15912460</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intercontinental ballistic missile]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intercontinental ballistic missile</title>
<id>14939</id>
<revision>
<id>40222266</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T01:35:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Marcika</username>
<id>42989</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] typo fix "missles"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:minuteman3launch.jpg|framed|A [[Minuteman III]] missile soars after a test launch.]]
An '''intercontinental ballistic missile''', or '''ICBM''', is a very-long-range (greater than 5,500 km or 3,500 miles) [[ballistic missile]] typically designed for [[nuclear weapons delivery]], i.e., delivering one or more [[nuclear weapon|nuclear warheads]]. It uses a [[Ballistics|ballistic]] [[trajectory]] involving a significant ascent and descent, including [[sub-orbital flight]]. ICBMs are differentiated by maximum range from other [[ballistic missile]]s: [[intermediate-range ballistic missile]]s (IRBMs), short-range ballistic missiles, and the newly named theater ballistic missiles. One particular weapon developed by the Soviet Union ([[FOBS]]) had a partial [[orbit|orbital]] trajectory, and unlike most ICBMs its target could not be deduced from its orbital flight path. It was decommissioned in compliance with arms control agreements, which address the maximum range of ICBMs and prohibit orbital or fractional-orbital weapons. The following nations currently have operational ICBM systems: [[Russia]], the [[United States]], [[France]] [http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/nudb/datab16.asp], the [[UK]], and [[People's Republic of China|China]]. [[Pakistan]] has IRBMs but its ICBMs are under Research and Development see [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction#Missiles|Pakistan's ballistic missiles]].
[[India]] has IRBMs but is developing ICBMs, see [[India and weapons of mass destruction#Missiles|ballistic missiles of India]].
In [[2002]], the United States and Russia agreed in the [[SORT]] treaty to reduce their deployed stockpiles to not more than 2,200 warheads each.
== Flight phases ==
The following flight phases can be distinguished:
*boost phase - 3 to 4 minutes (for a [[solid rocket]] shorter than for a [[Liquid rocket propellants|liquid-propellant rocket]]); altitude at the end of this phase is 150 -200 km, typical burn-out speed is 7 km/s
*midcourse phase - ca. 25 minutes - [[suborbital flight]] in an [[elliptic orbit]], i.e. the orbit is part of an [[ellipse]] with vertical major axis; the [[apogee]] (halfway the midcourse phase) is at an altitude of typically ca. 1200 km; the [[semi-major axis]] is between one half of the radius of the Earth and the radius; the projection of the orbit on the Earth's surface is a [[great circle]] - the missile may release several independent warheads, and penetration aids such as metallic-coated balloons, aluminum [[Chaff (radar countermeasure)|chaff]], and full-scale warhead [[decoy]]s
*[[reentry]] phase (starting at an altitude of 100 km) - 2 minutes - impact is at a speed of up to 4 km/s (for early ICBMs less than 1 km/s).
See also [[Missile Defense Agency]], [[countermeasure]].
== History ==
The [[progenitor]] of the ICBM was the German A9/10, which was never developed but only proposed by [[Wernher von Braun]]. The [[progenitor]] of the IRBM was the German [[V-2 rocket|V2]] (Vergeltung, or "vengeance") rocket designed by von Braun that used liquid propellant and an inertial guidance system. It was launched from a mobile launcher in order to make it less susceptible to Allied air attacks. Following World War 2 von Braun and his lead scientist went to work directly for the US Army through [[Operation Paperclip]] developing the V2 into the [[Redstone]] [[IRBM]] and [[Jupiter IRBM]]. Due to treaty agreements the US was able to base these IRBMs in countries close to the [[USSR]] within strategic range. The USSR had no similar territory in the 1950s so under the direction of [[Sergei Korolev]] a crash programme to develop an ICBM began which at one stage consumed 5% of the entire Soviet military budget. Korolev was given access to captured V2 materials but evolved a distinct design, the [[R-7 rocket|R-7]], that was declared 'operational' in 1957. Competition between the US armed services meant that each force developed its own ICBM programme, slowing progress. T |
fully moved to Houston's [[Jeppesen Stadium]].
==AFL All-Time Team==
In 1970, selectors for the Hall of Fame chose a first and second-team at each position, for an [[American Football League All-Time Team]].
==AFL records==
The following is a sample of some records set during the existence of the league. The NFL considers AFL statistics and records equivalent to its own.
*Yards passing, game - 464, [[George Blanda]] (Oilers, [[October 29]], [[1961]])
*Yards passing, season - 4,007, [[Joe Namath]] (Jets, 1967)
*Yards passing, career - 21,130, [[Jack Kemp]] (Chargers, Bills)
*Yards rushing, game - 243, [[Cookie Gilchrist]] (Bills, [[December 8]], [[1963]])
*Yards rushing, season - 1,458, [[Jim Nance]] (Patriots, 1966)
*Yards rushing, career - 5,101, [[Clem Daniels]] (Texans, Raiders)
*Receptions, season - 101, [[Charlie Hennigan]] (Oilers, 1964)
*Receptions, career - 567, [[Lionel Taylor]] (Broncos)
*Points scored, season - 155, [[Gino Cappelletti]] (Patriots, 1964)
*Points scored, career - 1,100, [[Gino Cappelletti]] (Patriots)
==Players, coaches, and contributors==
*[[American Football League Draft]]
*[[List of American Football League players]]
===Commissioners/Presidents of the American Football League===
* [[Joe Foss]]........... November 1959-April 1966 Commissioner
* [[Al Davis]]........... April 1966-July 1966 Commissioner
* [[Milt Woodard]]...... July 1966-March 1970 President
==See also==
*[[American Football League win-loss records]]
*[[American Football League seasons]]
*[[American Football League playoffs]]
==Earlier AFLs==
===American Football League, 1926===
Roster and Final standings:
* Philadelphia Quakers (Champions)
* [[New_York_Yankees_(AFL)|New York Yankees]] (joined the NFL in 1927)
* [[Cleveland Panthers]]
* [[Los Angeles Wilson Wildcats]]
* [[Chicago_Bulls_(AFL)|Chicago Bulls]]
* [[Boston Bulldogs]]
* [[Rock Island Independents]] (former NFL team)
* [[Brooklyn Horsemen]]
* [[Newark Bears (AFL)|Newark Bears]]
===American Football League, 1936-37===
* [[Boston Shamrocks]] (1936-1937)
* Brooklyn/[[Rochester Tigers]] (1936)
* [[Cleveland Rams]] (1936) joined the NFL in 1937; today's [[St. Louis Rams]]
* [[New York Yankees (football)|New York Yankees]] (1936-1937)
* [[Pittsburgh Americans]] (1936-1937)
* Syracuse/[[Rochester Braves]] (1936)
* [[Cincinnati Bengals]] (1937)
* [[Los Angeles Bulldogs]] (1937)
The Syracuse Braves moved to Rochester in midseason and disbanded during the season. The Brooklyn Tigers moved to Rochester after the Rochester Braves disbanded.
Champions
*1936 [[Boston Shamrocks]]
*1937 [[Los Angeles Bulldogs]]
===American Football League, 1940-41===
* [[Boston Bears]] (1940)
* [[Buffalo Indians]] (1940)/[[Buffalo Tigers]] (1941)
* [[Cincinnati Bengals]] (1940-1941)
* [[Columbus Bullies]] (1940-1941)
* [[Milwaukee Chiefs]] (1940-1941)
* [[New_York_Yankees_(AFL)|New York Yankees]] (1940)/[[New York Americans]] (1941)
Champions
*1940 [[Columbus Bullies]]
*1941 [[Columbus Bullies]]
See [[List of leagues of American football]]
==Footnotes==
#{{note|acho}}{{cite book | author=Jim Acho | title=The "Foolish Club" | publisher=Gridiron Press | year=1997 | id=ASIN B0006QUG20}} Foreword by [[Miller Farr]].
#{{note|ross}}{{cite book | author=Charles K. Ross | title=Outside the Lines: African Americans and the Integration of the National Football League | publisher=New York University Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0-8147-7495-4 }}
==References==
*History: The AFL - Pro Football Hall of Fame [http://www.profootballhof.com/history/decades/1960s/afl.jsp link]
*Loup, Rich (2001) [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/news/2001/01/22/afl_history_1/ "The AFL: A Football Legacy"]. Retrieved August 15, 2005.
==Further reading==
*[[Jack Horrigan]] and Mike Rathet, ''The Other League/The Fabulous Story of the American Football League''
*[[Jack Orr]], ''We Came of Age/A Picture History of the American Football League''
*[[George Sullivan]], ''Touchdown!/The Picture History of the American Football League''
*Ed Gruver, ''The American Football League: A Year-By-Year History, 1960-1969'', ISBN 0786403993
*Sal Maiorana, ''If You Can't Join 'Em, Beat 'Em: A Remembrance of the American Football League'', ISBN 1410749428
*Jeff Miller, ''Going Long: The Wild Ten-Year Saga of the Renegade American Football League In the Words of Those Who Lived It'', ISBN 0071418490
==External links==
*[http://www.RemembertheAFL.com RemembertheAFL.com Website]
*[http://aflfootball.tripod.com aflfootball.tripod.com]
*[http://www.mmbolding.com/BSR/Detroit_Lions_vs_Denver_Broncos_August_5,_1967.htm The Summer of the Little Super Bowls]
{{AFL (1960 - 1969)}}
[[Category:American Football League| ]]
[[Category:Defunct American football leagues]]
[[de:American Football League]]
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[[sv:American Football League]]</text>
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<page>
<title>A.S. Roma</title>
<id>2358</id>
<revision>
<id>42073011</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:11:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Toreau</username>
<id>20188</id>
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<minor />
<comment>+no</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
clubname = Roma |
image = [[Image:As_roma.gif|75px|logo]] |
fullname = Associazione Sportiva Roma<br/>SpA |
nickname = ''Giallorossi'' (Yellow-red),<br/>''Magica'' (Magic) |
founded = [[July 22]]nd, [[1927]] |
ground = [[Stadio Olimpico]],<br/>[[Rome]]|
capacity = 82,307 |
chairman = [[Francesco Sensi]] |
manager = [[Luciano Spalletti]] |
league = [[Serie A]] |
season = [[Serie A 2004-05|2004-05]] |
position = [[Serie A]], 8th |
pattern_la1=_orange_border|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=_orange_border|
leftarm1=B2142B|body1=B2142B|rightarm1=B2142B|shorts1=FFFFFF|socks1=000000|
pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
leftarm2=FFFFFF|body2=FFFFFF|rightarm2=FFFFFF|shorts2=FFFFFF|socks2=FFFFFF|
}}
'''Associazione Sportiva Roma''' is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] club based in [[Rome]]. Nicknamed the ''giallorossi'', it plays in [[Serie A]]. Roma's home uniforms are dark red shirts with dark yellow borders, white shorts and black socks.
The emblem is the [[Founding of Rome|Capitoline she-wolf lactating twins]], symbol of Rome, superimposed a bipartite golden-yellow over red shield; official colors are the same as those of Rome, red for [[Roman Empire|imperial]] dignity, gold for the [[Christianity|Christian God]].
A.S. Roma was founded in [[July]] [[1927]]. The city of Rome already had three teams in the [[Italian Football League Teams|Italian football league]] (Alba, Fortitudo and Lazio), however the Fascist regime wanted to merge the latter into one which the working classes could identify with, the biggest club Lazio considered very much a patrician club of the Roman social elite, and strong enough to challenge the traditional northern teams to reinforce Rome's image as regime capital for propaganda purposes. Lazio management refused to even discuss the matter, but Alba, Pro Roma, Fortitudo and Roman agreed to merge and thus Roma was founded. Roma was named after the city and with the red and yellow strip of the Roman club. The initial stadium was Motovelodromo Appio.
They took part in their first league in the 1929-30 season and won their first scudetto in the 1941-42 season. The second was won in the 1982-83 season and the third in 2000-01. They were runners-up in 1930-31, 1935-36, 1980-81, 1983-84, 1985-86, 2001-02 and 2003-04. They were relegated only once, at the end of the 1950-51 season, returning to Serie A the next season.
The club has won the Coppa Italia seven times: 1963-64, 1968-69, 1979-80, 1980-81, 1983-84, 1985-86, and 1990-91, the Supercoppa Italia in 2001, and the UEFA Cup (Fairs Cup) once in 1960-61, defeating Birmingham City.
In 1984, Roma lost the final match of the European Cup, played in Rome, against Liverpool F.C., after a penalty shootout.
The current stadium is the 82,307 seater [[Stadio Olimpico]], which is shared with [[S.S. Lazio]]. The two teams compete against one another twice each year in the [[Rome derby]], a major and emotional event in Italian football.
==History==
===1950s to 1970s===
After returning to Serie A in 1952, Roma spent the remainder 1950s and early 1960s in the top half of Serie A. From 1963 to 1979, Roma endured a period of frustrating mediocrity with 3rd place in 1974-75 being the best they could manage, punctured by either mid-table mediocrity or flirtation with relegation.
===1970s and 1980s===
With talented players including [[Bruno Conti]], Agostino Di Bartolomei and Falcao, Roma would begin the 1980s in its best position to challenge for the title since 1942. After narrowly missing out in 1981, they finally broke through in 1983 amidst joyous celebrations in the capital. They reached the European Cup final the following year, only to lose to Liverpool on penalties.
They have more or less remained in the top half of Serie A ever since, occasionally mounting a serious challenge for the title. As of 2005-06, Roma have set the Serie A record for consecutive wins, beating Lazio 2-0 in the [[Rome derby]] for their 11th win.
==Current first team squad==
''As of January 2006''
{{Football squad start}}
{{Football squad player|no=1|nat=ITA|name=[[Gianluca Curci]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=2|nat=ITA|name=[[Christian Panucci]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=3|nat=ITA|name=[[Cesare Bovo]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=4|nat=GHA|name=[[Samuel Osei Kuffour]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=5|nat=FRA|name=[[Philippe Mexes]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=7|nat=HND|name=[[Edgar Álvarez]]|pos=MF|other=on loan from [[C.A. Peñarol|Peñarol]]}}
{{Football squad player|no=8|nat=ITA|name=[[Alberto Aquilani]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=9|nat=ITA|name=[[Vincenzo |
title>
<id>4844</id>
<revision>
<id>33361912</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-31T09:25:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ricky81682</username>
<id>125787</id>
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<minor />
<comment>rm double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Symmetry (biology)]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Blood alcohol content</title>
<id>4845</id>
<revision>
<id>41370330</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:22:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mightyfastpig</username>
<id>724799</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Legal Limits */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Blood alcohol content''' (or '''blood alcohol concentration'''), often abbreviated '''BAC''', is the concentration of [[ethanol|alcohol]] in [[blood]], measured, by volume, as a percentage. For example, a BAC rating of 0.20 means 1 part per 500 in an individual's blood is alcohol. In many countries, the BAC is measured and reported as milli''grams'' of alcohol per 100 milli''liters'' of blood (mg/100ml).
Number of drinks consumed is a poor measure of intoxication, because of variation according to body weight. One drink ([[unit of alcohol]]) will increase the average person's BAC to roughly 0.04, but there is much variation according to body weight, gender and body fat percentage. Furthermore, neither BAC nor the number of drinks consumed are necessarily accurate indicators of the level of impairment. Individual [[alcohol tolerance]] varies, and can be affected by genetic or nutritional factors, drugs, other degrees of impairment, and long-term heavy drinking.
Alcohol content in blood can be directly measured by a hospital laboratory. More commonly, for law enforcement purposes, BAC is estimated from breath ethanol content measured with a machine commonly referred to as a [[Breathalyzer]] (even though that is just the trademark of one manufacturer of the devices).
==Legal Limits==
For purposes of law enforcement, BAC is used to define intoxication and provides a rough measure of impairment. Although degree of impairment may vary among individuals with the same BAC, the BAC has the advantage of being simpler to measure objectively, and therefore harder to contest, than impairment of driving.
Most countries disallow operation of motor vehicles and heavy machinery at prescribed levels of BAC, which vary both by country and by situation. In [[Sweden]], driving with a BAC rate of over 0.02 is illegal. By contrast, the policies of the [[United States]] have historically been more liberal; however as of 2004, 47 States and the District of Columbia had adopted a BAC of .08. As of 2005, all states in the US have adopted a BAC of 0.08. In some states, drivers under 21 (the American drinking age) are considered legally impaired at lower levels (a mere trace of about .02) as part of a [[zero tolerance]] policy.
In [[Australia]], the limit is 0.05 in most states and territories, and either 0.02 or zero for inexperienced drivers (learner drivers or those on probationary licenses). It is enforced by [[random breath testing]].
The Criminal Code of [[Canada]] makes the driving limit 0.08% nationwide. Also, in most jurisdictions, police and the [[RCMP]] are authorized to suspend drivers' licenses temporarily if they test at lower levels.
Unless a person has developed a high tolerance, a BAC rating of 0.20 represents very serious intoxication (most first-time drinkers would be passed out by about 0.15), and 0.35 represents potentially fatal alcohol poisoning. 0.40 is the accepted [[LD50]], or lethal dose for 50% of adult humans. For a long-time, heavy drinker, those numbers can at least double. In extreme cases, individuals have survived BAC ratings as high as 0.914, but only with medical attention.
==Metabolism and excretion==
Alcohol is removed from the bloodstream by a combination of [[metabolism]], excretion, and evaporation. The relative proportion disposed of in each way varies from person to person, but typically about 90 to 98% is metabolised, 1 to 3% is excreted in urine, and 1 to 5% evaporates through the breath. A very small proportion (less than 0.5%) is also excreted in the sweat, tears, etc. Excretion into urine typically begins after about 40 minutes, whereas metabolisation commences as soon as the alcohol is absorbed, and even before alcohol levels have risen in the brain. (In fact, in some males, alcohol dehydrogenase levels in the stomach are high enough that some metabolization occurs even ''before'' the alcohol is absorbed.)
Metabolism is mainly by the group of six [[enzyme]]s, collectively called [[alcohol dehydrogenase]]. These convert the ethanol into [[acetaldehyde]] (an intermediate that is actually more toxic than ethanol). The enzyme [[acetaldehyde dehydrogenase]] then converts the acetaldehyde into non-toxic [[acetyl-CoA]].
Many physiologically active materials are removed from the bloodstream (whether by [[metabolism]] or excretion) at a rate proportional to the current concentration, so that they exhibit [[exponential decay]] with a characteristic [[halflife#Half-life in pharmacology and medicine|halflife]] (see [[pharmacokinetics]]). This is not true for alcohol, however. Typical doses of alcohol actually saturate the enzymes' capacity, so that alcohol is removed from the bloodstream at an approximately constant rate. This rate varies considerably between individuals; experienced male drinkers with a high body mass may process up to 30 grams (38 mL) per hour, but a more typical figure is 10 grams (12.7 mL) per hour. Persons below the age of 25, women, persons of certain ethnicities, and persons with liver disease may process alcohol more slowly. Many east Asians (e.g. about half of Japanese) have impaired acetaldehyde dehydrogenase; this causes acetaldehyde levels to peak higher, producing more severe [[hangover|hangovers]] and other effects such as flushing and tachycardia. Conversely, members of certain ethnicities that traditionally did not brew alcoholic beverages, have lower levels of alcohol dehydrogenases and thus "sober up" very slowly, but reach lower aldehyde concentrations and have milder [[hangover|hangovers]]. Rate of detoxification of alcohol can also be slowed by certain drugs which interfere with the action of alcohol dehydrogenases, notably [[aspirin]], [[furfural]] (which may be found in [[fusel oil]]), fumes of [[trichloroethylene|certain solvents]], many [[heavy metals]], and some [[pyrazole]] compounds. Also suspected of having this effect are [[cimetidine]] ([[Tagamet]]), [[ranitidine]] ([[Zantac]]) and [[acetaminophen]] ([[Tylenol]]).
== Test assumptions ==
Blood alcohol tests assume the individual being tested is average in various ways. For example, on average the ratio of BAC to breath alcohol content (the "partition ratio") is 2100 to 1. However, the actual ratio in any given individual can vary from 1700:1 to 2400:1, or even more widely. Thus a person with a true blood alcohol level of .08 but a partition ratio of 1700:1 would have a .10 reading on a Breathalyzer.
A similar assumption is made in [[urinalysis]]. When urine is analyzed for alcohol, the assumption is that there are 1.3 parts of alcohol in the urine for every 1 part in the blood, even though the actual ratio can vary greatly.
Another example is retrograde extrapolation, in which someone's BAC at the time of driving is found by extrapolating backwards from a later test. To estimate how much alcohol has been eliminated in the interim between driving and testing, one must know the rate of elimination. The rate for the average person is .015 percent per hour, although again this can vary.
In addition to the assumptions which affect chemical tests of BAC, there are similar assumptions in field testing. For example, the "horizontal gaze [[nystagmus]]" test estimates the BAC based on at what angle a suspect's eyes begin jerking. The BAC is obtained by subtracting the angle from 50 degrees; jerking at 35 degrees, for example, would mean the suspect has a BAC of .15 percent. Just as with the chemical tests, this is based on the angle for the average person, which doesn't necessarily apply to everyone.
==See also==
*[[alcoholic beverage]]
*[[drunk driving]]
==External links==
*[http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/DrivingIssues/1055505643.html Breath Tester Accuracy]
*[http://www.alcoholcontrols.com/lebaclibyst.html Legal BAC limits by state]
[[Category:Alcohol]]
[[Category:Metabolism]]
[[Category:Alcohol law]]
[[Category:Drunk driving]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bilateral symmetry</title>
<id>4846</id>
<revision>
<id>33328032</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-31T02:21:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TheLimbicOne</username>
<id>676614</id>
</contributor>
<comment>content merged into target article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect[[symmetry (biology)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Barrister</title>
<id>4848</id>
<revision>
<id>42047313</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:53:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>136.206.1.17</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''barrister''' ("[[advocate]]" in [[Scotland]] and the [[Channel Islands]], "barrister-at-law" in [[Ireland]] and elsewhere) is a [[lawyer]] found in some [[Common law]] [[jurisdictions]] who principally, but not exclusively, represents [[litigants]] as their [[advocate]] before the [[courts]] of that [[jurisdiction]]. In this regard, the profession of barrister corresponds neatly to that part of the role of legal professionals found in the [[civil law]] jurisdictions relating to appearing in [[Trial (law)|trials]] or pleading cases before the courts. However, barristers, as a [[profession]], ar |
aving a simple architecture, Berkeley DB supports many advanced database features such as [[ACID]] [[Database transaction|transactions]], fine-grained [[Lock (computer science)|locking]], an [[X/Open XA|XA]] interface, hot [[backup]]s and [[replication (computer science)|replication]].
==Programs that use Berkeley DB==
Berkeley DB is the underlying storage system of several [[Lightweight Directory Access Protocol|LDAP]] servers, database system, and many other commercial and [[Open Source]] applications. Below is a list of notable programs that use Berkeley DB for data storage.
* [[MySQL]] database system - A [[Thread (computer science)|multithread]]ed, [[multi-user]], [[SQL]] (Structured Query Language) Database Management System ([[DBMS]]) with an estimated six million installations. (BDB is one of several data storage backends available for MySQL; others include [[MyISAM]] and [[InnoDB]].)
* [[Subversion (software)|Subversion]] - A [[version control system]] designed specifically to replace [[Concurrent_Versions_System|CVS]]
* [[KDevelop]] - A [[free software|free]] [[C programming language|C]] and [[C++]] [[Integrated Development Environment|IDE]] for [[Linux]] and other [[Unix-like]] [[operating system]]s
* [[Sun GridEngine]] - An [[open source]] distributed resource management system; the most popular batch-queueing job scheduler for compute farms.
* [[Movable Type]] - A proprietary [[weblog]] publishing system developed by [[California]]-based [[Six Apart]]
* [[Caravel CMS]] - An [[open source]] [[content management system]] originally designed for the 2,000+ organizations of the [[Mennonite Church]]
* [[OpenLDAP]] - A free, [[open source]] implementation of the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP)
* [[KLibido]] - A free, [[open source]] [[Newsgroup]] reader tailored for binary downloads
* [[Citadel/UX|Citadel]] - An [[open source]] groupware platform that keeps all of its data stores, including the message base, in Berkeley DB.
* [[Bogofilter]] - an [[open source]] spamfilter that saves its wordlists using Berkeley DB.
==Licensing==
Versions 2.0 and higher of Berkeley DB are available under a [[dual license]] (see http://www.sleepycat.com/download/licensinginfo.shtml). Versions <2.0 are available under the BSD license, which means free use commercially.
==External links==
* [http://www.sleepycat.com/ Sleepycat Software] (makers of Berkeley DB)
[[Category:Open source database management systems]]
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[[de:Berkeley DB]]
[[es:Berkeley DB]]
[[fr:Berkeley DB]]
[[zh:Berkeley DB]]
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<page>
<title>Battle of Grunwald</title>
<id>4707</id>
<revision>
<id>41779374</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T18:15:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jacek Kendysz</username>
<id>466816</id>
</contributor>
<comment>spaces between words</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the 1914 battle at the same location, refer to [[Battle of Tannenberg (1914)]]''
{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Grunwald
|partof=the [[Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War (1409–1411)]]
|image= [[Image:Grunwald bitwa.jpg|300px|Battle of Grunwald]]|
|caption= The ''' ''Battle of Grunwald'' ''' by [[Jan Matejko]], [[1878]]. Oil on canvas.
|date= [[July 15]], [[1410]]
|place= [[Grunwald]] ([[Tannenberg]]), present-day [[Poland]]
|result= Decisive Polish&ndash;Lithuanian victory
|combatant1= [[Jagiellon Poland|Kingdom of Poland]]<br>[[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]
|combatant2= [[Teutonic Order]]
|commander1= [[Wladyslaw Jagiello|Władysław Jagiełło]], [[Vytautas the Great]]
|commander2= [[Ulrich von Jungingen]]
|strength1= 39,000
|strength2= 27,000
|casualties1= Unknown
|casualties2= 8,000 dead<br>2,000 captured
}}
{{Campaignbox Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War (1409–1411)}}
The '''Battle of Grunwald''' or '''Battle of Tannenberg''' took place on [[July 15]] [[1410]] between the [[Jagiellon Poland|Kingdom of Poland]], the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] and their allies on one side, and the Knights of the [[Teutonic Order]] on the other. It was the decisive battle of the [[Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War (1409-1411)]] and the greatest battle of medieval Europe. The [[Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights]] was defeated in the battle and never recovered its former influence.
The few eyewitness accounts of the battle are contradictory. The battle was fought in the plains between the villages of [[Grunwald]] (''Žalgiris'' in [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]), [[Stębark]] (''Tannenberg'' in [[German language|German]]) and [[Łodwigowo]] (''Ludwigsdorf'' in German) in what was then territory of the Order, now part of [[Poland]]. The nearest city of any size was [[Dąbrówno]] (''Gilgenburg'' in German). The names Žalgiris (from Lithuanian: ''žalia giria'') and Grunwald (from German: ''grüner Wald''), are both tentatively translated as ''Green forest''. It was also named in Old Polish as Zielone Pole (Polish ''Green field'') and German Grunenfelde, Grunefeld ''Green field'' in the oldest texts.
The battle is called ''Schlacht bei Tannenberg'' (''Battle of Tannenberg'') by [[Germans]], ''Žalgirio mūšis'' (''Battle of Žalgiris'') by [[Lithuanians]], ''Bitwa pod Grunwaldem'' (''Battle of Grunwald'') by [[Poles]], ''Гру́нвальдзкая бі́тва'' (''Battle of Grunwald'') by [[Belarusians]] and ''Grünwald suğışı'' by [[Tatars]].
== Eve of the battle ==
[[Image:Grunwald_Wojciech_Kossak.jpg|right|thumb|400px|''Grunwald'', painted by [[Wojciech Kossak]].]]
In the [[13th century]], the Teutonic Knights had been invited to the lands surrounding [[Chełmno]] to assist in the expulsion of the ([[paganism|pagan]]) [[Prussians]]. They stayed on, and, under a [[Pope|papal]] edict which gave them effective ''carte blanche'' to act as they wished, established a power base in the region, occupying the [[Baltic sea|Baltic]] coastal regions of what are now [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]] and [[Estonia]], and showed every sign of further expansion. Their incursions into Poland in the [[14th century]] gave them control of major towns such as [[Chełmno]] (Kulm) and [[Pomorze]] (Pommern) region. In order to further their war efforts against the (pagan) Lithuanian state, the Teutonic Knights instituted a series of [[crusade]]s, enlisting support from other European countries.
In [[1385]] the [[Union of Krewo]] joined the crown of Poland and Lithuania, and the subsequent marriage of [[Jogaila]], [[Grand Duke of Lithuania]], and the [[King of Poland|Polish monarch]] [[Jadwiga of Poland|Queen Jadwiga]] was to shift the balance of power; both nations were more than aware that only by acting together could the expansion plans of the Teutonic Order be thwarted. Jogaila accepted Christianity and became the King of Poland as [[Wladislaus II of Poland|Władysław Jagiełło]], which removed much of the rationale of the Teutonic Knights' anti-pagan crusades.
The Knights, however, invaded in [[1398]] again what were now Christians states of Poland and Lithuania. At this time, the Poles and the Lithuanians had little option but to suffer in silence for they were still not prepared militarily to confront the power of the Knights.
In [[1409]] an uprising in Teutonic-held [[Samogitian Eldership|Samogitia]] started. The king of Poland backed up Lithuania and announced that he would stand by his promises in case the Teutons invaded Lithuania. This was used as a pretext and on [[August 14]] [[1409]] the Teutonic Grand Master [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] declared war on the Polish-Lithuanian union. The forces of the Teutonic Order initially invaded [[Greater Poland]] and [[Kuyavia]], but the Poles repelled the invasion and reconquered [[Bydgoszcz]] (Bromberg), which led to a subsequent [[armistice]] agreement that was to last until [[June 24]] [[1410]]. The Lithuanians and the Poles used this time in preparations to remove the Teutonic threat once and for all.
[[Image:Teutonic order charge.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Teutonic Knights, charging into battle. Note the distinct black cross on the white background.]]
The forces of the Teutonic Knights were aware of the Polish-Lithuanian build-up and were expecting a dual attack by the Poles towards Danzig([[Gdańsk]]) and the Lithuanians towards [[Samogitian Eldership|Samogitia]]. To counter this threat, [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] concentrated part of his forces in Schwetz ([[Świecie]]) while leaving the large part of his army in the eastern castles of [[Ragneta]]/[[Ragainė]], [[Ryn]] and Memel ([[Klaipėda]]). Poles and Lithuanians continued to screen their intentions by organising several raids deep into enemy territory. Ulrich von Jungingen asked for the armistice to be extended to [[July 4]] in order to let the [[mercenaries]] from western Europe arrive. Enough time had already been given for the Polish-Lithuanian forces to gather in strength.
On [[June 30]], [[1410]] the forces of Greater Poland and [[Lesser Poland]] crossed the [[Vistula]] over a [[pontoon bridge]] and joined with the forces of [[Masovia]] and the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]. Jagiełło's Polish forces and the Lithuanian soldiers of his cousin [[Vytautas the Great]] (to whom Jagiełło had ceded power in Lithuania in the wake of his marriage to the Polish queen) assembled on [[July 2]] [[1410]] and a week later crossed into the territory of the Teutonic Knights, heading for the enemy headquarters at the castle of [[Malbork]]. The Teutonic Knights were caught by surprise.
Ulrich von Jungingen withdrew his forces from the area of [[Świecie]]/Schwetz and decided to organise a line of defence on the [[Drwęca River]]. The river crossings were fortified with [[stockade]]s and the castles nearby reinforced. After meeting with his War Council, Jagiełło decided to [[outflank]] the enemy forces from the East and continue the march towards Marienburg through Soldau([[Działdowo]]) and Gilgenburg([ |
posed to have been [[Miriam]], a sister of [[Moses]]. The name comes from this tradition: ''balneum Mariae'' in medieval [[Latin]], from which the [[French language|French]] ''bain de Marie'' is derived, although, in the french wikipedia the coinage of the [[:fr:Bain-marie|term]] is attributed to the medieval German philosopher and theologian [[Albertus Magnus|Saint Albert the Great]] ([[1193]]-[[1280]]).
'''Bain-marie''' (or "water bath"; plural ''bains-marie'') is also the apparatus used in the warming process. A similar device is a [[double boiler]].
[[Image:Bain-marie.JPG|thumb|Bain-marie]]
==Culinary applications==
* [[Cheesecake]] is generally baked in a '''bain-marie''' to prevent the top from cracking in the center.
* [[Custard]], for example, may be cooked in a '''bain-marie''' to prevent a crust from forming on the outside of the custard before the interior is cooked.
* Melting of [[chocolate]] for use in topping of various dishes
* Dehydration and thickening of [[condensed milk]] to make several milk-sweets
* Controlled-temperature '''bain-marie''' is recommended to lukewarm freeze-stored [[breast milk]] when timely [[breastfeeding]] is not possible, according to breastfeeding advocates.
==References==
* [http://www.uch.ceu.es/principal/eponimos_cientificos/bano_maria.asp José María de Jaime Lorén. 2003. Epónimos científicos. Baño María. María La Judía. Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU. (Moncada, Valencia).]
* [http://www.washacadsci.org/Journalarticles/ZosimosText.H.S.ElKhadem.pdf Prof. Dr. Hassan S. El Khadem. 1996. A Translation of a Zosimos' Text in an Arabic Alchemy Book. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences. Volume 84. Number 3, Pages 168-178. September 1996]
[[category:alchemy]]
[[Category:Cookware and bakeware]]
[[Category:French phrases]]
[[de:Bain-Marie]]
[[es:Baño María]]
[[fr:Bain-marie]]
[[he:אמבט מרים]]
[[nl:Au bain marie]]
[[pt:Banho-maria]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Belgian</title>
<id>4992</id>
<revision>
<id>22527877</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-04T06:13:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>205.201.7.93</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Belgium]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brabham</title>
<id>4993</id>
<revision>
<id>15903240</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-21T21:54:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rdsmith4</username>
<id>61329</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Brabham Racing Organisation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ballu tundu</title>
<id>4994</id>
<revision>
<id>33166975</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-29T21:29:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.220.128.238</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ballu tundu''' is a traditional popular [[dance]] of [[Sardinia]].
It is usually played in circle.
{{dance-stub}}
[[Category:Dance]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Barbagia</title>
<id>4995</id>
<revision>
<id>29162669</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-24T21:50:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Playnyc</username>
<id>506264</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Barbagia''' is an area of inner [[Sardinia]].
The name comes from [[Cicero]], who described it as a land of ''[[Barbarians]]'' because Sardinians did not shave like the Romans did. The territory was also known as ''latrones mastrucati'', "thieves with a rough garment in wool".
The area is usually divided into three Barbagias: the Barbagia di [[Ollolai]], the Barbagia di [[Seùlo]] and the Barbagia di [[Mandrolisai]]. The latter is named after a sub-region, and the others after their main villages.
The area is full of hard hills, and there is little human presence. In fact, Barbagia is one of the least populated areas in Europe. These facts have allowed Barbagia to preserve its cultural and natural treasures. The language spoken is [[Sardo logudorese]].
One of the most important towns is [[Gavoi]], while the town of [[Orgosolo]] is, unfortunately, famous for bandits and kidnappers. [[Oliena]] has a reputation for its [[wine]]s (especially the Nepente, a kind of [[Cannonau]]). Another important village is [[Fonni]], being the highest town in Sardinia. More than 1000 meters form sea level. Fonni is also the gateway to the Gennargentu mountain system
Sardinia seems to show a close mentality, proud of its peculiarities, and Nugoro expresses this feeling as a typical state of mind. A proverb can explain, better than thousands of words, Sardinian mentality towards foreigners: "Furat chie benit dae su mare" = The one who comes from sea, is here to steal.
Criminality is effectively a relevant local problem, but the diffence of mentality with the Continent (and in general from Western habits) has to be considered while admitting a different social organisation and peculiar popularly felt behaviour codes. What is law on the Continent might be considered a social offense here (e.g. no one here considers it polite to show a personal identity document or to have anyone else's behaviour investigated), and vice versa (e.g. there is a noticeable difference about some words and gestures are considered, especially when considering "Honour" even though this is evident mostly in the smaller town nearby and disappearing).
It has to be noted that in recent times this behaviour is somewhat reduced to folklore, as well as the criminality rates dwindling.
Economy: agriculture, sheep breeding, art and tradition related business, tourism and light industry.
[[Category:Sardinia]]
[[fr:Barbagia]]
[[it:Barbagia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brabham Racing Organisation</title>
<id>4996</id>
<revision>
<id>42043931</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:11:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KnightRider</username>
<id>430793</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>warnfile Modifying: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{F1 team |
Short_name = Brabham |
Long_name = Brabham Racing Organisation|
Logo = [[Image:Brabham_racing_organisation_logo.gif|Brabham_racing_organisation_logo.gif]] |
Base = [[Milton Keynes]], [[United Kingdom]] |
Principal = [[Jack Brabham]] <br /> [[Bernie Ecclestone]] |
Director = [[Ron Tauranac]] <br /> [[Gordon Murray]] |
Drivers = [[Eric van de Poele]] <br /> [[Damon Hill]] |
Test_drivers = ''none'' |
Chassis = Brabham BT60B |
Engine = [[Judd (engine)|Judd]] GV |
Tyres = [[Goodyear]] |
Debut = [[1962 German Grand Prix|1962]] [[German Grand Prix]] |
Races = 402 |
Cons_champ = 2 ([[1966]], [[1967]]) |
Drivers_champ = 4 ([[1966]], [[1967]], [[1981]], [[1983]])|
Wins = 35 |
Poles = 39 |
Fastest_laps = 42 |
Last_season = 1992 |
Last_position = - (0 points)
}}
The '''Brabham Racing Organisation''' was a [[Formula One]] racing team founded by [[Jack Brabham]] and [[Ron Tauranac]]. It was the only [[Australia]]n team ever to carry a World Champion to victory, and the last team run by the driver to win a Formula One world championship.
Founded in [[1961]], the team saw Jack Brabham act as primary driver and Tauranac designing and engineering the cars. Jack Brabham, World Champion of [[1959]] and [[1960]], won his third title with his own team in [[1966]]. This was the first time a driver won a championship in his own car.
Team Brabham's second title was acquired by [[Denny Hulme]] in [[1967]]. Brabham sold his shares to Ron Tauranac in [[1970]]/[[1971]] and the latter later sold the team to [[Bernie Ecclestone]] in [[1972]]. Eccelestone put a young South African Engineer as chief designer, namely [[Gordon Murray]]. Murray designed the cars that would take the world championship in [[1981]] and [[1983]], as well as the sensational but soon-to-be-banned [[1978]] [[Brabham_'Fancar'|Fancar]].
[[Nelson Piquet]] won two of his three World Championships, in [[1981]] and [[1983]], for Brabham.
[[1996]] World Champion [[Damon Hill]] began his Formula One career with Brabham in [[1992]], shortly before the team folded.
Jack's youngest son [[David Brabham]] raced for the team for a short time.
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions|Formula One Constructors' Champion]] |before=[[Team Lotus|Lotus]]|after=[[Team Lotus|Lotus]]|years=[[1966 Formula One season|1966]]-[[1967 Formula One season|1967]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:Formula One constructors]]
[[Category:Motor racing in Australia]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>B-17 Flying Fortress</title>
<id>4997</id>
<revision>
<id>42016928</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:11:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Emt147</username>
<id>545524</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Migration to specs and related contents templates per [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content]] using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- This article is a part of [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft]]. Please see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content]] for recommended layout. -->
[[Image:B-17_on_bomb_run.jpg|thumb|300px|A B-17 on a bombing run.<br><small>''From the [[Maxwell Air Force Base]] website ([http://www.maxwell.af.mil/au/afhra/wwwroot/photo_galleries/aaf_wwii_vol_vi/Captions/012_B-17.htm original image]).''</small>]]
The '''Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress''' was the first mass-produced, four-engine heavy [[bomber]]. It was most widely u |
. [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=32086 itv.com/f1]. Retrieved [[1 September]] [[2005]].
* Rajan, Sanjay. (Dec. 28, 2002). [http://www.sportstaronnet.com/tss2552/stories/20021228004509100.htm It was Ferrari all the way]. ''The Sportstar''.
* ''Sauber: 19 races is too many'' (2004). [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=31568 itv.com/f1]. Retrieved [[1 September]] [[2005]].
* ''Schumacher makes history'' (2002). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula_one/2141834.stm BBC Sport]. Retrieved [[1 September]] [[2005]].
* [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=34780 F1 third biggest global TV draw]. Referenced [[5 January]] [[2006]].
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/motorsport/formula_one/4109292.stm Seven teams boycott US Grand Prix]. ([[June 19]], [[2005]]). ''BBC Sport''.
* Tremayne, David & Hughes, Mark (1999). ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Formula One''. Parragon.
{{Formula One teams}}
== See also ==
* [[Formula One regulations]]
* [[Grand Prix Legends]] (video game, 1998)
* [[Formula One (game)]]
* [[List of international Formula One colors]]
* [[List of racing drivers]]
* [[F1 Racing]] (magazine)
== External links ==
{{commons|Formula One}}
; Official sites
* [http://www.formula1.com Formula1.com] &mdash; The official site of [[Bernie Ecclestone]]'s [[Formula One Management]]; contains schedules, statistics, race results, live timing during each race, and some news
* [http://www.fia.com/sport/Regulations/f1regs.html Current regulations] from the [http://www.fia.com/ FIA website]
; News and reference
* [http://www.autosport.com autosport.com] — Subscription motorsport news, articles and analysis. Formerly known as AtlasF1
* [http://www.f1db.de/ F1DB] — F1 database and statistics
* [http://f1.racing-live.com/f1/en/index.html F1-Live] - News, results, discussion forum, Internet TV coverage
* [http://www.Forumula1.co.uk/ Forumula1.co.uk] — F1 Discussion Forum
* [http://www.formula1review.com/ Formula 1 Review] — F1 news, results, statistics, features, and discussion at [http://www.worldracingforum.com/ World Racing Forum]
* [http://www.formula1home.com/ Formula1Home] - News, feature articles, and forum
* [http://www.grandprix.com GrandPrix.com] — F1 news and a Grand Prix encyclopedia
* [http://www.itv-f1.com ITV.com/f1] — News, pictures, and commentary from [[ITV]], F1's British broadcasters; also from [[Matt Bishop]] and [[F1 Racing]] magazine
* [http://www.mergetek.com/grabmap.aspx?CategoryID=33 mergetek.com] - Aerial Views of Formula 1 (F1) Tracks via Google Maps
* [http://www.pitpass.com/ Pitpass] — News, results, analysis, discussion forum
; History
* [http://www.4mula1.ro Formula 1 History] — All results since 1950, articles, statistics, compare drivers, preview for next races ...
* [http://www.marinadiospedaletti.it Ospedaletti Circuit] — Ospedaletti Circuit - GP Sanremo -
; IRC
* [irc://irc.quakenet.org/f1 #F1] — Formula 1 support channel in [[QuakeNet]] [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] Network. You can find from there GP weekend commentary, the newest news, pics, gossips and much more.
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Formula One|Formula One]]
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[[bg:Формула 1]]
[[ca:Fórmula 1]]
[[cs:Formule 1]]
[[da:Formel 1]]
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[[eo:Formulo Unu]]
[[fa:فرمول یک]]
[[fr:Formule 1]]
[[ga:Foirmla a hAon]]
[[gl:Fórmula 1]]
[[ko:포뮬라 원]]
[[hr:Formula 1]]
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[[he:פורמולה 1]]
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[[pt:Fórmula 1]]
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[[ta:பார்முலா 1]]
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[[zh:一级方程式赛车]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Franco Baresi</title>
<id>10855</id>
<revision>
<id>40340478</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T22:48:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Attilios</username>
<id>428795</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Baresi.jpg|thumb|180px|Baresi (right), marking [[Diego Maradona]] at the 1990 World Cup.]]
'''Franco Baresi''' (born [[May 8]], [[1960]] in [[Travagliato]], [[province of Brescia]]) is an [[Italy|Italian]] youth team [[Coach (sport)|coach]] and former [[Football (soccer)|football]] player with [[A.C. Milan]].
He is regarded as one of the finest [[Football (soccer) positions#Sweeper|sweepers]] in history. He is also one of the few players who has spent his [[One club man|entire career]] at one club, A.C. Milan, for whom he played 444 games, scoring 12 goals.
He retired from playing in [[1996]] aged 36. With Milan, Baresi won six ''scudetti'' ([[Serie A]] league titles) and three [[UEFA Champions League|European Cups]]. He mentored defensive partner [[Paolo Maldini]] in his later years, whose career has followed a similar path. His #6 jersey was retired by the club, a rarity for Italian soccer. After a short spell as Director Football at [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham]], Baresi retuened to Milan as a youth team coach in [[2002]].
Internationally, Baresi played in two [[Football World Cup|World Cups]] for [[Italy national football team|Italy]]. After missing out on the [[Football World Cup 1982|1982]] and [[Football World Cup 1982|1986]] competitions, he finally made his World Cup debut in [[Football World Cup 1990|1990]] when Italy were the hosts. The Azzurri lost to [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] in the semi-finals, but went on to beat [[England national football team|England]] in the third place play off.
In [[Football World Cup 1994|1994]] he was one step closer to lifting the trophy, losing to [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] in the final. He missed a penalty in the [[Penalty shootout (football)|shootout]] after the 0-0 full-time score. He was also a member of the Italian squad that finished fourth at the [[1984 Summer Olympics]] in [[Los Angeles, California]].
His brother [[Giuseppe Baresi]] played for bitter rivals [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]].
[[Category:1960 births|Baresi, Franco]]
[[Category:Living people|Baresi, Franco]]
[[Category:Natives of Lombardy|Baresi, Franco]]
[[Category:FIFA 100|Baresi, Franco]]
[[Category:Olympic competitors for Italy|Baresi, Franco]]
[[Category:Italian footballers|Baresi, Franco]]
[[Category:A.C. Milan players|Baresi, Franco]]
[[Category:Fulham F.C.|Baresi]]
[[bg:Франко Барези]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Famous quotations</title>
<id>10856</id>
<revision>
<id>15908647</id>
<timestamp>2004-05-20T14:14:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SimonP</username>
<id>1591</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[quotation]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[quotation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Faunal stage</title>
<id>10857</id>
<revision>
<id>32796331</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-26T20:51:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>88.106.251.90</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>form</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Faunal stages''' are a subdivision of [[geologic timescale|geologic time]] used primarily by [[paleontologist]]s who study [[fossil]]s rather than by [[geologist]]s who study rock formations. Typically, a faunal stage will consist of a series of rocks that contain similar fossils. There will be one or more [[index fossil]]s that are usually common, easily recognized, and limited to a single, or at most a few, stages. Thus, for example, a North American paleontologist finding fragments of the [[trilobite]] ''Olenellus'' would identify the beds as being from the [[Waucoban Stage]] whereas fragments of a later trilobite such as ''Elrathia'' would identify the stage as [[Albertan Stage|Albertan]].
Faunal stages were very important in the 19th and early 20th Century as they were the major tool available for dating rock beds until the development of [[seismology]] and [[radioactive dating]] in the second half of the 20th Century.
Faunal stages are regional. They often include many formations of differing rock types that were being laid down in different environments at the same time. In recent years, regional and global correlations of rock sequences have become relatively certain and there is less need for faunal labels to refine the age of formations. There has been a tendency to use European and, to a lesser extent, Asian, stage names for the same time period world wide even though the faunas in other regions may have little in common with the stage as originally defined.
==See also==
*[[Body form]]
[[Category:Geologic time scale]]
[[el:Φάση πανίδας]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Franz Kafka</title>
<id>10858</id>
<revision>
<id>42085685</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:00:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/205.222.248.184|205.222.248.184]] ([[User talk:205.222.248.184|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography
|subject_name=Franz Kafka
|image_name=Kafka_aprox1917_small.jpg
|image_caption=
|date_of_birth=[[July 3]], [[1883]]
|place_of_birth=[[Prague]], [[Austria-Hungary]] (today in the [[Czech Republic]])
|dead=dead
|date_of_death=[[June 3]], [[1924]]
|place_of_death=[[Vienna]], [[Austria]]}}
:''"Kafka" redirects here. For other uses, see [ |
<id>41616027</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:14:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Puttypeg</username>
<id>243018</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Table_Greekletters|letter=iota}}
:''For the esoteric programming language, see [[Iota and Jot]].''
'''Iota''' (upper case &Iota;, lower case &iota;) is the ninth letter of the [[Greek alphabet]]. In the system of [[Greek numerals]] it has a value of 10.
Iota is pronounced like a 'continental' i or English ee. In ancient Greek it occurred in both long and short versions, but this distinction has been lost in Modern Greek.
Upsilon participated as the second element in [[falling diphthong]]s, with both long and short vowels as the first element. Where the first element was long, the iota was lost in pronunciation at an early date, and was written in [[polytonic orthography]] as '''[[iota subscript]]''' in other words as a very small &iota; under the main vowel, for instance {{polytonic|&#8124; &#8115; &#8140; &#8131; &#8188; &#8179;}}
The word iota is also used in [[English language|English]] to express a very small amount, because iota is the smallest letter in the Greek alphabet.
The word is also used in a common English phrase, 'not one iota of difference', to signify a meaningless distinction. The phrase derives from [[Matthew 5:18]], and became common in the [[theology|theological]] debate which arose around the time of the [[Nicene Creed]], regarding the nature of the [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]]. The argument centered on which of two alternative Greek words, differing only in a single 'iota' letter, should be used in describing [[Jesus]]'s relationship to the Holy Trinity. One word, 'homo', would mean that Jesus was of the ''same'' substance as God the Father, and the other 'homoi', would mean that Jesus was of ''similar'' substance.
The Iota symbol is used to sort items in the [[APL programming language]].
The lowercase Iota symbol is sometimes used to write the [[imaginary unit]] but more often latin [[i]] or latin [[j]] are used.
Letters that arose from Iota include the Roman [[I]] and [[J]].
[[Category:Greek letters]]
[[als:Ι]]
[[ca:Iota]]
[[da:Iota]]
[[de:Iota]]
[[el:Ιώτα]]
[[es:Ι]]
[[fr:Iota]]
[[ga:Ióta]]
[[ko:Ι]]
[[he:יוטא]]
[[nl:Iota]]
[[ja:Ι]]
[[pl:Jota (litera)]]
[[pt:Ι]]
[[sv:Jota]]
[[zh:Ι]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ISP</title>
<id>14780</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>34807233</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-11T21:43:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chealer</username>
<id>25824</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removed useless link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''ISP''' may mean:
* [[Internet service provider]], an organization that offers users access to the Internet and related services.
* [[Information Systems Professional]], an [[Information Technology]] title and post-nominal. Proper usage is "I.S.P.".
* [[In-System Programming]], a way to configure programmable logic devices while they are installed in a larger system.
* Islip/Long Island [[MacArthur Airport]], ISP being the IATA Airport Code for it.
* [[Independent Solutions Provider]], provides solutions associated with a product or a final service to the client.
* [[Specific impulse]], represented by ''I<sub>sp</sub>'', term used to describe rocket thrust.
* Illinois State Police, Law enforcement agencies across Illinois.
* The [[Invisibl Skratch Piklz]], a pioneering group of turntable artists in the early [[1990s]] that featured notable DJs such as [[Mix Master Mike]] and [[DJ Q-bert]].
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:ISP]]
[[ja:ISP]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Erectile dysfunction</title>
<id>14783</id>
<revision>
<id>41942097</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:59:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arcadian</username>
<id>104523</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Impotence of organic origin |
ICD10 = N48.4 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|607.84}} |
}}
'''Erectile dysfunction''', also known as '''impotence''', is a [[sexual dysfunction]] characterized by the inability to develop or maintain an [[erection]] of the [[penis]] for satisfactory [[sexual intercourse]] regardless of the capability of [[Male ejaculation|ejaculation]]. There are various underlying causes, including Type 1 diabetes, many of which are medically reversible.
Due to its personal nature, the subject has been [[taboo]] for a long time, and is the stuff of many [[urban legend]]s. Since the [[1930s]], folk remedies have been advertised widely for the condition. The introduction of [[sildenafil]] (Viagra&reg;) in the [[1990s]] caused a second wave of public attention, propelled in part by heavy advertising.
The Latin term ''impotentia coeundi'' describes simple inability to insert the penis into the [[vagina]]. It is now mostly replaced by more precise terms.
==Medical symptoms==
Erectile dysfunction is characterized by the inability to maintain [[erection]]. Normal erections during sleep and in the early morning suggest a psychogenic cause, while loss of these erections may signify underlying disease, often [[cardiovascular]] in origin. Other things leading to erectile dysfunction are [[diabetes mellitus]] (causing [[neuropathy]]) or [[hypogonadism]] (decreased [[testosterone]] levels due to disease affecting the [[testicle]]s or the [[pituitary gland]]).
==Medical diagnosis==
There are no formal tests to diagnose erectile dysfunction. Some [[blood test]]s are generally done to exclude underlying disease, such as [[diabetes]], [[hypogonadism]] and [[prolactinoma]].
==Clinical tests used to diagnose ED==
===Duplex ultrasound===
Duplex ultrasound is used to evaluate blood flow, venous leak, signs of atherosclerosis, and scarring or calcification of erectile tissue. Injecting prostaglandin, a hormone-like stimulator produced in the body, induces erection. Ultrasound is then used to see vascular dilation and measure penile blood pressure. Measurements are compared to those taken when the penis is flaccid.
===Penile nerves function===
Tests such as the bulbocavernosus reflex test are used to determine if there is sufficient nerve sensation in the penis. The physician squeezes the glans (head) of the penis, which immediately causes the anus to contract if nerve function is normal. A physician measures the latency between squeeze and contraction by observing the anal sphincter or by feeling it with a gloved finger inserted past the anus. Specific nerve tests are used in patients with suspected nerve damage as a result of diabetes or nerve disease.
===Nocturnal penile tumescence (NPT)===
It is normal for a man to have five to six erections during sleep, especially during rapid eye movement (REM). Their absence may indicate a problem with nerve function or blood supply in the penis. There are two methods for measuring changes in penile rigidity and circumference during nocturnal erection: snap gauge and strain gauge.
===Penile biothesiometry===
This test uses electromagnetic vibration to evaluate sensitivity and nerve function in the glans and shaft of the penis. A decreased perception of vibration may indicate nerve damage in the pelvic area, which can lead to impotence.
==Pathophysiology==
Penile erection is managed by two different mechanisms. The first one is the reflex erection, which is achieved by directly touching the penile shaft. The second is the psychogenic erection, which is achieved by erotic stimuli. The former uses the peripheral nerves and the lower parts of the spinal cord, whereas the latter uses the [[limbic system]] of the [[brain]]. In both conditions an intact neural system is required for a successful and complete erection. Stimulation of penile shaft by the [[nervous system]] leads to the secretion of [[nitric oxide]] (NO), which causes the relaxation of smooth muscles of corpora cavernosa (the main erectile tissue of penis), and subsequently penile erection. Additionally, adequate levels of [[testosterone]] (produced by the [[testes]]) and an intact [[pituitary gland]] are required for the development of a healthy male erectile system. As can be understood from the mechanisms of a normal erection, impotence may develop due to hormonal deficiency, disorders of the neural system, lack of adequate penile blood supply or psychological problems.
A few causes of impotence may be [[iatrogenic]] (medically caused). Various [[antihypertensive]]s (medications intended to control [[arterial hypertension|high blood pressure]]) and some drugs that modify [[central nervous system]] response may inhibit erection by denying blood supply or by altering nerve activity. Antidepressants, especially SSRIs, can cause impotence as a side effect. Surgical intervention for a number of different conditions may remove anatomical structures necessary to erection, damage nerves, or impair blood supply. Some studies have shown that [[male circumcision]] may result in an increased risk of impotence, [http://www.cirp.org/library/complications/palmer/] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=14979200&dopt=Abstract] while others have found no such effect, [http://www.circs.org/library/senkul/] [http://www.circs.org/library/collins/] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16037710&query_hl=13], and another found the opposite. [http://www.circs.org/library/laumann/]
==Treatment==
Treatment depends on the cause. Testosterone supplements may be used for cases with hormonal deficiency. However, usually the cause is lack of adequate penile |
opposed view. Developing the Socratic idea that moral evil is a result of ignorance, the Stoic philosophers had argued that one’s “true” conscience – and hence virtue – could only be attained by freeing oneself from irrationality and passions, through the stern self-control that is typical of wise men. This principle was then fitted into the Christian framework of original sin and the need for “outside” redemption, to produce the idea that on many occasions external specific coercion could and should take the place of self-control in setting ordinary people free from their sinful tendencies. Almost paradoxically, personal spiritual freedom came thus to be often based on specific thought coercion by the inspired few,
This alternative approach has percolated far beyond the religious field, and is shared to-day by all those who think they have a privileged access to “true” conscience, thanks to divine revelation, superior “scientific” knowledge or some other special circumstance. A part from religious principles, the “true” conscience involved may be class-consciousness, patriotism, altruism, “social” values, political correctness or any other strongly held ethical world-view. The common element is the firm belief that coercion – ranging from legal State-coercion to terrorism – can and should be used to realize “true” freedom for all.
==Examples of coercion in media==
* In the first season of ''[[24 (television)|24]]'', [[Jack Bauer]] was coerced into assisting a political assassination, by threat of harm to his wife and daughter.
* By threat of [[blackmail]], the five main characters in ''[[The Usual Suspects]]'' are coerced into paying back a debt to [[Keyser Soze]].
* In ''[[The Empire Strikes Back]]'', [[Lando Calrissian]] is coerced by [[Darth Vader]] into [[double cross|double crossing]] [[Han Solo]], as bait to trap [[Luke Skywalker]].
==References==
*Anderson, Scott A. (undated), "Towards a Better Theory of Coercion, and a Use for It", The University of Chicago [http://ptw.uchicago.edu/Anderson02.pdf]
*Hayek, Friedrich A. (1960) ‘’The Constitution of Liberty’’, University of Chicago Press.
*Hodgkin, Thomas (1886) (trans.) ‘’Letters of Cassiodorus’’, London: H. Frowde.
*Lifton, Robert J. (1961) ‘’Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism’’, Penguin Books.
*Popper, Karl R. (1945) ''The Open Society and Its Enemies''
*Rhodes, Michael R. (2000), "The Nature of Coercion", ''Journal of Value Inquiry'', 34 (2/3)
*Rothbard, Murray N. (1982), "F. A. Hayek and the Concept of Coercion", in ‘’The Ethics of Liberty'', Humanities Press [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/ethics/twentyeight.asp]
[[Category:Freedom]]
[[Category:Legal terms]]
[[Category:Liberalism]]
[[Category:Political ideology entry points]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Psychological abuse]]
[[Category:Social philosophy]]
[[de:Nötigung]]
[[es:Coerción]]
[[fr:Coercition]]
[[ja:強制]]
[[ru:Насилие]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Client-server</title>
<id>6513</id>
<revision>
<id>40558848</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T12:25:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chobot</username>
<id>259798</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: ko</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Client/Server''' is a [[Computer network|network]] architecture which separates the [[client (computing)|client]] (often a [[graphical user interface]]) from the [[server]]. Each instance of the client software can send requests to a server or [[application server]].
Although this idea is applied in a variety of ways, on many different kinds of [[Application software|applications]], the easiest example to visualize is the current use of web pages on the internet. For example, if you are reading this article on Wikipedia, your [[computer]] and [[web browser]] would be considered a ''client'', and the computers , [[Database|databases]], and applications that make up the Wikipedia would be considered the ''server''. When your web browser requests a particular article from Wikipedia, the Wikipedia server finds all of the information required to display the article in the Wikipedia database, assembles it into a web page, and sends it back to your web browser for you to look at.
== Introduction ==
A Client/Server architecture is intended to provide a scalable architecture, whereby each computer or process on the network is either a client or a server. Server software generally, but not always, runs on powerful computers dedicated for exclusive use to running the business application. Client software on the other hand generally runs on common PCs or workstations. Clients get all or most of their information and rely on the application server for things such as configuration files, stock quotes, business application programs, or to offload computer-intensive application tasks back to the server in order to keep the client computer (and client computer user) free to perform other tasks.
Properties of a server:
* Passive (Slave)
* Waiting for requests
* On requests serves them and send a reply
Properties of a client:
* Active (Master)
* Sending requests
* Waits until reply arrives
Servers can be stateless or stateful. A stateless server does not keep any information between requests. Example: An HTTP server for static HTML pages. A stateful server can remember information between requests. The scope of this information can be global or session. Example: Apache Tomcat.
The interaction between client and server is often described using [[Unified_Modeling_Language#Sequence_Diagram|sequence diagrams]]. Sequence diagrams are standardized in the [[Unified Modeling Language|UML]].
Another type of network architecture is known as a [[peer-to-peer]] architecture because each node or instance of the program is both a "client" and a "server" and each has equivalent responsibilities. Both client/server and peer-to-peer architectures are in wide use. Each has advantages and disadvantages..
== Multi-tier architectures ==
A generic Client/Server architecture has two types of nodes on the network: clients and servers. As a result, these generic architectures are sometimes referred to as "two-tier" architectures.
Some networks will consist of three different kinds of nodes, clients, [[Application server|application servers]] which process data for the clients, and [[Database server|database servers]] which store data for the application servers. This is called a [[three-tier architecture]].
In general, an n-tier or [[multi-tier architecture]] may deploy any number of distinct services, including transitive relations between application servers implementing different functions of business logic, each of which may or may not employ a distinct or shared database system.
The advantage of an n-tier architecture compared with a two-tier architecture (or a three-tier with a two-tier) is that it separates out the processing that occurs to better balance the load on the different servers; it is more scalable.
The disadvantages of n-tier architectures are:
# It puts a greater load on the network.
# It is much more difficult to program and test software than in two-tier architecture because more devices have to communicate to complete a user’s transaction.
== Addressing ==
Methods of addressing in client server environments can be described as follows
* Machine process addressing; where the address is divided up as follows process@machine. Therefore 56@453 would indicate the process 56 on computer 453
* Name Server; Name servers have an index of all names and addresses of servers in the relevant domain.
* Localization packets; Broadcast messages are sent out to all computers in the distributed system to determine the address of the destination computer
* Trader; A trader is a system that indexes all the services available in a distributed system. A computer requiring a particular service will check with the trading service for the address of a computer providing such a service.
== Examples ==
A popular client in widespread use today is the web browser which communicates with web servers over the internet to fetch and display web page content.
The [[X Window System]] is a client-server architecture with an unusual property. The server is always local (near the user) and the client can be local or remote. This can be less confusing if you think of the server (the X display) as making some resource available (a windowing display system) and the client as making use of that resource.
==See also==
* [[server]]
* [[servent]]
*[[thin client]]
*[[fat client]]
*[[game client]]
*[[Client/SOA]]
*[[application server]]
== Other Network Architectures==
* [[multitier architecture]]
* [[Peer-to-peer]]
[[Category:Computer networks]]
[[Category:Software architecture]]
[[bg:Клиент-сървър]]
[[de:Client-Server-System]]
[[es:Cliente-servidor]]
[[fa:مشتری-خادم]]
[[fr:Client-serveur]]
[[ko:클라이언트-서버]]
[[it:Sistema client/server]]
[[he:שרת לקוח]]
[[nl:Client-servermodel]]
[[pl:Klient-serwer]]
[[pt:Cliente-servidor]]
[[sv:Klient–server]]
[[zh:客户端-服务器]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>County Dublin</title>
<id>6514</id>
<revision>
<id>41897661</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T13:25:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CarolGray</username>
<id>239028</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Towns and suburbs */ dab Sutton</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Ireland county infobox|
county_name = County Dublin |
Irish_name = Contae Bhaile Átha Cliath |
crest_image = |
county_map = IrelandDublin.png|
area = 921 km² |
county town = [[Dublin]] |
code = D |
population = 1,122,821 |
census_yr = 2002 |
Province = Leinster |
|}}
'''County Dublin''' ([[Irish language|Irish]] ''Contae Bhaile Átha Cliath''), or more correctly the '''Dublin |
an Championships]] against Yugoslavia in [[Florence]].
In 1969, Charlton was awarded the [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] for services to football. More milestones followed as he won his 100th England cap on [[21 April]] [[1970]] against Northern Ireland, and was made captain by Ramsey for the occasion. Inevitably, he scored. This was his 48th goal for his country - his 49th and final goal would follow a month later in a 4-0 win over [[Colombia national football team|Colombia]] during a warm-up tour for the [[Football World Cup 1970|1970 World Cup]], designed to get the players adapted to [[altitude]] conditions.
==World Cup 1970 and retirement from playing football==
England began the tournament with two victories in the group stages, plus a memorable defeat against Brazil. Charlton played in all three, though was substituted for [[Alan Ball (footballer)|Alan Ball]] in the final game of the group against [[Czechoslovakia national football team|Czechoslovakia]]. Ramsey, confident of victory and progress to the quarter final, wanted Charlton to rest.
England duly reached the last eight where they again faced West Germany. Charlton controlled the midfield and suppressed [[Beckenbauer]]'s runs from deep as England coasted to a 2-0 lead. Beckenbauer pulled a goal back for the German's and Ramsey replaced the aging and tired Charlton with [[Colin Bell]] who further tested the German keeper [[Maier]] and also provided a great cross for [[Hurst]] who uncharacteristically squandered the chance. West Germany, who had a habit of coming back from behind, eventually scored twice - a freak back header from [[Uwe Seeler]] made it 2-2 after which [[Gerd Muller]]'s goal finished England off. England were out and, after a record 106 caps and 49 goals, Charlton's international career was over at the age of 32. Despite populist opinion the substitution did not change the game as [[Beckenbauer]] had scored before Charlton left the field hence Charlton had failed to cancel out the German. Charlton himself conceded that the substitution did not affect the game in a [[BBC]] documentary. His caps record lasted until 1973 when [[Bobby Moore]] overtook him, and Charlton currently lies third in the all-time England appearances list behind Moore and [[Peter Shilton]], whose own England career began in the first game after Charlton's had ended. The goals record still stands, with [[Gary Lineker]] the only player subsequently to threaten it, with a total of 48 goals for England.
Manchester United were in real difficulties in the early 1970s, with the team often fighting relegation. At times, Charlton was not on speaking terms with United's other superstars George Best and Denis Law, and Best refused to play in Charlton's testimonial match, claiming that "to do so would be hypocritical".{{ref|crick100-101}} Charlton left Manchester United at the end of the 1972-73 season, having scored and 247 goals and set a club record of 752 appearances, a record which still stood as of 2006.
==After playing football==
Charlton became the player-manager of [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]] in 1973, taking United and England team-mate [[Nobby Stiles]] with him as player-coach, but his first season was not a success and he left at the end of it. However, he was awarded the [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] that year. He then joined [[Wigan Athletic F.C.|Wigan Athletic]] as a director, and was briefly caretaker manager there. <!--He then spent some time playing in [[South Africa]]. --can't find a source for this. Anybody know of one? CTOAGN--> He also built up several businesses in areas such as travel, jewellery and hampers, and ran soccer schools in the UK, the USA, Canada, Australia and China. In 1984, he was invited to become member of the [[board of directors]] at Manchester United, partly because of his football knowledge and partly because it was felt that the club needed a "name" on the board after the resignation of [[Matt Busby|Sir Matt Busby]].{{ref|crick181-182}} He remains a director of Manchester United as of 2006.
Charlton helped to promote Manchester's bids for the 2000 and 2004 [[Olympic Games]] and the [[2002 Commonwealth Games]], England's bid for the 2006 [[Football World Cup]] and London's bid for the 2012 Olympic Games.{{ref|bbcsport}} He received a [[knighthood]] in 1994 and was an Inaugural Inductee to the [[English Football Hall of Fame]] in 2002. On accepting his award he commented ''“I’m really proud to be included in the National Football Museum’s Hall of Fame. It’s a great honour. If you look at the names included I have to say I couldn’t argue with them. They are all great players and people I would love to have played with."'' He is also the (honorary) president of the [[National Football Museum]], an organisation about which he said ''“I can’t think of a better Museum anywhere in the world.”''.
==Miscellaneous & Family Life==
He met his [[wife]] Norma at an [[ice rink]] in Manchester in 1959 and they married in 1961. They have two daughters - Suzanne and Andrea - the former of whom became a public figure herself as a [[meteorologist|weather forecaster]] for the [[BBC]].
Charlton began to lose his hair in the early 1960s and for a while refused to go bald gracefully, sporting a style of stranded, isolated hairs which would often flop around when he was running before he would tug them back over his head. This style is today still known as "the Bobby Charlton Comb-Over".
==References==
*{{cite book | author=Crick, Michael; Smith, David| authorlink = | coauthors =| year =1990 | month = | title =Manchester United: The Betrayal of a Legend | chapter = | editor = | others = | edition = | pages = | publisher =Pan Books | location = | id =0330314408 | url = }}
==Notes==
<!-- How to add a footnote:
NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details.
1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body.
4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] that explains how to do that.
NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list!
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<div style="font-size: 85%">
#{{note|EncyclopædiaBritannica}} {{cite web | title=Bobby Charlton | work=britannica.com/eb | url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9002215 | accessdate=January 28 | accessyear=2006}}
#{{note|fifaworldcup}} {{cite web | title=Bobby Charlton | work=fifaworldcup.yahoo.com| url=http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/06/en/p/cp/eng/charlton.html | accessdate=January 23 | accessyear=2006}}
#{{note|bbcsport}} {{cite web | title=Charlton leads tributes to Banks | work= news.bbc.co.uk | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/front_page/4594202.stm | accessdate=January 28 | accessyear=2006}}
#{{note|crick100-101}}{{cite book | title =Manchester United: The Betrayal of a Legend | pages =100-101 }}
#{{note|crick181-182}}{{cite book | title =Manchester United: The Betrayal of a Legend | pages =181-182 }}
</div>
==External links==
* [http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/06/en/p/cp/eng/charlton.html FIFA World Cup: Bobby Charlton]
* [http://www.ifhof.com/hof/charlton.asp International Football Hall of Fame: Bobby Charlton]
* [http://www.planetworldcup.com/LEGENDS/charlton.html Planet World Cup: Bobby Charlton]
* [http://www.manutdzone.com/legends/BobbyCharlton.htm Manchester United Legends: Bobby Charlton]
* [http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/Hall%20of%20Fame/bobbycharlton.htm English Football Hall of Fame Profile]
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[European Footballer of the Year]]|before=[[Eusébio da Silva Ferreira|Eusébio]] |after=[[Florian Albert]]|years=1966}}
{{succession box|title=[[FWA Footballer of the Year|Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year]]|before=[[Bobby Collins]] |after=[[Jack Charlton]]|years=1966}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1937 births|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:Living people|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:English footballers|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:England footballers|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:European Footballers of the Year|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:FIFA 100|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:Football knights|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:Manchester United F.C. players|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:Preston North End F.C. players|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:English football managers|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:Preston North End F.C. managers|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:Knights bachelor|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:Commanders of the British Empire|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:Natives of Northumberland|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[cs:Bobby Charlton]]
[[da:Bobby Charlton]]
[[de:Bobby Charlton]]
[[es:Bobby Charlton]]
[[fr:Robert Charlton]]
[[he:בובי צ'רלטון]]
[[ka:ჩარლტონი, ბობი]]
[[nl:Bobby Charlton]]
[[ja:ボビー・チャールトン]]
[[no:Bobby Charlton]]
[[pl:Bobby Charlton]]
[[pt:Bobby Charlton]]
[[fi:Bobby Charlton]]
[[sv:Bobby Charlton]]
[[zh:博比·查尔顿]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brewsters angle</title>
<id>4226</id>
<revision>
<id>15902513</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-06T16:31:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Anome</username>
<id>76</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Brewster's angle]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Barry Lyndon</title>
<id>4227</id>
<revision>
<id>39771108</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T19:45:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.121.11.181</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation from [[2001: A Space Odyssey]] to [[2001: A Spa |
Disco Baby, Sexy Baby'' song performed by Higson dressed as a hairy overweight '70s disco star.
:* ''El Amor I La Passione'', a soap opera about a stereotypical "macho" Mediterranean man and his long-suffering wife.
* '''[[Arthur Atkinson]]''', parody of 1940s music hall entertainers such as [[Max Miller]] and [[Arthur Askey]], played by Paul Whitehouse, introduced by '''Tommy Cockles''' (Simon Day), himself a parody of presenters of TV history, especially Dennis Norden.
:''How queer! Where's me washboard?''
* '''Roy & Renée (Thompson & Aherne)''', endless chattering from Renée and her verbally challenged husband Roy.
:''What did I say Roy?''
* '''Ken and Kenneth''', the "'''Suit you!'''" tailors who bombard potential customers with innuendo-laden suggestions about their private life, (Whitehouse and Williams).
* '''The Patagonians''', a group of South American musicians who seem to never be able to get further than a few seconds into a song before it degenerates into a tuneless shambles. They play in bizarre locations, and notable instruments they use are pan pipes, an acoustic guitar and maracas.
* '''The Fat Sweaty Coppers''', two heavily overweight and generally useless coppers who think about food before crime, they usually get in a variety of strange situations, and usually both get stuck in between doors.
==Trivia==
* A great favourite of [[Johnny Depp]] who appeared in a sketch with the "Suit You" tailors ("An American Gentleman") in The Last Fast Show Ever, screened in three parts over Christmas 2000 to end the show. Also, in a deleted scene on the "Pirates of the Caribbean" DVD, Depp uses the "I'll get me coat" catchphrase.
* Aherne starred in all three series, but did not appear in the final show ''The Last Fast Show Ever'', presumably because of her commitment to the BBC [[sitcom]] ''[[The Royle Family]]''.
* When the programme was shown on [[BBC America]] it was renamed 'Brilliant' to avoid confusion with an American programme of the same name.
==Filming Locations==
For a sketch show a significant proportion of The Fast Show was external shots. During the early series much of this filming was done around the [[Tees Valley]] & [[Yorkshire Dales]] area in the North-East of England. Some recognisable locations include:
* [[Darlington]] - 'The Running Family' were shown around various locations in town centre, including The Cornmill Centre. Incidentally Darlington was the childhood home of Jim Moir ([[Vic Reeves]]) whose longterm comedy partner [[Bob Mortimer]] was one of the writers on The Fast Show.
* [[Richmond, North Yorkshire|Richmond]] - The market place in Ted & Ralph's trip to the shops.
* [http://www.aske.co.uk/ Aske Hall] - Background in early Ted & Ralph scenes
* [[ Scotch Corner]] - Garage used in Swiss Toni's early scenes
* [[Middlesbrough]] - dock area used in 'hard of hearing stuntman' scenes, scene on [[Middlesbrough Transporter Bridge| Transporter Bridge]].
* Newcastle-upon-Tyne - Many scenes were shot here. Including the 'Shore Leave' sketch, the scene where Chris the Crafty Cockney steals the woman's suitcases (shot in Newcastle Central train station), and some of the Sir Geoffrey Norman MP sketches, such as the one where he is pulled over by a policeman for speeding, and the one where he refuses to pay the taxi driver after getting out of the car (shot outside the main entrance to Newcastle Central station).
{{wikiquotepar|The Fast Show}}
==External links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/fastshow/ www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/fastshow]
[[Category:British television sketch shows|Fast Show, The]]
[[Category:BBC television programmes|Fast Show, The]]
[[fi:Ruuvit löysällä]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Free State Danzig</title>
<id>11272</id>
<revision>
<id>15909030</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-04T16:04:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Henrygb</username>
<id>30415</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Free City of Danzig]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Free City of Danzig]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Faroese language</title>
<id>11273</id>
<revision>
<id>41890643</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T11:45:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>134.100.126.78</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Dictionaries */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Faroese
|nativename=føroyskt
|familycolor=Indo-European
|region=[[Faroe Islands]], [[Denmark]]
|speakers=60,000 - 80,000
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[North Germanic language|North Germanic]]
|fam4=West Scandinavian
|nation=[[Faroe Islands]]
|agency=Føroyska málnevndin
|iso1=fo|iso2=fao|iso3=fao
|map=[[Image:Keyboard Layout Faroese.png|center|thumb|290px|Faroese [[keyboard layout]]]]}}
'''Faroese''' (''føroyskt'' [{{IPA|ˈføːɹɪst}}]) is a West Nordic or West Scandinavian [[language]] spoken by about 80,000 people in two main groups, about 48,000 in the [[Faroe Islands]] and about 25,000 [[Faroese people|Faroese]] in [[Denmark]]. There are also around 5,000 speakers in [[Iceland]]. It is one of three [[island|insular]] [[Scandinavian languages]] descended from the [[Old Norse language]] spoken in [[Scandinavia]] in the [[Viking Age]], the others being [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] and the extinct [[Norn language|Norn]], which is thought to have been mutually intelligible with Faroese.
==History==
[[Image:Old norse, ca 900.PNG|right|250px|thumb|This is the approximate extent of [[Old Norse]] and related languages distribution in the early [[10th century]];<br>Red - '''Old West Norse''' dialect;<br>Orange - '''Old East Norse''' dialect,<br>Pink - '''[[Old Gutnish]]''',<br>Green - Other [[Germanic languages]] with which Old Norse still retained some mutual intelligibility]]
In the beginning, the language spoken in the Faroe Islands was [[Old West Norse]], which Norwegian settlers had brought with them during the time of the ''[[landnám]]'' that began in AD [[825]]. However, many of the settlers weren't really Norwegians, but descendants of Norwegian settlers in the [[Irish Sea]]. In addition, native Norwegian settlers often married women from Norse Ireland, the Orkneys, or Shetlands before settling in the Faroe Islands and Iceland. As a result, [[Celtic languages]] influenced both Faroese and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]. This may be why, for example, Faroese has two words for duck: ''dunna'' (from [[Goidelic languages|Gaelic]] ''tunnag'') for a domestic duck, and ''ont'' (from [[Old Norse]] ''ǫnd'') for a duck in general. (This example has been criticized, however, by people claiming that the word is derived from Old Norse ''dunna'', from [[Proto-Germanic]] ''*dusnō''.) There is also some debatable evidence of Celtic language placenames in the Faroes: for example [[Mykines]] and [[Stóra Dímun|Stóra]] & [[Lítla Dímun]] have been hypothesised to contain Celtic roots.
Between the [[9th century|9th]] and the [[15th century|15th]] centuries, a distinct Faroese language evolved, although it was still intelligible with the languages within the realm of the Norwegian Viking Empire spanning from Norway Greenland and parts of North America.
Until the [[15th century]], Faroese had a similar orthography to [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], but after the [[Reformation]] [[1538]], the ruling [[Danes]] outlawed its use in schools, churches and official documents. The islanders continued to use the language in [[ballads]], [[folklore|folktales]], and everyday life. This maintained a rich [[Oral history|spoken tradition]], but for 300 years the language was not written down.
This changed when [[Venceslaus Ulricus Hammershaimb]] published a written standard for Modern Faroese [[1854]] that exists to this day. Although this would have been an opportunity to create a phonetically true orthography like that of [[Welsh]], he produced an [[orthography]] consistent with a continuous [[written tradition]] extending back to Old Norse. The letter [[ð]], for example, has no specific [[phoneme]]s attached to it. Also, although the letter '[[m]]' corresponds to the [[bilabial nasal]] as it does in [[English language|English]], it corresponds to the [[alveolar nasal]] in the [[Dative]] ending ''-um'' {{IPA|[ʊn]}}.
Hammershaimb's orthography met with some opposition for its complexity, and a rival system was devised by [[Jakob Jakobsen]]. Jakobsen's orthography (referred to as ''[[broyting]]'') was closer to the spoken language, but was never taken up by speakers.
In [[1937]], Faroese replaced [[Danish language|Danish]] as the official school language, [[1938]] as church language, and [[1948]] as national language by the [[Home Rule Act of the Faroes]]. However, Faroese didn't become the common language in the media and advertising until the [[1980s]]. Today, Danish is considered as a foreign language, though around 5% of the Faroe Islanders learn it as a first language and it is a required subject for students 3rd grade and up.
===Dictionaries===
[[Image:Hammershaimb ordsammling.jpg|thumb|250px|Though there are newer and more comprehensive dictionaries, ''Færøsk Anthologi'' by V.U. Hammershaimb and J. Jakobsen 1891 is still useful as it has phonetic transcriptions to every headword.]]
The pioneer of all scholars who studied the Faroese language was [[Jens Christian Svabo]] (1746-1824). His ''Dictionarium færoense'' (Faroese-Danish-Latin) was never printed in his lifetime but first issued in [[1966]]/[[1970]]. So this was not the first ''printed'' Faroese dictionary.
Hammershaimb and Jakobsen presented the ''Færøsk anthologi'' in [[1891]] with volume 2 containing a glossary with 10,000 entries Faroese-Danish in Modern Faroese orthography. [[Mads Andrias Jacobsen]] and Professor [[Christian Matras]] followed with |
ONE) {
SuperUser=TRUE;
WriteMemory(++StackPointer, ProgramCounter);
ProgramCounter=InterruptPointer;
}
switch(ReadMemory(ProgramCounter++)) {
// Handling of every valid instruction
default:
Interrupt=INT_ILLEGAL;
}
}
Interpreters are very popular as CPU simulators, as they are much simpler to implement than more performant alternative solutions, and their speed is more than adequate for emulating computers of more than roughly a [[decade]] ago on modern machines.
However, the speed penalty inherent in interpretation can be a problem when emulating computers whose processor speed is on the same [[order of magnitude]] as the host machine. Until not many years ago, emulation in such situations was considered completely impractical by many.
What allowed breaking through this restriction were the advances in [[dynamic recompilation]] techniques. Simple ''a priori'' translation of emulated program code into code runnable on the host architecture is usually impossible because of several reasons:
* code may be [[self-modifying code|self-modifying]]
* there may not be a way to reliably distinguish [[data segment]]s (which must not be translated) from [[text segment]]s (code segments)
* there may not be a way to communicate with the emulated [[operating system]] in order for the emulator to be aware of newly loaded (for example from disk) code
Various forms of dynamic recompilation, including the popular [[JIT compiler|Just In Time compiler (JIT)]] technique, try to cicumvent these problems by waiting until the processor control flow jumps into a location containing untranslated code, and only then ("just in time") translates a block of the code into host code that can be executed.
The translated code is kept in a ''code [[cache]]'', and the original code is not lost or affected; this way, even data segments can be (meaninglessly) translated by the recompiler, resulting in no more than a waste of translation time.
===I/O===
Most emulators do not, as mentioned earlier, emulate the main system bus; each I/O device is thus often treated as a special case, and no consistent interface for virtual peripherals is provided.
This can result in a performance advantage, since each I/O module can be tailored to the characteristics of the emulated device; designs based on a standard, unified I/O [[application programming interface|API]] can however rival such simpler models, if well thought-out, and they have the additional advantage of "automatically" providing a plug-in service through which third-party virtual devices can be used within the emulator.
A unified I/O API may not necessarily mirror the structure of the real hardware bus: bus design is limited by several electric constraints and a need for hardware [[parallel programming|concurrency]] <!--- although this page talks specifically about *programming*, while here I really refer to the cuncurrency that is ineherent in hardware ---> management that can mostly be ignored in a software implementation.
Even emulators that treat each device as a special case, there is usually a common basic infrastructure for
* managing [[interrupt]]s, by means of a procedure that sets flags readable by the CPU simulator whenever an interrupt is raised, allowing the virtual CPU to "poll for (virtual) interrupts"
* writing to and reading from physical memory, by means of two procedures similar to the ones dealing with logical memory (although, contrary to the latter, the former ''can'' often be left out, and direct references to the memory array be employed instead)
==See also==
*[[List of emulators]]
*[[Arcade emulator]]
*[[Binary translation]]
*[[Console emulator]]
*[[Fan translation]]
*[[In-circuit emulator]] (ICE)
*[[Virtual machine]]
*[[Game Engine Recreations]]
==External links==
<!--- Please DO NOT add ROM links here. Wikipedia is not a repository of links [[WP:WIN]]. --->
*''The History of Emulation - 1800 to 1999:'' [http://www.zophar.net/articles/art_14-1.html Part 1], [http://www.zophar.net/articles/art_14-2.html Part 2], [http://www.zophar.net/articles/art_14-3.html Part 3], [http://www.zophar.net/articles/art_14-4.html Part 4]
*''[http://fms.komkon.org/EMUL8/HOWTO.html HowTo: Writing a Computer Emulator]''
*[http://www.emulinks.de/ emulinks.de] - Emulation web directory
*[http://www.Theromjar.com/ The Rom Jar] The Rom Jar - One of the better Emulation websites currently on the internet.
[[Category:Emulation software| ]]
[[cs:Emulátor]]
[[de:Emulator]]
[[es:Emulador]]
[[fr:Émulateur]]
[[io:Emuleso]]
[[ia:Emulator]]
[[it:Emulatore]]
[[lt:Emuliatorius]]
[[hu:Emulátor]]
[[nl:Emulator]]
[[ja:エミュレータ]]
[[no:Emulator]]
[[nn:Emulator]]
[[pl:Emulator]]
[[pt:Emulador]]
[[ru:Эмуляция]]
[[fi:Emulaattori]]
[[sv:Emulator]]
[[tr:Emülasyon]]
[[zh:模拟器]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ethylene</title>
<id>9837</id>
<revision>
<id>41814487</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:48:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.93.52.103</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Density (source=airliquide.com)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class="toccolours" border="1" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;"
! {{chembox header}} | {{PAGENAME}}
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[Image:ethylene.png|{{PAGENAME}}]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]]
| Ethene
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]]
| C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| C=C
|-
| [[Molar mass]]
| 28.05 g/mol
|-
| Appearance
| colourless gas
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| [74-85-1]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-
| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]]
| 1.178 g/l at 15C, gas
|-
| [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water_(molecule)|water]]
| Insoluble
|-
<!-- | Other solvents e.g. [[ethanol]], [[acetone]] -->
<!-- | solubility info on other solvents -->
<!-- |- -->
| [[Melting point]]
| &minus;169.1 °C
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| &minus;103.7 °C
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Structure
|-
| [[Orbital_hybridisation#Molecule_shape|Molecular shape]]
| planar
|-
| [[Dipole#Molecular_dipoles|Dipole moment]]
| zero
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Thermodynamic data
|-
| [[Standard enthalpy change of formation|Std enthalpy of<br/>formation]] Δ<sub>f</sub>''H''&deg;<sub>gas</sub>
| +52.47 kJ/mol
|-
| [[Standard molar entropy|Standard molar<br/>entropy]] ''S''&deg;<sub>gas</sub>
| 219.32 J·K<sup>&minus;1</sup>·mol<sup>&minus;1</sup>
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Hazards
|-
| [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS]]
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Material Safety Data Sheet|External MSDS]] <!-- please replace with proper link-->
|-
| [[Directive 67/548/EEC|EU classification]]
| Very flammable ('''F+''')
|-
| [[NFPA 704]]
| {{nfpa|1|4|2}}
|-
| [[List of R-phrases|R-phrases]]
| R12, R67
|-
| [[List of S-phrases|S-phrases]]
| S2, S9, S16,<br/>S33, S46
|-
| [[Flash point]]
| Flammable gas
|-
| [[Explosive limit]]s
| 2.7&ndash;36.0%
|-
| [[Autoignition temperature]]
| 490 &deg;C
|-
! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)|Supplementary data page]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Structure and properties|Structure and<br/>properties]]
| [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|&epsilon;<sub>r</sub>]], etc.
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Thermodynamic properties|Thermodynamic<br/>data]]
| Phase behaviour<br>Solid, liquid, gas
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Spectral data|Spectral data]]
| [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Related compounds
|-
| Other [[alkene]]s
| [[Propene]]<br/>[[Butene]]
|-
| Related compounds
| [[Ethane]]<br/>[[Acetylene]]
|-
| {{chembox header}} | <small>Except where noted otherwise, data are given for<br> materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25 &deg;C, 100 kPa)]]<br/>[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]</small>
|-
|}
'''Ethylene''' (or [[IUPAC]] name '''ethene''') is the simplest [[alkene]] [[hydrocarbon]], consisting of four [[hydrogen]] [[atom]]s and two [[carbon]] atoms connected by a [[double bond]]. Because it contains a double bond, ethylene is called an ''unsaturated hydrocarbon'' or an ''olefin''.
The molecule cannot twist around the double bond, and all six atoms lie in the same plane. The [[angle]] made by two carbon-hydrogen bonds in the molecule is 117°, very close to the 120° that would be predicted from ideal sp<sup>2</sup> [[hybridization (chemistry)|hybridization]].
== Nomenclature ==
From [[1795]] on, ethylene was referred to as the ''olefiant gas'' (oil-making gas), because it combined with [[chlorine]] to produce the ''oil of the Dutch chemists'' ([[1,2-Dichloroethane|ethylene dichloride]]), first synthesized in 1795 by a collaboration of four [[Netherlands|Dutch]] chemists.
In the mid-19th century, the suffix ''-ene'' (a [[Greek language|Greek]] root added to the end of female names meaning "daughter of") was widely used to refer to a molecule or part thereof that contained one fewer hydrogen atoms than the word being modified. Thus, ''ethylene'' (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>) was the "daughter of [[ethyl]]" (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>). The name ethylene was used in this sense as early as [[1852]].
In [[1866]], the [[Germany|German]] chemist [[Augustus von Hofmann]] proposed a system of hydrocarbon nomenclature in which the suffixes -ane, -en |
d>9441</id>
<revision>
<id>41244795</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T00:59:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>VinTheMetalhed</username>
<id>635199</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Album */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Album infobox 2|
Name = The Downward Spiral |
Type = [[LP (format)|LP]] |
Artist = [[Nine Inch Nails]] |
Cover = The_downward_spiral.jpg |
Background = Orange |
Released = [[March 8]], [[1994]] |
Recorded = [[1993]]-[[1994]] Le Pig, [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]]; The Record Plant & A&M Studios, [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] |
Genre = [[Industrial rock]] |
Length = 65:02 (original)<br>70:38 (bonus) |
Label = [[Nothing Records]] |
Producer = [[Trent Reznor]], [[Mark Ellis (record producer)|Flood]] |
Reviews = <ul><li>''[[All Music Guide|Allmusic.com]]'' [[Image:4 out of 5.png]] [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:71aqoaeayijz link]</li></ul>|
Last album = ''[[Fixed (album)|Fixed]]'' <br /> (1992) |
Last cover = Fixed.jpg |
This album = ''The Downward Spiral'' <br /> (1994) |
Next album = ''[[Further Down the Spiral]]'' <br /> (1995) |
Next cover = Further down the spiral.jpg |
|}}
'''''The Downward Spiral''''' (also known as ''Halo 8'') is an [[LP (format)|LP]] by [[Nine Inch Nails]] released in [[1994 in music|1994]]. ''The Downward Spiral'' is the eighth official Nine Inch Nails release and the band's third major release. It was preceded by ''[[Broken]]'' and is followed by ''[[The Fragile]]''.
Some critics have stated that this album demonstrates Reznor's underlying [[pop music]] sensibility, and credit his ability to blend it with typically taboo themes (as seen in the catchy "Closer"). Other critics have cited a "calculated [[nihilism]]" as the album's main weakness. Reznor has publicly stated that he has suffered from depression, and has been reported as suffering from [[bipolar disorder]].
''The Downward Spiral'' propelled NIN into much greater prominence, especially after the release of the popular second single, "[[Closer to God|Closer]]", which was released with a controversial video directed by [[Mark Romanek]].
''The Downward Spiral'' was recorded at Le Pig in [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]], [[California]], a studio space located in the house where [[Sharon Tate]] was murdered by members of the [[Manson Family]]. [[Trent Reznor|Reznor]] has made conflicting statements regarding whether he knew of the house's history before choosing to record there.
''The Downward Spiral'' served as base for a [[remix]] album entitled ''[[Further Down the Spiral]]''.
The song "[[Hurt (song)|Hurt]]" has been [[cover version|covered]] by [[Johnny Cash]], the video for which was directed by Mark Romanek.
In [[2001]] [[Q_(magazine)|''Q'' magazine]] named ''The Downward Spiral'' as one of the 50 Heaviest Albums Of All Time.
==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
''The Downward Spiral'' is a [[concept album]]. Its plot follows a character trying to rid himself of the controls of [[religion]] and [[society]] as he uses [[sex]] as an escape. Eventually, this character has to face his internal void. The album reaches its climax in the title track. The final track, "Hurt", acts as an [[epilogue]] of a sorts. Many critics believe that the character resolves this conflict through suicide (lending to complaints of severe nihilism); others have taken the album's final self-destructive episode as representative of the death of the character's old identity. [http://www.sickamongthepure.com/files/2002/02/TDS/TDS.html link]
==Releases==
*[[TVT Records]] / [[Interscope Records]] 92346-2 - CD
*[[TVT Records]] / [[Interscope Records]] INTD-92346 - CD Re-release
*[[Interscope Records]] b0003739-36 - SACD
*[[Interscope Records]] b0003762-82 - DVD-A
==Tenth Anniversary Re-releases==
On [[November 23]], [[2004]], ''The Downward Spiral'' was re-released to celebrate its tenth anniversary. It is available in two versions: as a 2-disc hybrid [[Super Audio CD|SACD]] set and as a [[DualDisc]] ([[DVD#DVD-Audio|DVD-A]] on one side and [[Compact disc|CD]] on the reverse). The SACD version is known as ''The Downward Spiral: Deluxe Edition'' and the DVD-A version is known as ''The Downward Spiral: DualDisc''.
===Deluxe Edition===
The [[SACD]] version consists of two discs. Each disc is a CD/SACD hybrid. Disc one has the original album, digitally remastered, in SACD 5.1 [[Surround sound|surround]] and SACD [[Stereophonic sound|stereo]] on one layer (only playable in SACD players) and regular CD stereo on the other layer (playable in normal CD players). Disc two consists of bonus tracks and is presented in SACD stereo and regular CD stereo. This disc marked the first official US release of some tracks, and the first NIN release of material only previously available on movie soundtrack albums.
This version is labeled "halo eight DE" and is also known as '''halo 8 DE''' or '''halo eighteroony'''.
===DualDisc===
====CD side====
Contains the original album, digitally remastered. Playable on most regular CD players.
====DVD side====
*5.1 surround and stereo version of the original tracks, digitally remastered
*''Downward Spiral'' Artwork (plays with the music in DVD-A players, viewable as a slideshow on DVD-Video players)
*Music Videos
**''Closer'' (available in 5.1 surround and stereo)
**''March of the Pigs'' (stereo)
**''Hurt'' (stereo)
*Discography, including selected bits of music from each album (starting with [[Broken]]) that run about a minute each
This version is labeled "halo eight DVD-A" and is also known as '''halo 8 DVD-A'''.
==Track listing==
===Original version===
#"Mr Self Destruct" - 4:30
#"Piggy" - 4:24
#"Heresy" - 3:54
#"[[March of the Pigs]]" - 2:58
#"[[Closer To God|Closer]]" - 6:13
#"Ruiner" - 4:58
#"The Becoming" - 5:31
#"I Do Not Want This" - 5:41
#"Big Man With a Gun" - 1:36
#"A Warm Place" - 3:22
#"Eraser" - 4:54
#"Reptile" - 6:51
#"The Downward Spiral" - 3:57
#"[[Hurt (song)|Hurt]]" - 6:13
The Japanese version also has the [[Joy Division]] cover "Dead Souls", from the [[The Crow (album)|soundtrack]] to ''[[The Crow (movie)|The Crow]]'', between "Big Man With a Gun" and "A Warm Place".
===Deluxe Edition===
[[Image:Halo8deluxe.jpg|right|thumb|disc 1 cover|right|thumb|Deluxe Edition cover]]
(disc 1)
*identical to the original version
(disc 2)
#"Burn" (from the ''[[Natural Born Killers]]'' soundtrack) - 5:00
#"Closer (Precursor)" (from ''[[Closer to God]]'') (remixed by [[Coil (band)|Coil]], Danny Hyde) - 7:16
#"Piggy (Nothing Can Stop Me Now)" (from ''[[Further Down the Spiral]]'') (remixed by [[Rick Rubin]]) - 4:03
#"A Violet Fluid" (from ''[[March of the Pigs]]'') - 1:04
#"Dead Souls" (from [[The Crow (album)|''The Crow'' soundtrack]]) (originally by [[Joy Division (band)|Joy Division]]) - 4:53
#"Hurt (Quiet)" (from ''Further Down the Spiral'' (US version)) (remixed by [[Trent Reznor]]) - 5:08
#"Closer to God" (from ''Closer to God'') (remixed by Reznor, [[Sean Beavan]], Brian Pollack) - 5:06
#"All the Pigs, All Lined Up" (from ''March of the Pigs'') - 7:26
#"Memorabilia" - 7:22 (from ''Closer to God'') (originally by [[Soft Cell]])
#"The Downward Spiral (The Bottom)" (from ''Further Down the Spiral'') (remixed by [[John Balance]], [[Peter Christopherson]], Drew McDowall, Hyde) - 7:32
#"Ruiner (Demo)" - 4:51
#"Liar (Reptile Demo)" - 6:57
#"Heresy (Demo)" - 4:00
==Personnel==
*John Aguto - Engineer
*Tom Baker - Mastering
*[[Sean Beavan]] - Mixing
*[[Adrian Belew]] - Ring mod & texture generating guitars
*[[Mark Ellis (record producer)|Flood]] - Producer
*Bill Kennedy - Mixing
*[[Exotic Birds|Andy Kubiszewski]] - Drums
*[[Tommy Lee]] - Steakhouse
*[[Danny Lohner]] - Guitar
*[[Alan Moulder]] - Mixing
*[[Stephen Perkins]] - Drums
*Brian Pollack - Engineer
*[[Trent Reznor]] - Vocals, Guitar, Piano, Arranger, Producer
*[[Chris Vrenna]] - Drums, Programming, Sampling
==Chart Positions==
===Album===
1994 The Downward Spiral The Billboard 200 No. 2
2004 The Downward Spiral The Billboard 200 No. 19
===Singles===
1994 Closer The Billboard Hot 100 No. 41
1994 March Of The Pigs The Billboard Hot 100 No. 59
1994 Closer Mainstream Rock Tracks No. 35
1994 Closer Modern Rock Tracks No. 11
1994 Closer To God Hot Dance Music/Club Play No. 29
1994 Closer To God Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales No. 29
==External links==
*[http://www.nin.com nin.com]
*[http://tds.nin.com The Downward Spiral 10th Anniversary Edition website]
*[http://www.sickamongthepure.com/files/2002/02/TDS/TDS.html A Dissertation on The Downward Spiral]
*[http://www.wellnowwhat.net/nin/halo08.html ''Halo 8'' Lyrics]
*[http://mike7478.homestead.com/files/halo08.htm nincollector.com: halo eight]
*[http://www.discogs.com/release/4404 discogs.com: ''The Downward Spiral'' (US CD)]
*[http://www.discogs.com/release/192488 discogs.com: ''The Downward Spiral'' (US LP)]
*[http://www.discogs.com/release/173264 discogs.com: ''The Downward Spiral'' (EU CD)]
*[http://www.discogs.com/release/352665 discogs.com: ''The Downward Spiral: Deluxe Edition'' (US 2xCD)]
<br clear="right">
{{NIN halos}}
{{Nine Inch Nails}}
[[Category:Nine Inch Nails albums|Downward Spiral]]
[[Category:1994 albums|Downward Spiral]]
[[Cat |
so:'' [[List of dance style categories]]
<!-- This is not only limited to one country, but is unsourced; could sources (and details about other countries) be supplied?
== Dance as an occupation ==
In the U.S. many professional dancers are members of unions such as the American Guild of Musical Artists, the Screen Actors Guild and Actors' Equity Association. The unions help determine working conditions and minimum salaries for their members.
The median earnings of U.S. dancers is about $21,000 per year with the top 10% making over $50,000 per year. Dancers may receive other benefits from their jobs such as room and board (for touring production). Professional dancers often have the opportunity to teach as well.
-->
== See also ==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [[Wikipedia:Dance basic topics]]
* [[List of dance wikibooks]]
* [[An American Ballroom Companion]]
* [[Ballroom dance]]
* [[Dirty Dancing]]
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Dance]]
== Further reading ==
* Adshead-Lansdale, J. (Ed) (1994) ''Dance History: An Introduction''. Routledge. ISBN 041509030X
* Carter, A. (1998) ''The Routledge Dance Studies Reader''. Routledge. ISBN 0415164478
* Cohen, S, J. (1992) ''Dance As a Theatre Art: Source Readings in Dance History from 1581 to the Present''. Princeton Book Co. ISBN 0871271737
* Charman, S. Kraus, R, G. Chapman, S. and Dixon-Stowall, B. (1990) ''History of the Dance in Art and Education''. Pearson Education. ISBN 0133893626
* Daly, A. (2002) ''Critical Gestures: Writings on Dance and Culture''. Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 0819565660
* Dils, A. (2001) ''Moving History/Dancing Cultures: A Dance History Reader''. Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 0819564133
== External links ==
<!-- links added here should only relate to dance in general rather than specfic dances or styles -->
{{commons|Dance}}
* [http://www.danzar.com/ Danzar.com] Largest community of dance in LA.
* [http://www.torontodance.com/ Toronto, Dance!] online community for dancers in Toronto
* [http://www.mnartists.org/work.do?pageIndex=1&rid=78309 365 Dances] A project in motion
* [http://www.dancebooks.co.uk/ Dance books] Large selection of dance books, videos, DVDs and music.
* [http://www.dancer.com/dance-links/ Dance links]
* [http://www.voiceofdance.com/ voiceofdance.com]
* [http://www.dancer.com/dance-links/universities.htm Universities offering dance studies]
* [http://www.centralhome.com/ballroomcountry/default.htm Dance Steps]
* [http://www.chennaibest.com/discoverchennai/artandculture/musicanddance/danceevents.asp Indian Dance]
== References ==
* [http://jobs.strategy-blogs.com/Dancers-and-Choreographers.html Dancing Occupational Analysis]
{{Wikibooks}}
[[Category:Dance]]
[[Category:Entertainment occupations]]
[[nap:ballo]]
[[an:Danza]]
[[ast:Danza]]
[[bg:Танц]]
[[bn:নৃত্য]]
[[br:Dañs]]
[[ca:Dansa]]
[[cs:Tanec]]
[[da:Dans]]
[[de:Tanz]]
[[et:Tants]]
[[el:Χορός]]
[[es:Danza]]
[[eo:Danco]]
[[fa:رقص]]
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[[fy:Dûns]]
[[ga:Damhsa]]
[[gl:Danza]]
[[hi:नृत्य]]
[[ia:Dansa]]
[[it:Danza]]
[[he:ריקוד]]
[[ka:ცეკვა]]
[[la:Saltatio]]
[[lb:Danzen]]
[[li:Dans]]
[[hu:Tánc]]
[[ms:Tarian]]
[[mo:Дансурь]]
[[nah:Danza]]
[[nl:Dans]]
[[ja:ダンス]]
[[no:Dans]]
[[nn:Dans]]
[[pl:Taniec]]
[[yi:טאנץ]]
[[pt:Dança]]
[[ro:Dans]]
[[ru:Танец]]
[[scn:Ballu]]
[[simple:Dance]]
[[sl:Ples]]
[[fi:Tanssi]]
[[sv:Dans]]
[[tl:Sayaw]]
[[ta:நடனம்]]
[[tr:Dans]]
[[yi:טאנץ]]
[[zh:舞蹈]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Drew Barrymore</title>
<id>7886</id>
<revision>
<id>42102097</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:12:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vanguard4life</username>
<id>106824</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Filmography */ Corrected link on Barrymore filmography, changed curious george to a released film, from upcoming</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Drewbarrymorerwb.jpg|Drew Barrymore, in ''[[Riding in Cars with Boys]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]]).|thumb]]
'''Drew Blyth Barrymore''' (born [[February 22]], [[1975]] in [[Culver City, California]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[film]] and [[television]] [[actor]] and [[Film producer|producer]].
==Her family==
She is the granddaughter of [[theatre|stage]] and movie actor [[John Barrymore]], widely regarded as his generation's greatest actor, and the great-niece of [[Lionel Barrymore]] and [[Ethel Barrymore]]. Her father, [[John Drew Barrymore]], and half-brother, John Blyth, are also actors (although they haven't experienced the critical or commercial success the other Barrymores have enjoyed). "Drew" was the maiden name of her great-grandmother, Georgiana; "Blythe" was the original surname of the dynasty founded by her great-grandfather, [[Maurice Barrymore|Maurice]]. Drew's mother is [[Magyars|Hungarian]]-born actor and [[Model (person)|model]], Ildiko Jaid Mako (born 1944).
==Biography==
[[Image:Drew_barrymore_in_E.T..jpg|thumb|right|200px|Drew Barrymore in ''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]]'' ([[1982 in film|1982]]).]]
Barrymore's career began at the age of 11 months, when she appeared in a [[dog]] food commercial. When she was bitten by her canine co-star, the producers feared litigation, though Barrymore merely laughed the incident off.
She shot to fame as a [[child actor]] when she co-starred in the [[1982]] [[Steven Spielberg]] film ''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]]''. At the age of 7, on [[November 20]], [[1982 in television|1982]], Barrymore became the youngest ever guest host of the weekly TV program ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''. She performed in a skit where she revealed that she had killed E.T..
In the wake of this sudden stardom, she endured a notoriously troubled childhood, drinking [[alcoholic beverage]]s by the time she was 9, smoking [[marijuana]] at 10, and snorting [[cocaine]] at 12. [[Image:Playboy0195.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Drew Barrymore on the cover of ''[[Playboy]]'', January [[1995]]]]Barrymore later described this early period of her life in her [[1990]] [[autobiography]], ''Little Girl Lost''. Though overcoming her substance abuse problems by the time she entered adulthood, Barrymore maintained her "bad girl" image, and in fact leveraged her new found role as a [[sex symbol]] to stage a career comeback in the [[1990s]], playing a teenage seductress in ''[[Poison Ivy (film)|Poison Ivy]]'', and posing [[nude]] for the [[January 1995]] issue of U.S. magazine ''[[Playboy]]''. [[Steven Spielberg]], Barrymore's godfather, gave her a quilt for her 20th birthday with a note that read "Cover yourself up". Enclosed was a copy of her ''Playboy'' appearance, with the pictures altered by his art department so that she appeared fully clothed. At that time she had also appeared [[nudity|nude]] in her last five movies. During a [[1995]] appearance on ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]'', Barrymore shocked the normally unflappable host by climbing onto his desk and flashing her [[breast]]s at him (but with her back to the camera), as part of a dance for his birthday. She also modelled in a series of [[Guess?]] jeans advertisements during this time.
[[Image:Drew_barrymore_on_letterman.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Drew Barrymore on ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]'' in [[1995]], immediately after notoriously flashing the host on-air for his birthday.]]
Barrymore has continued to be a highly bankable movie actress. She is especially adept at [[romantic comedy|romantic comedies]]; popular examples of her work include ''[[The Wedding Singer]]'' and ''[[50 First Dates]]''. Though her playful sex appeal has undoubtedly helped her remain in the media spotlight, she has also established a substantial career behind the scenes, despite never finishing high school. She has produced several films, including the highly successful ''[[Charlie's Angels (film)|Charlie's Angels]]'' movie adaptation and its sequel.
She has also recently explored more dramatic roles in movies such as ''[[Riding in Cars with Boys]]'', where she played a teenage mother in a failed marriage with the drug-addicted father (based on the real-life story of [[Beverly D'Onofrio]]), ''[[Confessions of a Dangerous Mind]]'', and the [[cult film|cult favorite]] ''[[Donnie Darko]]'', of which she was also the executive producer. Barrymore has started to receive more notice both as a serious actress and a savvy Hollywood "player", though without losing her reputation as a sex symbol and (occasional) hellraiser.
Barrymore's career makes for colorful copy. In the words of [http://movies.yahoo.com/shop?d=hc&id=1800016287&cf=biog&intl=us Yahoo! Movies]:
:''Heir to a Hollywood dynasty, child star, prepubescent drug and alcohol abuser, teenage sexpot, and resurrected vessel of celluloid purity, Drew Barrymore is nothing if not the embodiment of the rise and fall of Hollywood fortunes, self-reinvention, and the healing powers of good PR.''
More recently, Barrymore was the subject of an offbeat documentary, ''[[My Date with Drew]]'' (2003). In it, an aspiring filmmaker and lifelong Drew Barrymore fan uses his limited financial and social resources in an attempt to gain a date with Barrymore. Through word of mouth, the internet, and a six-degrees-of-separation style of communication with Barrymore and her associates, a date with Barrymore is eventually acquired. Barrymore proved to be a good sport on the date, bringing a video camera to the fan as a gift and finding humor in the events.
On [[February 3]], [[2004 in film|2004]], she received a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]].
Barrymore was married to Welsh bartender turned bar owner, Jeremy Thomas, from [[March 20]] to [[April 28]], [[1994]], and to comedian [[Tom Green]] from [[July 7]], [[2001]] to [[October 15]], [[2002]] (Green filed for divorce in December 2001). She is [[as of 2004|currently]] dating drummer [[Fabrizio Moretti]] of [[The Strokes]]. Barrymore has also publicly declared herself to be [[bisexuality|bisexual]], |
gger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Foreign-born US political figures|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Governors of California|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Kennedy family|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Living people|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Pro-choice celebrities|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Pro-choice politicians|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Worst Actor Razzie Nominee|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Worst Supporting Actor Razzie Nominee|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Terminator actors]]
[[bg:Арнолд Шварценегер]]
[[bs:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[cs:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[da:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
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[[eo:Arnold SCHWARZENEGGER]]
[[es:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[fi:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[fr:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[he:ארנולד שוורצנגר]]
[[hr:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[hu:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[id:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[it:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[ja:アーノルド・シュワルツェネッガー]]
[[ko:아널드 슈워제네거]]
[[la:Arnoldus Schwarzeneggerus]]
[[nl:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[no:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[pl:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[pt:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[ru:Шварценеггер, Арнольд Алоис]]
[[sq:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[sr:Арнолд Шварценегер]]
[[sv:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[zh:阿诺·施瓦辛格]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ASA</title>
<id>1807</id>
<revision>
<id>41890320</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T11:39:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rmosler2100</username>
<id>518794</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>spelling correction</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''ASA''' may stand for:
* '''ASA''' is the ICAO code for [[Alaska Airlines]]
* [[Accessible Surface Area]]
* Acetylsalicylic acid, acetylsalicylic acid; see [[Salicylic acid]] and [[Aspirin]]
* [[Adaptive Simulated Annealing]] optimization algorithm.
* [[Advertising Standards Authority]] in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]
* [[Amateur Softball Association]]
* [[American Sailing Association]]
* [[American Society of Anesthesiologists]] and a I-V rating of [[anesthetic risk]]
* [[American Sociological Association]]
* [[American Speed Association]], was a second-tier [[stock car racing]] circuit in the [[United States]]
* "American Standards Association"; a former name of the [[American National Standards Institute]] (ANSI)
* ASA [[film speed]]
* [[Anti-Soviet agitation]]
* [[Arlington Hall|Army Security Agency]]; formerly the Signals Security Agency, an [[intelligence agency]] of the [[United States]]
* [[ASA (automobile)|ASA]] was an [[Italy|Italian]] car.
* Associate of the [[Society of Actuaries]]
* [[Anti-Semitic Association]]
* [[Atlantic Southeast Airlines]]
* "Australian Soccer Association", a former name of the [[football (soccer)]] governing body now known as [[Football Federation Australia]]
* [[Autism Society of America]]
* [[Atlético Sport Aviação]], a football (soccer) club from [[Angola]]
* [[Agremiação Sportiva Arapiraquense]], a football (soccer) club from [[Brazil]]
''See also'': [[Asa]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:ASA]]
[[fr:ASA]]
[[ja:ASA]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>A. N. Whitehead</title>
<id>1808</id>
<revision>
<id>15900272</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-08T16:40:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eclecticology</username>
<id>372</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfred North Whitehead]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aquinas</title>
<id>1809</id>
<revision>
<id>15900273</id>
<timestamp>2004-01-13T07:02:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Snoyes</username>
<id>8289</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted to last edit by Conversion script</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Thomas Aquinas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Actium</title>
<id>1810</id>
<revision>
<id>41800778</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:07:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.101.125.35|209.101.125.35]] ([[User talk:209.101.125.35|talk]]) to last version by 85.157.101.9</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Actium''' (mod. Punta), the ancient name of a [[promontory]] in the north of [[Acarnania]] ([[Greece]]) at the mouth of the Sinus Ambracius ([[Gulf of Arta]]) opposite [[Nicopolis]], built by [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] on the north side of the strait. On the promontory was an ancient temple of [[Apollo]] Actius, which was enlarged by Augustus, who also, in memory of the [[battle]],
instituted or renewed the quinquennial games called Actia or Ludi Actiaci. Actiaca Aera was a computation of time from the [[Battle of Actium]]. There was on the promontory a small [[town]], or rather [[village]], also called Actium.
== History ==
Actium belonged originally to the [[Corinth|Corinthian]] [[colonist]]s of Anactorium, who probably founded the [[worship]] of Apollo Actius and the Actia games; in the [[3rd century BC|3rd century B.C.]] it fell to the [[Acarnania|Acarnanians]], who subsequently held their synods there. Actium is chiefly famous as the site of [[Caesar Augustus]]' decisive [[battle of Actium|victory]] over [[Mark Antony]] ([[September 2]] [[31 BC|31 B.C.]]). This battle ended a long series of ineffectual operations. The final conflict was provoked by Antony, who is said to have been persuaded by [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra VII]] to retire to [[Egypt]] and give battle to mask his retreat; but lack of provisions and the growing demoralization of his [[army]] would eventually account for this decision.
== External links ==
* [http://www.acdgthemovie.co.uk/index.html Augustus Caesar: Diamond Geezer — a short film about the Battle of Actium]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Greece]]
[[Category:Corinthian colonies]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Greece]]
[[da:Actium]]
[[de:Actium]]
[[fr:Actium]]
[[hr:Akcij]]
[[la:Actium]]
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[[fi:Aktion]]
[[sv:Actium]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amide hydrolysis</title>
<id>1811</id>
<revision>
<id>15900275</id>
<timestamp>2005-02-14T17:11:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SimonP</username>
<id>1591</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[Category:Chemical processes]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Amide hydrolysis''' involves the C-N bond being broken in reaction with water ([[hydrolysis]]). The reaction is [[catalyst|catalysed]] by either [[acid]] or [[alkali]].
[[image:amide_hydrolysis.png]]
'''Procedure:'''
The [[amide]] is heated under reflux with moderately concentrated acqueous acid or alkali. If an ''[[acid]]'' is used, the product contains Ammonium ions. If a ''[[alkali]]'' is used, the [[carboxylic acid]] loses an H<sup>+</sup> ion and the product contains carboxylate ions.
[[Category:Chemical processes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amway</title>
<id>1812</id>
<revision>
<id>41819814</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:23:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Illusion408</username>
<id>586799</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Lines of Sponsorship */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Company
| company_name = Amway
| company_logo = [[Image:amwaylogo.gif]]
| company_type = [[Private company|Private]]
| foundation = [[1959]]
| location = [[Ada, Michigan|Ada]], [[Michigan]]
| key_people = [[Steve Van Andel]]<br/>[[Doug DeVos]]<br/>[[Lynn Lyall]]
| industry = [[Multi-level marketing]]
| products =
| revenue =
| operating_income =
| net_income =
| num_employees =
| homepage = [http://www.amway.com/ www.amway.com]
}}
'''Amway''' is a [[multi-level marketing]] company founded in [[1959]] by [[Jay Van Andel]] and [[Rich DeVos]]. The company's name is a [[portmanteau]] of "American Way." [http://www.amway.com/en/History/history-10362.aspx] Based in [[Ada, Michigan]], the company & family of companies under [[Alticor]] reported sales of $6.4 billion for the performance year ending August 31, 2005 marking the company’s sixth straight year of growth. Its product lines include personal care products, jewelry, dietary supplements, and [[cosmetics]], among others. Today, Amway conducts business through a number of affiliated companies in more than ninety countries and territories around the world [http://www.amway.com/en/History/global-growth-10106.aspx].
In [[1999]] the founders of the Amway corporation launched a sister (and separate) [[Internet]]-based company named [[Quixtar]]. The [[Alticor]] corporation owns both Amway and Quixtar, plus several other concerns. Quixtar replaced the North American business of Amway in [[2001]], with Amway operating in the rest of the world. [[Amivo]] acts as an Amway subsidiary in [[Europe]], as does [[a2k]] in [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]].
Amway cofounder Jay Van Andel (in 1980) and later his son Steve Van Andel (in 2001) were elected by the board of directors of the [[United States Chamber of Commerce]] as chairman of that organization.
==The Corporation==
Anyone can become an Amway [[Independent Business Owner]] (or ''IBO'', formerly known as a ''Distributor''); IBOs may purchase products from Amway at rates published as [[wholesale]] prices.
Each product has an associated Points Value (PV), which is the same for that product all around the world. It operates like an international [[currency]], which represents the amount of [[profit]] inherent in the product. The sum of the group's PV determines the commission level (3%, 6%, ... 25%) payable |
spells in three areas: cold, lightning, and fire. Her cold-based spells have the benefit of chilling affected enemies (slowing them down) or freezing them (stopping them completely). Moreover, any chilled or frozen enemies may shatter instead of leaving a corpse. (A corpse can be used by some enemies as an attack or can be revived by other enemies to fight again.) The main lightning spells have huge damage ranges, doing anywhere from 1 to 25,000 or even 1 to 50,000 damage. Fire spells usually have a more consistent damage range, with the most popular skill Fireball doing about 20,000 damage or more.
The strong points of Sorceress are powerful damaging spells and mobility (teleporting quickly), which is valuable in multiplayer games. The weak points are strength and defense. One large benefit is the fact that the sorceress's cold spells make it easier for everyone to stay alive, by immobilizing their foes.
The Sorceress can cast spells From the [[Heat|Cold]], [[Lightning]], and [[Fire]] skill trees.
====Sorceress history & strategy in Classic DII====
Prior to the expansion pack, the sorceress was fairly weak. Her spells were lacking in damage, due to the fact that once they were at maximum skill level, not much else could be done to increase their damage. Most sorceress builds had serious mana issues, prompting them to maximize ''Warmth'' to increase their mana regeneration rate, which took valuable skill points away from their direct damage skills. Their one saving grace was the spell ''Static Field'', which causes 25% of the enemy's hit points in damage to all enemies within its radius and was considered overpowered by even sorceress players themselves.
At first, most sorceress builds revolved around getting as many skill level bonus items as possible to increase damage. This was not an effective option, though, and soon the attention shifted to ''faster cast rate'' items. The "tweaker" sorceress build, using as many ''FCR'' items as possible, could cast three or more spells per second, backed by high-level ''Warmth'' and a large mana pool. The most common build repeatedly cast ''Static Field'' to quickly reduce the health of nearby enemies to a sliver, then used the ''Frozen Orb'' spell, which spins out a globe that showers the area with ice shards, to deliver the death blow. Many looked down upon this "strategy" and the players who used it.
Patch 1.07 and the expansion changed sorceress gameplay immensely, due to the newly implemented skill timers and reduced mana costs on the more expensive spells. Focusing on ''faster cast rate'' equipment to cast spells as fast as possible was no longer feasible, and the players started to gravitate towards ''+to skills'' items to increase their spell damage instead. For more details, see [[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]].
After synergies were introduced, some Fire and Lightning sorceresses aim to get 200% faster cast rate. Since the main fire and lightning spells do not have a delay timer, it allows them to cast their spells at an incredible rate, in excess of 3 times a second, while teleporting out of danger at amazing speeds.
Sorceress are used extensively for 'Mfing', or Magic finding. Magic finding involves using equipment with special mods to increase the chance that random item drops will be top level Rare and Unique equipment. Magic find equipment generally doesn't have the best attributes (apart from the magic-find %), which is fine for the Sorceress which teleports out of harm's way quickly and attacks from range.
The Sorceress' ''teleport'' is used extensively for getting to a boss quickly. They are used by parties as a location finder, such as waypoints, boss lairs, etc.
===Necromancer===
[[Image:Art-necromancer.jpg|thumb|Necromancer]]
The [[necromancer]] is a magician like the sorceress, but in a different way. Whereas the sorceress relies on elemental damage, the necromancer is more subtle. He does possess direct damage in the form of poison and bone-based spells, but his most specialized abilities are curses and summons. His curses are similar to a paladin's enemy-affecting auras, but they are more powerful and limited in duration, range, and effect. Also rather than being cast on the character, they are cast on a limited number of enemies. His summoning abilities allow the necromancer to raise skeletons, a variety of golems, and even former enemies.
In party-oriented play, some of the most powerful skills affect the monster AI. For example, the curse "Attract" causes enemies near the target creature to attack it. Curses such as "Terror" cause groups of creatures to flee, allowing Necromancers to herd and manage the flow of hostile creatures attacking the party.
The Necromancer can cast spells From the [[Summon]]ing, [[Poison]] & [[Bone]], and [[Curse]]s skill trees.
====Necromancer history & strategy in Classic DII====
The necromancer has always been an unbalanced character, due to its reliance on corpses and percentage damage effects. Prior to 1.03, the ''Corpse Explosion'' spell was the best skill in the game. When one monster went down, all one had to do was cast ''Amplify Damage'' on the pack and blow up the corpse, killing all other monsters in one blast. The radius of ''Corpse Explosion'' was reduced in 1.03, encouraging necromancers to look at other skill options. ''Revive'', which raises a dead monster to fight for you, and ''Iron Maiden'', a damage-reflecting curse, were a powerful combo similar to the ''Conversion + Thorns'' paladin build, and the life stealing ''Blood Golem'' interacted with ''Iron Maiden'', causing it to gain life when it was attacked and rendering it essentially immune to normal attacks.
The arrival of the expansion pack heralded a dark age for the necromancer, and while the class is very powerful in the later patches, this power boost went mainly towards one specific build, the ''Skelliemancer'' Or "Summoner". For more details, see [[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]].
Players today generally find the ''Bonemancer'' to be the easiest build. ''Bone Wall'' and ''Bone Prison'' proved useful for getting out of hairy spots and trapping unaware players in PvP. However, the element of a ''Bonemancer'' that makes playing fun is the penetrating element of ''Bone spear'' as well as the homing ability of ''Bone Spirit'', both of which can do considerable damage.
''Skelliemancers'' or "Summoners" can be enjoyable to play due to the character being able to control an army of minions. However, the fun element of these Necromancers is watered down when hard bosses are encountered, such as the Council in Act III that can destroy skeletons and golems fairly easily. To prevent one's self from being the commander of a heap of bones, ''Skelliemancers'' or "Summoners" have to make use of the Curse tree. Generally, ''Amplify Damage'' and ''Decrepify'' are most used. Using a ''Skelliemancer'' or "Summoner" can get extremely frustrating in certain areas: the close quarters of the Maggot Lair in Act II makes minions fall behind fairly quickly; the only way to counter this is to use lots of Skeleton-mages and moving slowly. Also, make extensive use of golems as well as ''Skeleton Mastery''; being commander of a couple elite skeletons is better than a lot of weak ones. Theses types of Necros arent as common as the "Bonemancers"
During the 1.10 patch the strongest of the necromancers would be "Bonemancers", which were a common build that utilized Bonespear and Bonespirit as its main attack while adding 0 points to the synergy known as bone prison. This was due to an exploit that caused the player to have level 33 bone prison synergy while having the boots ''Marrowwalk'' equipped on your character. After the release of the 1.11 patch this build was extremely hindered, as the items would no longer give you the synergy from the charges. However, Bonemacers are still one of the best players in PvP.
====Priests of Rathma====
In Diablo 2, the Priests of Rathma are a segregated group of magi that study the concept of mortality. Living deep underground, these magi have learned how to raise the undead to fight for them. Through their wisdom, these "Necromancers" have learned not to question the threshold of mortality, but to accept it as a part of life. The Necromancer's skill tree is based around summoning creatures and cursing the minions of the undead. This character class sports expertise in wands and daggers.
==New Game Concepts==
There are several new game concepts introduced in ''Diablo II'' absent in its predecessor.
===Socketed Items===
While ''Diablo'' provided for almost no item customization, ''Diablo II'' improves in this area considerably. Some weapons can be socketed with gems that convey additional abilities. In ''Diablo II: Lord of Destruction'', runes are introduced to further improve in this area, allowing players to create pseudo-unique items by arranging the runes to form "runewords", usually with impressive benefits.
Alongside of gems and runes are the infamous ''jewels'', which could create massively powerful items. While all gems of a certain type would do the same thing in any item, (for example, putting a ruby into a weapon always grants fire damage) jewels granted randomly-spawned enchantments, sometimes as many as 6 effects to a single slot. People were known to spend hours on end hunting for perfectly maximized jewels, until several new runewords appeared that made that whole process semi-obsolete.
===Rare Items===
These are more rare than the regular magic items, and can contain more magic modifiers but are not necessarily better. Rare item names are displayed in yellow text.
Prior to the expansion, rares were highly desirable due to its many modifiers. In the expansion, ''[[Blizzard North]]'' reduced the chance of a good rare drop.
===Set Items===
[[Set (video game)|Set |
rg]]|
years=1157&ndash;1170|
after=[[Otto I, Margrave of Brandenburg|Otto I]]}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:Dukes of Saxony]]
[[Category:1100 births|Brandenburg, Albert I of]]
[[Category:1170 deaths|Brandenburg, Albert I of]]
[[Category:Ascanian House|Brandenburg, Albert I of ]]
{{Link FA|de}}
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<title>Albert III of Brandenburg</title>
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<username>Zundark</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Albert I of Hapsburg</title>
<id>1511</id>
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<timestamp>2004-10-22T15:19:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>John Kenney</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert I of Germany]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Albert II of Hapsburg</title>
<id>1512</id>
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<timestamp>2004-10-18T06:00:28Z</timestamp>
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<username>John Kenney</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert II of Germany]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Albert of Mainz</title>
<id>1513</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-20T14:05:55Z</timestamp>
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<username>DabMachine</username>
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<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Florin]] to [[German florin]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ADurerCardinalAlbrecht.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Cardinal Albert of Hohenzollern, Archbishop of Mainz and Magdeburg: engraved portrait by [[Albrecht Dürer]], 1519]]
Cardinal '''Albert of Hohenzollern''' (German: ''Albrecht''; [[June 28]], [[1490]] in [[Cölln]] &ndash; [[September 24]], [[1545]] in [[Aschaffenburg]]), [[Prince-elector|Elector]] and [[Archbishop of Mainz]] and [[Archbishop of Magdeburg]], was the younger son of [[John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg]].
After their father's death, Albert and his older brother [[Joachim I Nestor]] became [[Margrave of Brandenburg|margraves of Brandenburg]] in [[1499]], but only his older brother held the title of an [[elector of Brandenburg]].
Having studied at the university of [[Frankfurt an der Oder]],
Albert entered the ecclesiastical profession, and in [[1513]] became
[[archbishop]] of [[Archbishopric of Magdeburg|Magdeburg]] and administrator of the [[Diocese of Halberstadt]].
In [[1514]] he obtained the [[Electorate of Mainz]],
and in [[1518]] was made a [[Cardinal_(Catholicism)|cardinal]]. Meanwhile to pay for the [[pallium]] of the see of Mainz and to discharge the other
expenses of his elevation, Albert had borrowed 21,000 [[ducat]]s from [[Jacob Fugger]], and had obtained permission from [[Pope Leo X]] to conduct the sale of [[indulgences]] in his diocese to
obtain funds to repay this loan, as long as half the collection was forwarded to the Papacy. An agent of the Fuggers subsequently traveled in the Cardinal's retinue in charge of the cashbox. For this work he procured
the services of [[John Tetzel]], and so indirectly exercised a
potent influence on the course of the [[Reformation]].
When the imperial election of [[1519]] drew near, the elector's vote was
eagerly solicited by the partisans of Charles (afterwards
the emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]) and by those of [[Francis I of France|Francis I]], King of France, and he appears to have received a large amount of
money for the vote, which he cast eventually for Charles.
Albert's large and liberal ideas, his friendship with [[Ulrich von Hutten]], and his political ambitions, appear to have raised
hopes that he would be won over to [[Protestantism]]; but
after the [[Peasants' War]] of [[1525]] he ranged himself definitely
among the supporters of [[Catholicism]], and was among the princes
who met to concert measures for its defence at [[Dessau]] in July
[[1525]].
His hostility towards the reformers, however, was
not so extreme as that of his brother Joachim I, Elector of
Brandenburg; and he appears to have exerted himself in the
interests of peace, although he was a member of the [[League of Nuremberg]], which was formed in [[1538]] as a counterpoise to the [[League of Schmalkalden]].
The new doctrines nevertheless
made considerable progress in his dominions, and he was
compelled to grant religious liberty to the inhabitants
of Magdeburg in return for 500,000 [[German florin|florin]]s. During his
latter years indeed he showed more intolerance towards the
Protestants, and favoured the teaching of the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] in his
dominions.
Albert adorned the [[collegiate church]] (''Stiftskirche'') at [[Halle (Saale)]] and
the [[Mainz Cathedral|cathedral at Mainz]] in sumptuous fashion, and took as his
motto the words ''Domine, dilexi decorem domus tuae'' (Latin for: "Lord, I admired the adornment of your house."). A generous
patron of art and learning, he counted [[Erasmus]] among his
friends.
He died at [[Aschaffenburg]] on September 24, 1545.
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Roman Catholic archbishops]]
[[Category:German cardinals]]
[[Category:1490 births]]
[[Category:1545 deaths]]
[[de:Albrecht (Brandenburg)]]
[[no:Albrecht von Brandenburg]]
[[zh:阿尔布雷希特 (勃兰登堡)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albert of Prussia</title>
<id>1514</id>
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<id>40543700</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T08:55:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kmorozov</username>
<id>238736</id>
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<comment>self rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Albrecht von Hohenzollern-Ansbach.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Albrecht von Hohenzollern Grand Master of the Teutonic Order]]
[[Image:Albert_of_Prussia.jpg|right|]]
'''Albert''' ([[May 16]], [[1490]] - [[March 20]], [[1568]]), ('''Albertus''' in [[Latin]], '''Albrecht''' in [[German language|German]]) Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Order]] and first duke of [[Ducal Prussia]], was the third son of [[Frederick I Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|Frederick of Hohenzollern]], prince of [[Ansbach]] and [[Bayreuth]], and Sophia, daughter of [[Casimir IV Jagiello]] Grand Duke of [[Lithuania]] and King of [[Poland]] and his wife Elisabeth of [[Habsburg]].
Born at [[Ansbach]] on May 16, 1490, he was intended for the church, and spent some time at the court of Hermann, elector of [[Cologne]], who appointed him canon in his cathedral.
Duke Albrecht's Titles (on his proclamation of 1561, Koenigsberg): ''Albrecht the Elder, Margrave of Brandenburg, in Prussia, Stettin in Pomerania Duke of the Cassuben (Kashubs) and Wends, Burggrave of Nuremberg and Count of Ruegen etc''.
Turning to a more active life, Albrecht accompanied the emperor [[Maximilian I]] to [[Italy]] in 1508, and after his return spent some time in [[Hungary]].
In December, [[Friedrich of Saxony (1473-1510)|Frederick]], Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Order]], died, and Albert was chosen as his successor early in [[1511]] in the hope that his relationship to his maternal uncle [[Sigismund I of Poland|Sigismund I the Old]] Grand Duke of [[Lithuania]] and King of Poland, would facilitate a settlement of the disputes over east Prussia, which had been held by the Order under Polish suzerainty since the [[Second Treaty of Thorn]] in 1466, but this was not acknowledged by pope or emperor and had been circumvented by the Grand Masters.
The new Grand Master, aware of his duties to the empire and to the papacy, refused to submit to the crown of Poland and as war to retain independence appeared inevitable, he made strenuous efforts to secure allies, and carried on protracted negotiations with Emperor Maximilian I.
The ill-feeling, influenced by the ravages of members of the Order in Poland, culminated in a struggle which began in [[December]] [[1519]]. During the ensuing year Prussia was devastated, and Albert was granted a four-year truce early in [[1521]].
The dispute was referred to the Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] and other princes, but as no settlement was reached he continued his efforts to obtain help in view of a renewal of the war. For this purpose he visited the [[Diet of Nuremberg]] in [[1522]], where he made the acquaintance of the [[Protestant reformation|reformer]], [[Andreas Osiander]], by whose influence he was won over to the new faith.
He then journeyed to [[Wittenberg]], where he was advised by [[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Martin Luther]] to abandon the rules of his Order, to marry, and to convert Prussia into a hereditary duchy for himself. This proposal, which was understandably appealing to Albert, had already been discussed by some of his relatives, but it was necessary to proceed cautiously, and he assured [[Pope Adrian VI]] that he was anxious to reform the Order and punish the knights who had adopted [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] doctrines. Luther for his part did not stop at the suggestion, but in order to facilitate the change made special efforts to spread his teaching among the Prussians, while Albert's brother, [[Georg Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|Georg]], Prince of Ansbach, laid the scheme before their uncle [[Sigismund I of Poland|Sigismund of Poland]]. After some delay the king assented to it, with the proviso that [[Ducal Prussia|Prussia]] should be treated as a Polish fiefdom, and after this arrangement had be |
#8221; has a bearing on how material items such as pottery or [[architecture]] can be interpreted. Within a people, different means to accomplish the same goal can be adopted by subsets of the larger group. For example, in modern Western cultures, there are alternative styles of [[clothing]] that characterized older and younger generations. Some cultural differences may be based on linear traditions, on teaching from one generation or &#8220;school&#8221; to another. Other varieties in style may have distinguished between arbitrary groups within a culture, perhaps defining [[status]], [[gender]], [[clan]] or [[guild]] affiliation, religious belief or cultural alliances. Variations may also simply reflect the different resources available in a given time or area.
*Defining cultural groups, such as the Ancient Pueblo peoples, tends to create an image of territories separated by clear-cut boundaries, like modern state lines. These simply did not exist. ''Prehistoric people traded, worshipped and collaborated most often with other nearby groups. Cultural differences should therefore be understood as ''“clinal”'', "increasing gradually as the distance separating groups also increases."'' (Plog, p. 72.) Departures from the expected pattern may occur because of unidentified social or political situations or because of geographic barriers. In the Southwest, mountain ranges, rivers and, most obviously, the [[Grand Canyon]] can be significant barriers for human communities, likely reducing the frequency of contact with other groups. Current opinion holds that the closer cultural similarity between the Mogollon and Ancient Pueblos and their greater differences from the [[Hohokam]] and [[Patayan]] is due to both the geography and the variety of climate zones in the Southwest.
==References==
*Cordell, Linda S. ''Ancient Pueblo Peoples''. St. Remy Press and Smithsonian Institution, 1994. ISBN 0-89599-038-5.
*Fagan, Brian M. "Ancient North America: Tha Archaeology of a Continent (part five)." Thames and Hudson, Inc., New York, New York, 1991. ISBN 0-500-05075-9.
*[[Plog, Stephen]]. ''Ancient Peoples of the American Southwest''. Thames and Hudson, London, England, 1997. ISBN 0-500-27939-X.
*Sofaer, Anna , Director. "Mystery of Chaco Canyon." 1999. DVD/VHS. Bullfrog Films. Blurb: "Unveiling the ancient astronomy of southwestern Pueblo Indians." Sequel to "The Sun Dagger."
==See also==
* [[Chaco Culture National Historical Park|Chacoans]]
* [[Cliff Palace]]
* [[Hopi]]
* [[Kiva]]
* [[Kokopelli]]
* [[Matrilocality]]
* [[Newspaper Rock State Historic Monument]]
* [[Pueblo people]]
* [[sipapu]]
* [[Taos Pueblo]]
* [[Zuni]]
==External links==
* [http://www.co.blm.gov/ahc/ Homepage of the Anasazi Heritage Center]
*[http://www.holmes.anthropology.museum/southwestpottery/index.html Southwest Pueblo Pottery] Holmes Anthropology Museum
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Archaeological cultures]]
[[Category:Native American culture]]
[[Category:Native American history]]
[[Category:Pottery]]
[[de:Anasazi]]
[[fa:مردمان باستانی پوئبلو]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Aal</title>
<id>1035</id>
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<timestamp>2005-03-28T09:29:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>N.hong.phuc</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AAL]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Aalborg</title>
<id>1036</id>
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<id>41621262</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T16:00:51Z</timestamp>
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<ip>62.25.109.194</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Olbo 2004 ubt.jpeg|thumb|right|300px|View of Aalborg railroad station from J.F. Kennedy's Square, 2004]]
'''Aalborg''' is a municipality ([[Danish language|Danish]], ''[[Commune (subnational entity)|kommune]]'') in [[North Jutland County]] on the [[Jutland]] peninsula in northern [[Denmark]]. The municipality straddles the [[Limfjord]], the waterway which connects the [[North Sea]] and the [[Kattegat]] east-to-west, and which separates the main body of the Jutland peninsula from the island of [[Vendsyssel-Thy]] north-to-south.
It is also the name of the municipality's main city and the site of its municipal council, as well as the name of a [[seaport]].
The municipality and the town have chosen to retain the traditional spelling of the name as ''Aalborg'', although the new spelling ''Ålborg'' is used in other contexts, such as Ålborg Bay (''Ålborg Bugt''), the body of water which lies to the east of the Jutland peninsula.
The municipality, which includes the island of [[Egholm]], covers an area of 560 [[square kilometre|km²]], and has a total population of 192,353 (2005). The mayor of the municipality is Henning G. Jensen, a member of the [[Social Democrats (Denmark)|Social Democrats]] (''Socialdemokraterne'') [[Politics of Denmark|political party]].
Neighboring municipalities are [[Sejlflod]] and [[Hals]] to the east, [[Dronninglund]] and [[Brønderslev]] to the north, [[Aabybro]] and [[Nibe]] to the west, and [[Støvring]] and [[Skørping]] to the south. The waters splitting the municipality are called ''Langerak'' to the east and ''Gjøl Bredning'' to the west. The island of Egholm is located in ''Gjøl Bredning'', and is connected by [[ferry]] to the city of Aalborg at its southern shore.
By [[January 1]], [[2007]] Aalborg municipality will, as the result of [[Municipalities of Denmark#Municipality Reform 2007|''Kommunalreformen'' ("The Municipality Reform" of 2007)]], be merged with existing [[Hals]], [[Nibe]], and [[Sejlflod]] municipalities to form the new Aalborg municipality. This will create a municipality with an area of 1,171 [[square kilometre|km²]]. The new municipality will belong to the new [[Region Nordjylland]] ("North Jutland Region").
==Surroundings==
The area is typical for the north of Jutland. To the west the Limfjord broadens into an irregular lake (salt water), with low, marshy shores and many islands. Northwest is [[Store Vildmose]] ("Greater Wild bog"), a swamp where a mirage is sometimes seen in summer. Southeast lies the similar [[Lille Vildmose]] ("Lesser Wild bog"). Store Vildmose was drained and farmed in the beginning of the 20th century, and Lille Vildmose is now the largest [[Bog|moor]] in Denmark.
==The city of Aalborg==
The city of Aalborg is the fourth largest city in Denmark— after [[Copenhagen]], [[Aarhus]] and [[Odense]]. It is the location of [[Aalborg Air Base]], an important base of the [[Danish Air Force|Danish air force]], and is the seat of a [[Lutheran]] [[bishop]].
Railway connects Aalborg with [[Hjørring]], [[Frederikshavn]], and [[Skagen]] to the north, and with [[Aarhus]] and the lines from [[Germany]] to the south, as well as to [[Copenhagen]] in the east over the island of [[Funen]].
The harbour is good and safe, though fairly difficult to access.
===History===
Aalborg traces its history back over 1000 years. It was originally settled as a trading post, because of its position on the Limfjord. The sites of what were two settlements and a visible burial ground can be seen on [[Lindholm Høje]], a hill overlooking the city. The size of these settlements emphasise the significance of this place as a crossroads.
The first mention of Aalborg under its original name ''Alabu'', is found on a coin dated to 1040.
During the [[Middle Ages]], Aalborg prospered and became one of the largest cities in Denmark. This prosperity was further enhanced when in [[1516]] Aalborg was granted a [[monopoly]] in salt herring.
Aalborg received town privileges in [[1342]] and the bishopric dates from [[1554]].
During the German invasion of Denmark in 1940, the Aalborg Aerodrome was captured by Nazi paratroopers very early in the action.
===Industry===
Aalborg is a growing industrial and commercial centre, exporting grain, cement and fish.
It is home to [[De Danske Spritfabrikker]]'s ("Danish Distillers") [[akvavit|aquavit]] [[snaps]], production facility for the distillation of the Aalborg family of akvavits consisting of 17 different brands. Danish Distillers is Scandinavia's largest producer and supplier of spirits for consumption, and is the world's largest producer and exporter of aquavit, supplying over 140 geographic markets.
It is also the centre of a growing telecomunications industry originating from the [[University of Aalborg|Aalborg University]].
[[Image:Aalborg NyTorv 2004 ubt.jpeg|thumb|300px|left|Nytorv, next to [[Limfjord]].]]
===Carnival in Aalborg===
The annual carnival takes place the last weekend in May.
During the carnival, Aalborg receives about 100,000 people. Friday “The Battle of Carnival Bands” is an exciting and colourful evening with processions through the city when all the participating groups compete to be the leading carnival group.
The carnival itself is the following Saturday – on this day the city centre is full of life. The streets are filled with gaily dressed people who are in a real spring mood. In Kilde Park concerts are given from various stages all day to midnight. The Carnival ends with a grand firework display on the harbour.
===Architecture and tourist attractions===
The old castle [[Aalborghus Castle]] (''Aalborghus Slot'') and some picturesque houses of the [[17th century]] remain in the center of the town. The [[Timber framing|half-timbered]] (''bindingsværk'') castle was built in 1550 by King [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]], and was converted to government administration offices in the 1950s.
[[Budolfi Church]] cathedral dates mostly from the middle of the [[18th century]], while ''Vor Frue Kirke'' (Church of Our Lady) was partially burnt in [[1894]]. The foundations of both churches a |
en mass-producing surplus values of this product (rubber) for profit, traditional Congolese tribal states in the past favored balanced, self-reliant, subsistence economies, and hence followed labor patterns that reflected seasonal cycles.
Tribal states or empires organized along precarious, unwritten cultural traditions also shifted to a division of labor based on legal protection of land and labor&mdash;once inalienable, but now commodities to be bought, sold, or traded.
The bourgeois ethic of wage/labor productivity was thus, in many respects, a new concept to supposedly &lsquo;idle&rsquo; natives merely accustomed to older patterns of production. On that note, it must be noted that the integration of traditional economies in Congo within the framework of the modern, capitalist economy was also particularly exploitative. The fortunes of King Léopold II and those of the multinational concessionary companies under his auspices were mainly made on the proceeds of Congolese rubber, which had historically never been mass-produced in surplus quantities. Between 1880 and 1920 the population of Congo thus halved; over 10 million &lsquo;indolent natives&rsquo; unaccustomed to the bourgeois ethos of labor productivity, were the victims of murder, starvation, exhaustion induced by over-work, and disease.
Mass-production of rubber in a dense, tropical forest in one of the world&rsquo;s most isolated regions was after all quite a massive endeavor. Other parts of Africa were not cultivating rubber (quite a harsh crop to cultivate); other parts of Africa had milder climates and topographies.
==The Democratic Republic of the Congo==
Agitation for independence in the Congo arose fairly late, only becoming a prominent factor by the mid-1950s. Even this separatist spirit was far more an anti-Belgian movement than one of Congolese nationalism.
===The First Republic (1960&ndash;1965)===
{{main|Congo Crisis}}
Following a series of riots and unrest, the Belgians realised they could not maintain control of such a vast country. The Belgians announced on [[January 27]], [[1960]] that they would relinquish control in six months. The Congo was granted its independence on [[June 30]], [[1960]]. The country was in a very unstable state&mdash;regional tribal leaders held far more power than the central government&mdash;and with the departure of the Belgian administrators almost no skilled bureaucrats were left in the country. The first Congolese university graduate was only in 1956, and virtually no-one in the new nation had any idea of how to manage a country of such size.
Parliamentary elections in 1960 produced the Marxist [[Patrice Lumumba]] as prime minister and pro-[[Western world|Western]] [[Joseph Kasavubu]] as president of the renamed Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Even from this fleeting moment of independence democracy began to unravel. A military coup broke out in the capital and rampant looting began. On July 11th the richest province of the country, [[Katanga]], seceded under [[Moise Tshombe]]. To protect Europeans in the country and try to restore order 20,000 [[UN]] peacekeepers were sent to the country. Western paramilitaries and mercenaries, often hired by mining companies to protect their interests, also began to pour into the country. In this same period Congo's second richest province, [[Kasai province]], also announced its independence.
Prime Minister Lumumba turned to the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] for assistance. [[Nikita Khrushchev]] agreed to help, offering advanced weaponry and technical advisors. The [[United States]] viewed the Soviet presence as an attempt to take advantage of the situation and gain a [[proxy]] state in [[sub-Saharan Africa]]. UN forces were ordered to block any shipments of arms into the country. The United States also looked for a way to replace Lumumba as leader. President Kasavubu had clashed with Prime Minister Lumumba and advocated an alliance with the West rather than the Soviets. The U.S. sent weapons and CIA personnel to aid forces allied with Kasavubu and combat the Soviet presence. In December 1960, with U.S. and CIA support, Kasavubu and his loyal Colonel [[Joseph Mobutu]] overthrew the government. Lumumba was assassinated by Mobutu with support of the American government soon after; some have alleged that U.S. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] gave the CIA direct orders to assassinate Lumumba, but this has never been confirmed. According to other sources, the Belgian government was also in support of such an action. In [[Stanleyville]], those loyal to the deposed Lumumba set up a rival government under [[Antoine Gizenga]].
===The Second & Third Republics (1965&ndash;1996)===
{{main|Zaire}}
Unrest and rebellion plagued the government until 1965, when Lieutenant General Mobutu, by then commander in chief of the national army, seized control of the country and declared himself president for five years. Mobutu quickly consolidated his power and was elected unopposed as president in 1970. Embarking on a campaign of cultural awareness, Mobutu renamed the country the Republic of Zaire and required citizens to adopt African names. Relative peace and stability prevailed until 1977 and 1978 when Katangan rebels, based in [[Angola]], launched a series of [[Shaba Invasions|invasions]] into the Shaba (Katanga) region. The rebels were driven out with the aid of Belgian paratroopers.
During the 1980s, Zaire remained a one-party state. Although Mobutu successfully maintained control during this period, opposition parties, most notably the [[Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social]] (UDPS), were active. Mobutu's attempts to quell these groups drew significant international criticism.
As the Cold War came to a close, internal and external pressures on Mobutu increased. In late 1989 and early 1990, Mobutu was weakened by a series of domestic protests, by heightened international criticism of his regime's human rights practices, by a faltering economy, and by government corruption, most notably his massive embezzlement of government funds for personal use.
In [[April 1990]], Mobutu declared the Third Republic, agreeing to a limited multi-party system with elections and a constitution. As details of a reform package were delayed, soldiers in September 1991 began looting [[Kinshasa]] to protest their unpaid wages. Two thousand French and Belgian troops, some of whom were flown in on [[U.S. Air Force]] planes, arrived to evacuate the 20,000 endangered foreign nationals in Kinshasa.
In 1992, after previous similar attempts, the long-promised [[Sovereign National Conference]] was staged, encompassing over 2,000 representatives from various political parties. The conference gave itself a legislative mandate and elected Archbishop [[Laurent Monsengwo]] as its chairman, along with [[Étienne Tshisekedi wa Mulumba]], leader of the UDPS, as prime minister. By the end of the year Mobutu had created a rival government with its own prime minister. The ensuing stalemate produced a compromise merger of the two governments into the [[High Council of Republic-Parliament of Transition]] (HCR-PT) in 1994, with Mobutu as head of state and [[Kengo Wa Dondo]] as prime minister. Although presidential and legislative elections were scheduled repeatedly over the next 2 years, they never took place.
===War (1996&ndash;)===
{{main articles|[[First Congo War]] and [[Second Congo War]]}}
By 1996, tensions from the neighboring [[Rwanda]] war and [[genocide]] had spilled over to [[Zaire]]: see [[History of Rwanda]]. Rwandan [[Hutu]] militia forces ([[Interahamwe]]), who had fled Rwanda following the ascension of a [[Tutsi]]-led government, had been using Hutu refugees camps in eastern Zaire as a basis for incursion against Rwanda. These Hutu militia forces soon allied with the Zairian armed forces (FAZ) to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire. In turn, these Tutsis formed a militia to defend themselves against attacks. When the Zairian government began to escalate its massacres in November 1996, the Tutsi militias erupted in rebellion against Mobutu.
The Tutsi militia was soon joined by various opposition groups and supported by several countries, including Rwanda and Uganda. This coalition, led by [[Laurent-Desire Kabila]], became known as the [[Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre]] (AFDL). The AFDL, now seeking the broader goal of ousting Mobutu, made significant military gains in early 1997. Following failed peace talks between Mobutu and Kabila in May 1997, Mobutu left the country, and Kabila marched unopposed to Kinshasa on May 20. Kabila named himself president, consolidated power around himself and the AFDL, and reverted the name of the country to the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Kabila demonstrated little ability to manage the problems of his country. He lost his allies and the [[Mouvement pour la Libération du Congo]] (MLC, led by the warlord [[Jean-Pierre Bemba]]), backed by Rwandan and Ugandan troops attacked in August 1998, soon after Angola, Zimbabwe, Namibia sent some form of force into the DRC, with Zimbabwe and Angola supporting the government. While the six African governments involved in the war signed a ceasefire accord in Lusaka in July 1999, the Congolese rebels did not and the ceasefire broke down within months. Kabila was assassinated in January 2001 by one of his bodyguards, and was succeeded by his son [[Joseph Kabila|Joseph]]. Upon taking office Joseph Kabila called for multilateral peace talks to end the war. He partly succeeded in February 2001 when a further peace deal was brokered between Kabila, Rwanda and Uganda leading to the apparent withdrawal of foreign troops. [[UN]] peacekeepers, MONUC, arrived in April 2001.
Currently the Ugandans and the MLC still hold a 200 mile wide section of the north of the country; Rwandan forces and its front, the [ |
e written a number of books about birds and bird watching, as well as articles for many specialist publications including [[British Birds (Magazine)|''British Birds'']], ''Birdwatching Magazine'' and [[Birdwatch]]. He became president of the West Midland Bird Club in [[1999]], having been Vice-President since [[1991]] and is a former member of the council of the [[RSPB]].
He has hosted a number of very successful nature programmes for the BBC, many produced by [[Stephen Moss]], including:
*''The Great Kenyan Bird Safari''
*''Favourite Walks''
*''Wild Weekends''
*''The Bird Business''
*''Flight to Eilat''
*''The Big Bird Race''
*''Oddie in Paradise'' ([[1993]])
*''Bird in the Nest'' (two series)
*''[[Birding with Bill Oddie]]'' (three series, [[1997]], [[1998]] and [[2000]])
*''[[Bill Oddie Goes Wild]]'' (three series, [[2001]], [[2002]] and [[2003]])
*''[[Wild In Your Garden]]'' (2003)
*''[[Britain Goes Wild with Bill Oddie|Britain Goes Wild]]'' (2004)
*''[[Bill Oddie's How to Watch Wildlife]]'' ([[2005]])
*The London episode of [[Seven Natural Wonders]] (2005)
*''[[Springwatch with Bill Oddie]]'' ([[2005]])
*''The Truth about Killer Dinosaurs'' (2005; also on [[DVD]])
On its first evening of broadcast, ''Britain Goes Wild'' set a record for its timeslot of 8pm on [[BBC Two]] of 3.4 million viewers, one million more than the [[Channel 4]] programme showing at that time. It also created a run on [[nest box]]es for [[List of British birds: passerines|wild birds]] and [[bee|bumble bees]], [[bird bath]]s and bird feed from suppliers, likened to the ''Delia power'' phenomenon created when [[Delia Smith]] mentioned the tools and ingredients she was using on her cooking programme ''Delia's How to Cook''. Oddie presented an update later in 2004.
Most of the recent series have been produced by [[Stephen Moss]].
==Marriage and children==
Oddie is married to [[Laura Beaumont]], with whom he has worked on a variety of projects for children, including film scripts, drama and comedy series, puppet shows and books. They have a daughter, Rosie, and live in [[London]]. He has two daughters from his first marriage (to Jean Hart), Bonnie and the actress [[Kate Hardie]], and a grandson, Lyle.
==Recognition==
In [[2001]], Oddie became the third person to turn down the "red book" and decline to appear on [[This Is Your Life]]. He relented some time later.
On [[16 October]] [[2003]], Oddie was made an [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] for his service to Wildlife Conservation in a ceremony at [[Buckingham Palace]]. He played down the event, choosing to wear a camouflage shirt and crumpled jacket to receive his medal.
In June 2004, Oddie and [[Johnny Morris]] were jointly profiled in the first of a three part BBC Two series, ''[[The Way We Went Wild]]'', about television wildlife presenters.
In May [[2005]], he received the [[British Naturalists' Association]]'s [[Peter Scott]] Memorial Award, from BNA president [[David Bellamy]], "in recognition of his great contribution to our understanding of natural history and conservation".
==Further reading==
Further information about Bill Oddie can be found in the following books:
*''From Fringe to Flying Circus'' - 'Celebrating a Unique Generation of Comedy 1960-1980' - Roger Wilmut, Eyre Methuen Ltd, 1980.
*''Footlights!'' - 'A Hundred Years of Cambridge Comedy' - Robert Hewison, Methuen London Ltd, 1983.
==Bibliography==
(incomplete list)
*''Bill Oddie's Colouring Guide to Birds'' (Piccolo, [[1991]])
*''Bill Oddie's Little Black Bird Book''
*''Bill Oddie's Little Black Bird Book'' (paperback with additional material)
*''Bill Oddie's Gone Birding''
*''The Big Bird Race'' (with [[David Tomlinson (journalist)|David Tomlinson]]; Collins, 1983)
*''Follow That Bird!''
*''Gripping Yarns''
*''Bird in the Nest''
*''Bill Oddie's How to Watch Wildlife''
'''Bill Oddie also co-wrote the following books with the other members of ''[[The Goodies]]'' '''
*''The Goodies File''
*''The Goodies Book of Criminal Records''
*''The Goodies Disaster Movie''
===Contributions===
*''Blokes and Birds'', Stephen Moss; [[New Holland Publishers ]]. ISBN 1843304848 (foreword)
*''The New Birds of the West Midlands'', Graham and Janet Harrison ([http://www.westmidlandbirdclub.com/biblio/NBotWM.htm]; [[West Midland Bird Club]], 2005). (foreword)
== External links ==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/familyhistory/wdytya_celeb_gallery_01.shtml Bill Oddie's family history at the BBC website for the programme ''Who Do You Think You Are?'']
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/programmes/who/bill_oddie.shtml Biography on BBC's nature website]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/programmes/tv/bill_oddie Bill Oddie Goes Wild] - on BBC's Science and Nature website
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbc7/listenagain/monday/ BBC7's Listen Again series featuring "I'm Sorry I'll Read That Again"]
*[http://www.westmidlandbirdclub.com/archive/bartley-62.htm Bartley Reservoir article from West Midlands Bird Club's archive]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2004/06_june/23/wild.shtml BBC Press release reviewing ''Britain Goes Wild'']
*[http://prnewswire.co.uk/cgi/news/release?id=144823 Bill Oddie to receive Peter Scott Memorial Award]
*{{imdb name|id=0643919|name=Bill Oddie}}
*[http://www.ibdb.com/person.asp?ID=12211 Bill Oddie] - at the [[Internet Broadway Database]]
*[http://tv.groups.yahoo.com/group/billoddie/ mailing list for Oddie fans]
*[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2005/04/28/ftoddie28.xml In-depth interview, The Telegraph, [[28 April]] [[2005]]]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4099820.stm BBC 'Face of the week' article]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/guide/talent/o/oddie_bill.shtml Oddie in the BBC Guide to Comedy]
*[http://www.nyt.co.uk/bill-oddie.htm Oddie as a celebrity speaker]
*[http://www.gigrin.co.uk/bill-oddie.html Gigrin Farm chapter from Gripping Yarns]
*[http://www.loadofold.com/boots/oddie.html Oddie's actor profile]
*[http://www.uktv.co.uk/?uktv=standarditem.index&aID=528034 Oddie on UKTV]
*[http://www.tmcentertainment.co.uk/speaker-index.html?speakerid=225 Bill Oddie] at the TMC Entertainment
*[http://greentourism.org.uk/Default.aspx.LocID-008new00a.ReftLocID-008015003.Lang-EN.htm New Wildlife Website Takes off with Bill Oddie]
*[http://firstpersonquiz.com/oddie_bill.html First Person Quiz]
*[http://www.clanfork.co.uk/Trev/B/BillOddie.htm Bill Oddie's Great Bird Race Game]
*[http://www.rathergood.com/bill/ humorous flash presentation]
*[http://orangecow.org/pythonet/otherprepythonshows.html The Origin of Monty Python] - mentions Bill and ISIRTA
<br>
{{TheGoodies}}
<br>
<center>
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
|- bgcolor="lightblue"
! <font size="2">[[I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again]]</font size>
|-
| [[Tim Brooke-Taylor]] --- [[John Cleese]] --- [[Graeme Garden]] --- [[David Hatch]] --- [[Jo Kendall]] --- '''Bill Oddie'''
|
|- bgcolor="lightblue"
! <font size="2">[[Twice a Fortnight]]</font size>
|-
| [[Graeme Garden]] --- [[Terry Jones]] --- [[Jonathan Lynn]] --- '''Bill Oddie''' -- [[Michael Palin]]
|}
</center>
<br clear=all>
[[Image:TheGoodies.jpg|center|thumb|'''The Goodies''' &mdash; Bill Oddie, <br>Tim Brooke-Taylor, Graeme Garden]]
<br clear=all>
[[Category:1941 births|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:Alumni of Pembroke College, Cambridge|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:Natives of Lancashire|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:British comedians|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:British comedy writers|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:British illustrators|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:British nature writers|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:British ornithologists|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:British television actors|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:British television presenters|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:British television writers|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:British voice actors|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:Cambridge Footlights|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:Radio actors|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:Goodies actors|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:Doctor Who actors|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:Living people|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:Officers of the British Empire|Oddie, Bill]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Britain and Ireland</title>
<id>4623</id>
<revision>
<id>20489970</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-07T18:56:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Demiurge</username>
<id>72235</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv; I thought we'd sorted this out on [[Talk:Northern Ireland Act 1998]]?</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The islands of [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]] are part of an [[archipelago]] with a combined area of [[1 E11 m²|315,000]] [[square kilometre|km²]] off the west coast of [[Europe]], and the term "'''Britain and Ireland'''" is sometimes used, somewhat loosely and incorrectly, to refer to that entire archipelago.
This archipelago is often called the "[[British Isles]]"; some people believe one should avoid using this term because it could be construed as having the incorrect or politically loaded implication that the Republic of Ireland is or should be part of the [[United Kingdom]].
More commonly, the term "Britain and Ireland" is used to refer to the two states within the archipelago, namely the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]] (comprising [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland]]) and the [[Republic of Ireland]].
Depending on the context, it may or may not include the smaller islands that are part of these two states and lie around the coasts of the two major islands; used correctly, it does not include the [[Isle of Man]] or the [[Channel Islands]] even though the Isle of Man forms part of the British Isles and the Channel Islands are often taken as also doing so.
In the context of the [[Nor |
ne]], [[France]], just outside [[Marseille]].
There are nine regiments and one independent sub-unit :
* Mainland [[France]]
** 1st Foreign Cavalry Regiment (1er REC), based in [[Orange, France|Orange]] ([[Vehicle armour|armour]]ed troops)
** 2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment (2e REI), based in [[Nîmes]],
** 1st Foreign Engineer Regiment (1er REG), based in Laudun;
** 2nd Foreign Engineer Regiment (2e REG), based in St Christol,
** 1st Foreign Regiment (1er RE), based in [[Aubagne]] (Legion [[headquarter]]s),
** 4th Foreign Regiment (4e RE), based in [[Castelnaudary]] (training);
* in [[Corsica]],
** 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment (2e REP), based in [[Calvi]];
* [[Territoire d'outre-mer|French Overseas Territories]] and [[Collectivité d'outre-mer|Overseas Collectives]],
** 3rd Foreign Infantry Regiment (3e REI), based in [[French Guiana]],
** Foreign Legion Detachment in [[Mayotte]] (DLEM);
* Africa
** 13th Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade (13 DBLE), based in [[Djibouti]].
==Current Deployments==
These deployments are current as of November [[2005]]
* Operations exterieures (other than at home bases or on standard duties)
** Martinique - (Protection) - 2e REG / 2e Compagnie, RCS;
** Paris, France - VIGIPIRATE - 2e REI / 2 units, EM; 1er REG / 2 units;
** Montpelier - VIGIPIRATE - 2e REI / 1 unit;
** Perpignan - VIGIPIRATE - 2e REI / 1 unit;
** Guyane - (Protection) - 3e REI / 3e Compagnie; 1er REG / RCS;
** Cote D'Ivoire - (Intervention) - Operation LICORNE - 1er REC / 5e Squadron;
** Mayotte - (Prevention) - DLEM;
** Iles Glorieuses - (Prevention) - DLEM;
** Djibouti - (Prevention) - 13e DBLE; 2e REI / CAC, RCS; 2e REG / 1er Compagnie, RCS;
** Kosovo - (Intervention) - 2e REG / BATFRA.
** Afghanistan - (Intervention) - 2e REG / URH;
* Training Operations
** 2e REP - France (Corse) - Regimental Exercise
** 1er REC - France (Provence/Alpes-Cotes D'Azur and Languedoc-Roussillon) - Ex. Amphibie " Melaoria II"- Exercise "PC Garrigues "Palmex II";
** 2e REI - France and United Kingdom - La Courtine, Ex. Cambrian Patrol and CIECM;
** 3e REI - Guyane - Stage Combat en Milieu Equatorial;
** 4e RE - Exercise Antarès with 17e RPG.
==Notable Members of the Légion Étrangère==
*[[Milorad Lukovic]]
*[[Dimitri Amilakhvari]]
*[[François Faber]]
*[[Ante Gotovina]]
*[[John F. "Jack" Hasey]]
*[[Ernst Jünger]]
*[[Marie Pierre Koenig|Pierre Koenig]]
*[[Arthur Koestler]]
*[[André Lalande (soldier)|André Lalande]]
*[[Raoul Lufbery]]
*[[Hélie de Saint Marc]] (former resistant deported to Buchenwald, participated in the Algiers putsch)
*[[Pierre Messmer]]
*[[Simon Murray]]
*[[Cole Porter]] (falsely claimed to be a member while living as a playboy in Paris)
*[[Alan Seeger]]
*[[Susan Travers]]
*[[HRH Prince Aage of Denmark]]
*[[Louis II, Prince of Monaco|HSH Prince Louis II of Monaco]]
==The Legion in popular culture==
The existence of the French Foreign Legion has led to a romantic view that it is a place for a wronged man to leave behind his old life to start a new one, but also that it is full of scoundrels and men escaping justice. This view of the legion is common in [[literature]], and has been used for dramatic effect in many [[film|movies]], not the least of which are the several versions of ''[[Beau Geste]]''. The Legion is also depicted in the [[United States|U.S.]] [[comic strip]] ''[[Crock (comic strip)|Crock]]''.
There is a French song made famous by [[Edith Piaf]] called "Mon Legionnaire".
The Foreign Legion adopted another Edith Piaf song as their own "Je ne regrette rien" during the 1950s and today is still a popular Legion 'chant' sung when on parade, adapting it to their unique marching cadence of 88 steps to the minute.
[[Ante Gotovina]]'s biography ''[[The General]]'', written by [[Croatia|Croatian]] writer [[Nenad Ivankovic]], is mainly about Gotovina's life in the Legion.
In the 1960s, the British boys' comic [[Eagle (comic)|Eagle]] featured a popular adventure strip called ''[[Luck of the Legion]]'', set in the classic period before WWI, of soldiers in blue coats, white kepi covers, white scarves and white trousers marching across endless desert under the gaze of treacherous Arab warriors.
Most recently, the Legion was revealed in a contemporary (July 2005) documentary ''Escape to the Legion'', commissioned by the [[United Kingdom|British]] television channel, [[Channel 4]]. In this four-part series, 11 volunteers with [[Bear Grylls]] explored the myths, romanticism and rigours of basic training in the French Foreign Legion.
Additionally, ''[[Legion of the Lost]]'' an autobiography by Jaime Salazar published in 2005, chronicles his experience as an American citizen who joined the legion out of boredom and disenfranchisement from white collar America.
The Foreign Legion was also portrayed in [[The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles]] TV series during [[WWI]].
''[[Legionaire(film)|Legionaire]]'', starring [[Jean-Claude Van Damme]], depicted the Foreign Legion's battles against Algerian berbers. In the 1990 film "Lionheart," Van Damme stars as a Legionaire who deserts in order to help his sister-in-law and niece after his brother is killed.
''[[The Mummy (1999 film)|The Mummy]]'', starring [[Brendan Fraser]], begins with Fraser's character, Rick O'Connell, a member of Foreign Legion and fighting in ruins of [[Hamunaptra]] ([[City of the Dead]]).
The [[1939]] comedy, ''[[Flying Deuces]]'' is one of the most popular films to star the duo [[Laurel and Hardy]]. The film begins with the pair joining the Foreign Legion and much of the comedy comes from their experiences. Laurel and Hardy had made an earlier comedy set in the Foreign Legion, [[Beau Hunks]], in [[1931]].
[["March or Die"]] (1978), (also known in France as "Marche ou Crève") stars [[Gene Hackman]] as Colonel Foster, an embittered Legion veteran of the Legion's heroic RMLE who returns to Algeria from the Western Front at end of WW1. He is ordered to chaperone an archaeological expedition into hostile Arab territory. The film also stars [[Max Von Sydow]], [[Catherine Deneuve]], [[Terence Hill]] and [[Ian Holm]].
In science fiction writer ''[[Jerry Pournelle]]'''s "Future History", http://www.chronology.org/pournelle/, whose main character is a future soldier of fortune named John Christian Falkenberg, there is a central role to the [[CoDominium Navy]], which fights on all kinds of planets far away in space, and which had been created out of the French Foreign Legion and still keeps many of its traditions such as the aforementioned "Camerone Day".
The movie, [[Savior (film)|Savior]], with [[Dennis Quaid]], is about an American who joins the legion after he shoots a group of Muslims (following a Muslim bombing of the restaurant where his wife and son were--both die). In the legion, Quaid is a sniper and is involved in the Bosnia/Serb/Croatian ethnic wars.
[[Snoopy]], from the [[Peanuts]] comic strip, often imagines himself as a member of the Foreign Legion, usually defending or reclaiming Fort Zinderneuf.
In a French sci-fi comic [[Aquablue]], the hero, Neo, must defend himself and his people against the Légion, an [[Earth Special Force]] which has exactly the same uniform as the Légion Étrangère.
The indie-rock band [[The Decemberists]] wrote a song called The Legionnaire's Lament about a homesick legionnaire during the first world war.
[[Frank Sinatra]] performed a song called "[[French Foreign Legion (song)|French Foreign Legion]]" about joining up if a girl doesn't marry him.
In the [[manga]] and [[anime]], [[Area 88]] the protagonist, Shin Kazama, was tricked while intoxicated into joining the French Foreign Legion to serve in a mercenary airforce in the fictional Asran Kingdom of North Africa. The office that handled his contracts was located in Paris, France.
David Drake, the author of the Hammer's Slammers series, bases his mercenary unit off of the French Foreign Legion. More specifically, the Legion after the Second World War, when most of its members had fled from persecution from the Allied War Crimes Commission.
==See also==
{{commons|French Foreign Legion}}
*[[Chasseurs d'Afrique]]
*[[French Marines]]
* [[Spanish Legion|Spanish Foreign Legion]]
* [[French Army]]
==External links==
* [http://www.legion-etrangere.com/ Official Website]
* [http://www.br-legion.com/ang/index.html The Official Recruitment Office of the Foreign Legion]
* [http://french-foreign-legion.com/ French Foreign Legion information]
* [http://www.legionetrangere.fr/leg/default_zone/fr/html/framesfr.html Federation of Veteran Societies of the Foreign Legion]
* [http://www.info-france-usa.org/atoz/legion/index.asp French Embassy to US, Foreign Legion section]
* [http://www.cervens.net/legionbbs/ A Foreign Legion forum]
* [http://lib.ru/TXT/franclegion.txt Foreign Legion Info Site]
* [http://www.voltigeur1.net/ Foreign Legion Info Site by ex-legionnaire]
* [http://www.channel4.com/life/microsites/E/escape_to_the_legion/ Channel 4 documentary website]
* [http://www.LegionoftheLost.com <i>Legion of the Lost</i> (non-fiction memoir)]
* [http://www.a-new-life.net/index2.html French Foreign Legion video links]
* [http://paginas.pavconhecimento.pt/pessoais/dw/Mario%5FZanatti/ The presentation of the Eurocorps-Foreign Legion concept]
* [http://legionetrangere.ru/forum/ French Foreign Legion forum(in Russian)]
*[http://www.legion-etrangere.info/spip/article.php3?id_article=141 Les grades à la Légion étrangère (insignia) ]
*[http://www.legion-etrangere.info Legion information by a former légionnaire (en français)]
*[http://www.foreignlegionlife.com Foreign Legion life]
[[Category:French Army]]
[[Category:Soldiers of the French Foreign Legion|*]]
[[Category:1831 establishments]]
[[da:Fremmedlegionen]]
[[de:Fremdenlegion]]
[[es:Legión extranjera francesa]]
[[fr:Légion étrangère]]
[[ja:&#12501;&#12521;&#12531;&#12473;&#22806;& |
by AMD as short for "[[decathlon]]". The original Athlon core revision, code-named "K7" (in homage to its predecessor, the [[AMD K6|K6]]), was available in speeds of 500 to 700 [[Megahertz|MHz]] at its introduction and was later sold at speeds up to 1000 MHz (K75). The processor was compatible with the industry-standard x86 instruction set and plugged into a [[motherboard]] slot mechanically similar to (but not [[pin-compatibility|pin-compatible]] with) the Pentium II's [[Slot 1]].
[[Image:Slot-A Athlon.jpg|thumb|Slot-A Athlon]]
[[Image:Athlon_arch.png|300px|thumb|The AMD Athlon architecture.]]
Internally, the Athlon was essentially a major reworking of the [[AMD K6|K6]] processor core designed for compatibility with the EV6 bus protocol (first used on DEC's [[DEC Alpha|Alpha]] 21264 [[RISC]] processor). AMD dramatically improved the floating-point unit from the K6 and put a large 128 KB (64 + 64 KB) L1-[[CPU cache|Cache]] on the chip. Like [[Intel]]'s [[Pentium II]] and Katmai [[Pentium III]], there was a secondary cache of 512 KB, mounted externally to the chip itself but still within the CPU module, and running at a lower speed than the core: initially half-speed (up to 700 MHz), but later runs at 2/5 (up to 850 MHz) to 1/3 (up to 1 GHz) of the core speed (because of cost and availability issues with very high speed cache [[random access memory|RAM]]). <!-- Please correct this section. The Athlon is not a reworking of the K6 core -->
The resulting processor was the fastest x86 CPU in the world, and various versions of the Athlon held this distinction continuously from August 1999 until January 2002.
In commercial terms, the Athlon Classic was an enormous success — not just because of its own merits, but also because the normally dependable Intel endured a series of major production, design, and quality control issues at this time. In particular, Intel's transition to a 0.18 [[micrometre|μm]] production process, starting in late 1999 and running through to mid-2000, was chaotic, and there was a severe shortage of Pentium III parts. In contrast, AMD enjoyed a remarkably smooth process transition, had ample supplies available, and Athlon sales became quite strong. Many long-time Intel-only PC dealers found the combination of the Athlon's excellent performance and reasonable pricing tempting, and the prospect of being able to get stock in commercial volumes impossible to resist.
==Athlon Thunderbird (T-Bird)==
The second-generation Athlon, the ''Thunderbird'', debuted on [[June 5]], [[2000]]. This version of the Athlon shipped in a more traditional [[Pin grid array|pin-grid array]] (PGA) format that plugged into a socket ("[[Socket A]]") on the motherboard. It was sold at speeds ranging from 700 to 1400 MHz. The major difference, however, was cache design. Just as Intel had done when they replaced the old Katmai [[Pentium III]] with the much faster Coppermine P-III, AMD replaced the 512 KB external reduced-speed cache of the Athlon Classic with 256 KB of on-chip, full-speed cache. (As a general rule, more cache improves performance, but faster cache improves it further still.)
The Thunderbird was AMD's most successful product since the [[Am386|Am386DX-40]] ten years earlier. Mainboard designs had improved considerably by this time, and the initial trickle of Athlon mainboard makers has swollen to include every major manufacturer. Their new [[Fab (semiconductors)|fab]] in [[Dresden]] came on-line, allowing further production increases, and the process technology was improved by a switch to copper interconnects. In October 2000 the Athlon "C" was introduced, raising the mainboard [[front side bus]] speed to 266 [[MT/s]] (133 MHz [[double-pumped]]) and providing roughly 10% extra performance over the "B" model Thunderbird.
==Athlon XP==
[[Image:Athlon_XP.png|200px|right|Athlon XP logo]]
In performance terms, the Thunderbird had easily eclipsed the rival Pentium III, and the early [[Pentium 4]]s were a long way off the pace, but gradually clawed their way closer. The 1.7 GHz P4 (April 2001) served notice that the Thunderbird could not count on retaining performance leadership forever, and thermal and electricity-consumption issues with the Thunderbird design meant that it wasn't practical to take it past 1400 MHz (even at that speed it was excessively hot).
===Palomino===
AMD released the third major Athlon version on [[October 9]], 2001, code-named "Palomino". This version, the first to include the [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]] instruction set from the Intel [[Pentium III]] as well as AMD's [[3DNow!|3DNow! Professional]], was introduced at speeds between 1333 and 1533 MHz, with ratings from 1500+ and 1800+. The major changes were optimizations to the core design to increase efficiency by roughly 10% over a Thunderbird at the same clock-speed, and power consumption reductions to allow it to be clocked faster (some parts of the chip were already built in 130 nm). It allowed AMD to take the x86 performance lead with the 1800+, increasing it upon the release of the 1900+ (running at 1600 MHz), until Intel released the 2.0 and 2.2 GHz models of the Pentium 4.
The "Palomino" was first released as a mobile version, called the Mobile Athlon 4 (also code-named "Corvette"), after the fact that it was AMD's fourth core to be called Athlon (after the original K7, the 0.18 μm K75, and the Thunderbird), but many people noted that the name was most likely a jab at the then-brand-new Intel [[Pentium 4]]. The desktop Athlon XP followed a few months later, in October.
The "Palomino" did have one major flaw, however: it ran very hot. Its [[Symmetric multiprocessing|SMP]] enabled version, the Athlon MP entry (which carried the Palomino core before the Athlon XP), was initially hammered due to heat issues with the Palomino core.
The ''Athlon XP'' was marketed using a [[PR rating]] system, which compared its performance to an Athlon Thunderbird. Because the Athlon XP had much higher [[Instructions Per Clock|IPC]] (instructions per clock) than the Pentium 4 (and about 10% higher than a Thunderbird), it was more efficient; it delivered the same level of performance at a lower clock-speed, or higher performance at the same speed.
===Thoroughbred (T-Bred)===
[[Image:AMD-Athlon-XP-2100l.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Athlon XP 2100 Thoroughbred{{ifdc|February_27}}]]
The fourth-generation Athlon, the ''Thoroughbred'', was released [[10 June]] [[2002]] at 1.8 GHz, or 2200+ on the PR rating system. There were actually two versions of this core, commonly called A and B. The A version was the one introduced at 1800 MHz, which had some heat issues, so it was only sold in versions from 1333 to 1800 MHz, replacing the Palomino.
The B version, which had an additional metal layer, was released at higher clock speeds, up to the 2800+ model, which ran at 2250 MHz. Later, it replaced the entire Athlon XP line until the launch of the ''Barton'' core.
Two new models, the 2400+ and 2600+, were announced on [[21 August]] [[2002]]. The 2400+ ran at 2000 MHz, and the 2600+ ran at 2083 or 2133 MHz, depending on the [[front side bus]] speed (2083 MHz for 333 MT/s FSB, 2133 MHz for 266 MT/s FSB). 2700+ and 2800+ ''Thoroughbred'' parts were also announced, but were only available in very small quantities.
The "Thoroughbred" core was on a 0.13 micrometre (130 nm) process, updated from the 0.18 micrometre (180 nm) process of its "Palomino" predecessor. Other than the new process, the Thoroughbred design was not different from the "Palomino" in any way. AMD did have initial troubles with the "Thoroughbred A" revision having substantial heat issues, which were solved in the "B" revision. The rev. A may have been on the 130 nm process, but it offered no real improvements over the old Palomino. Overclockers still liked to use the Palomino; even with it being made on the 180 nm process, it still was able to hit higher clock speeds. The Thoroughbred "B" fixed this problem by adding an extra metal layer to the manufacturing process, allowing enhanced speeds that would allow them to conquer the market again. At first, 2600+ was released. Later, AMD raised the FSB from 266 MT/s (133 MHz double-pumped) to 333 MT/s (166 MHz double-pumped). This allowed the company to raise the performance rating numbers of the CPUs without actually upping the clock speed much. However, AMD failed to manufacture and ship acceptable amounts of the highest-end 2700+ and 2800+ Thoroughbreds, and as a result they were hard to obtain.
===Barton and Thorton===
Fifth-generation Athlon ''Barton''-core processors released in early 2003 featured PR ratings of 2500+, 2600+, 2800+, 3000+, and 3200+. While not faster than ''Thoroughbred''-core processors in clock speed, they earned their higher PR-rating-per-clock by featuring an additional 256 KB of full-speed on-chip level 2 cache, for a total of 512 KB, and a faster FSB. The ''Thorton'' core was a variant of the ''Barton'' with half of the L2 cache disabled and thus functionally identical to the ''Thoroughbred B'' core. The disabled L2 cache on some ''Thortons'' was partially defective, but on others it could be re-enabled through bridge modifications. [http://www.xbitlabs.com/news/cpu/display/20030930171549.html]
As with most Athlons, the Barton core was popular with overclockers. For example, the 2500+ was rated to run an a 333 MT/s (166 MHz double-pumped) bus. By upping this to 400 MT/s (200 MHz double-pumped), it became equivalent to the much more expensive 3200+. Some suspect this was the reason for the relatively short retail lifespan of the lower-rated Bartons, which were the first to be replaced by the cut-down Semprons.
Some AMD proponents claim that these new parts regained performance leadership for the Athlon, but this remained in doubt. Much controversy surrounds the [[Benc |
ht|150px|Street fighting on O'Connell Street during the Irish Civil War. The Free State's acquisition of armoured cars, seen in action here, was a major advantage in street fighting.]]
The outbreak of the civil war forced pro and anti treaty supporters to choose sides. Supporters of the treaty came to be known as "pro-treaty", "National Army" or "Free State" forces. Its opponents were known as "anti-treaty", "Irregulars" or "Republicans" and continued to refer to themselves as the "IRA". The Anti-Treaty IRA claimed that it was defending the Irish Republic that had been declared in 1916 during the [[Easter Rising]], that had been confirmed by the [[First Dáil]] and that had been invalidly set aside by those who accepted the compromise of the Free State. Éamon de Valera stated that he would serve as an ordinary IRA volunteer, and left the leadership of the Anti-Treaty Republicans to military leaders such as [[Liam Lynch (general)|Liam Lynch]], the [[list of IRA Chiefs of Staff|IRA Chief of Staff]].
===The Opposing forces===
At the start of the Civil War the IRA had split down the middle. The Anti-Treaty side had considerable support among IRA units, particularly in the south and west of Ireland. In fact, when the civil war broke out, the Anti-Treaty IRA outnumbered the pro-Free State forces -by roughly 15,000 men to 7000 or nearly 2-1. (The paper strength of the IRA in early 1922 was over 72,000 men, but most of them fought in neither the War of Independence nor the Civil War). However the anti-treaty IRA lacked an effective command structure, a clear strategy and sufficient arms. They started the war with only 6,780 rifles and a handful of machine guns. They also took a handful of [[armoured cars]] from British troops as they were evacuating the country. More importantly, the had no artillery of any kind. As a result, they were forced to adopt a defensive stance throughout the war.
By contrast, the Free State managed to expand its forces dramatically after the start of the war. Michael Collins and his commanders were able to build up an army which was able to overwhelm the Irregulars in the field. British supplies of artillery, [[aircraft]], [[armoured cars]], [[machine gun]]s, [[small arms]] and [[ammunition]] were much help to pro-treaty forces. By the end of the war, the Free State Army had swollen to over 55,000 men and 3,500 officers, far in excess of what the Irish state would need to maintain in peacetime. Collins' most ruthless officers and men were recruited from the Dublin "Active Service Unit" (the elite unit of the IRA's Dublin Brigade), which Collins had commanded in the Irish War of Independence and in particular from his assassination unit "The Squad". In the New [[Irish Army]], they were known as the [[Dublin Guard]]. Towards the end of the war, they were implicated in some gruesome atrocities against Anti-Treaty [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]]. Most of the Free State Army's officers were Pro-Treaty IRA officers. However, the bulk of the Free State Army was made up of unemployed Irish ex-servicemen, who had fought in the [[First World War]] in the [[British Army]].
===The Free State takes major towns===
[[Image:Griffith.jpg|130px|thumb|'''Arthur Griffith''' <br>(1871-1922)]]
With Dublin in pro-treaty hands, conflict spread throughout the country, with anti-Treaty forces briefly holding [[Cork]], [[Limerick]] and [[Waterford]] as part of a self-styled independent [[Munster Republic|"Munster Republic"]]. However, the Anti-Treaty side were not equipped to wage conventional war, lacking artillery and armoured units, both of which the Free State obtained from the British. This meant that the large towns in Ireland were all easily taken by the Free State after only sporadic fighting.
In [[Limerick]], the anti-treaty IRA held four military barracks and most of the town. Fighting broke out between them and Free state units in the city on the 11th of July 1921. On the 17th, General [[Eoin O'Duffy]] arrived with 1,500 Free State reinforcments including four armoured cars and an 18 pounder cannon. After three days of street fighting the Republicans evacuated the city and retreated south. Eight Free State troops died in Limerick and up to thirty Republicans. Similarly, [[Waterford]] was taken by a Free State column equipped with armour and artillery under General Prout between the 18th and 20th of July at a cost of only ten killed. However, the Free State troops encountered more tenacious resistance in the countryside around [[Kilmallock]], south of Limerick city, when they tried to advance into republican held [[Munster]]. Eoin O'Duffy's 1,500 troops were faced with about 2000 anti-Treaty IRA men under [[Liam Deasy]], who had three armoured cars they had taken from the evacuating British troops. Fighting continued here from the 22nd of July until August the 5th, despite the arrival of over 1000 more Free State troops and more armoured cars and cannon. These engagements were the closest thing in the war to a conventional battle and were costly for both sides. Deasy's men were ultimately forced to retreat, however, when Free State forces were landed by sea behind them in [[Passage West]] and [[Fenit]] in counties Cork and Kerry on the 2nd and 8th of August respectively.
These seaborne landings landed about 2000 well equipped Free State troops into the heart of the "Munster Republic" and caused the rapid collapse of the Republican position in the south. After some fighting at [[Rochestown]], the badly armed anti-treaty IRA in Cork did not try to resist this offensive, but burned the barracks they were holding and dispersed. On [[August 10]], [[Cork]] city was retaken, the last city to fall in the "Munster Republic". [[Liam Lynch]], the Republican commander in chief abandoned [[Fermoy]], the last republican held town, the following day.
Another naval landing, at [[Clew Bay]] in Mayo, helped re-take the west of Ireland for the Free State. This force consisting of 400 Free State soldiers, one cannon and an armoured car under Christopher O'Malley, re-took the Republican held town of [[Westport]] and linked up with another Free State column under [[Sean McEoin]] advancing from [[Castlebar]].
Government victories in the major towns inaugurated a period of inconclusive [[guerrilla warfare]]. Anti-Treaty IRA units held out in areas such as the western part of counties Cork and Kerry in the south, [[county Wexford]] in the east and counties [[Sligo]] and [[Mayo]] in the west. Sporadic fightin also took place around [[Dundalk]], where [[Frank Aiken]] and the [[Fourth Northern Division of the Irish Republican Army]] were based. Aiken originally wanted to stay neutral, but was arrested by Free State troops along with 400 of his men on July 16th 1922. They subsequently broke out of prison in Dundalk and conducted a guerrilla campaign against the Free State along the new Irish border with [[Northern Ireland]].
It took eight more months of intermittent warfare before the war was brought to an end. This period was marked by assassinations and executions of leaders formerly allied in the cause of Irish independence. Commander-in-Chief Michael Collins was assassinated by anti-treaty republicans at Béal na mBláth, near his home in [[County Cork]], in August 1922{{fn|1}}. Arthur Griffith, the Free State president had also died of a brain haemorrhage ten days before, leaving the Free State government in the hands of [[W.T. Cosgrave|William Cosgrave]] and the Free State Army under the command of General [[Richard Mulcahy]].
In October 1922, Eamonn de Valera and the anti-treaty TDs (members of the [[Dail]] Parliament) set up their own "Republican government" in opposition to the Free State. However, by then the anti-Treaty side held no significant territory and De Valera's "government" had no authority over the population. In any case, the IRA leaders paid no attention to it, seeing the Republican authority as vested in their own military leaders.
[[Image:MickC.jpg|frame|left|'''Michael Collins''', as Commander-in-Chief at [[Arthur Griffith|President Griffith's]] funeral, one week before his own death.]]
===Atrocities, executions and the end of the war===
The final phase of the Civil War (November 1922-May 1923) degenerated into a series of atrocities that left a lasting legacy of bitterness in Irish politics. On October 15th 1922, the Free State's Provisional Government passed an "Emergency Powers Bill" in the [[Dail]], which allowed for the execution of men captured bearing arms against the state. On November the 17th, four IRA men who were captured with arms were shot by firing squad. On the 24th of November, acclaimed author and treaty negotiator [[Robert Erskine Childers]] was executed by the Free State, having been captured in possession of a pistol. Liam Lynch, in response, issued an order to the IRA units under his command that any member of Parliament who had signed or voted for the "murder bill" should be shot on sight. The Anti-Treaty IRA therefore began assassinating [[Teachta Dála|TDs]] who sat in the [[Dáil]], beginning with [[Sean Hales]]. A number of other TD's and Senators were also shot and wounded. In response, the Free State announced that it would be shooting IRA prisoners already in its custody in reprisal for future "outrages". Accordingly, on December the 7th 1922, the day after Hales' killing, four prominent Republicans (one from each [[Provinces of Ireland|province]]), who had been held since the first week of the war - [[Rory O'Connor (Irish republican)|Rory O'Connor]], [[Liam Mellows]] [[Richard Barett]] and [[Joe McKelvey]]- were executed in revenge for the killing of Hales. In all, the Free State sanctioned 77 official executions of Anti-Treaty prisoners during the civil war - a number that was recalled b |
(already exists)<br>
8031 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 8051)<br>
80386 -- '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)<br>
8048 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 8048)<br>
80486 -- '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)<br>
8051 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 8051)<br>
8052 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 8051)<br>
8080 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 8080)<br>
8086 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 8086)<br>
8088 -- '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)<br>
80x86 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 80x86)<br>
822 -- '''DONE''' (renamed RFC 822)<br>
82430FX -- '''DONE''' (renamed Triton II)<br>
82430HX -- '''DONE''' (renamed Triton II)<br>
82430MX -- '''DONE''' (renamed Mobile Triton)<br>
82430VX -- '''DONE''' (renamed Triton VX)<br>
8.3 -- '''DONE''' (renamed 8.3 (computing))<br>
8514 -- '''DONE''' (renamed 8514 (display standard))<br>
8514-A -- '''DONE''' (renamed 8514 (display standard))<br>
88000 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Motorola 88000)<br>
88open -- '''DONE'''<br>
8-bit clean -- '''DONE'''<br>
8N1 -- '''DONE'''<br>
8 queens problem -- '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)<br>
8 queens puzzle -- '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)<br>
8x86 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 80x86)<br>
90-90 Rule -- '''DONE''' (renamed Ninety-Ninety Rule)<br>
9PAC -- '''DONE'''<br>
:-) -- '''DONE''' (renamed to smiley)<br>
<br> -- '''NO IMPORT''' (what is this supposed to be?)<br>
= -- '''DONE''' (renamed to equals (computing))<br>
@ -- '''DONE''' (renamed to commercial at (computing))<br>
A# -- '''DONE''' (renamed to A sharp)<br>
A-0 -- '''DONE'''<br>
a1 -- '''DONE'''<br>
A1 security -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Orange Book)<br>
A20 handler -- '''DONE'''<br>
A-3 -- '''DONE''' (renamed to ARITH-MATIC)<br>
A3D -- '''DONE'''<br>
a56 -- '''DONE'''<br>
AADL -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Axiomatic Architecture Description Language)<br>
AAL -- '''DONE''' (renamed to ATM Adaptation Layer)<br>
AAP -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Associaton of American Publishers)<br>
AAP DTD -- '''DONE'''<br>
aard -- '''DONE'''<br>
AARP -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Apple Address Resolution Protocol)<br>
AARP probe packets -- '''DONE''' (renamed to AARP probe packet)<br>
AAUI -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Apple Attachment Unit Interface)<br>
A&ampB -- '''DONE'''<br>
abbrev -- '''NO IMPORT''' (not suitable for an encyclopedia article)<br>
Abbreviated Test Language for Avionics Systems -- '''DONE'''<br>
ABC -- '''DONE''' (renamed to ABC (programming))<br>
ABC ALGOL -- '''DONE'''<br>
ABCL/1 -- '''DONE'''<br>
ABCL/c+ -- '''DONE''' (renamed to ABCL/c plus)<br>
ABCL/R -- '''DONE'''<br>
ABCL/R2 -- '''DONE'''<br>
abduction -- '''DONE''' (renamed to abduction (logic))<br>
ABEND -- '''DONE'''<br>
ABI -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Application Binary Interface)<br>
ABLE -- '''DONE'''<br>
ABM -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Asynchronous Balanced Mode)<br>
ABNF -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Augmented Backus-Naur Form)<br>
abort -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Abort (computing))<br>
ABP -- '''DONE''<br>
ABR -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Automatic baud rate detection)<br>
abscissa -- '''DONE'''<br>
ABSET -- '''DONE'''<br>
absolute path -- '''DONE'''<br>
absolute pathname -- '''DONE''' renamed to absolute path<br>
abstract class -- '''DONE'''<br>
abstract data type -- '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)<br>
abstract interpretation -- '''DONE'''<br>
abstraction -- '''DONE''' (renamed to abstraction (programming))<br>
abstract machine -- '''DONE'''<br>
Abstract Machine Notation -- '''DONE'''<br>
abstract syntax -- '''DONE'''<br>
Abstract Syntax Notation 1 -- '''DONE'''<br>
abstract syntax tree -- '''DONE'''<br>
Abstract-Type and Scheme-Definition Language -- '''DONE'''<br>
Abstract Windowing Toolkit -- '''DONE'''<br>
Abstract Window Toolkit -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Abstract Window Toolkit)<br>
ABSYS -- '''DONE'''<br>
ACA -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Application Control Architecture)<br>
ACAP -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Application Configuration Access Protocol)<br>
Accelerated Graphics Port -- '''DONE'''<br>
accelerator -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Accelerator (computing))<br>
Accent -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Accent (programming language))<br>
accept -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Accept (computing routine))<br>
Acceptable Use Policy -- '''DONE'''<br>
acceptance testing -- '''DONE'''<br>
Acceptance, Test Or Launch Language -- '''DONE'''<br>
acceptor -- ''NO IMPORT'' (already have article on [[Finite state machine]]; left FOLDOC article in [[Talk:Finite state machine]] if anyone wants to merge it) <br>
Access -- ''DONE'' (part when to [[Access query language]], the communications program went to [[Microsoft Access]], since we already have an article on Microsoft Access the database, that was dumped in [[Talk:Microsoft Access]])<br>
Access Control List -- '''DONE'''<br>
access method -- '''DONE'''<br>
access permission<br>
access time<br>
ACCLAIM<br>
Accounting File<br>
accounting management<br>
ACCU<br>
accumulator -- '''DONE'''<br>
accuracy<br>
ACE<br>
ACF<br>
ACF/NCP<br>
ACIA<br>
ACID<br>
ACIS<br>
ACK<br>
ACL<br>
ACM<br>
ACME<br>
ACOM<br>
Acorn Archimedes<br>
Acorn Computer Group<br>
Acorn Computers Ltd.<br>
[[ARM Ltd|Acorn RISC Machine]]<br>
ACOS<br>
acoustic coupler<br>
ACP<br>
ACPI -- '''DONE'''<br>
Acrobat<br>
acronym<br>
ACSE<br>
ACT -- see Annual Change Traffic, Ada Core Technologies <br>
ACT++<br>
Act1<br>
Act2<br>
Act3<br>
Actalk<br>
Actis<br>
activation record<br>
active DBMS<br>
Active Directory<br>
Active Language I<br>
active matrix display<br>
Active Monitor<br>
active object<br>
Active Reconfiguring Message<br>
Active Server Pages<br>
ActiveX<br>
ACT ONE<br>
Actor<br>
actor<br>
Actors<br>
actor/singer/waiter/webmaster<br>
Actra<br>
Actus<br>
AD<br>
ad<br>
Ada<br>
Ada++<br>
Ada 83<br>
Ada 95<br>
Ada 9X<br>
ADABAS<br>
Ada Core Technologies<br>
Ada/Ed<br>
Adaline<br>
Ada Lovelace<br>
ADAM<br>
Adam7<br>
Adamakegen<br>
ADAMO<br>
Ada-O<br>
Adaplan<br>
Adaplex<br>
Ada Programming Support Environment<br>
ADAPT<br>
Adaptable User Interface<br>
Adaptec<br>
adaptive answering<br>
Adaptive Communication Environment<br>
Adaptive Digital Pulse Code Modulation<br>
adaptive learning<br>
adaptive routing<br>
Adaptive Simulated Annealing<br>
Adaptive TRansform Acoustic Coding<br>
Adaptor<br>
Ada Semantic Interface Specification<br>
Ada Software Repository<br>
ADC<br>
ADCCP<br>
A/D converter<br>
AD/Cycle<br>
ADD 1 TO COBOL GIVING COBOL<br>
ADDD<br>
additive<br>
address<br>
address bus<br>
addressed call mode<br>
addressee<br>
addressing mode<br>
address mask<br>
address resolution<br>
Address Resolution Protocol<br>
address space<br>
Address Strobe<br>
ADELE<br>
ADES<br>
[[ad hoc]] -- '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists) <br>
ad-hockery<br>
[[polymorphism (computer science)|ad-hoc polymorphism]] -- '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)<br>
Aditi<br>
adjacency<br>
adjacent<br>
ADL<br>
AdLog<br>
ADM<br>
ADMD<br>
admin<br>
Administration Management Domain<br>
administrative distance<br>
Administrative Domain<br>
admissible<br>
Adobe Systems, Inc.<br>
Adobe Type Manager<br>
ADPCM<br>
ADS<br>
ADSL<br>
ADSP<br>
ADSU<br>
ADT<br>
Advanced Communication Function/Network Control Program<br>
Advanced Communications Function<br>
Advanced Computing Environment<br>
Advanced Configuration and Power Interface -- '''DONE'''<br>
Advanced Data Communications Control Protocol<br>
Advanced Encryption Standard<br>
Advanced Function Presentation<br>
Advanced Function Printing<br>
Advanced Intelligent Tape<br>
Advanced Interactive eXecutive<br>
Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.<br>
Advanced Network Systems Architecture<br>
Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking<br>
Advanced Power Management -- '''DONE'''<br>
Advanced Program-to-Program Communications<br>
Advanced Research Projects Agency<br>
Advanced Research Projects Agency Network<br>
Advanced Revelation<br>
Advanced RISC Computing Specification<br>
Advanced RISC Machine '''DONE''', renamed [[Acorn RISC Machine]] and moved to [[ARM Ltd]]<br>
Advanced RISC Machines Ltd. '''DONE''', renamed [[Advanced RISC Machines]] and merged with [[ARM Ltd]]<br>
Advanced SCSI Peripheral Interface<br>
Advanced Software Environment<br>
Advanced STatistical Analysis Program<br>
Advanced Technology Attachment<br>
Advanced Technology Attachment Interface with Extensions<br>
Advanced WavEffect<br>
ADVENT<br>
Adventure Definition Language<br>
ADVSYS<br>
AE<br>
ae<br>
AED<br>
AEGIS<br>
Aegis<br>
Aeolus<br>
AEP<br>
aeroplane rule<br>
AES<br>
AESOP<br>
af<br>
AFAC<br>
AFAIK<br>
affine transformation<br>
affordance& |
lle.
[[Andalusian cuisine]] is known for its use of [[fish]] and [[shellfish]], its [[dessert]]s, and its world-famous [[sherry]].
Andalusia is divided into eight [[provinces of Spain|provinces]] named after the capital cities of these provinces:
*[[Sevilla (province)|Sevilla]]
*[[Granada (province)|Granada]]
*[[Córdoba Province, Spain|Córdoba]]
*[[Cádiz (province)|Cádiz]]
*[[Málaga (province)|Málaga]]
*[[Huelva (province)|Huelva]]
*[[Jaén Province, Spain|Jaén]]
*[[Almería (province)|Almería]]
Other Andalusian towns are:
*[[Algeciras]], Cádiz
*[[Jerez]], Cádiz
*[[Marbella]], Málaga
*[[San Fernando]], Cádiz
*[[Dos Hermanas]], Sevilla
*[[Antequera]], Málaga
*[[Motril]], Granada
*[[Ronda]], [[Gaucín]], and the so-called "''[[pueblos blancos]]''," Málaga
Andalusia is the home of [[flamenco]] music and of [[bullfighting]].
Day of Andalusia is celebrated on [[February 28]].
==External links==
*[http://www.guiadecadiz.com] (in Spanish)
*[http://www.andalusien-tours.de] (in German)
*[http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/SP/Junta_de_Andalucia/CDA/Paginas/JDA-IndiceSimbolos/0,16390,,00.html Statute of Autonomy] (in Spanish)
*[http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/ Government of Andalusia] (in Spanish)
*[http://www.parlamento-and.es/ Parliament of Andalusia] (in Spanish)
*[http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/institutodeestadistica/dtbas/dtb03/dtb03.pdf Basic statistical data for Andalusia] (in Spanish, .pdf format)
*[http://www.andalucia.co.uk Andalucia Info]
*[http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/es-an_hi.html History of the Andalusian Flag]
*[http://www.ana-andalucia.org/index.htm Asamblea Nacional de Andalucia] (in Spanish, interesting History and [[Andalusian dialect]] section)
*[http://www.costaluz.info/en/info_index.php/ CostaLuz.info] Information & Directory for the Costa de la Luz
*[http://www.CostaLuzSpain.com/ Costa Luz Spain.com] Business & Services Directory for Huelva & Cadiz Provinces (Costa de la Luz) in Andalucia.
* [http://www.iberianature.com/material/wild_nature_sites/andalusia_nature.htm A guide to the natural history of Andalusia]
{{Spain}}
[[Category:Andalusia]]
[[Category:Autonomous communities of Spain]]
[[Category:Vandal history]]
[[Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe]]
[[ar:منطقة الأندلس الذاتية الحكم]]
[[an:Andaluzía]]
[[ast:Andalucía]]
[[bg:Андалусия]]
[[ca:Andalusia]]
[[cs:Andalusie]]
[[cy:Andalucía]]
[[da:Andalusien]]
[[de:Andalusien]]
[[et:Andaluusia]]
[[es:Andalucía]]
[[eo:Andaluzio]]
[[eu:Andaluzia]]
[[fa:اندلس]]
[[fr:Andalousie]]
[[gl:Andalucía]]
[[id:Andalusia]]
[[it:Andalusia]]
[[ka:ანდალუსია]]
[[la:Vandalitia]]
[[lv:Andalūzija]]
[[lb:Andalusien]]
[[hu:Andalúzia]]
[[nl:Andalusië]]
[[ja:アンダルシア州]]
[[no:Andalucía]]
[[nn:Andalucía]]
[[pl:Andaluzja]]
[[pt:Andaluzia]]
[[ro:Andaluzia]]
[[ru:Андалусия]]
[[sr:Андалузија]]
[[fi:Andalusia]]
[[sv:Andalusien]]
[[tl:Andalucía]]
[[uk:Андалузія]]
[[zh:安達魯西亞]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abhidhamma</title>
<id>2738</id>
<revision>
<id>41202028</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T19:25:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>125.22.3.177</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ broken link fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{buddhism}}
'''Abhidharma''' ([[Sanskrit]]; [[Pāli]] ''Abhidhamma'') is a category of [[Buddhist]] scriptures that attempts to use Buddhist teachings to create a systematic, abstract description of all worldly phenomena. The Abhidharma represents a generalization and reorganization of the doctrines presented piecemeal in the narrative ''[[sutra]]'' tradition.
The literal translation of the term Abhidharma is unclear. Two possibilities are most commonly given: 1) ''abhi''- higher or special + ''dharma''- teaching, philosophy, thus making Abhidharma the 'higher teachings', or 2) ''abhi'' - about + ''dharma'' of the teaching, translating it instead as 'about the teaching' or even 'meta-teaching'.
==Origins==
Scholars generally believe that the Abhidharma emerged after the time of the Buddha, as the growth of monastic centers and support for the Buddhist [[sangha]] provided the resources and expertise necessary to systematically analyze the early teachings. However, some scholars believe that rather than being wholly created by later thinkers, the Abhidharma represents an expansion of an early set of mnemonic lists and categories that were employed by early Buddhists to preserve the oral tradition.
Numerous apparently independent Abhidharma traditions arose in [[India]], roughly during the period from the 2nd or 3rd Century BCE to the 5th Century CE. The 7th Century Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] reportedly collected Abhidharma texts from seven different traditions. In the modern era, only the Abhidharmas of the [[Sarvastivada|Sarvastivadins]] and the [[Theravada|Theravadins]] has survived intact, each consisting of seven books. The Theravada Abhidharma, the Abhidhamma Pitaka (discussed below), is preserved in Pāli, while the [[Sarvastivada|Sarvastivadin]] Abhidharma is preserved only in Chinese- the (likely [[Sanskrit]]) original texts having been lost. A small number of other Abhidharma texts of unknown origin are preserved in translation in the Chinese canon.
Traditionally, Buddhists have been of the belief that the Abhidharma was not a later addition to the tradition, but rather represented the first, original teachings of the Buddha. According to myth, shortly after his awakening the Buddha spent several days in meditation, during which he formulated the Abhidharma. Later, he traveled to the heavenly realm and taught the Abhidharma to the divine beings that dwelled there, including his deceased mother [[Mahamaya]]. The contents of the teachings given in the heavenly realm were related to the monk [[Sariputa|Shariputra]], who passed them on after the Buddha's death. The Abhidharma thus represents a pure and undiluted form of the teaching that was felt to be too difficult for most practitioners of the Buddha's time to grasp. Instead, the Buddha taught by the method related in the various sutras, giving appropriate, immediately applicable teachings as each situation arose, rather than attempting to set forth the Abhidharma in their complexity and completion.
==Theravada Abhidharma==
The '''Abhidhamma Pitaka''' is the third [[pitaka]], or basket, of the [[Tipitaka]] (Pali; Sanskrit: Tripitaka), the [[Pali canon|canon]] of the [[Theravada]] school of [[Buddhism]]. It consists of seven sections as follow:
# [[Dhamma Sangani]] ('Enumeration of Factors') - Describes the fundamental phenomena or ''dhamma'' which constitute human experience.
# [[Vibhanga]] ('Analysis') - An exposition of the analysis in the Dhamma Sangani in the form of a [[catechism]].
# [[Kathavatthu|Katha Vatthu]] ('Points of Controversy') - A collection of orthodox answers to questions about monastic practice, compiled by [[Moggaliputta Tissa]] after the Buddhist Council sponsored by King [[Ashoka]] in the 3rd Century BCE.
# [[Puggala Pannatti]] ('Descriptions of Individuals') - An enumeration of the qualities of certain different 'personality types'. These types were believed to be useful in formulating teachings that an individual would respond to positively.
# [[Dhatu Katha]] ('Discussion of Elements') - Similar content to the Vibhanga, formulated as sets of questions and answers.
# [[Yamaka]] ('The Pairs') - A repetition of much of the contents of the Vibhanga, Dhatu Katha, and Katha Vatthu.
# [[Patthana]] ('Foundational Conditions' ''or'' 'Relations') - The laws of interaction by which the ''dhamma'' described in the Dhamma Sangani operate
These have all been published in romanized [[Pāli|Pali]] by the [[Pali Text Society]], and have been translated into [[English language|English]] as well. [[Scholar]]s date these works from about [[400 BC]] to about [[250 BC]], the first being the oldest and the third the latest of the seven. Additional post-canonical texts were composed in the following centuries which attempted to further clarify the analysis presented in the Abhidhamma texts. The best known such texts are the [[Visuddhimagga]] of [[Buddhaghosa]] and the [[Abhidhammāvatāra]] of [[Buddhadatta]].
Early Western translators of the Pāli canon found the Abhidhamma Pitaka to be the least interesting of the three sections of the [[Tipitaka]], and as a result this important aspect of Buddhist philosophy was little studied in the West until the later half of the 20th Century. [[Caroline Rhys Davids]], a Pāli scholar and the wife of [[Pali Text Society]] founder [[T.W. Rhys Davids]], famously described the ten chapters of the Yamaka as "ten valleys of dry bones". Interest in the Abhidhamma has grown in the West as better scholarship on Buddhist philosophy has gradually revealed more information about its origins and significance.
Within the Theravada tradition, the prominence of the Abhidhamma has varied considerably from country to country, with mainland Southeast Asia placing the least emphasis on the study of the Abhidhamma and [[Sri Lanka]] the most.
== Sarvastivada Abhidharma ==
The Sarvastivada Abhidharma also consists of seven texts. However, comparison of the content of the Sarvastivada texts with that of the Theravada Abhidhamma reveals that it is unlikely that this indicates that one textual tradition originated from the other. In particular, the Theravada Abhidharma contains two texts (the ''Katha Vatthu'' and ''Puggala Pannatti'') that seem entirely out of place in an Abhidharma collection; the reason for their conclusion, and the resulting parity in number of Theravada and Sarvastivada texts is a matter for conjecture unlikely to be resolved.
The texts of the Sarvastivadin Abhidharma are:
# [[Sangītiparyāya]] ('Discourses on Sangīti')
# [[Dharmaskandha]] ('Aggregation of Factors')
# [[Prajñaptiśāstra]] ('Treatise on Designations')
# [[Dhātukāya]] ('Body of Elements')
# [[Vijñānakāya]] ('Body of Perceptual Conscio |
e is no ''jamo'' for Roman ''y-''. Instead, this sound is indicated by doubling the stroke attached to the base line.
** ㅑ = ㅏ + a stroke
** ㅕ = ㅓ + a stroke
** ㅛ = ㅗ + a stroke
** ㅠ = ㅜ + a stroke
** ㅒ = ㅐ + a stroke
** ㅖ = ㅔ + a stroke
Two methods were used to organize and classify these vowels, [[vowel harmony]] and iotation.
Of the seven vowels, four could be preceded by a ''i-'' sound ("iotated"). These four were written as a dot next to a line: ㅓㅏㅜㅗ. (Through the influence of Chinese calligraphy, the dots soon became connected to the line, as seen here.) Iotation was then indicated by doubling this dot: ㅕㅑㅠㅛ. The three vowels which could not be iotated were written with a single stroke: ㅡㆍㅣ.
The Korean language of this period had vowel harmony to a greater extent than it does today. Vowels alternated according to their environment, and fell into "harmonic" groups. This affected the [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] of the language, and Korean phonology described it in terms of ''yin'' and ''yang'': If a word had ''yang'' ('bright') vowels, then most suffixes also had to have a ''yang'' vowel; and conversely, if the root had ''yin'' ('dark') vowels, the suffixes needed to be ''yin'' as well. There was a harmonic third group called "mediating" ('neutral' in Western terminology) that could coexist with either ''yin'' or ''yang'' vowels.
The Korean neutral vowel was ㅣ ''i''. The ''yin'' vowels were ㅡㅜㅓ ''eu, u, eo''; the dots are in the ''yin'' directions of 'down' and 'left'. The ''yang'' vowels were ㆍㅗㅏ, ''ə, o, a'', with the dots in the ''yang'' directions of 'up' and 'right'. As mentioned above, the ''Hunmin Jeong-eum'' states that the shapes of the non-dotted ''jamo'' ㅡㆍㅣ were also chosen to represent the concepts of ''yin'', ''yang'', and mediation. (The dot ㆍ ''ə'' is now obsolete.)
There was yet a third parameter for designing the vowel ''jamo'': namely, choosing ㅡ as the graphic base of ㅜ and ㅗ, and ㅣ as the base of ㅓ and ㅏ. A full understanding of what these horizontal and vertical groups had in common would require knowing the exact sound values these vowels had in the 15<sup>th</sup> century. Our uncertainty is primarily with the ''jamo'' ㆍㅓㅏ. Some linguists reconstruct these as {{IPA|*a, *ɤ, *e}}, respectively; others as {{IPA|*ə, *e, *a}}. However, the horizontal ''jamo'' ㅡㅜㅗ do appear to have all been mid to high back vowels, {{IPA|[*ɯ, *u, *o]}}.
====Ledyard's theory of consonant ''jamo'' design====
[[Image:Phagspa-Hangul comparison.png|thumb|240px|
(Top) Phagspa letters {{IPA|[k, t, p, s, l]}}, and their supposed hangul derivatives {{IPA|[k, t, p, ts, l]}}. Note the lip on both Phagspa {{IPA|[t]}} and hangul ㄷ.<br>
(Bottom) Derivation of Phagspa ''w, v, f'' from variants of the letter {{IPA|[h]}} (left) plus a subscript [w], and analogous composition of hangul ''w, v, f'' from variants of the basic letter {{IPA|[p]}} plus a circle.]]
There are several theories on what sources may have inspired King Sejong's creation of Hangul. Although none have wide acceptance, Professor [[Gari Ledyard]] of Columbia University believes that five consonants were derived from the Mongol [[Phagspa]] alphabet of the [[Yuan dynasty]], and the rest derived internally, essentially as described in the ''Hunmin Jeong-eum''. However, these basic consonants were not the graphically simplest letters of the ''Hunmin Jeong-eum'', but the basic consonants in Chinese phonology.
The ''Hunmin Jeong-eum'' states that King Sejong adapted 古篆 "''Gǔ'' script(s)" in creating hangul. The primary meaning of 古 is ''old'', frustrating philologists because hangul bears no functional similarity to Chinese 篆字 [[seal script]]s. However, 古 may also have been a pun on ''Mongol'' (蒙古 ''Měnggǔ''), and 古篆 may have been an abbreviation of 蒙古篆字 "Mongol Seal Script", that is, a formal variant of the Phagspa alphabet written to look like the Chinese seal script. There were certainly Phagspa manuscripts in the Korean palace library, and several of Sejong's ministers knew the script well.
If this was the case, Sejong's evasion on the Mongol connection can be understood in light of Korea's relationship with Ming China after the fall of the Yuan dynasty, and of the literati's contempt for the Mongols as "barbarians".
According to Ledyard, the five borrowed letters were graphically simplified, which allowed for ''jamo'' clusters and left room to derive the aspirate plosives, ㅋㅌㅍㅊ. But in contrast to the traditional account, the non-plosives (''ng'' ㄴㅁ and ㅅ) were derived by ''removing'' the top of these letters. While it's easy to derive ㅁ from ㅂ by removing the top, it's not clear how to derive ㅂ from ㅁ, since ㅂ is not analogous to the other plosives.
The explanation of ''ng'' also differs from the traditional account. Many Chinese words began with ''ng'', but by King Sejong's day, ''ng'' was either silent or pronounced {{IPA|[ŋ]}} in China, and was silent when these words were borrowed into Korean. Also, the expected shape of ''ng'' (vertical line left by removing the top stroke of ㄱ) would have looked the same as the vowel ㅣ {{IPA|[i]}}. Sejong's solution solved both problems: the vertical stroke from ㄱ was added to the null symbol ㅇ to create ᇰ (a circle with a vertical line on top), iconically capturing both {{IPA|[ŋ]}} in the middle or end of a word, and silence at the beginning. (The distinction between ㅇ and ᇰ was eventually lost.)
Additionally, the composition of obsolete ᇢᇦᇴ ''w, v, f'' (for Chinese [[Syllable onset|initials]] 微非敷), by adding a small circle under ㅁㅂㅍ (''m, b, p''), is parallel to the Phagspa addition of a small loop under three variants of ''h''. In Phagspa, this loop also represented ''w'' after vowels. The Chinese initial 微 represented either ''m'' or ''w'' in various dialects, and this may be reflected in the choice of ㅁ [m] plus ㅇ (from Phagspa [w]) as the elements of hangul ᇢ, for another letter composed of two elements to represent two regional pronunciations.
Finally, most of the borrowed hangul letters were simple geometric shapes, at least originally, but ㄷ ''d'' [t] always had a small lip protruding from the upper left corner, just as the Phagspa ''d'' [t] did. This can be traced back to the Tibetan letter ''d'', ད.
See [[Gari Ledyard]] for details.
===''Jamo'' order===
The alphabetical order of Hangul does not mix consonants and vowels as the Western alphabets ([[Latin alphabet]] and [[Cyrillic alphabet]]) do. Instead, the order is of the [[Shiva Sutra|Indic type]], first velar consonants, then coronals, labials, sibilants, ''etc.'' However, the consonants come before the vowels rather than after as in [[Sanscrit]] and [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]].
The modern alphabetic order was set by [[Choi Sejin]] in 1527. This was before the development of the Korean tense consonants and the double ''jamo'' that represent them. The conflation of the two letters ㅇ and ㆁ also occurred after the alphabetic order was set. Therefore, when the [[South Korea]]n and [[North Korea]]n governments implemented full use of Hangul, they ordered these letters differently, with South Korean grouping similar letters together, and North Korea placing the new letters at the end.
====South Korean order====
The modern order of the consonantal ''jamo'' is:
ㄱ ㄲ ㄴ ㄷ ㄸ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅃ ㅅ ㅆ ㅇ ㅈ ㅉ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ
Double consonantal ''jamo'' are placed immediately after the simple ''jamo'' they are based on. No distinction is made between silent and nasal ㅇ.
The order of the vocalic ''jamo'' is:
ㅏ ㅐ ㅑ ㅒ ㅓ ㅔ ㅕ ㅖ ㅗ ㅘ ㅙ ㅚ ㅛ ㅜ ㅝ ㅞ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅢ ㅣ
The modern [[monophthong]]al vowels come first, with the derived forms interspersed according to their form: first added ''i'', then yotized, then yotized with added ''i''. [[Diphthong]]s beginning with ''w-'' are ordered according to their spelling as ㅏ or ㅓ plus a second vowel, not as separate [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s.
====North Korean order====
North Korea maintains a more traditional order.
The modern order of the consonantal ''jamo'' is:
(null) ㄱ ㄴ ㄷ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅅ ㅇ ㅈ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ ㄲ ㄸ ㅃ ㅆ ㅉ (null-ㅇ)
The first ㅇ is the nasal ㅇ ''ng'', which occures in the final in the modern language. ㅇ used at the initial, on the other hand, goes after ㅉ, because it is a placeholder. A letter with no final consonant goes right before that letter with ㄱ at the final, however.
Note that the "new" letters, the double ''jamo'', are placed at the very end of the alphabet, just before the null ㅇ, so as not to alter the traditional order of the rest of the alphabet.
The order of the vocalic ''jamo'' is:
ㅏ ㅑ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ ㅐ ㅒ ㅔ ㅖ ㅚ ㅟ ㅢ ㅘ ㅝ ㅙ ㅞ
All digraphs and [[trigraph]]s, including the old diphthongs ㅐ and ㅔ, are placed after all basic vowels, again maintaining Choi's alphabetic order.
===''Jamo'' names===
The Hangul arrangement is called "the ''ganada'' order" (가나다 순), after the first three ''jamo'' (''g'', ''n'', and ''d'') affixed to the first vowel (''a''). The ''jamo'' were named by [[Choi Sejin]] in 1527. North Korea regularized the names when it made Hangul its official orthography.
====Consonantal ''jamo'' names====
The modern consonants have two-syllable names, with the consonant coming both at the beginning and end of the name, as follows:
{| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse"
|-
! Letter !! South Korean Name !! North Korean name
|-
| ㄱ || ''giyeok'' (기역) || ''gieuk'' (기윽)
|-
| ㄴ || colspan=2 | ''nieun'' (니은)
|-
| ㄷ || ''digeut'' (디귿) || ''dieut'' (디읃)
|-
| ㄹ || colspan=2 | ''rieul'' (리을)
|-
| ㅁ || colspan=2 | ''mieum'' (미음)
|-
| ㅂ || colspan=2 | ''bieup'' (비읍)
|-
| ㅅ || ''siot'' (시옷) || ''sieut'' (시읏)
|-
| ㅇ || colspan=2 | ''ieung'' (이응)
|-
| ㅈ || colspan=2 | ''jieut'' (지읒)
|-
| ㅊ || colspan=2 | ''chieut'' (치읓)
|-
| ㅋ || colspan=2 | ''kieuk'' (키읔)
|-
| ㅌ || colspan=2 | ''tieut'' (티읕)
|-
| ㅍ || colspan=2 | ''pieup'' (피읖)
|-
| ㅎ || colspan=2 | ''hieut'' (히읗)
|}
A |
me displays can show only levels of a single colour. In both cases the display usually uses [[green screen|green]], orange (amber) or gray (white).
[[Image:Monitor.jpg|thumb|computer monitor]]
Colour monitors may show either digital colour (turning each of the red, green and blue signals either on or off, giving eight possible colours: black, white, red, green, blue, cyan, magenta and yellow - sometimes with an extra "brightness" signal producing a total of up to 16 colours) or analog colour (red, green and blue signals vary continuously, allowing the display of any combination). Early digital monitors are sometimes known as TTLs because the voltages on the red, green and blue inputs are compatible with [[Transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] logic chips. Later digital monitors support [[LVDS]], or [[TMDS]] protocols.
Most modern [[computer]] displays can show thousands or millions of different colours in the [[RGB colour space]] by combining red, green, and blue dots in varying intensities.
With exceptions of [[DLP]], most display technologies (especially LCD) have an inherent misregistration of the colour planes, that is, the centers of the red, green, and blue dots do not line up perfectly. [[Subpixel rendering]] depends on this misalignment; technologies making use of this include the [[Apple II]] from [[1976]] [http://grc.com/ctwho.htm], and more recently [[Microsoft]] ([[ClearType]], [[1998]]) and [[XFree86]] ([[X Rendering Extension]]).
Moving texts can appear in italics, even when the display resolution is too low to show static italics: a fractional time delay causes an apparent corresponding shift of a fraction of a [[pixel]].
Note the sometimes disputed issue of [[screen emissions]]. Most computer monitors have [[analog video|analog]] signal relay, but some (mostly LCD screens) start supporting digital input signals. It is a common misconception that all computer monitors are digital. For several years, [[Televisions]], [[composite monitor]]s and computer displays have had significant distinction, however it has blurred as newer TVs have become versatile to accommodate these purposes.
===History===
A trend of [[miniaturization]] within computer displays has seen a general move away from the older, bulky CRT devices in the general direction of [[flat screen]]s as found in modern [[laptop]]s.
===Major manufacturers===
*[[Apple Computer]]
*[[BenQ]]
*[[Dell, Inc.]]
*[[Eizo]]
*[[Iiyama Corporation]]
*[[LaCie]]
*[[LG Electronics]]
*[[NEC/Mitsubishi]]
*[[Philips Electronics|Philips]]
*[[Samsung]]
*[[Sony]]
*[[ViewSonic]]
==Configuration and usage==
===Multi-head===
{{main|Multi monitor}}
Some users use more than one monitor. The displays can operate in multiple modes. One of the most common spreads the entire desktop over all of the monitors, which thus act as one big desktop. The [[X Window System]] refers to this as "[[Xinerama]]".
A monitor may also clone another monitor.
Terminology:
* Dualhead - Using two monitors
* Triplehead - using three monitors
* Display assembly - multi-head configurations actively managed as a single unit
===Virtual displays===
The X Window System provides configuration mechanisms for using a single hardware monitor for rendering multiple virtual displays, as controlled (for example) with the Unix DISPLAY [[global variable]] or with the -display command option.
[[fr:Moniteur d'ordinateur]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer display/LCD</title>
<id>7678</id>
<revision>
<id>15905736</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-16T20:01:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aldie</username>
<id>901</id>
</contributor>
<comment>-> liquid crystal display</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[liquid crystal display]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer display/CRT</title>
<id>7679</id>
<revision>
<id>15905737</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-13T02:03:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>redirecting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[cathode ray tube]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ClearType</title>
<id>7681</id>
<revision>
<id>42075544</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:32:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zzedar</username>
<id>199308</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* How ClearType works */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''<nowiki>ClearType</nowiki>''' is a registered trademark for a technology developed by [[Microsoft|Microsoft Corporation]] to improve the appearance of text on certain types of [[computer]] [[display]] screens, especially [[flat panel|flat-panel]] displays.
This article is a general explanation of ClearType for non-specialists. For a detailed technical treatment of ClearType and related technologies, and the mathematical principles upon which they are based, see [[Subpixel rendering]].
==Introduction==
Computer displays in which the positions of individual pixels are permanently fixed by the design of the hardware&mdash;such as most modern [[flat panel|flat-panel displays]]&mdash;can show strong ''[[aliasing]] artifacts'' (''i.e.,'' &ldquo;jaggies&rdquo;) when displaying small, high-contrast graphic elements such as text. ClearType uses [[anti-aliasing]] at the subpixel level to greatly reduce visible artifacts on such displays when text is rendered, making the text appear &ldquo;smoother&rdquo; and more legible.
While the exact implementation of ClearType is specific to Microsoft, the overall principles upon which it is based have been known and used for many years in various types of display systems, such as that used by [[Apple II family|Apple II]] computers with [[NTSC]] [[television]] sets in the [[1970s]].
Like most other types of subpixel rendering, ClearType actually involves a compromise, sacrificing one aspect of image quality (color or ''[[chrominance]]'' detail) for another (light and dark or ''[[luminance]]'' detail). The compromise works because it takes advantage of certain pecularities of [[human eye|human vision]].
ClearType is applied only to text that is rendered as such by user and system applications. Other graphic display elements (including text that has already been converted to [[bitmap|bitmaps]]) are not altered by ClearType. For example, text in [[Microsoft Word]] will be rendered on the screen with ClearType enhancement, but text placed in a bitmapped image in a program such as [[Photoshop|Adobe Photoshop]] will not be modified. This is important because the ClearType technology is extremely specific to text rendering on certain types of computer displays; it would not be useful and could even degrade perceived image quality if it were applied in any other circumstances.
ClearType is not used for text being printed on paper. Most printers already use such small pixels for printing that aliasing is never a problem, and in any case they don't have the fixed, addressable subpixels that ClearType requires.
Computer files that contain text are unaffected by ClearType, since ClearType is applied only when the text is actually being rendered onto the screen of a computer display.
==How ClearType works==
Normally, the software in a computer treats the computer&rsquo;s display screen as a rectangular array of square, indivisible ''[[pixel|pixels]],'' each of which has an intensity and color that are determined by the blending of three [[primary color|primary colors]]: red, blue, and green. However, actual display hardware usually implements each pixels as a group of three adjacent, independent ''[[subpixel|subpixels]],'' each of which displays a different primary color. Thus, on a real computer display, each pixel is actually composed of separate red, green, and blue subpixels. For example, if a flat-panel display is examined under a magnifying glass, the pixels may appear as follows:
[[Image:Subpixels.png|center|Subpixels]]
In the illustration above, there are nine pixels, but there are 27 subpixels.
If the computer controlling the display knows the exact position and color of all the subpixels on the screen, it can take advantage of this to improve the apparent sharpness of the images on the screen in certain situations. If each pixel on the display actually contains three rectangular subpixels of red, blue, and green, in that fixed order, then things on the screen that are smaller than one full pixel in size can be rendered by lighting only one or two of the subpixels. For example, if a diagonal line with a width smaller than a full pixel must be rendered, then this can be done by lighting only the subpixels that the line actually touches. If the line passes through the leftmost portion of the pixel, only the red subpixel is lit; if it passes through the rightmost portion of the pixel, only the blue subpixel is lit. This effectively triples the sharpness of the image at normal viewing distances; but the drawback is that the line thus drawn will show color fringes upon very close examination (at some points it might look green, at other points it might look red or blue).
ClearType uses this method to improve the sharpness of text. When the elements of a type character are smaller than a full pixel, ClearType lights only the appropriate subpixels of each full pixel in order to more closely follow the outlines of the character. Text rendered with ClearType looks &ldquo;smoother&rdquo; and more legible than text rendered without it, provided that the pixel layout of the display screen exactly matches what ClearType expects.
The following picture shows a 4&times; enlargement of the word ''Wikipedia'' rendered using ClearType.
The word was originally rendered using a [[Times New Roman]] |
connected; since the set contains uncountably many points, it has an uncountably many components.
* If a space ''X'' is [[homotopy|homotopic]] to a connected space, then ''X'' is itself connected.
== Path connectedness ==
[[Image:Path-connected space.svg|thumb|This subspace of '''R'''² is path-connected, because a path can be drawn between any two points in the space.]]
The space ''X'' is said to be '''path-connected''' if for any two points ''x'' and ''y'' in ''X'' there exists a [[continuous function (topology)|continuous function]] ''f'' from the [[unit interval]] [0,1] to ''X'' with ''f''(0) = ''x'' and ''f''(1) = ''y''.
(This function is called a ''[[path (topology)|path]]'' from ''x'' to ''y''.)
Every path-connected space is connected.
Example of connected spaces that are not path-connected include the extended [[long line (topology)|long line]] ''L''* and the ''[[topologist's sine curve]]''.
However, subsets of the [[real line]] '''R''' are connected [[if and only if]] they are path-connected; these subsets are the [[interval (mathematics)|intervals]] of '''R'''.
Also, [[open subset]]s of '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> or '''C'''<sup>''n''</sup> are connected if and only if they are path-connected.
Additionally, connectedness and path-connectedness are the same for [[finite]] topological spaces.
A space <i>X</i> is said to be <b>arc-connected</b> if any two distinct points can be joined by an <i>arc</i>, that is a path <i>f</i> which is a [[homeomorphism]] between the unit interval [0,1] and its image <i>f</i>([0,1]). It can be shown any [[Hausdorff space]] which is path-connected is also arc-connected. An example of a space which is path-connected but not arc-connected is provided by adding a second copy 0&#39; of 0 to the nonnegative real numbers <nowiki>[</nowiki>0,&infin;<nowiki>)</nowiki>. One endows this set with a [[partially ordered set|partial order]] by specifying that 0&#39;&lt;<i>a</i> for any positive number <i>a</i>, but leaving 0 and 0&#39; incomparable. One then endows this set with the <i>order topology</i>, that is one takes the open intervals
(a,b)={x | a&lt;x&lt;b} and the half-open intervals <nowiki>[</nowiki>0,a<nowiki>)</nowiki>={x | 0&le;x&lt;a}, <nowiki>[</nowiki>0&#39;,a<nowiki>)</nowiki>={x | 0&#39;&le;x&lt;a} as a [[base (topology)|base]] for the topology. The resulting space is a [[T1 space|T<sub>1</sub>]] space but not a [[Hausdorff space]]. Clearly 0 and 0&#39; can be connected by a path but not by an arc in this space.
== Local connectedness ==
A topological space is said to be '''locally connected''' if it has a [[base (topology)|base]] of connected sets.
It can be shown that a space ''X'' is locally connected if and only if every component of every open set of ''X'' is open.
The [[topologist's sine curve]] is an example of a connected space that is not locally connected.
Similarly, a topological space is said to be '''locally path-connected''' if it has a base of path-connected sets.
An open subset of a locally path-connected space is connected if and only if it is path-connected.
This generalizes the earlier statement about '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> and '''C'''<sup>''n''</sup>, each of which is locally path-connected.
More generally, any [[topological manifold]] is locally path-connected.
== Theorems ==
*''Main theorem'': Let ''X'' and ''Y'' be topological spaces and let ''f'' : ''X'' &rarr; ''Y'' be a [[continuous (topology)|continuous function]]. If ''X'' is connected (resp. path-connected) then the [[image (mathematics)|image]] ''f''(''X'') is connected (resp. path-connected). The [[intermediate value theorem]] can be considered as a special case of this result.
*If <math>\{A_1, A_2,\ldots\}</math> is a family of connected subsets of a topological space ''X'' such that <math> A_i \cap A_{i+1} </math> is nonempty for all ''i'', then <math> \cup A_i</math> is also connected.
*If <math>\{A_\alpha\}</math> is a nonempty family of connected subsets of a topological space ''X'' such that <math> \cap A_\alpha </math> is nonempty, then <math> \cup A_\alpha</math> is also connected.
*Every path-connected space is connected.
*Every locally path-connected space is locally connected.
*A locally path-connected space is path-connected [[iff]] it is connected.
*The connected components of a space are disjoint unions of the path-connected components.
*The components of a locally connected space are open (and closed).
*The [[closure (topology)|closure]] of a connected subset is connected.
*Every [[quotient space|quotient]] of a connected (resp. path-connected) space is connected (resp. path-connected).
*Every [[product topology|product]] of a family of connected (resp. path-connected) spaces is connected (resp. path-connected).
*Every open subset of a locally connected (resp. locally path-connected) space is locally connected (resp. locally path-connected).
*Every [[manifold]] is locally path-connected.
== See also ==
*[[uniformly connected space]]
*[[connected component (graph theory)]]
*[[separated sets]]
*[[simply connected]]
==References==
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{{Book reference | Author=Lincoln, Abraham; Grant, U. S.; & Davis, Jefferson | Title=Resolving Family Differences Peacefully | Publisher=Gettysburg: Printing Press | Year=1861 | Editor=Stephen A. Douglas | ID=ISBN 0-12-345678-9}}
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{{unreferenced}}
[[Category:General topology]]
[[de:Zusammenhang (Topologie)]]
[[fr:Connexité (mathématiques)]]
[[pl:Przestrzeń spójna]]
[[zh:连通空间]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cell nucleus</title>
<id>6235</id>
<revision>
<id>41029014</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T16:20:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Misza13</username>
<id>330574</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.147.55.79|24.147.55.79]] to last version by Alessandro f2001</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[cell biology]], the '''nucleus''' (from [[Latin]] ''nucleus'' or ''nuculeus'', kernel) is found in all [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[cell (biology)|cells]] and contains the [[nuclear gene]]s which form most of the cell's [[genetics|genetic]] material. Nuclei have two primary functions: to control [[chemical reaction]]s within the [[cytoplasm]] and to store [[information]] needed for [[cell division|cellular division]].
Aside from containing the cell's genome, the nucleus contains certain proteins whose interplay is thought to regulate the expression of genes. [[Gene expression]] at the nuclear level involves complex processes of transcription, pre mRNA processing and the export of the mature mRNA to the cytoplasm.
The nucleus varies in diameter from 11 to 22.25 [[micrometre]]s. It is enclosed by a double [[membrane]] called the [[nuclear envelope]]. The inner and outer membrane fuse at regular intervals, forming [[nuclear pore]]s. The [[nuclear envelope]] regulates and facilitates transport between the nucleus and the cytoplasm, while separating the chemical reactions taking place in cytoplasm from reactions happening within the nucleus. The outer membrane is continuous with the [[rough endoplasmic reticulum]] (RER) and may be studded with [[ribosome]]s. The space between the two membranes (called the "perinuclear space") is continuous with the lumen of the RER. The nuclear face of the nuclear envelope is surrounded by a scaffold of filaments called the [[nuclear lamina]].
[[Image:nucleus_ER.png|thumb|left|300px|Drawing of nucleus and the [[endoplasmic reticulum]].<br>
(1) [[Nuclear envelope]] (2) [[Ribosome]]s (3) [[Nuclear pore]] complexes (4) [[Nucleolus]]
(5) [[Chromatin]] (6) Nucleus (7) [[Endoplasmic reticulum]] (8) [[Nucleoplasm]]<br>
The whole structure is surrounded by cytoplasm. (Drawing is based on ER images.)
]]
Inside the nucleus is one or several [[nucleolus|nucleoli]] surrounded by a matrix called the [[nucleoplasm]]. The nucleoplasm is a liquid with a gel-like consistency (similar in this respect to the [[cytoplasm]]), in which many substances are dissolved. These substances include nucleotide triphosphates, [[enzymes]], [[proteins]], and [[transcription factors]]. There also exists a network of fibers in the nucleoplasm known as the [[nuclear matrix]].
Genetic material ([[DNA]]) is also present in the nucleus, the DNA is present as a DNA-protein complex called [[chromatin]]. The DNA is present as a number of discrete units known as [[chromosome]]s. There are two types of chromatin: euchromatin and heterochromatin. Euchromatin is the least compact form of DNA, and the regions of DNA which constitute euchromatin contain genes which are frequently expressed by the cell.
In heterochromatin, DNA is more tightly compacted. Regions of DNA which constitute heterochromatin generally contain genes which are not expressed by the cell (this type of heterochromatin is known as facultative heterochromatin) or are regions which make up the [[telomere]]s and [[centromere]]s of the [[chromosomes]] (this type of heterochromatin is known as constitutive heterochromatin). In multicellular organisms, cells are highly specialised to perform particular functions, hence different sets of genes are required and expressed. Therefore, the regions of DNA that constitute heterochromatin vary between cell types.
== Nucleoli (N |
That season the team moved into [[Comiskey Park]].
In 1932 the team was purchased by [[Charles Bidwill]], then a vice president of the [[Chicago Bears]]. The team has been under the ownership of the Bidwill family since then.
The Cardinals won their first NFL championship in [[1925 in sports|1925]], finishing the season with a record of 11-2-1 (until the 1933 season, the league champion was determined solely by win-loss percentage). It was actually awarded by default, since the [[Pottsville Maroons]], the team with the best record, had their franchise revoked for violating the territorial rights of the [[Frankford Yellowjackets]]. The team posted a winning record only twice in the twenty years (1931 and 1935) after their championship.
In 1944, owing to player shortages caused by [[World War II]], the Cardinals and [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] merged for one year and were known as the "Card-Pitts," or derisively as the "Carpets" as they were winless that season.
The Cardinals won their last NFL championship game in 1947 (28-21 over the [[Philadelphia Eagles]]) with their "Million-Dollar Backfield," which included [[quarterback]] [[Paul Christman]] and [[halfback (American football)|halfback]] [[Charley Trippi]]. They advanced to the championship game the next season, but lost 7-0 in a rematch with the Eagles.
[[Image:ArizonaCardinals_100.png|left|framed|Cardinals logo (1960-2004).]]
In 1960 the team moved to St. Louis. During this period, two big-league teams of that name existed in the city. Sports fans and local news broadcasters got into the habit of calling them "the football Cardinals" or "the [[St. Louis Cardinals|baseball Cardinals]]" to distinguish the two. The change in scenery did little to alter the team's fortunes. During the Cardinals' stay in St. Louis, they advanced to the playoffs just four times (one of those was in a [[Playoff Bowl|season-ending consolation game]], and another was in the NFC tournament following the strike-shortened 1982 season). The team left St. Louis in 1987 when owner [[Bill Bidwill]] was unable to convince the city to build a new stadium.
In 1988 the Cardinals moved to [[Arizona]], became the '''Phoenix Cardinals''', and started playing home games in [[Sun Devil Stadium]] on the campus of [[Arizona State University]]. They became the '''Arizona Cardinals''' in 1994. The team did not post a winning record for 13 seasons (1985 to 1997). [[Joe Bugel]] coached from 1990 to 1993, usually finishing last in the NFC East, which produced the [[Super Bowl]] winner in each of those seasons (Giants 90, Redskins 91, Cowboys 92-3). [[Buddy Ryan]] replaced Bugel in 1994, lasting 2 seasons. He infamously guaranteed victory in the 1994 Week 3 game at the [[Cleveland Browns]] (Cleveland won, 32-0). Ryan was followed by [[Vince Tobin]], under whom the Cardinals posted a 9-7 record in 1998 and advanced to the playoffs for the first time since the 1982 season. They upset the favored [[Dallas Cowboys]] in the wild-card round, 20-7, but lost their divisional playoff to the [[Minnesota Vikings]], 41-21.
Tobin was fired during the 2000 season and replaced by defensive coordinator [[Dave McGinnis]], who remained head coach until his firing in 2003; McGinnis compiled a win-loss record of 17-40 during his tenure.
The Cardinals have not won more than seven games in a season since their 1998 playoff appearance, and have had one of the worst yearly attendance records in the NFL.
In 2004, the Cardinals hired as their head coach former [[Minnesota Vikings]] head coach [[Dennis Green]], who compiled a 97-62 record in ten seasons with Minnesota (1992-2001), leading that franchise to four NFC Central Division titles and two NFC Championship games.
In 2000, [[Maricopa County]] voters passed a ballot initiative by a margin of 51% to 49%, providing funding for a new Cardinals stadium (as well as for improvements to [[Major League Baseball]] [[spring training]] facilities in the greater Phoenix region; and youth recreation). After some legal obstacles, the Cardinals began construction of their new facility in April 2003, in [[Glendale, Arizona|Glendale]], one of the northwestern suburbs of Phoenix. Cardinals Stadium will feature a retractable roof and a slide-out grass surface, and is scheduled to open for the 2006 season [http://www.azcardinals.com/stadium/]. It will also be the location of [[Super Bowl XLII]] (2008).
===Season-by-season records===
:''Since 1920''
{{Start NFL SBS}}
|-
| colspan="6" align="center" | '''Chicago Cardinals (APFA)'''
|-
|1920 || 3 || 2 || 1 || 6th APFA<sup>1</sup> || rowspan="2" | &nbsp;
|-
|1921 || 3 || 3 || 2 || 9th APFA<sup>1</sup>
|-
| colspan="6" align="center" | '''Chicago Cardinals (NFL)'''
|-
|1922 || 8 || 3 || 0 || 3rd NFL || valign="middle" rowspan="3" | ''The NFL did not hold playoff games until 1932''
|-
|1923 || 8 || 4 || 0 || 6th NFL
|-
|1924 || 5 || 4 || 1 || 8th NFL
|-
|1925 || 11 || 2 || 1 || 1st NFL || '''Named NFL Champions'''<sup>2</sup>
|-
|1926 || 5 || 6 || 1 || 10th NFL || rowspan="6" | &nbsp;
|-
|1927 || 3 || 7 || 1 || 9th NFL
|-
|1928 || 1 || 5 || 0 || 9th NFL
|-
|1929 || 6 || 6 || 1 || 4th NFL
|-
|1930 || 5 || 6 || 2 || 7th NFL
|-
|1931 || 5 || 4 || 0 || 4th NFL
|-
|1932 || 2 || 6 || 2 || 7th NFL || --
|-
|1933 || 1 || 9 || 1 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1934 || 5 || 6 || 0 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1935 || 6 || 4 || 2 || T-3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1936 || 3 || 8 || 1 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1937 || 5 || 5 || 1 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1938 || 2 || 9 || 0 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1939 || 1 || 10 || 0 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1940 || 2 || 7 || 2 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1941 || 3 || 7 || 1 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1942 || 3 || 8 || 0 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1943 || 0 || 10 || 0 || 4th NFL West || -
|-
| colspan="6" align="center" | '''Card-Pitt'''
|-
|1944 || 0 || 10 || 0 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
| colspan="6" align="center" | '''Chicago Cardinals'''
|-
|1945 || 1 || 9 || 0 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1946 || 6 || 5 || 0 || T-3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1947 || 9 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' ([[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]])
|-
|1948 || 11 || 1 || 0 || 1st NFL West || Lost NFL Championship ([[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]])
|-
|1949 || 6 || 5 || 1 || 3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1950 || 5 || 7 || 0 || 5th NFL AFC || --
|-
|1951 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 6th NFL AFC || --
|-
|1952 || 4 || 8 || 0 || T-5th NFL AFC || --
|-
|1953 || 1 || 10 || 1 || 6th NFL East || --
|-
|1954 || 2 || 10 || 0 || 6th NFL East || --
|-
|1955 || 4 || 7 || 1 || T-4th NFL East || --
|-
|1956 || 7 || 5 || 0 || 2nd NFL East || --
|-
|1957 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 6th NFL East || --
|-
|1958 || 2 || 9 || 1 || T-5th NFL East || --
|-
|1959 || 2 || 10 || 0 || 6th NFL East || --
|-
| colspan="6" align="center" | '''St. Louis Cardinals'''
|-
|1960 || 6 || 5 || 1 || 4th NFL East || --
|-
|1961 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 4th NFL East || --
|-
|1962 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 6th NFL East || --
|-
|1963 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 3rd NFL East || --
|-
|1964 || 9 || 3 || 2 || 2nd NFL East || --
|-
|1965 || 5 || 9 || 0 || T-5th NFL East || --
|-
|1966 || 8 || 5 || 1 || 4th NFL East || --
|-
|1967 || 6 || 7 || 1 || 3rd NFL Century || --
|-
|1968 || 9 || 4 || 1 || 2nd NFL Century || --
|-
|1969 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 3rd NFL Century || --
|-
|1970 || 8 || 5 || 1 || 3rd NFL East || --
|-
|1971 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 4th NFL East || --
|-
|1972 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 4th NFL East || --
|-
|1973 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 4th NFL East || --
|-
|1974 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1974-75|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]])
|-
|1975 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1975-76|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Los Angeles Rams|Rams]])
|-
|1976 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 3rd NFC East || --
|-
|1977 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 3rd NFC East || --
|-
|1978 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|1979 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1980 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|1981 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1982 || 5 || 4 || 0 || 6th NFC Conf. || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1982-83|First Round]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]])
|-
|1983 || 8 || 7 || 1 || 3rd NFC East || --
|-
|1984 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd NFC East || --
|-
|1985 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1986 || 4 || 11 || 1 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1987 || 7 || 8 || 0 || 3rd NFC East || -
|-
| colspan="6" align="center" | '''Phoenix Cardinals'''
|-
|1988 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|1989 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|1990 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1991 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1992 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1993 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
| colspan="6" align="center" | '''Arizona Cardinals'''
|-
|1994 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd NFC East || --
|-
|1995 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1996 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|1997 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1998 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1998-99|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]])
|-
|1999 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|2000 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|2001 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|2002 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|2003 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|2004 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|2005 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
{{End}}
<small>1=The NFL was originally named the '''American Professional Football Association''' (APFA) from 1920-1922.</small>
<small>2=The NFL did not hold playoff games until 1932. The team that finished with the best regular season record was named the league champions.</small>
^At the end of the [[2005 NFL s |
ATCOM]] (Ada binding for Microsoft [[Component Object Model|COM]] spec.)
* [[GtkAda]] (Ada binding for [[GTK+]])
* [[PolyORB]]
* [[XML-Ada|XML/Ada]] and [[XML4Ada95]]
* [[XIA/XPath In Ada]] (An Ada binding to the [[XPath]] 1.0 spec.)
* [http://www.prismtechnologies.com/section-item.asp?sid4=&sid3=187&sid2=10&sid=18&id=389 OrbRiver Ada]
=== Related programming languages ===
* [[SPARK programming language|SPARK]] - High integrity language based on an Ada subset
* [[VHDL]]
=== See also ===
* [[High Integrity System]]s
* [[Ravenscar profile]]
== References ==
=== International Standards ===
* [[ISO 8652|ISO/IEC 8652]]: Information technology &mdash; Programming languages &mdash; Ada
* [[ISO 15291|ISO/IEC 15291]]: Information technology &mdash; Programming languages &mdash; Ada Semantic Interface Specification ([[wiktionary:ASIS|ASIS]])
* [[ISO 18009|ISO/IEC 18009]]: Information technology &mdash; Programming languages &mdash; Ada: Conformity assessment of a language processor ([[wiktionary:ACATS|ACATS]])
* [[IEEE 1003|IEEE Standard 1003.5b-1996]], the [[POSIX]] Ada binding
* [http://www.omg.org/technology/documents/formal/ada_language_mapping.htm Ada Language Mapping Specification], the [[CORBA]] [[Interface description language|IDL]] to Ada mapping
=== Books ===
{{wikibookspar||Ada Programming}}
* [[Jan Skansholm]]: ''Ada&nbsp;95 From the Beginning'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-40376-5
* [[John Barnes (computer scientist)|John Barnes]]: ''Programming in Ada plus Language Reference Manual'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-56539-0
* [[John Barnes (computer scientist)|John Barnes]]: ''Programming in Ada&nbsp;95'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-34293-6
* [[John Barnes (computer scientist)|John Barnes]]: ''High Integrity Ada: The SPARK Approach'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201175177
* [[John Barnes (computer scientist)|John Barnes]]: ''High Integrity Software: The SPARK Approach to Safety and Security'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-321-13616-0
* [[Dean W. Gonzalez]]: ''Ada Programmer's Handbook'', Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, ISBN 0805325298
* [[M. Ben-Ari]]: ''Ada for Software Engineers'', John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0-471-97912-0
* [[Norman Cohen]]: ''Ada as a Second Language'', McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math, ISBN 0-0-7011607-5
* [[Alan Burns]], [[Andy Wellings]]: ''Real-Time Systems and Programming Languages. Ada&nbsp;95, Real-Time Java and Real-Time POSIX.'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-72988-1
* [[Alan Burns]], [[Andy Wellings]]: ''Concurrency in Ada'', Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-62911-X
* [[Colin Atkinson]]: ''Object-Oriented Reuse, Concurrency and Distribution: An Ada-Based Approach'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201565277
* [[Grady Booch]], [[Doug Bryan]]: ''Software Engineering with Ada'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0805306080
* [[Daniel Stubbs]], [[Neil W. Webre]]: ''Data Structures with Abstract Data Types and Ada'', Brooks Cole, ISBN 0-534-14448-9
* [[Pascal Ledru]]: ''Distributed Programming in Ada with Protected Objects'', Dissertation.com, ISBN 1-58112-034-6
* [[Fintan Culwin]]: ''Ada, a Developmental Approach'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0132646803
* [[John English]], [[Fintan Culwin]]: ''Ada&nbsp;95 the Craft of Object Oriented Programming'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-1-3230350-7
* [[David A. Wheeler]]: ''Ada&nbsp;95'', Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-94801-5
* [[David R. Musser]], [[Alexander Stepanov]]: ''The Ada Generic Library: Linear List Processing Packages'', Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0387971335
* [[Michael B. Feldman]]: ''Software Construction and Data Structures with Ada&nbsp;95'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201887959
* [[Simon Johnston]]: ''Ada&nbsp;95 for C and C++ Programmers'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201403633
*[[Michael B. Feldman]], [[Elliot B. Koffman]]: ''Ada&nbsp;95'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-36123-X
* [[Nell Dale]], [[Chip Weems]], [[John McCormick]]: ''Programming and Problem Solving with Ada&nbsp;95'', Jones & Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0763702935
* [[Nell Dale]], [[Susan Lilly]], [[John McCormick]]: ''Ada Plus Data Structures: An Object-Based Approach'', Jones & Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0669416762
* [[Bruce C. Krell]]: ''Developing With Ada: Life-Cycle Methods'', Bantam Dell Pub Group, ISBN 0553091026
* [[Judy Bishop]]: ''Distributed Ada: Developments and Experiences'', Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39251-9
* [[Bo Sanden]]: ''Software Systems Construction With Examples in Ada'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 013030834X
* [[Bruce Hillam]]: ''Introduction to Abstract Data Types Using Ada'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0130459496
* [[David Rudd]]: ''Introduction to Software Design and Development With Ada'', Brooks Cole, ISBN 0314028293
* [[Ian C. Pyle]]: ''Developing Safety Systems: A Guide Using Ada'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0132042983
* [[Louis Baker]]: ''Artificial Intelligence With Ada'', McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0070033501
* [[Alan Burns]], [[Andy Wellings]]: ''HRT-HOOD: A Structured Design Method for Hard Real-Time Ada Systems'', North-Holland, ISBN 0444821643
* [[Walter Savitch, Charles Peterson]]: ''Ada: An Introduction to the Art and Science of Programming'', Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, ISBN 0805370706
* [[Mark Allen Weiss]]: ''Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis in Ada'', Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, ISBN 0805390553
== Ada Wikis ==
=== General Info ===
* [http://ada.krischik.com Ada@Krischik]
* [[wiktionary:ACATS]]
* [[wiktionary:Ada]]
* [[wiktionary:ASIS]]
=== Tutorials ===
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ada_Programming Ada Programming]
* [http://es.wikibooks.org/wiki/Programación_en_Ada Programación en Ada]
* [http://fr.wikibooks.org/wiki/Programmation_Ada Programmation Ada]
=== Projects ===
* [http://adacl.sourceforge.net/index.php AdaCL]
* [http://booch95.sourceforge.net/pmwiki.php The Ada&nbsp;95 Booch Components]
* [http://gnuada.sourceforge.net The GNU Ada Compiler]
* [http://gnat-asis.sourceforge.net ASIS]
* [http://gnat-glade.sourceforge.net GLADE]
* [http://gnat-florist.sourceforge.net Florist]
* [http://wikibook-ada.sourceforge.net Wikibook Ada Programming]
== External links ==
* [http://adaworld.com/ Ada World]
* [http://adapower.com/ AdaPower]
* [http://www.sigada.org/ ACM SIGAda]
* [http://www.ada-europe.org/ Ada-Europe Organization]
* [http://www.adaic.com/ Ada Information Clearinghouse]
* [http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg9/ ISO Home of Ada Standards]
* [http://www.computer-books.us/ada95.php Ada&nbsp;95 Books Available Online]
* [http://www.ada-auth.org/ Ada Rapporteur Group (evolution of standard)]
* [http://www.ada-answers.com/ Ada Answers - Building better software with Ada]
* [http://citeseer.org/cs?q=%22Ada%22 Citations from CiteSeer]
* [news:comp.lang.ada Forum]
* [http://oopweb.com/Ada/Documents/Lovelace/Volume.html Ada Tutorial]
* [http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~mfeldman/ada-project-summary.html Projects Using Ada]
* [http://www.cs.kuleuven.ac.be/~dirk/ada-belgium/events/ Conference announcements for the international Ada community]
=== GNAT - Free Ada compiler ===
* [http://www.adacore.com/academic.php Ada Academic Initiative]
* [http://libre.adacore.com/ "Libre" Ada Software]
* [http://gnuada.sourceforge.net The GNU Ada Project]
* [http://www.gnuada.org/ GNU Ada Homepage]
* [http://www.gnat.com/ GNAT]
* [http://www.usafa.af.mil/df/dfcs/bios/mcc_html/adagide.cfm AdaGIDE, the Ada GNAT Integrated Development Environment for Windows]
* [http://www.gnavi.org/ GNAVI Ada Visual RAD]
* [http://www.martincarlisle.com/a_sharp.html A#: Ada on .NET]
{{Major programming languages small}}
[[Category:.NET programming languages]]
[[Category:Ada programming language|*Ada]]
[[Category:Algol programming language family]]
[[Category:ANSI standards]]
[[Category:Concurrent programming languages]]
[[Category:Imperative programming languages]]
[[Category:ISO standards]]
[[Category:Multi-paradigm programming languages]]
[[Category:Object-oriented programming languages]]
[[Category:Procedural programming languages]]
[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[Category:Statically-typed programming languages]]
[[Category:Systems programming languages]]
[[bg:Ada]]
[[ca:Ada]]
[[cs:Ada]]
[[da:Ada (programmeringssprog)]]
[[de:Ada (Programmiersprache)]]
[[es:Lenguaje de programación Ada]]
[[fi:Ada]]
[[fr:Ada (langage)]]
[[gl:Ada]]
[[he:עדה (שפת תכנות)]]
[[it:Ada]]
[[ja:Ada]]
[[nl:Ada]]
[[nn:programmeringsspråket Ada]]
[[no:Ada]]
[[pl:Ada (informatyka)]]
[[pt:Linguagem de programação Ada]]
[[ru:Ада (язык программирования)]]
[[sk:Ada (programovací jazyk)]]
[[sl:Ada (programski jezik)]]
[[sv:Ada (programspråk)]]
[[th:ภาษา Ada]]
[[tr:Ada programlama dili]]
[[uk:Мова програмування Ada]]
[[zh:Ada]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alpha ray</title>
<id>1245</id>
<revision>
<id>15899740</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Trelvis</username>
<id>15</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moving content to better name</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alpha particle]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alfonso Arau</title>
<id>1246</id>
<revision>
<id>38220756</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T23:56:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alfonso Arau''' (born [[January 11]], [[1932]]) is a [[Mexico|Mexican]] director of such films as ''[[Zapata: The Dream of a Hero]]'', ''[[Like Water for Chocolate]]'' (Mexico, 1992) (the novel of which was, somewhat [[Irony|ironically]], written by his wife, [[Laura Esquivel]]), and ''[[A Walk in the Clouds]]'', which starred [[Keanu Reeves]] and [[Anthony Quinn]].
He is also an actor. Among others, he had the antagonic role of "El Guapo" in ¡[[Three Amigos]]! (USA, 1986), a comedy with [[Martin Short]], [[Steve Martin]], and |
a new elite cavalry force. With his new army, he conquered the [[Havelli]] and the [[Daleminzi]] in [[928]] and put down a rebellion in [[Bohemia]] in [[929]]. When the [[Magyars]] began raiding again, he led an army of all German tribes to victory over them at the battle of [[Riade]] in [[933]], stopping one of their advances into Germany. He also pacified territories to the north, where the [[Denmark|Danes]] had harried the [[Frisians]] off to the sea. The monk and historian [[Widukind of Corvey]] in his ''Rex gestae Saxonicae'' reports that the Danes were subjects of Henry the Fowler. Henry incorporated territories held by the [[Wends]], who together with the Danes had attacked Germany, into his kingdom and also conquered [[Schleswig]] in [[934]].
When Henry died on [[2 July]] [[936]], all German tribes were united in a single kingdom. Henry I is therefore considered the first German king and the founder of the eventual [[Holy Roman Empire]] of the German Nation (''[[Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation]]'').
His son Otto succeeded him as Emperor [[Otto I]] ("the Great"). His second son, Henry, became duke of Bavaria. A third son, Brun (or Bruno), became archbishop of [[Cologne]]. His son from his first marriage, Thankmar, rebelled against his half-brother Otto and was killed in battle in [[936]]. His daughter [[Gerberge|Gerberga]] married Duke Giselbert of Lorraine and subsequently King [[Louis IV of France]]. His youngest daughter [[Hedwige of Saxony]] married Duke ([[Hugh the Great]]) of [[France]] and was the mother of [[Hugh Capet]], the first [[Capetian]] king of [[France]].
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Conrad of Franconia|Conrad I]]|
title=[[List of German Kings and Emperors|King of Germany]]|
years=[[919]]&ndash;[[936]]|
after=[[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto I]]
}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Otto I the Illustrious]]|
title=[[Duke of Saxony]]|
years=[[912]]&ndash;[[936]]|
after=[[Otto the Great]]
}}
{{end box}}
-----
'''Henry the Fowler''' is also the name of a wandering minstrel from the [[Tirol]], the author of two cycles about [[Dietrich von Bern]].
[[Category:876 births]]
[[Category:936 deaths]]
[[Category:German Kings]]
[[Category:Dukes of Saxony]]
[[Category:Ottonian Dynasty]]
[[cs:Jindřich I. Ptáčník]]
[[da:Henrik Fuglefænger]]
[[de:Heinrich I. (Ostfrankenreich)]]
[[es:Enrique I el Pajarero]]
[[fr:Henri Ier de Germanie]]
[[it:Enrico I di Sassonia]]
[[ka:ჰაინრიხ I]]
[[nl:Hendrik de Vogelaar]]
[[pl:Henryk I Ptasznik]]
[[ru:Генрих I Птицелов]]
[[sv:Henrik I av Sachsen]]
[[zh:亨利一世 (德意志)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hannibal</title>
<id>13959</id>
<revision>
<id>41755841</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:47:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>12.218.145.181</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{copyedit}}
{{otheruses}}
[[Image:HannibalFrescoCapitolinec1510.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Hannibal's celebrated feat in crossing the Alps with [[war elephant]]s passed into European legend: a fresco detail, ''ca.'' [[1510]], [[Capitoline Museums]], [[Rome]]]]
'''Hannibal''' (from [[Punic language|Punic]], literally ''"[[Baal]] is merciful to me"'', [[247 BC]] &ndash; [[183 BC]]) (sometimes referred to as '''Hannibal Barca''') was a [[politician]] and [[statesman]] who is considered to be one of the finest military commanders in history and the greatest enemy of the [[Roman Republic]]. As the son of [[Hamilcar Barca]], he is often called Hannibal Barca. In fact Barca was a nickname, meaning lightning, and not a surname. However, for convenience historians refer to Hamilcar's family as the [[Barcid]] family, and avoid confusion with minor Carthaginians who shared his name but not his fame. Hailing from [[Carthage]], Hannibal was best known for his achievements in the [[Second Punic War]] in marching an army from [[Hispania]] over the [[Pyrenees]] and the [[Alps]] into northern [[Italy]] and defeating the Romans at the Battles of [[Battle of the Trebia|the river Trebia]] ([[218 BC]]), [[Battle of Lake Trasimene|Lake Trasimene]] ([[217 BC]]) and [[Battle of Cannae|Cannae]] ([[216 BC]]). After Cannae, the Romans refused to fight him in pitched battles, instead aiming to defeat him by sheer attrition (the Romans had obvious and huge advantages of supply and manpower). After years of occupying Roman territory in a series of fits and starts, a counterinvasion of [[North Africa]] by the Romans under [[Scipio Africanus]] in [[204 BC]] forced Hannibal to return to Carthage, where Scipio defeated him at [[Battle of Zama|Zama]] ([[202 BC]].
Following the end of the war, Hannibal led Carthage for several years, aiding its recovery from the devastation of the war, until the Romans forced him into exile in [[195 BC]]. He went to live at the court of [[Antiochus III]] of the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid Kingdom]]. In [[190 BC]] the Romans, having defeated Antiochus and imposed the [[Peace of Apamea]] ([[188 BC]]), demanded that he turn Hannibal over to them and the general fled again, this time to the court of King [[Prusias I of Bithynia|Prusias I]] of [[Bithynia]]. When the Romans demanded that Prusias surrender him in [[182 BC]], Hannibal left but soon committed suicide rather than submit. He died in [[183 BC]]
Hannibal is universally ranked as one of the greatest military commanders and tacticians in history, alongside [[Alexander the Great]], [[Julius Caesar]], [[Scipio Africanus|Scipio]], [[Genghis Khan]], [[Subutai]], [[Shaka Zulu]], [[Napoleon I of France]], and others. Military historian, [[Theodore Ayrault Dodge]], once famously christened Hannibal as the ''"father of strategy"'' - indeed even his greatest enemy in Rome came to adopt his style of military tactics in their stategical canon.
==Background and early career==
[[image:hannibal.jpg|thumb|Hannibal Barca: an imaginary portrait]]
Hannibal Barca ("mercy of [[Baal]]"), son of [[Hamilcar Barca]], was born in [[247 BC]]. After Carthage's defeat in the [[First Punic War]], Hamilcar set about the task of improving Carthage's fortunes. To do this, Hamilcar began the subjugation of the tribes of [[Spain]]. Carthage at the time was in such a poor state that its navy was unable to ferry his army to [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]] (Hispania); instead, he had to march it to the [[Pillars of Hercules]] and cross there. According to a story he later told at the court of Antiochus, Hannibal came upon his father while he was making a [[sacrifice]] to the gods before leaving for Hispania. Hannibal, then quite young, begged to go with him. Hamilcar agreed and allegedly made Hannibal swear that as long as he lived he would never be a friend of Rome. Hannibal is reported to have told his father,'' "I swear so soon as age will permit...I will use fire and steel to arrest the destiny of Rome."''
Hannibal's father went about the conquest of Hispania with all the skills given to military men. When he was killed in a battle, Hannibal's brother-in-law [[Hasdrubal]] succeeded to his command of the army. Hasdrubal pursued a policy of consolidation of Carthage's Iberian interests, even signing a treaty with Rome whereby Carthage would not expand past the [[Ebro]] River, so long as Rome did not expand south of it.
Upon the death of his brother-in-law ([[221 BC]]) Hannibal was acclaimed commander-in-chief by the army and confirmed in his appointment by the Carthaginian government. Titus Livy, a Roman scholar, gives a depiction of the young Carthaginian: ''“No sooner had he [Hannibal] arrived...the old soldiers fancied they saw Hamilcar in his youth given back to them; the same bright look; the same fire in his eye, the same trick of countenance and features. Never was one and the same spirit more skillful to meet opposition, to obey, or to command...”''. After he assumed command, he spent two years consolidating his holdings and completing the conquest of Hispania south of the Ebro. However, Rome, fearing the growing strength of Hannibal in Iberia, made an alliance with the city of [[Saguntum]] which lay a considerable distance south of the River Ebro and claimed the city as its protectorate. Hannibal took this as a breach of the treaty signed with Hasdrubal and so he laid siege to the city, which fell after eight months. Rome was upset by this breaking of the treaty (which they were actually guilty of) and demanded justice from Carthage. The Carthaginian government did not venture to repudiate Hannibal's actions, in view of his great popularity, and the war he sought was declared at the end of the year. Hannibal was now determined to carry the war into the heart of [[Italy]] by a rapid march through Hispania and southern [[Gaul]].
==Second Punic War in Italy (218&mdash;203 B.C.) ==
===Overland Journey to Italy===
[[Image:Hannibal route of invasion.gif|thumb|300px|right|Hannibal´s route of invasion given graciously by The Department of History, United States Military Academy]]
Hannibal's army in Iberia reportedly totaled 90,000 infantry and 12,000 cavalry, although those figures most probably include Hasdrubal's forces as well as Hannibal's. The expeditionary force would still number as many as 75,000 foot soldiers and 9,000 horsemen. Hannibal departed New Carthage in late spring of 218 B.C. He fought his way through the northern tribes to the [[Pyrenees]], subduing the tribes through clever mountain tactics and stubborn fighting. After marching 290 miles through hostile territory and arrivng at the Ebro by late June, Hannibal selected the most trustworthy and devoted contingents of the large army of [[Libya]]n and Iberian [[mercenaries]] at his disposal to continue on his voyage. He left a detachment of 11,000 troops to garrison the newly conquered region. At the Pyrenees, he released another 11,000 Iberian troops who displayed reluctance to leave their homeland. Hannibal reportedly entered Gaul |
nues to be deposited, new deposits delay exploitation. Stream channels rise as [[silt]] is deposited in them and eventually become higher than the surrounding terrain. Shifting channels frustrate development in many areas. Old channels become barriers to proper drainage and create swamps or marshlands. It is difficult to build roads or [[railroad]]s across the lowlands or otherwise use the land.
==Statistics==
[[Image:Albania map.png|right| ]]
; '''[[Geographic coordinates]]:'''
: {{coor dm|41|00|N|20|00|E|type:country}}
; '''Map References:'''
: [[Europe]]
; '''Area:'''
:* ''Total:'' 28,748 [[square kilometre|km²]]
:* ''Land:'' 27,398 km²
:* ''Water:'' 1,350 km²
; '''Area - comparative:'''
:* [[Australia]] comparative: about a third of the size of [[Tasmania]]
:* [[Canada]] comparative: about half the size of [[Nova Scotia]]
:* [[United Kingdom]] comparative: slightly larger than [[Wales]]
:* [[United States]] comparative: slightly smaller than [[Maryland]]
; '''Land boundaries:'''
:* ''Total:'' 720 km border
:* [[Greece]] 282 km
:* The [[Republic of Macedonia]] 151 km
:* [[Serbia and Montenegro]] 287 km (114 km with [[Serbia]], 173 km with [[Montenegro]])
; '''Coastline:'''
: 362 km
; '''Maritime Claims:'''
:* ''Continental shelf:'' 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
:* ''Territorial sea:'' 12 [[Nautical mile|nm]]
; '''Elevation extremes:'''
:* ''Lowest point:'' Adriatic Sea 0 [[metre|m]]
:* ''Highest point:'' Korab's Peak on [[Mount Korab]] (''Maja e Korabit'' on ''Mali Korabit'') in [[Golem]] 2,753 m
; '''Natural resources:'''
: [[Petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[coal]], [[chromium]], [[copper]], [[timber]], [[nickel]], [[hydropower]]
; '''Land Use:'''
:* ''Arable land:'' 21%
:* ''Permanent crops:'' 5%
:* ''Permanent pastures:'' 15%
:* ''Forests and woodland:'' 38%
:* ''Other:'' 21% (1993 est.)
; '''Irrigated land:'''
: 3,400 km² (1998 est.)
; '''Natural hazards:'''
: Destructive [[earthquake]]s; [[tsunami]]s occur along southwestern coast
; '''Environment - current issues:'''
: [[Deforestation]], [[soil erosion]], [[water pollution]] from industrial and domestic effluents
; '''Environment - international agreements:'''
:* ''Party to:'' [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Hazardous Wastes]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Wetlands]]
:* ''Signed, but not ratified:'' none of the selected agreements
==References==
{{loc}} ''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 of Albania.''
==See also==
* [[Tourism in Albania]]
* [[List of cities in Albania]]
* [[Geography of Europe]]
[[Category:Geography of Albania| ]]
[[es:Geografía de Albania]]
[[it:Geografia dell'Albania]]
[[pt:Geografia da Albânia]]
[[ru:Географические данные Албании]]
[[sl:Geografija Albanije]]
[[sv:Albaniens geografi]]
[[zh:阿尔巴尼亚地理]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gimp</title>
<id>12692</id>
<revision>
<id>42087900</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:19:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Muchness</username>
<id>282514</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv to Brehaut - rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|gimp}}
'''Gimp''' may mean:
*[[GIMP]], GNU Image Manipulation Program
*[[Gimp (sadomasochism)]], a BDSM term for a sexual submissive
*[[Gimp (band)]], a New Jersey punk band
*[[Gimp (thread)]], a type of thread used for making lanyards
*[[Gimp (role-playing games)]], a weak character or ability in a role-playing game
==See also==
*[[Gimp-Print]]
{{disambig}}
[[hu:Gimp]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guomindang</title>
<id>12693</id>
<revision>
<id>15910361</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kuomintang]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gymnosphaerid</title>
<id>12694</id>
<revision>
<id>37290843</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T01:19:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = khaki
| name = Gymnosphaerids
| regnum = [[Protist]]a
| classis = [[Centrohelid|Centrohelea]]
| ordo = '''Axoplasthelida'''
| familia = '''Gymnosphaeridae'''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''Gymnosphaera elbida''<br>
''Hedraiophrys hovassei''<br>
''Actinocoryne contractilis''
}}
The '''gymnosphaerids''' are a small group of [[heliozoa]]n protists found in marine environments. They tend to be roughly spherical with radially directed axopods, whose ultrastructure is typical of the [[centrohelid]]s. They differ from other centrohelids in having [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] with tubular rather than flat [[crista]]e, and as such have been considered a separate group, but it is now known this trait may vary among closely related genera. They also have an amorphous central granule or axoplast instead of a tripartite centroplast. There are three genera, each with a single species:
* ''Gymnosphaera albida'' is free-living, usually benthic in shallow water. The cells are round and naked, around 70-100 &mu;m in diameter, and resemble the unrelated ''[[actinophryid|Actinosphaerium]]''. The outer cytoplasm, or ectoplasm, forms a distinct layer containing large vesicles.
* ''Hedraiophrys hovassei'' is larger and lives attached to [[alga]]e and other objects. The cells have a conical base, and are covered with long siliceous spicules. The ectoplasm is distinct and frothy, and typically contains bacterial and algal [[endosymbiont]]s.
* ''Actinocoryne contractilis'' is benthic. When feeding, it has a multinucleate base and a contractile stalk up to 150 &mu;m in length, supporting a relatively small uninucleate head, where the central granule and axopods are located. It may move about in a headless amoeboid form. Reproduction is either by budding off the head or fragmentation of the headless form, producing small free-living cells similar to ''Gymnosphaera'', which then attach themselves and regrow the stalk and base.
[[Category:Amoeboids]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Group representation</title>
<id>12695</id>
<revision>
<id>39225117</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T17:48:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MathMartin</username>
<id>29707</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removed ==Character theory==. Identical material is at [[character theory]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Group representation theory''' is the branch of [[mathematics]] that studies properties of abstract [[group (mathematics)|groups]] via their representations as [[linear transformation]]s of [[vector space]]s. Representation theory is important because it enables many [[group theory|group-theoretic]] problems to be reduced to problems in [[linear algebra]], which is a very well-understood theory. It is also important in [[physics]] because, for example, it is used to describe how the [[symmetry group]] of a physical system affects the solutions to that system.
Representations can also be defined for other mathematical structures, such as [[associative algebras]], and [[Lie algebra|Lie]] or [[Hopf algebra]]s; for the rest of this article ''representation'' and ''representation theory'' will refer only to representation of groups.
The term ''representation of a group'' is also used in a more general sense to mean any "description" of a group as a group of transformations of some mathematical object. More formally, a "description" means a [[homomorphism]] from the group to the [[automorphism group]] of the object. If the object is a vector space we have a ''linear representation''. Some people use ''realization'' for the general notion and reserve the term ''representation'' for the special case of linear representations. The bulk of this article describes linear representation theory; see the last section for generalizations.
==Branches of representation theory==
Representation theory divides into subtheories depending on the kind of group being represented. The various theories are quite different in detail, though some basic definitions and concepts are similar. The most important divisions are:
*''[[Finite group]]s'' &mdash; Group representations are a very important tool in the study of finite groups. They also arise in the applications of finite group theory to [[crystallography]] and to geometry. If the [[field (mathematics)|field]] of scalars of the vector space has [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] ''p'', and if ''p'' divides the order of the group, then this is called ''[[modular representation theory]]''; this special case has very different properties. See [[Representation theory of finite groups]].
*''[[Compact group]]s or locally compact [[topological group]]s'' &mdash; Many of the results of finite group representation theory are proved by averaging over the group. These proofs can be carried over to infinite groups by replacement of the average with an integral, provided that an acceptable notion of integral can be defined. This can be done for locally compact groups, using [[Haar measure]]. The resulting theory is a central part of [[harmonic analysis]]. The [[Pontryagin duality]] describes the theory for commutative groups, as a generalised [[Fourier transform]]. See also: [[Peter-Weyl theorem]].
*''[[Lie groups]]'' &mdash; Many important Lie groups are compact, so the results of compact representation theory apply to them. Other techniques specific to Lie groups are used as well. Most of the groups |
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themselves as "Sons of Light".
== Location ==
According to Josephus the Essenes had settled "not in one city" but "in large numbers in every town" (''War'' 2.124). Philo speaks of "more than four thousand" ''Essaioi'' living in "Palestinian Syria" (''Quod Omn. Prob.'' XII.75), more precisely, "in many cities of Judaea and in many villages and grouped in great societies of many members" (''Hyp.'' 11.1).
Some modern scholars and archeologists have argued that Essenes inhabited the settlement at [[Qumran]], a [[plateau]] in the [[Judean Desert]] along the [[Dead Sea]]. While Pliny's location ("on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast ... [above] the town of [[En Gedi|Engeda]]") tends to be cited in support of this identification, there is as yet no conclusive proof for this hypothesis. Nevertheless, it has come to dominate the scholarly discussion and public perception of the Essenes; and this article therefore takes it for its premise.
== History==
It has been suggested that the Essenes have come into existence as a protest following the purchase by Yehoshua Ben-Shimon II (Jason son of Simon) of the high priesthood from [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] in [[175 BC]]. Subsequently the Essenes referred to Yehoshua ben Shimon and his genealogically unqualified successors as The Wicked Priest (Kohein ha-Resha lit. bad priest, instead of Kohein ha-Gadol). However, others have suggested that Queen [[Salome Alexandra]]'s son [[Hyrcanus II]] ([[63 BC]]-?) and the other Roman collaborators that succeeded to him are the best qualified for the Wicked Priest appellation. Either way the new illegitimate priesthood became known as the [[Sadducees]].
It is thought that the memories of a certain [[Yeshu]] ([[110 BC|110]]-[[70 BC|70]]) in the [[Talmud]] may refer to one who the Essenes called Matif ha-Kaza (the babbling preacher of lies). Likewise the "man of lies" (Ish ha-Kazav) has been identified variously as his contemporary Shimeon ben Shetah ([[80 BC|80]]-[[50 BC|50]]) or the later [[Shammai|R. Shammai]] ([[40 BC]]-AD [[20]]). It is thought that to secure the position of Av Beth Din, Shammai drove his predecessor Menahem, his and [[Hillel]]'s followers to become Essenes. The aged Shammai attained complete ascendancy until AD [[30]] after Hillel died in AD [[20]] and Shammai passed [[the 18 measures]]. That day is compared to the day when the [[golden calf]] was built (Shabbat 17A).
== Rejection of the Jerusalem cultus ==
Presuming the identification of the Essenes as the inhabitants of Qumran and as authors of the texts in certain scrolls found in the caves nearby, the Essenes were the followers of a group of priests who had essentially rejected the [[Second Temple]]. They argued that the Essene community was itself the new Temple, although they did not reject the notion of the temple outright. Eventually, they believed, they would be triumphant, gaining control of the temple and remaking it according to their own ideals. Accordingly, the destruction of the Second Temple in [[70]] was for them a symbol of imminent victory. With this came the end of the Sadducees and the end of the house of Shammai. They also believed strongly in the end-times and wrote an entire scroll on that subject. The "Rule of War" detailed the battle plans for the "final" battle.
== Rules, customs and theology ==
The accounts by Josephus and Philo show that the Essenes (Philo: ''Essaioi'') led a strictly [[celibate]] but [[communal]] life − often compared by scholars to Christian [[monastic]] living −, although Josephus speaks also of another "''rank'' of Essenes" that did get married (''War'' 2.160-161). According to Josephus, they had customs and observances such as collective ownership (''War'' 2.122; ''Ant.'' 18.20), elected a leader to attend to the interests of them all whose orders they obeyed (''War'' 2.123, 134), were forbidden from [[swearing]] oaths (''War'' 2.135) and [[animal sacrifice| sacrificing animals]] (Philo, §75), controlled their temper and served as channels of peace (''War'' 2.135), carried [[weapon]]s only as protection against robbers (''War'' 2.125), had no [[slavery|slaves]] but served each other (''Ant.'' 18.21) and, as a result of communal ownership, did not engage in [[trade|trading]] (''War'' 2.127). Both Josephus and Philo have lengthy accounts of their communal meetings, meals and religious celebrations. From what has been deduced, the food of the Essenes was not allowed to be altered (by being [[cooked]], for instance); and they may have been strict vegetarians, eating mostly [[bread]], wild [[roots]] and fruits. After a total of three years probation (''War'' 2.137-138), newly joining members would take an oath that included the commitment to practise piety towards the Deity and righteousness towards humanity, to maintain a pure life-style, to abstain from criminal and immoral activities, to transmit their rules uncorrupted and to preserve the books of the Essenes and the names of the Angels (''War'' 2.139-142). Their theology included belief in the immortality of the soul and that they would receive their souls back after death (''War'' 2.153-158, ''Ant.'' 18.18).
== Dissolution ==
When the Romans overran Jerusalem in 70 CE, the authors of the writings found at Qumran assumed to have been Essenes believed this to be the time to fight the great and final battle with the Sons of Darkness, as prophesied. They had prepared for it and apparently threw everything they had into it. They may have thought they were unbeatable, according to prophecy; but they were not strong enough to withstand the Romans. The inhabitants of Qumran, presumed to have been the greater number of the Essenes, were destroyed by the [[Roman legions]] in 68 CE as part of the Roman movements to take back [[Judea]]. It has been suggested that, consequently, the few remaining Essenes elsewhere were no longer able to maintain their identity, and that some of them merged with the Hillelite [[Pharisees]], out of which was born the tradition of Rabbinical Judaism.
== Scholarly discussion ==
The Essenes are discussed in detail by [[Josephus]] and [[Philo]]. Many scholars believe that the community at Qumran that allegedly produced the Dead Sea Scrolls was an offshoot of the Essenes; however, this theory has been disputed by [[Norman Golb]] and other scholars. Some suggest that [[Jesus]] of Nazareth was an Essene, and that [[Christianity]] evolved from this sect of Judaism, with which it shared many ideas and symbols.
According to [[Martin A. Larson]], the now misunderstood Essenes were Jewish [[Pythagoreans]] who lived as monks. As vegetarians, celibates, and self-reliant communists who shunned marriage and family, they preached a coming war with the Sons of Darkness. As the Sons of Light, this reflected a separate influence from [[Zoroastrianism]] via their parent ideology of Pythagoreanism. According to Larson, both the Essenes and Pythagoreans resembled ''thiasoi'', or cult units of the [[Orphic]] mysteries. [[John the Baptist]] is widely regarded to be a prime example of an Essene who had left the communal life (see ''Ant.'' 18.116-119), and it is thought they aspired to emulate their own founding ''Teacher of Righteousness'' who was probably crucified.
Another issue is the relationship between the ''Essaioi'' and Philo's ''[[Therapeutae]]'' and ''Therapeutrides'' (see ''De Vita Contemplativa''). It may be argued that he regarded the ''Therapeutae'' as a contemplative branch of the ''Essaioi'' who, he said, pursued an active life (''Vita Cont.'' I.1).
== Modern and contemporary Essenes ==
Several [[new religious movement]]s claim spiritual descent from the ancient Essenes and describe themselves as Essenes. These groups believe that the canon of the [[Bible]], and even some translations of books considered "canonical," were changed by various hands to censor Essene beliefs in the scriptures, such as [[transmigration]], the [[Shekhinah|feminine aspect of Divinity]] and a preference for [[vegetarianism]]. The Dead Sea Scrolls form the basis for much of their beliefs.
== Essenes in fiction ==
The Essenes are an important part of [[H. Rider Haggard]]'s ''Pearl-Maiden: A Tale of the Fall of Jerusalem''. [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=5175]
== References ==
* Bergmeier, Roland. 1993. Die Essener-Berichte des Flavius Josephus. Kok Pharos, Kampen, [[ISBN]] 90 390 0014 X.
* Briggs, Curtis. 1998. The Dead Sea Scrolls (VHS). Discovery Channel Video
* Falk, Harvey R. 1985
* Francis Legge, ''Forerunners and Rivals of Christianity, From 330 B.C. to 330 A.D. '' (1914), reprinted as two volumes bound as one, University Books New York, 1964. LC Catalog 64-24125.
* Golb, Norman. 1985. "Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls? The Search for the Secret of Qumran". Scribner
* Sanders, E.P., 1992. "Judaism: Practice & Belief 63BCE - 66CE" Minneapolis: Fortress
* Schiffman, Lawrence H. 1991. "From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple & Rabbinic Judaism". Ktav Publishing House
* Smith, Enid S., Ph.D., 1959, ''The Essenes Who Changed Churchianity''
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05546a.htm New Advent (Catholic Encyclopedia) entry on the Essenes]
*[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~humm/Rs/rak/courses/225/texts/ESSENES Thematically compiled comparison of the parallels in the ancient sources]
*[http://www.essene.org One of several new religious movements claiming descent from the Essenes]
*[http://creativeendeavors.com/IBS/ Library of published Research and Writings of Professor Edmund Bordeaux Székely on the Essenes.]
[[Category:Ancient Jewish Greek history]]
[[Category:Ancient Jewish Roman history]]
[[Category:Asceticism]]
[[ca:Essenis]]
[[de:Essener]]
[[el:Εσσαίοι]]
[[es:Esenio]]
[[fr:Esséniens]]
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[[it:Esseni]]
[[he:איסיים]]
[[nl:Ess |
1440]] - [[1452]]. See also [[#House of Habsburg|below]].
:* [[Albert VI of Austria|Albert VI]] (''Albrecht VI''), brother of the above, [[1446]] - [[1463]] regent of Vorderösterreich, duke of Austria [[1458]] - [[1463]]
====Leopoldine-Tyrol sub-line====
:* [[Frederick IV of Austria|Frederick IV]] (''Friedrich''), brother of Ernst, [[1402]] - [[1439]] duke of Tyrol and Vorderösterreich
:* [[Sigismund of Austria|Sigismund]], also spelled ''Siegmund'' or ''Sigmund'', [[1439]] - [[1446]] under the tutelage of the Frederick V above, then duke of Tyrol, and after the death of Albrecht VI in 1463 also duke of Vorderösterreich.
===Reuniting of Habsburg possessions ===
Sigismund had no children and adopted [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]], son of duke Frederick V (emperor Frederick III). Under Maximilian, the possessions of the Habsburgs would be united again under one ruler, after he had re-conquered [[Lower Austria]] after the death of [[Matthias Corvinus]], who resided in [[Vienna]] and styled himself duke of Austria from [[1485]] - [[1490]].
==== Holy Roman Emperors previous to the reunion of the Habsburg possessions====
*[[Rudolph I, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolph I]], emperor 1273 - 1291 (never crowned)
*[[Albert I, Holy Roman Emperor|Albert I]], emperor 1298 - 1308 (never crowned)
*[[Albert II, Holy Roman Emperor|Albert II]], emperor 1438 - 1439 (never crowned)
*[[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]], emperor 1440 - 1493
==== Kings of Hungary previous to the reunion of the Habsburg possessions====
* [[Albert II, Holy Roman Emperor|Albert]], king of Hungary 1437 - 1439
* [[Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary|Ladislaus V Posthumus]], king of Hungary 1444 - 1457
== Main Line: Holy Roman Emperors, Archdukes of Austria ==
*[[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]], emperor 1493 - 1519
*[[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], emperor 1519 - 1556
=== [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish Habsburgs]]: Kings of Spain, Kings of Portugal (1580-1640) ===
''See also: [[Portuguese House of Habsburg]]''
*[[Philip I of Castile]], second son of [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]], founded the Spanish Habsburgs in 1506 by marrying [[Joanna of Castile|Joanna the Mad]], daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. Philip promptly died, leaving the thrones of Castile and Aragon to be inherited and united into the nation of Spain by his son:
*[[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles I]] 1516-1556, ''aka Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor; converdivided the House into Austrian and Spanish lines''
*[[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] of Spain 1556-1598, also [[Philip II of Spain|Filipe I]] of Portugal 1580-1598
*[[Philip III of Spain|Philip III]], also [[Philip III of Spain|Filipe II]] of Portugal 1598-1621
*[[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]] 1621-1665, also [[Philip IV of Spain|Filipe III]] 1621-1640
*[[Charles II of Spain|Charles II]] 1665-1700
The [[War of the Spanish Succession]] took place after the extinction of the Spanish Habsburg line, to determine the inheritance of Charles II.
=== Austrian Habsburgs: Holy Roman Emperors, Archdukes of Austria ===
*[[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]], emperor 1556 - 1564 ([[Imperial_Crypt#The_Founders.27_Family|→Family Tree]])
*[[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian II]], emperor 1564 - 1576
*[[Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolph II]], emperor 1576 - 1612
*[[Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor|Matthias]], emperor 1612 - 1619
*[[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand II]], emperor 1619 - 1637
*[[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand III]], emperor 1637 - 1657 ([[Imperial_Crypt#Emperor_Ferdinand_III.27s_Family|→Family Tree]])
*[[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I]], emperor 1658 - 1705
*[[Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor|Josef I]], emperor 1705 - 1711
*[[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]], emperor 1711 - 1740
NB: [[Maria Theresa of Austria]], Habsburg heiress and wife of emperor [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis I Stephen]], reigned as Archduchess of Austria and Queen of [[Hungary]] and [[Bohemia]] 1740 - 1780
=== House of Habsburg-Lorraine (Lothringen), main line: Holy Roman Emperors, Archdukes of Austria ===
*[[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis I Stephen]], emperor 1745 - 1765 (→[[Imperial_Crypt#Emperor_Ferdinand_III.27s_Family|Family Tree]])
*[[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]], emperor 1765 - 1790
*[[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]], emperor 1790 - 1792 (→[[Imperial_Crypt#Empress_Maria_Theresia.27s_Family|Family Tree]])
*[[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]], emperor 1792 - 1806 (→[[Imperial_Crypt#Emperor_Leopold_II.27s_Family|Family Tree]])
The House of Habsburg-Lorraine retained Austria and attached possessions after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire; see below.
==== House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Grand dukes of Tuscany ====
*[[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis Stephen]] 1737-1765 ''(later Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor)''
Francis Stephen assigned the grand duchy of Tuscany to his second son Peter Leopold, who in turn assigned it to his second son upon his accession as Holy Roman Emperor. Tuscany remained the domain of this cadet branch of the family until [[Italian unification]].
*[[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Peter Leopold]] 1765-1790 ''(later Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor)''
*[[Ferdinand III of Tuscany|Ferdinand III]] 1790-1800, 1814-1824 (→[[Imperial_Crypt#Tuscan_Line|Family Tree]])
*[[Leopold II of Tuscany|Leopold II]] 1824-1849, 1849-1859
*[[Ferdinand IV of Tuscany|Ferdinand IV]] 1859
==== House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Dukes of Modena ====
The duchy of Modena was assigned to a minor branch of the family by the [[Congress of Vienna]]. It was lost to [[Italian unification]].
*[[Francis IV of Modena|Francis IV]] 1814-1831, 1831-1846 (→[[Imperial_Crypt#Empress_Maria_Theresia.27s_Family|Family Tree]])
*[[Francis V, Duke of Modena|Francis V]] 1846-1848, 1849-1859
====House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Duchess of Parma ====
The duchy of Parma was likewise assigned to a Habsburg, but did not stay in the House long before succumbing to [[Italian unification]].
*[[Marie Louise of Austria|Maria Luisa]] [[1814]]-[[1847]] (→[[Imperial_Crypt#ZegelChartFranz57|Family Tree]])
==== House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Emperor of Mexico ====
Maximilian, an adventurous younger son, was invited as part of [[Napoleon III]]'s manipulations to take the throne of Mexico. The adventure did not end well. Maximilian was shot in "Cerro de las Campanas" in 1867.
*[[Maximilian of Mexico|Maximilian I]] [[1864]]-[[1867]]) (→[[Imperial_Crypt#ZegelChartFranz57|Family Tree]])
=== House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line: Emperors of Austria ===
*Franz I, emperor of Austria 1804 - 1835: was [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (→[[Imperial_Crypt#ZegelChartFranz57|Family Tree]])
*[[Ferdinand I of Austria|Ferdinand I]], emperor of Austria 1835 - 1848
*[[Franz Joseph of Austria|Franz Joseph]], emperor of Austria 1848 - 1916, sometimes referred to in English as "Francis Joseph"
*[[Karl of Austria|Karl]], emperor of Austria 1916 - 1918, sometimes referred to in English as "Charles". He died in exile in 1922.
===House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line: Heads of the House of Habsburg (post-monarchy)===
Charles I was expelled from his domains after World War I and the empire was abolished.
*[[Karl of Austria|Charles I]] ([[1918]]-[[1922]]) (→[[Imperial_Crypt#ZegelChartFranz57|Family Tree]])
*[[Otto von Habsburg]] ([[1922]]-present)
*[[Zita of Bourbon-Parma]], guardian, ([[1922]]-[[1930]]))
*[[Karl Habsburg-Lothringen]], successor in due course to Otto
===Burials===
See [[Imperial Crypt]] in [[Vienna]].
== Habsburgs as Kings of Hungary ==
The kingship of Hungary remained in the Habsburg family for centuries; but as the kingship was not strictly inherited (Hungary was an elective monarchy till 1687) and was sometimes used as a training ground for young Habsburgs, the dates of rule do not always match those of the primary Habsburg possessions. Therefore, the kings of Hungary are listed separately.
===Albertine line: Kings of Hungary===
* [[Albert II, Holy Roman Emperor|Albert]], king of Hungary 1437 - 1439
* [[Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary|Ladislaus V Posthumus]], king of Hungary 1444 - 1457
===Austrian Habsburgs: Kings of Hungary===
* [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]], king of Hungary 1526 - 1564
* [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]], king of Hungary 1563 - 1576
* [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolf I]], king of Hungary 1572 - 1608
* [[Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor|Matthias]], king of Hungary 1608 - 1619
* [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand II]], king of Hungary 1618 - 1637
* [[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand III]], king of Hungary 1625 - 1657
* [[Ferdinand IV of Germany|Ferdinand IV]], king of Hungary 1647 - 1654
* [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I]], king of Hungary 1655 - 1705
* [[Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph I]], king of Hungary 1687 - 1711
* [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles III]], king of Hungary 1711 - 1740
===House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line: Kings of Hungary===
* [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]], queen of Hungary 1741 - 1780
* [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]], king of Hungary 1780 - 1790
* [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]], king of Hungary 1790 - 1792
* [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis]], king of Hungary 1792 - 1835
* [[Ferdinand I of Austria|Ferdinand V]], king of Hungary 1835 - 1848
* [[Francis Joseph of Austria|Francis Joseph I]], king of Hungary 1848 - 1916
* [[Karl of Austria|Charles IV]], king of Hungary 1916 - 1918
== Habsburgs as Kings of Bohemia ==
The kingship of Bohemia was for centuries a position elected by its nobles. As a result, it was not an automatically inherited position. The king of Bohemia tended to be a Habsburg, but was not always. Hence, the kings of Bohemia and their ruling dates are listed separately.
===M |
e over the water by diffusion
*Ink in the beaker of water is an example of diffusion. In the end, the ink particles spread evenly throughout the mass of water
== The nature of diffusion ==
The different forms of diffusion can be modelled quantitatively using the [[diffusion equation]], which goes by different names depending on the physical situation. For instance - steady-state bi-molecular diffusion is governed by [[Fick's law of diffusion|Fick's first law]], steady-state thermal diffusion is governed by [[Fourier's law]]. The diffusion of electrons in an electrical field leads essentially to [[Ohm's law]] that is further explained by [[Einstein relation (kinetic theory)|Einstein relation]]. The generic diffusion equation is time dependent, and as such applies to non-steady-state situations as well.
In all cases of diffusion, the [[net flux]] of the transported quantity (atoms, energy, or electrons) is equal to a physical property (diffusivity, thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity) multiplied by a gradient (a concentration, thermal, electric field gradient). Noticeable transport occurs only if there is a [[gradient]] - for example in thermal diffusion, if the temperature is constant, heat will move as quickly in one direction as in the other, producing no heat transport and change in temperature.
Diffusion occurs as a result of the [[Second Law of Thermodynamics]], which states that the entropy or disorder of any closed system must always increase with time. Because substances diffuse from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration, they are going from a state of higher order to a state of lower order, in accordance with the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Therefore, diffusion is a spontaneous, natural process, and to reverse diffusion would require the expenditure of energy to counteract the higher order of the system and prevent a violation of the laws of entropy.
== Types of diffusion ==
Diffusion does not only refer to diffusion of particles, it refers to all transport phenomena occurring within [[thermodynamic]] systems under the influence of thermal fluctuations (i.e under the influence of disorder; this excludes transport through an [[hydrodynamic]] flow, which is a macroscopic, ordered phenomena).
Diffusion is the process through which an inhomogeneous [[thermodynamic]] system at local [[thermodynamic equilibrium]] returns to global [[thermodynamic equilibrium]], through the homogeneisation of the values of its [[intensive]] parameters.
* [[Atomic diffusion]]
* [[Brownian motion]], for example of a single particle in a solvent
* [[Collective diffusion]], the diffusion of a large number of (possibly interacting) particles
* [[Electron]] diffusion, resulting in [[current (electricity)|electric current]]
* [[Heat flow]] (thermal diffusion)
* [[Momentum diffusion]], ex. the diffusion of the [[hydrodynamic]] velocity field
* [[Osmosis]]
* [[Photon diffusion]]
* [[Reverse diffusion]]
==Isotope separation==
* [[Gaseous diffusion]]
* [[Liquid Thermal Diffusion]]
=== Diffusion across biological membranes ===
* [[Facilitated diffusion]]
* Ion diffusion through [[ion channel]]s
* Simple diffusion, not requiring a special [[protein]] channel
* Diffusion in the [[respiratory system]] - in the [[alveoli]] of [[mammal]]ian [[lung]]s, due to differences in partial pressures across the alveolar-capillary membrane, [[oxygen]] diffuses into the blood and [[carbon dioxide]] diffuses out
== See also ==
{{wikibookspar||Constructing school science lab equipment/Apparatus for demonstrating osmosis}}
{{wiktionary}}
* [[Bohm diffusion]]
* [[Brownian motion]]
* [[Collective diffusion]]
* [[Diffusion equation]]
* [[Diffusion MRI]]
* [[Fick's law of diffusion]]
* [[Isotope separation]]
* [[Mass transfer]]
* [[Osmosis]]
* [[Transport phenomena]]
== External links ==
* [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/kinetic/diffus.html Some pictures that display diffusion and osmosis]
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[[sr:дифузија]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Declension</title>
<id>8645</id>
<revision>
<id>41488987</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T18:31:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>65.215.131.2</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Case table}}
In [[linguistics]], '''declension''' is a feature of [[inflection|inflected]] languages. In the general sense it is the alteration of a [[noun]] to indicate its [[grammar|grammatical]] role. An example in English is the way "he" changes to "him" when it follows a verb or preposition, and to "his" when it is possessive. (HE is my friend. I know HIM. I sent it to HIM. This is HIS book.)
In inflected languages, nouns are said to ''decline'' into different forms, or '''morphological cases''', which indicate the nouns' function in a sentence. Morphological cases are one way of indicating '''grammatical case'''; other ways are listed below. Morphological cases are usually indicated by ''desinences'' (endings), but additionally, or alternatively, morphological modifications of the nominal stem may occur (see [[Nonconcatenative morphology]], [[Apophony]], [[umlaut]])
Declension is seen, for example, in many [[Indo-European languages]] like [[Latin]], [[German language|German]] and [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]; in [[Dravidian languages]] like [[Tamil language|Tamil]]; in most [[Uralic languages]], such as [[Finnish (language)|Finnish]] and [[Hungarian (language)|Hungarian]]; in [[Swahili language|Swahili]] and many others. [[Old English language|Old English]] had an extensive case system. In modern [[English grammar]], the same information is now mostly conveyed with [[word order]] and [[preposition]]s, though a few remnants of the older declined form of English still exist (as in "he" vs. "him"; see [[Declension in English]]).
An example of a Latin noun declension is given below, using the word '''homō''' 'man.' Since Latin has no [[Article (grammar)|articles]], that is, no words for 'the' or 'a,' they have been added in the translations.
*homō 'the man' [as a subject] (e.g. homo ibi stat 'the man is standing there')
*hominis 'of the man' (e.g. nōmen hominis est Claudius 'the name of the man is Claudius')
*hominī 'to the man' (e.g. hominī donum dedī 'I gave a present to the man')
*hominem 'the man' [as a direct object] (e.g. hominem vidi 'I saw the man')
*homine 'the man' [in various uses not covered by the above] (e.g. sum altior homine 'I am taller than the man')
The term '''declension''' can also refer to the varied forms working together as a system. For example, the above declension differs from the a-declension, which consists mostly of feminine nouns.
*fēmina 'the woman' [as a subject]
*fēminae 'of the woman'
*fēminae 'to the woman'
*fēminam 'the woman' [as a direct object]
*fēminā 'the woman' [various uses]
Notice that the direct object form of '''homo''' ends in -em and the direct object form of '''femina''' ends in -am. The direct object form of '''manus''' 'hand' ends in -um. Declensions are distinguished by the presence of certain vowels or consonants.
Though English '''pronouns''' can have subject and object forms (he/him, she/her), '''nouns''' show only a singular/plural- and a possessive/non-possessive-distinction (chair, chairs, chair's, chairs'). Note there is no difference in form between "the chair is here" (subject) and "I saw the chair" (direct object). Generally the only variation in English nouns is the insertion of an -e or e-sound for purposes of pronunciation (beach, beaches, beach's, beaches'). The '''n-declension''' is restricted to words like ox-oxen, brother-brethren, and child-children, though in Medieval English the s-declension and the n-declension were in stronger competition.
The hard-core grammarian might also wish to know the following:
Languages are categorized into several case systems, based on how they group verb [[agent (linguistics)|agents]] and [[patient (linguistics)|patients]] into cases:
*''[[nominative-accusative language|Nominative-accusative]]'': The agent of both transitive and intransitive verbs is always in the [[nominative case]]. The patient of a (transitive) verb is in the [[accusative case]]. The [[dative case]] may also be present.
*''[[ergative-absolutive language|Ergative-absolutive]]'' (or simply ''ergative''): The patient of a verb is always in the [[absolutive case]], along with the agent of intransitive verbs. If both agent and patient are present, the agent is in the [[ergative case]].
*''[[active-stative language|Active-stative]]'' (also called ''active''): The agent of a verb is always in the [[subject case]], and the patient is always in the [[object case]]. The case does not depend on whether a verb is used in a transitive or intransitive form.
*''[[trigger language|Trigger]]'': One noun in a sentence is the topic or focus. This noun is in the [[trigger case]], and information elsewhere in the sentence (for example a [[verb]] [[affix]] in [[Tagalog_language|Tagalog]]) specifies the role of the trigger. The trigger may be identified as the agent, patient, etc. Other nouns may be inflected for case, but the inflections are overloaded; for example, in Tagalog, the subject and object of a verb are both expressed in the [[genitive case]] when they are not in the trigger case.
The following are systems that some languages use to mark case instead of, or in addition to, declension:
*''Positional'': Nouns are not inflected for case; the position of a noun in the sentence expresses its case.
*[[preposition|Prepositional]]/[[postposition|postpositional]]: Nouns are accompanied |
93) AirCal
* [[Boeing 737|Boeing 737-2xx]] (1987-1993) AirCal
* [[Boeing 737|Boeing 737-3A4]] (1987-1993) AirCal
* [[Boeing 747|Boeing 747-123]] (1971-1983) (exchanged with [[Pan Am]] for additional DC-10s; one was later used as [[Shuttle Carrier Aircraft]])
* [[Boeing 747|Boeing 747SP]] (1986-1994)
* [[Boeing 757|Boeing 757-231]] (2001-2006)
* [[Boeing 757|Boeing 757-2Q8]] (2001-2006)
* [[Boeing 767|Boeing 767-331]] (2001-2002) TWA Airlines LLC
* [[Boeing 767|Boeing 767-3YO]] (2001-2002) TWA Airlines LLC
* [[Convair 240]] (1950s-60s)
* [[Convair 990]] (1970s)
* [[Curtiss Condor]] (1920s-30s)
* [[Douglas DC-2]] (1930s)
* [[Douglas DC-3]] (1930s)
* [[Douglas DC-4]] (1940s)
* [[Douglas DC-6]] (1947-1966)
* [[Douglas DC-7]] (1950s)
* [[Douglas DC-9]] (2001) TWA Airlines LLC
* [[Fokker F100]] (1991-2004)
* [[Ford 5-AT-B Trimotor]] (1920s)
* [[Lockheed L-188 Electra]] (1950s-60s)
* [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]] (1972-2000) (most sold to FedEx)
* [[McDonnell Douglas MD-11]] (1991-2002) (most sold to FedEx)
* [[McDonnell Douglas MD-87]] (1999-2001) Reno Air
* [[McDonnell Douglas MD-90]] (1999-2001) Reno Air
(Air Cal) Aircraft obtained during 1986 [[Air California|AirCal]] acquisition.
(Reno Air) Aircraft obtained during 1999 [[Reno Air]] acquisition.
(TWA Airlines LLC) Aircraft obtained during 2001 [[Trans World Airlines]] acquisition.
== Livery ==
American's early [[livery|liveries]] varied widely, but a common livery was adopted in the 1930s that featured a large [[eagle]] painted on the fuselage of each aircraft. The eagle became a widely-recognized symbol of the company and inspired the name of [[American Eagle Airlines]]. Propeller aircraft featured an [[international orange]] lightning bolt running down the length of the fuselage, which was replaced by a simpler orange stripe with the introduction of jets.
In the late 1960s, American commissioned an industrial designer to develop a new livery. The original design called for a red, white, and blue stripe on the fuselage, and a simple "AA" logo, without an eagle, on the tail. However, American's employees revolted when the livery was made public, and launched a "Save the Eagle" campaign similar to the "Save the Flying Red Horse" campaign at [[Mobil]]. Eventually, the designer caved in and created a highly stylized eagle, dubbed "the bug," which remains the company's logo to this day. In 1999, American painted a new [[Boeing 757]] in its 1959 international orange livery.
American is the only major U.S. airline that leaves the majority of its aircraft surfaces unpainted. Originally, this was because C. R. Smith hated painted aircraft, and refused to use any liveries that involved painting the entire plane. Crandall later justified the bare-metal design by noting that less paint reduced the aircraft's weight, thus saving on fuel costs. [[Eastern Airlines]] and [[USAir]] have also maintained unpainted airplanes in the past.
==Miscellaneous==
*In the 1960s, [[Mattel]] released a series of ''American Airlines stewardess'' [[Barbie]] dolls.
*An American Airlines Space Freighter, the ''Valley Forge'', was the setting for the 1971 [[science fiction]] movie [[Silent Running]], starring [[Bruce Dern]] and directed by [[Douglas Trumbull]].
*AA was featured prominently in the first two ''[[Home Alone]]'' movies.
*In the early 1990s, singer [[Janet Jackson]] made a commercial for AA.
*AA has been a long-time promotional sponsor of ''[[The Oprah Winfrey Show]]'', broadcast from AA's hub city of Chicago.
*AA is one of the few companies to have purchased [[naming rights]] for two sporting venues: the [[American Airlines Arena]] in [[Miami, Florida|Miami]] and the [[American Airlines Center]] in [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]].
*AA was the first airline to offer [[Bloody Mary (cocktail)|Bloody Mary]] cocktails on its aircraft. The airline's contract with the garage-based makers of "Mr. and Mrs. T" mix eventually exhausted the small factory's supply and forced Mr. and Mrs. T to sell itself to [[Del Monte]].
*American received a 100% rating on the first Corporate Equality Index released by the [[Human Rights Campaign]] in 2002 and has maintained their rating in respect to policies on [[LGBT]] employees.
==Sources==
* John M. Capozzi, ''A Spirit of Greatness'' (JMC, 2001), ISBN 0965641031
* Don Bedwell, ''Silverbird: The American Airlines Story'' (Airways, 1999), ISBN 0965399362
* Al Casey, ''Casey's Law'' (Arcade, 1997), ISBN 1559703075
* Simon Forty, ''ABC American Airlines'' (Ian Allan, 1997), ISBN 1882663217
* Dan Reed, ''The American Eagle: The Ascent of Bob Crandall and American Airlines'' (St. Martin's, 1993), ISBN 0312086962
* Robert J. Serling, ''Eagle'' (St. Martin's, 1985), ISBN 0312224532
*''International Directory of Company Histories'', St. James Press.
== External links ==
{{Commons|American Airlines}}
*[http://www.aa.com/ American Airlines]
*[http://www.planespotters.net/Airline/American_Airlines?show=all American Airlines Fleet Detail]
*[http://www.crsmithmuseum.org/ American Airlines C.R. Smith Museum]
*[http://www.airchive.com/SITE%20PAGES/TIMETABLES-AMERICAN.html Historical timetables and route maps]
*[http://www.americanwaymag.com/ ''American Way''], American's inflight magazine
*[http://members.shaw.ca/fewmiles/AA/index2.html Unofficial Guide to American Airlines AAdvantage]
*[http://www.flyertalk.com/forum/forumdisplay.php?f=445 American Airlines AAdvantage Forum on FlyerTalk.com]
*[http://www.milemaven.com/offers/program/17/ American Airlines AAdvantage Bonus Miles Promotions]
{{Oneworld}}
{{airlistbox}}
{{OTA}}
[[Category:American Airlines]]
[[Category:Asia Miles]]
[[Category:Airlines of the United States]]
[[Category:Fort Worth, Texas]]
[[de:American Airlines]]
[[es:American Airlines]]
[[fr:American Airlines]]
[[nl:American Airlines]]
[[ja:アメリカン航空]]
[[no:American Airlines]]
[[pl:American Airlines]]
[[pt:American Airlines]]
[[fi:American Airlines]]
[[sv:American Airlines]]
[[zh:美国航空]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antidepressant</title>
<id>2388</id>
<revision>
<id>42036550</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:28:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lifeartist</username>
<id>874856</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''antidepressant''' is a [[medication]] designed to treat or alleviate the symptoms of [[clinical depression]]. Some antidepressants, notably the [[tricyclic antidepressant|tricyclics]], are commonly used [[off-label use|off-label]] in the treatment of [[neuropathy|neuropathic pain]], whether or not the patient is depressed. Smaller doses are generally used for this purpose, and they often take effect more quickly. Many antidepressants also are used for the treatment of [[anxiety disorder]]s, and tricyclic antidepressants are used in the treatment of [[chronic pain]] disorders such as [[chronic functional abdominal pain]] (CFAP), [[myofascial pain syndrome]], and [[post-herpetic neuralgia]].
The main classes of antidepressants have similar efficacy, but the newer types are generally regarded to have a more benign side-effect profile and less risk of lethality if taken in overdose.
== History ==
Like many psychiatric drugs, antidepressants were discovered by accident. The first usefull antidepressants, belonged to a group called Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors and were discovered in the early 1950's. The original member of this group was Iproniazid. It was originally developed as a drug to treat tuberculosis. The next group were the Tricyclic antidepressants. The first was Imipramine. They were effective and safer than the MAOI but still quite dangerous in overdose. They are still used to-day but have been largely replaced by another group. This most recent group are called SSRI's, '''S'''elective '''S'''erotonin '''R'''euptake '''I'''nhibitors. The first SSRI was fluoxetine (Prozac). Drugs from all three groups have been found to improve the depressed patients' mood.
The SSRI antidepressants were early examples of [[rational drug design]].
==Classes and members==
{{Antidepressants}}
=== Classes ===
{{further|[[List of antidepressants]]}}
* [[Monoamine oxidase inhibitor]]s (MAOIs)
* [[Tricyclic antidepressant]]s
* [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]]s (SSRIs)
* [[Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor]]s (SNRIs)
* [[Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor|Norepinephrine/noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor]]s (NRIs aka NERIs/NARIs)
* [[Dopamine reuptake inhibitor]]s (DRIs)
* [[Opioids]]
* [[Selective serotonin reuptake enhancer]]s (SSREs) <!--Look up tianeptine-->
* [[Novel antidepressant]]s
* [[Tetracyclic antidepressant]]s
* [[Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor]]s
=== Prominent members ===
Well-known antidepressants are:
* [[Fluoxetine]] - of the [[SSRI]] class (Prozac, Sarafem, Fluctin, Fontex, Prodep, Fludep, Lovan)
* [[Sertraline]] - of the [[SSRI]] class (Zoloft, Lustral, Apo-Sertral, Asentra, Gladem, Serlift, Stimuloton)
* [[Venlafaxine]] - of the [[SNRI]] class (Effexor)
* [[Citalopram]] - of the [[SSRI]] class (Celexa, Cipramil, Talohexane)
* [[Paroxetine]] - of the [[SSRI]] class (Paxil, Seroxat, Aropax)
* [[Escitalopram]] - of the [[SSRI]] class (Lexapro, Cipralex)
* [[Fluvoxamine]] - of the [[SSRI]] class (Luvox, Faverin)
* [[Duloxetine]] - of the [[SNRI]] class (Cymbalta)
* [[Bupropion]] - of the [[DRI]] class (Wellbutrin, Zyban)
==Mechanism of action==
The therapeutic effects of antidepressants are believed to be related to an effect on [[neurotransmitter]]s, particularly by inhibiting the [[monoamine transporter]] proteins of [[serotonin]] and [[norepinephrine]]. [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]]s (SSRIs) specifically prevent the reuptake of serotonin (thereby increasing the level of serotonin in [[synapse|synapses]] of the [[brain]]), whereas earlier [[monoamine oxidase inhibitor]]s (MAOIs) blocked the destruction of neurotransmitters by [[enzyme]]s which normally |
nt, and each row has a 1 in the columns corresponding to that square's rank, file, and diagonals and a 0 in all the other columns. Then the ''n'' queens problem is equivalent to choosing a subset of the rows of this matrix such that every primary column has a 1 in precisely one of the chosen rows and every secondary column has a 1 in at most one of the chosen rows; this is an example of a generalized [[exact cover]] problem.
==The eight queens puzzle as an exercise in algorithm design==
Finding all solutions to the eight queens puzzle is a good example of a simple but nontrivial problem. For this reason, it is often used as an example problem for various programming techniques, including nontraditional approaches such as [[constraint programming]], [[logic programming]] or [[genetic algorithm]]s. Most often, it is used as an example of a problem which can be solved with a [[recursion|recursive]] [[algorithm]], by phrasing the ''n'' queens problem inductively in terms of adding a single queen to any solution to the ''n''&minus;1 queens problem. The [[mathematical induction|induction]] bottoms out with the solution to the 0 queens problem, which is an empty chessboard.
This technique is much more efficient than the naïve [[brute-force search]] algorithm, which considers all 64<sup>8</sup>&nbsp;=&nbsp;2<sup>48</sup>&nbsp;= 281,474,976,710,656 possible blind placements of eight queens, and then filters these to remove all placements that place two queens either on the same square (leaving only 64!/56!&nbsp;= 178,462,987,637,760 possible placements) or in mutually attacking positions. This ''very'' poor algorithm will, amongst other things, produce the same results over and over again in all the different [[permutation]]s of the assignments of the eight queens, as well as repeating the same computations over and over again for the different sub-sets of each solution. A slightly better brute-force algorithm places a single queen on each row, leading to only 8<sup>8</sup>&nbsp;=&nbsp;2<sup>24</sup>&nbsp;= 16,777,216 blind placements.
It is possible to do much better than this. For example, the [[breadth-first search]] program below examines only 15,720 possible queen placements by constructing the [[search tree]] by considering one row of the board at a time, eliminating most nonsolution board positions at a very early stage in their construction.
[[Constraint programming]] is even more effective on this problem. An 'iterative repair' algorithm typically starts with all queens on the board, for example with one queen per column. It then counts the number of conflicts (attacks), and uses an heuristic to determine how to improve the placement of the queens.
The 'minimum-conflicts' [[heuristic]]&mdash;moving the piece with the largest number of conflicts to the square in the same column where the number of conflicts is smallest&mdash;is particularly effective: it solves the 1,000,000 queen problem in less than 50 steps on average. This assumes that the initial configuration is 'reasonably good'&mdash;if a million queens all start in the same row, it will obviously take at least 999,999 steps to fix it. A 'reasonably good' starting point can for instance be found by putting each queen in its column such that it conflicts with the smallest number of queens already on the board.
Note that 'iterative repair', unlike the 'breadth-first' search outlined above, does not guarantee a solution: like all hillclimbing procedures, it may get stuck on a local optimum (in which case the algorithm may be restarted with a different initial configuration). On the other hand, it can solve problem sizes that are several orders of magnitude beyond the scope of a breadth-first search.
==A standard recursive solution==
The [[Python programming language|Python]] functions below can generate all solutions for an ''n''-queens problem, using a [[recursive]] [[breadth-first search]] combined with the hard-coded insights that :
* no two pieces can share the same row
* any solution for ''n'' queens on an ''n''&times;''m'' board must contain a solution for ''n''&minus;1 queens on an (''n''&minus;1)&times;''m'' board
* proceeding in this way will always keep the queens in order, and generate each solution only once.
# Return a list of solutions to the ''n''-queens problem on an
# ''n''-by-width board. A solved board is expressed as a list of
# column positions for queens, indexed by row.
# Rows and columns are indexed from zero.
def n_queens(n, width):
if n == 0:
return [[]] # one solution, the empty list
else:
return add_queen(n-1, width, n_queens(n-1, width))
# Try all ways of adding a queen to a column of row new_row, returning
# a list of solutions. previous_solutions must be a list of new_row-queens
# solutions.
def add_queen(new_row, width, previous_solutions):
solutions = []
for sol in previous_solutions:
# Try to place a queen on each column on row new_row.
for new_col in range(width):
# print 'trying', new_col, 'on row', new_row
if safe_queen(new_row, new_col, sol):
# No interference, so add this solution to the list.
solutions.append(sol + [new_col])
return solutions
# Is it safe to add a queen to sol at (new_row, new_col)? Return
# true if so. sol must be a solution to the new_row-queens problem.
def safe_queen(new_row, new_col, sol):
# Check against each piece on each of the new_row existing rows.
for row in range(new_row):
if (sol[row] == new_col or # same column clash
sol[row] + row == new_col + new_row or # diagonal clash
sol[row] - row == new_col - new_row): # other diagonal
return 0
return 1
for sol in n_queens(8, 8):
print sol
==A constraint logic programming solution==
The [[constraint programming|constraint logic programming]] (over finite domains) approach to this kind of problem is very efficient. The GNU [[Prolog]] program below resolved a 100 queens problem in less than a tenth of a second. It finds a [[permutation]] of the first ''n'' [[natural number|natural]]s such that the distance between any two is not the normal distance (for example, 1 is normally three away from 4).
/* Generates a list which represents a single solution
with the specified length and ensures that the list has each value
from 1 to N once and only once. */
nqueens(N,Ls) :- length(Ls,N),
fd_domain(Ls,1,N),
fd_all_different(Ls),
constraint_queens(Ls),
fd_labeling(Ls,[variable_method(random)]).
/* Ensures that all positions are valid */
constraint_queens([]).
constraint_queens([X|Xs]) :- noattack(X,Xs,1), constraint_queens(Xs).
/* Ensures that no queens share diagonals */
noattack(_,[],_).
noattack(X,[Y|Xs],N) :- X#\=Y+N, X#\=Y-N, T=N+1, noattack(X,Xs,T).
==An iterative solution==
The following [[J programming language|J]] verb
generates all solutions for an ''n''-queens problem, using an [[iteration|iterative]] approach.
queens=: 3 : 0
z=.i.n,*n=.y.
for. }.z do.
b=. -. (i.n) e."1 ,. z +"1 _ ((-i.){:$z) */ _1 0 1
z=. ((+/"1 b)#z),.(,b)#(*/$b)$i.n
end.
)
A ''k''-arrangement <tt>x</tt> has ''k'' queens on a ''k''-by-''n'' board where none of
queens attack each other. To generate all ''k+1''-arrangements leading from <tt>x</tt>,
place a queen on all the places on row ''k'' which are not on the any of the columns or
diagonals attacked by the queens in <tt>x</tt>.
The ''1''-arrangements are 0, 1, 2, ..., ''n''-1; the ''n''-arrangements are
all the solutions to the ''n''-queens problem.
For example, 0 2, 0 3, and 0 4 are valid 2-arrangements for the 8-queens problem.
The 3-arrangements leading from these are:
0 2 4
0 2 5
0 2 6
0 2 7
0 3 1
0 3 5
0 3 6
0 3 7
0 4 1
0 4 6
0 4 7
==See also==
* [[Functional programming]]
* [[Mathematical game]]
* [[Backtracking]]
==References==
* Watkins, John J. (2004). ''Across the Board: The Mathematics of Chess Problems''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11503-6.
==External links==
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/QueensProblem.html MathWorld article]
* [http://bridges.canterbury.ac.nz/features/eight.html Solutions to the 8-Queens Problem]
* [http://www.liacs.nl/home/kosters/nqueens.html Walter Koster's N-Queens Page]
* [http://www.durangobill.com/N_Queens.html Durango Bill's N-Queens Page]
* [http://kti.ms.mff.cuni.cz/~bartak/constraints/index.html On-line Guide to Constraint Programming]
===Links to solutions===
* [http://www.faust.fr.bw.schule.de/mhb/backtrack/achtdamen/eight.htm Find your own solution]
* [http://www.jsomers.com/nqueen_demo/nqueens.html J Somers N-Queen code]
* [http://www.atarimagazines.com/v3n12/Queens8.html Atari BASIC]
* [http://www.dossier-andreas.net/ai/ga.html Genetic algorithms]
* [http://www.scdi.org/%7eavernet/projects/jaskell/queens/ Haskell/Java hybrid]
* [http://www.math.utah.edu/%7Ealfeld/queens/queens.html Java]
* [http://www.dcs.ed.ac.uk/home/mlj/demos/queens/ Standard ML]
* [http://www.muljadi.org/EightQueens.htm Integer Sequences]
* [http://www.geocities.com/quirkasaurus/queens8/index.html Quirkasaurus' 8 Queens Solution]
* [http://www.obereed.net/queens/ LISP solution for N-Queens Problem]
* [http://www.geocities.com/ndjapic/OSIGKStanisic/Dame.html javascript solution for 8-Queens Problem]
[[Category:Chess problems]]
[[Category:Recreational mathematics]]
[[Category:Combinatorics]]
[[de:Damenproblem]]
[[es:Problema de las n damas]]
[[fr:Problème des huit dames]]
[[it:Rompicapo delle otto regine]]
[[ja:エイト・クイーン]]
[[sl:Problem osmih dam]]
[[sr:Проблем осам дама]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Enrico Bombieri</title>
< |
*''[[The Face of Fear]]'' (1977, as Brian Coffey)
*''[[The Vision]]'' (1977)
*''[[Night Chills]]'' (1976)
*''[[Prison of Ice]]'' (1976, as David Axton), reissued as Icebound (1995)
*''[[Dragonfly]]'' (1975, as K. R. Dwyer)
*''[[Invasion]]'' (1975, as Aaron Wolfe), reissued as Winter Moon (1994)
*''[[The Long Sleep]]'' (1975, as John Hill)
*''[[Nightmare Journey]]'' (1975)
*''[[Wall of Masks]]'' (1975, as Brian Coffey)
*''[[After the Last Race]]'' (1974)
*''[[Surrounded]]'' (1974, as Brian Coffey)
*''[[Blood Risk]]'' (1973, as Brian Coffey)
*''[[Dance with the Devil]]'' (1973, as Deanna Dwyer)
*''[[Demon Seed]]'' (1973)
*''[[Hanging On]]'' (1973)
*''[[The Haunted Earth]]'' (1973)
*''[[Shattered]]'' (1973, as K. R. Dwyer)
*''[[A Werewolf Among Us]]'' (1973)
*''[[Chase]]'' (1972, as K. R. Dwyer)
*''[[Children of the Storm]]'' (1972, as Deanna Dwyer)
*''[[The Dark of Summer]]'' (1972, as Deanna Dwyer)
*''[[A Darkness in My Soul]]'' (1972)
*''[[Demon Child]]'' (1972, as Deanna Dwyer)
*''[[The Flesh in the Furnace]]'' (1972)
*''[[Starblood]]'' (1972)
*''[[Time Thieves]]'' (1972)
*''[[Warlock!]]'' (1972)
*''[[The Crimson Witch]]'' (1971)
*''[[Legacy of Terror]]'' (1971, as Deanna Dwyer)
*''[[Anti-Man]]'' (1970)
*''[[Beastchild]]'' (1970)
*''[[Dark of the Woods]]'' (1970)
*''[[Dark Symphony]]'' (1970)
*''[[Hell's Gate]]'' (1970)
*''[[The Fall of the Dream Machine]]'' (1969)
*''[[Fear That Man]]'' (1969)
*''[[Star Quest]]'' (1968)
===Children's books===
*''Robot Santa: The Further Adventures of Santa's Twin'' ([[October 1]] [[2004]])
*''Every Day's a Holiday : Amusing Rhymes for Happy Times'' ([[October 1]] [[2003]])
*''The Paper Doorway : Funny Verse and Nothing Worse'' ([[October 1]] [[2001]])
*''Santa's Twin'' ([[November 1]] [[1996]])
*''Oddkins: A Fable for All Ages'' (1988)
===Non-fiction===
*''Christmas Is Good!: Trixie Treats And Holiday Wisdom'' w/ Trixie Koontz ([[October 31]] [[2005]])
*''Life is Good! Lessons in Joyful Living'' w/ Trixie Koontz ([[October 31]] [[2004]])
*''How To Write Best-Selling Fiction'' (1981)
*''Writing Popular Fiction'' (1972)
*''The Pig Society'' w/ Gerda Koontz (1970)
*''The Underground Lifestyles Handbook'' w/ Gerda Koontz (1970)
===Essays and introductions (incomplete)===
*Foreword to ''Love Heels: Tales from Canine Companions for Independence'' ([[October 1]] [[2003]])
*Introduction to ''Great Escapes: New Designs for Home Theaters'' by Theo Kalomirakis ([[October 15]] [[2003]])
*"Ibsen's Dream" (Reflector, 1966)
*"Of Childhood" (Reflector, 1966)
===Collections===
*''Strange Highways'' (1994, short story collection) {reissued in September 2002}
===Short fiction===
*"Black River" (1999)
*"Pinkie" (1998)
*"Trapped" (1989) {re-issued as a graphic novel in 1992}
*"Graveyard Highway" (1987)
*"Twilight of the Dawn" (1987)
*"Miss Atilla the Hun" (1987)
*"Hardshell" (1987)
*"The Interrogation" (1987)
*"The Black Pumpkin" (1986)
*"The Monitors of Providence {collaboration}" (1986)
*"Snatcher" (1986)
*"Weird World" (1986)
*"Down in the Darkness" (1986)
*"Night of the Storm" (1974) {re-issued as a graphic novel in 1976}
*"We Three" (1974)
*"The Undercity" (1973)
*"Terra Phobia" (1973)
*"Wake Up To Thunder" (1973)
*"The Sinless Child" (1973)
*"Grayworld" (1973)
*"A Mouse in the Walls of the Global Village" (1972)
*"Ollie's Hands" (1972) {revised and re-issued in 1987}
*"Altarboy" (1972)
*"Cosmic Sin" (1972)
*"The Terrible Weapon" (1972)
*"Bruno" (1971)
*"Unseen Warriors" (1970)
*"Shambolain" (1970)
*"The Crimson Witch" (1970)
*"Beastchild" (1970)
*"Emanations" (1970)
*"The Mystery of His Flesh" (1970)
*"The Good Ship Lookoutworld" (1970)
*"Nightmare Gang" (1970)
*"A Third Hand" (1970)
*"Muse" (1969)
*"The Face in His Belly" Part Two" (1969)
*"Dragon In the Land" (1969)
*"The Face in His Belly" Part One (1969)
*"Where the Beast Runs" (1969)
*"Killerbot" (1969) {revised and re-issued in 1977 as "A Season for Freedom"}
*"Temple of Sorrow" (1969)
*"In the Shield" (1969)
*"Dreambird" (1968)
*"The Twelfth Bed" (1968)
*"The Psychedelic Children" (1968)
*"To Behold the Sun" (1967)
*"Love 2005" (1967)
*"Soft Come the Dragons" (1967)
*"A Miracle is Anything" (1966)
*"Some Disputed Barricade" (1966)
*"This Fence" (1965)
*"The Kittens" (1965)
===Poetry===
====''Every Day's a Holiday: Amusing Rhymes for Happy Times'' (2003)====
*"Holiday Gifts"
*"Stop The World! It's Your Birthday!"
*"Holiday Data Glitch"
*"New Year's Eve"
*"New Year's Day"
*"Appropriate Holiday Entertainment"
*"Carnival!"
*"Gravity Day"
*"Martin Luther King, Jr. Day"
*"Snow Day"
*"Valentine's Day"
*"Abraham Lincoln's Birthday"
*"George Washington's Birthday"
*"Saint Patrick's Day"
*"The First Day of Spring"
*"Every Day's A Holiday"
*"Easter: The Danger of Improving Holiday Traditions"
*"April Fool's Day"
*"Sakura Matsuki (Cherry Blossom Festival)"
*"Dino Day"
*"Cinco de Mayo"
*"Teacher's Day"
*"Annual Animals' Day in Court"
*"Mother's Day Is Every Day, Thanks to Us"
*"Cat Day"
*"Memorial Day"
*"Things That Can Spoil a Good Holiday"
*"Father's Day"
*"The Eighteen Acceptable Excuses Not to Celebrate a Holiday"
*"Toad Day"
*"The Last Day of School, the Saddest Day of the Year"
*"Graduation Day"
*"The First Day of Summer"
*"Me Day"
*"Independence Day: Free to Be Ignorant Old Me"
*"Dog Day"
*"Friendship Day"
*"Holidays on Other Planets"
*"Labor Day"
*"Grandfather's Day"
*"Grandma's Day or Why One Day There Will Be Good Cookies on the Moon"
*"The First Day of Autumn"
*"Lost-Tooth Day"
*"Rosh Hashanah"
*"Troll Day, Whether You Like IT of Not"
*"Yom Kippur"
*"Holiday Dinner"
*"Columbus Day"
*"How to Get to Sleep Before a Holiday"
*"Mr. Halloween"
*"What Should Go into a Holiday Pie"
*"Día de los Muertos"
*"Praise the Chicken Day - or Else"
*"Diwali by Golly"
*"National Book Week: Why Paper Tigers Are the Preferred Breed"
*"Holiday, Holinight"
*"Thanksgiving Turkey Dresses in Hand-Me-Downs"
*"The First Day of Winter"
*"The Shortest Day of the Year"
*"Christmas Eve"
*"Christmas Day"
*"Up-Is-Down Day"
*"Kwanzaa"
*"Not the Stuff of Holidays"
====''The Paper Doorway: Funny Verse and Nothing Worse'' (2001)====
*"A Bad Cat"
*"A Beverage with Antlers"
*"A Cure for Ugly"
*"A Long Day of Rhyming"
*"A Short Trip"
*"A Skeleton's Hotel"
*"A Strange Day on the Farm"
*"Advice"
*"Ages of a Toad"
*"All Families Are Not the Same"
*"An Accident at the Pole"
*"An Angry Poem by a Dragon's Mother"
*"An Interesting Fact About Dogs"
*"At War with Wood"
*"Auntie"
*"Balance"
*"Baseball is Safer"
*"Being Me"
*"Better Than Money"
*"Boogeyman"
*"Cats in Spats"
*"Crime and Punishment"
*"Dangerous Music"
*"Dinner with Jilly"
*"Do Trees Sneeze?"
*"Dogs and Hogs"
*"Fashion-Plate Fido"
*"Food Psychos"
*"Frankenbunny"
*"Handyman"
*"Head Number Two"
*"Horse Thief"
*"I Don't Share"
*"If I Were a Potato"
*"Insults"
*"Listen to the Wind"
*"Lucky Skunk"
*"Mary Thinks She Wants a Puppy"
*"My Words"
*"Peace Through Hopping"
*"Peg-Leg Zeg"
*"Plurals"
*"Poem by My Dog"
*"Princess with a Tail"
*"Rain"
*"Red Hair"
*"Rocks"
*"Rumor"
*"Safe Household Accidents"
*"Sick"
*"Silly"
*"Snowland"
*"So There"
*"Stars, Mars, and Chocolate Bars"
*"The Bear with One Green Ear"
*"The Cabbage Feels No Pain"
*"The Fearful Bee"
*"The Man With Four Eyes"
*"The Monstrous Broccoli Excuse"
*"The Paper Doorway"
*"The Pig with Pride"
*"The Prettiest Butterfly I Will Ever See"
*"The Reliable Bunny"
*"The Seasons of a Toad"
*"The Shark in the Park"
*"The Threat"
*"The Wart"
*"The Woggle Wrangler"
*"The Young Musician - Or Maybe Thug"
*"Them and Us"
*"Thinking About Me"
*"Those Weird Guys in Nursery Rhymes"
*"Toast and Jam"
*"Up"
*"Wally the Werewolf"
*"What I Like"
*"What Will We Do, What Will We Do?"
*"Why Good Manners Matter"
*"Why I Find It So Hard to Learn"
*"Why Most People Prefer Cats and Dogs"
*"Why?"
*"Wishes"
*"You Get the Pickle You Ask For"
====''The Reflector'' (1965-67)====
*"The Day"
*"Growing Pains"
*"Sing A Song Of Sixpence"
*"This Fence"
*"Cel |
r/creator. The first recorded arguments for a natural designer come from [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] philosophy. The philosophical concept of the "[[Logos]]" is typically credited to [[Heraclitus]] (c. 535&ndash;c.475 [[Common era|BCE]]), a Pre-Socratic philosopher, and is briefly explained in his extant fragments.{{ref|heraclitus}} [[Plato]] (c. 427&ndash;c. 347 BCE) posited a natural "[[demiurge]]" of supreme wisdom and intelligence as the creator of the cosmos in his work ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]''. [[Aristotle]] (c. 384&ndash;322 BCE) also developed the idea of a natural creator of the cosmos, often referred to as the "[[Cosmological argument|Prime Mover]]" in his work ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]''. In his ''de Natura Deorum'' (On the Nature of the Gods) [[Cicero]] (c. 106&ndash;c. 43 BCE) stated, "The divine power is to be found in a principle of reason which pervades the whole of nature."{{ref|natura_deorum}}
The use of this line of reasoning as applied to a supernatural designer has come to be known as the [[teleological argument]] for the existence of [[God]]. The most notable forms of this argument were expressed by [[Thomas Aquinas]] in his ''[[Summa Theologiae]]''{{ref|five_ways}} (thirteenth century), design being the fifth of Aquinas' five proofs for God's existence, and [[William Paley]] in his book ''Natural Theology'' (1802), where he uses the [[watchmaker analogy]], which is still used in intelligent design arguments. In the early [[19th century]] such arguments led to the development of what was called [[Natural theology]], the study of [[biology]] as a search to understand the "mind of God". This movement fueled the passion for collecting fossils and other biological specimens that ultimately led to [[Charles Darwin|Darwin's]] theory of [[Origin of Species|the origin of species]].
Intelligent design in the late 20th century can be seen as a modern reframing of natural theology. As [[evolutionary theory]] has expanded to explain more phenomena, so the examples held up as evidence of design have changed, but the essential argument remains the same: complex systems imply a designer. In the past, examples that have been offered included the eye (optical system) and the feathered wing; current examples are mostly [[biochemical]]: protein functions, blood clotting, and bacteria flagella (see [[irreducible complexity]]).
Intelligent design deliberately does not try to identify or name the specific [[intelligent designer|agent of creation]] &ndash; it merely states that one (or more) must exist. While intelligent design itself does not name the designer, the personal view of many proponents is that the designer is the Christian god. Whether this was a genuine feature of the concept or just a posture taken to avoid alienating those who would separate religion from science-teaching has been a matter of great debate between supporters and critics of intelligent design. The [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]] court ruling held the latter to be the case.
===Origins of the term===
Though unrelated to the current use of the term, the phrase "intelligent design" can be found in an 1847 issue of ''Scientific American'', in an 1868 geography textbook{{ref|1868}}, and in an address to the 1873 annual meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] by Paleyite botanist [[George James Allman]]:
<blockquote>No physical hypothesis founded on any indisputable fact has yet explained the origin of the primordial protoplasm, and, above all, of its marvellous properties, which render evolution possible&mdash;in heredity and in adaptability, for these properties are the cause and not the effect of evolution. For the cause of this cause we have sought in vain among the physical forces which surround us, until we are at last compelled to rest upon an independent volition, a far-seeing intelligent design.{{ref|times1873}}</blockquote>
The phrase was coined again in ''Humanism'', a 1903 book by [[Ferdinand Canning Scott Schiller]]: "It will not be possible to rule out the supposition that the process of evolution may be guided by an intelligent design," and was resurrected in the early 1980s by Sir [[Fred Hoyle]] as part of his promotion of [[panspermia]].{{ref|times1982}}
The term was again resurrected when the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], in the case of [[Edwards v. Aguillard]] (1987), ruled that [[creationism]] is unconstitutional in public school science curricula. [[Stephen C. Meyer]], cofounder of the [[Discovery Institute]] and vice president of the [[Center for Science and Culture]], reports that the term came up in 1988 at a conference he attended in [[Tacoma, Washington]], called ''Sources of Information Content in DNA''.{{ref|safire2005}} He attributes the phrase to [[Charles Thaxton]], editor of ''[[Of Pandas and People]]''. In drafts of the book ''Of Pandas and People'', the word 'creationism' was subsequently changed, almost without exception to ''intelligent design''. The book was published in 1989 and is considered to be the first intelligent design book.{{ref|first_id_book}} The term was promoted more broadly by the retired legal scholar [[Phillip E. Johnson]] following his 1991 book ''[[Darwin on Trial]]'' which advocated redefining science to allow claims of supernatural creation. Johnson, considered the "father" of the [[intelligent design movement]], went on to work with Meyer, becoming the program advisor of the Center for Science and Culture in forming and executing the [[wedge strategy]].
==Concepts==
The following are summaries of key concepts of intelligent design, followed by summaries of criticisms. Counter-arguments against such criticisms are often proffered by intelligent design proponents, as are counter-counter-arguments by critics, etc.
===Irreducible complexity===
{{main article|[[Irreducible complexity]]}}
In the context of intelligent design, irreducible complexity was put forth by [[Michael Behe]], who defines it as:
<blockquote>...a single system which is composed of several well-matched interacting parts that contribute to the basic function, wherein the removal of any one of the parts causes the system to effectively cease functioning. (Behe, Molecular Machines: Experimental Support for the Design Inference) </blockquote>
Behe uses the mousetrap as an illustrative example of this concept. A mousetrap consists of several interacting pieces — the base, the catch, the spring, the hammer — all of which must be in place for the mousetrap to work. The removal of any one piece destroys the function of the mousetrap. Intelligent design advocates assert that natural selection could not create irreducibly complex systems, because the selectable function is only present when all parts are assembled. Behe's original examples of alleged{{ref|MillerIC}} irreducibly complex biological mechanisms also include the bacterial [[flagellum]] of ''[[E. coli]]'', the [[blood clotting]] cascade, [[cilia]], and the adaptive [[immune system]].
Critics point out that the irreducible complexity argument assumes that the necessary parts of a system have always been necessary, and therefore could not have been added sequentially. They argue that something which is at first merely advantageous can later become necessary, as other components change. Furthermore, they argue that evolution often proceeds by altering preexisting parts or by removing them from a system, instead of by adding them; this is sometimes referred to as the "scaffolding objection" by an analogy with scaffolding which can support a (irreducibly complex) building until it is complete and able to stand on its own.
===Specified complexity===
{{main article|[[Specified complexity]]}}
The intelligent design concept of '''specified complexity''' was developed by mathematician, philosopher, and theologian [[William Dembski]]. Dembski states that when something exhibits specified complexity (i.e., is both complex and specified, simultaneously), one can infer that it was produced by an intelligent cause (i.e., that it was designed) rather than being the result of natural processes. He provides the following examples: "A single letter of the alphabet is specified without being complex. A long sentence of random letters is complex without being specified. A [[Shakespearean]] [[sonnet]] is both complex and specified."{{ref|sc_intdes_p47}} He states that details of living things can be similarly characterized, especially the "patterns" of molecular sequences in functional biological molecules such as [[DNA]].
Dembski defines complex specified information as anything with a less than 1 in 10<sup>150</sup> chance of occurring by (natural) chance. Critics say that this renders the argument a [[tautology]]: Complex specified information (CSI) cannot occur naturally because Dembski has defined it thus, so the real question becomes whether or not CSI actually exists in nature.
The conceptual soundness of Dembski's specified complexity/CSI argument is strongly disputed by the scientific community.{{ref|time_nowak}} Specified complexity has yet to be shown to have wide applications in other fields as Dembski claims. John Wilkins and [[Wesley R. Elsberry|Wesley Elsberry]] characterize Dembski's "explanatory filter" as ''eliminative'', because it eliminates explanations sequentially: first regularity, then chance, finally defaulting to design. They argue that this procedure is flawed as a model for scientific inference because the asymmetric way it treats the different possible explanations renders it prone to making false conclusions of design.{{ref|wilkins_elsberry}}
===Fine-tuned universe===
{{main article|[[Fine-tuned universe]]}}
One of the arguments of intelligent design proponents that includes more tha |
ry that a musician has signed a deal that states his music will be sold by only one retailer. Confirmation that Brooks still has a large fan base was shown as the set sold more than 500,000 physical copies on its day of issue and it quickly topped 1 million by the first week in December (which by [[RIAA]] accounting rules for multiple albums is equal to 6 million units). Granted the boxed set was released around Christmas, as a limited-edition, and priced well below what one might expect of a six-disc collection.
In September 2005, Brooks came out of his retirement long enough to perform [[John Fogerty]]'s "Who'll Stop the Rain" with Yearwood on the ''[[Shelter from the Storm: A Concert for the Gulf Coast]]'' nationwide telethon for [[Hurricane Katrina]] relief. A new single was also issued, "Good Ride Cowboy", a tribute to his late friend, rodeo star and fellow country singer, [[Chris Ledoux]].
Later in the month Brooks performed at the [[Grand Ole Opry]]'s 80th birthday celebration. Selections included a duet with [[Steve Wariner]] on "Long Neck Bottle", another joint effort with country legends [[Bill Anderson]], [[Porter Wagoner]], and [[Little Jimmy Dickens]], and a solo guitar "The Dance", after telling the audience he hoped it was like riding a bicycle. The audience sang along with Garth, and there was a rousing long standing ovation.
On November 15, 2005, Brooks performed "Good Ride Cowboy" in front of a live audience in [[Times Square]] in New York City, as part of the 2005 [[Country Music Association]] Awards show. The audience went wild, and Garth looked like his old self. In December, the single reached #1.
In early [[2006]] Wal-mart issued "The Lost Sessions" as a single cd free from the boxed set with extra tracks, including the top 40 duet, "Love Will Always Win", with Trisha. All of the Garth Brooks studio albums were also re-issued under the umbrella "the Remastered Series".
== Controversies ==
===Used CDs===
In [[1993]], Garth Brooks, who had criticized music stores which sold used CDs since it led to a loss in royalty payments, persuaded Capitol Records not to ship his album ''In Pieces'' to stores which engaged in such practices. This led to several [[anti-trust]] lawsuits against the record label and ended with Capitol shipping the CDs to the stores after all. [http://www.planetgarth.com/gbnews/garth049.shtml] Brooks lamented that the record label had "sold out".
===Rude treatment from British media===
During Brooks' 1994 tour of the UK he made a number of general radio and television appearances.
On [[ITV]]'s regional news show ''[[London Tonight]]'', he was introduced with the words "Howdy partners, I've gone on down to Wembley Arena to interview a top-selling, rooting tooting, cotton picking, Country and Western star, yeeha!" On [[Channel 4]]'s nationwide ''[[The Big Breakfast|Big Breakfast]]'' show he was mocked by presenters [[Chris Evans]] and [[Paula Yates]], with Evans commenting, "He's selling more records than anyone in the world, but none of us have ever heard of him." Yates did an impression of a Country singer and told Brooks that, "Country singers always seem to be weeping over the dead dog and things," and also remarked, "I thought you'd come in here and twiddle your pistol around and be impressed." During this interview, Brooks seemed a little uneasy and was relieved when he was told it was over; although he remained very polite, he did mention to Yates that she clearly didn't know a thing about Country music, at least in the last 20 years. Scores of Brooks fans wrote to complain about the way he was treated by the show. Sometime after this, [[Dwight Yoakam]] appeared on the same show and after Yates told him "You seem different from other Country singers we've had on the show," Yoakam replied "What? All Two of us?"
In a radio interview with British Country disc jockey John Wellington, Brooks was quoted as saying, "Yeah I was shocked at the reaction I got from the crowd in London. From the media attention I got, I thought country music didn't exist here, but Country music is alive and well in London, as well as all of England." Unlike [[Alan Jackson]], who refused to return to the UK after being treated in a similar manner by the press, Brooks returned in 1996 for more sell out concerts, although this time his media appearances were mostly restricted to country radio and interviews with [[magazine]]s.
===Best selling solo artist?===
In 1999 the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] made an announcement that Garth Brooks was the best-selling solo artist of the 20th century in America. [http://www.riaa.com/news/newsletter/press1999/111099.asp] This conclusion drew a fair amount of disbelief and outrage from the press and music fans, who did not feel that Brooks had the stature or musical [[gravitas]] for this distinction, and who felt that surely [[Elvis Presley]] must have sold more records than Brooks. This latter point led to much discussion and criticism of how RIAA does its certifications and lifetime totals, and how those methods may well have been faulty during the period decades ago in which Presley got many of his sales. [http://www.elvisinfonet.com/elvisvsbeatlespart1.html] [http://www.biwa.ne.jp/~presley/elnews-ElvisRecordSales.htm]
In any case, Brooks, while proud of his sales accomplishments, deferred to "The King" and stated that he too believed that Presley must have sold more. <!-- darn, I saw that quote a short while ago and now I can't find it --> [[List of best selling music artists in US|More recent figures]] now suggest that this is the case, but this brought more criticism of the accuracy of the RIAA's figures, this time from Brooks' followers. Similarly, some doubt RIAA rankings which show [[Led Zeppelin]] as having outsold Brooks, as they have overtaken him on at least two occasions with very little chart action, whilst Brooks was having success with new albums.
===Absence on the pop singles charts===
While Brooks scored many number ones on the [[Billboard 200]] pop album chart, very few of his singles reached the parallel [[Billboard Hot 100]] singles chart, an odd discrepancy. The Hot 100 chart has been the subject of much criticism over the years due to the way it has been compiled, especially since it stopped using sales as its main source of information. In 2005, long after Brooks' peak success, the [[Pop 100]] was launched by Billboard in answer to these critics. Although this new chart is still criticized by some, it shows stronger placings for country songs, in addition to this, he has also had stronger placings on another Billboard pop music chart, [[Top 40 Mainstream]], since it began in the late 1990s. Still, no solo country artist has topped the Billboard singles chart since [[Kenny Rogers]] in 1981.
===Affair with Trisha Yearwood===
[[Tabloid]]s reported that Brooks was having an affair with country diva Trisha Yearwood. Garth admitted he had been cheating on his wife Sandy, and at one concert someone in the audience shouted "Go back to her, Garth!" His marriage to Sandy was soon over, however. Probably because of Garth's mother's cancer, Sandy waited to file for divorce. Soon after his mother died, divorce papers were filed.
===Support for gay rights===
There have been rumours of alleged [[homosexuality]] since early in Brooks' career.
Brooks has consistently denied them, but his public actions have only fuelled speculation. In 2000, he appeared at the [[Equality Rocks]] [[benefit concert]] for [[gay rights]]. He sang a duet with openly gay singer [[George Michael]].
In the lyrics to his song "We Shall Be Free", Brooks sings "When we're free to love anyone we choose," a reference to gay relationships. However, this is by no means any indication of a homosexual preference; the song deals with all issues of fascism, racism, and bigotry and is a song about how everyone is equal, rather than a "coming out" song. Brooks won a 1993 [[GLAAD Media Awards|GLAAD Media Award]] for the song and his subsequent comments about it, such as, "But if you're in love, you've got to follow your heart and trust that God will explain to us why we sometimes fall in love with people of the same sex." [http://gaytoday.badpuppy.com/garchive/entertain/040599en.htm]
Brooks' sister, Betsy Smittle of Tulsa, is a well-known [[lesbian]] entertainer in Tulsa. She has worked with the late country star [[Gus Hardin]] and several Tulsa musicians. Because of Brooks' gay-positive comments, and the close and heavily publicized relationship with his sister, Brooks has become one of very few country music [[gay icon]]s. (By comparison, in the pop or rock worlds, none of these stances would cause much notice.)
== Achievements ==
===Charts and sales===
* Garth Brooks is the only artist to have seven albums debut #1 on both [[The Billboard 200]] and Billboard's ''Top Country Albums'' charts: ''Ropin' the Wind'', ''The Chase'', ''In Pieces'', ''Sevens'', ''[[The Limited Series (1998 box set)|The Limited Series]]'', ''[[Double Live (Garth Brooks album)|Double Live]]'', ''Scarecrow'', in addition ''Fresh Horses'' debuted at #1 on the country chart and #2 on the pop 200.
* Capitol Records shipped 5 million copies of ''The Chase'' which, at the time, was the largest initial shipment in music history.
* ''Fresh Horses'' made history as the first album to have 8 out of 10 tracks on the country music singles charts at the same time.
* Follow-up ''Sevens'' broke his own record, with 12 out of 14 tracks on the singles charts.
* Every Rosemont Horizon (now [[Allstate Arena]]) record was broken by Garth when he sold over 140,000 concert tickets in 1997 alone.
* Garth Brooks was the first artist to debut a live album at #1 on two |
el llamado "mistela"), esto se entiende más si se recuerda que las primeras cepas de vid para vino fueron plantadas en Argentina a inicios de s XVI precísamente para cumplir con la liturgia católica.
Se ha hecho mención ya del algarrobo, con la vaina de este árbol se realizan alimentos y bebidas artesanales: una especie de pan llamado patay y una especie de cerveza llamada aloja.
Northwest Argentina es territorio en que se produces a great variety of dulces, algunos de ellos de consumo masivo en todo el país: dulce de batata y dulce de membrillo -con estos y ''queso fresco'' se realizan los postres llamados fresco y batata y [[postre vigilante]] muy comunes en casi cualquier parte de Argentina-, más restringidos al Noroeste son los arropes de chañar y de tuna, o los dulces de melaza y cayote.
Un postre simple típico del Noroeste Agentino es el quesillo de cabra con miel de abeja.
-->
===Northeast region===
The region includes the provinces of [[Corrientes Province|Corrientes]], [[Chaco Province|Chaco]], [[Misiones Province|Misiones]], [[Formosa Province|Formosa]], and most of [[Entre Ríos]], the north of [[Santa Fe Province|Santa Fe]], and the east of [[Santiago del Estero Province|Santiago del Estero]].
Four principal foods characterize the nourishing productions of this Argentine region: ''la mandioca'', rice, freshwater fish, and mate.
This area of Argentina provides ''yerba mate'' (''caá'') to the rest of the nation, and even to neighboring states. The two provinces of Corrientes and Misiones are the principal producers of ''yerba''. As the main producer of yerba mate, the mate drink is most popular in this area. In the Northeast, mate is sometimes mixed with cold fruit juices (called ''Tereré''), or even with spirits.
''Mandioca'' [[cassava]] and many dishes of Northeast Argentina are identical or very similar to those of [[Paraguay]] and of [[Santa Cruz de la Sierra]]. Common foods include varieties of homemade breads (''panes caseros''), some made with ''mandioca'' flour, and [[tapioca]]. Varieties of tapioca called ''chipá'' and ''chipaca'' spread throughout [[Southern cone]] due to internal migrations. ''Mandioca'' is also the base for the dish called ''beyú'' (also known as ''mbeyú'' or ''mvejú''). Empanadas are also made here with ''Mandioca'' flour instead of traditional wheat flour. Rice is widely available and is often used in the filling of empanadas. In the Entre Rios province it is also possible to find empanadas filled with [[milk pudding]].
The abundance of rivers, streams, and lagoons makes fish common to the northeastern diet. Among the fish commonly eaten are ''pacú'', ''dorado'', [[surubí]], ''mandiyú'', ''manguruyú'', ''patí'' and [[Leporinus obtusidens|boga]]. They can be roasted, served with rice stews or in empanadas.
''Carpincho'' ([[capybara]]) and ''[[yacaré]]'' meat were common before the arrival of the Spanish conquest, and can still be found. The ''carpincho'' is sometimes cooked by placing hot stones inside the dead animal.
Fruit production is also widespread, and fruit is a component of various desserts and beverages. The horticultural fruits are [[orange (fruit)|oranges]], [[banana]]s, [[watermelon]]s, [[avocado]]s, [[grapefruit]]s, [[tangerine]]s, and [[pineapple]]s.
[[Palm tree]]s are found in this region, and the ''palmitos'' ([[palm heart]]s) are nowadays eaten all over Argentina, usually with ''Salsa Golf'', a mix of [[ketchup]] and [[mayonnaise]].
===Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego===
This region consists of the provinces of [[Chubut Province|Chubut]], [[Neuquén Province|Neuquén]], [[Río Negro Province|Río Negro]], [[Santa Cruz Province, Argentina|Santa Cruz]], and [[Tierra del Fuego Province, Argentina|Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica and South Atlantic Islands]].
Here, one can encounter ''asados'' (roasts), ''dulce de leche'' , ''empanadas'' (except for the [[Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands]]), and the intake of infusions of ''yerba mate'' (although it often has to come from abroad).
Tallarines, Raviolis, ''ñoquis'' ([[gnocchi]]), and pizzas are also common in Southern Argentina. Unlike the rest of the country, the southern region has, like its natural production, migratory influences, and its climate, has come unique characteristics. In addition to the always present influence of [[Italy|Italian]] and [[Castillian]] flavors, one can notice the influence of Central and Northwestern Europe.
Welsh immigration, for example, since the second half of the 1960s in Chubut has introduced two large contributions to local cuisine: the [[torta negra]], and the cheese called [[Chubut]], whose consumption later sspread to the greater part of Patagonia (especially in [[Neuquén]]) and in the south of the province of Buenos Aires.
Central European immigration has spread the preparation of certain deserts and sweets (cherry, apple, raspberry, [[bilberry]], ''rosa mosqueta'', ''zarzaparrilla'' ([[sarsaparilla]]), sauces, etc.) chocolates like those of [[Bariloche]] and the practice of smoking wild boar and red deer meat.
The original peoples had made their particular contributions, such as the [[curanto]], el ñaco (a kind of porridge), breads and cakes made from flour composed of ''"nuez" de [[pehuén]]'', a candy called ''[[llao llao]]'', as well as the fruits of the [[lenga]] and [[calafate]].
The coastlines and lakes of this region have proven rich in [[fish]] and [[shellfish]], leading to extravagant preparation of [[seafood]]. It is common to find ''"patés"'', roasts and ''guisos'' of ''centolla'' ([[spider crab]]), [[squid]], ''[[giant squid]]'', [[octopus]], [[pollock]], [[salmon]], [[trout]]s, ''[[corvina]]s'', [[oyster]]s, and so forth.
The cold weather is a good "excuse" for the consumption of spirits, the Andean portion of Patagonia produces their crafted beers, and the current trends compare those found in Ireland and Central Europe. In the valleys of the Río Negro y Neuquén (ultimately going into northwest Chubut) fine white wines such as Riesling are made, being perhaps the most southern vineyards in the world.
Inevitably, there are also roasts. Characteristically, in the southern part of Argentina, besides cattle roast, there are pig roasts, goat roasts, and especially ''[[cordero|corderito patagónico]]'' lamb, [[guanaco]], ''ñandú'' ([[rhea (bird)|rhea]]), and Patagonic deer.
==Other foods and beverages==
Though we have assembled a review of the cuisine of Argentina and its principal regions, with abundant information, it would be incomplete if the article mentioned only the foods and beverages already cited.
For example, though the importance of the production and consumption of wine (''vino'') has been discussed, it is important to note that [[beer]] (''cerveza''; the Italian ''birra'' is frequently used) in the second half of the 20th century (at the least) and in the first five years of the 21st, competes with wine in popularity. Breweries appeared in Argentina at the end of the 1860s, started by Alsacian colonists; the first were almost in the downtown of Buenos Aires (''el égido de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires''), and soon Polish brewers began industrial production of beer: San Carlos in the province of Santa Fe, Río Segundo and Córdoba in the province of Córdoba, [[Quilmes]] and Lavallol on the outskirts of La Plata (a province of Buenos Aires), [[San Miguel de Tucumán]] in the province of Tucumán and on the outskirts of the cities of [[Mendoza]] and [[Salta]]. The presence of a rather important production and consumption of beer has supported the existence of related events, for example the so-called ''[[Oktoberfest]]s'' (sic) or "''Fiestas de la Cerveza''" in locations that have a significant German population ([[Villa General Belgrano]] in Córdoba, [[San Carlos, Santa Fe|San Carlos]] and [[Esperanza, Santa Fe|Esperanza]] in the province of Santa Fe, etc.). Such celebrations copy, in an Argentine manner, [[Munich]]'s ''Oktoberfest'', and similarly are tourist attractions. However, the presence of an also-numerous population of [[Celt]]ic lineage, principally of [[Ireland|Irish]] origin, has supported the creation of other celebrations of beer, often for marketing purposes, such as [[Saint Patrick's Day]] (''Día de San Patricio''), patron of Ireland, which is celebrated with abundant libations.
Although the consumption of alcoholic beverages in Argentina is perhaps less than that of the United States, and certainly much less than that of the British Isles, Scandinavia, or Central and Eastern Europe, the Argentines enjoy a variety of alcoholic beverages and Argentina can boast a varied array of ''elaboraciones'', whether industrial or artisanal. Besides beer and wine, Argentines frequently drink [[cider]] (here again, the heritage comes from Spain and Italy, more precisely from [[Asturias]] and [[Campania]]). Cider is the most popular beverage of the middle and lower economic classes at [[Christmas]] and [[New Year]] (the high classes preferring to celebrate with [[champagne (beverage)|champagne]]).
Other widely consumed spirits are ''aguardiente'' ([[firewater]]) made from sugar cane, known as ''[[caña quemada]]'' ("burnt cane") or, simply, ''caña'' ("cane"). A folkloric note about ''caña quemada'': until [[June 21]] it is traditional to drink ''caña quemada'' with ''ruda macho'' (a variant of [[common rue]]), it is supposed that this mixture prevents the [[flu]] and other illnesses. ''Caña'' competes, mainly in rural areas, with [[gin]].
There are many artisanally produced [[liqueur]]s (distilled, flavored alcoholic beverages) in Argentina, for example those flavored with ''[[peperina]]'', [[orange (fruit)|orange]], [[egg (food)|egg]], [[anise]], [[coffee]], [[cherry]] and, inevitably, ''dulce de leche''. The ''[[esperidina]]'' is a type of liqueur made from orange peels, invented in Argentina around 1890. One may also encounter ''chitronchelo'' or (in |
mentary hypothesis]] asserts that the book of Numbers was created as part of the combination by a [[Torah redactor|redactor of the Torah]] from two competing parallel works known as [[JE]] and the [[Priestly source]].
== Summary ==
=== Chapter 1 ===
God orders Moses, in the wilderness of Sinai, to take the number of those able to bear arms&mdash;of all the men "from twenty years old and upward," the tribe of Levi being excepted, and to appoint princes over each tribe. The result of the numbering is that 603,550 Israelites are found to be fit for military service. Moses is ordered to assign to the Levites exclusively the service of the [[Tabernacle]].
=== Chapter 2 ===
God prescribes the formation of the camp around the Tabernacle, each tribe being distinguished by its chosen banner. Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun encamp to the east of the Tabernacle; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad to the south; Ephraim and Manasseh to the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali to the north. The same order is to be preserved on the march.
=== Chapter 3 ===
Of Aaron's sons and of the death of Nadab and Abihu. Moses is ordered to consecrate the Levites for the service of the Tabernacle in the place of the first-born sons, who hitherto had performed that service. The Levites are divided into three families, the Gershonites, the Kohathites, and the Merarites, each under a chief, and all headed by one prince, Eleazar, son of Aaron.
=== Chapters 4-6 ===
The numbering of those Levites who are suited for the service of the Tabernacle&mdash;those from thirty to fifty years of age.
Ordinances and laws concerning lepers and other ritually unclean persons who are excluded from the camp; concerning reparation for common sins; concerning an unfaithful wife, her trial by the priest, and her atonement; concerning the Nazarite, and the ceremony performed at the expiration of his vow; the formal blessing of the people.
=== Chapters 7-9 ===
The offerings of the princes of the twelve tribes at the dedication of the altar. The lighting of the candlestick; the separation of the Levites and the ceremony of their consecration; their term of service&mdash;from twenty-five to fifty years of age. Deferred Passover sacrifices; the cloud which directed the halts and journeys of the Israelites.
=== Chapters 10-12 ===
Moses is ordered to make two silver trumpets for convoking the congregation and announcing the recommencement of a journey; the various occasions for the use of the trumpets; the first journey of the Israelites after the Tabernacle had been constructed; Moses requests Hobab to be their leader. The people murmur against God and are punished by fire; Moses complains of the stubbornness of the Israelites and is ordered to choose seventy elders to assist him in the government of the people; account of Eldad and Medad, of the shower of quails, and of the epidemic at Kibroth-hattaavah. Miriam and Aaron insult Moses at Hazeroth, and Miriam is punished with leprosy for seven days, at the end of which the Israelites proceed to the wilderness of Paran.
=== Chapters 13-14 ===
The spies are sent out into the lands and come back to report to Moses. The spies have to see how fertile the ground is, how fortified the cites are and how strong the people are. Caleb says the land is abundant and is "flowing with milk and honey." The other spies say that it is inhabited by strong and evil men, which causes the Israelites to want to return to Egypt. The Lord talks to Moses and says he will abandon the Israelites. Moses talks him out of this by saying that others would think badly of God for leading his people to the wilderness and abandoning them there. God speaks to Aaron of having to wander in the wilderness for 40 years.
=== Chapters 15-17 ===
Ordinances to be observed in Canaan; different kinds of offerings; "hallah," or the priest's share of the dough; the atonement for involuntary sins; concerning the man found gathering sticks on the Sabbath-day; the law of fringes (see Fringes); the rebellion and punishment of Korah and his 250 adherents.
Moses ordered to make plates to cover the altar with the two hundred and fifty censers left after the destruction of Korah's band. The children of Israel murmur against Moses and Aaron on account of the death of Korah's men, and are stricken with the plague, 14,700 perishing; Aaron's rod.
Note: the story of Korah is also told in the [[Qur'an]], wherin Korah is named Qarun (see: [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).
=== Chapters 18-19 ===
Aaron and his family are declared by God to be responsible for any iniquity committed in connection with the sanctuary. The Levites are again appointed to help him in the keeping of the Tabernacle. Concerning the priestly portions and the tithes given the Levites. The Levites are ordered to surrender to the priests a part of the tithes taken by them. The law of the red heifer.
=== Chapters 20-21 ===
After Miriam's death at Kadesh, the Israelites blame Moses for the lack of water. Moses, ordered by God to speak to the rock, disobeys by striking it, and is punished by the announcement that he shall not enter Canaan. The King of Edom refuses permission to the Israelites to pass through his land. Aaron's death on Mount Hor.
Defeat of King Arad the Canaanite by the Israelites. The Israelites bitten by serpents for speaking against God and Moses. The brazen serpent. The wanderings of the Israelites prior to reaching the valley of Moab. Battles with and defeat of Sihon and Og.
=== Chapters 22-24 ===
The episode of [[Balak]] and [[Balaam]].
=== Chapters 25-27 ===
The Israelites encamped at Shittim commit abominations with the daughters of Moab and join Baal-peor. A plague carries off 24,000 Israelites. Phinehas slays Zimri. The new census, taken just before the entry into the land of Canaan, gives the total number of males from twenty years and upward as 601,730, the number of the Levites from a month old and upward as 23,000. The land shall be divided by lot. The daughters of Zelophehad, their father having no sons, share in the allotment. Moses is ordered to appoint Joshua as his successor.
=== Chapters 28-29 ===
Prescriptions for the observance of the feasts, and the offerings for different occasions: every day; the Sabbath; the first day of the month; the seven days of the Feast of Unleavened Bread; the day of first-fruits; the day of the trumpets; the Day of Atonement; the seven days of the Feast of Tabernacles; the day of solemn assembly.
=== Chapters 30-32 ===
Laws concerning vows of men and of married and unmarried women. The conquest of Midian by the Israelites. The Reubenites and the Gadites request Moses to assign them the land east of the Jordan. After their promise to go before the army to help in the conquest of the land west of the Jordan, Moses grants their request. The land east of the Jordan is divided among the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh. The cities built by these tribes.
=== Chapter 33-36 ===
Enumeration of the stations at which the Israelites halted during their forty years' wanderings in the wilderness. While in the plains of Moab the Israelites are told that, after crossing the Jordan, they should expel the Canaanites and destroy their idols.
The boundaries of the land of which the Israelites are about to take possession. The land is to be divided among the tribes under the superintendence of Eleazar, Joshua, and twelve princes, one of each tribe.
The forty-eight cities assigned to the Levites, and the six cities of refuge. Laws concerning murder and the cities of refuge, and female inheritance.
==See also==
* [[Torah]]
* [[Balaam]]
* [[Priestly Blessing]]
* [[Wilderness of Sin]]
==External links==
Online versions and translations of the [[Book of Numbers]]:
*Original text:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0401.htm &#1489;&#1502;&#1491;&#1489;&#1512; ''Bamidbar'' - Numbers] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0401.htm Numbers at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
** [http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&BOOK=4&CHAPTER=1 Numbers (The Living Torah)] Rabbi [[Aryeh Kaplan]]'s translation and commentary at Ort.org
** [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=8163 Bamidbar - Numbers (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
* [[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/04_numbers.htm Numbers at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Numbers}}
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible,_King_James,_Numbers Numbers at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
* Translations identifying sources according to the [[documentary hypothesis]]:
**[[Wikisource:Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Numbers|Numbers with sources highlighted, at Wikisource]]
Related articles:
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=364&letter=N&search=Numbers Book of Numbers article] (Jewish Encyclopedia)
* [http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp?passage_id=4 Numbers from The Biblical Resource Database]
[[Category:Torah|Numbers, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Numbers]]
[[ast:Númberos]]
[[bg:Числа (Библия)]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bîn-siàu-kì]]
[[ca:Llibre dels Nombres]]
[[cs:Numeri]]
[[de:Numeri (Buch)]]
[[es:Números]]
[[eo:Nombroj]]
[[fr:Livre des Nombres]]
[[ko:민수기]]
[[id:Bilangan]]
[[he:במדבר]]
[[jv:Wilangan]]
[[li:Numeri]]
[[nl:Numeri]]
[[ja:民数記]]
[[nn:Fjerde mosebok]]
[[pl:Księga Liczb]]
[[pt:Livro dos Números]]
[[ru:Книга Числа]]
[[scn:Nùmmiri (libbru)]]
[[fi:Neljäs Mooseksen kirja]]
[[sv:Fjärde Moseboken]]
[[zh:民数记]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Judges</title>
<id>4377</id>
<revision>
<id>41977828</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T00:25:50Z</timestamp>
<co |
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'''Fluorine''' (from L. ''fluere'', meaning "to flow"), is the [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''F''' and [[atomic number]] 9. Atomic fluorine is [[univalent]] and is the most chemically reactive and [[electronegative]] of all the elements. In its pure form, it is a [[poison]]ous, pale, [[yellow]]-[[green]] gas, with chemical formula F<sub>2</sub>. Like other [[halogen]]s, molecular fluorine is highly dangerous; it causes severe chemical burns on contact with skin.
== Notable characteristics ==
Pure fluorine (F<sub>2</sub>) is a corrosive pale yellow [[gas]] that is a powerful [[oxidation|oxidizing]] agent. It is the most reactive and electronegative of all the elements, and readily forms compounds with most other elements. Fluorine even combines with the [[noble gas]]es [[krypton]], [[xenon]], and [[radon]]. Even in dark, cool conditions, fluorine reacts explosively with [[hydrogen]]. It is so reactive that [[glass]], [[metal]]s, and even [[water]], as well as other substances, burn with a bright flame in a jet of fluorine gas. It is far too reactive to be found in elemental form and has such an affinity for most elements, including [[silicon]], that it can neither be prepared nor should be kept in glass vessels. In moist air it reacts with water to form the equally dangerous [[hydrofluoric acid]].
In aqueous solution, fluorine commonly occurs as the fluoride ion F<sup>-</sup>. Other forms are fluoro-[[complex (chemistry)|complex]]es, such as [FeF<sub>4</sub>]<sup>-</sup>, or H<sub>2</sub>F<sup>+</sup>.
[[Fluoride]]s are compounds that combine fluoride with some positively charged counterpart. They often consist of [[ion]]s. Fluorine compounds with metals are among the most stable of salts.
== Applications ==
Atomic fluorine and molecular fluorine are used for [[plasma etching]] in [[semiconductor]] manufacturing, [[flat panel display]] production and [[MEMS]] fabrication.
Other uses:
* [[Hydrofluoric acid]] (chemical formula [[hydrogen|H]]F) is used to etch glass in light bulbs and other products.
* Fluorine is indirectly used in the production of low friction [[plastic]]s such as [[Teflon]], and in [[halon]]s such as [[Freon]].
* Along with some of its compounds, fluorine is used in the production of pure [[uranium]] from [[uranium hexafluoride]] and in the synthesis of numerous commercial fluorochemicals, including vitally important pharmaceuticals, agrochemical compounds, lubricants, and textiles.
* [[Hydrochlorofluorocarbon|Fluorochlorohydrocarbon]]s are used extensively in [[air conditioning]] and in [[refrigeration]]. [[Chlorofluorocarbon]]s have been banned for these applications because they contribute to the [[ozone hole]].
* [[Sulfur hexafluoride]] is an extremely inert and nontoxic gas, and a member of a class of compounds that are potent [[greenhouse gas]]es.
* Many important agents for general anaesthesia such as [[sevoflurane]], [[desflurane]], and [[isoflurane]] are [[fluorohydrocarbon]] derivatives.
* [[Sodium]] hexafluoro[[Aluminium|aluminate]] ([[cryolite]]), is used in the electrolysis of aluminium.
* [[Sodium fluoride]] has been used as an insecticide, especially against cockroaches.
* Some other [[fluoride]]s are often added to [[toothpaste]] and, somewhat controversially, to municipal water supplies to prevent dental cavities.
* Fluorides have been used in the past to help molten metal flow, hence the name.
* <sup>18</sup>F, a radioactive isotope that emits [[positron|positrons]], is often used in [[positron emission tomography]] because of its half-life of 110 minutes.
Some researchers including US space scientists in the early 1960s have studied elemental fluorine gas as a possible [[rocket fuel|rocket propellant]] due to its exceptionally high [[specific impulse]]. Experiments failed since fluorine was so hard to handle.
== History ==
Fluorine in the form of [[fluorite|fluorspar]] (also called [[fluorite]]) ([[calcium fluoride]]) was described in [[1529]] by [[Georg Agricola|Georgius Agricola]] for its use as a [[Flux (metallurgy)|flux]], which is a substance that is used to promote the fusion of [[metal]]s or [[mineral]]s. In [[1670]] [[Schwandhard]] found that glass was etched when it was exposed to [[fluorspar]] that was treated with [[acid]]. [[Karl Scheele]] and many later researchers, including [[Humphry Davy]], [[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac|Gay-Lussac]], [[Antoine Lavoisier]], and [[Louis Jacques Thenard|Louis Thenard]] all would experiment with hydrofluoric acid, easily obtained by treating calcium fluoride ([[fluorite|fluorspar]]) with concentrated sulfuric acid.
It was eventually realized that hydrofluoric acid contained a previously unknown element. This element was not isolated for many years after this due to its extreme reactivity - it is separated from its compounds only with difficulty and then it immediately attacks the remaining materials of the compound. Finally, in [[1886]], fluorine was isolated by [[Henri Moissan]] after almost 74 years of continuous effort. It was an effort which cost several researchers their health or even their lives, and for Moissan, it earned him the 1906 Nobel Prize in chemistry.
The first large scale production of fluorine was needed for the [[atomic bomb]] [[Manhattan project]] in [[World War II]] where the compound [[uranium hexafluoride]] (UF<sub>6</sub>) was used to separate the <sup>235</sup>U and <sup>238</sup>U [[isotope]]s of [[uranium]]. Today both the [[gaseous diffusion]] process and the [[gas centrifuge]] process use gaseous (UF<sub>6</sub>) to produce [[enriched uranium]] for [[nuclear power]] applications.
The derivation of elemental fluorine from hydrofluoric acid is exceptionally dangerous, killing or blinding several scientists who attempted early experiments on this halogen. These men came to be referred to as "Fluorine Martyrs."
== Precautions ==
Both fluorine and HF must be handled with great care and any contact with [[skin]] and [[eye]]s should be strictly avoided. All equipment must be [[passivation|passivated]] before exposure to fluorine.
Contact with exposed skin may result in the HF molecule rapidly migrating through the skin and flesh into the bone where it reacts with calcium permanently damaging the bone, followed by cardiac arrest brought on by sudden chemical changes within the body.
Both elemental fluorine and fluoride ions are highly toxic. When it is a free element, fluorine has a characteristic pungent odor that is detectable in concentrations as low as 20 nL/L. It is recommended that the maximum allowable concentration for a daily 8-hour time-weighted exposure is 1 µL/L ([[part per million|part per million by volume]]) (lower than, for example, [[hydrogen cyanide]]).
Fluorine is a powerful oxidizer which can cause organic material, combustibles, or other flammable materials to ignite. However, safe handling procedures enable the [[transport]] of liquid fluorine by the ton.
== Preparation ==
Elemental fluorine is prepared industrially by [[Henri Moissan|Moissan]]'s original process: electrolysis of anhydrous HF in which KHF<sub>2</sub> has been dissolved to provide enough ions for conduction to take place.
In 1986, preparing for a conference to celebrate the 100th aniversary of the discovery of fluorine, [[Karl Christe]] discovered a purely-chemical preparation by reacting together at 150 °C solutions in anhydrous HF of K<sub>2</sub>MnF<sub>6</sub> and of [[antimony pentafluoride|SbF<sub>5</sub>]]. This is not a practical synthesis, but demonstrates that electrolysis is not essential.
== Compounds ==
[[Image:Fluorite_crystals_270x444.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Fluorite (CaF<sub>2</sub>) crystals]]
Fluorine can often be substituted for [[hydrogen]] when it occurs in organic compounds. Through this mechanism, fluorine can have a very large number of [[chemical compound|compound]]s. Fluorine compounds involving noble gases were first synthesised by [[Neil Bartlett]] in [[1962]] - xenon hexafluoroplatinate, XePtF<sub>6</sub>, being the first. Fluorides of [[krypton]] and [[radon]] have also been prepared. Also argon fluorohydride has been prepared, although it is only stable at cryogenic temperatures.
This element is recovered from [[fluorite]], [[cryolite]], and [[fluorapatite]].
*[[Ammonium fluoride]] (NH<sub>4</sub>F)
*[[Antimony pentafluoride]] (SbF<sub>5</sub>)
*[[Boron trifluoride]] (BF<sub>3</sub>)
*[[Bromine pentafluoride]] (BrF<sub>5</sub>)
*[[Bromine trifluoride]] (BrF<sub>3</sub>)
*[[Caesium fluoride]] (CsF)
*[[Calcium fluoride]] (CaF<sub>2</sub>)
*[[Chlorine pentafluoride]] (ClF<sub>5</sub>)
*[[Fluorosulfuric acid]] (FSO<sub>3</sub>(H)
*[[Hydrofluoric acid]] (HF)
*[[Iodine pentafluoride]] (IF<sub>5</sub>)
*[[Iodine heptafluoride]] (IF<sub>7</sub>)
*[[Lithium fluoride]] (LiF)
*[[Nitrogen trifluoride]] (NF<sub>3</sub>)
*[[Nitrosyl fluoride]] (NOF)
*[[Nitryl fluoride]] (NO<sub>2</sub>F)
*[[Phosphorus trifluoride]] (PF<sub& |
Carl Gerold's Sohn, Vienna (1861),
* Josef Loschmidt, Chemische Studien I, Aldrich Chemical Co, Milwaukee (1989), catalog no. Z-18576-0, and (1913) catalog no. Z-18577-9
* Kathleen Lonsdale, "The Structure of the Benzene Ring in Hexamethylbenzene," ''Proceedings of the Royal Society'' 123A: 494 (1929).
* Kathleen Lonsdale, "An X-Ray Analysis of the Structure of Hexachlorobenzene, Using the Fourier Method," ''Proceedings of the Royal Society'' 133A: 536 (1931).
== External links ==
*[http://www.phc.vcu.edu/Feature/oldfeature/benzene/index.html Benzene]
*[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc00/icsc0015.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0015]
*[http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/12.html National Pollutant Inventory - Benzene]
*[http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0049.html NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]
*[http://www-cie.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/suppl7/benzene.html IARC Monograph: "Benzene"]
*{{ecb}}
*{{PubChemLink|241}}
* [http://www.hazard.com/msds/f2/bqv/bqvjq.html Benzene Material Safety Data Sheet]
* [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HEC/CSEM/benzene/ Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Benzene Toxicity]
* [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Benzene Computational Chemistry Wiki]
* [http://classes.yale.edu/chem125a/125/history99/5Valence/Couper/Couper.html Couper and Carbon bonds]
* [http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/index.cfm?objectid=0707525C-0F07-05BF-A16CAC7B0ECC97B5 Dept. of Health and Human Services: TR-289: Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Benzene]
* [http://classes.yale.edu/chem125a/125/history99/5Valence/Kekule/Kekule.html Kekule, Couper and dreams of Benzene]
* [http://www.physicstoday.org/pt/vol-54/iss-3/captions/p45cap4.html Loschmidt's Benzene structure]
* [http://www.sgipt.org/th_schul/pa/kek/pak_kek0.htm Kekulés Traum] (Kekulé's dream, in German)
[[Category:Annulenes]]
[[Category:Simple_aromatic_rings]]
[[Category:IARC Group 1 carcinogens]]
[[Category:Soil contamination]]
[[Category:Solvents]]
[[Category:Aromatic hydrocarbons]]
{{Link FA|de}}
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[[ar:بنزين (حلقة)]]
[[bg:Бензен]]
[[ca:Benzè]]
[[cs:Benzen]]
[[da:Benzen]]
[[de:Benzol]]
[[el:Βενζόλιο]]
[[es:Benceno]]
[[eo:Benzeno]]
[[fr:Benzène]]
[[gl:Benceno]]
[[ko:벤젠]]
[[id:Benzena]]
[[it:Benzene]]
[[he:בנזן]]
[[lv:Benzols]]
[[hu:Benzol]]
[[nl:Benzeen]]
[[ja:ベンゼン]]
[[no:Benzen]]
[[nn:Benzen]]
[[pl:Benzen]]
[[ru:Бензол]]
[[fi:Bentseeni]]
[[sv:Bensen]]
[[vi:Benzen]]
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[[zh:苯]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Bassoon</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FoxBassoon.jpg|thumb|A Fox Instruments bassoon. [http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/FoxBassoon.jpg view detail].]]
The '''bassoon''' is a [[woodwind instrument]] in the [[double reed]] family that plays in the [[tenor]] range and below. Also called ''fagott'', in German, and ''fagotto'', in Italian, from a word meaning "bundle of sticks" due to its construction: the instrument is made of an eight foot long conical piece of wood, doubled over onto itself, and split into several sections so it can be disassembled and stored. Appearing in its modern form in the 1800s after the model of its precursors, particularly the [[dulcian]], the bassoon is a part of orchestral, concert band, and chamber music literature. It is known for its distinctive tone color, wide range, variety of character, and agility. A bassoon player is called a "bassoonist".
==Development==
<br style="clear:both;">
===Early history===
[[Image:Praetorius_bassoons.jpg|thumb|Dulcians and [[Rackett|racketts]], from the ''Syntagma musicum'' by [[Michael Praetorius]].]]
The bassoon was developed from its precursor, most often referred to as the [[dulcian]], a wooden instrument all in one piece. Used and developed greatly in the 16th century to add a stronger bass to the wind band then consisting largely of [[shawm]]s and [[recorder]]s, the dulcian's origins are unknown. Scattered evidence exists for its creation at various places and times, and few early examples survive. There were eventually eight members of the dulcian family of varying size, from soprano down to bass ranges. The early dulcian had many similarities to the modern bassoon: though generally constructed of only a single piece of wood rather than sections, it too consisted of a conical bore that doubled back on itself at the bottom, with a curved metal crook leading from the instrument body to the reed. It was, like the modern instrument, frequently constructed of maple, with thick walls to allow finger-holes to be drilled obliquely, with its bell flared slightly at the end. However, there were only eight finger-holes and two keys.
This instrument closely resembled a bundle of sticks, giving it the name meaning such, "fagot", in 16th century Italy. (A dance also named "fagot" dates to a century earlier.) The instrument was constructed folded back on itself, as it is to this day (giving it the name in some regions "curtall", as it was shortened significantly). The English name of "bassoon" comes from a more general term referring to the bass register of any instrument, but after [[Henry Purcell]]'s call for a "bassoon" in ''Dioclesian'' (1690) referring to the wooden double reed, the word began to be used to refer to this instrument in particular.
The evolution of the early dulcian into the modern bassoon is also without precise record; the dulcian continued to be used into the 18th century (and in Spain, into the early 20th). A Dutch painting, "Der Fagottspieler", in the [[Suermondt Museum]], which scholars date to the end of the 17th century, depicts the bassoon much as it appears in its current form, and a three-keyed bassoon has been dated to 1699. It was the Dutch maker Coenraad Rijkel whose addition of the G key for the right-hand pinky just after the turn of the 18th century fixed the hand position to the current standard; previously, the instrument was able to be played with either hand on top. The early bassoon flourished in the Netherlands in the late 17th and early 18th century, with over half a dozen prominent woodwind makers developing the instrument. Today, only thirty-three bassoons from that era survive.
===Modern history===
Increasing demands on the capabilities of instruments and players in the 1800s&mdash;particularly concert halls requiring louder tones and the rise of virtuoso composer-performers&mdash;spurred on the further refinement of the bassoon. Increased sophistication both in manufacturing techniques and acoustical knowledge made possible great improvements in the playability of the instrument.
The modern bassoon exists in two distinct primary forms, the Buffet system and the Heckel system. The Buffet system is played primarily in France but also in Belgium, while the Heckel system is played in the majority of the world.
====Heckel system====
[[Image:Bassoon 1870.jpg|thumb|Heckel system bassoon from 1870]]
The design of the modern bassoon owes a great deal to the performer, teacher, and composer [[Carl Almenräder]], who, assisted by the German acoustic researcher [[Gottfried Weber]] developed the 17-key bassoon whose range spanned four octaves. Almenräder's improvements to the bassoon began with an 1823 treatise in which he described ways of improving intonation, response, and technical ease of playing by means of augmenting and rearranging the keywork; subsequent articles further developed his ideas. Working at the Schott factory gave him the means to construct and test instruments according to these new designs, the results of which were published in ''Caecilia'', Schott's house journal; Almenräder continued publishing and building instruments until his death in 1843, and [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] himself requested one of the newly-made instruments after hearing of the papers. Almenräder left Schott to start his own factory along with partner [[J.A. Heckel]] in 1831.
Heckel and two generations of descendants continued to refine the bassoon, and it is their instrument that has become the standard for other instrument makers to follow. Because of their superior singing tone quality (an improvement upon one of the main drawbacks of the Almenräder instruments), the Heckel instruments competed for prominence with the reformed Wiener system, a [[Boehm system|Boehm]]-style bassoon, and a completely-keyed instrument devised by C. J. Sax, father of [[Adolphe Sax]]. One latecomer attempt, from 1893, at a logical reformed fingering system was implemented by F.W. Kruspe, but failed to catch on. Other attempts at improving the instrument included a 24-keyed model by name in date and a single-reeded mouthpiece, but both were found to have adverse effects on the bassoon's distinctive tone and were abandoned.
Coming into the 20th century the Heckel-style German model of bassoon dominated the landscape; Heckel himself had made over 4000 instruments by the turn of the century, and the English makers' instruments were no longer desirable for the changing pitch requirements of the symphony orchestra, remaining primarily in [[military band]] use.
Today the Heckel factory remains and the Heckel bassoons are by many considered the best, Although a range of different manufacturers exist, all with different modifications to their bassoons. Companies that manufacture bassoons are (among others): Yamaha, Fox Products, Schreiber, Püchner, Signet, Kohlert, B.H. Bell and Guntram Wolf. There are also serveral smaller bassoon manufacturers that make special instruments to fit special needs.
====Buffet system====
The Buffet system bassoon |
n's Partisan War, 1775-1783'' (1996)
*McCullough, David. ''1776'' (2005).
*Mackesy, Piers. ''The War for America: 1775-1783'' (1992), British viewpoint.
*Middlekauff, Robert. ''The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789'' (1984)]
*Miller, John C. ''Triumph of Freedom, 1775-1783'' (1948)
*Schecter, Barnet. [http://www.thebattlefornewyork.com/''The Battle for New York - The City at the Heart of the American Revolution''] (2002) - The largest military venture of the entire war, and the British albatross
*Thayer, Theodore. ''Nathanael Greene: Strategist of the American Revolution'' (1960)
*Unger. Harlow Giles. ''Lafayette'' (2002)
*Valentine; Alan. ''Lord George Germain'' (1962), the British War Minister
*Ward, Christopher. ''The War of the Revolution'' (2 vol 1952), battle history
*Weintraub, Stanley. ''Iron Tears: America's Battle for Freedom, Britain's Quagmire: 1775-1783'' (2005).
==External links==
*[http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/american%20revolution/american%20revolution%20index.htm Battlefield atlas of the American Revolution] West Point Atlas
*[http://members.aol.com/_ht_a/historiography/saratoga.html Histories of the Battle of Saratoga, 1777]
*[http://users.snowcrest.net/jmike/amrevmil.html American Revolutionary War History Resources]
*[http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/reference/revbib/revwar.htm Entry to US Army Center for Military History, a huge bibliography]
*[http://www.americanrevolution.org/hispanic.html Spain's role in the American Revolution from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean]
*[http://www.americanrevolution.com/AfricanAmericansInTheRevolution.htm African-American soldiers in the Revolution]
*[http://www.besthistorysites.net/USHistory_Independence.shtml American Revolution & Independence]
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[[es:Guerra de la Independencia de los Estados Unidos]]
[[fi:Yhdysvaltain vapaussota]]
[[fr:Guerre d'indépendance des États-Unis d'Amérique]]
[[ga:Cogadh Réabhlóideach Mheiriceá]]
[[he:מלחמת העצמאות של ארצות הברית]]
[[id:Perang Revolusi Amerika]]
[[is:Bandaríska frelsisstríðið]]
[[it:Guerra di indipendenza americana]]
[[ja:アメリカ独立戦争]]
[[ko:미국 독립전쟁]]
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<page>
<title>Ampere</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the different meanings of [[Ampère]], see the disambiguation page.''
----
The '''ampere''' (symbol: A) is the [[SI base unit]] of [[electric current]] equal to one [[coulomb]] per second. It is named after [[André-Marie Ampère]], one of the main discoverers of [[electromagnetism]].
==Definition==
The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 [[metre]] apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2{{e|–7}} [[newton]] per metre of length.
==Explanation==
Because it is a base unit, the definition of the ampere is not tied to any other electrical unit. The definition for the ampere is equivalent to fixing a value of the [[Permeability (electromagnetism)|permeability]] of vacuum to ''&mu;''<sub>0</sub> = 4&pi;{{e|&minus;7}} H/m. Prior to 1948, the so-called "international ampere" was used, defined in terms of the [[electrolysis|electrolytic]] deposition rate of [[silver]]. The older unit is equal to 0.999&nbsp;85&nbsp;A.
The ampere is most accurately realised using an [[ampere balance]], but is in practice maintained via [[Ohm's Law]] from the units of [[voltage]] and [[electrical resistance|resistance]], the [[volt]] and the [[ohm]], since the latter two can be tied to physical phenomena that are relatively easy to reproduce, the [[Josephson junction]] and the [[quantum Hall effect]], respectively.
The unit of [[electric charge]], the [[coulomb]], is defined in terms of the ampere: one coulomb is the amount of electric charge (formerly [[quantity of electricity]]) carried in a current of one ampere flowing for one [[second]]. [[Current (electricity)]], then, is the rate at which charge flows through a wire or surface. One ampere of current (I) is equal to a flow of one [[coulomb]] of charge (Q) per second of time (t):
:<math>\mathrm{I=Q/t} \,</math>
Since a coulomb is approximately equal to 6.24{{e|18}} elementary charges, one ampere is equivalent to 6.24{{e|18}} elementary charges, such as [[electron]]s, moving through a surface in one second. More precisely, using the SI definitions for the conventional values of the [[Josephson constant|Josephson]] and [[von Klitzing constant|von Klitzing]] constants, the ampere can be defined as exactly 6.241&nbsp;509&nbsp;629&nbsp;152&nbsp;65{{e|18}} elementary charges per second.
==See also==
*[[SI]]
*[[Ohm's Law]]
*[[Electric shock]]
==External links==
*[http://alpha.montclair.edu/~kowalskiL/SI/SI_PAGE.HTML A short history of the SI units in electricity]
[[Category:SI base units]]
[[Category:Units of electrical current]]
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<page>
<title>Glossary of American football</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
The following terms are used in [[American football]] and [[Canadian football]]. See also: [[wiktionary:Category:Football (American)]]
==See also==
*[[American football|Football]]
*[[Football strategy]]
{{compactTOC2}}
==0–9==
;''n''-''m'' defense:a defense with ''n'' down linemen and ''m'' linebackers, such as:
:;3-3: a defense with 3 lineman, 3 linebackers, and 5 defensive backs. Often called a '''3-3 stack.'''
:;3-4 defense:a [[defensive team | defensive]] formation with 3 [[lineman (football)|linemen]] and 4 linebackers. A professional derivative in the 1970's of the earlier [[University of Oklahoma|Oklahoma]] or '''"50" defense''', which had 5 linemen and 2 linebackers. The 3-4 outside linebackers resemble "stand-up ends" in the older defense.
:;4-3 defense:a defensive formation with 4 linemen and 3 linebackers. Several variations are employed. First used by coach [[Joe Kuharich]].
:;4-6 defense :(pronounced ''four-six defense'') a defense with four (4) down linemen and six (6) linebackers
;[[46 defense]] :(pronounced ''forty-six defense'') a formation of the 4-3 defense (four linemen and three linebackers) in which three defensive backs (the two cornerbacks and the strong safety) crowd the line of scrimmage. The remaining safety, which is the free safety, stays in the backfield. It is also known as the "Bear" defense because it was popularized by [[Buddy Ryan]] while coaching for the [[Chicago Bears]]. Not to be confused with the 4-6 (four-six) defense.
;50 defense :a once popular college defense with 5 defensive linemen and 2 linebackers.
==A==
;audible: (from [[Latin]] ''aud&#299;re'' = to hear, to listen to) a play called by the quarterback at the line of scrimmage to change the play that was called in the huddle.
;automatic :see [[#A|audible]]
;automatic first down: for several of the most severe penalties, including '''pass interference''' and all personal fouls, a first down is rewarded to the offensive team even if the yardage of that penalty is less than the yardage needed for a first down.
==B==
;back :A [[American and Canadian football position names|position]] behind the offensive line, or behind the linebackers on defense.
;[[blitz (American football)|blitz]] :a defensive maneuver in which one or more linebackers or defensive backs, who normally remain behind the line of scrimmage, instead charge into the opponents' backfield. However, in the 3-4 defense, one linebacker typically rushes the passer with the three down linemen. This is not considered a blitz. If an additional linebacker is sent, bringing the total number of rushers to five, it is a blitz.
;[[blocking (American football)|blocking]] :when a player obstructs another player's path with his body.
;[[bootleg play|bootleg]] :an offensive play predicated upon misdirection in which the quarterback pretends to hand the ball to another player, and then carries the ball in the opposite direction of the supposed ballcarrier with the intent of either passing or running (sometimes the quarterback has the option of doing either). A '''naked bootleg''' is a risky variation of this play when the quarterback has no blockers pulling out with him. Contrast with '''scramble''', '''sneak''', and '''draw'''
;the box :an area on the defensive side of the ball, directly opposite the offensive linemen and about 5 yards deep; having 8 p |
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<page>
<title>Gambling</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about wagering. For other senses of the word 'gamble', see [[gamble (disambiguation)]].''
Gambling has had many different meanings depending on the cultural and historical context in which it is used. Currently, in western society, it generally has an economic definition and meaning and typically refers to "wagering money or something of material value on something with an uncertain outcome in hope of winning additional money or material goods". Furthermore:
*the outcome of the wager is typically evident within a short period of time
*the primary intent of the bet is to win additional money or material goods
This definition of gambling usually excludes:
*emotional or physical risk-taking where what is being risked is not money or material goods (e.g., skydiving, running for office, asking someone for a date, etc.)
*buying insurance, as the primary intent of the purchase is to protect against loss, rather than to collect or win
*all forms of long-term 'investment' (stock market, real estate) with positive expected returns and economic utility
*starting a new business, as time and effort are also being wagered and the outcome is not determined in a short period of time
*situations where the possibility of winning additional money or material goods is a secondary or incidental reason for the wager/purchase (e.g., buying a raffle ticket to support a worthy cause)
Gambling varies on four dimensions:
# What is being wagered (money or material goods).
# How much is being wagered.
# The predictability of the event. For some things such as lotteries, slot machines and bingo, the results are random and unpredictable. No skill or system will give you any advantage. For other things such as sports betting and horse racing there is some predictability to the outcome. In this situation greater knowledge and skill gives a person an advantage over other bettors.
# The 'expected value', the positive or negative mathematical expectation.
==Legal aspects==
Because religious authorities generally frown on gambling to some extent, and because of various perceived [[social cost]]s, most legal jurisdictions censure gambling to some extent. Islamic nations officially prohibit gambling; most other countries [[regulation | regulate]] it. In particular, in the majority of circumstances - and perhaps all cases - the law does not recognise wagers as [[contract]]s, and views any consequent losses as ''debts of honour'', unenforceable by [[legal process]]. Thus [[organized crime]] often takes over the enforcement of large gambling debts, sometimes using violent methods.
Because contracts of [[insurance]] have many features in common with wagers, legislation generally makes a distinction, typically defining any agreement in which either one of the parties has an interest in the outcome bet upon, beyond the specific financial terms, as a contract of insurance. Thus a bet on whether one's house will burn down becomes a contract of insurance, as one has an independent interest in the security of one's home.
Furthermore, many jurisdictions, local as well as national, either ban or heavily control (''license'') gambling. Such regulation generally leads to [[Tourism#Special_forms_of_tourism|gambling tourism]] and illegal gambling - the latter often under the auspices of [[organized crime]]. Such involvement frequently brings the activity under even more severe moral censure and leads to calls for greater regulation. Conversely, the close involvement of governments (through regulation and gambling taxation) has led to a close connection between many governments and gambling organisations, where legal gambling provides much government revenue. Note [[Monaco]].
There is generally legislation requesting that the odds in gambling machines are fair (i.e. [[statistical randomness|statistically random]]), to prevent manufacturers from making some high-payoff results impossible (since these have very low probability, this can quite easily pass unnoticed).
==Psychological aspects==
Though many participate in gambling as a form of [[recreation]] or even as a means to gain an income, gambling, like any behavior which involves variation in [[neurochemistry|brain chemistry]], can become a [[psychologically addictive]] and harmful behavior in some people. [[Reinforcement]] phenomena may also make gamblers persist in gambling even after repeated losses. Because of the negative connotations of the word "gambling", [[casino]]s and [[race track]]s often use the [[euphemism]] "[[gaming]]" to describe the recreational gambling activities they offer.
The Russian writer [[Fyodor Dostoevsky|Dostoevsky]] portrays in his short story ''[[The Gambler (novella)|The Gambler]]'' the psychological implications of gambling and how gambling can affect gamblers. He also associates gambling and the idea of "[[get rich quick|getting rich quick]]", suggesting that Russians may have a particular affinity for gambling. Dostoevsky shows the effect of betting money for the chance of gaining more in 19th-century Europe. The association between Russians and gambling has fed legends of the origins of [[Russian roulette]].
===Help for addictive gamblers===
Many organizations exist to help individuals with a gambling [[addiction]]. They include [[Gamblers Anonymous]] and [http://www.ghsouthern.org.au Gambler's Help](Australia).
==Types of gambling==
===Casino games===
===="Beatable" casino games====
With proper strategy, a smart player can create a positive mathematical expectation.
*[[Poker]] (Also recognised as a [[game of skill]])
*[[Blackjack]] -- with [[card counting]]
*[[Video poker]] -- with proper [[pay table]] and/or [[progressive jackpot]]
*[[Pai_gow_poker|Pai Gow Poker]] and [[Pai Gow|Tiles]] -- player-dealt
*[[Sports betting]]
*[[Horse racing]] ([[parimutuel]])
*[[Slot machine]]s -- only linked, multi-player jackpots whose prizes have reached a certain point
===="Unbeatable" casino games====
These have a negative expectation, players as a group will lose in the long run (unless they cheat).
*[[Baccarat]]
*[[Craps]]
*[[Roulette]] (unless physical prediction is used)
*[[Keno]]
*[[Casino war]]
*[[Faro (card-game)|Faro]] (All but extinct)
*[[Pachinko]]
*[[Sic bo|Sic Bo]]
*[[Let it ride|Let It Ride]]
*[[3-card Poker]]
*[[4-card poker]]
*[[Red dog|Red Dog]]
*[[Pyramid Poker]]
*[[Caribbean Stud Poker]]
*[[Spanish 21]] -- without counting
*[[Texas Hold'em Bonus Poker]]
===Non-casino gambling games===
''Some of these are played recreationally without stakes''
*[[Lottery]]
*[[Mahjong]]
*[[Fan-Tan]]
*Dice-based
**[[Backgammon]]
**[[Liar's dice]]
**[[Passe-dix]]
**[[Hazard (game)|Hazard]]
**[[Threes]]
**[[Pig (dice)| Pig]]
**[[Mexico (game) | Mexico]]
*[[Card game]]s
**[[Liars poker|Liar's poker]]
**[[Bridge game|Bridge]]
**[[Basset]]
**[[Lansquenet]]
**[[Piquet]]
**[[Put option|Put]]
*[[Coin]]-tossing
**[[Head and Tail]]
**[[Two-up]] (Australian casinos offer versions of two-up)
*[[Confidence trick]]s
**[[Three card monte]]
**The [[shell game]]
*[[Carnival Games]]
**The [[Razzle (game)|Razzle]]
**[[Hanky Pank]]
**[[Penny Falls]]
**[[Six-Cat]]
**[[The Swinger]]
**The [[Push-up Bottle]]
**The [[Nail Joint]]
*Con Games (in bars)
**[[Put and Take]]
**[[The Smack]]
**The [[Drunken Mitt]]
===Fixed-odds gambling===
[[Fixed-odds gambling]] and [[Parimutuel betting]] frequently occur at or on the following kinds of events:
*[[Horse-racing|Horse racing]] (see below)
*[[Greyhound racing]]
*[[Jai alai]]
*[[Football games |Football]] matches (particularly on [[Soccer|Association]] and [[American football]])
*[[Golf]]
*[[Tennis]]
*[[Cricket]]
*[[Baseball]]
*[[Basketball]]
*[[Ice hockey]]
*[[Rugby football|Rugby]] (League and Union)
*[[Snooker]]
*[[Motor Racing]]
*[[Boxing]]
*[[Darts]]
In addition many [[bookmaker]]s offer fixed odds on a number of non-sports related outcomes, for example the direction and extent of movement of various [[stock market index | financial indices]], whether [[snow]] will fall on [[Christmas Day]] in a given area, the winner of [[television]] competitions such as ''[[Big Brother television program|Big Brother]]'', election results [http://www.abc.net.au/am/content/2004/s1229517.htm] , and so forth. Interactive [[prediction market]]s also offer trading on these outcomes, with "shares" of results trading on an open market.
See ''Sports betting'' below.
===Gambling on horse races===
One of the most widespread forms of gambling involves betting on [[horse racing | horse race]]s, most commonly on races between [[thoroughbred horse|thoroughbred]]s or between [[standardbred horse|standardbred]]s.
Wagering may take place through [[parimutuel betting|parimutuel]] pools; or [[bookmaker]]s may take bets personally. Parimutuel wagers pay off at prices determined by support in the wagering pools, while bookmakers pay off either at the odds offered at the time of accepting the bet; or at t |
gorithm that could solve any statement about natural numbers, it could certainly solve this one; but that would determine whether the original program halts, which is impossible, since the halting problem is undecidable.
Yet another, quite amazing, consequence of the undecidability of the halting problem is [[Rice's theorem]] which states that the truth of ''any'' non-trivial statement about the function that is defined by an algorithm is undecidable. So, for example, the decision problem "will this algorithm halt for the input 0" is already undecidable. Note that this theorem holds for the ''function defined by the algorithm'' and not the algorithm itself. It is, for example, quite possible to decide if an algorithm will halt within 100 steps, but this is not a statement about the function that is defined by the algorithm.
[[Gregory Chaitin]] has given an undecidable problem in [[algorithmic information theory]] which does not depend on the halting problem. Chaitin also gave the intriguing definition of the [[halting probability]] which represents the [[probability]] that a randomly produced program halts.
While Turing's proof shows that there can be no general method or algorithm to determine whether algorithms halt, individual instances of that problem may very well be susceptible to attack. Given a specific algorithm, one can often show that it must halt for any input, and in fact [[computer scientist]]s often do just that as part of a [[correctness proof]]. But every such proof requires new arguments: there is no ''mechanical, general way'' to determine whether algorithms on a Turing machine halt. However, there are some [[Heuristic (computer science)|heuristics]] that can be used in an automated fashion to attempt to construct a proof, which succeed frequently on typical programs. This field of research is known as automated [[termination analysis]].
There is another caveat. The undecidability of the halting problem relies on the fact that algorithms are assumed to have potentially infinite storage: at any one time they can only store finitely many things, but they can always store more and they never run out of memory. However, computers that actually exist are not equivalent to a Turing machine but instead to a [[linear bounded automaton]], as their memory and external storage of a machine is limited. In this case, the halting problem for programs running on that machine can be solved with a very simple general algorithm (albeit one that is so inefficient that it could never be useful in practice). It involves running the program and trying to find a cycle over the states of the machine's memory.
Turing's introduction of the machine model that has become known as the Turing machine, introduced in the paper, has proved a convenient model for much [[theoretical computer science]] since.
==Sketch of proof==
The proof proceeds by [[reductio ad absurdum]]. Start by choosing a programming language, a scheme that associates every program with at least one string description. Now suppose that someone claims to have found an algorithm <code>halt(a, i)</code> that returns <code>'''true'''</code> if ''a'' describes a program that halts when given as input the string ''i'', and returns <code>'''false'''</code> otherwise. Construct another program <code>trouble</code> that uses <code>halt</code> as a subroutine:
'''function''' trouble(''string'' s)
'''if''' halt(s, s)&nbsp;==&nbsp;'''false'''
'''return true'''
'''else'''
loop forever
This program takes a string ''s'' as its argument and runs the algorithm <code>halt</code>, giving it ''s'' both as the description of the program to check and as the initial data to feed to that program. If <code>halt</code> returns <code>'''false'''</code>, then <code>trouble</code> returns '''true''', otherwise <code>trouble</code> goes into an infinite loop. Since all programs can be represented by strings, there is a string ''t'' that represents the program <code>trouble</code>. Does <code>trouble(t)</code> halt?
Consider both cases:
# If <code>trouble(t)</code> halts, it must be because <code>halt(t, t)</code> returned <code>'''false'''</code>, but that would mean that <code>trouble(t)</code> should not have halted.
# If <code>trouble(t)</code> runs forever, it is either because <code>halt</code> itself runs forever, or because it returned <code>'''true'''</code>. This would mean either that <code>halt</code> does not work for every valid input, or that <code>trouble(t)</code> should have halted.
Either case concludes that <code>halt</code> did not give a correct answer, contrary to the original claim. Since the same reasoning applies to ''any'' program that someone might offer as a solution to the halting problem, there can be no solution.
This classic proof is typically referred to as the '''diagonalization proof''', so called because if one imagines a grid containing all the values of <code>halt(a, i)</code>, with every possible ''a'' value given its own row, and every possible ''i'' value given its own column, then the values of <code>halt(s, s)</code> are arranged along the main diagonal of this grid. The proof can be framed in the form of the question: what row of the grid corresponds to the string ''t''? The answer is that the <code>trouble</code> function is devised such that <code>halt(t, i)</code> differs from every row in the grid in at least one position: namely, the main diagonal, where ''t''=''i''. This contradicts the requirement that the grid contains a row for every possible ''a'' value, and therefore constitutes a [[reductio ad absurdum|proof by contradiction]] that the halting problem is undecidable.
==Common pitfalls==
Many students, upon analyzing the above proof, ask whether there might be an algorithm that can return a third option for some programs, such as "undecidable" or "would lead to a contradiction." This reflects a misunderstanding of decidability. It is easy to construct one algorithm that always answers "halts" and another that always answers "doesn't halt." For any ''specific'' program and input, one of these two algorithms answers correctly, even though nobody may know which one. The difficulty of the halting problem lies not in particular programs, but in the requirement that a solution must work for all programs.
It is worth noting that the halting problem is decidable for deterministic machines with finite memory. A machine with finite memory has a finite number of states, and thus any deterministic program on it must eventually either halt or repeat a previous state. Repetition of a previous state indicates a loop, so a program that repeats a previous state is thus known to not halt.
==Formalization of the halting problem==
In his original proof Turing formalized the concept of ''algorithm'' by introducing [[Turing machine]]s. However, the result is in no way specific to them; it applies equally to any other model of [[computation]] that is equivalent in its computational power to Turing machines, such as [[Markov algorithm]]s, [[Lambda calculus]], [[Post system]]s or [[register machine]]s.
What is important is that the formalization allows a straightforward [[mapping]] of algorithms to some [[data type]] that the [[algorithm]] can operate upon. For example, if the [[formalism]] lets algorithms define functions over strings (such as Turing machines) then there should be a mapping of these algorithms to strings, and if the formalism lets algorithms define functions over natural numbers (such as [[recursive function]]s) then there should be a mapping of algorithms to natural numbers. The mapping to strings is usually the most straightforward, but strings over an [[alphabet]] with ''n'' [[character (computing)|characters]] can also be mapped to numbers by interpreting them as numbers in an ''n''-ary [[numeral system]].
==Relationship with Gödel's incompleteness theorem==
The [[concept]]s raised by [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]]s are very similar to those raised by the halting problem, and the proofs are quite similar. In fact, a weaker form of the First Incompleteness Theorem is an easy consequence of the undecidability of the halting problem. This weaker form differs from the standard statement of the incompleteness theorem by asserting that a complete, consistent and ''sound'' [[axiomatization]] of all statements about natural numbers is unachievable. The "sound" part is the weakening: it means that we require the axiomatic system in question to prove only ''true'' statements about natural numbers (it's very important to observe that the statement of the standard form of Gödel's First Incompleteness Theorem is completely unconcerned with the question of truth, but only concerns the issue of whether it can be [[mathematical proof|proven]]).
The weaker form of the theorem can be proved from the undecidability of the halting problem as follows. Assume that we have a consistent and complete [[axiomatization]] of all true [[first-order logic]] statements about [[natural number]]s. Then we can build an algorithm that enumerates all these statements. This means that there is an algorithm ''N''(''n'') that, given a natural number ''n'', computes a true first-order logic statement about natural numbers such that, for all the true statements, there is at least one ''n'' such that ''N''(''n'') yields that statement. Now suppose we want to decide if the algorithm with representation ''a'' halts on input ''i''. We know that this statement can be expressed with a first-order logic statement, say ''H''(''a'', ''i''). |
rotect souls as they journeyed there, and thus be the patron of [[lost soul]]s (and consequently [[orphan]]s). Rather than god of death, he had become god of dying, and consequently funeral arrangements. It was as the god of dying that his identity merged with that of [[Wepwawet]], a similar jackal-headed god, associated with funerary practice, who had been worshipped in [[Upper Egypt]], whereas Anubis' cult had centred in [[Lower Egypt]].
As one of the most important funerary rites in Egypt involved the process of [[embalming]], so it was that Anubis became the god of embalming, in the process gaining titles such as ''He who belongs to the mummy wrappings'', and ''He who is before the divine [embalming] [[booth]]''. High priests often wore the Anubis mask to perform the ceremonial deeds of embalming. It also became said, frequently in the [[Book of the dead]], that it had been Anubis who embalmed the dead body of Osiris, with the assistance of the other main funerary deities involved - Nepthys, and Isis. Having become god of embalming, Anubis became strongly associated with the (currently) mysterious and ancient [[imiut fetish]], present during funerary rites, and [[Bast (goddess)|Bast]], who by this time was goddess of ointment, initially became thought of as his mother.
However, as lesser of the two gods of the underworld, he gradually became considered the son of Osiris, but Osiris' wife, Isis, was not considered his mother, since she too inappropriately was associated with life. Instead, his mother became considered to be [[Nepthys]], who had become strongly associated with funerary practice, indeed had in some ways become the personification of [[mourning]], and was said to supply bandages to the deceased. Subsequently, this apparent infidelity of Osiris was explained in myth, in which it was said that a [[Sexual frustration|sexually frustrated]] Nepthys had disguised herself as Isis in order to appeal to her husband, Set, but he did not notice her as he was [[gay]] and [[infertility|infertile]], whereas Isis' husband Osiris did, mistaking her for his wife, which resulted in Anubis' birth. Some more [[homophobia|homophobic]] versions of the myth depict Set as the father.
In later times, during the [[Ptolemy|Ptolemaic]] period, as their functions were similar, Anubis was identified as the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] god [[Hermes]], becoming [[Hermanubis]]. The centre of this [[cult]] was in ''uten-ha''/''Sa-ka''/[[Cynopolis]], a place whose Greek name simply means ''city of dogs''. In Book xi of ''[[The Golden Ass]]'' by [[Apuleius]], we find evidence that the worship of this god was maintained in Rome at least up to the 2nd century. Indeed, Hermanubis also appears in the [[alchemy|alchemical]] and [[Hermeticism|hermetical]] literature of the [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Renaissance]].
==Anubis in modern culture==
[[Image:Anubis sculpture.jpg|thumb|Anubis sculpture]]
* [[Anubis (Stargate)|Anubis]] appears in the TV show ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'' as a hostile [[Goa'uld]].
* Anubis is featured in the movies ''The Mummy,[[The Mummy Returns]]'' and ''[[The Scorpion King]]''.
* Anubis appears as 'Jaquel', co-running a funeral parlor in [[Neil Gaiman]]'s [[novel]] ''[[American Gods]]''.
* ''Anubis: Jackal God Of Death'' is the name of a 1997 album by [[Ganesha (band)]].
* Anubis appears in an episode of the animated TV series ''[[Gargoyles (animated series)|Gargoyles]]''.
* Anubis is the focus of a series of [[erotica|erotic]] [[furry]] [[comic book]]s produced by [[Radio Comix]].
* Anubis is worshipped by certain groups of [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]]
* Anubis is the name of a Greek publishing house (www.anubis.gr).
* Anubis is a primary character in [[Stephen King]]'s made-for-TV adaptation of [[Lars von Trier]]'s series ''[[Kingdom Hospital]]''.
* The Pokémon named [[Lucario]] is visually based on the image of Anubis.
* The fictional ship S.S. Anubis appears in ''[[Jet Force Gemini]]''.
* Anubismon is a [[Digimon]] in the [[Digimon]] [[collectible card game]] based on Anubis.
* Anubis is a character in [[Yu-Gi-Oh! The Movie]]. In that movie he was depicted as an evil entity wanting to take over the world, and he had the [[Pyramid of Light]], one of the [[Millennium Items]]. He is also depicted on various cards in the ''[[Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game]]''.
* Anubis appears in several computer games such as [[War Gods]], [[Zone of the Enders]], [[Broken Sword]] 3 and [[Gex (video game series)|Gex 3]].
* Anubis is the name of a space ship that appears in the [[Microsoft]] PC game [[Freelancer]]. The Anubis is a heavy fighter type available late in the game from the Order. It is often remarked to be the cheapest heavy fighter in the game at 1,100 credits.
* Anubis is the main character of [[Unreal Championship 2]], and is a high-ranking member of the Desert Legion. He enters the Liandri-hosted Ascension Rites to stop [[Selket]]'s plan.
* Anubis, together with [[Bastet]], was the main [[villain]] of the "[[Nikopol trilogy]]" of [[graphic novel]]s by cartoonist [[Enki Bilal]].
* A [[Petpet]] on the [[virtual pet]] website [[Neopets]] is called the Anubis, and resembles a small version of the god.
* [[Chief Anubis "Doggie" Cruger|Anubis Cruger]], a.k.a. Doggie Cruger, is a dog-like blue humanoid alien, commander of [[Power Rangers SPD]] and the Shadow Ranger.
* Doggy Kruger, stuffed counterpart of the previous one in [[Tokusou Sentai Dekaranger]], serves as commander and fights as Dekamaster.
* Anubis is the name of a battlechip in the Mega Man Battle Network Series.
* In Mega Man Zero series, there is a jackal reploid boss called Anubistepp Necromancess who comes in various versions.
*Anubis appears in the cartoon [[Tutenstein]]
*Anubis is the name of a villain who turns good in the anime series Ronin Warriors
*Anubis is one of the possible minor gods to worship in the Age of Mythology PC games
*Many forms of Anubis are included in [[World Of Warcraft]]'s 1.9 patch called [[Ahn'Qiraj]]. Two Anubises guard each part of Ahn'Qiraj invasion found across [[Warcraft Universe]]
==External links==
*Some information in this article was taken from the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism website at http://www.touregypt.net/ANUBIS.htm
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<page>
<title>Arthur Jenson</title>
<id>3028</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arthur Jensen]]
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<page>
<title>Arthur Jensen</title>
<id>3029</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-18T10:51:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sicherlich</username>
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<comment>removed [[da:Arthur Jensen]] .. wrong person</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Jensen2.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Arthur Jensen]]
'''Arthur Jensen''' is a prominent [[UC Berkeley]] supergrade professor emeritus of [[educational psychology]], known for his work in [[psychometrics]] and [[differential psychology]], which is concerned with how and why individuals differ behaviorally from one another. Jensen is a leading authority on [[IQ]], and his work on testing bias is canonical. He is a major proponent of the [[hereditarianism|hereditarian]] position in the [[nature versus nurture]] debate, the position that concludes [[genetics]] play a significant role in behavioral traits, such as [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] and personality traits. He is the author of over 400 scientific papers published in refereed journals.[http://www.isteve.com/jensen.htm]
Jensen was born [[August 24]], [[1923]], and studied at [[University of California, Berkeley]] (B.A. 1945), [[San Diego State College]] (M.A., 1952) and [[Columbia University]] (Ph.D., 1956).
==IQ and academic achievement==
Jensen's most controversial work, published in February [[1969]] in the ''[[Harvard Educational Review]]'', was titled "How Much Can We Boost I.Q. and Scholastic Achievement?" It concluded, among other things, that "head start" programs designed to boost [[African-American]] [[IQ]] scores had failed, and that this was likely never to be remedied, largely because, in Jensen's estimation, over 70% of the within race IQ variability was due to genetic factors, and the 30% left over was due to non-shared environmental influences (e.g., prenatal drug exposure, placental nutrient competition when there are multiple births).
When the work was initially published, students and faculty staged large, loud protests outside his [[University of California, Berkeley]] office, and he received multiple death threats. He was even denied reprints of his work by his publisher and was not permitted to reply in response to letters of critism -- both extremely unusual and exceptional policies for their day. Many colleagues at the time felt that even if Jensen's work contained no scientific merit, his treatment was itself against the spirit of science and the free exchange of ideas.
[[Image:Jensen1.jpg|right|thumb|Arthur Jensen winning the 2003 [[Kistler Prize]].]]
In a later article, Jensen argued that his claims had been misunderstood:
:...nowhere have I "claimed" an "innate deficiency" of intelligence in blacks. My position on this question is |
at an early date and which we find in use within thirty years after his death, but he was not properly [[beatification|beatified]] until [[1984]].
Before becoming a friar, he and his brother were trained as manuscript makers: Fra Angelico originally received training as an illuminator. The painter [[Lorenzo Monaco]] may have contributed to his art training, and the influence of the [[Sienese school]] is discernible in his work. He had several important charges in the [[convent]]s he lived in, but this did not limit his art, which very soon became famous. He had the patronage of [[Cosimo de' Medici]]. According to [[Vasari]], the first paintings of this artist were in the [[Certosa]] of [[Florence]]; none such exist there now.
== Early works ==
Among his early works are the [[Annunciation]] of Cortona, the ''Coronation of the Virgin'' in the convent of Fiesole, and the ''Deposition of Christ'' executed for the Church of the [[Holy Trinity]] in [[Florence]], paintings that Vasari indicated as "painted by a saint or an angel".
His earliest extant performances, in considerable number, are at Cortona, to which he was sent during his novitiate, and here apparently he spent all the early years of his monastic life. His first works executed in [[fresco]] were probably those, now destroyed, which he painted in the convent of S. Domenico in this city; as a fresco-painter, he may have worked under, or as a follower of, [[Gherardo Starnina]]. From [[1418]] to [[1436]] he was back at Fiesole; in 1436 he was transferred to the Dominican convent of S. Marco in Florence.
In the convent of San Marco, in the years [[1438]] to [[1445]], Fra Giovanni lived with St. [[Antoninus Pierozzi]]. Here he decorated the cells, the hall of the Chapter, the corridors, the [[colonnade]], the church [[altarpiece]]; he may have studied about this time the renowned frescoes in the [[Brancacci]] chapel in the Florentine church of the Carmine and also the paintings of [[Orcagna]].
== Rome ==
In [[1445]], after the success of these works he was invited to Rome by the pope [[Eugenius IV]], who reigned from [[1431]] to [[1447]]. He appointed another Dominican friar, a colleague of Angelico, to be [[archbishop]] of Florence in [[1445]]. If the story (first told by Vasari) is true—that this appointment was made at the suggestion of Angelico only after the archbishopric had been offered to him, and declined by him on the grounds of his inaptitude for so elevated and responsible a station.
Eugenius, and not (as stated by Vasari) his successor [[Pope Nicholas V]], must have been the pope who sent the invitation and made the offer to Fra Giovanni, for Nicholas only succeeded in 1447. The whole statement lacks authentication, though in itself credible enough. It is certain that Angelico was staying in Rome in the first half of 1447; and he painted in the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] the ''Cappella del Sacramento'', which was afterwards demolished by [[Paul III]]. In June 1447 he proceeded to [[Orvieto]], to paint in the Cappella Nuova of the cathedral, with the cooperation of his pupil [[Benozzo Gozzoli]]. In [[1450]], Fra Angelico became Prior of the convent of San Marco and later Archbishop of Florence. He afterwards returned to Rome to paint the chapel of Nicholas V, and died in Rome in 1455, where he lies buried in the church of S. Maria sopra Minerva. He decorated many of the rooms of the Dominican convent of San Marco in Florence, including many of the individual cells.
He used to say "He who does [[Christ]]'s work must stay with Christ always". This motto granted the epithet "Blessed Angelico", "''because of the perfect integrity of his life and the almost divine beauty of the images he painted, to a superlative extent those of the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] ([[Pope John Paul II]], [[1982]])''".
[[Image:Frangelo.JPG|thumb|The Annunciation was one of the subjects Fra Angelico most frequently treated]]
== Cause for canonization ==
According to all the accounts which have reached us, few men on whom the distinction of beatification has been conferred could have deserved it more nobly than Fra Giovanni. He led a holy and self-denying life, shunning all advancement, and was a brother to the poor; no man ever saw him angered. He painted with unceasing diligence, treating none but sacred subjects; he never retouched or altered his work, probably with a religious feeling that such as divine providence allowed the thing to come, such it should remain. He was wont to say that he who illustrates the acts of Christ should be with Christ. It is averred that he never handled a brush without fervent prayer and he wept when he painted a [[Crucifixion]]. The [[Last Judgment]] and the [[Annunciation]] were two of the subjects he most frequently treated.
Bearing in mind the details already given as to the dates of Fra Giovanni's sojournings in various localities, the reader will be able to trace approximately the sequence of the works which we now proceed to name as among his most important productions. In Florence, in the convent of S. Marco (now converted into a national museum), a series of frescoes, beginning towards [[1443]]; in the first [[cloister]] is the Crucifixion with [[Dominic de Guzman|St. Dominic]] kneeling; and the same treatment recurs on a wall near the [[dormitory]]; in the [[chapterhouse]] is a third Crucifixion, with the Virgin swooning, a composition of twenty life-sized figures (the original blue sky, painted on top of a red ground, has unfortunately chipped away); an ''Annunciation'', the figures of about three-quarters life-size, in a dormitory; in the adjoining passage, the ''Virgin enthroned'', with four saints; on the wall of a cell, the ''Coronation of the Virgin'', with [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]], [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Saint Benedict]], Dominic, [[Saint Francis]], and [[Saint Peter Martyr]]; two Dominicans welcoming Jesus, dressed as a [[pilgrim]]; an ''Adoration of the Magi''; and the ''Marys at the Sepulchre''. All these works are later than the altarpiece which Angelico painted (as before mentioned) for the choir connected with this convent, and which is now in the academy of Florence; it represents the Virgin with [[Sts. Cosmas and Damian|Saint Cosmas and Saint Damian]] (the patrons of the [[Medici]] family), Dominic, Peter, Francis, Mark, John Evangelist and Stephen; the pediment illustrated the lives of Cosmas and Damian, but it has long been severed from the main subject. In the [[Uffizi Gallery]], an altarpiece, the Virgin (life-sized) enthroned, with the [[Child Jesus|Infant]] and twelve angels. In S. Domenico, Fiesole, a few frescoes, less fine than those in S. Marco; also an altarpiece ''in [[tempura]]'' of the Virgin and Child between Saints Peter, Thomas Aquinas, Dominic and Peter Martyr, now much destroyed. The subject which originally formed the [[predella]] of this picture has, since [[1860]], been in the [[National Gallery, London]], and worthily represents there the hand of the saintly painter. The subject is a Glory, Christ with the banner of the [[Resurrection]], and a multitude of saints, including, at the extremities, the saints or ''beati'' of the [[Dominican order]]; here are no fewer than 266 figures or portions of figures, many of them having names inscribed. This ''predella'' was highly lauded by Vasari; still more highly another picture which used to form an altarpiece in Fiesole, and which now obtains world-wide celebrity in the [[Louvre]]—the ''Coronation of the Virgin'', with eight predella subjects of the miracles of St. Dominic.
For the church of the Santa Trinità in Florence, Angelico executed a ''Deposition from the Cross'', and for the church of the Angeli, a ''Last Judgment'', both now in the Florentine Academy; for S. Maria Novella, a ''Coronation of the Virgin'', with a predella in three sections, now in the Uffizi: this is one of his masterpieces. In Orvieto cathedral he painted three triangular divisions of the ceiling, portraying respectively Christ in a glory of angels, sixteen saints and prophets, and the Virgin and [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]]: all these are now much repainted and damaged. In Rome, in the Chapel of Nicholas V, the acts of Saints Stephen and Lawrence; also various figures of saints, and on the ceiling the four [[evangelist]]s. These works of the painter's advanced age, which have suffered somewhat from restorations, show vigour superior to that of his youth, along with a more adequate treatment of the [[architectural]] perspectives. Naturally, there are a number of works currently attributed to Angelico, but not really his; for instance, a ''St Thomas with the Madonna's girdle'', in the [[Lateran]] museum, and a ''Virgin enthroned'', in the church of S. Girolamo, Fiesole. It has often been said that he commenced and frequently practised as an [[illuminator]]; this is dubious and a presumption arises that illuminations executed by Giovanni's brother, Benedetto, also a Dominican, who died in [[1448]], have been ascribed to the more famous artist. Benedetto may perhaps have assisted Giovanni in the frescoes at S. Marco, but nothing of the kind is distinctly traceable. A folio series of engravings from these paintings was published in Florence, in [[1852]]. Along with Gozzoli already mentioned, [[Zanobi Strozzi]] and [[Gentile da Fabriano]] are named as pupils of Angelico.
We have spoken of Angelico's art as "pietistic"; this is in fact its predominant character. His visages have an air of rapt suavity, devotional fervency and beaming [[esoteric]] consciousness, which is intensely attractive to some minds and realizes beyond rivalry a particular ideal—that of ecclesiastical saintliness and detachment from secular fret and turmoil. It should not be denied that he did not always escape the pitfalls of such a method of treatment, the faces becoming sleek and prim, with a smirk of sexless religiosity which hardly eludes th |
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</page>
<page>
<title>Accrington</title>
<id>3055</id>
<revision>
<id>41739639</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:50:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dunc1971</username>
<id>1005483</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The Accrington Pals */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{GBmap|Accrington - Lancashire|SD7528}}
[[image:arms-accrington.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Arms of Accrington Borough Council]]
'''Accrington''', in the County of [[Lancashire]], is a small former [[mill]] town in the industrial north-west of [[England]]. Its name is thought to be a corruption of 'acorn-ring-town', although the old oak woods that once encircled the town have long-since gone, victims of the [[Industrial Revolution]]. Since the redrawing of the political boundaries in [[1974]], the town has formed part of the Borough of [[Hyndburn]] &mdash; a merging of Accrington together with the smaller 'satellite' towns of [[Oswaldtwistle]], [[Church (Lancashire)|Church]], [[Clayton-le-Moors]], [[Great Harwood]] and [[Rishton]], into one political 'seat'.
The 2001 census gave the population of Accrington town proper as 35,203. The figure for the built-up area ("Accrington Urban Area") was 71,224, up 1.1% from 70,442 in 1991. For comparison purposes that is approximately the same size as Aylesbury, Carlisle, Guildford or Scunthorpe urban areas.
The town is linked to [[Burnley]] and [[Blackburn]] by railway and by the [[M65 motorway|M65]] motorway. There was once a rail link south to [[Manchester]] via [[Haslingden]] and [[Bury]], but this was closed in the 1960s as part of cuts following the [[Beeching Report]]. The trackbed is now mostly covered by the A56 dual carriageway, which provides a link to the [[M66 motorway|M66]].
There is a sizeable shopping area and precinct in Accrington, with a selection of major chain stores such as [[Marks and Spencer]] and [[Boots the Chemist|Boots]].
For many decades, the textile industry was the central activity of the town. [[Mill]]s and [[dye]] works provided work for the inhabitants, but often in very difficult conditions. There was regular conflict with employers, most famously in the 1842 'Plug riots' where a general strike spread from town to town, as thousands of strikers walked over the hills from one town to another to persuade people to join the strike. The strike joined up with the chartist movement, but was not successful in its aims.
== Tiffany Glass ==
The Haworth Art Gallery in Accrington contains an outstanding collection of Tiffany glassware presented to the town by Joseph Briggs, an Accrington man who had joined Tiffany’s in the late 19th century and eventually became art director and assistant manager. The Art Nouveau vases are considered to be the most important such group in Europe. One of the most striking items is a glass mosaic exhibition piece, designed by Briggs himself and entitled Sulphur Crested Cockatoos.
== The Accrington Pals ==
One well-known association the town has is with the '[[Accrington Pals]]', the nickname given to the smallest home town [[battalion]] of volunteers formed to fight in [[World War I]]. The [[Pals battalion]]s were a peculiarity of the 1914-1918 war: [[Horatio Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener of Khartoum|Lord Kitchener]], the [[Secretary of State for War]], believed that it would help recruitment if friends and work-mates from the same town were able to join up and fight together. Strictly speaking, the 'Accrington Pals' battalion is properly known as the '11th East Lancashire Regiment': the nickname is a little misleading, since of the four 250-strong companies that made up the original battalion only one was actually composed of men from Accrington. The rest volunteered from other East Lancs towns such as [[Burnley]], [[Blackburn]], and [[Chorley]].
The Pals' first day of combat, Saturday 1st July 1916, took place in Serre in the north of [[France]]. It was part of the 'Big Push' (later known as the [[Battle of the Somme (1916)|Battle of the Somme]]) that was intended to force the German army into a retreat from the [[Western front|Western Front]], a line they had held since late 1914. The German defences in Serre were supposed to have been obliterated by sustained, heavy, British shelling during the preceding week; however, as the battalion advanced it met with fierce resistance. 235 men were killed, and a further 350 wounded &mdash; more than half of the battalion &mdash; within half an hour. Similarly desperate losses were suffered elsewhere on the front, in a disastrous day for the British army.
Later in the year, the East Lancs Regiment was rebuilt with new volunteers &mdash; in all, 865 Accrington men were killed during World War I. All of these names are recorded on a war memorial, an imposing white stone cenotaph, which stands in Oak Hill Park in the south of the town. The [[cenotaph]] also lists the names of 173 local fatalities from [[World War II]].
=== Reference ===
William Turner ''Pals: the 11th (Service) Battalion (Accrington), East Lancashire Regiment'' ISBN 0950789240
=== See also ===
[[Recruitment to the British army during WW I]]
== Accrington's football teams ==
The town's other famous association is with [[Accrington Stanley F.C.]], the butt of many (largely affectionate) jokes. The team's name is often invoked as a symbol of British sport's legion of plucky but hopeless causes (much like British ski-jumping's 'heroic failure' [[Eddie 'the Eagle' Edwards]]). The club entered the [[The Football League|Football League]] in 1921 with the formation of the old Third Division (North); after haunting the lower reaches of English football for forty years, they eventually went into enforced liquidation and were ignominiously ejected from the League in 1962. The club was reformed in 1968 and currently plays in the 'non-league' [[Nationwide Conference]] divisions.
An earlier club, [[Accrington F.C.]], were one of the twelve founder members of the Football League in 1888. However, their time in league football was even less successful, and considerably briefer, than that of Accrington Stanley: they dropped out of the league in 1893, and folded shortly afterwards due to financial problems. The town of Accrington thus has the unique 'distinction' of having lost two separate clubs from league football, over the years.
== Famous sons and daughters ==
Accrington's famous sons and daughters include: [[Jon Anderson]] of rock band [[Yes (band)|Yes]]; author [[Jeanette Winterson]], whose ''[[Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit]]'' is an account of her childhood in the town; and composer [[Harrison Birtwistle]].
[[David Jones]] of the [[Monkees]] music group was also a native.
Famous ex-residents include darts player Ronny Baxter and the National Lottery's [[Mystic Meg]]!
== Geography ==
Accrington is located at {{coor dms|53|46|00|N|02|21|00|W|}} (53.7667, -2.3500)[[World_gazetteer|<sup>1</sup>]].
[[Category:Towns in Lancashire]]
[[da:Accrington]]
[[eo:Accrington]]
[[pl:Accrington]]
[[simple:Accrington]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April, May, and June Duck</title>
<id>3057</id>
<revision>
<id>31996439</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-19T19:07:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobblewik</username>
<id>51235</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|Assisted]] clean up Date links as MoS eg2005->2005. Not a bot. Like it? Say so at [[Wikipedia_talk:Bots#Bot_permission_please.3F|talk:Bots]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aprilmayhune.gif|150px|right|April, May and June Duck]]'''April, May, and June Duck''' are a trio of [[Walt Disney]]'s [[comic book]] characters. They were created by [[Carl Barks]] and were first used in a story published in February [[1953]].
They are descendants of [[Pintail Duck (Disney character)|Pintail Duck]]. They were born in 1940 as the triplet daughters of [[Daisy Duck]]'s sister, who is presumably [[Donna Duck]]. They live in [[Duckburg]], [[Calisota]], along with their aunt and act as their cousins' [[Huey, Dewey and Louie]] Duck female counterparts, occasional rivals, occasional friends, and occasional dates. They are members of the organization [[The Junior Chickadees]], who serve as [[The Junior Woodchucks]]' female counterparts.
April, May, and June were not seen in animation until they were given a special cameo on the ''[[House of Mouse]]'' episode "Ladies' Night".
The names were also used in a [[Three Stooges]] short for three sisters the protagonists end up marrying.
[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Duck, April, May and June]]
[[da:Kylle, Pylle og Rylle]]
[[it:Ely, Emy, Evy]]
[[nl:Lizzy, Juultje en Babetje]]
[[sv:Kicki, Pippi och Titti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Armageddon</title>
<id>3058</id>
<revision>
<id>41901764</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:08:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
<id>603177</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/62.84.228.7|62.84.228.7]] to last version by Codex Sinaiticus</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
{{Wiktionarypar|Armageddon}}
'''Armageddon''' refers generally to [[end times]] or giant catastrophes in various religions and cultures. It may also refer to any great loss of life in battle or use of [[weapons of mass destruction]]. The word ''armageddon'' is derived from Mount [[Megiddo (place)|Megiddo]] (''Har Megido'' ''הר מגידו'' in Hebrew) , the site of the [[Battle of Megiddo]] and other battles. Some would argue the word is an early example of a [[mondegreen]].
The only mention of the word "Armageddon" in the Bible was in Revelation 16:16: "And he |
ample does not use it, Dylan also supports [[multiple inheritance]].
==Methods and generic functions==
In Dylan, methods are not intrinsically associated with any particular class; methods can be thought of as existing outside of classes. Like CLOS, Dylan is based on [[multimethods]], where the specific method to be called is chosen based upon the types of all its arguments. The method does not have to be known at compile time, the understanding being that the required functionality may be available or may not, based on the user's preferences.
Under Java the same methods would be isolated in a particular class. In order to use that functionality the programmer is forced to ''import'' that class and refer to it explicitly in order to call the method. If that class is not available, or unknown at compile time, the application simply won't compile.
In Dylan, code is isolated from storage in ''functions''. Many classes have methods that call their own functions, thereby looking and feeling like most other OO languages. However code may also be located in ''generic functions'', meaning they are not attached to a particular class, and can be called natively by anyone. Linking a particular generic function to a method in a class is accomplished this way:
<code>
define method turn-blue (w :: <window>)
w.color := $blue;
end method;
</code>
This definition is similar to those in other languages, and would likely be encapsulated within the <code>&lt;window&gt;</code> class. Note the := setter call, which is [[syntactic sugar]] for <code>color-setter($blue, w)</code>.
The utility of generic methods comes into its own when you consider more "generic" examples. For instance, one common function in most languages is the <code>to-string</code>, which returns some human-readable form for the object. For instance, a window might return its title and its position in parens, while a string would return itself. In Dylan these methods could all be collected into a single module called "<code>to-string</code>", thereby removing this code from the definition of the class itself. If a particular object did not support a <code>to-string</code>, it could be easily added in the <code>to-string</code> module.
==Extensibility==
This whole concept might strike some readers as very odd. The code to handle <code>to-string</code> for a window isn't defined in <code>&lt;window&gt;</code>? This might not make any sense until you consider how Dylan handles the call to <code>to-string</code>. In most languages when the program is compiled the <code>to-string</code> for <code>&lt;window&gt;</code> is looked up and replaced with a pointer (more or less) to the method. In Dylan this occurs when the program is first run instead, the [[runtime]] builds a table of method-name/parameters details and looks up methods dynamically via this table. That means that a function for a particular method can be located anywhere, not just in the compile-time unit. In the end the programmer is given considerable flexibility in terms of where to place their code, collecting it along class lines where appropriate, and functional lines where it's not.
The implication here is that a programmer can add functionality to existing classes by defining functions in a separate file. For instance, you might wish to add spell checking to all <code>&lt;string&gt;</code>s, which in most languages would require access to the source code of the string class&mdash;and such basic classes are rarely given out in source form. In Dylan (and other "extensible languages") the spell checking method could be added in the <code>spell-check</code> module, defining all of the classes on which it can be applied via the <code>define method</code> construct. In this case the actual functionality might be defined in a single generic function, which takes a string and returns the errors. When the <code>spell-check</code> module is compiled into your program, all strings (and other objects) will get the added functionality.
This still might not sound all that obvious, but in fact it is a common problem faced by almost all OO languages; not everything fits into a class construct, many problems apply to ''all'' objects in the system and there's no natural way to handle this.
==See also==
*[[Dylan Server Pages]]
==External links==
*[http://www.gwydiondylan.org/gdref/tutorial/ Getting Started with Dylan]
*[http://www.gwydiondylan.org/ Gwydion Dylan] - host of two optimizing Dylan compilers targeting Unix/linux, Mac OS X, and Microsoft Windows
*[http://www.cis.ufl.edu/~jnw/Marlais/ The Marlais Dylan Interpreter]
*[http://www.dylansource.com/ DylanSource.com] - An excellent compilation of available Dylan tools and learning resources
*[http://www.double.co.nz/dylan/index.htm Dylan Programming Language]
*[http://monday.sourceforge.net/wiki/ Dylan Language Wiki]
*[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Programming/Languages/Dylan/ Dylan]
[[Category:Dynamically-typed programming languages]]
[[Category:Functional languages]]
[[Category:LISP dialects]]
[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[Category:Failed Apple initiatives]]
[[de:Dylan (Programmiersprache)]]
[[ru:Dylan (язык программирования)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dublin Core</title>
<id>8742</id>
<revision>
<id>41638210</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T18:33:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wwwwolf</username>
<id>6197</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>what "rights1"? My ref says "rights".</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Dublin Core''' is a [[metadata]] standard for describing digital objects (including webpages) to enhance visibility, accessibility and interoperability, often encoded in [[XML]].
It was named so because the first meeting of metadata and web specialists who saw its birth was held in the town of [[Dublin, Ohio]] in the [[United States]].
== The elements ==
The '''Dublin Core Metadata Element Set''', part of the '''Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (DCMI)''' Recommendation (see [[Dublin_Core#References|References]]) consists of 15 optional metadata elements, any of which could be repeated or omitted.
# Title
# Creator
# Subject
# Description
# Publisher
# Contributor
# Date
# Type
# Format
# Identifier
# Source
# Language
# Relation
# Coverage
# Rights
Unlike many other document metadata standards, there is no prescribed order in Dublin Core for presenting or using the elements. In the list above the "Title" element was put first and the "Rights" element last, but it could just as correctly have been the reverse, or all the elements could have been presented or used in alphabetical order.
There are two ways of using the elements: With or without extensions. Using them without extensions means using "DC simple". Using them with extensions means using "DC qualified". The extensions are called refinements or qualifiers.
For instance, "created", "valid", "issued" and "modified" are the recommended refinements of the "date" element. Thus, dc.date.created would be the name for the element for the date of creation of a document in DC qualified.
Several elements have schemes or a ready made controlled vocabulary. For instance, the "Type" element has 12 recommended terms: Collection, dataset, event, image, interactive resource, service, software, sound, text, physical object, still image, moving image.
== Application Examples ==
One [[Document Type Definition]] based on Dublin Core is the [http://www.ibiblio.org/osrt/omf/ Open Source Metadata Framework] (OMF) specification. OMF is in turn used by [[ScrollKeeper]], which is used by the [[GNOME]] desktop and [[KDE]] help browsers and the ScrollServer documentation server. [[PBCore]] is also based on Dublin Core. The [[Zope]] [[Zope Content Management Framework|CMF]]'s Metadata products, used by the [[Plone]] and the [[Nuxeo CPS]] [[Content management system|Content management systems]], also implements Dublin Core.
== See also ==
* [[Controlled vocabulary]]
* [[Interoperability]]
* [[Open Archives Initiative]]
* [[Semantic Web]]
== References ==
* [1] [http://dublincore.org/ Dublin Core Metadata Initiative]
* [2] [http://xml.coverpages.org/ni2005-03-21-a.html Dublin Core Metadata Initiative Publishes DCMI Abstract Model] (March 2005)
* [3] [http://dublincore.org/documents/dcmi-terms/ DCMI Metadata Terms] (June 2005)
[[Category:Knowledge representation]]
[[Category:Library and information science]]
[[Category:Metadata]]
[[Category:Semantic web]]
[[cs:Dublin Core]]
[[de:Dublin Core]]
[[es:Dublin Core]]
[[eo:DCMI]]
[[fr:Dublin Core]]
[[it:Dublin Core]]
[[nl:Dublin Core]]
[[ja:Dublin Core]]
[[no:Dublin Core]]
[[pl:Dublin Core]]
[[sv:Dublin Core]]
[[zh:都柏林核心]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Document Object Model</title>
<id>8743</id>
<revision>
<id>41114900</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T03:35:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hayk</username>
<id>134446</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ru:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Document Object Model''' ('''DOM''') is a description of how an [[HTML]] or [[XML]] document is represented in an [[object-oriented programming|object-oriented]] fashion. DOM provides an [[application programming interface]] to access and modify the content, structure and style of the document.''
Various interfaces were initially implemented by [[web browser]]s to manipulate elements in an [[HTML]] document through [[JavaScript]]. This prompted |
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