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nd comet can be kept in a pond all year round in Britain. Bristol shubumkin, fantail, veiltail, oranda and lionhead are only safe in the summer. Goldfish make great pondfish. They are small, inexpensive, very hardy and add much colour to the pond.
Small to large ponds are fine though the depth should be at least 80 cm (30 in) to avoid freezing. During winter golfish will become slow, stop eating and often stay on the bottom. This is completly normal and in spring they will become active again. A filter is important to clear waste and keep the pond clean. Plants are not essential but can be added. Oxygenating plants are beneficial since they raise oxygen levels.
Compatible fish include [[rudd]], [[tench]], [[orfe]] and [[koi]] but the latter will require specialised care. Ramshorn snails are helpful by eating any algae that grows in the pond.
==Wild Goldfish and relationship to [[Crucian carp]]==
No fancy goldfish can survive in the wild as they are handicapped (for example by fin colors).
Research by [http://www.aquarticles.com/articles/ponds/Pearce_Common_Goldfishhtml.htm Dr Yoshiichi Matsui] suggests that there are subtle differences which demonstrate that while the crucian carp is the ancestor of the goldfish, they are not the same fish.
==Behaviour==
It is often said that goldfish have a memory span of only a few seconds, but this is not entirely true. Goldfish have what could be called a selective memory; that is to say, they have some kind of [[consciousness]] of what has happened on previous occasions, but may not be sure exactly what it was. They can learn to eat from a certain ring inside their tank, or even from their caretaker's hand, because they will remember that there is something good in that area, but might not remember what.
This behavior, or type of learning is an example of classical conditioning. If a predatory animal such as a heron is around, they will likely hide away for quite a while, but they probably do not know what it is they are hiding from; they simply know it is worth avoiding. Goldfish have a sense of time, and in captivity may be able to recognize a set feeding schedule, becoming excited before food even appears. Contrary to the notion that goldfish have poor memory, they will respond to a visit by a predator such as a raccoon, which may completely trash a small pond traumatizing the resident goldfish, which may remain extremely shy and jittery to any approach thereafter.
On the television show ''[[MythBusters]]'', [[Jamie Hyneman]] and [[Adam Savage]] explored the idea by each trying to train goldfish to navigate a maze over a 45-day period. The result was that the fish could definitely be trained to navigate the maze.
*[http://www.mythbustersfanclub.com/html/sinking_titanic.html Mythbusters fanclub page about this episode]
There is an urban legend that a pregnant goldfish is called a "twit" or "twat", but this was debunked by [[The Straight Dope]]. Also, goldfish are egglayers and do not become pregnant.
==Feeding==
Like most fish, goldfish are opportunistic feeders, meaning they will eat whenever food is available, whether they are hungry or not. This habit can be fatal. Their digestive tract can become so jammed with food that the intestines tear open, killing the fish. Also, an excess of food means more waste and feces, which pollute the tank. Goldfish should only be fed as much food as they can consume in 3 to 4 minutes, and no more than twice a day.
A good way to tell if your goldfish is being properly fed is to look at their feces. They should be short and chunky, the same color as the food the fish is eating. Long strings of waste that trail behind the fish as they swim could be a sign of over-feeding.
Care has to be taken when choosing the right food for them, because goldfishes need less protein (which they cannot digest in excess) and more of the easy to digest carbohydrates. However, specialised food for them can be found on the market.
==Breeding==
Goldfish, like all [[cyprinid]]s, are egglayers. They produce adhesive eggs which attach themselves to aquatic vegetation. The eggs hatch within 48-72 hours, releasing fry large enough to be described as appearing like "an eyelash with two eyeballs". Within a week or so, the fry begin to look more like a goldfish in shape, although it can be as much as a year before they take their mature goldfish color, until then they are a metallic brown like their wild forebears. In their first weeks of existence, the fry grow remarkably fast; an adaptation borne of the high risk of getting devoured by the adult goldfish (or other fish and insects) in their environment.
Goldfish can only grow to sexual maturity if given enough water and the right nutrition. However if kept well, they may breed indoors. Breeding usually happens after a significant change in temperature, often in [[Spring (season)|spring]]. Eggs should then be separated into another tank, as the parents will likely eat any of their young that they happen upon. Dense plants such as ''Cabomba'' or ''Elodea'' or a spawning mop are used to catch the eggs.
Most goldfish can and will breed if left to themselves, particularly in pond settings. Males chase the females around, bumping and nudging them in order to prompt the females to release her eggs, which the males then fertilize. Due to the strange shapes of some extreme modern bred goldfish, certain types can no longer breed among themselves. In these cases, a method of artificial breeding is used called "hand stripping". This method keeps the breed going, but can be dangerous and harmful to the fish if not done correctly.
==Mosquito control==
In certain parts of the world, goldfish and other carps are frequently added to stagnant bodies of water in order to reduce the [[mosquito]] populations, especially now with the arrival of [[West Nile Virus]] which relies on mosquitoes to migrate. Their [[introduced species|introduction]] often had unfortunate consequences for local [[ecosystem]]s, however.
==Edibility and cruelty==
Although edible, the fish is rarely eaten. A fad among [[United States|American]] college students for many years was swallowing goldfish as a [[stunt]] and as an initiation process for [[Fraternities and sororities|fraternities]]. The first recorded instance was in [[1939]] at [[Harvard University]]. The practice gradually fell out of popularity over the course of several decades.
In many countries, the operators of [[carnival]]s and [[fair]]s commonly give goldfish away in plastic bags as [[prize|prizes]] for winning games. In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[government]] proposed banning this practice as part of its Animal Welfare Bill, though early [[2005]] reports suggest that this idea has been dropped. However, in Rome, Italy, the city passed a law in late 2005, which banned the use of goldfish or other animals as carnival prizes. [[Rome]] has also banned the keeping of goldfish in "goldfish bowls", on the premise that it's cruel to the fish to live in such a small space.
While being otherwise unkind to pretty fish may now be prohibited, killing fish (humanely) for human consumption or benign purposes (such as putting down an ill fish) is still legal in most countries (provided of course that the fish is not a protected fish caught in the wild, a fish in protected reserves or in water where the person concerned has no right to collect the fish). In the UK it is understood to be illegal to sell live fish as "feeder fish" for consumption by other fish or animals.
==See also==
* [[Cyprinid]] a Wikipedia page devoted to other members of the carp family
* [[List of freshwater aquarium plant species]] for plant species compatible with a goldfish
==External links==
*[http://www.goldfishutopia.com/ Goldfish Utopia] - Online Goldfish Forum, Information, And A Goldfish Store.
*[http://spaces.msn.com/members/chinesegoldfish/ GoldFish Queen] - The Chinese goldfish blog regarding importing goldfish from Goldfish's farm in China. There are lots of intoduction with photographs regarding more than 100 different goldfish varieties updating everyday.
*[http://www.bristol-aquarists.org.uk/ Bristol Aquarists' Society] - Photographs and descriptions of the different goldfish varieties
[[Image:GoldfishBowl_2004_SeanMcClean.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A distorted view of a goldfish in a goldfish bowl.]]
*[http://dmoz.org/Recreation/Pets/Fish_and_Aquaria/Freshwater/Species/Goldfish/ Goldfish on DMOZ] - Goldfish directory
*[http://www.longtailfowl.com/cruciancarp.html Goldfish Genetics] - A resource on the genetics of the goldfish with a focus on the originator, crucian carp, and how their basic genetic package gave rise to the varieties of modern goldfish.
*[http://www.petlibrary.com/goldfish/goldfish.html Goldfish Sanctuary] - Site of a now defunct goldfish rescue organization.
*[[BBC News Online]] - [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/3893889.stm Goldfish are no longer to be given as prizes]
*[[BBC News Online]] - [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4174457.stm Ban on goldfish prizes 'dropped']
*[http://www.wetwebmedia.com/FWSubWebIndex/gldfshfdgfaqs.htm Frequently asked questions about goldfish]
*[http://www.fishfriend.com/articles/breeding_your_goldfish.html Breeding Your Goldfish]
*[http://www.fiberi.de German Specialist in Fancy Goldfish and Fishhealth, with Forum and large Picture-Gallery]
*[http://www.elgoldfish.com] A Spanish goldfish site
*http://www.kokosgoldfish.com/disease.html
*[http://www.schmeg.com/goldfish/aquarium-filter-types.html Aquarium Filter Types]
* http://www.eclipse.co.uk/wradmore/bradninch/history/goldie/goldie.htm — A site claiming the world's oldest goldfish ("about 1960").
== References ==
*{{ITIS|ID=163350|taxon=Carassius auratus|year=2004|date=5 October}}
*{{FishBase_species_alt|ID=271|taxon=Carassius auratus auratus|year=2004|month=September}}
*[http://www.aquarticles.com/articles/ponds/P |
[1874]] was instrumental in organising a similar tour of England, which included games of both baseball and cricket. In his role as [[journalist]], he campaigned against the detrimental effects on the game of both [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] and [[gambling]].
He was instrumental in the first demonstration that rotation imparted while throwing could cause a ball to [[curveball|curve]], which took place at the [[Capitoline Grounds]] in Brooklyn. At Chadwick's instigation two stakes were placed twenty feet apart in a line between the pitcher and batter's boxes. A pitcher named [[Fred Goldsmith]] threw a ball to the right of the first stake, and to the left of the second.
Despite a friendship with [[Albert Spalding]], Chadwick was scornful of the attempts to have [[Abner Doubleday]] declared the inventor of the baseball. "He mains well", said Chadwick, "but he don't know".
He is credited with devising the baseball [[box score]] (which he adapted from the cricket scorecard) for reporting game events, and for devising such [[baseball statistics|statistical measures]] as [[batting average]] and [[earned run average]].
The following description of a game was written by Henry Chadwick and appeared in his ''Base Ball Memoranda''. It is typical of his style of sports journalism, and that of his time:
:''A Base Ball tourney had been held in Chicago on July 4, 1867, in which the Excelsiors of that city and the Forest City Club, of Rockford, had been the leading contestants. The former had defeated the Forest City nine in two games, by the very close scores of 45-41 in one, and 28-25 in another, when the Forest Citys were invited to meet the Nationals at Chicago on July 25th, a day which proved the most notable of the tour. The contest took place at Dexter Park, before a vast crowd of spectators, the majority of whom looked to see the Nationals have almost a walk-over. In the game A. G. Spalding was pitcher and [[Ross Barnes]] shortstop for the Forest City nine; these two afterwards becoming famous as star players of the Boston professional team of the early seventies. Williams was pitcher for the Nationals and Frank Norton catcher. The Nationals took the lead in the first innings by 3 to 2; but in the next two innings they added but five runs to their score, while the Forest Citys added thirteen to theirs, thereby taking the lead by a score of fifteen to eight, to the great surprise of the crowd and the delight of the Rockfords. The Nationals tried hard to recover the lost ground. The final result, however, was the success of the Forest Citys by a score of 29 to 23 in a nine innings game, twice interrupted by rain.''
For his contributions to the game of Baseball, he was elected to the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]] by the Veterans Committee in [[Baseball Hall of Fame balloting, 1938|1938]].
Henry Chadwick died in 1908 and is interred in [[Green-Wood Cemetery]] in Brooklyn, New York. "The Father of Base Ball" is inscribed on his grave marker.
''See also'': [[Baseball statistics]]
==References==
*Tygiel, Jules. ''Past Time''.
==External links==
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/hofer_bios/Chadwick_Henry.htm Baseball Hall of Fame biography]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Henry+Chadwick | name=Henry Chadwick}}
[[Category:1824 births|Chadwick, Henry]]
[[Category:1908 deaths|Chadwick, Henry]]
[[Category:Baseball Hall of Fame|Chadwick, Henry]]
[[Category:Sportswriters|Chadwick, Henry]]
[[Category:Baseball developers|Chadwick, Henry]]
[[Category:English Americans|Chadwick, Henry]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hippopotomus</title>
<id>14422</id>
<revision>
<id>15911980</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hippopotamus]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Higher education</title>
<id>14423</id>
<revision>
<id>42024036</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:42:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ixfd64</username>
<id>6284</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/211.30.192.174|211.30.192.174]] ([[User talk:211.30.192.174|talk]]) to last version by 66.195.211.169</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ClareCollegeAndKingsChapel.jpg|right|thumb|The University of Cambridge is an institute of higher learning.]]
'''Higher education''' is [[education]] provided by [[university|universities]] and other institutions that award [[academic degree]]s, such as [[community college]]s, and [[liberal arts college]]s.
Higher education includes both the teaching and the research activities of universities, and within the realm of teaching, it includes both the ''[[undergraduate]]'' level (sometimes referred to as [[tertiary education]]) and the ''[[graduate student|graduate]]'' (or ''postgraduate'') level (sometimes referred to as [[quaternary education]] or [[graduate school]]). Higher education differs from other forms of post-secondary education such as [[vocational education]]. However, most [[professional]] education is included within higher education, and many [[postgraduate]] qualifications are strongly vocationally or professionally oriented, for example in [[academic discipline|disciplines]] such as [[law]] and [[medicine]].
In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national [[Economics|economies]], both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy; it is often argued that in a modern economy the quantity and quality of such [[human capital]] is the most important factor underlying [[economic growth]].
==Working in higher education==
Universities are fairly large employers. Depending on the funding, a university typically has a teacher per 3-20 students. According to the ideal of research-university, the university teaching staff is actively involved in the research of the institution. In addition, the university usually also has dedicated research staff and a considerable support staff. Typically to work in higher education as a member of the academic [[Faculty (university)|faculty]], one must first obtain a doctorate in an academic field, although some lower teaching positions require only master's degree. Member of the staff or [[academic administration|administration]] usually have education that is necessary for the fulfilment of their duties. Depending on the university, the main administration is more or less centralized. Typically most of the administrative staff works in different administrative sections, such as [[Student Affairs]]. In addition, there may be central support units, such as a university [[library]] which have a dedicated staff.
The professional field involving the collection, analysis, and reporting of higher education data is called [[institutional research]]. Professionals in this field can be found, in addition to universities, in e.g. state educational departments.
On September 15, 2005 the Federabl Bureau of Investigation created the National Security Higher Education Advisory Board. The board will "provide advice on the culture of higher education." The details of how involved the FBI will be involved on campus is left ambiguous. The board will help develop research, degree programs, course work, internships, opportunities for graduates, and consulting opportunities for faculty relating to national security. Graham Spanier, President of Pennsylvania State University, will chair the Board. Universities involved: Johns Hopkins University, University of California Los Angeles, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Colifornia, San Diego, Texas A&M University, Iowa State University, University of Pennsylvania, West Virginia University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Purdue University, University of Florida, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, University of Maryland, University of Wisconsin, and University of Washington.
==See also==
{{Education stages}}
==Further reading==
''Higher education in the United States''
* Davies, Antony and Thomas W. Cline (2005). [http://www.business.duq.edu/faculty/davies/research/roimba.pdf ''The ROI on the MBA,''] <u>BizEd</u>.
* El-Khawas, E. (1996). ''Campus trends''. Washington, DC.: American Council on Education.
* Ewell, P.T. (1999). Assessment of higher education and quality: Promise and politics. In S.J. Messick (Ed.), ''Assessment in higher education: Issues of access, quality, student development, and public policy''. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
* Finn, C. E. (1988, Jul.-Aug.). Judgment time for higher education: In the court of public opinion. ''Change'', 20(4), 34-39.
* Green, Madeleine, F., ed. 1988. ''Leaders for a New Era: Strategies for Higher Education''. New York: Macmillan.
* Snyder, Benson R. (1970). ''[[The Hidden Curriculum]].'' Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
* Veblen, Thorstein (1918). ''The Higher Learning in America: A Memorandum on the Conduct of Universities by Businessmen''. New York: Huebsch
* Forest, James and Kevin Kinser (2002). Higher Education in the United States: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
''Higher education in Canada''
* Bakvis, Herman and [[David M. Cameron]] (2000), [http://www.irpp.org/po/archive/po0500.htm#sufa "Post-secondary education and the SUFA"]. IRPP.
== External links ==
*[http://www.study-in-europe.info/ Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges in Europe]
*[http://www.vidyasoochika.co.in VidyaSoochika - Higher Education Opportunities]
*[http://www.higher-ed.org Higher Education Resource Hub]
*[http://www.higher |
rdrijkskunde van Antarctica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Antarctica</title>
<id>1275</id>
<revision>
<id>39280180</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T01:40:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Circeus</username>
<id>98785</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Antarctica]]''' has no indigenous inhabitants, but there are seasonally staffed research stations. Approximately 29 nations, all signatory to the [[Antarctic Treaty]], send personnel to perform seasonal (summer) and year-round research on the continent and in its surrounding oceans; the population of persons doing and supporting science on the continent and its nearby islands south of 60 degrees south latitude (the region covered by the Antarctic Treaty) varies from approximately 4,000 in summer to 1,000 in winter; in addition, approximately 1,000 personnel including ship's crew and scientists doing onboard research are present in the waters of the treaty region.
At least three children have been born in Antarctica. The first was [[Emilio Marcos Palma]], born [[January 7]], [[1978]] to [[Argentina|Argentine]] parents on the Argentine Base [[Esperanza Base|Esperanza]], near the tip of the Antarctic peninsula. In [[1986]], [[Juan Pablo Camacho]] was born at the Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva Base, becoming the first [[Chile]]an born in Antarctica. Soon after a girl, Gisella, was born at the same station.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Nation
! Summer <br />(January) <br /> population <br /> 3,687 total <br /> (1998-9)
! Winter <br />(July) <br />population <br /> 964 total <br />
(1998-9)
! Year-round<br /> Stations <bR> 42 total <br /> (1998-9)
! Summer-only <br /> Stations <br /> 32 total <br /> (1998-9)
|-
| [[Argentina]] || 302 || 165 || 6 || 7
|-
| [[Australia]] || 201 || 75 || 4 || 4
|-
| [[Belgium]] || 13 || - || - || -
|-
| [[Brazil]] || 80 || 12 || 1 || -
|-
| [[Bulgaria]] || 16 || - || - || 1
|-
| [[Chile]] || 352 || 129 || 4 || 7
|-
| [[China]] || 70 || 33 || 2 || -
|-
| [[Finland]] || 11 || - || 1 || -
|-
| [[France]] || 100 || 33 || 1 || -
|-
| [[Germany]] || 51 || 9 || 1 || 1
|-
| [[India]] || 60 || 25 || 1 || 1
|-
| [[Italy]] || 106 || - || 1 || -
|-
| [[Japan]] || 136 || 40 || 1 || 3
|-
| [[South Korea]] || 14 || 14 || 1 || -
|-
| [[Netherlands]] || 10 || - || - || -
|-
| [[New Zealand]] || 60 || 10 || 1 || 1
|-
| [[Norway]] || 40 || - || 1 || -
|-
| [[Peru]] || 28 || - || - || 1
|-
| [[Poland]] || 70 || 20 || 1 || -
|-
| [[Russia]] || 254 || 102 || 6 || 3
|-
| [[South Africa]] || 80 || 10 || 1 || -
|-
| [[Spain]] || 43 || - || 1 || -
|-
| [[Sweden]] || 20 || - || - || 2
|-
| [[Ukraine]] || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || 1 || -
|-
| [[United Kingdom|UK]] || 192 || 39
| 2 || 5
|-
| [[United States|US]] || 1,378 || 248
| 3 || -
|-
| [[Uruguay]] || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || 1 || -
|}
In addition, during the austral summer some nations have numerous occupied locations such as tent camps, summer-long temporary facilities, and mobile traverses in support of research (July 2000 est.)
==See also==
*[[Argentine Antarctica]]
[[Category:Antarctica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Antarctica</title>
<id>1276</id>
<revision>
<id>38845359</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T00:32:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arvedui</username>
<id>126848</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>clarification of awkward wording</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">No [[economics|economic]] activity is conducted at present in [[Antarctica]], except for [[fishing]] off the coast and small-scale [[tourism]], both based abroad. Antarctic fisheries in [[1998]]-[[1999]] ([[July 1]]- [[June 30]]) reported landing 119,898 metric tons. Unregulated [[fishing]] landed five to six times more than the regulated fishery, and allegedly illegal fishing in antarctic waters in [[1998]] resulted in the seizure (by [[France]] and [[Australia]]) of at least eight fishing ships. A total of 10,013 tourists visited in the [[1998]]-[[1999]] summer, up from the 9,604 who visited the previous year. Nearly all of them were passengers on 16 commercial (nongovernmental) ships and several [[yacht]]s that made 116 trips during the summer. Most tourist trips lasted approximately two weeks.
Small-scale tourism has existed since 1957. Since 1969, over 30,000 tourists have been to Antarctica.[http://www.knet.co.za/antarctica/political.htm] As of 2006, several ships transport people to Antarctica to visit specific scenic locations. Sight-seeing flights also used to take people from Australia and New Zealand over Antarctica and back again, until the fatal crash of [[Air New Zealand Flight 901]] near [[Mount Erebus]] late in 1979.
{{economics-stub}}
{{Antarctica-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Antarctica]]
[[Category:Economies by region]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Government of Antarctica</title>
<id>1277</id>
<revision>
<id>22973613</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-10T13:45:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Citylover</username>
<id>406359</id>
</contributor>
<comment>"#REDIRECT [[Antarctic Treaty System]]" added</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Antarctic Treaty System]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Antarctica</title>
<id>1278</id>
<revision>
<id>38491058</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T18:23:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gflores</username>
<id>153556</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
0
<br />(note: information for US bases only (2001))
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
NA; [[Iridium (satellite)|Iridium]] system in use
'''[[Telephone]] system:'''
<br />''general assessment:''
local systems at some research stations
<br />''domestic:''
NA
<br />''international:''
via satellite from some research stations
'''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:'''
AM: NA,
FM: 2,
shortwave: 1
<br />(note: information for US bases only (2002))
'''Radios:'''
NA
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
1 (cable system with six channels; American Forces Antarctic Network-McMurdo)
<br />(note: information for US bases only (2002))
'''Televisions:'''
several hundred at McMurdo Station (US)
<br />(note: information for US bases only (2001))
'''[[Internet]] Service Providers (ISPs):'''
a fiber cable on polar plateau planned to finish in [[2009]] [1]
'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top level domain):'''
AQ
''Information from [[CIA World Factbook]], [[as of 2002|2002]] edition''
Argentine bases in general: Marambio base has wireless internet and 2 mobile phones servers
:''See also:'' [[Antarctica]]
==External links==
* [http://www.anetstation.com ANetStation] - radio station in Antarctica
[[Category:Communications by country|Antarctica]]
[[Category:Antarctica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Antarctica</title>
<id>1279</id>
<revision>
<id>40663199</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T03:40:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Abracadabrantesque</username>
<id>972037</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>french article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Transportation in Antarctica''' is usually done over sea or plane, and requires special measures against the cold.
==Ports and harbors==
[[Antarctica]]'s only harbour is at [[McMurdo Station]]. Most coastal stations have offshore anchorages, and supplies are transferred from ship to shore by small boats, barges, and helicopters. A few stations have a basic wharf facility. All ships at port are subject to inspection in accordance with Article 7, [[Antarctic Treaty]]; offshore anchorage is sparse and intermittent.
[[McMurdo Station]] ({{coor dm|77|51|S|166|40|E|}}), [[Palmer Station]] ({{coor dm|64|43|S|64|03|W|}}); government use only except by permit (see Permit Office under "Legal System").
==Airports==
Antarctica has 20 airports, but there are no developed public-access airports or landing facilities. 30 stations, operated by 16 national governments party to the [[Antarctic Treaty]], have landing facilities for either [[helicopter]]s and/or fixed-wing [[aircraft]]; commercial enterprises operate two additional air facilities.
Helicopter pads are available at 27 stations; runways at 15 locations are gravel, sea-ice, blue-ice, or compacted snow suitable for landing wheeled, fixed-wing aircraft; of these, 1 is greater than 3 km in length, 6 are between 2 km and 3 km in length, 3 are between 1 km and 2 km in length, 3 are less than 1 km in length, and 2 are of unknown length; snow surface skiways, limited to use by [[ski]]-equipped, fixed-wing aircraft, are available at another 15 locations; of these, 4 are greater than 3 km in length, 3 are between 2 km and 3 km in length, 2 are between 1 km and 2 km in length, 2 are less than 1 km in length, and data is unavailable for the remaining 4.
Antarctic airports are subject to severe restrictions and limitations resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions; they do not meet [[ICAO]] standards, and advance approval from the respective governmental or nongovernmental operating organization is required for landing (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
*''total:'' 20
*''over 3,047 m:'' 6
*''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 3
*''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 1
*''914 to 1,523 m:'' 4
*''under 914 m:'' 6 (2003 est.)
'''Heliports:''' 27 stations have restric |
s identical to the present tense.</td></tr>
<!-- as [[User: Circeus]] says, some of these tenses are actually not time-only but include aspect. And they're pretty particular to English, so I'm cutting them [[User:Steverapaport|Steverapaport]] 16:08, [[12 December]] [[2004]] (UTC)
<tr><td>past [[Progressive tense|continuous]]</td>
<td>''I was going.''</td>
<td>''Andavo.''</td>
<td>''Olin menossa.''</td>
<td>--</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
<tr><td>future [[Progressive tense|continuous]]</td> <td>''I will be going.''</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
-->
<tr><td>present [[Perfect tense|perfect]]</td>
<td>''I have gone.''</td>
<td>''Sono andato.''</td>
<td>''Jag har g&aring;tt.''</td>
<td>''Olen mennyt.''</td>
<td>Common past composite tense. In some languages indicates recent past, in others indicates an unknown past time.</td></tr>
<!-- again revising this out as suggested by Circeus
<tr><td>present [[Perfect tense|perfect]] [[Progressive tense|continuous]]</td>
<td>''I have been going.''</td>
<td>This is used to express that an event or habit started at some time in the past and continues to the present.</td></tr>
<tr><td>past [[Perfect tense|perfect]] [[Progressive tense|continuous]]</td>
<td>''I had been going.''</td>
<td>This is usually coupled with a duration, indicating that an event was ongoing for a specific time and was completed before a specific event.</td></tr>
-->
<tr><td>past [[Perfect tense|perfect]] ([[Pluperfect|pluperfect]])</td>
<td>''I had gone.''</td>
<td>''Ero andato.''</td>
<td>''Jag hade g&aring;tt.''</td>
<td>''Olin mennyt.''</td>
<td>This expresses that an action was completed before some other event.</td></tr>
<tr><td>future [[Perfect tense|perfect]]</td>
<td>''I will have gone.''</td>
<td>''Sar&ograve; andato.''</td>
<td>''Jag kommer att ha g&aring;tt.''</td>
<td>(none)</td>
<td>This expresses a past action in a hypothetical future.</td></tr>
</table>
==Tense, aspect, and mood==
The distinction between grammatical tense, [[grammatical aspect|aspect]], and [[Grammatical mood|mood]] is fuzzy and at times controversial. The English ''continuous'' temporal constructions express an [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] as well as a tense, and some therefore consider that aspect to be separate from tense in English. In [[Spanish language|Spanish]] the traditional verb tenses are also combinations of aspectual and temporal information.
Going even further, there's an ongoing dispute among modern English grammarians (see [[English grammar]]) regarding whether ''tense'' can only refer to [[inflection|inflected]] forms. In [[Germanic languages]] there are very few tenses (often only two) formed strictly by inflection, and one school contends that all complex or periphrastic time-formations are [[Grammatical aspect|aspects]] rather than tenses.
The abbreviation ''TAM'' , ''T/A/M'' or ''TMA'' is sometimes found when dealing with verbal morphemes that combine tense, aspect and mood information.
== Classification of tenses ==
Tenses can be broadly classified as:
* absolute: indicates time in relationship to the time of the utterance (i.e. "now"). For example, "I am sitting down", the tense is indicated in relation to the present moment.
* relative: in relationship to some other time, other than the time of utterance, e.g. "Strolling through the shops, she saw a nice dress in the window". Here, the "saw" is relative to the time of the "strolling". The relationship between the time of "strolling" and the time of utterance is not clearly specified.
* absolute-relative: indicates time in relationship to some other event, whose time in turn is relative to the time of utterance. (Thus, in absolute-relative tense, the time of the verb is indirectly related to the time of the utterance; in absolute tense, it is directly related; in relative tense, its relationship to the time of utterance is left unspecified.) For example, "When I walked through the park, I saw a bird." Here, "saw" is present relative to the "walked", and "walked" is past relative to the time of the utterance, thus "saw" is in absolute-relative tense.
Moving on from this, tenses can be quite finely distinguished from one another, although no language will express simply all of these distinctions. As we will see, some of these tenses in fact involve elements of modality (e.g. predictive and not-yet tenses), but they are difficult to classify clearly as either tenses or moods.
Many languages define tense not just in terms of past/future/present, but also in terms of how far into the past or future they are. Thus they introduce concepts of closeness or remoteness, or tenses that are relevant to the measurement of time into days ([[hodiernal tense|hodiernal]] or [[hesternal tense|hesternal tenses]]).
Some languages also distinguish not just between past, present, and future, but also nonpast, nonpresent, nonfuture. Each of these latter tenses incorporates two of the former, without specifying which.
Some tenses:
*[[Absolute tense]]s
**[[Future tense]]s. Some languages have different future tenses to indicate how far into the future we are talking about. Some of these include:
***[[Close future tense]]: in the near future, soon
***[[Hodiernal future tense]]: sometime today
***[[Post-hodiernal future tense]]: sometime after today
***[[Remote future tense]]: in the more distant future
***[[Predictive future tense]]: a future tense which expresses a prediction rather than an intention, i.e. "I predict he will lose the election, although I want him to win". As such, it is really more of a mood than a tense. (Its tenseness rather than modality lies in the fact that you can predict the future, but not the past.)
**[[Nonfuture tense]]: refers to either the present or the past, but does not clearly specify which. Contrasts with future.
**[[Nonpast tense]]: refers to either the present or the future, but does not clearly specify which. Contrasts with past.
**[[Not-yet tense]]: has not happened in present or past (nonfuture), but often with the implication that it is expected to happen in the future. (As such, is both a tense and a modality). In English, it is expressed with "not yet", hence its name.
**[[Past tense]]s. Some languages have different past tenses to indicate how far into the past we are talking about.
***[[Hesternal past tense]]: yesterday or early, but not remote
***[[Hodiernal past tense]]: sometime earlier today
***[[Immediate past tense]]: very recent past tense, e.g. in the last minute or two
***[[Recent past tense]]: in the last few days/weeks/months (exact definition varies)
***[[Remote past tense]]: more than a few days/weeks/months ago (exact definition varies)
***[[Nonrecent past tense]]: not recent past tense, contrasting with recent past tense
***[[Nonremote past tense]]: not remote past tense, contrasting with remote past tense
***[[Prehesternal past tense]]: before hesternal past tense
***[[Prehodiernal past tense]]: before hodiernal past tense
***[[Preterit]]: past tense not marked for aspect or modality
**[[Present tense]]
**[[Still tense]]: indicates a situation held to be the case, at or immediately before the utterance
*[[Absolute-relative tenses]]
**[[future perfect tense]]: will have completed by some time in the future, will occur before some time in the future
**[[future-in-future tense]]: at some time in the future, will still be in the future
**[[future-in-past tense]]: at some time in the future, will be in the past
**[[future-perfect-in-past tense]]: will be completed by some time which is in the future of some time in the past, eg., Sally went to work; by the time she should be home, the burglary would have been completed.
**[[past perfect tense]]: at some time in the past, was already in the past
*[[Relative tenses]]
**[[relative future tense]]: is in the future of some unspecified time
**[[relative nonfuture tense]]: is in the past or present of some unspecified time
**[[relative nonpast tense]]: is in the present or future of some unspecified time
**[[relative past tense]]: is in the past of some unspecified time
**[[relative present tense]]: is in the present of some unspecified time
== Bibliography ==
* Bybee, Joan L., Revere Perkins, and William Pagliuca (1994) ''The Evolution of Grammar: Tense, Aspect, and Modality in the Languages of the World''. University of Chicago Press.
* Comrie, Bernard (1985) ''Tense''. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN: 0521281385]
* Downing, Angela, and Philip Locke (1992) "Viewpoints on Events: Tense, Aspect and Modality". In A. Downing and P. Locke, ''A University Course in English Grammar'', Prentice Hall International, 350--402.
* Guillaume, Gustave (1929) ''Temps et verbe''. Paris: Champion.
* Hopper, Paul J., ed. (1982) ''Tense-Aspect: Between Semantics and Pragmatics''. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
* Tedeschi, Philip, and Anne Zaenen, eds. (1981) ''Tense and Aspect''. (Syntax and Semantics 14). New York: Academic Press.
==See also==
*[[English grammar]]
*[[Grammar]]
*[[Grammatical aspect]]
*[[Grammatical mood]]
*[[Grammatical voice]]
==External links==
* [http://www.scar.utoronto.ca/~binnick/TENSE/Index.html Robert Binnick's tense/aspect bibliography] (around 9000 entries)
* [http://users.skynet.be/bk244875/wiki/flowcharttenses.pdf Tenses Flowchart and worksheet (pdf-file)]
* [http://www.EnglishTensesWithCarto |
ay Park]] (April 20, 1912 - Present), [[Braves Field]] (1929 - 1932 Sundays, 1915 - 1916 World Series), [[Huntington Avenue Grounds]] (1901-1911). Fenway is the oldest ballpark in baseball. The Red Sox ownership group has recently committed to keeping the team at Fenway for years to come; plans are already under way for the first ballpark centennial celebration in MLB history in 2012.
:'''Mascot:''' "Wally the Green Monster," named after the left field wall [[Green Monster (Fenway Park)|Green Monster]].
:'''Uniform colors:''' Navy blue, red, gray, and white
:'''Logo design:''' Two hanging red socks with white heels and toes, over a white baseball surrounded by the words Boston and Red Sox. The word "Boston" is in navy blue outlined in red, the words "Red Sox" are in red outlined in navy blue, and the entire logo is surrounded by a thick red circle. Recently the team has begun phasing in a new logo that removes the outline, text and baseball, leaving only the pair of red socks.
:'''Theme Song:''' None officially, but several "unofficial" theme songs exist:
:* ''played in the middle of the eighth inning at Fenway Park:'' [[Neil Diamond]]'s "[[Sweet Caroline]]" performed with raucous audience participation.
:* ''played after each victory at Fenway Park:'' "[[Dirty Water]]" by [[The Standells]].
:* ''played after "Dirty Water" and for rallies during a game:'' The [[Dropkick Murphys]]' 2004 rewrite of "[[Tessie]]." The original "Tessie" was a Broadway tune, which Boston fans adopted during the [[1903 World Series]] and sang regularly until 1916.
:* ''played during David Ortiz's at-bats:'' "Who's Your Papi?"
:'''Championships and Pennants:'''
::'''Playoff appearances''' (18): 1903, 1904, 1912, 1915, 1916, 1918, 1946, 1967, 1975, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2003, 2004, 2005
:'''Official television station:''' [[New England Sports Network]] (NESN) Red Sox own 80% of NESN, the [[Boston Bruins]] own the remaining 20%
:'''Official radio station:''' [[WEEI]] (flagship)
==Nicknames before "Red Sox"==
The name '''Red Sox''', chosen by owner John I. Taylor after the 1907 season, is based on an obsolete form of the word "[[sock]]s", as in the red footwear worn by the team starting in 1908. The name originated from the [[Cincinnati Reds|Cincinnati Red Stockings]], the first professional baseball team and a member of the first (now defunct) league, the [[National Association]] of Baseball Players. The team was formed by [[Harry Wright]] in 1869, and was the first team to actually pay its players a salary, which was frowned upon at the time. The Red Stockings were able to attract the best players from around the country, and hence became one of the first [[dynasties]] in American sports. Many other clubs began to follow suit, which is how professional baseball was born.
In 1871, due to slumping attendance in Cincinnati, the team folded and then re-formed in Boston, and kept their nickname and their exemplary play. In 1876, the [[National League]] was formed and the Boston Red Stockings became a charter member, but changed their nickname to "Red Caps". Back then, the nicknames were not as important, and teams went by many different names during this time. In 1912, the team changed its official nickname to "Braves", and are today based in [[Atlanta Braves|Atlanta]].
In 1901, the [[American League]] was formed by [[Ban Johnson]] to compete with the National League, and a new Boston club was formed. Prior to 1908, the A.L. team in fact wore ''dark blue'' stockings, and did not have an official nickname. They were simply "the Bostons" or "the Boston Baseball club"; some newspaper writers referred to them as the Boston "Americans", as in "American Leaguers", Boston being a two-team city. Many sources have stated for years that the early team was called the Boston "Pilgrims" or "Puritans" or "Plymouth Rocks", or "Somersets" (for their owner), but recent research into contemporary sources suggests otherwise. [http://www.baseball-almanac.com/articles/boston_pilgrims_story.shtml].
==Retired numbers==
The Boston Red Sox have two requirements for a player to have his number retired [http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/bos/history/retired_numbers.jsp]:
# He must have played for the Red Sox for at least 10 years.
# He must have been inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame.
* [[Wade Boggs]] meets the minimum requirements to have his number retired by the Red Sox, but played with the [[New York Yankees]] and the [[Tampa Bay Devil Rays]] after leaving Boston. [[Jim Rice]], should he be elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame, will also meet the requirements.
* Until the late 1990s, the numbers originally hung on the right-field facade in the order in which they were retired: 9-4-1-8. It was pointed out that the numbers, when read as a date (9/4/18), marked the eve of the [[1918 World Series]]. Due to superstitions involving the "[[Curse of the Bambino]]" the numbers were rearranged in numerical order.
* In the past, the Red Sox have traditionally required a player to end their career with the Red Sox. The rule was ignored when Carlton Fisk was inducted into the Hall of Fame. Fisk finished his playing career with the Chicago White Sox, but the Red Sox hired Fisk for 1 day as a "special assistant to (then GM) Dan Duquette" to continue the tradition. [http://www.thediamondangle.com/crank/20000728.html]
The numbers honored are as follows:
* &nbsp; 1 [[Bobby Doerr]], 2B, 1937-51
* &nbsp; 4 [[Joe Cronin]], SS, 1935-45; manager, 1935-47; also [[American League]] President, 1959-73
* &nbsp; 8 [[Carl Yastrzemski]], OF-1B, 1961-83
* &nbsp; 9 [[Ted Williams]], OF, 1939-60
* 27 [[Carlton Fisk]], C, 1969-80
* 42 [[Jackie Robinson]], retired by all Major League clubs to honor his breaking of Baseball's color barrier.
==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
{|
|valign="top"|
*[[Luis Aparicio]]
*[[Wade Boggs]] *
*[[Lou Boudreau]]
*[[Jesse Burkett]]
*[[Orlando Cepeda]]
*[[Jack Chesbro]]
*[[Jimmy Collins]] *
*[[Joe Cronin]] *
*[[Bobby Doerr]] *
*[[Dennis Eckersley]]
|width="50"|
|valign="top"|
*[[Rick Ferrell]] &#42;&#42;
*[[Carlton Fisk]] &#42;&#42;
*[[Jimmie Foxx]] &#42;&#42;
*[[Lefty Grove]] &#42;&#42;
*[[Harry Hooper]] *
*[[Waite Hoyt]]
*[[Ferguson Jenkins]]
*[[George Kell]]
*[[Heinie Manush]]
*[[Juan Marichal]]
|width="50"|
|valign="top"|
*[[Herb Pennock]]
*[[Tony Pérez]]
*[[Red Ruffing]]
*[[Babe Ruth]]
*[[Tom Seaver]]
*[[Al Simmons]]
*[[Tris Speaker]]
*[[Ted Williams]] *
*[[Carl Yastrzemski]] *
*[[Cy Young]] *
|}
*Affiliation according to National Baseball Hall of Fame
:&#42; Inducted as Red Sox
:&#42;&#42; Wears Red Sox cap on Hall Of Fame plaque, but spent more time on other teams
===Sources===
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/lists/team_cap.htm Team Cap]
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/lists/managers.htm Managers]
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/lists/exec_pioneers.htm Executives and Pioneers]
==Current roster==
{{:Boston Red Sox roster}}
==Minor league affiliations==
* '''Triple-A:''' [[Pawtucket Red Sox]], [[International League]]
* '''Double-A:''' [[Portland Sea Dogs]], [[Eastern League]]
* '''Advanced-A:''' [[Wilmington Blue Rocks]], [[Carolina League]]
* '''Single-A:''' [[Greenville Drive]], [[South Atlantic League]]
* '''Short-A:''' [[Lowell Spinners]], [[New York-Penn League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Gulf Coast Red Sox|GCL Red Sox]], [[Gulf Coast League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Venezuelan Summer League|Ciudad Alianza (VSL Red Sox/Padres)]] [cooperated], [[Venezuelan Summer League]]
==See also==
*[[Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame]]
*[[List of Boston Red Sox awards|Award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Boston Red Sox/Team records|Statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Tony Conigliaro Award]]
*[[Boston Red Sox All-Time Roster|All-Time Roster]]
*[[Boston Red Sox/Managers and ownership|Managers and ownership]]
*[[Boston Red Sox spring training home|Spring Training Home]]
*[[Boston Red Sox/Broadcasters|Broadcasters and media]]
*[[Red Sox Nation]]
*[[List of Major League Baseball franchise post-season droughts|Post-season droughts]]
==External links==
*[http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/index.jsp?c_id=bos Boston Red Sox official website]
*[http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/teams/minors?team=bos Red Sox Minor League Overview]
*[http://photobucket.com/albums/y294/tohasbo/?action=view&current=redsoxunis.gif Red Sox Uniforms
*[http://www.redsoxjersey.net Red Sox Jersey] popular Red Sox fan club site
==References==
*{{cite book | author=Johnson, Richard A., Stout, Glenn, and Johnson, Dick |
title=Yankees Century: 100 Years of New York Yankees Baseball| publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |
year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-618-08527-0}}
*{{cite book | author=Stout, Glenn and Johnson, Richard A. |
title=Red Sox Century| publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |
year=2000 | id=ISBN 0-395-88417-9}}
*{{cite book | author=Nowlin, Bill and Prime, Jim |
title=Blood Feud: The Red Sox, The Yankees, and the Struggle of Good versus Evil| publisher=HRounder Books |
year=2005 | id=ISBN 1-57940-111-2}}
{{MLB Team Boston Red Sox}}
{{MLB}}
[[Category:Boston Red Sox| ]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]
[[da:Boston Red Sox]]
[[de:Boston Red Sox]]
[[es:Boston Red Sox]]
[[fr:Red Sox de Boston]]
[[ja:ボストン・レッドソックス]]
[[pt:Boston Red Sox]]
[[sv:Boston Red Sox]]
[[zh:波士頓紅襪]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baltimore Orioles</title>
<id>4340</id>
<revision>
<id>42160225</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:29:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Boothy443</username>
<id>158008</id |
-lys Or (for [[France]]) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for [[England]])''. Whilst her [[Tudor dynasty | Tudor]] predecessors had used a gold [[lion]] and a red [[European dragon | dragon]] as heraldic supporters, Elizabeth used a gold lion and a gold dragon. Elizabeth adopted one of her mother's mottoes, ''Semper Eadem'' ("Always the Same") and also her mother's emblem as her emblem (The eagle on top of a tree trunk).
==See also==
*[[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)]]
*[[Church of England]]
*[[Eighty Years' War]]
*[[English Renaissance]]
*[[List of British monarchs]]
*[[The Military Revolution]]
*[[Protestant Reformation]]
==References==
*Eakins, Lara E. (2004) [http://tudorhistory.org/elizabeth/ Elizabeth I.]
*Haigh, Christopher (1988) ''Elizabeth I.'' London: Longman; (illustrated reprint 2001) ISBN 0582472784.
*Jokinen, Anniina (2004). [http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/eliza.htm Elizabeth I (1533&ndash;1603).]
*Neale, J. E.. (1934). ''Queen Elizabeth I: A Biography'' London: Jonathan Cape.
*Perry, Maria. (1990). ''The Word of a Prince: A Life of Elizabeth I from Contemporary Documents'' Woodbirdge: Boydell Press.
*Ridley, Jasper Godwin (1987). ''Elizabeth I.'' London: Constable.
*Somerset, Anne (1991). ''Elizabeth I.'' London: Knopf. ISBN 0385721579.
*Starkey, David (2000). ''Elizabeth : The Struggle for the Throne.'' New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
*Thomas, Heather (2004). [http://www.elizabethi.org/uk/ Elizabeth I.]
*Weir, Alison. (1998). ''The Life of Elizabeth I.'' (1st American edition) New York: Ballantine Books.
*Hasler,P.W., History of Parliament, House of Commons 1558-1603, HMSO 1981.[http://www.history.ac.uk/hop/]
==External links==
*[http://www.tudor-portraits.com Buehler, Edward. (2004). "Tudor and Elizabethan Portraits".]
*[http://www.marileecody.com/eliz1-images.html Cody, Marilee. (2004). "Portraits of Queen Elizabeth I".]
*[http://www.archsoc.com/games/Mary.html Stevens, Garry. (2004). "Bloody Mary: Further Intrigue in the Tudor Court".]
*[http://members.optushome.com.au/peterpanandwendy/The%20birth%20of%20Elizabeth.htm Dunn, Wendy J. (2002) "Birth of Elizabeth"]
*[http://tudors.crispen.org/tudor_women/ Crispen (2002) "Life of Women in Tudor England]
{{start box}}
{{succession box two to two |
before=[[Mary I of England|Mary I]] |
title1=[[List of British monarchs|Queen of England]] |
title2=[[King of Ireland|Queen of Ireland]] |
years1=[[17 November]][[1558]] - [[24 March]][[1603]]|
years2=[[17 November]][[1558]] - [[24 March]][[1603]]|
after=[[James I of England|James I]]
}}
{{end box}}
{{Persondata
|NAME=Elizabeth I
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Elizabeth I of England;The Virgin Queen; Gloriana; Good Queen Bess
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[Queen of England]]; [[Queen of Ireland]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[7 September]] [[1533]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Greenwich]], [[England]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[24 March]] [[1603]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Richmond upon Thames]], [[Surrey]]
}}
[[Category:1533 births]]
[[Category:1603 deaths]]
[[Category:Henry VIII's children]]
[[Category:Heirs to the English & British thrones]]
[[Category:English monarchs]]
[[Category:Queens regnant]]
{{Link FA|pt}}
{{Link FA|zh}}
[[ar:إليزابيث الأولى من إنكلترا]]
[[cs:Alžběta I.]]
[[cy:Elisabeth I o Loegr]]
[[da:Elizabeth 1. af England]]
[[de:Elisabeth I. (England)]]
[[es:Isabel I de Inglaterra]]
[[eo:Elizabeto la 1-a (Anglio)]]
[[fr:Élisabeth Ire d'Angleterre]]
[[hr:Elizabeta I.]]
[[is:Elísabet I]]
[[it:Elisabetta I d'Inghilterra]]
[[he:אליזבת הראשונה מלכת אנגליה]]
[[kw:Elisabeth I a Bow Sows]]
[[la:Elizabeth I Angliae Regina]]
[[nl:Elizabeth I van Engeland]]
[[nds:Königin Elisabeth I.]]
[[ja:エリザベス1世 (イングランド女王)]]
[[no:Elisabeth I av England]]
[[nn:Elisabeth I av England]]
[[pl:Elżbieta I]]
[[pt:Elizabeth I de Inglaterra]]
[[ro:Elisabeta I a Angliei]]
[[ru:Елизавета I (королева Англии)]]
[[simple:Elizabeth I of England]]
[[sk:Alžbeta I. (Anglicko)]]
[[sl:Elizabeta I. Angleška]]
[[sr:Краљица Елизабета I]]
[[fi:Elisabet I]]
[[sv:Elisabet I av England]]
[[tr:I. Elizabeth]]
[[zh:伊丽莎白一世 (英格兰)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Enceladus</title>
<id>10129</id>
<revision>
<id>23349011</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-16T16:37:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shikai shaw</username>
<id>181494</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+es, fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">*In [[Greek mythology]] [[Enceladus (mythology)|Enceladus]] was one of the Gigantes.
*In [[astronomy]], [[Enceladus (moon)|Enceladus]] is a [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]].
{{disambig}}
[[es:Encélado]]
[[fr:Encélade]]
[[ja:エンケラドゥス]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Emperor Jimmu</title>
<id>10130</id>
<revision>
<id>36248556</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T19:12:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KnightRider</username>
<id>430793</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>warnfile Modifying: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:jimmulg.jpeg|right|thumb|250|Meiji era print of Emperor Jimmu]]
[[Image:TenmuJitoTomb.jpg|right|thumbnail|The legendary tomb of Emperor Jimmu, Nara]]
'''Emperor Jimmu''' (神武天皇 ''Jinmu Tennō''; given name: Kamuyamato Iwarebiko, born according to legend on [[January 1]], [[711 BCE]], and died, again according to legend, on [[March 11]], [[585 BCE]]){{an|Japanese_dates}}, was the mythical founder of [[Japan]] and is the first emperor named in the traditional lists of emperors. The [[Emperor of Japan|Imperial house]] of Japan traditionally based its claim to the throne on its descent from Jimmu.
The name "Emperor Jimmu" is treated as the [[posthumous name]] of this mythical figure. In fact, being Chinese in form and Buddhist in implication, it must have been awarded centuries after the lifetime ascribed to him, as part of the compilation of legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty known as the [[Kojiki]]. "Jimmu" literally means "divine might".
According to [[Shinto]] belief, Jimmu is regarded as a direct descendant of the sun goddess, [[Amaterasu]]. Amaterasu had a son called [[Ame no Oshihomimi no Mikoto]] and through him a grandson named [[Ninigi-no-Mikoto]]. She sent her grandson to the Japanese islands where he eventually married [[Princess Konohana-Sakuya]]. Among their three sons was [[Hikohohodemi no Mikoto]], also called [[Yamasachi-hiko]], who married [[Princess Toyotama]]. She was the daughter of [[Ryujin|Owatatsumi]], the Japanese [[sea]] god and brother of Amaterasu. They had a single son called [[Hikonagisa Takeugaya Fukiaezu no Mikoto]]. The boy was abandoned by his parents at birth and consequently raised by [[Princess Tamayori]], his mother's younger sister. They eventually married and had a total of four sons. The last of them became Emperor Jimmu.
In 1889, [[Kashihara Shrine]] was built to enshrine him in [[Kashihara]], [[Nara prefecture|Nara]].
New Year's Day in the Japanese lunisolar calendar was traditionally celebrated as the regnal day of Emperor Jimmu. In 1872, the [[Meiji Era|Meiji]] government proclaimed that February 11, 660 BCE in the [[Gregorian calendar]] was the foundation day of Japan. This mythical date was commemorated in the holiday ''Kigensetsu'' ("Era Day") from [[1872]] to [[1948]], which was resurrected in [[1966]] as the holiday ''Kenkoku Kinen-bi'' ("[[National Foundation Day]]").
==Notes==
#Japanese dates correspond to the traditional [[lunisolar calendar]] used in Japan until 1873.
== References and external links ==
* [http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/ANCJAPAN/JIMMU.HTM A more detailed profile of him]
* [http://www9.ocn.ne.jp/~aosima/english-yuisyo.html A detailed summary of his descent legend]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=''(none)'' | after=[[Emperor Suizei]] | years=660 BCE-585 BCE}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:711 BC births|Jimmu]]
[[Category:585 BC deaths|Jimmu]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Jimmu]]
[[ar:جينمو تينو]]
[[de:Jimmu]]
[[es:Emperador Jinmu]]
[[fr:Jimmu]]
[[ko:진무 천황]]
[[it:Jimmu imperatore del Giappone]]
[[lv:Jimu]]
[[nl:Jinmu]]
[[ja:神武天皇]]
[[pl:Jinmu]]
[[pt:Jinmu]]
[[fi:Jimmu]]
[[sv:Jimmu Tenno]]
[[zh:神武天皇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elton John</title>
<id>10131</id>
<revision>
<id>42126105</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:10:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The tooth</username>
<id>652482</id>
</contributor>
<comment>RV</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
{{Infobox_biography |
subject_name = Sir Elton Hercules John |
image_name = Elton_John_2.jpg |
image_caption = Elton John in the '70s |
date_of_birth = [[March 25]], [[1947]] |
place_of_birth = [[Pinner, England|Pinner]], [[England]], [[United Kingdom|UK]] |
}}
'''Sir Elton Hercules {{ref|hercules}} John''', [[Commander of Order of the British Empire|CBE]] (born [[25 March]] [[1947]]) is a [[pop music]] [[singer]], [[composer]], and [[pianist]], and is one of the most successful solo artists in popular music history. Though best-known in contemporary times for his successful [[Candle in the Wind 1997|1997 re-release]] of "[[Candle In The Wind]]", his recording and performing career has spanned over four decades. His flamboyant fashion sense, on-stage showmanship, and public struggles with his private life have combined with his talent to make him a legend to his many fans around the world.
John was one of the dominant commercial forces in the rock world during the [[1970s]], racking up a string of seven consecutive #1 records on the U.S. album charts. His piano-based sound has helped keep that instrument relevant in a guitar-oriented genre. He has maintained a public presen |
w opinion of the [[GOTO]] statement in [[computer programming]], culminating in the [[1968]] article "[[Go To Statement Considered Harmful]]" (EWD215) [http://www.acm.org/classics/oct95/], regarded as a major step towards the widespread deprecation of the [[GOTO]] statement and its effective replacement by [[control structure]]s such as the [[while loop]]. The paper's famous title was not the work of Dijkstra, but of [[Niklaus Wirth]], then editor of [[Communications of the ACM]]. Dijkstra was known to be a fan of [[ALGOL|ALGOL 60]], and worked on the team that implemented the first [[compiler]] for that language. Dijkstra and Jaap Zonneveld, who collaborated on the compiler, agreed not to shave until the project was completed. Zonneveld eventually shaved off his beard; Dijkstra kept his until his death.
From the [[1970s]], Dijkstra's chief interest was [[formal verification]]. The prevailing opinion at the time was that one should first write a program and then provide a [[mathematical proof]] of [[correctness]]. Dijkstra objected that the resulting proofs are long and cumbersome, and that the proof gives no insight as to how the program was developed. An alternative method is ''[[program derivation]]'', to "develop proof and program hand in hand". One starts with a mathematical ''specification'' of what a program is supposed to do and applies mathematical transformations to the specification until it is turned into a program that can be executed. The resulting program is then known to be '''correct by construction'''. Much of Dijkstra's later work concerns ways to streamline mathematical argument. In a 2001 interview, he stated a desire for "elegance," whereby the correct approach would be to process thoughts mentally, rather than attempt to render them until they are complete. The analogy he made was to contrast the compositional approaches of [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] and [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]].
Dijkstra was known for his forthright opinions on programming, and for his habit of carefully composing [[manuscript]]s with his [[fountain pen]]. The manuscripts are called EWDs, since Dijkstra numbered them with ''EWD'' as prefix. Dijkstra would distribute photocopies of a new EWD among his colleagues; as many recipients photocopied and forwarded their copy, the EWDs spread throughout the international computer science community (see EWD1000). The topics are mainly computer science and mathematics, but also include trip reports, letters, and speeches. Many of the more than 1300 EWDs have since been scanned and are available online.
He died on [[August 6]], [[2002]] after a long struggle with [[cancer]].
==Pronunciation==
''Edsger Dijkstra'' sounds like {{IPA|[&#712;&#603;t&#716;sx&#601;r &#712;d&#603;&#618;k&#716;stra]}}.
See Dutch Pronunciation in the '''External links''' and '''References''' below.
==See also==
* [[Dijkstra's algorithm]]
* [[Dining philosophers problem]]
* "[[The Cruelty of Really Teaching Computer Science]]"
== References ==
* Edsger Wybe Dijkstra 1930&ndash;2002
** [http://www.digidome.nl/edsger_wybe_dijkstra.htm Biography, Digidome]
** [http://homepages.cwi.nl/~apt/ps/dijkstra.pdf ''Edsger Wybe Dijkstra (1930&ndash;2002): A Portrait of a Genius''] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]]) Obituary on ''[[Formal Aspects of Computing]]'' with a short biography
** [http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/memorial/moore.html Dijkstra Eulogy by J Strother Moore]
** [http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/memorial/gries.html ''How can we explain Edsger W. Dijkstra to those who didn't know him? by David Gries'']
* Writings by E.W. Dijkstra
** ''Go To Statement Considered Harmful'', ''[[Communications of the ACM]]'', Vol. 11 (1968) 147&ndash;148; [http://www.acm.org/classics/oct95/ online edition] (EWD215)
** [http://www.cs.virginia.edu/~evans/cs655/readings/ewd498.html ''How do we tell truths that might hurt?'' (EWD498)]
<!-- I found this copy of the above paper with a copyright notice in it at
http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/ewd04xx/EWD498.PDF, so I don't think that the set of quotes should be lifted from it. Bubba73 -->
** [http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD11xx/EWD1166.html ''From My Life'' (EWD166)]
** [http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/ Collected works (including EWDs)]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://homepage.mac.com/schuffelen/dureq.html Dutch Pronunciation Guide]
* [http://noorderlicht.vpro.nl/afleveringen/3502225/ Noorderlicht Interview Video, bandwidth options]
* [http://www.luca.demon.co.uk/Fonts/Pc/Dijkstra.zip Luca Cardelli's Font of Dijkstra's Handwriting (as a .zip file)]
[[Category:1930 births|Dijkstra, Edsger]]
[[Category:2002 deaths|Dijkstra, Edsger]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Dijkstra, Edsger]]
[[Category:Dutch computer scientists|Dijkstra, Edsger]]
[[Category:Dutch physicists|Dijkstra, Edsger]]
[[Category:Turing Award laureates|Dijkstra, Edsger]]
[[Category:Fellows of the ACM|Dijkstra, Edsger]]
[[Category:Formal methods people|Dijkstra, Edsger]]
[[ast:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[bn:এট্স্হার ডেক্স্ট্রা]]
[[cs:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[da:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[de:Edsger Wybe Dijkstra]]
[[es:Edsger Wybe Dijkstra]]
[[fr:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[ko:에츠허르 데이크스트라]]
[[id:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[it:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[he:אדסחר דייקסטרה]]
[[lb:Edsger W. Dijkstra]]
[[nl:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[ja:エドガー・ダイクストラ]]
[[pl:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[pt:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[ro:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[ru:Дейкстра, Эдсгер Вайб]]
[[sk:Edsger Wybe Dijkstra]]
[[fi:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[sv:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[vi:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[zh:艾兹格·迪科斯彻]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>East Asia</title>
<id>10020</id>
<revision>
<id>41184548</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T16:55:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.22.40.107</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''East Asia''' is a subregion of [[Asia]] that can be defined in either [[Geography|geographical]] or cultural terms. Geographically, it covers about 6,640,000 km&sup2;, or 15% of the Asian continent. Culturally, it embraces those societies that are part of the [[Chinese culture|Chinese cultural]] sphere, displaying heavy historical influence from the [[Classical Chinese]] language (including the traditional [[Chinese_character|script]]), [[Confucianism]] and [[Neo-Confucianism]], [[Mahayana Buddhism]], and [[Daoism]]. This combination of [[language]], [[political philosophy]], and [[religion]] overlaps with the geographical designation of East Asia.
The following countries are located in ''geographic East Asia'':
*The [[People's Republic of China]] (including [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]])
*[[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]) (''see [[political status of Taiwan]]'')
*[[North Korea|Democratic People's Republic of Korea]] ([[North Korea]])
*[[South Korea|Republic of Korea]] ([[South Korea]])
*[[Japan]]
*[[Mongolia]]
The following peoples or societies are encompassed by ''cultural East Asia'':
*[[China|Chinese]] society (which would also include the dispersed [[China|Chinese]]-dominated regions of [[Hong Kong]], [[Taiwan]], [[Macau]], and [[Singapore]] due to Singapore's large Chinese population)
*[[Japan|Japanese]] society
*[[Korea|Korean]] society
*[[Mongolia|Mongolian]] society
*[[Vietnam]]ese society
The following [[Country|countries]] or regions are sometimes considered part of '''East Asia'''. A major reason for disagreement on this question is the difference between the cultural and geographic definitions of "East Asia". Political perspective is also an important factor.
*The parts of China that are not historically [[Han Chinese]]: [[Xinjiang]], [[Qinghai]], [[Tibet]] (either East Asia or [[Central Asia]])
*[[Russian Far East]] (either East Asia or [[North Asia]])
*[[Vietnam]] (either East Asia or [[Southeast Asia]])
More than 1.5 [[billion]] people, about 40% of the population of [[Asia]] or a quarter of all the people in the world, live in geographic East Asia. The region is one of the world's most crowded places. The population density of East Asia, 230 per km&sup2;, is over five times the world average.
==Other subregions of Asia==
*[[Southeast Asia]]
*[[South Asia]] ([[Indian Subcontinent]])
*[[Central Asia]]
*[[Southwest Asia]] or [[West Asia]] (One definition of the [[Middle East]] is synonymous with Southwest Asia)
*[[North Asia]] ([[Siberia]])
*[[Northern Eurasia]] (Extends into [[Europe]])
*[[Central Eurasia]] (Extends into [[Europe]])
==See also==
*[[History of East Asia]]
*[[East Asian language]]
*[[Asian Network of Major Cities 21]]
*[[Eastasia]], one of the three superpowers in [[George Orwell]]'s novel ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''.
*[[East Asian Tigers]], a label pertinent to the recent [[economic history]] of the region.
{{Region}}
[[Category:Asia]]
[[Category:East Asia| ]]
[[bg:Източна Азия]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tang-a]]
[[de:Ostasien]]
[[es:Extremo Oriente]]
[[eo:Orienta Azio]]
[[fr:Asie de l'Est]]
[[he:מזרח אסיה]]
[[gl:Extremo Oriente]]
[[ko:동아시아]]
[[id:Asia Timur]]
[[ms:Asia Timur]]
[[nl:Oost-Azië]]
[[ja:東アジア]]
[[pl:Daleki Wschód]]
[[pt:Extremo Oriente]]
[[ru:Восточная Азия]]
[[fi:Itä-Aasia]]
[[th:เอเชียตะวันออก]]
[[vi:Đông Á]]
[[zh:东亚]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Educational perennialism</title>
<id>10021</id>
<revision>
<id>38931240</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T16:25:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>149.68.172.25</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Colleges exemplifying this philosophy */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Perennialists''' believe that one should teach the things that they believe are of everlasting importance to all people everywhere. They believe that the most important topics develop a person. Since details of fact change constantly, these cannot be the most important. Therefore, one should teach principles, not facts. Since peop |
], which then became the name of the whole island, previously the island was called ''Andalas''.{{fact}}
Fearful of returning to Delhi as a failure, he stayed for a time in the south under the protection of [[Jamal al-Din]], but when that worthy was overthrown it became necessary for Ibn Battuta to leave India altogether. He resolved to carry on to China, with a detour near the beginning of the journey to the [[Maldives]].
In the Maldives he spent nine months, much more time than he had intended to. As a ''qadi'' his skills were highly desirable in the backwards islands and he was half-bribed, half-kidnapped into staying. Appointed chief judge and marrying into the royal family, he became embroiled in local politics, and ended up leaving after wearing out his welcome by imposing strict judgments in the laissez-faire island kingdom. From there he carried on to [[Ceylon]] for a visit to [[Sri Pada]] (Adam's Peak).
Setting sail from Ceylon, his ship nearly sank in a storm, then the ship that rescued him was attacked by pirates. Stranded on shore, Ibn Battuta once again worked his way back to Calicut, from where he then sailed to the Maldives again before getting onboard a Chinese junk and trying once again to get to China.
This time he succeeded, reaching in quick succession [[Chittagong]], Sumatra, [[Vietnam]], and then finally [[Quanzhou]] in [[Fujian]] Province, China. From there he went north to [[Hangzhou]], not far from modern-day [[Shanghai]]. He also travelled even further north, through the [[Grand Canal of China|Grand Canal]] to [[Beijing]], although there has been some doubt about whether this actually occurred.
==Return home and the Black Death==
Returning to Quanzhou, Ibn Battuta decided to return home &ndash; though exactly where "home" was was a bit of a problem. Returning to Calicut once again, he pondered throwing himself on the mercy of Muhammed Tughlaq, but thought better of it and decided to carry on to Mecca once again. Returning via Hormuz and the Il-Khanate, he saw that state dissolved into civil war, Abu Sa'id having died since his previous trip there.
Returning to Damascus with the intention of retracing the route of his first ''Hajj'', he learned that his father had died. Death was the theme of the next year or so, for the [[Black Death]] had begun, and Ibn Battuta was on hand as it spread through Syria, Palestine, and Arabia. After reaching Mecca, he decided to return to Morocco, nearly a quarter century after leaving it. During the trip he made one last detour to [[Sardinia]], then returned to Tangier to discover that his mother had also died, a few months before.
==Andalus and North Africa==
Having settled in Tangier for all of a few days, Ibn Battuta then set out for a trip to ''al-Andalus'' &ndash; [[Al-Andalus|Muslim Spain]]. [[Alfonso XI of Castile]] was threatening the conquest of [[Gibraltar]], and Ibn Battuta joined up with a group of Muslims leaving Tangier with the intention of defending the port. By the time he arrived the Black Death had killed Alfonso and the threat had receded, so Ibn Battuta decided to visit for pleasure instead. He travelled through [[Valencia]], and ended up in [[Granada]].
Leaving Spain he decided to travel through one of the few parts of the Muslim world that he had never explored: Morocco. On his return home he stopped for a while in [[Marrakesh]], which was nearly a ghost town after the recent plague and the transfer of the capital to [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]].
Once more he returned to Tangier, and once more he moved on. Two years before his own first visit to Cairo, the [[Mali Empire|Mali]]an king [[Mansa Musa]] had passed through the same city on his own ''Hajj'' and had caused a sensation with his extravagant riches -- [[West Africa]] contained vast quantities of gold, previously unknown to the rest of the world. While Ibn Battuta never mentions this specifically, hearing of this during his own trip must have planted a seed in his mind, for he decided to set out and visit the Muslim kingdom on the far side of the [[Sahara Desert]].
==Mali==
In the fall of 1351, Ibn Battuta set out from Fez, reaching the last Moroccan town ([[Sijilmasa]]) a bit more than a week later. When the winter caravans began a few months later, he joined one, and within a month he was in the Central Saharan town of [[Taghaza]]. A centre of the salt trade, Taghaza was awash with salt and Malian gold, though Ibn Battuta did not have a favorable impression of the place. Another 500 miles through the worst part of the desert brought him to Mali, particularly the town of Walata.
From there he travelled southwest along a river he believed to be the [[Nile]] (it was actually the [[Niger River]]) until he reached the capital of the Mali Empire. There he met Mansa [[Suleyman (mansa)|Suleyman]], king since [[1341]]. Dubious about the miserly hospitality of the king, he nevertheless stayed for eight months before journeying back up the Niger to [[Timbuktu]]. Though in the next two centuries it would become the most important city in the region, at the time it was small and unimpressive, and Ibn Battuta soon moved on. Partway through his journey back across the desert he received a message from the Sultan of Morocco commanding him to return home. This he did, and this time it lasted.
After the publication of the ''Rihla'', little is known about Ibn Battuta's life. He may have been appointed a ''qadi'' in [[Morocco]]. Ibn Battuta died in Morocco some time between [[1368]] and [[1377]]. For centuries his book was obscure, even within the Muslim world, but in the [[1800s]] it was rediscovered and translated into several European languages. Since then Ibn Battuta has grown in fame, and is now a well-known figure in the Middle East.
==See also==
*[[Ibn Battuta (crater)]] for the [[Lunar]] [[crater]] named after him
*[http://dubaicityguide.com/specials/index.asp?id=1114 Ibn Battuta (shopping centre)] - Dubai UAE named after him
== References ==
*{{cite book | author=Mackintosh-Smith, Tim (ed.) | title=The Travels of Ibn Battutah | publisher=Picador | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-330-41879-3}}
==External links==
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/ibn-battuta/ Ibn Battuta on the Web] &mdash; a Ibn Battuta-centered web directory
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1354-ibnbattuta.html Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa 1325-1354] &mdash; excerpts from H. A. R. Gibb's translation
*[http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200004/default.htm The Longest Hajj: The Journeys of Ibn Battuta] &mdash; Saudi Aramco World article by Douglas Bullis (July/August 2000)
*[http://www.mackintosh-smith.com/ Travels with a Tangerine: Travels in the Footnotes of Ibn Battutah and The Hall of a Thousand Columms: Hindustan to Malabar with Ibn Battutah ] &mdash; Books by [[Tim Mackintosh-Smith]]
*[http://www.harcourtschool.com/activity/biographies/battuta/ Biography ] &mdash; interactive journeys of Ibn Battuta
[[Category:1304 births|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:1377 deaths|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:Moroccan writers|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:Moroccan explorers|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:Explorers of Asia|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:Explorers of Africa|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:Geographers|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:Muslim scientists|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[ar:ابن بطوطة]]
[[da:Ibn Battuta]]
[[de:Ibn Battuta]]
[[es:Ibn Battuta]]
[[eo:Ibn Batuta]]
[[fr:Ibn Battûta]]
[[hr:Ibn Battuta]]
[[id:Ibnu Batutah]]
[[he:אבן בטוטה]]
[[nl:Ibn Batuta]]
[[ja:イブン＝バットゥータ]]
[[pl:Muhammad Ibn Battuta]]
[[ru:Батута]]
[[sl:Ibn Batuta]]
[[sv:Muhammad Ibn Battuta]]
[[tr:İbn Battuta]]
[[uk:Ібн Батута]]
[[wa:Ibn Batouta]]
[[zh:伊本·白图泰]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iron Curtain</title>
<id>15230</id>
<revision>
<id>42016836</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:10:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rossumcapek</username>
<id>23334</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>formatting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EiserneVorhang.png|thumb|right|Europe at the time of the Iron Curtain]]
The '''''Iron Curtain''''' (''Eiserner Vorhang'' in German, ''Železná opona'' in Czech, ''Железный занавес'' (''Zhelezniy zanaves'') in [[Russian language|Russian]], ''Σιδηρούν παραπέτασμα'' in [[Greek language|Greek]], ''Vasfüggöny'' in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], ''Jernteppet'' in [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], ''Żelazna kurtyna'' in [[Polish_language|Polish]], ''Cortina de fier'' in [[Romanian language|Romanian]], ''Желязна завеса'' in [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] , "Rautaesirippu" in [[Finnish language|Finnish]] ) is a [[Western world|Western]] term referring to the boundary which symbolically, ideologically, and physically divided [[Europe]] into two separate areas from the end of [[World War II]] until the end of the [[Cold War]], roughly 1945 to 1990.
A variant of the Iron Curtain, the [[Bamboo Curtain]], was coined in reference to the [[People's Republic of China]]. As the standoff between the West and the countries of the Iron and Bamboo curtains eased with the end of the Cold War, the term fell out of any but historical usage.
==Political, economic and military realities==
===East of the Iron Curtain===
[[Image:curtain germany.jpg|thumb|Iron Curtain Germany]]
While the Iron Curtain was in place, certain countries of [[Eastern Europe]] and many in [[Central Europe]] (except [[West Germany]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Switzerland]] and [[Austria]]) were under the political influence of the [[Soviet Union]]. Indeed the Central European states to the east of the Curtain were frequently regarded as being part of Eastern Europe, rather than Central Europe.
Many of the states were members of the Soviet Union itself (the [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Socialist Republics]]), while with two exceptions the neighboring countries of the [[Eastern bloc]] were ruled by pro-Soviet governments, kept in plac |
h them other animals that had not existed on the island before, including [[dog]]s, [[pig]]s, [[rat]]s and [[monkey]]s, which plundered the Dodo nests, while humans destroyed the forests where they made their homes.
There is some controversy surrounding the extinction date of the Dodo. [[David Roberts]] states that "the extinction of the Dodo is commonly dated to the last confirmed sighting in [[1662]], reported by [[shipwreck|shipwrecked]] mariner [[Volkert Evertsz]]", but other sources suggest [[1681]].
Roberts points out that because the sighting prior to 1662 was in [[1638]] (i.e. 24 years earlier), the Dodo was likely already very rare by the 1660s. However, [[statistics|statistical]] analysis of the hunting records of [[Isaac Joan Lamotius]], carried out by [[Julian Hume]] and coworkers, gives a new estimated extinction date of [[1693]], with a 95% [[confidence interval]] of [[1688]] to [[1715]].
The last known Dodo was killed less than 100 years after the species' discovery, and no complete specimens are preserved, although a number of museum collections contain Dodo skeletons. A Dodo egg is on display at the East London museum in South Africa. Genetic material has been recovered from these and its analysis has confirmed that the Dodo was a close relative of [[pigeon]] species that are to be found in Africa and especially South Asia.
No one took particular notice of the extinct bird, until it was featured in the Caucus race in [[Lewis Carroll]]'s ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' (1865). With the popularity of the book, the Dodo became a household word: "as dead as a Dodo." The character was named [[Dodo (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Dodo]].
== Family Raphidae ==
[[Image:ExtinctDodoBird.jpeg|right]]
Traditionally, the Dodo has been taxonomically assigned to the family [[Raphidae]], one of two families within the Order [[Columbiformes]]. The other family, the [[Columbidae]], consists of all [[pigeon]] and [[dove]] species.
Two Dodo-like birds were reported by sailors to be living on islands near Mauritius: in [[1613]] the Réunion Solitaire, ''Raphus solitarius'' on [[Réunion]], and in [[1691]] the [[Rodrigues Solitaire]], ''Pezophaps solitarius'' on [[Rodrigues (island)|Rodrigues]]. The latter became extinct during the 1760s.
No evidence has ever been found to support the existence of the Réunion Solitaire, and [[ornithology|ornithologists]] now believe that the bird actually seen was the [[Réunion Flightless Ibis]] ''Threskiornis solitarius'', which is also now extinct. When it was believed to exist, it was also referred to as 'White Dodo', as travellers' descriptions of the Flightless Ibis correctly gave its plumage as mainly white, and as there exist some paintings of white Dodos, it was believed that these showed the assumed Dodo of Réunion. However, at least some descriptions clearly state that wingtips and tail of the Réunion "Solitaire" were black (as it certainly was the case, still seen in its close living relative, the Sacred Ibis), while the paintings show an entirely white bird (apart from what is probably soiling of some feathers with dirt in captivity). The paintings were most certainly of captive birds in some European menagerie; they show a rounded, not hooked beak which seems to indicate cropping as a precaution against attacks on the keepers (travellers' reports state that, if cornered, Dodos would bite quite viciously, as can be expected of a bird with such considerable bulk). The most likely source of the 'White Dodo' paintings is a small number of [[Albinism|albinotic]] Dodos &mdash; perhaps even only one &mdash; that reached Europe and were kept as curiosities.
Dr Alan Cooper and Dr Beth Shapiro from Oxford's Henry Wellcome Ancient Biomolecules Centre, Dr Dean Sibthorpe, Andrew Rambaut, Dr Graham Wragg, Dr Olaf Bininda-Emonds and Dr Patricia Lee from Oxford's Department of Zoology, and Dr Jeremy Austin from the Natural History Museum, London, carried out research in 2000-2002 by extracting tiny fragments of Dodo [[DNA]]. The samples were taken from the only surviving Dodo specimen with soft tissues remaining - the 300 year old 'Alice in Wonderland' specimen in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. [[DNA]] was also extracted from a Solitaire bone excavated from a cave on Rodrigues Island. The results of this analysis showed that, as expected, the Dodo and Solitare were very closely related to each other. However, rather than belonging to a separate family from the [[Dove|pigeons]], the [[DNA]] results showed that the Dodo and Solitaire actually belong inside the pigeon family, and most closely related to the [[Nicobar Pigeon]], ''Caloenus nicobarica''.
In 1973, scientists discovered that a species of tree on Mauritius, the [[dodo tree]] ''Sideroxylon grandiflorum'' = ''Calvaria major'', was dying out. There were only 13 specimens reported left, and all of them were about 300 years old, dating from the time when the last Dodo was killed. It was discovered that the Dodos ate the seeds of the tree, and only by passing through the digestive tract of the Dodo did the seeds become active and start to grow. After a while, it was discovered that the same effect could be accomplished by letting [[turkey (bird)|turkeys]] eat the seeds. The tree species has been saved.
However, more recent research suggests that young specimens were simply overlooked and that it probably was the extinct [[Broad-billed Parrot]] ''Lophopsittacus mauritianus'' rather than Dodos which were chiefly responsible for spreading the seeds. See the [[dodo tree]] article for more details and references.
==Use as a symbol==
[[Image:Coat of arms of Mauritius.png|thumb|[[Coat of arms]] of [[Mauritius]]]]
*The Dodo appears on the [[Coat of arms]] of [[Mauritius]], its origin. It's the symbol of the [[Brasseries de Bourbon]], a popular brewer on [[Réunion Island]].
*The Dodo is the symbol and mascot of the [[Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust]] and the [[Jersey Zoological Park]], founded by [[Gerald Durrell]].
*The Dodo is the name, symbol and mascot of Finnish environmental organization Dodo. [http://www.dodo.org]
==Use in popular culture==
*The first use of the Dodo in popular culture was in [[Lewis Carroll]]'s ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'', in [[1865]]. The book features a Dodo character simply called [[Dodo (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Dodo]]. The character represents the author himself, as he frequently doubled the ''do'' at the beginning of his real name, Dodgson.
*The [[1938]] [[Bob Clampett]]-directed ''[[Looney Tunes]]'' cartoon ''[[Porky in Wackyland]]'' has [[Porky Pig]] chasing the last Do-Do Bird across the surreal Wackyland. The Do-Do Bird is somewhat insane, as is his environment, but he is still able to escape capture from Porky for most of the film.
*The [[1990s]] cartoon ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'' featured a dodo character named [[Gogo Dodo]], who was the son of the dodo bird portrayed in ''Porky in Wackyland''. Gogo's personality in the series was quite wild and bizarre, often embracing surreal and nonsensical elements.
*One of [[Doctor (Doctor Who)|The Doctor]]'s companions in the third season of ''[[Doctor Who]]'' ([[1966]]) was nicknamed [[Dodo Chaplet|Dodo]]. She had a bright and happy, if unsophisticated, personality, somewhat reminiscent of the Dodo bird's traits.
*In the 1987 book [[Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency]] by English writer [[Douglas Adams]], Professor Chronotis claims that the Dodo only became extinct because he had worked so hard to save the coelacanth.
*An episode of ''[[The Goodies]]'' had [[Bill Oddie]] discovering the reason for the extinction of the dodo---the fact that "they're delicious!"
*In the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] comic series ''[[Douwe Dabbert]]'' a Dodo was featured as his traveling companion, leaving him eventually for the last female Dodo.
*In the later episodes of the [[Netherlands|Dutch]]-[[Japan]]ese cartoon series ''[[Alfred J. Kwak]]'', Alfred encounters the secret underwater habitat where the Dodos fled to save their species from extinction.
*In 1981 the band [[Genesis (band)|Genesis]] featured a song on the [[Abacab]] album entitled "Dodo/Lurker".
*The [[David Bowie]] Box Set "Sound + Vision" released in 1995 contain a previously unreleased version of the song "1984" which included a sub-song called "Dodo". The song was originally recorded in 1973 during the "[[Diamond Dogs]]" recording sessions. The "Sound + Vision" box set was re-released in 2003.
*In a [[1996]] episode of the animated series ''[[The Simpsons]]'' (entitled ''[[Homer the Smithers]]''), [[Montgomery Burns|Mr. Burns]] orders [[Homer Simpson|Homer]] to prepare him a Dodo egg for lunch. This is part of a running joke of the show, which consists of making the character of Mr. Burns as out-of-touch with modern world developments as possible.
*In [[1999]], [[Aimee Mann]] featured a dodo on the cover of her album "[[Bachelor No. 2]], or, the Last Remains of the Dodo." None of the songs mention the dodo, however.
*In the [[2001]] video game ''[[Grand Theft Auto III]]'', an aircraft named the [[Fully-winged Dodo]] can be seen flying over the city. Although this plane cannot be flown, a shorn-winged version, simply called Dodo, can actually be flown (with great difficulty) by the player. The Dodo can be found at the Liberty City Airport. This is of course a joke, mocking the fact the Dodo was a flightless bird. The Dodo reappears in ''[[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]]'', and is available at the Las Venturas Airport.
*The [[2002]] movie ''[[Ice Age (film)|Ice Age]]'' features an army of Dodo, who are trying to survive extinction by stockpiling only three watermelons. The watermelons are destroyed in the movie, along with a number of Dodo trying to protect them, thus dooming the species to extinction. This rendi |
a Ferber]], American novelist (d. [[1968]])
*[[1883]] - [[Ivan Mestrovic|Ivan Me&#353;trovi&#263;]], Croatian sculptor (d. [[1962]])
*[[1890]] - [[Jacques Ibert]], French composer (d. [[1962]])
*[[1892]] - [[Louis, 7th duc de Broglie]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1987]])
*[[1893]] - [[Leslie Comrie]], New Zealand astronomer and computing pioneer (d. [[1950]])
*[[1896]] - [[Gerty Cori]], Austrian-born biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1957]])
*1896 - [[Léon Theremin|Leon Theremin]], Russian inventor (d. [[1993]])
*[[1900]] - [[Jan Brzechwa]], Polish poet (d. [[1966]])
*[[1912]] - [[Julia Child]], American cook (d. [[2004]])
*1912 - Dame [[Wendy Hiller]], English actress (d. [[2003]])
*[[1916]] - [[Aleks Çaçi]], Albanian writer
*[[1917]] - [[Jack Lynch]], fourth [[President of Ireland]] (d. [[1999]])
*[[1919]] - [[Huntz Hall]], American actor (d. [[1999]])
*[[1922]] - [[Lukas Foss]], German-born composer
*[[1923]] - [[Rose Marie]], American actress
*[[1924]] - [[Robert Bolt]], English screenwriter (d. [[1995]])
*[[1925]] - [[Mike Connors]], American actor
*1925 - [[Willie Jones (baseball)|Willie Jones]], baseball player (d. [[1983]])
*1925 - [[Oscar Peterson]], Canadian jazz pianist
*[[1928]] - [[Nicolas Roeg]], English film director
*[[1933]] - [[Jim Lange]], American game show host
*[[1935]] - [[Vernon Jordan Jr.]], U.S. Presidential advisor
*1935 - [[Lionel Taylor]], American football player
*[[1938]] - [[Janusz A. Zajdel]], Polish writer
*[[1944]] - [[Linda Ellerbee]], American journalist
*1944 - [[Sylvie Vartan]], French pop singer
*[[1945]] - [[Mahamandaleshwar Paramhans Swami Maheshwarananda]], Indian guru
*1945 - [[Begum Khaleda Zia]], [[Prime Minister of Bangladesh]]
*[[1946]] - [[Jimmy Webb]], American musician and composer
*[[1947]] - [[Raakhee Gulzar]], Indian actress
*[[1948]] - [[Uschi Digard]], American actress and model
*[[1949]] - [[Richard Deacon]], Welsh sculptor
*[[1950]] - [[Anne, Princess Royal|Princess Anne of the United Kingdom]]
*[[1951]] - [[Daba Diawara]], Malian politician
*[[1957]] - [[Željko Ivanek]], American actor
*[[1958]] - [[Victor Shenderovich]], Russian satirist
*[[1965]] - [[Rob Thomas (writer)|Rob Thomas]], author and screenwriter
*[[1968]] - [[Debra Messing]], American actress
*[[1972]] - [[Ben Affleck]], American actor
*[[1974]] - [[Natasha Henstridge]], Canadian actress
*[[1975]] - [[Kara Wolters]], American basketball player
*[[1976]] - [[Boudewijn Zenden]], Dutch football player
*[[1977]] - [[Igor Cassina]], Italian gymnast
*[[1978]] - [[Tim Foreman]], American bassist ([[Switchfoot]])
*1978 - [[Lilia Podkopayeva]], Ukrainian gymnast
==Deaths==
*[[778]] - [[Roland]], Frankish commander (killed in battle)
*[[1038]] - King [[ Stephen I of Hungary]]
*[[1040]] - King [[Duncan I of Scotland]] (b. [[1001]])
*[[1057]] - King [[Macbeth I of Scotland]]
*[[1118]] - [[Alexius I Comnenus]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (b. [[1048]])
*[[1196]] - [[Conrad II, Duke of Swabia]] (b. [[1173]])
*[[1274]] - [[Robert de Sorbon]], French theologian and founder of the Sorbonne (b. [[1201]])
*[[1369]] - [[Philippa of Hainault]], queen of [[Edward III of England]]
*[[1528]] - [[Odet de Foix, Vicomte de Lautrec]], French military leader (b. [[1485]])
*[[1552]] - [[Hermann of Wied]], German Catholic archbishop (b. [[1477]])
*[[1621]] - [[John Barclay (1582-1621)|John Barclay]], Scottish writer (b. [[1582]])
*[[1666]] - [[Johann Adam Schall von Bell]], German Jesuit missionary (b. [[1591]])
*[[1714]] - [[Constantin Brâncoveanu]], Prince of Wallachia (b. [[1654]])
*[[1728]] - [[Marin Marais]], French composer and viol player (b. [[1656]])
*[[1799]] - [[Giuseppe Parini]], Italian poet (b. [[1729]])
*[[1852]] - [[Johan Gadolin]], Finnish scientist (b. [[1760]])
*[[1907]] - [[Joseph Joachim]], Austrian violinist (b. [[1831]])
*[[1909]] - [[Euclides da Cunha]], Brazilian writer and sociologist (b. [[1866]])
*[[1935]] - [[Wiley Post]], American pilot (b. [[1898]])
*1935 - [[Will Rogers]], American humorist and actor (b. [[1879]])
*[[1936]] - [[Grazia Deledda]], Italian writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1871]])
*[[1951]] - [[Artur Schnabel]], Polish pianist (b. [[1882]])
*[[1953]] - [[Ludwig Prandtl]], German physicist (b. [[1875]])
*[[1959]] - [[Blind Willie McTell]], American singer (b. [[1901]]
*[[1962]] - [[Lei Feng]], Chinese revolutionary (b. [[1940]])
*[[1967]] - [[René Magritte]], Belgian painter (b. [[1898]])
*[[1971]] - [[Paul Lukas]], Hungarian-born actor (b. [[1887]])
*[[1975]] - [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], [[President of Bangladesh]] (b. [[1920]])
*1975 - [[Clay Shaw]], [[John F. Kennedy]] assassination investigator (b. [[1913]])
*[[1982]] - [[Hugo Theorell]], Swedish scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1903]])
*[[1990]] - [[Viktor Tsoi]], Russian musician (b. [[1962]])
*[[1995]] - [[John Cameron Swayze]], American journalist (b. [[1906]])
*[[1999]] - Sir [[Hugh Casson]], British architect and artist (b. [[1910]])
*[[2001]] - [[Richard Chelimo]], Kenyan athlete (brain tumour) (b. [[1972]])
*[[2003]] - [[Gösta Sundqvist]], Finnish songwriter and singer (heart attack) (b. [[1957]])
*[[2004]] - [[Sune Bergström]], Swedish biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1916]])
*2004 - [[Amarsinh Chaudhary]], Indian politician (b. [[1941]])
*[[2005]] - [[James Dougherty]], first husband of [[Marilyn Monroe]] ([[leukemia]])
==Holidays and observances==
* [[August 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)|Eastern Orthodoxy]] &ndash; Feast of the [[Dormition of the Theotokos|Dormition]] of the [[Theotokos]], the commemoration of the death of [[Mary, the mother of Jesus]].
* [[Calendar of Saints|RC Saints]] &ndash; Feast day of the [[Assumption of Mary]], the mother of Jesus, [[Holy Day of Obligation]]. Public Holiday in: [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Cameroon]], [[Chile]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Croatia]], [[Cyprus]], [[East Timor]], [[France]], [[Greece]], [[India]], [[Italy]], [[Lebanon]], [[Lithuania]], [[Malta]], [[Mauritius]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Seychelles]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Spain]].
*[[Acadie]] &ndash; National Day
* [[Egypt]] &ndash; Flooding of the [[Nile]] Day
* [[Hawaii]] &ndash; ''[[Toro Nagashi]]'' (Floating Lantern Ceremony) to commemorate the end of the [[World War II|second world war]]
* [[Holidays in India|India]] &ndash; [[Independence Day]] (from the United Kingdom, [[1947]])
* [[Italy]] &ndash; "Ferragosto", remembrance of an ancient Roman holiday in honor of Augustus (Feriae Augusti)
* [[Korea]] &ndash; Liberation Day
* Ancient [[Latvia]] &ndash; [[Māras]]
* [[Liechtenstein]] &ndash; Liechtenstein Day
* [[Poland]] &ndash; Polish Armed Forces Day
* [[Jamaica]]&ndash; Jamaican national dance Day(Bianca Day)
* [[Tuva]] &ndash; Tuva Republic Day, [[Naadym]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/15 BBC: On This Day]
[[August 14]] - [[August 16]] - [[July 15]] - [[September 15]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:15 Augustus]]
[[ar:15 أغسطس]]
[[an:15 d'agosto]]
[[ast:15 d'agostu]]
[[bg:15 август]]
[[be:15 жніўня]]
[[bs:15. august]]
[[ca:15 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 15]]
[[cv:Çурла, 15]]
[[co:15 d'aostu]]
[[cs:15. srpen]]
[[cy:15 Awst]]
[[da:15. august]]
[[de:15. August]]
[[et:15. august]]
[[el:15 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:15 de agosto]]
[[eo:15-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 15]]
[[fo:15. august]]
[[fr:15 août]]
[[fy:15 augustus]]
[[ga:15 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:15 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 15일]]
[[hr:15. kolovoza]]
[[io:15 di agosto]]
[[id:15 Agustus]]
[[ia:15 de augusto]]
[[ie:15 august]]
[[is:15. ágúst]]
[[it:15 agosto]]
[[he:15 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:15 Agustus]]
[[kn:ಆಗಸ್ತ ೧೫]]
[[ka:15 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:15 zélnika]]
[[ku:15'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 15]]
[[lb:15. August]]
[[li:15 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 15]]
[[mk:15 август]]
[[ml:ആഗസ്റ്റ് 15]]
[[ms:15 Ogos]]
[[nap:15 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:15 augustus]]
[[ja:8月15日]]
[[no:15. august]]
[[nn:15. august]]
[[oc:15 d'agost]]
[[pl:15 sierpnia]]
[[pt:15 de Agosto]]
[[ro:15 august]]
[[ru:15 августа]]
[[se:Borgemánu 15.]]
[[sco:15 August]]
[[sq:15 Gusht]]
[[scn:15 di austu]]
[[simple:August 15]]
[[sk:15. august]]
[[sl:15. avgust]]
[[sr:15. август]]
[[fi:15. elokuuta]]
[[sv:15 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 15]]
[[tt:15. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 15]]
[[th:15 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:15 tháng 8]]
[[tr:15 Ağustos]]
[[uk:15 серпня]]
[[wa:15 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 15]]
[[zh:8月15日]]
[[pam:Agostu 15]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abu al-Fida</title>
<id>1444</id>
<revision>
<id>42060905</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:11:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shaolin128</username>
<id>653138</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abu al-Fida''' (fully '''Abu Al-fida' Isma'il Ibn 'ali Al-malik Al-mu'ayyad 'imad Ad-din''', also [[transliterated]] '''Abulfeda''', '''Abu Alfida''', and other ways) (November [[1273]] &ndash; [[October 27]], [[1331]]) was an [[Arab]] [[historian]], [[geographer]], and local [[sultan]].
==Life==
Abulfeda was born at [[Damascus]], where his father [[Malik ul-Afdal]], brother of the prince of [[Hamah]], had fled from the [[Mongols]]. He was a descendant of [[Ayyub]], the father of [[Saladin]].
In his boyhood he devoted himself to the study of the ''[[Qur'an]]'' and the sciences, but from his twelfth year was almost constantly engaged in military expeditions, chiefly against the [[Crusades|crusaders]].
In [[1285]] he was present at the assault of a stronghold of the [[Knights of St. John]], and took part in the sieges of [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]], [[Akko|Acre]] and [[Qal'at ar-Rum]]. In [[1298]] he entered the service of the [[Mameluke]] [[Sultan]] [[Malik al-Nasir]] and after twelve years was invested by him with the governorsh |
ash; 6%
***[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] &ndash; 4%
***[[Episcopal]] &ndash; 3%
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &ndash; 3%
***[[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] &ndash; 3%
***Other Protestant &ndash; 16%
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] &ndash; 26%
**Other Christian &ndash; 2%
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] &ndash; 4%
*Other Religions &ndash; 1%
*Non-Religious &ndash; 13%
==Important cities, towns, and communities==
[[Image:Acosta Bridge from Warren Bridge.jpg|right|thumb|[[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]]]]
[[Image:Miamidowntown.JPG|right|thumb|[[Miami, Florida|Miami]]]]
[[Image:Fort Lauderdale Skyline.jpeg|right|thumb|[[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]]]]
[[Image:Orlando Skyline at night.jpg|thumb|right|[[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]]]]
[[Image:florida_state_capitol.jpg|right|thumb|[[Tallahassee, Florida|Tallahassee]]]]
[[Image:tampadowntown.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]]]]
{{main articles|[[List of cities in Florida]] and [[Florida locations by per capita income]]}}
<table>
<tr>
<td style = "vertical-align:top;width:200px">
'''Metropolitan Area Population > 5,000,000'''
*[[South Florida metropolitan area|Miami-Ft.Lauderdale-West Palm Beach]]
'''Metropolitan Area Population > 2,500,000'''
*[[Tampa-Saint Petersburg-Clearwater, Florida, Metropolitan Statistical Area|Tampa-St. Petersburg-Clearwater]]
'''Metropolitan Area Population > 1,000,000'''
*[[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]]
*[[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]]
'''Metropolitan Area Population > 400,000'''
*[[Lee County, Florida|Cape Coral-Fort Myers]]
*[[Daytona Beach, Florida|Deltona-Daytona Beach-Deland]]
*[[Lakeland, Florida|Lakeland]]
*[[Melbourne, Florida|Palm Bay-Melbourne-Titusville]]
*[[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]]
*[[Port Saint Lucie, Florida|Port Saint Lucie-Fort Pierce-Stuart]]
*[[Sarasota, Florida|Sarasota-Bradenton]]
'''City Population > 200,000'''
*[[Hialeah, Florida|Hialeah]]
*[[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]]
*[[Miami, Florida|Miami]]
*[[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]]
*[[St. Petersburg, Florida|St. Petersburg]]
*[[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]]
'''City Population > 100,000'''
*[[Cape Coral, Florida|Cape Coral]]
*[[Clearwater, Florida|Clearwater]]
*[[Coral Springs, Florida|Coral Springs]]
*[[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]]
*[[Gainesville, Florida|Gainesville]]
*[[Hollywood, Florida|Hollywood]]
*[[Miami Gardens, Florida|Miami Gardens]]
*[[Pembroke Pines, Florida|Pembroke Pines]]
*[[Miramar, Florida|Miramar]]
*[[Port Saint Lucie, Florida|Port Saint Lucie]]
*[[Pompano Beach, Florida|Pompano Beach]]
*[[Tallahassee, Florida|Tallahassee]]
</td><td style = "vertical-align:top;width:200px">
'''City Population > 75,000'''
*[[Boca Raton, Florida|Boca Raton]]
*[[Brandon, Florida|Brandon]]
*[[Davie, Florida|Davie]]
*[[Deltona, Florida|Deltona]]
*[[Kendall, Florida|Kendall]]
*[[Lakeland, Florida|Lakeland]]
*[[Miami Beach, Florida|Miami Beach]]
*[[Palm Bay, Florida|Palm Bay]]
*[[Plantation, Florida|Plantation]]
*[[Sunrise, Florida|Sunrise]]
*[[West Palm Beach, Florida|West Palm Beach]]
'''City Population > 50,000'''
*[[Boynton Beach, Florida|Boynton Beach]]
*[[Bradenton, Florida|Bradenton]]
*[[Daytona Beach, Florida|Daytona Beach]]
*[[Deerfield Beach, Florida|Deerfield Beach]]
*[[Delray Beach, Florida|Delray Beach]]
*[[Fort Myers, Florida|Fort Myers]]
*[[Fountainbleau, Florida|Fountainbleau]]
*[[Kendale Lakes, Florida|Kendale Lakes]]
*[[Kissimmee, Florida|Kissimmee]]
*[[Largo, Florida|Largo]]
*[[Lauderhill, Florida|Lauderhill]]
*[[Lehigh Acres, Florida|Lehigh Acres]]
*[[Margate, Florida|Margate]]
*[[Melbourne, Florida|Melbourne]]
*[[North Miami, Florida|North Miami]]
*[[North Miami Beach, Florida|North Miami Beach]]
*[[Palm Harbor, Florida|Palm Harbor]]
*[[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]]
*[[Sarasota, Florida|Sarasota]]
*[[Spring Hill, Florida|Spring Hill]]
*[[Tamarac, Florida|Tamarac]]
*[[Tamiami, Florida|Tamiami]]
*[[Town 'n' Country, Florida|Town 'n' Country]]
*[[Weston, Florida|Weston]]
</td><td style = "vertical-align:top;width:200px">
'''City Population > 25,000'''
*[[Altamonte Springs, Florida|Altamonte Springs]]
*[[Aventura, Florida|Aventura]]
*[[Apopka, Florida|Apopka]]
*[[Bonita Springs, Florida|Bonita Springs]]
*[[Coconut Creek, Florida|Coconut Creek]]
*[[Cooper City, Florida|Cooper City]]
*[[Coral Gables, Florida|Coral Gables]]
*[[Dunedin, Florida|Dunedin]]
*[[East Lake, Florida|East Lake]]
*[[Egypt Lake-Leto, Florida|Egypt Lake-Leto]]
*[[Fort Pierce, Florida|Fort Pierce]]
*[[Greater Carrollwood, Florida|Greater Carrollwood]]
*[[Greenacres, Florida|Greenacres]]
*[[Hallandale Beach, Florida|Hallandale Beach]]
*[[Homestead, Florida|Homestead]]
*[[Jupiter, Florida|Jupiter]]
*[[Kendall West, Florida|Kendall West]]
*[[Lake Magdalene, Florida|Lake Magdalene]]
*[[Lake Worth, Florida|Lake Worth]]
*[[Lauderdale Lakes, Florida|Lauderdale Lakes]]
*[[North Fort Myers, Florida|North Fort Myers]]
*[[North Lauderdale, Florida|North Lauderdale]]
*[[Ocala, Florida|Ocala]]
*[[Ocoee, Florida|Ocoee]]
*[[Oakland Park, Florida|Oakland Park]]
*[[Ormond Beach, Florida|Ormond Beach]]
*[[Oviedo, Florida|Oviedo]]
*[[Palm Beach Gardens, Florida|Palm Beach Gardens]]
*[[Panama City, Florida|Panama City]]
*[[Pinellas Park, Florida|Pinellas Park]]
*[[Plant City, Florida|Plant City]]
*[[Port Orange, Florida|Port Orange]]
*[[Port Charlotte, Florida|Port Charlotte]]
*[[Riviera Beach, Florida|Riviera Beach]]
*[[Royal Palm Beach, Florida|Royal Palm Beach]]
*[[Sanford, Florida|Sanford]]
*[[Titusville, Florida|Titusville]]
*[[University, Florida|University]]
*[[Wellington, Florida|Wellington]]
*[[Westchester, Florida|Westchester]]
*[[Winter Haven, Florida|Winter Haven]]
*[[Winter Park, Florida|Winter Park]]
*[[Winter Springs, Florida|Winter Springs]]
</td></tr></table>
==Miscellaneous information==
[[Image:OrangeBloss wb.jpg|thumb|right|Orange blossoms.]]
*Nickname: "The Sunshine State"
*State Bird: [[Mockingbird]]
*State Flower: [[Orange blossom]] - (Citrus sinensis)
*State Insect: [[Zebra Heliconian|Zebra Longwing Butterfly]] [http://www.wec.ufl.edu/extension/state_symbols/state_insect.htm]
*State Song: "[[Old Folks at Home]] ([[Suwannee River]])" by Stephen C. Foster
*State Tree: [[Sabal Palm]]
*State Reptile: [[American Alligator]]
*State Animal: The [[Puma#Subspecies|Florida Panther]]
*State Marine Mammal: The [[West Indian Manatee]]
*State Saltwater Mammal: The [[Dolphin]]
*State Drink: [[Orange juice]]
*State Fruit: [[Orange (fruit)|Orange]]
*State Shell: The [[Conch|Horse Conch]] (The great band shell)
*State Saltwater Fish: The [[Sailfish]]
*State Freshwater Fish: Florida [[Largemouth Bass]]
*Highest Point: [[Britton Hill]]; 345 feet (105&nbsp;m), 50th
==Transportation==
[[Image:Floridaplate2003.jpg|thumb|right|The sample version of Florida's [[license plate]] ]]
===Highways===
Florida's [[Interstate highway|interstates]], [[Florida State Roads|state highways]] and [[U.S. Highways]] are maintained by the [[Florida Department of Transportation]].
Florida's interstate highway system contains 1,473 miles (2371&nbsp;km) of highway, and there are 9,934 miles (15&nbsp;987&nbsp;km) of non-interstate highway in the state, such as [[Florida State Roads|Florida state highways]] and [[U.S. Highways]].
Florida's primary interstate routes include:
*[[Interstate 4|I-4]], which bisects the state, connecting [[Tampa]], [[Lakeland]], [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], and [[Daytona Beach]]
*[[Interstate 10|I-10]], which traverses the panhandle, connecting [[Jacksonville]], [[Lake City]], [[Tallahassee]], and [[Pensacola]]
*[[Interstate 75|I-75]], which enters the state near [[Lake City]] and continues southward through [[Gainesville, Florida|Gainesville]], [[Ocala]], [[Tampa]]'s eastern suburbs, [[Bradenton, Florida|Bradenton]], [[Sarasota, Florida|Sarasota]], and [[Fort Myers, Florida|Fort Myers]] to [[Naples]], where, as a [[toll road]] it crosses the "Alligator Alley" to [[Ft. Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]]
*[[Interstate 95|I-95]], which enters the state near [[Jacksonville]] and continues along the Atlantic Coast through [[Daytona Beach]], [[Melbourne, Florida|Melbourne]], [[Palm Bay, Florida|Palm Bay]], [[West Palm Beach]], and [[Ft. Lauderdale]] before terminating near [[Miami]]
Florida's secondary interstate routes include:
*[[Interstate 110 (Florida)|I-110]], a spur from I-10 into downtown Pensacola
*[[Interstate 175 (Florida)|I-175]], which connects I-275 to southern downtown [[St. Petersburg, Florida|St. Petersburg]]
*[[Interstate 195 (Florida)|I-195]], an extension of Miami's Airport Expressway ([[State Road 112 (Florida)|S.R. 112]]); a spur eastward from I-95 to [[Miami Beach, Florida|Miami Beach]]
*[[Interstate 275 (Florida)|I-275]], a sixty-mile [http://www.kurumi.com/roads/3di/i275.html] westward loop from I-75 north of [[Ellenton, Florida|Ellenton]], over the [[Sunshine Skyway Bridge]], through [[St. Petersburg, Florida|St. Petersburg]], to [[Tampa International Airport]] and downtown [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]], reconnecting with I-75 in [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa's]] northern suburbs
*[[Interstate 295 (Florida)|I-295]], a partial beltway around [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]]
*[[Interstate 375 (Florida)|I-375]], which connects I-275 to northern downtown [[St. Petersburg, Florida|St. Petersburg]]
*[[Interstate 395 (Florida)|I-395]], an extension of Miami's Dolphin Expressway ([[State Road 836 (Florida)|S.R. 836]]); a spur eastward from I-95 to [[Miami Beach, Florida|Miami Beach]]
*[[Interstate 595 (Florida)|I-595]], which connects I-75, I-95, [[Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport]] and [[Port Everglades]]
Florida also has several [[toll road]]s, totalling 515 miles of the state highway system. Major toll roads include:
*[[Interstate 75|I-75]], as it passes through the [[Everglades]] between [[Naples, Florida|Napl |
рически ток]]
[[ca:Corrent]]
[[cs:Elektrický proud]]
[[da:Elektrisk strøm]]
[[de:Elektrischer Strom]]
[[et:Elektrivool]]
[[es:Corriente eléctrica]]
[[fa:جریان الکتریکی]]
[[fr:Courant électrique]]
[[he:זרם חשמלי]]
[[ko:전류]]
[[id:Arus listrik]]
[[it:Corrente elettrica]]
[[nl:Elektrische stroom]]
[[ja:電流]]
[[pl:Natężenie prądu elektrycznego]]
[[pt:Corrente elétrica]]
[[ru:Сила тока]]
[[sk:Elektrický prúd]]
[[sl:Električni tok]]
[[th:กระแสไฟฟ้า]]
[[fi:Sähkövirta]]
[[zh:电流]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charles Ancillon</title>
<id>6208</id>
<revision>
<id>33644612</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-02T22:07:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation: Louis XIV</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles Ancillon''' ([[July 28]], [[1659]] - [[July 5]], [[1715]]), one of a distinguished family of [[Huguenots]], was born at [[Metz]], [[Moselle]], [[France]]. His father, [[David Ancillon]] ([[1617]]-[[1692]]), was obliged to leave [[France]] on the revocation of the [[Edict of Nantes]], and became pastor of the French [[Protestant]] community in [[Berlin, Germany]].
Charles Ancillon studied law at [[Marburg]], [[Geneva]], and [[Paris]], where he was called to the bar. At the request of the [[Huguenot]]s at Metz, he pleaded its cause at the court of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], urging that it should be excepted in the revocation of the [[Edict of Nantes]], but his efforts were unsuccessful, and he joined his father in Berlin. He was at once appointed by the elector Frederick "''juge et directeur de colonie de Berlin''." Before this, he had published several works on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes and its consequences, but his literary capacity was mediocre, his style stiff and cold, and it was his personal character rather than his reputation as a writer that earned him the confidence of the elector.
In [[1687]] he was appointed head of the so-called ''Academie des nobles,'' the principal educational establishment of the state; later on, as councillor of embassy, he took part in the negotiations which led to the assumption of the title of king by the elector. In [[1699]] he succeeded [[Samuel Pufendorf|Pufendorf]] as historiographer to the elector, and the same year replaced his uncle [[Joseph Ancillon]] as judge of all the French refugees in [[Brandenburg]].
Ancillon's is mainly remembered for what he did for education in [[Prussia]], and the share he took, in co-operation with [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], in founding the [[Academy of Berlin]]. Of his fairly numerous works the one of most value is the "''Histoire de l'etablissement des Francais refugies dans les etats de Brandebourg''" published in Berlin in 1690.
[[Category:1659 births|Ancillon, Charles]]
[[Category:1715 deaths|Ancillon, Charles]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clark Ashton Smith</title>
<id>6210</id>
<revision>
<id>41581999</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T07:46:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>193.30.0.1</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
subject_name=Clark Ashton Smith |
image_name=Front-7.jpg |
image_caption= Smith at 19|
dead=dead |
date_of_birth=[[January 13]], [[1893]] |
place_of_birth=[[Long Valley]], [[California]], [[USA]] |
date_of_death=[[August 14]], [[1961]] |
place_of_death=[[Pacific Grove]], [[California]], [[USA]] |
}}
'''Clark Ashton Smith''' ([[January 13]], [[1893]]-[[August 14]], [[1961]]) was a [[poet]], [[sculpture|sculptor]], [[painter]] and author of [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]], [[horror fiction|horror]] and [[science fiction]] short stories. It is for these stories, and his literary friendship with [[H. P. Lovecraft]] from 1922 until Lovecraft's death in 1937, that he is mainly remembered today. Clark Ashton Smith, [[H. P. Lovecraft]] and [[Robert E. Howard]] are today the three most famous contributors to the [[pulp magazine]] ''[[Weird Tales]]''.
==Biography==
===Early life and education===
Smith spent most of his life in the small town of [[Auburn, California|Auburn]], [[California]], living in a small cabin with his parents, Fanny and Timeus Smith. His formal education was limited: he attended only eight years of grammar school and never went to [[high school]].
However, he continued to teach himself after he left school, learning [[French language|French]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and his near-photographic memory allowed him to retain prodigious amounts from his very wide reading, which including several entire [[dictionary|dictionaries]] and [[encyclopedia]]s.
===Early writing and influences===
Smith began writing stories at the age of eleven and two of them, ''The Sword of Zagan'' and ''The Black Diamonds'', have recently been published by [[Hippocampus Press]]. Both stories use a [[Middle Ages|medieval]], [[Arabian Nights]]-like setting, and the [[Arabian Nights]],
like the fairy tales of the [[Brothers Grimm]] and the works of [[Edgar Allan Poe]], are known to have strongly influenced Smith's early writing.
In his later youth Smith became the protegé of the [[San Francisco]] poet [[George Sterling]], who helped him to publish his first volume of poems, ''The Star-Treader and Other Poems'', at the age of nineteen. ''The Star-Treader'' was received very favorably by American critics, one of whom named Smith "the Keats of the Pacific." Smith made the acquaintance of Sterling through a member of the local Auburn Monday Night Club, where he read several of his poems with considerable success. The publication of ''Ebony and Crystal'' in 1922 was followed by a fan letter from [[H. P. Lovecraft]], which was the beginning of fifteen years of friendship and correspondence.
===Work and marriage===
Smith was poor for most of his life and was often forced to take menial jobs such as fruitpicking and woodcutting in order to support himself and his parents. Following the death of his parents, he married Carol Jones Dorman on [[10 November]] [[1954]] and moved to [[Pacific Grove, California]], where he set up a household with her and her children.
==Phases of preferred art forms==
While Smith was always an artist who worked in several very different media, it is possible to identify three distinctive phases in which one form of art had precedence over the others.
===Poetry: Until 1925===
Smith published most of his volumes of poetry in this period, including the aforementioned ''The Star-Treader and Other Poems'', as well as ''Odes and Sonnets'' (1918), ''Ebony and Crystal'' (1922) and ''Sandalwood'' (1925).
===Weird Fiction: 1926-1935===
Smith wrote most of his [[weird fiction]] and [[Cthulhu Mythos]] stories, possibly inspired by [[H. P. Lovecraft]]. Creatures of his invention include [[Aforgomon]], [[Rlim-Shaikorth]], [[Mordiggian]],[[Tsathoggua]], the wizard [[Eibon]], and various others.
The stories form several cycles, called after the lands in which they are set: [[Averoigne]], [[Hyperborea]], [[Mars]], [[Poseidonis]], [[Xiccarph]], [[Zothique]]. Stories set in Zothique belong to the [[Dying Earth subgenre]].
His short stories originally appeared in the magazines ''[[Weird Tales]]'', ''[[Strange Tales]]'', ''[[Astounding Stories]]'', ''[[Stirring Science Stories]]'' and ''[[Wonder Stories]]''.
Some were also collected as ''Lost Worlds'' Vols 1 and 2 (LW1 and LW2):
*"The Last Incantation" &mdash; Weird Tales, June 1930 LW2
*"A Voyage to Sfanomoe" &mdash; Weird Tales, August 1931 LW2
*"The Tale of Satampra Zeiros" &mdash; Weird Tales November 1931 LW2
*"The Door to Saturn &mdash; Strange Tales", January 1932 LW2
*"The Planet of the Dead &mdash; Weird Tales", March 1932 LW2
*"The Gorgon &mdash; Weird Tales", April 1932 LW2
*"The Letter from Mohaun Los" (under the title of "Flight into Super-Time") &mdash; Wonder Stories, August 1932 LW1
*"The Empire of the Necromancers" &mdash; Weird Tales, September 1932 LW1
*"The Hunters from Beyond" &mdash; Strange Tales, October 1932 LW1
*"The Isle of the Torturers" &mdash; Weird Tales, March 1933 LW1
*"The Light from Beyond" &mdash; Wonder Stories, April 1933 LW1
*"The Beast of Averoigne" &mdash; Weird Tales, May 1933 LW1
*"The Holiness of Azedarac" &mdash; Weird Tales, November 1933 LW1
*"The Demon Of the Flower" &mdash; Astounding Stories, December 1933 LW2
*"The Death of Malygris" &mdash; Weird Tales, April 1934 LW2
*"The Plutonium Drug" &mdash; Amazing Stories, September 1934 LW2
*"The Seven Geases" &mdash; Weird Tales, October 1934 LW2
*"Xeethra" &mdash; Weird Tales, December 1934 LW1
*"The Flower-Women" &mdash; Weird Tales, May 1935 LW2
*"The Treader of the Dust" &mdash; Weird Tales, August 1935 LW1
*"Necromancy in Naat" &mdash; Weird Tales, July 1936 LW1
*"The Maze of Maal Dweb" &mdash; Weird Tales, October 1938 LW2
*"The Coming of the White Worm" &mdash; Stirring Science Stories, April 1941 LW2
===Sculpture: 1935-1961===
By this time his interest in writing fiction began to lessen and he turned to creating sculptures from soft rock.
==Books==
{{wikisource author}}
[http://www.hippocampuspress.com '''Hippocampus Press''']
*''The Complete Poetry and Translations of Clark Ashton Smith''
*''The Black Diamonds''
*''The Last Oblivion: Best Fantastic Poems of Clark Ashton Smith''
*''The Sword Of Zagan And Other Writings''
*''Letters Of George Sterling And Clark Ashton Smith''
*''The Freedom Of Fantastic Things''
[http:/ |
anol by volume to halt fermentation for retaining sweetness and in preparation for aging, at which point it becomes possible to prevent the invasion of bacteria into the port, and to store the port for long periods of time in wooden containers that can 'breathe', thereby permitting the port to age safely without spoiling. Because of ethanol's disinfectant property, alcoholic beverages of 18% ethanol or more by volume can be safely stored for a very long time.
== Metabolism and toxicology ==
''Main article: [[Effects of alcohol on the body]]''
In the human body, ethanol is first oxidized to [[acetaldehyde]], and then to [[acetic acid]]. The first step is catalysed by the [[enzyme]] [[alcohol dehydrogenase]], and the second by [[acetaldehyde dehydrogenase]]. Some individuals have less effective forms of one or both of these enzymes, and can experience more severe symptoms from ethanol consumption than others. Conversely, those who have acquired ethanol [[drug tolerance|tolerance]] have a greater quantity of these enzymes, and metabolize ethanol more rapidly.
{| align="right" width="250 px" class="infobox"
! BAC (mg/dL) !! Symptoms
|-
| 50 || Euphoria, talkativeness, relaxation
|-
| 100 || Central nervous system depression, impaired motor and sensory function, impaired cognition
|-
| &gt;140 || Decreased blood flow to brain
|-
| 300 || Stupefaction, possible unconsciousness
|-
| 400 || Possible death
|-
| &gt;550 || Death highly likely
|}
{{inote | Pohorecky & Brick (1988)}}
The amount of ethanol in the body is typically quanitified by [[blood alcohol content]] (BAC), the [[milligram]]s of ethanol per 100 [[milliliter]]s of blood. The table at right summarizes the symptoms of ethanol consumption. Small doses of ethanol generally produce euphoria and relaxation; people experiencing these symptoms tend to become talkative and less inhibited, and may exhibit poor judgment. At higher dosages (BAC &gt; 0.10), ethanol acts as a [[central nervous system]] [[depressant]], producing at progressively higher dosages, impaired sensory and motor function, slowed cognition, stupefaction, unconsciousness, and possible death.
The initial product of ethanol metabolism, acetaldehyde, is more toxic than ethanol itself. The body can quickly detoxify some acetaldehyde by reaction with [[glutathione]] and similar [[thiol]]-containing biomolecules. When acetaldehyde is produced beyond the capacity of the body's glutathione supply to detoxify it, it accumulates in the bloodstream until further oxidized to acetic acid. The [[headache]], [[nausea]], and [[malaise]] associated with an alcohol [[hangover]] stem from a combination of [[dehydration]] and acetaldehyde poisoning; many health conditions associated with chronic ethanol abuse, including [[liver cirrhosis]], [[alcoholism]], and some forms of [[cancer]], have been linked to acetaldehyde.{{fact}} Some medications, including [[paracetamol]] ([[acetaminophen]]), as well as exposure to [[organochloride]]s, can deplete the body's glutathione supply, enhancing both the acute and long-term risks of even moderate ethanol consumption.
== Hazards ==
* Ethanol and mixtures with water greater than about 50% ethanol are [[flammable]] and easily ignited, although there are some [[solvent]]s and [[organic compound]]s which are even more flammable. It is possible to burn even 40% ethanol solution (such as [[hard liquor]]) with a [[gas stove]]{{fact}}.
* Ethanol has been shown to increase the growth of ''[[Acinetobacter baumannii]]'', the bacteria responsible for [[pneumonia]], [[meningitis]] and [[urinary tract infection]]s. This finding may contradict the common misconception that drinking alcohol can kill off a budding infection. (Smith and Snyder, 2005)
== See also ==
* [[Ethanol (data page)]]
* [[Ethanol fuel|Alcohol fuel]]
* [[Alcoholic beverage]]
* [[Biodiesel]]
* [[Denatured alcohol]]
* [[1-Propanol]]
* [[Isopropyl alcohol]]
* [[Rubbing alcohol]]
* [[Corn liquor]]
* [[American Whiskey Trail]]
* [[Timeline of alcohol fuel]]
* [[List of energy topics]]
== References ==
* "Alcohol." (1911). In Hugh Chisholm (Ed.) ''Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed.'' [http://91.1911encyclopedia.org/A/AL/ALCOHOL.htm Online reprint]
* Al-Hassan, A.Y. [http://www.gabarin.com/ayh/Notes/Notes%207.htm "Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources."] Accessed [[14 November]] [[2005]].
* Couper, A.S. (1858). "On a new chemical theory." ''Philosophical magazine'' '''16''', 104&ndash;116. [http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/couper/couper.html Online reprint]
* Great Britain (2005). ''The Denatured Alcohol Regulations 2005.'' Statatory Instrument 2005 No. 1524. [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si2005/20051524.htm Online reprint]
* Hennell, H. (1828). "On the mutual action of sulphuric acid and alcohol, and on the nature of the process by which ether is formed." ''Philosophical Transactions'' '''118''', 365&ndash;371.
* Lodgsdon, J.E. (1994). "Ethanol." In J.I. Kroschwitz (Ed.) ''Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 4th ed.'' vol. 9, pp. 812&ndash;860. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
* Pohorecky, L.A., and J. Brick. (1988). "Pharmacology of ethanol." ''Pharmacology & Therapeutics'' '''36'''(3), 335-427.
* Ritter, S.K. ([[May 31]] [[2004]]). "Biomass or Bust." ''Chemical & Engineering News'' '''82'''(22), 31–34.
* Roach, J. ([[July 18]] [[2005]]) [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/07/0718_050718_ancientbeer.html "9,000-Year-Old Beer Re-Created From Chinese Recipe."] ''National Geographic News.'' Accessed [[14 November]] [[2005]].
* Smith, M.G., and M. Snyder. (2005). "Ethanol-induced virulence of ''Acinetobacter baumannii''". ''American Society for Microbiology meeting''. [[June 5]]-[[June 9]]. Atlanta.
* [http://sci-toys.com/ingredients/alcohol.html Sci-toys website explanation of US denatured alcohol designations]
== External links ==
*[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc00/icsc0044.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0044]
*[http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/35.html National Pollutant Inventory - Ethanol Fact Sheet]
*[http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0262.html NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]
* {{ecb}}
*[http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Ethanol Coordinates of the ethanol molecule] on Computational Chemistry Wiki. Accessed on [[8 September]] [[2005]].
*[http://www.bluerhinos.co.uk/molview/indv.php?id=4 Molview from bluerhinos.co.uk] See Ethanol in 3D
; Ethanol as a Source of Renewable Energy
*[http://www.ethanolfacts.com EthanolFacts.com]
*[http://www.e85fuel.com E85Fuel.com]
*[http://www.drivingethanol.org/ DrivingEthanol.org]
*[http://www.sunopta.com/bioprocess/default.htm Cellulose Ethanol Production]
*[http://www.rengen.info/?p=17 Essay]
*[http://issct.intnet.mu/cpabs.htm Abstracts]
*[http://business.guardian.co.uk/story/0,16781,1648504,00.html Sugar powers a Revolution on Brazil's roads]
*[http://www.ethanolindia.net Ethanol as a Fuel Worldwide and India]
[[Category:Over-the-counter substances]]
[[Category:Alcohol]]
[[Category:Alcohols]]
[[Category:Teratogens]]
[[Category:Anxiolytics]]
[[Category:Solvents]]
[[Category:Household chemicals]]
{{Link FA|sv}}
[[af:Etanol]]
[[ca:Etanol]]
[[cs:Ethanol]]
[[da:Ætanol]]
[[de:Ethanol]]
[[es:Etanol]]
[[eo:Etanolo]]
[[fa:اتانول]]
[[fr:Éthanol]]
[[he:אתנול]]
[[hr:Etanol]]
[[it:Etanolo]]
[[lv:Etanols]]
[[ms:Etanol]]
[[nl:Ethanol]]
[[ja:エタノール]]
[[no:Etanol]]
[[pl:Alkohol etylowy]]
[[ru:Этанол]]
[[fi:Etanoli]]
[[sv:Etanol]]
[[uk:Етиловий спирт]]
[[vi:Êtanol]]
[[zh:乙醇]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Eric Clapton</title>
<id>10049</id>
<revision>
<id>42109186</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:01:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Krash</username>
<id>219529</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvt...who's that?</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band
| band_name = Eric Clapton
| image = [[Image:Claptonprofile.jpg]]
| caption = Eric Clapton
| years_active = [[1963]] - [[2006|Present]]
| origin = [[Ripley, Surrey|Ripley]], [[Surrey]], [[England]]
| music_genre = [[Blues]]<br>[[Rock music|Rock]]
| record_label = [[Polydor]]<br>[[Warner Music Group|Warner]]<br>[[Atlantic Records|Atlantic]]
}}
'''Eric Patrick Clapton''' [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] (born [[March 30]], [[1945]]), nicknamed "''Slowhand''", is a [[Grammy Award]] winning [[England|English]] [[guitarist]], singer and [[composer]], who became one of the most respected and influential musicians of the [[Rock (music)|rock]]-era, garnering an unprecedented three inductions into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]]. Clapton is widely considered to be one of the greatest and most influential guitarists in [[popular music]] history.
Although Clapton's musical style has varied throughout his career, it has always remained rooted in the [[Blues]]. Clapton is credited as an innovator in several phases of his career, which have included [[Blues-Rock]] (with [[John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers]] and [[The Yardbirds]]) and [[Hard Rock]] (with [[Cream (band)|Cream]]). Clapton has also achieved great chart success in genres ranging from [[Delta Blues]] (the acoustic MTV ''[[Unplugged (Eric Clapton album)|Unplugged]]'' album), [[Rock music|Rock]] ("''[[Sunshine of Your Love]]''"), [[popular music |Pop]] ("''Change the World''") and [[Reggae]] ("''[[I Shot the Sheriff]]''").
== Musical Career & Personal Life ==
=== Clapton's Early Days ===
Eric Clapton was born in [[Ripley, Surrey|Ripley]], [[Surrey]], [[England]], [[UK]] as the [[illegitimate]] son of [[teenage pregnancy|16 year old]] Patricia Molly Clapto |
n English it has a sense of "the guys at the head table" since "muckamuck" or "a feed" is in the same vein in non-city BC English as "grub" or "a meal/dinner". "Quiggly hole" or "quiggly" referst to the remains of an old Indian pit-house, or underground house, from "kickwillie" or "kekuli", which in the Jargon means "down" or "underneath" or "beneath".
In northern BC and the [[Yukon]], and used in broadcast English in those areas, the Chinook Jargon adaption of the French ''merci'' remains common, i.e. ''mahsi'' or ''masi'', with the accent on the first syllable (unlike in French).
==Regional variation in pronunciation==
===Toronto===
The English spoken in [[Toronto]] is closely related to the midwestern American accent, but without the [[Northern cities vowel shift]]. Slang terms used in Toronto are synonymous with those used in other major North American cities. There is also a heavy influx of slang terminology originating from Toronto's many immigrant communities, of which the vast majority speak English only as a second or minor language. These terms originate mainly from various European, Asian and African words. Many Torontonians use ''buddy'' (without a capital) as it is often used in Newfoundland English &#8211; as equivalent to ''that man'' (''I like buddy's car.'').
===Maritimes===
[[Canadian Maritimes|Maritimer]] English quirks include the removal of pre-consonantal [ɹ] sounds, and a faster speech tempo. It is heavily influenced by both British and Irish English.
An example of typical Maritime English might be the pronunciation of the word "battery." In American English (and also Western Canadian English) the word would be pronounced "bad-der-y", but (sometimes) "bat-try" in the Maritimes which follows the British pronunciation. The letter "T" is strongly pronounced in general, but always lightly. It is rare for the "T" at the end of a word to receive a "D" pronunciation.
While the stereotypical Canadian interrogative "Eh?" is used more often in the Maritimes than it would be in the U.S., it is actually quite rare compared to Western Canada. Alternatively, one might hear the interrogative "Right?" which is in turn used as an adverb (e.g.: "It was right foggy today!") as well. "Some" can be used as an adverb as well, in certain circles (e.g.: "This cake is some good!").
The second syllable of "about" is pronounced {{IPA|[ʌʊ]}} rather than RP {{IPA|[aʊ]}}. The main distinction between Canadian (Prairie) pronunciation of this diphthong is in its resolution. Namely, an American pronunciation resolves the ''a''-sound {{IPA|[ɶ]}} (or, alternatively, the schwa sound ({{IPA|[ə]}})) <!-- resolves with an ''oo''-sound [u], (''a bah oo t''); -->, whereas the Canadian pronunciation resolves with an ''oh''-sound {{IPA|[ɔ]}} (''a bah oh t''). One might hear the term "Out and about" being pronounced as "Oat in a boat" in the Maritimes.
British terms are very much still a part of Maritime English, although slowly fading away in favour of American or Western terms. "Chesterfield" and "front room" are examples of this.
[[Cape Breton Island]] has a [[Cape Breton accent|distinct dialect]] due to settlement by speakers of [[Acadian French]] and [[Scottish Gaelic]].
===Newfoundland===
The province of [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], which was an autonomous dominion until [[March 31]], [[1949]], has its own [[dialect]] distinct from the rest of Canadian English. See [[Newfoundland English]].
===Quebec===
English is a minority language in Quebec, but has many speakers in Montréal, the [[Eastern Townships]] and in the [[Gatineau]]-[[Ottawa]] region.
Among Montréal-native anglophones, there is a distinction between /æ/ and /a/, unique in Canada, so that ''Mary'' and ''merry'' are not homophones.
Among Eastern Townships-native anglophones, ''syrup'' is often pronounced as ''sir-rup''.
A short ''a'' is used in words like ''drama''; in common with most Canadians, Québécois and Ontarians pronounce words of foreign origin (Datsun, Mazda, etc.) as if the vowels are French.
===Ontario===
The [[Canadian raising]] is often quite strong in [[Ontario]]. Many speakers in Ontario and the provinces further west have a new [[chain shift]] called the [[Canadian Shift]].
In southwestern Ontario (especially rural areas), some speakers also have aspects of the Midwestern U.S. accent, e.g. ''not'' sounds like ''naht'' ({{IPA|/nɔt/}} → /nat/), combined with Canadian raising (see U.S. below). The accent is slightly modified to signify sarcasm or emphasis: ''not'' becomes a heavily stressed ''nat'', for example, and ''hockey'' may sound like ''hackey'' (with an ''æ'').
Use of the interrogative "[[Eh]]?" is widespread.
Intervocalic ''s'' {{IPA|–}} is more frequently voiced in words such as ''resource''. A short ''a'' is used in words like ''drama''; in common with most Canadians, Québécois and Ontarians pronounce words of foreign origin (Datsun, Mazda, etc.) as if the vowels are French. Many Ontarians do not pronounce, or give very little emphasis to the second ''t'' in ''[[Toronto]]'' (hence, ''Toronno'').
In Central Ontario (that is, the region around [[Toronto]]) in particular, the voiced ''th'' and ''d'' are often not distinguished, the two pronunciations frequently appearing together ("Do you want this one or dis one?", for example). Sometimes (particularly in [[North York]], see the above section), the ''th'' is dropped altogether, resulting in "Do you want this one er'iss one?" The word southern is often pronounced as 'sow-thern' as opposed to 'suth-ern'. Most accents, of course, are quite subtle, and most immaterial to detailed speech. In the regional area north of York and south of Parry Sound, notably among those who were born in these bedroom communities (Barrie, Vaughn, Orillia, Bradford, Newmarket) as opposed to those who moved there to commute, the cutting down of syllables is often heard, e.g. "prolly" instead of "probably" (as in a response).
The [[Ottawa valley]] has its own distinct accent, known as the [[Ottawa Valley Twang]].
===Prairies===
A strong [[Canadian raising]] exists in the [[Canadian Prairies|prairie regions]] together with certain older usages such as ''chesterfield'' and ''front room'' also associated with the Maritimes. Aboriginal Canadians are a larger and more conspicuous population in prairie cities than elsewhere in the country and certain elements of aboriginal speech in English are widely to be heard. Similarly, the linguistic legacy, mostly intonation, of the Scandinavian, Slavic and German settlers who are far more numerous in the Prairies than in Ontario or the Maritimes can be heard in the general milieu. Again, the large Metis population in Saskatchewan also carries with it certain linguistic traits inherited from French, aboriginal and Celtic forebears.
===British Columbia===
There have been no formal studies of English pronunciation in [[British Columbia]], although locals note variations between certain towns. Parts of the [[Interior Plateau|Interior]] have a strong cowboy twang or drawl - elongated vowels and diphthongs - rooted in the family legacies of American settlement during the province's frontier era. British accents and a wide range of European and Asian second-language flavoured English have always been common, to the point of the British flavour being identifiably a hallmark of early 20th century BC, as has been English as spoken by [[First Nations]] peoples, which is distinct as an accent but also remains undocumented.
==See also==
*[[Canadian slang]]
==References==
* Peters, Pam (2004). ''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052162181X.
== External links ==
* [http://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/CanadianEnglish.html Varieties of English: Canadian English] from the University of Arizona
* [http://www.luther.ca/~dave7cnv/cdnspelling/cdnspelling.html Dave VE7CNV's Truly Canadian Dictionary of Canadian Spelling] - comparisons of Canadian English, American English, British English, French, and Spanish
* [http://www.cornerstoneword.com/misc/cdneng/cdneng.htm Cornerstone's Canadian English Page]
* [http://www.fedpubs.com/subject/refer/oxfdic.htm Oxford University Press's Canadian English Dictionary]
* [http://www.oup.com/ca/genref/dictionaries/ Canadian Oxford Dictionaries]
* [http://www.cbc.ca/news/indepth/words/index.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's Words: Woe & Wonder]
* [http://www.digitas.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/wiki/ken/BritishVsAmerican ProperTreatment: BritishVsAmerican]
* [http://canadianenglish1.narod.ru Proper Treatment: Canadian vs American vs British]
* [http://www.wordwebonline.com/ WordWeb Online]
* [http://hcs.harvard.edu/~hgscc/glossary.html Canadian Glossary, eh! (A list of Canadian words and pronunciations)]
* [http://www.dico.uottawa.ca/theses/hamilton/hamilton2.htm Lexical, grammatical, orthographic and phonetic Canadianisms]
* [http://www.editors.ca Editors' Association of Canada (EAC)]
* [http://www.world-english.org/ World English Organization]
* [http://blog.fawny.org/2005/01/29/lexemes/ Harmless drudgery &ndash; but Canadian] - Joe Clark's weblog entry about a recent talk by ''Canadian Oxford Dictionary'' editrix Katherine Barber (note that this Joe Clark is ''not'' the former [[Prime Minister of Canada]])
* [http://www.geist.com/columns/columns.php?id=16 Bad Spellers] by Stephen Henighan, an examination of the inconsistencies in Canadian authors' spellings
==Further reading==
* Canadian Raising: O'Grady and Dobrovolsky, ''Contemporary Linguistic Analysis: An Introduction'', 3rd ed., pp. 67-68.
* Canadian English: Editors' Association of C |
===Online resources for original Marxist literature===
{{Wikiquote|Communism}}
{{wiktionary}}
* [http://www.marxists.org Marxists Internet Archive]
* [http://www.libcom.org/library Libertarian Communist Library]
* [http://www.marxist.net Marxist.net]
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/theses/theses.htm?title= Theses on Feuerbach]
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/11/prin-com.htm?title= Principles of Communism]
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/index.htm?title= The Communist Manifesto]
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1871/civil-war-france/index.htm?title= The Civil War in France]
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/soc-utop/index.htm?title= Socialism: Utopian and Scientific]
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/deleon/works/1896/960126.htm Reform or Revolution?]
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1901/witbd/index.htm?title= What is to be Done?]
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1904/onestep/index.htm?title= One Step Forward, Two Steps Back]
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1905/two-tact/index.htm?title= Two Tactics of Social-Democracy in the Democratic Revolution]
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/1913/accumulation-capital/index.htm The Accumulation of Capital ]
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/1909/national-question/index.htm The National Question]
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/index.htm?title= Imperialism, The Highest Stage of Capitalism]
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1917/staterev/index.htm?title= The State and Revolution]
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/1918/russian-revolution/index.htm The Russian Revolution]
* [http://www.lonympics.co.uk/Worstregimesofthe20thcentury.htm] A list of the worst regimes of the 20th Century.
[[Category:Communism]]
[[Category:Economic ideologies]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Society]]
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[[ar:شيوعية]]
[[bg:Комунизъм]]
[[zh-min-nan:Kiōng-sán-chú-gī]]
[[be:Камунізм]]
[[ca:Comunisme]]
[[cs:Komunismus]]
[[da:Kommunisme]]
[[de:Kommunismus]]
[[et:Kommunism]]
[[es:Comunismo]]
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[[fr:Communisme]]
[[ga:Cumannachas]]
[[gl:Comunismo (política)]]
[[ko:공산주의]]
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[[simple:Communism]]
[[sk:Komunizmus]]
[[sl:Komunizem]]
[[sr:Комунизам]]
[[fi:Kommunismi]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Copyright</title>
<id>5278</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42075557</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:32:12Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Intellectual property}}
[[Image:Copyright.svg|thumb|150pz|right|Copyright symbol.]]
:''For copyright issues in relation to Wikipedia itself, see [[Wikipedia:Copyrights]].''
'''Copyright''' (international symbol: '''©''') is a set of [[exclusive rights]] granted by [[government]]s to regulate the use of a particular expression of an idea or information. At its most general, it is literally "the right to copy" an original creation. In most cases, these rights are of limited duration.
Copyright may subsist in a wide range of creative or artistic forms or "works". These include [[poem|poems]], [[drama|plays]], and other [[book|literary works]], [[film|movies]], [[choreography|choreographic works (dances, ballets, etc.)]], [[music|musical compositions]], [[sound recording|audio recordings]], [[painting]]s, [[drawing]]s, [[sculpture]]s, [[photography|photographs]], [[Computer software|software]], [[radio]] and [[television]] [[broadcast]]s of live and other performances, and in some [[jurisdictions]] [[industrial design]]s. Copyright is a type of [[intellectual property]]; [[designs]] or [[industrial designs]] may be a separate or overlapping form of intellectual property in some jurisdictions.
Copyright law covers only the particular form or manner in which ideas or information have been manifested, the "form of material expression". It is not designed or intended to cover the actual idea, concepts, facts, styles, or techniques which may be embodied in or represented by the copyright work. Copyright law provides scope for satirical or interpretive works which themselves may be copyrighted. See [[idea-expression divide]].
For example, the copyright which subsists in relation to a [[Mickey Mouse]] cartoon prohibits unauthorized parties from distributing copies of the cartoon or creating [[derivative work|derivative works]] which copy or mimic [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]'s particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of artistic works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are sufficiently different to not be imitative of the original. Other forms of intellectual property may impose legal protection where copyright does not - such as [[trademark]]s and [[patent]]s.
==History of copyright==
:''Main article: [[History of copyright]]''
Authors, [[patron]]s, and owners of works throughout the ages have tried to direct and control how copies of such works could be used once disseminated to others. [[Mozart]]'s patron, [[Baroness von Waldstätten]], allowed his compositions to be freely performed, while [[Handel]]'s patron (George I, the first of the Hanoverian kings) jealously guarded "Water Music."
Two major developments in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries seem to have provoked the development of modern copyright. First, the expansion of mercantilist trade in major European cities and the appearance of the secular [[university]] helped produce an educated [[bourgeois]] class interested in the information of the day. This helped spur the emergence of a “[[public sphere]],” which was increasingly served by entrepreneurial “stationers” who would produce copies of books on demand. Second, [[Johann Gutenberg|Gutenberg]]'s development of [[printing press|movable type]] and the development and spread of the [[printing press]] made mass reproduction of printed works quick and cheap. Before these two developments, the process of copying a work could be nearly as [[labor intensive]] and expensive as creating the original, and was largely relegated to monastic [[scribes]]. It appears [[publishers]], rather than [[authors]], were the first to seek restrictions on copying printed works. Given that publishers now obtain the copyright from the authors as a condition of mass reproduction of a work, one of the criticisms of the current system is that it benefits publishers more than it does authors. This is a chief argument of the proponents of [[peer-to-peer]] file sharing systems.
An interesting attempt at copyright in the early modern period was the notice attached to the ''ha- Shirim asher li-Shelomo'' by the composer [[Salomone Rossi]], a setting of the [[Psalms]] which was in fact the first music to be printed with a Hebrew type-face text(1623). It set out a rabbinical curse on anyone who copied the contents.
While governments had previously granted [[monopoly]] rights to publishers to sell printed works, the modern concept of copyright originated in 1710 with the British [[Statute of Anne]]. This statute first accorded exclusive rights to authors rather than publishers, and it included protections for consumers of printed work ensuring that publishers could not control their use after sale. It also limited the duration of such exclusive rights to 28 years, after which all works would pass into the [[public domain]].
The [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works]] of 1886 first established the recognition of copyrights between sovereign nations. Under the Berne convention, copyrights for [[creative works]] do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically assigned: an author does not have to "register" or "apply for" a copyright. As soon as a work is "fixed", that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all exclusive rights to the work and any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires.
==United Kingdom copyright methodology==
:''Main article: [[Copyright law of the United Kingdom]]''
British law states that an individual's work is placed under copyright law as soon as it leaves that person's mind and is placed in some physical form, be it a painting, a musical work written in manuscript or an architectural schematic. Once in physical form, as long as it is an original work (in the sense of not having been copied from an existing work, rather than in the sense of being novel or unique), copyright in that work is automatically vested in (i.e. owned by) the person who put the concept into material form. There may be exceptions to this rule, depending on the nature of the work, whether it was created in the course of employment and the purposes for which the work was created.
Evidentiary issues may arise if the person who authored a work has only their word to prove that the work is original and their own work. The author of an unpublished manuscript or little-known publication, which is remarkably similar to a popular novel, will have an uphill battle convincing a court that the popular novel in |
ny DBMSs also support the [[Open Database Connectivity]] [[application programming interface|API]] that supports a standard way for [[programmer]]s to access the DBMS.
<!-- -->
# [[Data structure]]s optimized to deal with big amounts of data recorded to a [[Digital permanence|permanent]] [[data storage device]], which are very slow [[Computer storage|compared]] to the [[primary storage]] (volatile main memory).
<!-- -->
# A [[database query language]] and report writer to allow users to interactively interrogate the database, analyse its data and update it according to the [[Privilege (Computing)|users privileges]] on data.
#*It also controls the [[security]] of the database.
#*[[Data security]] prevents unauthorised users from viewing or updating the database. Using passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database or subsets of it called ''subschemas'' (pronounced "sub-skeema"). For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data.
#*If the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database, as well as interrogate it, this capability allows for managing personal databases. However, it may not leave an audit trail of actions or provide the kinds of controls necessary in a multi-user organisation. These controls are only available when a set of application programs are customised for each data entry and updating function.
<!-- -->
# A [[Database transaction|transaction]] mechanism, that ideally would guarantee the [[ACID]] properties, in order to ensure [[data integrity]] despite of [[Concurrency (computer science)|concurrent user access]] ([[concurrency control]]) and faults ([[fault tolerance]]).
#*It also controls the [[integrity]] of the database.
#*The DBMS can maintain the integrity of the database by not allowing more than one user to update the same record at the same time. The DBMS can keep duplicate records out of the database; for example, no two customers with the same customer numbers (key fields) can be entered into the database. See [[ACID]] properties for more information (Reduncdancy avoidance).
The DBMS accepts requests for data from the application program and instructs the [[operating system]] to transfer the appropriate data.
When a DBMS is used, [[information system]]s can be changed much more easily as the organization's information requirements change. New categories of data can be added to the database without disruption to the existing system.
<!--
A [[management information system|business information system]] is made up of subjects (customers, employees, vendors, etc.) and activities (orders, payments, purchases, etc.). [[Database design]] is the process of deciding how to organize these data into [[database record|record]] types and how the record types will relate to each other. The DBMS should mirror the organization's data structure and process transactions efficiently.
this is just related to databases and databases design, not to DBMS
-->
Organizations may use one kind of DBMS for daily transaction processing and then move the detail onto another computer that uses another DBMS better suited for random inquiries and analysis. Overall systems design decisions are performed by data administrators and systems analysts. Detailed database design is performed by database administrators.
[[Database server]]s are specially designed computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS and related software. Database servers are usually [[multiprocessor]] computers, with [[redundant array of independent disks|RAID]] disk arrays used for stable storage. Connected to one or more servers via a high-speed channel, hardware [[database accelerator]]s are also used in large volume transaction processing environments.
==See also==
*[[Data warehouse]]
*[[Directory service]]
*[[Distributed Database Management System]]
*[[Navigational database management system]]
*[[Hierarchical database management system]]
*[[Network database management system]]
*[[Object database|Object-oriented database management system]] ([[OODBMS]])
*[[Relational database management system]] ([[RDBMS]])
*[[Object-relational database management system]] ([[ORDBMS]])
* [[SQL]] is a language for database management.
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[[Category:Database management systems]]
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[[de:Datenbankverwaltungssystem]]
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<page>
<title>DBMS</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Database management system]]
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<page>
<title>Dachshund</title>
<id>8518</id>
<revision>
<id>41678456</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T00:32:04Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Dogbreed
<!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed. The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: -->
<!-- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Dog_breeds#Infobox_Dogbreed_template -->
<!-- for full explanation of the syntax used in this template. -->
|name = Dachshund
|image = Std Dachshund 600.jpg
|image_caption = Long-haired standard dachshund
|nickname = Doxie
|country = [[Germany]]
|fcigroup = 4
|fcisection = 1
|fcinum = 148
|fcistd = http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:g3iEOGxB_EAJ:www.fci.be/uploaded_files/148gb99.doc+site:www.fci.be+%22148+/+13.+07.+2001%22&hl=en&ie=UTF-8
|akcgroup = Hound
|akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/recbreeds/dach.cfm
|ankcgroup = Group 4 - (Hounds)
|ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/dachlng.html long-haired]<br />[http://www.ankc.aust.com/dachsmth.html smooth-haired]<br />[http://www.ankc.aust.com/dachwire.html wire-haired]<br />[http://www.ankc.aust.com/dachmlh.html miniature long-haired]<br />[http://www.ankc.aust.com/dachmsh.html miniature smooth-haired]<br />[http://www.ankc.aust.com/dachmwh.html miniature wire-haired]
|ckcgroup = Group 2 - (Hounds)
|ckcstd = http://www.geocities.com/prairiedachshundca/standard.html
|kcukgroup = Hound
|kcukstd= http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h946.htm long-haired]<br />[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h774.htm smooth-haired]<br />[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h941.htm wire-haired]<br />[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h945.htm miniature long-haired]<br />[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h943.htm miniature smooth-haired]<br />[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h942.htm miniature wire-haired]
|nzkcgroup = Hounds
|nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br428.html long-haired]<br />[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br432.html smooth-haired]<br />[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br436.html wire-haired]<br />[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br440.html miniature long-haired]<br />[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br444.html miniature smooth-haired]<br />[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br448.html miniature wire-haired]
|ukcgroup = Scenthound Breeds
|ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/scenthounds/dachshund.std.shtml
|note= ...
<!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here -->
|}}
The '''Dachshund''' is a short-legged, elongated [[dog]] [[Dog breeds|breed]] of the [[Hound|hound]] family. The breed's name is [[German language|German]] and literally means "'''badger dog'''" (''der Dachs'' - badger; ''der Hund'' - dog). The breed was developed to [[scent]], [[chase]], [[hunting|hunt]], and kill [[badger (animal)|badger]]s and other hole-dwelling animals. Due to their long, narrow build, they are sometimes referred to in the [[United States]] and elsewhere as "'''wiener dogs'''" or "'''sausage dogs'''". Although Dachshund is a german word, it's rarely used by Germans, a Dachshund is most commonly known as '''Dackel'''.
== Appearance ==
[[Image:MiniDachshund1 wb.jpg|thumb|left|Black and tan Miniature smooth-haired dachshund]]
A full-sized Dachshund averages 12 to 24 lb (5 to 10 kg), while the [[Miniature Dachshund|Miniature]] variety typically weighs less than 12 lb (5 kg). Modern Dachshunds are characterized by their crooked legs, loose skin and barrel-like chest, attributes that were deliberately added to the breed to increase their ability to burrow into tight spaces. They come in three coat varieties: Smooth, Longhaired and Wirehaired; the Wirehaired variety is generally shorter in spine length than the other two.
[[H. L. Mencken]] said that "A dachshund is a ha |
The calculations from Newton's law of gravity are so exact for astronomical measurements (except near [[black holes]] and [[neutron stars]]) that in 1846 two astronomers, [[John Couch Adams]] and [[Urbain Le Verrier]], working independently, located an undiscovered planet later called Neptune simply by mathematical calculations using the law of gravity. (In fact, these calculations have been described as "totally wrong", and the agreement of Neptune's actual position with its calculated position an "accident" [http://www.iac.es/galeria/mrk/Neptune.html]. However, this was due to human error, not a flaw in the law of gravity.)
===Self-gravitating system===
A self-gravitating system is a system of masses kept together by mutual gravity. An example is a [[binary star]].
==Practical uses of gravity==
A vast number of mechanical contrivances depend in some way on gravity for their operation. This list includes applications where gravity plays a central or particularly interesting role.
*A height difference can provide a useful pressure in a liquid, as in the case of an [[intravenous drip]] or a [[water tower]].
[[Image:DubuqueShotTowerMay04.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Shot Tower (Dubuque)|Shot Tower]], [[1856]] [[Dubuque, Iowa]]]]
*The gravitational potential energy of water supplies [[hydroelectricity]]. It can also be used to power a tramcar up an incline, using a system of water tanks and pulleys. An example is the [http://www.cliffrailwaylynton.co.uk/ Lynton & Lynmouth Cliff Railway] in Devon, England.
*A weight hanging from a cable over a [[pulley]] provides a constant tension in the cable, including the part on the other side of the pulley to the weight.
*Molten [[lead]], when poured into the top of a [[shot tower]], will coalesce into a rain of spherical lead shot, first separating into droplets, forming molten spheres, and finally freezing solid, undergoing many of the same effects as meteoritic [[tektite]]s, which will cool into spherical, or near-spherical shapes in [[free-fall]].
*A [[fractionation]] [[tower]] can be used to manufacture some materials by separating out the material components based on their [[specific gravity]].
*Weight-driven [[clocks]] are powered by gravitational potential energy, and pendulum clocks depend on gravity to regulate time.
*Artificial [[satellite]]s are an application of gravitation which was mathematically described in Newton's ''[[Principia]]''.
==Newton's law of universal gravitation==
{{splitsection}}
Newton's law of universal gravitation states the following:
:Every [[point mass]] attracts every other [[point mass]] by a [[force]] directed along the [[line (mathematics)|line]] connecting the two. This force is [[proportional]] to the [[product (mathematics)|product]] of the [[mass]]es and [[inversely proportional]] to the [[square (algebra)|square]] of the distance between them:
:<math>F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}</math>
where:
:''F'' is the magnitude of the (repulsive) gravitational force between the two point masses
:''G'' is the [[gravitational constant]]
:''m''<sub>1</sub> is the mass of the first point mass
:''m''<sub>2</sub> is the mass of the second point mass
:''r'' is the distance between the two point masses
Assuming [[SI units]], ''F'' is measured in [[newtons]] (N), ''m''<sub>1</sub> and ''m''<sub>2</sub> in [[kilograms]] (kg), ''r'' in [[metres]] (m), and the constant ''G'' is approximately equal to 6.67 &times; 10<sup>&minus;11</sup> N m<sup>2</sup> kg<sup>&minus;2</sup> (newtons times metres squared per kilogram squared).
It can be seen that the ''repulsive'' force ''F'' is always negative, which means that the net ''attractive'' force is positive. (This sign convention is adopted in order to be consistent with [[Coulomb's Law]], where a positive force means repulsion between two [[Electric charge|charges]].)
===Acceleration due to gravity===
Let ''a''<sub>1</sub> be the acceleration due to gravity experienced by the first point mass. Newton's second law states that <math>F= m_1\ a_1</math>, meaning that <math>a_1=\frac{F}{m_1}</math>. Substituting ''F'' from the earlier equation gives
:<math>a_1 = -G \frac{m_2}{r^2}</math>
and similarly for ''a''<sub>2</sub>.
Assuming [[SI units]], gravitational acceleration (as acceleration in general) is measured in [[metre per second squared|metres per second squared]] (m/s<sup>2</sup> or m&nbsp;s<sup>&minus;2</sup>). Non-SI units include [[galileo (unit)|galileo]]s, [[gee|gees]] (see later), and [[foot|feet]] per second squared.
Notice in the above equation that ''a''<sub>1</sub>, the acceleration of the mass ''m''<sub>1</sub>, does not actually depend on the magnitude of ''m''<sub>1</sub>. One consequence is that all bodies, regardless of their mass, fall to earth at the same rate (ignoring air resistance).
If ''r'' changes proportionally very little during an object's travel &ndash; such as an object falling near the surface of the earth &ndash; then the acceleration due to gravity appears very nearly constant (see also [[#The Earth's gravity|The Earth's gravity]]). Across a large body, variations in ''r'', and the consequent variation in gravitational strength, can create a significant [[tidal force]].
===Bodies with spatial extent===
If the bodies in question have spatial extent (rather than being theoretical point masses), then the gravitational force between them is calculated by summing the contributions of the notional point masses which constitute the bodies. In the limit, as the component point masses become "infinitely small", this entails [[integral|integrating]] the force (in vector form, see below) over the extents of the two [[Physical body|bodies]].
In this way it can be shown that an object with a spherically-symmetric distribution of mass exerts the same gravitational attraction on external bodies as if all the object's mass were concentrated at a point at its centre{{fn|1}}. (This is not generally true for non-spherically-symmetrical bodies.
===Vector form===
[[Image:Gravitymacroscopic.png|thumb|200px|Gravity on Earth from a macroscopic perspective.]]
[[Image:Gravityroom.png|thumb|222px|Gravity in a room: the curvature of the Earth is negligible at this scale, and the force lines can be approximated as being [[parallel (geometry)|parallel]] and pointing straight down to the center of the Earth]]
[[Image:M13.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|[[Globular Cluster M13]] demonstrates gravitational field.]]
Newton's law of universal gravitation can be written as a [[vector (spatial)|vector]] [[equation]] to account for the direction of the gravitational force as well as its magnitude. In this formula, quantities in '''bold''' represent vectors.
:<math>
\mathbf{F}_{12} =
G {m_1 m_2 \over r_{21}^2}
\, \mathbf{\hat{r}}_{21}
</math> or <math>
\mathbf{F}_{12} =
- G {m_1 m_2 \over r_{21}^2}
\, \mathbf{\hat{r}}_{12}
</math>
where
:'''F'''<sub>12</sub> is the force on object 1 due to object 2
:''G'' is the gravitational constant
:''m''<sub>1</sub> and ''m''<sub>2</sub> are respectively the masses of objects 1 and 2
:r<sub>21</sub> = | '''r'''<sub>2</sub> &minus; '''r'''<sub>1</sub> | is the distance between objects 2 and 1
:<math> \mathbf{\hat{r}}_{21} \equiv \frac{\mathbf{r}_2 - \mathbf{r}_1}{\vert\mathbf{r}_2 - \mathbf{r}_1\vert} </math> is the [[unit vector]] from object 1 to 2
It can be seen that the vector form of the equation is the same as the [[scalar]] form given earlier, except that '''F''' is now a vector quantity, and the right hand side is multiplied by the appropriate unit vector. Also, it can be seen that '''F'''<sub>12</sub> = &minus; '''F'''<sub>21</sub>.
The vector formula for gravitational acceleration is similarly analogous to the scalar formula:
:<math>
\mathbf{a}_1 =
G {m_2 \over r^2_{21}}
\, \mathbf{\hat{r}}_{21}
</math>
===Gravitational field===
The '''gravitational field''' is a [[vector field]] that describes the gravitational force which would be applied on an object in any given point in space, per unit mass. It is actually equal to the gravitational acceleration at that point.
It is a generalization of the vector form, which becomes particularly useful if more than 2 objects are involved (such as a rocket between the Earth and the Moon). For 2 objects (e.g. object 1 is a rocket, object 2 the Earth), we simply write <math>\mathbf r</math> instead of <math>\mathbf r_{21}</math> and <math>m</math> instead of <math>m_1</math> and define the gravitational field <math> \mathbf g(\mathbf r) </math> as:
:<math>
\mathbf g(\mathbf r) =
G {m_2 \over r^2}
\, \mathbf{\hat{r}}
</math>
so that we can write:
:<math>\mathbf{F}( \mathbf r) = m \mathbf g(\mathbf r) </math>
This formulation is independent of the objects causing the field. The field has units of force divided by mass; in [[SI]], this is N·kg<sup>&minus;1</sup>.
==Problems with Newton's theory==
Although Newton's description of gravity is sufficiently accurate for many practical purposes, it suffers from several theoretical problems and is demonstrably not exactly correct.
===Theoretical concerns===
*There is no prospect of identifying the mediator of gravity. Newton himself felt the inexplicable ''[[action at a distance (physics)|action at a distance]]'' to be unsatisfactory (see "[[#Newton's reservations|Newton's reservations]]" below).
*Newton's theory requires that gravitational force is transmitted instantaneously. Given classical assumptions of the nature of |
me.
Where a, b and R are constants that depend on the specific material. They can be calculated from the [[critical properties]] as:
:<math>a = 3P_c V_c^2</math>
:<math>b = \frac{V_c}{3}</math>
:<math>R = \frac{8P_c V_c}{3T_c}</math>
Proposed in 1873, the van der Waals equation of state was one of the first to perform markedly better than the ideal gas law. In this landmark equation ''a'' is called the attraction parameter and ''b'' the repulsion parameter or the effective molecular volume. While the equation is definitely superior to the ideal gas law and does predict the formation of a liquid phase, the agreement with experimental data is limited for conditions where the liquid forms. While the van der Waals equation is commonly referenced in text-books and papers for historical reasons, it is now obsolete. Other modern equations of only slightly greater complexity are much more accurate.
Van der Waals equation may be considered as the ideal gas law, "improved" due to two independent reasons:
# Molecules are thought as particles with volume, not material points. Thus ''V'' cannot be too little, less than some constant. So we get (''V'' - ''b'') instead of ''V''.
# While ideal gas molecules do not interact, we consider molecules attracting others within a distance of several molecules' radii. It makes no effect inside material, but surface molecules attract to inside. We see this as diminishing of pressure on the outer shell (which is used in the ideal gas law), so we write (''P'' + something) instead of ''P''. To evaluate this 'something', let's examine addition force acting on an element of gas surface. While force acting on each surface molecule is ~<math>\rho</math>, the force acting on the whole element is ~<math>\rho^2</math>~<math>\frac{1}{V_m^2}</math>
=== The virial equation of state ===
:<math>\frac{PV_m}{RT} = 1 + \frac{B}{V_m} + \frac{C}{V_m^2} + \frac{D}{V_m^3} + \dots</math>
:<math>B = -V_c \,</math>
:<math>C = \frac{V_c^2}{3}</math>
:<math>R = \frac{P_c V_c}{T_c}</math>
Although usually not the most convenient equation of state, the virial equation is important because it can be derived directly from [[statistical mechanics]]. If appropriate assumptions are made about the mathematical form of intermolecular forces, theoretical expressions can be developed for each of the coefficients. In this case ''B'' corresponds to interactions between pairs of molecules, ''C'' to triplets, and so on.
=== Redlich-Kwong equation of state ===
:<math>P = \frac{RT}{V_m-b} - \frac{a}{\sqrt{T}V_m\left(V_m+b\right)}</math>
:<math>a = \frac{0.42748R^2T_c^{2.5}}{P_c}</math>
:<math>b = \frac{0.08664RT_c}{P_c}</math>
:''R'' = ideal gas constant (8.31451 J/(mol·K))
Introduced in 1949 the Redlich-Kwong equation of state was a considerable improvement over other equations of the time. It is still of interest primarily due to its relatively simple form. While superior to the van der Waals equation of state, it performs poorly with respect to the liquid phase and thus cannot be used for accurately calculating vapor-liquid equilibria. However, it can be used in conjunction with separate liquid-phase correlations for this purpose.
The Redlich-Kwong equation is adequate for calculation of gas phase properties when the ratio of the pressure to the [[critical properties|critical pressure]] is less than about one-half of the ratio of the temperature to the [[critical properties|critical temperature]].
=== The Soave equation of state===
:<math>P = \frac{RT}{V_m-b} - \frac{a\alpha}{V_m\left(V_m+b\right)}</math>
:''R'' = ideal gas constant (8.31451 J/(mol·K))
:<math>a = \frac{0.42747R^2T_c^2}{P_c}</math>
:<math>b = \frac{0.08664RT_c}{P_c}</math>
:<math>\alpha = \left(1 + \left(0.48508 + 1.55171\omega - 0.15613\omega^2\right) \left(1-T_r^{0.5}\right)\right)^2</math>
:<math>T_r = \frac{T}{T_c}</math>
Where &omega; is the [[acentric factor]] for the species.
for hydrogen:
:<math>\alpha = 1.202 \exp\left(-0.30288T_r\right)</math>
In 1972 Soave replaced the ''a''/&radic;(''T'') term of the Redlich-Kwong equation with a function &alpha;(T,&omega;) involving the temperature and the [[acentric factor]]. The &alpha; function was devised to fit the vapor pressure data of hydrocarbons and the equation does fairly well for these materials.
=== The Peng-Robinson equation of state ===
:<math>P=\frac{RT}{V_m-b} - \frac{a\alpha}{V_m^2+2bV_m-b^2}</math>
:''R'' = ideal gas constant (8.31451 J/(mol·K))
:<math>a = \frac{0.45724R^2T_c^2}{P_c}</math>
:<math>b = \frac{0.07780RT_c}{P_c}</math>
:<math>\alpha = \left(1 + \left(0.37464 + 1.54226\omega - 0.26992\omega^2\right) \left(1-T_r^{0.5}\right)\right)^2</math>
:<math>T_r = \frac{T}{T_c}</math>
Where &omega; is the [[acentric factor]] for the species.
The Peng-Robinson equation was developed in 1976 in order to satisfy the following goals:
# The parameters should be expressible in terms of the [[critical properties]] and the [[acentric factor]].
# The model should provide reasonable accuracy near the critical point, particularly for calculations of the [[Compressibility factor]] and liquid density.
# The mixing rules should not employ more than a single binary interaction parameter, which should be independent of temperature pressure and composition.
# The equation should be applicable to all calculations of all fluid properties in natural gas processes.
For the most part the Peng-Robinson equation exhibits performance similar to the Soave equation, although it is generally superior in predicting the liquid densities of many materials, especially nonpolar ones.
=== The BWRS equation of state ===
{{main|Benedict-Webb-Rubin}}
:<math>P=\rho RT + \left(B_0 RT-A_0 - \frac{C_0}{T^2} + \frac{D_0}{T^3} - \frac{E_0}{T^4}\right) \rho^2 + \left(bRT-a-\frac{d}{T}\right) \rho^3 + \alpha\left(a+\frac{d}{T}\right) \rho^6 + \frac{c\rho^3}{T^2}\left(1 + \gamma\rho^2\right)\exp\left(-\gamma\rho^2\right)</math>
:''&rho;'' = the molar density
Values of the various parameters for 15 substances can be found in:
K.E. Starling, ''Fluid Properties for Light Petroleum Systems.'' Gulf Publishing Company (1973).
===Elliott, Suresh, Donohue===
The Elliott, Suresh, and Donohue (ESD) equation of state (EOS) was proposed in 1990. The equation seeks to correct a shortcoming in the Peng-Robinson EOS in that there was an inaccuracy in the van der Waals repulsive term. The EOS accounts for the effect of the shape of a non-polar molecule and can be extended to polymers with the addition of an extra term (not shown). The EOS itself was developed through modeling computer simulations and should capture the essential physics of the size, shape, and hydrogen bonding.
<math>\frac{PV_m}{RT}=Z=1+\frac{4\left\langle c\eta\right\rangle}{1-1.9\eta}-\frac{9.5\left\langle qY\eta\right\rangle}{1+1.7745\left\langle Y\eta\right\rangle}</math>
Where:
:''c'' = a "`shape factor"'
:<math>\eta=b\rho</math>
:<math>q=1+1.90476(c-1)</math>
:<math>Y=\exp(\frac{\epsilon}{kT})-1.0617</math>
Reference: Elliott & Lira, ''Introductory Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics,'' 1999, Prentice Hall.
===Stiffened equation of state===
When considering water under very high pressures (typical applications are underwater nuclear explosions, sonic shock lithotripsy, and [[sonoluminescence]]) the stiffened equation of state is often used:
:<math> p=\rho(\gamma-1)e-\gamma p^0 \,</math>
where <math>e</math> is the internal energy per unit mass, <math>\gamma</math> is an empirically determined constant typically taken to be about 6.1, and <math>p^0</math> is another constant, representing the molecular attraction between water molecules. The magnitude of the correction is about 2 gigapascals (20000 atmospheres).
The equation is stated in this form because the speed of sound in water is given by <math>c^2=\gamma(p+p^0)/\rho</math>.
Thus water behaves as though it is an ideal gas that is ''already'' under about 20000 atmospheres (2 GPa) pressure, and explains why water is commonly assumed to be incompressible: when the external pressure changes from 1 atmosphere to 2 atmospheres (100 kPa to 200 kPa), the water behaves as an ideal gas would do when changing from 20001 to 20002 atmospheres (200.01 MPa to 201.02 MPa).
This equation mispredicts the [[specific heat capacity]] of water but few alternatives are available for severely nonisentropic processes such as strong shocks.
=== Ultrarelativistic equation of state===
An [[ultrarelativistic fluid]] has equation of state
:<math>
p=c_s^2\mu</math>
where <math>p</math> is the pressure, <math>\mu</math> is the energy density, and <math>c_s</math> is a constant referred to as the sound speed.
=== Ideal Bose equation of state===
The equation of state for an ideal [[Bose gas]] is
:<math>PV_m=RT~\frac{\textrm{Li}_{\alpha+1}(z)}{\zeta(\alpha)}
\left(\frac{T}{T_c}\right)^\alpha</math>
where &alpha; is an exponent specific to the system (e.g. in the absence of a potential field,
&alpha;=3/2), ''z'' is exp(''&mu;''/''kT'') where ''&mu;'' is the [[chemical potential]], Li is the
[[polylogarithm]], &zeta; is the [[Riemann zeta function]], and ''T''<sub>''c''</sub> is the
critical temperature at which a [[Bose-Einstein condensate]] begins to form.
=== [[Birch-Murnaghan equation of state]] ([[1944]]) ===
== History ==
=== [[Boyle's law]] ([[1662]]) ===
Boyle's Law was perhaps the first expression of an equation of state. In 1662 [[Robert Boyle]], an |
ace="preserve">'''Hezekiah''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: &#1495;&#1494;&#1511;&#1497;&#1492; or &#1495;&#1494;&#1511;&#1497;&#1492;&#1493;, "God has strengthened") was king of [[kingdom of Judah|Judah]], the son of [[Ahaz]] and [[Abi]] ([[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 18:1-2) or [[Abia|Abijah]] ([[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 29:1). He reigned twenty-nine years (''2 Kings'' 18:2).
[[William F. Albright]] has dated his reign to [[715 BCE]]-[[687 BCE]], while [[E. R. Thiele]] offers the dates [[716 BCE]]-[[687 BCE]].
== Life ==
The account of this king in the [[Hebrew Bible]] is contained in ''2 Kings'' 18-20, ''[[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]'' 36-39, and ''2 Chronicles'' 29-32. These sources portray him as a great and good king, following the example of his great-grandfather [[Uzziah of Judah|Uzziah]]. He introduced religious reform, reinstated religious traditions. He set himself to abolish idolatry from his kingdom, and among other things which he did for this end, he destroyed the "[[Nehushtan|brazen serpent]]," which had been relocated at [[Jerusalem]], and had become an object of idolatrous worship. A great reformation was wrought in the kingdom of Judah in his day (''2 Kings'' 18:4; ''2 Chronicles'' 29:3-36). The author of ''2 Kings'' ends his account of Hezekiah with praise (18:5).
Between the death of [[Sargon II|Sargon]], and the succession of his son [[Sennacherib]], Hezekiah sought to throw off his dependence to the [[Assyria]]n kings. He refused to pay the tribute enforced on his father, and "rebelled against the king of Assyria, and served him not," but entered into a league with [[Egypt]] (''Isaiah'' 30; 31; 36:6-9). This led to the invasion of Judah by [[Sennacherib]] (''2 Kings'' 18:13-16) in the 4th year of Sennacherib ([[701 BC]]). Hezekiah anticipated the Assyrian invasion, and made at least one major preparation: in an impressive engineering feat, a tunnel 533 meters long was dug in order to provide [[Jerusalem]] underground access to the waters of the [[Spring of Gihon]], which lay outside the city. (The work is described in the [[Siloam Inscription]], which has been dated to his reign on the basis of its script). At the same time, a wall was built around the [[Pool of Siloam]], into which the waters from the spring flowed (''Isaiah'' 22:11). An impressive vestige of this structure is the broad wall in the [[Jewish Quarter]] of the [[Old City of Jerusalem]].
"When Hezekiah saw that [[Sennacherib]] had come, intent on making war against Jerusalem, he consulted with his officers and warriors about stopping the flow of the springs outside the city ... for otherwise, they thought, the King of Assyria would come and find water in abundance" (''2 Chronicles'' 32:2-4). Sennacherib records on his monumental inscription, "The Prism of [[Sennacherib]]", how in his campaign against Hezekiah ("''Ha-za-qi-(i)a-ú''") he took 46 cities in this campaign (column 3, line 19 of [[Taylor prism]]), and besieged Jerusalem ("''Ur-sa-li-im-mu''") with earthworks. Eventually Hezekiah saw Sennacherib's determination, and offered to pay him three hundred [[talent (weight)|talent]]s of silver and thirty of gold in tribute, despoiling the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] to produce the promised amount (18:14-16).
The narrative in the Bible states Sennacherib invaded Judah (''Isaiah'' 33:1; ''2 Kings'' 18:17; ''2 Chronicles'' 32:9; ''Isaiah'' 36) and [[Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem|besieged Jerusalem]]. According to the Biblical accounts, this invasion ended in the destruction of Sennacherib's army, when Hezekiah prayed to God and "that night the angel of the Lord went out, and smote in the camp of the Assyrians 185,000 men." The author of the ''Books of Kings'' remembers to include the fact that (19:37), seventeen years later, [[Sennacherib]] was assassinated by his sons [[Adrammelech]] and [[Sharezer]], and [[Esarhaddon]] became the Assyrian king. There is also a less miraculous account from the Assyrian side, that Sennacherib raised his siege of Jerusalem after Hezekiah acknowledged [[Sennacherib]] as his overlord and paid him tribute.
The narrative of Hezekiah's sickness and miraculous recovery is found in ''2 Kings'' 20:1, ''2 Chronicles'' 32:24, ''Isaiah'' 38:1. Various ambassadors came to congratulate him on his recovery, among them [[Merodach-baladan]], the king of [[Babylon]] (''2 Chronicles'' 32:23; ''2 Kings'' 20:12).
==Religious reforms==
King Hezekiah introduced substantial religious reforms during his reign. They included the following:
*Hezekiah renewed worship of Adonai, the Israelite God.
*He abolished idol worship which had resumed under his father's reign. He abolished the shrines and smashed the pillars and cut down the sacred post. He also broke into pieces the bronze serpent which Moses had made, for until that time the Israelites had been offering sacrifices to it "(2 Kings 18:4).
* He resumed the Passover pilgrimage and the tradition of inviting the scattered tribes of Israel to take part in a Passover festival (Chronicles 30:13, 26.
== Seals ==
Two distinct classes of seal impressions have been found in modern [[Israel]] relating to King Hezekiah:
*[[LMLK seal]]s on storage jar handles, excavated from strata formed by [[Sennacherib]]'s destruction as well as immediately above that layer suggesting they were used throughout his 29-year reign (Grena, 2004, p. 338)
*[[Bullae]] from sealed documents, some that may have belonged to Hezekiah himself (Grena, 2004, p. 26, Figs. 9 and 10) while others name his servants (''obed'' in Hebrew), all from the antiquities market and subject to authentication disputes (see [[Biblical archaeology]])
== Chronological problems ==
There is considerable uncertainty about the actual dates of his reign. First, the Biblical records conflict, as they do for a number of rulers of Israel and Judah. ''2 Kings'' 18:10 dates the fall of [[Samaria]] to the sixth year of Hezekiah's reign, which would make [[728 BCE]] the year of his accession. However, verse 13 of the same chapter states that [[Sennacherib]] invaded Judah in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah; the Assyrian records leave little doubt that this invasion took place in [[701 BCE]], which would fix [[715 BCE]] as Hezekiah's initial year, which would be confirmed by the account of his illness. However, the Assyrian lists are not entirely conclusive of dates since not all scholars agree when the reign of [[Ashurbanipal II]] ended, i.e. [[630 BCE]] or [[627 BCE]].
In chapter 18 of ''2 Kings'' it is stated that during the 14th year of his reign, Sennacherib had returned to pillage Samaria, setting up his base of operations at [[Lachish]] and threatening Jerusalem, forcing Hezekiah to pay tribute. As the description in chapter 20 of Hezekiah's illness immediately follows Sennacherib's departure, this would date his illness to his 14th year, which is confirmed by Isaiah's statement that he will live fifteen more years (29-15=14). His fourteenth year being [[701 BCE]], the first must have been [[715 BCE]].
Another set of calculations show it is probable that Hezekiah did not ascend the throne before [[722 BCE]]. By Albright's calculations, [[Jehu]]'s initial year is [[842 BCE]]; and between it and Samaria's destruction the ''Books of Kings'' give the total number of the years the kings of Israel ruled as 143 7/12, while for the kings of Judah the number is 165. This discrepancy, amounting in the case of Judah to 45 years (165-120), has been accounted for in various ways; but every one of those theories must allow that Hezekiah's first six years as well as [[Ahaz]]'s last two fell before [[722 BCE]]. Nor is it clearly known how old Hezekiah was when called to the throne, although ''2 Kings'' 18:2 states he was twenty-five years of age. His father (''2 Kings'' 16:2) died at the age of thirty-six; it is not likely that Ahaz at the age of eleven should have had a son. Hezekiah's own son [[Manasseh of Judah|Manasseh]] ascended the throne twenty-nine years later, at the age of twelve. This places his birth in the seventeenth year of his father's reign, or gives Hezekiah's age as forty-two, if he was twenty-five at his ascension. It is more probable that Ahaz was twenty-one or twenty-five when Hezekiah was born (and suggesting an error in the text), and that the latter was thirty-two at the birth of his son and successor, Manasseh.
Still another date is possible by astronomical calculations. ''2 Kings'' 20:8-11 speaks obscurely about "the shadow" moving "ten degrees" during the above mentioned illness of Hezekiah (as does ''Isaiah'' 38:7f). Professor [[Aurel Ponori-Thewrewk]], retired director of the planetarium of [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]], may have been the first scholar to offer an astronomical explanation for this passage; observing that new [[Bible]] translations use "the sundial of Ahaz," while other Bibles "the stairway of Ahaz," he states that the original Hebrew text says ''ma(c)alóth'', the plural of ''ma(c)alah''. Therefore, his conclusion is that it had a double meaning: while it refers to the steps over which the shadow has already passed, it may have meant the instrument (?) of Ahaz which had obviously contained more than ten units, and on which Hezekiah could observe the movement of the sun's shadow. But whatever was the original meaning of the Hebrew word, Ponori-Thewrewk says, the shadow had made an abnormal movement on it. He imagines a pole or [[gnomon]] that casts a shadow on a plane that is perpendicular to it. The shadow can move ahead for a while, then it can move backward on that plane.
[[John D. Davis]], ''Davis dictionary of the Bible'' (Baker Book House, 1975: 184) confirms the possibility that ''2 Kings'' 20:11 and ''Isaiah'' 38:8 may be explained by a [[solar eclipse]], and the stairway of Ahaz may have been a [[sundial]] wi |
mark]]
[[ko:덴마크의 국기]]
[[it:Bandiera danese]]
[[he:דגל דנמרק]]
[[hu:Dánia zászlaja]]
[[nl:Vlag van Denemarken]]
[[ja:デンマークの国旗]]
[[no:Dannebrog]]
[[nn:Det danske flagget]]
[[pl:Flaga Danii]]
[[pt:Bandeira da Dinamarca]]
[[sv:Dannebrogen]]
[[zh:丹麦国旗]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dharma</title>
<id>8753</id>
<revision>
<id>40965327</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T03:58:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deeptrivia</username>
<id>274615</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Meanings and origins of the word Dharma */ "life" was intended as an ''example'', and "dharma" is not often defined as life</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Buddhism portal}}
{{Hinduism portal}}
{{Hinduism_small}}
'''Dharma''' ([[Sanskrit]]: '''&#2343;&#2352;&#2381;&#2350;''', or (roughly) ''law'' or ''way'') is '''the way of the higher Truths'''. Dharma forms the basis for philosophies, beliefs and practices originating in [[India]]. The oldest of these, widely known as [[Hinduism]], is [[Sanatana Dharma]] or Eternal Dharma. [[Buddhism]], [[Ayyavazhi]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]] also retain the centrality of Dharma. In these traditions, beings that live in harmony with '''Dharma''' proceed more quickly towards [[Moksha]], [[Dharma Yukam]], [[Nirvana]], or personal [[liberation]]. Dharma also refers to the teachings and doctrines of the various founders of the traditions, such as [[Gautama Buddha]] in Buddhism and [[Mahavira]] in Jainism. As the religious and moral doctrine of the rights and duties of each individual, Dharma can refer generally to religious [[duty]], and also mean social order, right conduct, or simply virtue.
==Meanings and origins of the word Dharma==
The word '''''Dharma''''' ([[Sanskrit]]; "&#2343;&#2352;&#2381;&#2350;" in the [[Devanagari]] script) or '''''[[dhamma]]''''' ([[Pāli|Pali]]) is used in most or all philosophies and religions of [[India]]n origin. Specifically, the [[dharmic faiths]] include [[Hinduism]] (Sanatana Dharma), [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]]. Dharma also is practiced in the [[Surat Shabd Yoga|Surat Shabda Yoga]] traditions. In its oldest form, ''dharman'', it first appears in the [[Vedas]].
It is difficult to provide a single concise definition for Dharma (just like the definition of ''[[life]]'' fails to convey its connoted complexity). The word has a long and varied history and straddles a complex set of meanings and interpretations. Certain [[Western culture | Westerners]] and [[Orientalist]]s have proposed a number of other possible simplistic translations, from "justice" to "religion", however these definitions have evolved with their associated usage in Western culture.
"Dharma" derives from the verbal root ''dhri'', which simply means "manner of being." The term must therefore be understood in its original (i.e. metaphysical) context, to be that of a conformity to a divine or creative principle at work in an individual and in nature. It represents the individual's internal law, to which obedience must be given if that individual life is to be lived in accordance with Divine Will. This is what Hindus consider the sole or primary purpose of life. It explains how justice finds its place among the many modern definitions of the word dharma.
[[Rene Guenon]], father of the 20th century school of [[Perennial Philosophy]], said:
<blockquote>
It [dharma] is, so to speak, the essential nature of a being, comprising the sum of its particular qualities or characteristics, and determining, by virtue of the tendencies or dispositions it implies, the manner in which this being will conduct itself, either in a general way or in relation to each particular circumstance. The same idea may be applied, not only to a single being, but also to an organized collectivity, to a species, to all the beings included in a cosmic cycle or state of existence, or even to the whole order of the Universe; it then, at one level or another, signifies conformity with the essential nature of beings&hellip; (from Guenon's "Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines")
</blockquote>
Western definitions of the word must be considered in the light of the original meaning&mdash;that is, as branches from a single root. [[Monier Monier-Williams]], for example (while covering the entire scope it would seem), gives its ''primary'' definition as:
<blockquote>
That which is established or firm, steadfast decree, statute, ordinance, law; usage, practice, customary observance or prescribed conduct, duty; right, justice (often as a synonym of punishment); virtue, morality, religion, religious merit, good works,
</blockquote>
"That which is established or firm," is one of the most ancient and [[etymology|etymological]]ly consistent definitions. Dharma is [[cognate]] with the [[Latin]] ''firmus'', which is the root of the English word, "firm." Meanings related to law, morality, scripture, and teachings were probably acquired through analogy, by being regarded as firm and called as such. For the phenomenological or psychological meaning, see [[#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|below]].
Dr. David Frawley, an expert on Hindu philosophy and religion, comments on Dharma as follows:
<blockquote>
A universal tradition has room for all faiths and all religious and spiritual practices regardless of the time or country of their origin. Yet it places religious and spiritual teachings in their appropriate place relative to the ultimate goal of Self-realization, to which secondary practices are subordinated. Sanatan Dharma also recognizes that the greater portion of human religious aspirations has always been unknown, undefined and outside of any institutionalized belief. Sanatan Dharma thereby gives reverence to individual spiritual experience over any formal religious doctrine. Wherever the Universal Truth is manifest; there is Sanatan Dharma—whether it is in a field of religion, art or science, or in the life of a person or community. Wherever the Universal Truth is not recognized, or is scaled down or limited to a particular group, book or person, even if done so in the name of God, there Sanatan Dharma ceases to function, whatever the activity is called.
</blockquote>
According to the [[Natchintanai Scripture]]:
<blockquote>
By the laws of Dharma that govern body and mind, you must fear sin and act righteously. Wise men by thinking and behaving in this way become worthy to gain bliss both here and hereafter.
</blockquote>
[[Yama]], the lord of death, is also known as ''Dharma'', since he works within the laws of karma and morality, regulated by divine principles. More familiar is the embodiment of Dharma in Lord [[Rama]], an [[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]]. The eldest [[Pandava]], [[Yudhishthira]] was referred to as ''DharmaRaj'' (Most pious One) owing to his steadfastness to Truth & Dharma.
The teachings, doctrines, philosophies and practices associated with furthering ''Dharma'' are also referred to as such. Sometimes, specific qualifiers are used - viz. ''Buddha-Dharma'' and ''Jain-Dharma'' to distinguish them from [[Sanatana_Dharma]].
For many Buddhists, the '''Dharma''' most often means the body of teachings expounded by the [[Buddha]]. The word is also used in Buddhist [[phenomenology]] as a term roughly equivalent to [[phenomenon]], a basic unit of existence and/or experience.
In scripture translations ''dharma'' is often best left untranslated, as it has acquired a lively life of its own in English that is more expressive than any simplistic translation. Common translations and glosses include "right way of living," Divine Law, Path of Righteousness, order, faith, "natural harmony," rule, fundamental, and duty. ''Dharma'' may be used to refer to rules of the operation of the mind or universe in a [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] system, or to rules of comportment in an ethical system.
==Dharma in Hinduism==
Within [[Indian philosophy]] "dharma" also means "property" and "dharmin" means "property-bearer". In a Sanskrit sentence like "zabdo 'nityaH" ([[Sanskrit]] transliterated according to the [[Kyoto-Harvard convention]]), "sound is impermanent", "sound" is the bearer of the property "impermanence". Likewise, in the sentence "iha ghataH", "here, there is a pot", "here" is the bearer of the property "pot-existence" - this just goes to show that the categories property and property-bearer are closer to those of a logical predicate and its subject-term, and not to a grammatical predicate and subject.
===Origin and development in Hinduism===
A common manner of describing Hinduism among its adherents is as a ''way of life'', as "Dharma." It defies dogma and thus seeks to instead align the human body, mind, and soul in harmony with nature.
Our very limitation is guided under a universal understanding, that of Dharma. The Atharva Veda, the last of the four books of the [[Vedas]], utilizes symbolism to describe ''dharma's'' role. Thus we are bound by the laws of time, space and causation according to finite reality, which itself is a limitation imposed by the self-projection of the infinite [[Brahman]] as the cosmos. Dharma is the foundation of this causal existence, the one step below the infinite. Indeed, dharma is the projection of divine order from Brahman, and as such:
::::: "''Prithivim Dharmana Dhritam''"
::::: "''This world is upheld by Dharma''"
:::::-- ('''Atharva Veda''')
===Proto-dharma: rta in the Vedas===
To assess a concept whose explication is bewildering in range, it is useful to trace its nascence and subsequent development in [[Vedic ci |
was unveiled, debuting on DC titles starting in June 2005 with ''DC Special: The Return of [[Donna Troy]]'' #1 and the rest of the titles the following week. In addition to comics, it was designed for DC properties in other media, such as ''[[Batman Begins]]'', ''[[Smallville (TV series)|Smallville]]'', ''[[Justice League Unlimited]]'', collectibles, and other merchandise. The logo, which some have dubbed the "DC spin", was designed by Josh Beatman of Brainchild Studios.
==Noteworthy creators==
In roughly chronological order<br>
* [[Jerry Siegel]] and [[Joe Shuster]] &nbsp;(Superman)
* [[Bob Kane]] and [[Bill Finger]] &nbsp;(Batman)
* [[William Moulton Marston]] &nbsp;(Wonder Woman)
* [[Jack Kirby]] &nbsp;(New Gods, The Demon)
* [[Julius Schwartz]] &nbsp;(editor)
* [[Gardner Fox]]
* [[Jerry Robinson]] &nbsp;(Batman)
* [[Dick Sprang]] &nbsp;(Batman)
* [[Wayne Boring]] &nbsp;(Superman)
* [[Jim Mooney]] &nbsp;(Supergirl)
* [[Mort Weisinger]] &nbsp;(editor)
* [[Joe Kubert]] &nbsp;(Sgt. Rock)
* [[Carmine Infantino]] &nbsp;(The Flash)
* [[Gil Kane]] &nbsp;(Green Lantern, the Atom)
* [[John Broome (writer)|John Broome]] &nbsp;(Green Lantern)
* [[Murphy Anderson]] &nbsp;(Superman)
* [[Curt Swan]] &nbsp;(Superman)
* [[Dick Dillin]] &nbsp;(Justice League)
* [[George Klein (comics)|George Klein]] &nbsp;(Superman, Legion of Super-Heroes)
* [[Nick Cardy]] &nbsp;(Teen Titans)
* [[Steve Ditko]] &nbsp;(The Creeper, Blue Beetle)
* [[Neal Adams]] &nbsp;(Batman, Green Lantern/Green Arrow)
* [[Dennis O'Neil]] &nbsp;(Batman, Green Lantern/Green Arrow)
* [[Marshall Rogers]] &nbsp;(Batman)
* [[Dick Giordano]] &nbsp; (Batman)
* [[Vince Colletta]] &nbsp;(DC art director; [[Jack Kirby]]'s initial [[Fourth World]] inker)
* [[Archie Goodwin (comic book writer)|Archie Goodwin]]
* [[Jim Shooter]] &nbsp;(''Legion of Super-Heroes'')
* [[Paul Levitz]] &nbsp;(''Legion of Super-Heroes'')
* [[Keith Giffen]] &nbsp;(''Legion of Super-Heroes'', ''Justice League International'', ''52'')
* [[Marv Wolfman]] &nbsp;(''The New Teen Titans'')
* [[George Pérez]] &nbsp;(''The New Teen Titans'')
* [[Doug Moench]]
* [[Gerry Conway]] &nbsp; (''Batman'', co-creator of ''Firestorm'')
* [[Steve Englehart]]
* [[Roy Thomas]] &nbsp;(Justice Society revival)
* [[Alan Moore]] &nbsp;(''Watchmen'', ''Swamp Thing'')
* [[Frank Miller]] &nbsp;(''The Dark Knight Returns'', ''Batman Year One'')
* [[John Byrne]] &nbsp;(Superman, Wonder Woman)
* [[John Ostrander]] &nbsp;(Suicide Squad)
* [[Jerry Ordway]] &nbsp;(Superman, ''The Power of Shazam!'')
* [[Dan Jurgens]] &nbsp;(Superman)
* [[Roger Stern]] &nbsp;(Superman)
* [[Mike W. Barr]] &nbsp;(''Camelot 3000'')
* [[Chuck Dixon]]
* [[Barbara Kesel]]
* [[Karl Kesel]] &nbsp;(Superman)
* [[Neil Gaiman]] &nbsp;(''The Sandman'')
* [[Grant Morrison]] &nbsp;(''Animal Man'', ''Doom Patrol'', ''All Star Superman'', ''Seven Soldiers'', ''52'')
* [[Mark Waid]] &nbsp;(''Kingdom Come'', The Flash)
* [[Alex Ross]] &nbsp;(''Kingdom Come'', ''Justice'')
* [[James Robinson]] &nbsp;(''Starman'')
* [[Devin Grayson]]
* [[Geoff Johns]] &nbsp;(''Infinite Crisis'', Teen Titans, JSA)
* [[Jeph Loeb]] &nbsp;(Batman)
* [[Greg Rucka]] &nbsp;(Wonder Woman, ''52'')
* [[Jim Lee]] &nbsp;(Superman, Batman)
* [[Gail Simone]] &nbsp;(''Birds of Prey'', Superman)
* [[Jamal Igle]] &nbsp;(''Firestorm'')
* [[Judd Winick]] &nbsp;(Outsiders)
==Imprints==
*Current
** [[All Star DC Comics|All Star]]
** [[America's Best Comics]]
** [[CMX (comics)|CMX]]
** [[DC Archive Editions]]
** [[Johnny DC]]
** [[Elseworlds]]
** [[Vertigo (comics)|Vertigo]]
** [[Wildstorm]]
*Defunct
** [[DC Focus]]
** [[Helix (comics)|Helix]]
** [[Impact (comics)|Impact]]
** [[Milestone Media|Milestone]]
** [[Paradox Press]]
** [[Piranha Press]]
==See also==
* [[DC Universe]]
* [[History of the DC Universe]]
* [[List of DC Comics publications]]
* [[List of DC Comics characters]]
* [[List of DC Comics movies]]
==References==
* [http://www.dccomics.com/ DC Comics official site]
* [[DCDatabase:Main Page|The DC Database Project]]
* [http://www.comics-db.com/DC_Comics/index.html Big Comic Book DataBase: DC Comics]
* [http://braveandthebold.net/ Brave and the Bold]
* Goulart, Ron, ''Ron Goulart's Great History of Comics Books'' (Contemporary Press, Chicago, 1986) ISBN 0809250454
==External links==
* [http://collectedcomicslibrary.blogspot.com/ Collected Comics Library]
* [http://www.silverbulletcomicbooks.com/features/106143682856239.htm Interview with DC publisher Paul Levitz]
* [http://heroicimages.net// Heroic Images]
{{Time Warner}}
[[Category:Comic book publishing companies]]
[[Category:DC Comics|*]]
[[Category:Time Warner subsidiaries]]
[[de:DC Comics]]
[[es:DC Comics]]
[[fr:DC Comics]]
[[it:DC Comics]]
[[he:DC קומיקס]]
[[ja:DCコミック]]
[[no:DC Comics]]
[[pl:DC Comics]]
[[pt:DC Comics]]
[[sq:DC Comics]]
[[simple:DC Comics]]
[[fi:DC Comics]]
[[sv:DC Comics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>David Grinnell</title>
<id>9106</id>
<revision>
<id>15907021</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Donald A. Wollheim]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Daimler-Chrysler</title>
<id>9108</id>
<revision>
<id>15907023</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-05T18:39:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Damian Yerrick</username>
<id>1</id>
</contributor>
<comment>the official corporate name is camel-capped =&gt; DaimlerChrysler</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[DaimlerChrysler]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diophantine equation</title>
<id>9109</id>
<revision>
<id>41738364</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:31:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jitse Niesen</username>
<id>14515</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Examples of Diophantine equations */ revert last eqn - if it does not have a name, it is not important enough, and in any case I could not verify it (please provide a source)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''Diophantine equation''' is a [[polynomial]] [[equation]] that only allows the variables to be [[integer]]s. Diophantine problems have fewer equations than unknown variables and involve finding integers that work correctly for all equations.
The word ''Diophantine'' refers to the [[Hellenized]] [[Babylonian]] [[Hellenistic mathematics|mathematician]] of the [[3rd century|3rd century CE]], [[Diophantus]] of [[Alexandria]], who made a study of such equations and was one of the first mathematicians to introduce [[mathematical symbol|symbolism]] into [[algebra]]. The mathematical study of Diophantine problems Diophantus initiated is now called Diophantine analysis.
A linear Diophantine equation is an equation between two sums of [[monomials]] of degree zero or one.
== Examples of Diophantine equations ==
*''ax'' + ''by'' = 1: See [[Bézout's identity]]; this is a linear Diophantine.
*''x''<sup>''n''</sup> + ''y''<sup>''n''</sup> = ''z''<sup>''n''</sup>: For ''n'' = 2 there are infinitely many solutions (''x'',''y'',''z''), the [[Pythagorean triple]]s. For larger values of ''n'', [[Fermat's last theorem]] states that no positive integer solutions ''x'', ''y'', ''z'' satisfying the above equation exist.
*''x''<sup>2</sup> - ''n'' ''y''<sup>2</sup> = 1: ([[Pell's equation]]) which is named, mistakenly, after the English mathematician [[John Pell]]. It was studied by [[Brahmagupta]] in the 6th century and much later by [[Pierre de Fermat|Fermat]].
*<math>\sum_{i=0}^n{a_i x^i y^{n-i}} = c</math>, where <math>n \geq 3</math> and <math>c \not= 0</math>: These are the [[Thue equations]], and are, in general, solvable.
== Diophantine analysis ==
=== Traditional questions ===
The questions asked in Diophantine analysis include:
*Are there any solutions?
*Are there any solutions beyond some that are easily found by inspection?
*Are there finitely or infinitely many solutions?
*Can all solutions be found, in theory?
*Can one in practice compute a full list of solutions?
These traditional problems often lay unsolved for centuries, and mathematicians gradually came to understand their depth (in some cases), rather than treat them as puzzles.
=== Diophantine analysis in India ===
The [[India]]n interest in integral solutions of Diophantine equations can be traced back to the [[Sulba Sutras]], which were [[Indian mathematics|Indian mathematical]] texts written between [[800 BC]] and [[500 BC]]. [[Baudhayana]] (circa [[800 BC]]) finds two sets of positive integral solutions to a set of simultaneous Diophantine equations, and also attempts simultaneous Diophantine equations with upto four unknowns. [[Apastamba]] (circa [[600 BC]]) attempts simultaneous Diophantine equations with upto five unknowns.
Diophantine equations were later extensively studied by mathematicians in medieval India, who were the first to systematically investigate methods for determination of integral solutions of Diophantine equations. Systematic methods for finding integer solutions of Diophantine equations could be found in Indian texts from the time of [[Aryabhata]] ([[499|499 CE]]). The first explicit description of the general integral solution of the linear Diophantine equation ay + bx = c occurs in his text ''Aryabhatiya''. This algorithm is considered to be one of the most signicant contributions of Aryabhata in pure mathematics. The technique was applied by Aryabhata to give inte |
hilosophy of history|philosopher of history]], after quoting from the works of both Hegel and [[Martin Heidegger]], commented as follows:<blockquote>In the quoted texts the reader will have recognized Hegel's [[alienation|alienated]] spirit and Heidegger's flungness (''Geworfenheit'', often translated as "thrown-ness") of human existence. This similarity in symbolic expression results from a homogeneity in experience of the world. And the homogeneity goes beyond the experience of the world to the image of man and salvation with which both the modern and the ancient Gnostics respond to the condition of 'flungness' in the alien world. If man is to be delivered from the world, the possibility of deliverance must first be established in the order of being.</blockquote>Voegelin's point was that it is precisely our choice to regard the world as alien which renders us "flung" (or "thrown") into it.
===Advocates===
In the latter half of the 20th century, Hegel's philosophy underwent a major renaissance. This was due to: (a) the rediscovery and reevaluation of Hegel as a possible philosophical progenitor of Marxism by philosophically oriented Marxists; (b) a resurgence of the historical perspective that Hegel brought to everything; and (c) an increasing recognition of the importance of his dialectical method.
The book that did the most to reintroduce Hegel into the Marxist canon was perhaps [[Georg Lukács]]' ''History and Class Consciousness''. This sparked a renewed interest in Hegel reflected in the work of [[Herbert Marcuse]], [[Theodor Adorno]], [[Ernst Bloch]], [[Raya Dunayevskaya]], [[Alexandre Kojeve]] and [[Gotthard Günther]] among others. The Hegel renaissance also highlighted the significance of Hegel's early works, i.e. those published prior to the ''[[Phenomenology of Spirit]]''.
Beginning in the [[1960s]], Anglo-American Hegel scholarship has attempted to challenge the traditional interpretation of Hegel as offering a metaphysical system. This view, sometimes referred to as the 'non-metaphysical option', has had a decided influence on many major English language studies of Hegel in the past 40 years.
U.S. [[neoconservative]] [[political science|political theorist]] [[Francis Fukuyama]]'s controversial book ''The End of History and the Last Man'' was heavily influenced by [[Alexandre Kojeve]], a famous Hegel interpreter from the Marxist school. Among modern scientists, the physicist [[David Bohm]], the mathematician [[William Lawvere]], the logician [[Kurt Gödel]] and the biologist [[Ernst Mayr]] have been deeply interested in or influenced by Hegel's philosophical work. The contemporary theologian [[Hans Küng]] has also advanced contemporary scholarship in Hegel studies. Recently, two prominent American philosophers, [[John McDowell]] and [[Robert Brandom]] (sometimes, half-seriously, referred to as the [[University of Pittsburgh|Pittsburgh]] Hegelians), have produced philosophical works exhibiting a marked Hegelian influence.
Beginning in the [[1990s]], after the fall of the [[USSR]], a fresh reading of Hegel took place in the West. For these scholars, fairly well represented by the Hegel Society of America and in cooperation with German scholars such as [[Otto Poeggler]] and [[Walter Jaeschke]], Hegel's works should be read without preconceptions. Marx plays a minor role in these new readings, and some contemporary scholars have suggested that Marx's interpretation of Hegel is irrelevant to a proper reading of Hegel.
Since 1990, new aspects of Hegel's philosophy have been published that were not typically seen in the West. One example is the idea that the essence of Hegel's philosophy is the idea of [[freedom]]. With the idea of ''freedom'', Hegel attempts to explain [[world history]], [[fine art]], [[political science]], the free thinking that is [[science]], the attainment of [[spirituality]], and the resolution to problems of metaphysics.
==Major works==
*''[[Phenomenology of Spirit]]'' (''Phänomenologie des Geistes'' Sometimes translated as ''Phenomenology of Mind'') [[1807]]
*''[[Science of Logic]]'' (''Wissenschaft der Logik'') [[1812]]&ndash;[[1816]] (last edition of the first part [[1831]])
*''[[Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences]]'' (''Enzyklopaedie der philosophischen Wissenschaften'') [[1817]]&ndash;[[1830]]
*''[[Elements of the Philosophy of Right]]'' (''Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts'') [[1821]]
*''[[Lectures on Aesthetics]]''
*''[[Lectures on the Philosophy of World History]]''
*''[[Lectures on the History of Philosophy]]''
*''[[Lectures on Philosophy of Religion]]''
==Secondary literature==
*[[Theodor W. Adorno]], ''Hegel: Three Studies.'' Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1994, translated by Shierry M. Nicholsen, with an introduction by Shierry M. Nicholsen and Jeremy J. Shapiro, ISBN 0262510804 (essays on Hegel's concept of spirit/mind, Hegel's concept of experience, and why Hegel is difficult to read).
*[[Frederick C. Beiser]], editor, ''The Cambridge Companion to Hegel''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0521387116 (The Cambridge Companions are always a good way to start learning about a particular philosopher, and this ''Companion'' is no exception.)
*[[Frederick C. Beiser]], ''Hegel''. New York: Routledge, 2005. (One of the best introductions in all aspects of Hegel's philosophy, deep, informed and comprehensible)
*[[R.G. Collingwood]], ''The Idea of History''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946. ISBN 0192853066 (includes a powerful statement of the case that Hegel authorized an over-powering state, i.e. that his philosophy is a dangerous opponent of individual liberty).
*Laurence Dickey, ''Hegel: Religion, Economics, and the Politics of Spirit, 1770&ndash;1807''. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987. ISBN 0521330351 (Provides a fascinating account of how "Hegel became Hegel", using the guiding hypothesis that Hegel "was basically a theologian ''manqué''".)
*John N. Findlay, ''Hegel: A Re-examination''. London: Oxford University Press, 1958. ISBN 0195198794
*Michael Forster ''Hegel and Skepticism''. Harvard University Press, 1989. ISBN 0674387074
*Michael Forster ''Hegel's Idea of a Phenomenology of Spirit''. University of Chicago Press, 1998. ISBN 0226257428 (Best commentary in English on Hegel's most important work)
*H.S. Harris ''Hegel: Phenomenology and System,'' a distillation of the author's magisterial two-volume ''Hegel's Ladder'', now the standard commentary on the Phenomenology.
*Justus Hartnack, ''An Introduction to Hegel's Logic.'' Indianapolis: Hackett, 1998. ISBN 0872204243
*[http://www.johnkadvany.com John Kadvany](2001). Imre Lakatos and the Guises of Reason. Durham and London: Duke University Press. ISBN 0822326590
*[[Alexandre Kojeve]], ''Introduction to the Reading of Hegel: Lectures on the Phenomenology of Spirit'', ISBN 0801492033 (Influential reading of Hegel in Europe)
*[[Herbert Marcuse]], ''Reason and Revolution: Hegel and the Rise of Social Theory.'' London, 1941 (An introduction to the philosophy of Hegel, devoted to debunking the myth that Hegel's work included ''in nuce'' the [[Fascist]] [[totalitarianism]] of [[Nazism|National Socialism]]; the negation of philosophy through [[historical materialism]])
*Terry P. Pinkard, ''Hegel: a biography''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0521496799 (Lucid biography by a leading American Hegel scholar. It debunks popular misconceptions about Hegel's thought).
*Robert B. Pippin, ''Hegel's Idealism: the Satisfactions of Self-Consciousness''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. ISBN 0521379237 (interpretation that advocates the recognition of a stronger continuity between Hegel and Kant's idealism).
*Joachim Ritter, ''Hegel and the French Revolution''. MIT Press,1984.
*Jon Stewart, ed. ''The Hegel Myths and Legends''. Evanston, IL: Northwestern Univ. Press, 1996.
*Georg Lukács, ''The Young Hegel''. ISBN 0262120704
*Kenneth R. Westphal, ''Hegel's Epistemology: A Philosophical Introduction to the'' Phenomenology of Spirit. Indianapolis: Hackett, 2003. ISBN 0872206459
*[[Charles Taylor (philosopher)|Charles Taylor]], Hegel. Cambridge University Press, 1975. ISBN 0521291992 (A comprehensive study and singularly lucid exposition by the important Canadian philosopher of Hegel's thought and its impact on the central intellectual and spiritual issues of his own time and to some degree ours)
*Robert M. Wallace, ''Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0521844843 (Argues that Hegel's major positions in metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and the philosophy of mind and the will are, in fact, plausible and defensible, and defends them against influential criticisms by, among others, Feuerbach, Marx, Kierkegaard, Heidegger, and Charles Taylor).
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel}}
* [http://wiki.hegel.net The new HegelWiki]
* [http://hegel.net/en/hegelbio.htm A superior biography of Hegel with graphics]
* [http://hegel.net Hegel.net] - resources available under the GNU FDL
* [http://wiki.hegel.net/index.php/Hegel Hegel.net] - wiki article on Hegel
* [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hegel/index.htm Hegel by HyperText], reference archive on [[Marxists.org]].
* [http://hegel.net/en/links.htm Commented link list]
* [http://hegel.net/en/ml.htm Hegel mailing lists in the internet]
* [http://hegel-system.de/en/ Explanation of Hegel], mostly in German
* [http://www.kat.gr/kat/history/Mod/Th/Hegelianism.htm Discussion of the Hegelian tradition, including the Left and Right schism]
* [http://ca.geocities.com/jazzchul2000/glossary/hegelianism.htm An extensive bibliography]
* [http://www.hegel.org/ The Hegel Society of America]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hegel/ Hegel in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
* http://www.gwfhegel.org/
* [http://www.hist |
Albania is said by these scholars to be derived from the name of an Illyrian tribe called the Arber, or Arbereshë, and later Albanoi, that lived near [[Durrës]].
== Ancient Illyria ==
''Main article: [[Illyria]]''
The Illyrians were Indo-European tribesmen who appeared in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula about 1000 B.C., a period coinciding with the end of the Bronze Age and beginning of the Iron Age. They inhabited much of the area for at least the next millennium. Archaeologists associate the Illyrians with the Hallstatt culture, an Iron Age people noted for production of iron and bronze swords with winged-shaped handles and for domestication of horses. The Illyrians occupied lands extending from the Danube, Sava, and Morava rivers to the Adriatic Sea and the Sar Mountains. At various times, groups of Illyrians migrated over land and sea into Italy, such as the [[Messapian language|Messapians]] and Iapyges.
The Illyrians carried on commerce and warfare with their neighbors: [[Greeks]], [[Paionians]], [[Thracians]], and other peoples. The Illyrians also mingled with the Thracians, another ancient people with adjoining lands on the east. In the south and along the Adriatic Sea coast, the Illyrians were heavily influenced by the Greeks, who founded trading colonies there. The present-day city of Durrës evolved from a Greek colony known as Epidamnos (earlier, known as ''Dyrrhachion''), which was founded at the end of the seventh century B.C. Another famous Greek colony, Apollonia, arose between Durrës and the port city of [[Vlorë]].
The Illyrians produced and traded cattle, horses, agricultural goods, and wares fashioned from locally mined copper and iron. Feuds and warfare were constant facts of life for the Illyrian tribes, and Illyrian pirates plagued shipping on the Adriatic Sea. Councils of elders chose the chieftains who headed each of the numerous Illyrian tribes. From time to time, local chieftains extended their rule over other tribes and formed short-lived kingdoms. During the fifth century B.C., a well-developed Illyrian population center existed as far north as the upper Sava River valley in what is now Slovenia. Illyrian friezes discovered near the present-day Slovenian city of Ljubljana depict ritual sacrifices, feasts, battles, sporting events, and other activities.
The Illyrian kingdom of Bardhyllus became formidable local power in the fourth century B.C. In 358 B.C., however, Macedonia's [[Philip II of Macedon|Phillip II]], father of [[Alexander the Great]], defeated the Illyrians and assumed control of their territory as far as Lake Ohrid. Alexander himself routed the forces of the Illyrian chieftain Clitus in 335 B.C., and Illyrian tribal leaders and soldiers accompanied Alexander on his conquest of Persia. After Alexander's death in 323 B.C., independent Illyrian kingdoms again arose. In 312 B.C., King Glaucius expelled the Greeks from Durrës. By the end of the third century, an Illyrian kingdom based near what is now the Albanian city of Shkodër controlled parts of northern Albania, [[Montenegro]], and [[Hercegovina]]. Under Queen Teuta, Illyrians attacked Roman merchant vessels plying the Adriatic Sea and gave Rome an excuse to invade the Balkans.
== The Roman Period ==
In the Illyrian Wars of 229 and 219 B.C., Rome overran the Illyrian settlements in the Neretva River valley. The Romans made new gains in 168 B.C., and Roman forces captured Illyria's King Gentius at Shkodër, which they called Scodra, and brought him to Rome in 165 B.C. A century later, Julius Caesar and his rival Pompey fought their decisive battle near Durrës (Dyrrachium). Rome finally subjugated recalcitrant Illyrian tribes in the western Balkans dwing the region of Emperor Tiberius in A.D. 9. The Romans divided the lands that make up present-day Albania among the provinces of Macedonia, Dalmatia, and Epirus.
For about four centuries, Roman rule brought the Illyrian-populated lands economic and cultural advancement and ended most of the enervating clashes among local tribes. The Illyrian mountain clansmen retained local authority but pledged allegiance to the emperor and acknowledged the authority of his envoys. During a yearly holiday honoring the Caesars, the Illyrian mountaineers swore loyalty to the emperor and reaffirmed their political rights. A form of this tradition, known as the kuvend, has survived to the present day in northern Albania.
The Romans established numerous military camps and colonies and completely latinized the coastal cities. They also oversaw the construction of aqueducts and roads, including the Via Egnatia, a famous military highway and trade route that led from Durrës through the Shkumbin River valley to Macedonia and [[Byzantium]]. Copper, asphalt, and silver were extracted from the mountains. The main exports were wine, cheese, oil, and fish from Lake Scutari and Lake Ohrid. Imports included tools, metalware, luxury goods, and other manufactured articles. Apollonia became a cultural center, and Julius Caesar himself sent his nephew, later the Emperor Augustus, to study there.
Illyrians distinguished themselves as warriors in the Roman legions and made up a significant portion of the Praetorian Guard. Several of the Roman emperors were of Illyrian origin, including [[Decius|Gaius Decius]], [[Claudius Gothicus]], [[Aurelian]], [[Probus]], [[Diocletian]].
==The Coming of Christianity ==
[[Christianity]] came to the Illyrian-populated lands in the first century A.D. Saint Paul wrote that he preached in the Roman province of Illyricum, and legend holds that he visited Durrës. When the Roman Empire was divided into eastern and western halves in A.D. 395, the lands that now make up Albania were administered by the Eastern Empire but were ecclesiastically dependent on Rome. In A.D. 732, however, a [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor, Leo the Isaurian, subordinated the area to the patriarchate of Constantinople. For centuries thereafter, the Albanian lands became an arena for the ecclesiastical struggle between Rome and Constantinople. Most Albanians living in the mountainous north became Roman Catholic, while in the southern and central regions, the majority became Orthodox.
==The Barbarian Invasions And The Middle Ages==
The fall of the Roman Empire and the age of great migrations brought radical changes to the Balkan Peninsula and the Illyrian people. Barbarian tribesmen overran many rich Roman cities, destroying the existing social and economic order and leaving the great Roman aqueducts, coliseums, temples, and roads in ruins. The Illyrians gradually disappeared as a distinct people from the Balkans, replaced by the Bulgars, Serbs, Croats, and Albanians. In the late Middle Ages, new waves of invaders swept over the Albanian-populated lands. Thanks to their protective mountains, close-knit tribal society, and sheer pertinacity, however, the Albanian people developed their distinctive identity and language.
In the fourth century, barbarian tribes began to prey upon the Roman Empire, and the fortunes of the Illyrian-populated lands sagged. The Germanic Goths and Asiatic Huns were the first to arrive, invading in mid-century; the Avars attacked in A.D. 570; and the Slavic Serbs and Croats overran Illyrian-populated areas in the early seventh century. About fifty years later, the Bulgars conquered much of the Balkan Peninsula and extended their domain to the lowlands of what is now central Albania. Many Illyrians fled from coastal areas to the mountains, exchanging a sedentary peasant existence for the itinerant life of the herdsman. Other Illyrians intermarried with the conquerors and eventually assimilated. In general, the invaders destroyed or weakened Roman and Byzantine cultural centers in the lands that would become Albania.
Again during the late medieval period, invaders ravaged the Illyrian-inhabited regions of the Balkans. Norman, Venetian, and Byzantine fleets attacked by sea. Bulgar, Serb, and Byzantine forces came overland and held the region in their grip for years. Clashes between rival clans and intrusions by the Serbs produced hardship that triggered an exodus from the region southward into Greece, including Thessaly, the Peloponnese, and the Aegean Islands. The invaders assimilated much of the Illyrian population, but the Illyrians living in lands that comprise modern-day Albania and parts of Yugoslavia (see Glossary) and Greece were never completely absorbed or even controlled.
The first historical mention of Albania and the Albanians as such appears in an account of the resistance by a Byzantine emperor, Alexius I Comnenus, to an offensive by the Vatican-backed Normans from southern Italy into the Albanian-populated lands in [[1081]].
The Serbs occupied parts of northern and eastern Albania toward the end of the twelfth century. In [[1204]], after Western crusaders sacked Constantinople, Venice won nominal control over Albania and the Epirus region of northern Greece and took possession of Durrës. A prince from the overthrown Byzantine ruling family, Michael Comnenus, made alliances with Albanian chiefs and drove the Venetians from lands that now make up southern Albania and northern Greece, and in 1204 he set up an independent Byzantine principality, the Despotate of Epirus, with [[Ioannina]] as its capital. In [[1272]] the king of Naples, Charles I of Anjou, occupied Durrës and formed an [[Kingdom of Albania|Albanian kingdom]] that would last for a century.
== Ottoman Rule==
''Main article: [[Albanian lands under Ottoman domination]]''
[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] supremacy in the [[Balkan]] region began in [[1385]] but was briefly interrupted in the [[15th century]], when [[Skanderbeg|Gjerg Kastrioti]], an Albanian warrior known as [[Skanderbeg]], allied with some Albanian chiefs and fought-off Turkish rule from [[1443]]-[[1478]] (although '''Kastrioti''' died in [[1468]]). Upon the [[Ottomans]]' return, a large number of [[Albanians]] fle |
as "that which is the result of human action but not of human design". Thus, Hayek put the price mechanism on the same level as, for example, [[language]]. Such thinking led him to speculate on how the [[human]] [[brain]] could accommodate this evolved behavior. In ''The Sensory Order'' ([[1952]]), he proposed, independently of [[Donald Olding Hebb|Donald Hebb]], the [[connectionism|connectionist]] hypothesis that forms the basis of the technology of [[neural networks]] and of much of modern [[neurophysiology]].
Hayek attributed the birth of civilization to [[private property]] in his book ''[[The Fatal Conceit]]'' ([[1988]]). According to him, price signals are the only possible way to let each economic decision maker communicate [[tacit knowledge]] or [[dispersed knowledge]] to each other, in order to solve the [[economic calculation problem]].
===The business cycle===
Hayek's writings on [[capital (economics)|capital]], [[money]], and the [[business cycle]] are widely regarded as his most important contributions to economics. [[Ludwig von Mises|Mises]] had earlier explained monetary and banking theory in his ''Theory of Money and Credit'' (1912), applying the [[marginal utility]] principle to the value of money and then proposing a new theory of industrial fluctuations based on the concepts of the [[British Currency School]] and the ideas of the Swedish economist [[Knut Wicksell]]. Hayek used this body of work as a starting point for his own interpretation of the business cycle, which defended what later become known as the "[[Austrian business cycle theory]]". In his ''Prices and Production'' (1931) and ''The Pure Theory of Capital'' (1941) he explained the origin of the business cycle in terms of [[central bank]] [[credit expansion]] and its transmission over time in terms of capital misallocation caused by artificially low [[interest rate]]s.
The "Austrian business cycle theory" has been criticized by advocates of [[rational expectations]] and other components of [[neoclassical economics]], who point to the [[neutrality of money]] and to the [[real business cycle]] theory as providing a sounder understanding of the phenomenon. Hayek, in his [[1939]] book ''Profits, Interest and Investment,'' distanced himself from other theorists of the [[Austrian School]], such as Mises and [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard]], in beginning to shun the wholly monetary theory of the business cycle in favor of a more eccentric understanding based more on profits than on interest rates. Hayek explicitly notes that most of the more accurate explanations of the business cycle place more emphasis on ''real'' instead of nominal variables. He also notes that this more eccentric explanation model of the business cycle which he proposes cannot be wholly reconciled with any specific Austrian theory.
=== Social and political philosophy===
While known more as an economist than a philosopher, in the latter half of his career Hayek made a number of contributions to [[social philosophy|social]] and [[political philosophy]], derived largely from his views on the limits of human knowledge[http://www.econlib.org/library/Essays/hykKnw1.html], and the role played by his ''spontaneous order'' in social institutions. His arguments in favor of a society organized around a market order (in which the apparatus of state is employed solely to secure the peace necessary for a market of free individuals to function) were informed by a [[moral philosophy]] derived from [[epistemology|epistemological]] concerns regarding the inherent limits of human knowledge. In his [[philosophy of science]], Hayek was highly critical of what he termed ''[[scientism]]''&mdash;abuses of the methods of science in the attempt to justify inherently unknowable propositions, particularly in the fields of [[social science]], [[economics]] and [[economic history]] (see ''The Counter-Revolution of Science: Studies in the Abuse of Reason'', [[1952]]). In ''The Sensory Order: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Theoretical Psychology'' ([[1952]]), he develops his [[social theory]] of spontaneous order into a bold [[philosophy of mind]] which has recently become the focus of a renewed level of interest within the fields of [[cognitive science]] and [[evolutionary psychology]].
== Hayek and conservatism ==
An academic outcast for much of his career, Hayek attracted new attention in the 1980s and 1990s with the rise of conservative governments in the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. [[Margaret Thatcher]], the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] British prime minister from [[1979]] to [[1990]], was an outspoken ''devotée'' of Hayek's writings. Shortly after Thatcher became Leader of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], she "reached into her briefcase and took out a book. It was Friedrich von Hayek's ''[[The Constitution of Liberty]]''. Interrupting [the speaker], she held the book up for all of us to see. 'This', she said sternly, 'is what we believe', and banged Hayek down on the table." (John Ranelagh, ''Thatcher's People: An Insider's Account of the Politics, the Power, and the Personalities.'' London: HarperCollins, 1991.)
Hayek wrote an essay entitled ''Why I Am Not a Conservative'' [http://www.geocities.com/ecocorner/intelarea/fah1.html], (included as an appendix to ''The Constitution of Liberty'') in which he disparaged [[conservatism]] for its inability to adapt to changing human realities or to offer a positive political program. His criticism was aimed primarily at the European-style conservatism, which has often opposed [[capitalism]] as a threat to social stability and traditional values. Hayek identified himself as a [[classical liberal]], but noted that in the United States it had become almost impossible to use "liberal" in the older sense that he gave to the term. In the U.S., Hayek is usually described as a "[[libertarianism|libertarian]]", but the denomination that he preferred was "Old [[Whig]]" (a phrase borrowed from [[Edmund Burke]]).
== Influence and recognition ==
{{liberalism}}
By [[1947]], Hayek was the chief organizer of the [[Mont Pelerin Society]], a group of classical liberals who sought to oppose what they saw as "socialism" in various areas. For many years their efforts remained on the intellectual fringes, but they have received increasing attention over the past 30 years.
In his speech at the [[1974]] [[Nobel Prize]] banquet, Hayek, whose work emphasized the fallibility of individual knowledge about economic and social arrangements, expressed his misgivings about promoting the perception of economics as a strict science on par with [[physics]], [[chemistry]], or [[medicine]] (the academic disciplines recognized by the original Nobel Prizes).
While there is some dispute as to the matter of influence, Hayek had a long standing and close friendship with philosopher of science [[Karl Popper]], also from Vienna. Each found support and similarities in each other's work and cited each other often, though not without qualification. In a letter to Hayek in [[1944]], Popper stated, "I think I have learnt more from you than from any other living thinker, except perhaps [[Alfred Tarski]]." (See Hacohen, 2000). Popper dedicated his ''Conjectures and Refutations'' to Hayek. For his part, Hayek dedicated a collection of papers, ''Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics'', to Popper, and in [[1982]] said, "...ever since his ''Logik der Forschung'' first came out in [[1934]], I have been a complete adherent to his general theory of methodology." (See Weimer and Palermo, 1982). Popper was also a participant at the 1947 inaugural meeting of the Mont Pelerin Society, organized by Hayek.
Even after his death, Hayek maintained a significant intellectual presence in the universities where he had taught: the London School of Economics, the University of Chicago, and the University of Freiburg. A student-run group, the LSE [[Hayek Society]], was established in his honor. At [[Oxford University]], there is also a [[Oxford Hayek Society|Hayek Society]]. The [[Cato Institute]], one of Washington, D.C.'s leading think tanks, named its lower level auditorium after Hayek, who had been a Distinguished Senior Fellow at Cato during his later years.
==Selected Bibliography==
* ''Monetary Theory and the Trade Cycle'', 1929.
* ''Prices and Production'', 1931.
* ''Profits, Interest and Investment: And other essays on the theory of industrial fluctuations'', 1939.
* ''The Road to Serfdom'', 1945.
* ''The Constitution of Liberty'', 1960.
==References==
* Hacohen, M. ''Karl Popper: The Formative Years, 1902 – 1945''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, [[2000]].
* Weimer, W., Palermo, D., eds. ''Cognition and the Symbolic Processes''. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [[1982]]. See Hayek's essay, "''The Sensory Order'' after 25 Years", and "Discussion".
==See also==
*[[List of Austrian Scientists]]
*[[List of Austrians]]
*[[Austrian School|Austrian School of economics]]
*[[Liberalism in Austria]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.mises.org/content/hayekbio.asp Bio from the Ludwig von Mises Institute]
* [http://www.hayekcenter.org The Hayek Scholar's Page]
* [http://www.friesian.com/hayek.htm Hayek's influence on Friesian philosophy]
* [http://nobelprize.org/economics/laureates/1974/ Official 1974 Nobel Prize page]
* [http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/Hayek.html Bio and online works] on Econlib
* [http://revver.com/video/10904 The Road to Serfdom in Five Minutes] Hayek's book, as illustrated by Look Magazine, condensed into a 5-minute movie
* [http://dmoz.org/Science/Social_Sciences/Economics/Schools_of_Thought/Austrian_School/People/Hayek,_F._A/ Hayek, F. A] Directory of links on Hayek from the Open Source Directory
* [http://www.adamsmith.org/hayek/ F A Hayek] on the [ht |
Copeland says he left the BNP because it did not support his extremist views as fully as he had liked. Nonetheless, his stated aim was to start a "race war" which would "lead white people to vote for the BNP".
The BNP distanced itself from Copeland. However, Griffin wrote in the aftermath of the Admiral Duncan pub bombing (which killed three people, including a pregnant woman) that the gay people protesting against the murders were "flaunting their perversion in front of the world's journalists, [and] showed just why so many ordinary people find these creatures disgusting."
In response to allegations of neo-Nazism the BNP under the leadership of Nick Griffin has publicly denounced the utility of neo-Nazism in relation to British Nationalism.[http://www.bnp.org.uk/articles/appeal_swastika.htm]
Similarly, Griffin urges white nationalist oriented youth to join the BNP and use the ballot box instead of violence to achieve political aims. [http://www.bnp.org.uk/articles/no_confrontation.htm]
==Violence and criminal behaviour==
BNP organisers and members have advocated and been convicted for violence.
BNP publications in the past have glorified racist violence. In 1991, the BNP newspaper gloated after several BNP supporters stabbed an African immigrant at London Bridge station. The victim had his “kidney surgically removed”, the paper boasted.
In 1995, Nick Griffin wrote in 'The Rune' magazine of the need to defend "rights for whites" with "well-directed boots and fists" [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4019864,00.html].
===Convicted BNP leadership and organisers===
*[[Tony Lecomber]] was jailed for possessing explosives in [[1985]] and for assault in [[1991]], when he almost killed a man on the [[London Underground]]. He was [[Nick Griffin]]'s key deputy in the party from [[1999]] until [[January]] [[2006]].
*[[Kevin Scott]], the BNP's North East regional organiser[http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/files/dms/BritishNationalParty_17911-13262__E__N__S__W__.PDF], has two convictions for assault and using threatening words and behaviour.[ http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/programmes/2001/bnp_special/membership/organisers/kevin_scott.stm]
*Joe Owens, a BNP candidate in [[Merseyside]] and former bodyguard to [[Nick Griffin]], He has served eight months in prison for sending razor blades in the post to Jewish people and another term for carrying CS gas and knuckledusters.[http://icliverpool.icnetwork.co.uk/0100news/0100regionalnews/page.cfm?objectid=12800817&method=full]
* [[Tony Wentworth]], BNP student organiser, was convicted alongside Mr Owens for assaulting demonstrators at an anti-BNP event in 2003.[http://www.manchesteronline.co.uk/men/news/s/163/163054_bnp_pair_fined_for_brawl_on_campus.html].
*Jason Douglas, a BNP candidate in the 2004 London local elections, is a convicted [[football hooligan]].[http://www.peterskinnermep.com/modules/news/article.php?storyid=166]
*Brian Turner, a Burnley BNP councillor, is a convicted wife-beater.[http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/article.php4?article_id=5909]
Other examples are cited on the [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/programmes/2001/bnp_special/membership/organisers/criminal.stm website] of the BBC [[Panorama]] special, "Under the Skin of the BNP".
The BNP says that over 20% of the working population has some criminal record or another. The party argues that it does not and cannot completely vet every single member and that it is impossible to know the proportion of members with a criminal conviction in any party.
Critics of the BNP assert that the percentage of elected politicians with criminal records belonging to mainstream political parties is much lower, that many of the offences committed by the BNP are substantially more serious than the offences typically committed by the general population of minor criminals, that the people named are prominent members of the BNP, and that the party is more tolerant of the criminal actions of some of its members than other parties would be.
===Alleged links to Loyalist paramilitaries===
The BNP has been accused of links with Loyalist paramilitaries in [[Northern Ireland]].[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/3390249.stm][http://www.labournet.net/ukunion/0401/pcsaf1.html]
===Alleged incitement of violence===
As well as crimes carried out by individual members of the BNP, there have been accusations that elements in the BNP leadership incited violence for political reasons.
Andy Sykes was the Bradford organiser for the BNP. He says he became somewhat alienated from the organisation when members were "over the moon" about race riots in Bradford in 2001, when he was "devastated by the harm it had done to Bradford, and it didn't seem right for them to be so pleased."
Sykes then claims he "got this call [from another BNP organiser] telling me to get as many lads together as I could and go and attack any TUC members or Labour people or lefties" at an anti-racist event organised after the riots.
"I was horrified. I told him this was a fun day with women and children and he said that if women wanted to support the TUC they deserved what they got." [http://www.rvar.org.uk/pages/FAQs/recant.htm]
In 1989, a group of elderly people who were protesting the existence of a BNP branch in Welling were attacked by a group of 40 men. Former BNP member Matthew Collins claims that after the attack, "they were sitting around [BNP headquarters], talking about how they'd bashed those Reds and those Pakis. But they weren't - they were women. Old women." Collins also claims he was asked to contribute to a fund for the defence of four men who had been arrested after the attack.[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/race/story/0,11255,664997,00.html]
==Electoral strategy==
The BNP aims strongly to appeal to those members of the population who consider [[immigration]] to be a threat to jobs, a cause of rising crime, and a basis for cultural decline. Under its current policy, the party backs an immediate halt to all further non-European immigration and the voluntary resettlement of foreigners to their lands of ethnic origin by way of generous "homeward-bound" grants which would be made available to anyone who wanted to take advantage of them.
Some critics of the party claim that it endorses consideration of "forcible repatriation" for those foreigners who refuse to return, as it states so in various papers, and documents.
The party has also stated that it does not regard non-white people as being British, even if they have been born in the UK and are British citizens. Instead, the BNP has stated that such people living in the UK would be regarded as 'permanent guests'.
The party has often been accused of exploiting and inflaming [[race|racial]] tensions for its own benefit in a number of areas, a claim the BNP vociferously denies - indeed, it states that if any individuals responsible for inflaming racial tensions have any connection with the BNP, such connections would swiftly be ended once discovered. The party also claims to be merely the 'messenger' of racial tension, not their creator, which it attributes to current immigration policy.
The party cites its statement that all members must stay out of volatile areas at times of high racial tension, or face expulsion from the party. While the BNP has regularly marched in areas where their presence was provocative, the BNP claims it has made no marches since Nick Griffin took up its leadership, however the night before the riots in Bradford, the BNP held a meeting of 100 in a Bradford pub, as claimed by several independent witnesses. Indeed, Hasmukh Shah, an international trustee of the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) often boasts that Nick Griffin arrived personally, to meet him, looking to create sectarian alliances against Muslim people.
A 22 year old Kurdish refugee was stabbed to death in Sighthill, Glasgow, following a British National Party meeting in which The BNP boasted in the July edition of its publication Identity that they "spearheaded a new campaign ... against asylum seeker placements in the Sighthill area". The two incidents however may not be connected.
In the case of [[Burnley]], BNP election canvassers handed out leaflets claiming that the town's Asian population was receiving preferential treatment from the local council (which the council has strenuously denied). Critics cite this as an example of the BNP's efforts to incite racial division, the BNP states that it simply wants to see fair and equal funding to all ethnic groups within the town.
The official [[government]] report into the Burnley troubles showed that a majority of white people living in the town believed that Asians were receiving preferential treatment to the detriment of the white population. [http://web.archive.org/web/20030206225617/www.burnleytaskforce.org.uk/findings.htm]. However official government statistics dismiss this claim as false.
The BNP does still hold protests at specific events - one of the most famous of these was at the count in the Oldham elections of 2001, where Nick Griffin and [[Mick Treacy]], the party's Oldham organiser, wore gags and T-shirts bearing the words "''Gagged for telling the truth''" in protest of the decision to ban candidates' speeches at the event due to the BNP's presence.
No BNP candidate has ever won a seat as a [[Member of Parliament]] in the [[United Kingdom House of Commons|House of Commons]], although in [[2001]] - possibly partially due to a number of [[riot]]s in the North of [[England]] that were arguably race-related - BNP local election results improved markedly. The then growing issue of [[Refugee|asylum-seekers]] was another probable factor contributing to this increased electoral success.
In the current climate the m |
et in conveying the message of His Lord." (Haykal 107). Haykal then concluded that "this story of the goddesses is a fabrication and a forgery, authored by the enemies of Islam after the first century of [[Hijrah]]" (Haykal 144). [http://www.satanicverses.mihanblog.com/?ArticleId=8]
==New religious movements==
===Wicca and Neopaganism===
[[Wicca|Wiccan]] practice generally includes veneration of the Great Goddess along with the [[Horned God]], though [[Dianic Wicca|Dianic Wiccans]] celebrate only the Goddess or goddesses. Wiccan mythology mostly draws on historicallly inaccurate depictions of European mythology while other neopagans (such as groups of [[Germanic neopaganism|Germanic neopagans]], for example) are interested in maintaining as much historical accuracy as possible in [[Polytheistic reconstructionism|reconstructing]] various ancient pagan religions directly. Some neopagans today draw a connection between a Mother Earth goddess (or goddesses) and ecological concerns.
In Wiccan, some [[New Age]] and Wiccan-influenced religions, the Goddess can appear as the "Lady of the Ten Thousand Names", as did [[Isis]]. Adherents refer to her as 'Queen of Heaven', 'Lady of the Beasts', 'Creatrix' and just 'the Lady.' Worshippers sometimes approach her through "different aspects," represented by often culturally unrelated goddesses such as [[Sarasvati]], [[Lakshmi]], [[Uma]], [[Kali]] (of the [[Hindu]] tradition), Isis, [[Guan Yin]], [[Pele (Goddess)|Pele]] or [[Athena]] in a form of [[universalism]].
Some Wiccans perceive the goddess [[Aradia (goddess)|Aradia]] as a kind of [[messiah | messianic]] Daughter deity. They revere the ''yoni'' or [[vulva]] as a symbol of the Goddess, together with the cowrie shell, the (Moon) Crescent, the Earth, the Serpent, the Tree, the five pointed [[pentagram]] and the Eight Pointed Star, the Quartered Circle (compare [[Celtic Cross]]), and many animals and birds.
====Triple Goddess====
[[Image:Triple-Goddess-Waxing-Full-Waning-Symbol.png|thumb|right|212px|The lunar [[Triple Goddess]] symbol.]]
Goddesses or demi-goddesses appear in sets of three in a number of ancient European pagan mythologies; these include the Greek ''[[Erinyes]]'' (Furies) and ''[[Moirae]]'' (Fates); the Norse ''[[Norns]]'' (Fates); [[Brighid]] and her two sisters, also called Brighid, from Irish or Keltoi mythology, and so on. One might also see the three witches in Shakespeare's [[Macbeth]] as following this pattern. [[Robert Graves]] popularised the triad of "Maiden" (or "Virgin"), "Mother" and "Crone", and while this idea did not rest on sound scholarship, his poetic inspiration has gained a tenacious hold. Considerable variation in the precise conceptions of these figures exists, as typically occurs in Neopaganism and indeed in pagan religions in general. Some choose to interpret them as three
stages in a woman's life, separated by [[menarche]] and [[menopause]]. Others find this too biologically based and rigid, and prefer a freer interpretation, with the Maiden as birth (independent, self-centred, seeking), the Mother as giving birth (interrelated, compassionate nurturing, creating), and the Crone as death and renewal (wholistic, remote, unknowable) &mdash; and all three erotic and wise.
Often three of the four phases of the [[moon]] (waxing, full, waning) symbolise the three aspects of the Triple Goddess: put together they appear in a single symbol comprising a circle flanked by two mirrored crescents. Some, however, find the triple incomplete, and prefer to add a fourth aspect. This might be a "Dark Goddess" or "Wisewoman", perhaps as suggested by the missing dark of the moon in the symbolism above, or it might be a specifically erotic goddess standing for a phase of life between Maiden (Virgin) and Mother, or a [[Warrior]] between Mother and Crone. There is a male counterpart of this in the English poem "The Parlement of the Thre Ages".
The Triple Goddess as Maiden, Mother and Crone has also reached modern popular culture, such as [[Neil Gaiman]]'s own conception of the Furies in ''[[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|The Sandman]]'', and elsewhere.
=== Religious feminism ===
:''Main article: [[Goddess movement]]''
The Goddess movement is a religious movement in the West focused on goddesses or more usually a single "Great Goddess".
{{sectstub}}
== Secular use ==
The term "goddess" has recently found an ever more popular and secular use, to describe the [[sex appeal]] in women that men succumb to. Young single ladies (see [[Bridget Jones]]) want to feel like "a goddess". Extremely desirable actresses, singers, sportswomen and other lady celebrities are often described by the Sunday press as "sex goddesses" (see [[Marilyn Monroe]], [[Elle MacPherson]], [[Kylie Minogue]], [[Anna Kournikova]], etc.) Several TV advertisements promptly took advantage of this trend (e.g. [[Gillette]] Venus ladies' razors). The term Goddess can also be used in a BDSM sense, instead of using the title Mistress, some women pefer the term Goddess
There is also the term "[[domestic goddess]]".
== See also ==
* [[God (male deity)]]
* [[Charge of the Goddess]]
* [[Goddess movement]]
* [[Goddess worship]]
* [[List of deities]]
* [[Mythology]]
* [[Paganism]]
* [[Polytheism]]
* [[Pantheism]]
* [[Deities]]
* [[Triple deities]]
[[Category:Goddesses]]
[[Category:New Age]]
[[de:Göttin]]
[[es:Diosa]]
[[eo:Diino]]
[[fr:Déesse]]
[[ja:&#22899;&#31070;]]
[[sl:boginja]]
[[sv:Gudinna]]</text>
</revision>
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<title>List of German language poets</title>
<id>12736</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-08T09:50:49Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Poet]]s whose primary work was in the [[German language]]:
''See also:'' [[poetry]], [[German literature]], [[List of German-language authors]]
__NOTOC__
{{compactTOC}}
==A==
:[[Alfred Andersch]]
:[[Achim von Arnim]]
:[[Bettina von Arnim]]
:[[Hans Arp]]
:[[H.C. Artmann]]
:[[Rose Ausländer]]
==B==
:[[Ingeborg Bachmann]]
:[[Hugo Ball]]
:[[Johannes Robert Becher]]
:[[Gottfried Benn]]
:[[Thomas Bernhard]]
:[[Nicolas Born]]
:[[Volker Braun]]
:[[Bertolt Brecht]]
:[[Rolf Dieter Brinkmann]]
:[[Clemens von Brentano]]
:[[Johannes Bobrowski]]
:[[Rudolf Borchard]]
:[[Elisabeth Borchards]]
:[[Wilhelm Busch]]
==C==
:[[Paul Celan]]
:[[Hanns Cibulka]]
==D==
:[[Tankred Dorst]]
:[[Annette von Droste-Hülshoff]]
==E==
:[[Günter Eich]]
:[[Joseph von Eichendorff]]
:[[Hans Magnus Enzensberger]]
:[[Wolfram von Eschenbach]]
==F==
:[[Gerhard Falkner]]
:[[Erich Fried]]
==G==
:[[Stefan George]]
:[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]
:[[Yvan Goll]]
:[[Günter Grass]]
:[[Durs Grünbein]]
==H==
:[[Peter Handke]]
:[[Heinrich Heine]]
:[[Helmut Heißenbüttel]]
:[[Georg Herwegh]]
:[[Hermann Hesse]]
:[[Georg Heym]]
:[[Jacob van Hoddis]]
:[[Arno Holz]]
:[[Friedrich Hölderlin]]
==I==
==J==
:[[Ernst Jandl]]
:[[Johannes Jansen]]
:[[Elfriede Jelinek]]
:[[Ernst Jünger]]
==K==
:[[Erich Kästner]]
:[[Gottfried Keller]]
:[[Gottfried Kinkel]]
:[[Sarah Kirsch]]
:[[Rainer Kirsch]]
:[[Karin Kiwus]]
:[[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock]]
:[[Helmut Krausser]]
:[[Thomas Kling]]
:[[Karl Krolow]]
:[[Thomas Kunst]]
==L==
:[[Else Lasker-Schüler]]
:[[Alfred Lichtenstein]]
==M==
:[[Karl May]]
:[[Friederike Mayröcker]]
:[[Ernst Meister]]
:[[Karl Mickel]]
:[[Christian Morgenstern]]
:[[Heiner Müller]]
:[[Inge Müller]]
==N==
:[[Helga M. Novak]]
:[[Novalis]] (Friedrich von Hardenberg)<!-- Sorting is "Novalis" ... "Remarque" -->
==O==
==P==
:[[August, Graf von Platen]]
:[[Reinhard Priessnitz]]
==Q==
==R==
:[[Rainer Maria Rilke]]
:[[Friedrich Rückert]]
==S==
:[[Hans Sachs]]
:[[Nelly Sachs]]
:[[Friedrich Schiller]]
:[[Kurt Schwitters]]
:[[Friedrich Leopold Graf zu Stolberg]]
:[[Moritz, Graf von Strachwitz]]
:[[Botho Strauss]]
==T==
:[[Ludwig Tieck]]
:[[Georg Trakl]]
:[[Hugo von Trimberg]]
:[[Süßkind von Trimberg]]
:[[Kurt Tucholsky]]
==U==
==V==
:[[Walther von der Vogelweide]]
:[[Johann Heinrich Voss|Johann Heinrich Voß]]
==W==
:[[Robert Walser (writer)|Robert Walser]]
:[[Otfried von Weissenburg]]
==X==
==Y==
==Z==
== External links ==
*[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/autoren.htm Projekt Gutenberg-DE: all authors]
*[http://ebbertz.dbmk.de/links/Literatur/Autoren_und_Autorinnen/ List of authors]
*[http://germanpoetry.blogspot.com German Poetry]
[[de:Liste deutschsprachiger Dichter]]
[[fr:Liste_de_poètes_de_langue_allemande]]
[[Category:Lists of poets|German]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Gunpowder</title>
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<username>Au And Cs</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:N110_ruuti.jpg|thumb|250px|Smokeless powder]]
'''Gunpowder''', whether '''[[Black powder | black powder]]''' or '''[[Smokeless powder | smokeless powder]]''', is a substance that burns very rapidly, releasing gases that act as a propellant in firearms. Gunpowder is a low explosive. As it burns, a subsonic [[deflagration]] wave is produced rather than the supersonic [[detonation]] wave which [[Explosive material#High Explosives|high explosives]] produce. As a result, pressures generated inside a gun are sufficient to propel a bullet, but not sufficient to destroy the barrel. At the same time, this makes gunpowder less suitable for shattering rock or fortifications, applications where high explosives are preferred.
[[Image:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg|thumb|290px|A Mongol bomb thrown against a charging Japanese Samurai during the [[Mongol Invasions of Japan]], [[1281]].]]
Gunpowder is considered one of the Chinese's |
preclear is cheerful about it".
:6b. When the preclear is cheerful about an incident, the auditor instructs the preclear to locate another incident: "Let's find another incident that you feel you can comfortably face." The process outlined at steps 5 and 6a then repeats until the auditing session's time limit (usually two hours or so) is reached.
:7. The preclear is instructed to "return to present time".
:8. The auditor checks to make sure that the preclear feels himself to be in "present time", i.e. not still recalling a past incident.
:9. The auditor gives the preclear the canceller word: "Very good. Cancelled."
:10. The auditor tells the preclear to feel alert and return to full awareness of his surroundings: "When I count from five to one and snap my fingers you will feel alert. Five, four, three, two, one." (Snap!)
Auditing sessions are kept confidential. However, a few published transcripts of auditing sessions have been published with no confidential information included, as demonstration examples and are available for review. Some extracts can be found in Dr. J.A. Winter's book ''Dianetics: A Doctor's Report''. Other, more comprehensive, transcripts of auditing sessions carried out by Hubbard himself can be found in volume 1 of the ''Research & Discovery Series'' (Bridge Publications, 1980). Examples of public group processing sessions can be found throughout the Congress Lecture series.
According to Hubbard, undertaking this activity will enable the preclear to "contact" and "release" engrams stored in the reactive mind. This is said to relieve the preclear of the physical and mental aberrations attributed to the presence of those engrams. The engrams consist of any painful events such as accidents and injuries earlier in life, and may contain unfortunate phrases uttered by others in the preclear's presence. For instance, Winter cites the example of a preclear's persistent [[headache]]s supposedly being traceable to a doctor saying "Take him now" during the preclear's birth. <ref>Winter, ''Dianetics: A Doctor's Report'', p. 165</ref> Hubbard similarly claims that the cause of the blood cancer [[leukemia]] is traceable to "an engram containing the phrase 'It turns my blood to water.'" <ref>Hubbard, ''A History of Man'', p.20. American Saint Hill Organization, 1968</ref> The preclear is asked to inspect and familiarize himself with the exact details of his own experience and the auditor may not tell him anything about his case or evaluate any of the information the preclear finds. This is entirely up to the preclear.
The validity and practice of auditing have been questioned by a variety of non-Scientologist commentators. Commenting on the example cited by Winter, the science writer [[Martin Gardner]] asserts that "nothing could be could be cleared from the above dialog than the fact that the dianetic explanation for the headache existed only in the mind of the therapist, and that it was with considerable difficulty that the patient was maneuvered into accepting it." <ref>Gardner, Martin. ''[http://www.xenu.net/archive/fifties/e520000.htm Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science]''. Dover, 1957</ref>
Other critics and medical experts have suggested that Dianetic auditing is a form of [[hypnosis]]<ref>
"[http://home.snafu.de/tilman/j/hypnosis.html Never believe a hypnotist]", Jon Atack</ref> <ref>"[http://www.holysmoke.org/cos/crime-syndicate-used-hypnosis-dublin.htm Psychologist says church appeared to use hypnosis]", ''Irish Times'', [[13 March]] [[2003]]</ref> <ref>"[http://lermanet.com/cisar/books/bdwopc2.htm The "Scientology Organization" (SO) as of July 2003]", chapter 2. Landesamt für Verfassungsschutz Baden-Wuerttemberg, 2003</ref>, although the Church of Scientology has strongly denied that hypnosis forms any part of Dianetics. <ref>"[http://www.scientology.org/en_US/news-media/faq/pg005.html What is auditing?]", Church of Scientology International</ref> A further point advanced by critics is that those in a hypnotic state &ndash; even only lightly so &ndash; are more susceptible to suggestion. Winter [1950] comments that the leading nature of the questions asked of a preclear "encourage fantasy", a common issue also encountered with hypnosis, which can be used to form [[False memory#discussion|false memories]]. The auditor is not supposed to make any assessment of whether a recalled memory is real or imaginary, or how accurate it is but seeks to treat it as if it were objectively real. Professor Richard J. Ofshe, a leading expert on false memories, suggests that the feeling of well-being reported by preclears at the end of an auditing session may be induced by post-hypnotic [[suggestion]] <ref>"[http://www.piratehaven.org/~atman/factnet/cust1e3.txt A Very Brief Overview of Scientology]", Richard E. Ofshe, Ph.D.</ref>
==Scientific evaluations==
Some of the [[psychometry|psychometric]] basis of Dianetics can be traced to the ideas of [[Sigmund Freud]], whom Hubbard credited as an inspiration and was said to have used as a source. <ref>Letter from John W. Campbell, cited in Winter, p. 3 - "His approach is, actually, based on some very early work of Freud"</ref> Freud had speculated forty years previously that traumas with similar content join together in "chains," embedded in the "unconscious" mind, causing irrational responses in the individual. According to Freud a "chain" would be relieved by inducing the patient to remember the earliest trauma, "with an accompanying expression of emotion." <ref>Joseph Breuer and Sigmund Freud, "Studies in Hysteria", Vol II of the ''Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud''. Hogarth Press, London (1955).</ref>
The scientific literature records very few scientific evaluations having been conducted into the effectiveness and theoretical basis of Dianetics. Professor John A. Lee states in his evaluation of Dianetics:
:Objective experimental verification of Hubbard's physiological and psychological doctrines is lacking. To date, no regular scientific agency has established the validity of his theories of prenatal perception and engrams, or cellular memory, or Dianetic reverie, or the effects of Scientology auditing routines. Existing knowledge contradicts Hubbard's theory of recording of perceptions during periods of unconsciousness. <ref>Lee, John A. ''Sectarian Healers and Hypnotherapy'', 1970, Ontario ([http://www.xenu.net/archive/audit/lee.html#evaluation Excerpt])</ref>
Only two independent scientific studies are recorded in the [[MEDLINE]] database, both having been conducted in the 1950s by researchers at [[New York University]]:
* Harvey Jay Fischer tested Dianetics therapy against three claims made by proponents and found it does not effect any significant changes on intellectual functioning, mathematical ability, or upon the degree of personality conflicts. <ref>Fischer, Harvey Jay. "Dianetic therapy: an experimental evaluation. A statistical analysis of the effect of dianetic therapy as measured by group tests of intelligence, mathematics and personality." Abstract of Ph.D. thesis, 1953, New York University ([http://home.snafu.de/tilman/krasel/dianetics_test2.html Excerpt])</ref>
* Jack Fox tested Hubbard's thesis regarding recall of engrams, with the assistance of the Dianetic Research Foundation, and could not substantiate it. <ref>Fox, J.; Davis, A.E.; Lebovits, B. [http://home.snafu.de/tilman/krasel/dianetics_test.html "An experimental investigation of Hubbard's engram hypothesis (dianetics)"]. ''Psychological Newsletter'', New York University. 10 1959, 131-134</ref>
The validity of these studies has been questioned by Dianetics advocates, who have criticized the qualifications and methodology of the authors.
Hubbard claimed, in an interview with the ''New York Times'' in November 1950, that "he had already submitted proof of claims made in the book to a number of scientists and associations. He added that the public as well as proper organizations were entitled to such proof and that he was ready and willing to give such proof in detail." <ref>"Psychologists Act Against Dianetics", New York Times, [[September 9]] [[1950]]</ref> Probably in fulfillment of this pledge, in January 1951 the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation of [[Elizabeth, NJ]] published ''Dianetic Processing: A Brief Survey of Research Projects and Preliminary Results''. This booklet, written by Dalmyra Ibanex, Gordon and Peggy Southon and Peggy Benton, provides the results of psychometric tests conducted on 88 people undergoing Dianetics therapy. It presents case histories and a number of X-ray plates to support claims that Dianetics had cured "aberrations" including [[manic depression]], asthma, arthritis, colitis and "overt homosexuality". The report's subjects are not identified by name, but one of them is clearly Hubbard himself ("Case 1080A, R. L."). <ref>Benton, P; Ibanex, D.; Southon, G; Southon, P. ''Dianetic Processing: A Brief Survey of Research Projects and Preliminary Results'', Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation, 1951</ref>
Data from the survey including a chart of the Wechsler IQ test results and why the test was selected for adults, were included in editions of Hubbard's book ''Science of Survival'' until about the 1970s. Its scientific validity was contested at the time. It was discussed in an article in the June/July 1951 issue of the ''Rhodomagnetic Digest'', a science fiction fanzine, which expresses doubts about the |
se [[chemical replicators]] "reproduce", they can be created with slightly different structures randomly, similar to biological [[mutation]]s. Eventually these replicators would produce [[protocell]]s.
== See also ==
* [[RNA world hypothesis]]
* [[Origin of life]]
* [[Self-replication]]
* [[Hypercycle]]
* [[Self-assembly]]
* [[Autopoiesis]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/astrobiology/index.php?page=origin04 Chemosynthesis: A Theory for the Chemical Development of Life] Accessed Jan. 3, 2006
* [http://www.humanthermodynamics.com/Evolution-Table.html Molecular Evolution Table]
* [http://www.ideacenter.org/contentmgr/showdetails.php/id/838 Problems with the Natural Chemical "Origin of Life"]
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<page>
<title>Carl Rogers</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Carl Ransom Rogers''' ([[January 8]], [[1902]] &ndash; [[February 4]], [[1987]]) was an influential American [[psychologist]], who, along with [[Abraham Maslow]], was the founder of the [[Humanistic psychology|humanist approach]] to [[psychology]]. He was also instrumental in the development of non-directive [[psychotherapy]], which he initially termed Client-Centered Therapy. He later renamed it as the ''Person-Centered Approach'' (PCA) to reflect that his theories were meant to apply to all interactions between people, not just to those between [[Psychotherapy|therapist]] and [[client]]. Today PCA is also called [[person-centered psychotherapy]].
==Biography==
Rogers was born in [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]], [[Illinois]], a [[Chicagoland|Chicago suburb]]. His father was a [[civil engineer]] and his mother was a [[housewife]] and devout [[Christianity|Christian]]; Rogers was the fourth of six children.
Rogers could read by kindergarten, and his education started in the second grade. Following an education in a strict religious and ethical environment, he became a rather isolated, independent and disciplined person, and acquired a knowledge and an appreciation for the [[scientific method]] in a practical world. His first career choice was [[agriculture]], followed by [[religion]]. At age 20, following his [[1922]] trip to [[Beijing]], [[China]], for an international Christian conference, he started to doubt his religious convictions. To help him clarify his career choice, he attended a seminar entitled ''Why am I entering the [[Religious ministry (Christian)|Ministry]]?'', after which he decided to change career.
After two years he left the [[seminary]] and took his M.A. ([[1928]]) and his Ph.D. ([[1931]]) from [[Columbia University]]'s Teachers College. While completing his doctoral work, he engaged in child study at the [[Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children]], in [[Rochester, New York]], becoming the agency's director in [[1930]].
He was offered a full professorship at [[Ohio State University]] in [[1940]]. In [[1942]], he wrote his first book, ''[[Counseling and Psychotherapy]]''. In it, Rogers suggested that the client, by establishing a relationship with an understanding, accepting [[therapist]], can resolve difficulties and gain the insight necessary to restructure his life.
Then, in [[1945]], he was invited to set up a counseling center at the [[University of Chicago]]. It was while working there, in [[1951]], he published his major work, ''[[Client-Centered Therapy]]'', wherein he outlines his basic theory. In [[1956]] Rogers became the first President of the [[American Academy of Psychotherapists]]. In [[1957]] he arrived at the [[University of Wisconsin-Madison|University of Wisconsin]]. However, following several internal conflicts at the department of psychology at Wisconsin, Rogers became disillusioned with [[academia]].
In [[1964]], Rogers was selected '[[humanist]] of the year' by the [[American Humanist Association]], and he received an offer to join the staff of the [[Western Behavioral Studies Institute]] (WBSI) for research, which he accepted and then moved to [[La Jolla, California]]. He remained in La Jolla, doing therapy, speeches and writing until his sudden death 23 years later.
==Contributions to psychology==
'Rogerian psychotherapy' became widely influential, embraced for its [[humanistic]] approach. Rogers also made significant contributions to the field of [[adult education]], with his Experiential theory of learning. Rogers maintained that all [[human being]]s have a natural desire to learn. He defined two categories of learning: meaningless, or [[cognitive]] learning (e.g., memorizing multiplication tables) and significant, or [[experiential learning]] (applied knowledge which addresses the needs and wants of the learner).
Rogers' basic tenet was that if unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and [[empathic]] understanding, was present in any relationship (though he started out by focusing on counselor-client relationships), that growth and psychological healing would occur. According to Rogers, these tenets were both necessary and sufficient to create a relationship conducive to enhancing the client's [[psychological]] well being, by enabling the client to fully experience all of themselves. He saw one of the chief causes of mental, emotional and existential suffering as people not being able to accept or allow themselves to fully experience all of who they are&mdash;which includes aspects that are not always socially acceptable.
Writing about the role of the clinician, he remarked that, "In every respect in which we make an object of the person&mdash;whether by diagnosing him, analyzing him, or perceiving him impersonally in a case history&mdash;we stand in the way of our therapeutic goal. [...] We are deeply helpful only when we relate as persons, when we risk ourselves as persons in the relationship, when we experience the other as a person in their own right. Only then is there a meeting at a depth that dissolves the pain of aloneness in both client and therapist."
Rogers' idea of the fully functioning person involved the following qualities, which show marked similarities to [[Buddhist]] philosophy:
*<u>Openness to experience:</u> The accurate perception of one's feelings and experience in the world
*<u>Existential living:</u> Living in the present, rather than the past (''gone'') or the future (''yet to come'')
*<u>Organismic trusting:</u> Trusting one's own thoughts and feelings as accurate; do what comes naturally
*<u>Experiential freedom:</u> To acknowledge one's freedoms and take responsibility for one's own actions
*<u>Creativity:</u> Full participation in the world, including contributing to others' lives
Rogers and some colleagues founded the '[[encounter group|Group Encounter]]' (for young people, managers etc.) and '[[Marriage Encounter]]' (ME).
==Quotes==
"Experience is, for me, the highest authority. The touchstone of validity is my own experience. No other person's ideas, and none of my own ideas, are as authoritative as my experience. It is to experience that I must return again and again, to discover a closer approximation to truth as it is in the process of becoming in me. Neither the Bible nor the prophets -- neither Freud nor research --neither the revelations of God nor man -- can take precedence over my own direct experience. My experience is not authoritative because it is infallible. It is the basis of authority because it can always be checked in new primary ways. In this way its frequent error or fallibility is always open to correction."
Carl Rogers, from '''[[On Becoming a Person]]''
"If we value independence, if we are disturbed by the growing conformity of knowledge, of values, of attitudes, which our present system induces, then we may wish to set up conditions of learning which make for uniqueness, for self-direction, and for self-intitiated learning."
Carl Rogers
== See also ==
* [[Buddhism]]
* [[Christianity]]
* [[Communication]]
* [[Person centered psychotherapy]]
* [[Humanistic psychology]]
* [[Psychotherapy]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.nrogers.com/carlrogersbio.html nrogers.com] - Rogers Biography
* [http://www.ship.edu/%7Ecgboeree/rogers.html Personality Theories] - Carl Rogers
* [http://www.writersmugs.com/zoomin/192/CarlRogers.html Portrait of Carl Rogers] - Gallery of Writers
* [http://www.panarchy.org/rogers/person.html Carl R. Rogers, On Becoming a Person (1961)]
* [http://www.panarchy.org/rogers/learning.html Carl R. Rogers, Freedom to Learn (1969)]
[[Category:1902 births|Rogers, Carl]]
[[Category:1987 deaths|Rogers, Carl]]
[[Category:Psychologists|Rogers, Carl]]
[[Category:American psychologists|Rogers, Carl]]
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<page>
<title>Casimir effect</title>
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<comment>Remove link to dab page [[Pole]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</com |
nd reprinted her first novel, ''[[We The Living]]'', with some wording changes in 1959, her own thought grew out of critical interaction with it. Generally, her political thought is in the tradition of [[classical liberalism]]. She expressed qualified enthusiasm for the economic thought of [[Ludwig von Mises]] and [[Henry Hazlitt]]. Though not mentioned as an influence by her specifically, parallels between her works and [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]'s essay [[Self-Reliance]] do exist. Later Objectivists, such as [[Richard Salsman]], have claimed that Rand's economic theories are implicitly more supportive of the doctrines of [[Jean-Baptiste Say]], though Rand herself was likely not acquainted with his work.
===Politics and House Committee on Un-American Activities testimony===
Rand's political views were radically pro-[[capitalist]], [[anti-statist]], and [[anti-Communist]]. Her writings praised above all the human individual and the creative genius of which one is capable. She exalted what she saw as the heroic [[American values]] of egoism and individualism. Rand also had a strong dislike for [[mysticism]], [[religion]], and compulsory [[charity]], all of which she believed helped foster a crippling culture of resentment towards individual human happiness and success. Rand detested many prominent [[liberalism|liberal]] and [[conservative]] politicians of her time, even including prominent anti-Communist crusaders like Presidents [[Harry S. Truman]] and [[Ronald Reagan]], and Senators [[Hubert H. Humphrey]] and [[Joseph McCarthy]] (although she argued that ''[[McCarthyism]]'' was a myth, and that the accusation of McCarthyism was used as an [[ad hominem]] argument to discredit anti-Communists).
In 1947, during the [[Red Scare]], Rand testified as a "friendly witness" before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]] (see [[http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/texts/huac.html]]). Rand's testimony involved analysis of the 1943 film ''[[Song of Russia]]''. While many believe that Ayn Rand disclosed the names of members of the Communist Party in the U.S., thus exposing them to [[blacklisting]], her testimony consisted entirely of comments regarding the disparity between her experiences in the [[Soviet Union]] and the fanciful portrayal of it in the film.
Rand argued that the movie grossly misrepresented the socioeconomic conditions in the Soviet Union. She told the committee that the film presented life in the USSR as being much better than it actually was. Apparently this 1943 film was intentional wartime [[propaganda]] by U.S. patriots, trying to put their Soviet allies in [[World War II]] under the best possible light. After the HUAC hearings, when Ayn Rand was asked about her feelings on the effectiveness of their investigations, she described the process as "futile".
==Legacy==
Rand's funeral was attended by some of her prominent followers, including [[Alan Greenspan]]. A six-foot floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket. [http://www.eckerd.edu/aspec/writers/atlas_shrugged.htm]
In 1985, [[Leonard Peikoff]], a surviving member of "[[The Ayn Rand Collective|The Collective]]" and Ayn Rand's designated heir, established "The [[Ayn Rand Institute]]: The Center for the Advancement of Objectivism" (ARI). The Institute has since registered the name ''Ayn Rand'' as a trademark, despite Rand's desire that her name never be used to promote the philosophy she developed. Rand expressed her wish to keep her name and the philosophy of Objectivism separate to ensure the survival of her ideas.
Another schism in the movement occurred in 1989, when Objectivist [[David Kelley]] wrote "A Question of Sanction," [http://www.wetheliving.com/boston/sanction.html] in which he defended his choice to speak to non-Objectivist [[Libertarianism|libertarian]] groups. Kelley stated that Objectivism was not a "closed system" and should engage with other philosophies. Peikoff, in an article for ''[[The Intellectual Activist]]'' called "Fact and Value" [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_f-v], argued that Objectivism is, indeed, a closed system, and that truth and moral goodness are directly related. Peikoff expelled Kelley from his movement, whereupon Kelley founded The Institute for Objectivist Studies (now known as "[[The Objectivist Center]]").
Rand and Objectivism are less well known outside [[North America]], although there are pockets of interest in [[Europe]] and [[Australia]], and her novels are reported to be popular in [[India]] ([http://www.theatlasphere.com/metablog/000058.php]) and to be gaining an increasingly wider audience in [[Africa]]. Her work has had little effect on academic philosophy, for her followers are, with some notable exceptions, drawn from the non-academic world.
[[Neil Peart]], the drummer and lyricist with the Canadian progressive rock band [[Rush (band)|Rush]], was influenced by Rand philosophy during the early years of the band. The most notable instances of this are the track "Anthem" from the album ''[[Fly By Night]]'' ([[1975]]) and the title track from the album ''[[2112]]'' ([[1976]]).
==Controversy==
Rand's views are controversial. Religious and socially conservative thinkers have criticized her atheism. Many adherents and practitioners of [[continental philosophy]] criticize her celebration of rationality and self-interest. Within the dominant philosophical movement in the English-speaking world, [[analytic philosophy]], Rand's work has been mostly ignored. No leading research university in this tradition considers Rand or Objectivism to be an important philosophical specialty or research area, as is documented by [[Brian Leiter]]'s report [http://www.philosophicalgourmet.com/]. Some academics, however, are trying to bring Rand's work into the mainstream. For instance, the [http://www.aynrandsociety.org/ Ayn Rand Society], founded in 1987, is affiliated with the [[American Philosophical Association]]. In 2006, [[Cambridge University Press]] will publish a volume on Rand's ethical theory written by ARI-affiliated scholar [[Tara Smith]].
A notable exception to the general lack of attention paid to Rand is the essay "On the Randian Argument" by [[Harvard University]] philosopher [[Robert Nozick]], which appears in his collection ''Socratic Puzzles''. Nozick's own [[libertarian]] political conclusions are similar to Rand's, but his essay criticizes her foundational argument in ethics, which claims that one's own life is, for each individual, the only ultimate value because it makes all other values possible. To make this argument sound, Nozick argues that Rand still needs to explain why someone could not rationally prefer the state of eventually dying and having no values. Thus, he argues, her attempt to deduce the morality of selfishness is essentially an instance of assuming the conclusion or [[begging the question]] and that her solution to [[David Hume]]'s famous [[is-ought problem]] is unsatisfactory. Nevertheless, Nozick respected Rand as an author and noted that he found her books enjoyable and thought-provoking.
Rand has sometimes been viewed with suspicion for her practice of presenting her philosophy in fiction and non-fiction books aimed at a general audience rather than publishing in [[peer-review]]ed journals. Rand's defenders note that she is part of a long tradition of authors who wrote philosophically rich fiction — including [[Dante]], [[John Milton]], [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], and [[Albert Camus]], and that other philosophers such as [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] presented their philosophies in both fictional and non-fictional forms.
Other critics argue that Rand’s idealistic philosophy and her [[Romantic]] literary style are not applicable to the inhabited world. In particular, these critics claim that Rand's novels are made up of unrealistic and one-dimensional characters. They criticize the portrayal of the Objectivist heroes as incredibly intelligent, unencumbered by doubt, wealthy, and free of flaws, in contrast to the frequent portrayal of the antagonists as weak, pathetic, full of uncertainty, and lacking in imagination and talent.
Defenders of Rand point out counterexamples to these criticisms: neither Eddie Willers nor Cherryl Taggart (both positive characters) is especially gifted or intelligent, but both are characters of dignity and respect; Leo Kovalensky suffers enormously due to his inability to cope with the brutality and banality of communism; Andrei Taganov dies after realizing his philosophical errors; Dominique Francon is initially bitterly unhappy because she believes evil is powerful; Hank Rearden is torn by inner emotional conflict brought on by a philosophical contradiction; and Dagny Taggart thinks that she alone is capable of saving the world. Two of her main protagonists, Howard Roark and John Galt, did not begin life wealthy. Though Rand believed that, under capitalism, valuable contributions will routinely be rewarded by wealth, she certainly did not think that wealth made a person virtuous. In fact, she presents many vicious bureaucrats and waspish elitists who use [[statism]] to accumulate money and power. Moreover, Hank Rearden is exploited because of his social naïveté. As for the purportedly weak and pathetic villains, Rand's defenders point out that Ellsworth Toohey is represented as being a great strategist and communicator from an early age, and Dr. Robert Stadler is a brilliant scientist.
Rand herself replied to these literary criticisms (and in advance of much of them) with her essay "The Goal of My Writing" (1963). There, and in other essays collected in her book ''[[The Romantic Manifesto|The Romantic Manifesto: A Philosophy of Literature]]'' (2nd rev. ed. 1975), Rand makes it clear that her goal is to project her vision of an ideal man: not man as he is, but man as he migh |
pened. As to why the clicking sound is used, researchers have found that when pressing a button audible feedback, in addition to tactile feedback, gives a better response to the user.
====Single clicking====
This is the most common method of distinguishing mouse-based input. On single-button mice this involves using the mouse's one button. On multiple-button mice, it involves one of the buttons and is usually characterized by which button is pushed (e.g. left-clicking, right-clicking). See [[point-and-click]].
====Double-click====
A [[double-click (computing)|double-click]] occurs when the user presses the button twice in quick succession. This usually triggers an action separate from that of a single-click. For example, in the [[Macintosh Finder]] a user may single-click to select a file, and double-click to open that file. Usability studies have found that the double-click can be confusing and hard to use&mdash;for example, users with poor motor skills may not perform the second click soon enough after the first, causing the action to be registered as two single-clicks rather than a double-click. (Ironically, the double-click was introduced because the previous solution&mdash;separate mouse buttons for separate actions&mdash;was found to be confusing in user studies.) Most multiple-button mice allow setting one button to emit a double-click on a single press. Modern operating systems allow users to set the maximum interval in which the two clicks need to be made to register as a double-click.
====Multiple clicking====
Multiple clicks occur when the user presses the button several times in quick succession. This triggers an action separate from that of a single or double click. The triple click, for example, can be seen in [[word processor]]s such as [[Microsoft Word]] and [[web browsers]] to select a whole section (e.g. a line or paragraph) of text. Professional desktop publishing applications such as [[QuarkXPress]] and [[Adobe]] [[InDesign]] also utilize quadclicks (4 clicks to select a paragraph) and pentaclicks (5 clicks to select the entire story).
====Chords====
A [[mouse chording|chord]] occurs when two or more mouse buttons are pressed at the same time.
It is rarely used in standard interfaces. The X Window system has an option to emulate a middle mouse button with the simultaneous click of the left and right mouse buttons.
====Click-and-drag====
Once a user has clicked on an object, they can often drag the object by continuing to hold down the mouse button whilst moving the mouse.
====Mouse gestures====
''Main article: [[Mouse gesture]]s''
A mouse gesture is a way of combining mouse movements with clicks, to indicate a software-specific command.
===Tactile mice===
In [[2000]], [[Logitech]] introduced the ''tactile mouse'', which contained a small [[actuator]] that made the mouse vibrate. Such a mouse could be used to augment user interfaces with [[haptic]] feedback, such as giving feedback when crossing a [[window (computer)|window]] boundary.
Other unusual variants have included a mouse that is held freely in the hand, rather than on a flat surface, and detects six dimensions of motion (the three spatial dimensions, plus rotation on three axes). It was marketed for [[business]] [[presentation|presentations]] when the speaker is standing or walking around. So far, these mouse exotica have not achieved widespread popularity.
===Mouse speed===
Mouse speed is often expressed as DPI (dots per inch). The DPI is the number of pixels the mouse cursor will move when the mouse is moved one inch. Mouse sensitivity is a software trick that can be used to make a cursor move faster or slower than its DPI. Cursor acceleration can be used to make the cursor accelerate when the mouse is moving at a constant speed.
A less common unit, the "Mickey" (named after [[Mickey Mouse]]), is a measure of distance reported by a mouse. It is not a traditional [[unit of measurement]] because it indicates merely the number of "dots" reported in a particular direction. Only when combined with the DPI of the mouse does it become an indication of actual distance moved. In the absence of acceleration, the Mickey corresponds to the number of pixels moved on the computer screen.
Additionally, operating systems traditionally apply acceleration, referred to as [[ballistics]], to the motion reported by the mouse. For example, versions of [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] prior to [[Windows XP]] doubled reported values above a configurable threshold, and then optionally doubled them again above a second configurable threshold. These doublings were applied separately in the X and Y directions, resulting in very [[nonlinear]] response. In [[Windows XP]] and many OS versions for [[Apple Macintosh]] computers, a smoother ballistics calculation is used that compensates for screen resolution and has better linearity.
===Mice or mouses?===
There is a [[fake etymology]] of the word mouse, which some claim is an [[acronym]] for "Manually Operated User Selection Equipment", but the device's name came from its resemblance to a [[mouse]] and was established very early on. A [[Microsoft]] technical manual recommends the use of "mouse devices" to avoid ambiguity, though this usage has not caught on outside technical writing. The [[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language|American Heritage Dictionary of English Language]], Fourth Edition, states both "computer mice" and "computer mouses" are both proper plural forms for "computer mouse."
==Accessories==
===Mousepad or Mousemat===
{{main|Mousepad}}
The mousepad is the most popular mouse accessory available, and is used with most mice. It provides a smooth surface for the mouse to move across, as many desks are not suitable, and hard wood or plastic surfaces wear down mouse feet covers faster. Specialized hard mousepads are made for gamers. Most optical mice do not require a mouse pad, as they are designed to be used on any flat surface. A mousepad is sometimes required when using optomechanical mice, because the ball requires the extra friction of the mousepad to roll smoothly. Many mousepads feature artistic designs, photographs, logos, or other decoration.
===Mouse foot covers===
Mouse foot covers (or foot pads) are made from low-friction or polished plastic. This makes the mouse glide with less resistance over a surface. Some higher quality models have [[Teflon]] feet to further decrease friction.
===Cord managers===
Accessories for managing the cord of a mouse come in different forms, but they all help manage excess cord length on mice to keep it from getting in the way.
===Wrist rests===
Cushioning pillows made from [[silicone]] [[gel]], [[neoprene]], or other spongy material are also a popular accessory. The padding provides for a more natural angle of the wrist which is aimed at reducing fatigue and excessive strain.
==Mice in the marketplace==
In the [[1970s]], Xerox PARC included mice with its [[Xerox Star]]. Later, inspired by the Star, [[Apple Computer]] released the [[Apple Lisa]], which also used a mouse. However, neither the Star nor the Lisa were commercially successful. Only with the release of the [[Apple Macintosh]] in [[1984]] did the mouse first see widespread use.
The Macintosh design was influential, and its success led many other vendors to begin producing mice or including them with their other computer products. The widespread adoption of graphical user interfaces in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] made mice indispensable for computer use. By [[2000]], [[Dataquest]] estimated that US$1.5 billion worth of mice were sold annually worldwide.
=== Alternative mice ===
Apart from the regular mouse that is operated by the hands, other mouse variants exist. These cater to those who may have an injury resulting from excessive mouse usage, or to people who feel uncomfortable with traditional designs. Some of these include:
* [[Trackball]] &ndash; user moves a ball mounted in a fixed base.
* Mini-mouse &ndash; a small egg-sized mouse optimized for portability (often used with [[laptop computer]]s).
* Camera mouse &ndash; a camera tracks the head movement and moves the onscreen cursor. Natural pointers track the dot on a person's head and move the cursor accordingly. They are more precise than a camera mouse.
* Palm mouse &ndash; held in the palm and operated with only 2 buttons; the movements across the screen correspond to a feather touch, and pressure increases the speed of movement.
* Foot mouse &ndash; a mouse variant for those who do not wish to or cannot use the hands or the head; instead, footclicks are used.
* Joy-Mouse &ndash; A cross between a joystick and a mouse, the joy mouse is held in an upright position like a joystick but moved like a normal mouse. The thumb usually controls the clicking on a two-way button on the top of the mouse.
==Applications of mice in user interfaces==
Usually, the mouse is used to control the motion of a [[cursor (computers)|cursor]] in two dimensions in a graphical user interface. Objects, such as files, programs, or actions, can be selected from a list of names, but, alternatively, are often represented visually by pictures called ''icons'' and ''buttons''; the mouse cursor can be used to select or activate items by moving the cursor over the name or picture and pressing one of the mouse buttons. For example, a text file might be represented by a picture of a piece of notebook paper, and clicking on this icon might cause a text editing program to open the file in a new window. (See also [[point-and-click]].)
Mice can also be used ''gesturally''; that is, a stylized motion of the mouse cursor itself can be used as a form of input. In a gestural interface, a particular [[mouse gesture|gesture]] (stylized motion) may be mapped to an action. For example, in a drawing program, moving the mouse in a rapid "x&quo |
from the southeast finally managed to overthrow the Avars in the early 9th century. Soon after, the Franks retreated, and the Slavonic kingdom of [[Great Moravia]] and the [[Balaton Principality]] controlled much of Pannonia until the end of the century. Finally, the [[Magyars]] migrated to Hungary in the late 9th century.
[[Image:Arpadfeszty.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Arpad]]Tradition holds that the Country of the Magyars (Hungary) was founded by [[Árpád]], who led the [[Magyars]] into the [[Pannonian plain]]s after [[895]]. The [[Kingdom of Hungary]] was established in [[1000]] by [[Stephen_I_of_Hungary|King St. Stephen I]].
Initially the history of Hungary was developed in a triangle with that of [[Poland]] and [[Bohemia]], with the many liaisons with Popes and Emperors of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Between [[1241]]&ndash;[[1242]], Hungary was partially devastated and suffered great loss of life at the hands of [[Mongol]] ([[Tatar]]) armies of [[Batu Khan]].
Gradually Hungary under the rule of the dynasty of the [[Árpáds]] turned into an independent kingdom which formed a distinct Central European culture with ties to greater West European [[civilization]]. Ruled by the [[Angevins]] since [[1308]], the Kingdom of Hungary briefly extended its control over [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]]. The non-dynastic king [[Matthias Corvinus of Hungary|Matthias Corvinus]], son of [[John Hunyadi]], ruled the Kingdom of Hungary from 1458 to 1490. He strengthened Hungary and its government. Under his rule, Hungary (notably the northern parts, some of which are in [[Slovakia]] today) became an important artistic and cultural centre of Europe during the [[Renaissance]]. Hungarian culture influenced others, for example the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]].
Hungarian independence ended with the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] conquest at the beginning of the [[16th century]]; the parts of Hungary that were not conquered by the Ottomans were annexed by [[Austria]] (the rulers of which were Hungarian kings at the same time) in the West, and became the independent Principality of [[Transylvania]] in the East. After 150 years, [[Austria]] and its Christian allies retook also the territory of today's Hungary by the end of the [[17th century]] from the Islamic Ottoman Empire.
After the final retreat of the [[Turkey|Turks]], struggle began between the Hungarian nation and the [[Habsburg]] kings for the protection of noblemen's rights (thus guarding the autonomy of Hungary). The fight against Austrian absolutism resulted in the unsuccessful popular freedom fight led by a Transylvanian nobleman, [[Ferenc II Rákóczi]], between 1704 and 1711. The revolution and war of 1848&ndash;1849 eliminated [[serfdom]] and secured civil rights. The Austrians were finally able to prevail only with Russian help.
Thanks to the victories against Austria by the French-Italian coalition (the [[Battle of Solferino]], [[1859]]) and Prussia ([[Battle of Königgratz]], [[1866]]), Hungary would eventually, in [[1867]], manage to become an autonomous part of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] (see [[Ausgleich]]). Having achieved this, the Hungarian government took an effort to nationally unify the kingdom by [[Magyarisation]] of the various other nationalities. This lasted until the end of [[World War I]], when the Austro-Hungarian empire collapsed. On [[November 16]], [[1918]], an independent Hungarian Republic was proclaimed.
In March [[1919]] the communists took power, and in April, [[Béla Kun]] proclaimed the [[Hungarian Soviet Republic]]. This government, like its predecessor, proved to be short lived; after some initial military successes against the Czechoslovak army, the [[Romania]]ns attacked to prevent a campaign in [[Transylvania]]. By August more than half of present-day Hungary, including Budapest, was placed under Romanian occupation, which lasted until November. Rightist military forces, led by the former Austro-Hungarian Admiral [[Miklós Horthy]], entered Budapest in the wake of the Romanian army's departure and filled the vacuum of state power. In January [[1920]], elections were held for a unicameral assembly, and Admiral Horthy was subsequently elected Regent, thereby formally restoring Hungary to a kingdom, although there were no more Kings of Hungary, despite attempts by the former Habsburg king to return to power. Horthy continued to rule with autocratic powers until [[1944]].
In June 1920, the [[Treaty of Trianon]] was signed, fixing Hungary's borders. Compared with the pre-war Kingdom, Hungary lost 71% of it's territory,66% of it's population, and with the new borders about one-third of the Magyar population became minorities in the neighbouring countries. Therefore, Hungarian politics and culture of the interwar period were saturated with [[irredentism]] and [[revisionism]] (the restoration of 19th century "[[greater Hungary]]" by whatever means necessary).
Horthy made an alliance with [[Nazi Germany]] in the [[1930s]], in the hope of revising the territorial losses that had followed World War I. The alliance did lead to some territories being returned to Hungary in the two [[Vienna Awards]]. Hungary then assisted the German occupation of the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]], occupying the [[Banat]] right afterwards, and finally entered [[World War II]] in 1941, fighting primarily against the Soviet Union. In October 1944, [[Hitler]] replaced Horthy with the Hungarian Nazi collaborator [[Ferenc Szálasi]] and his [[Arrow Cross Party]] in order to avert Hungary's defection to the Allied side, which were constantly threatened since the Allied invasion of Italy.
Hungary passed a series of [[History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary#20th_Century:_Persecution_and_destruction|anti-Semitic laws]] throughout the 1920s and thirties, and some massacres of Jews by Hungarian forces took place in the early part of the Second World War, but Hungary initially resisted large scale deportation of its Jewish population. Ultimately, however, during the German occupation, the [[Arrow Cross Party]] and government authorities participated fully in the [[Holocaust]]: in May and June of 1944, Hungarian police deported nearly 440,000 Jews in more than 145 trains, mostly to [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]] [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/index.php?ModuleId=10005458]. Ultimately, over 533,000 Jews in Hungary were killed during the [[Holocaust]], as well as several tens of thousands of [[Roma people|Roma]].
Following the fall of Nazi Germany, Hungary became part of the Soviet area of influence and was appropriated into a [[communist state]] following a short period of democracy in 1946&ndash;1947. After 1948 Communist leader Mátyás Rákosi established a Stalinist rule in the country, which was hardly bearable for the war-torn country. This led to the [[1956 Hungarian Revolution]] and an announced withdrawal from the [[Warsaw Pact]] which were met with a massive military intervention by the [[Soviet Union]]. From the 1960s on to the late 1980s Hungary was sometimes satirically called the "[[the happiest barrack]]" within the [[Eastern bloc]], under the rule of late controversial communist leader [[János Kádár]], who exercised autocratic rule during this period. In the late [[1980s]], Hungary led the movement to dissolve the Warsaw Pact and shifted toward multiparty democracy and a market-oriented economy. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in [[1991]], Hungary developed closer ties with Western Europe, joined [[NATO]] in [[1999]] and the [[European Union]] on [[May 1]], [[2004]].
''See Also: [[Kingdom of Hungary]], [[Hungary before the Magyars]]''
== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of Hungary]]''
<!--[[Image:HungaryBudapestChess.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Outdoor chess in Budapest, November 1990]] -->
[[Image:Parlament Budapest3.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The building of Hungarian Parliament]]
The [[President of Hungary|President of the Republic]], elected by the [[parliament]] every 5 years, has a largely ceremonial role, but powers also include appointing the [[Prime Minister of Hungary|prime minister]]. The prime minister selects [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] ministers and has the exclusive right to dismiss them. Each cabinet nominee appears before one or more parliamentary committees in consultative open hearings and must be formally approved by the president.
The [[unicameral]], 386-member [[National Assembly of Hungary|National Assembly]] (the ''Országgyűlés'') is the highest organ of state authority and initiates and approves legislation sponsored by the prime minister. National parliamentary elections are held every 4 years (the next will be held on April 9th 2006). An 11-member Constitutional Court has power to challenge legislation on grounds of unconstitutionality.
== Administrative divisions ==
''Main article: [[Counties of Hungary]]''
Hungary is subdivided administratively into 19 counties, in addition to which there is one [[Capitals of Hungary|capital city]] (''főváros''): [[Budapest]]. There are also 23 so-called urban counties (singular ''megyei jogú város''), These are:
<table border="0"><tr><th>Urban counties</th><th>Counties (County Capital)</th></tr>
<tr><td>
* [[Békéscsaba]]
* [[Debrecen]]
* [[Dunaújváros]]
* [[Eger]]
* [[Érd]]
* [[Győr]]
* [[Hódmezővásárhely]]
* [[Kaposvár]]
* [[Kecskemét]]
* [[Miskolc]]
* [[Nagykanizsa]]
* [[Nyíregyháza]]
* [[Pécs]]
* [[Salgótarján]]
* [[Sopron]]
* [[Szeged]]
* [[Székesfehérvár]]
* [[Szekszárd]]
* [[Szolnok]]
* [[Szombathely]]
* [[Tatabánya]]
* [[Veszprém]]
* [[Zalaegerszeg]]
</td><td valign="top">
* [[Bács-Kiskun]] ([[Kecskemét]])
* [[Baranya]] ([[Pécs]])
* [[Békés (county)|Békés]] ([[Békéscsaba]])
* [[Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén]] ([[Miskolc]])
* [[Csongrád (county)|Csongrád]] ([[Szeged]])
* [[Fejér]] ([[Székesfehérvár]])
* [[Győr-Moson-Sopron]] ([[Győr]])
* [[Hajdú-Bihar]] ([[Debrecen]])
|
z)
|- align = "center"
| Master || 6f || 85.000
|- align = "center"
| Purple Slave || 5f || 70.833
|- align = "center"
| Red Slave || 8f || 113.333
|- align = "center"
| Green Slave || 9f || 127.500
|-
|}
The frequencies given are those for Chain 5B, known as the English Chain, but all chains used similar frequencies.
Decca receivers multiplied the signal received from the Master and each Slave by different values to arrive at a common frequency for each Master/Slave pair, as follows:
{| border="1" align="center" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;border:1px solid gray;font-size:95%"
|- style="background:#efefef;"
! Station!! Slave Harmonic !! Common Frequency !! Slave multiplier || Master multiplier
|- align = "center"
| Purple pattern || 5f || 30f || 6 || 5
|- align = "center"
| Red pattern || 8f || 24f || 3 || 4
|- align = "center"
| Green pattern || 9f || 18f || 2 || 3
|-
|}
It was this common frequency that resulted in the hyperbolic lines of position. The interval between two adjacent hyperbolas on which the signals are in phase was called a ''lane''. Since the wavelength of the common frequency was small compared with the distance between the Master and Slave stations there were many possible lines of position for a given phase difference, and so a unique position could not be arrived at by this method.
=== Lanes and Zones ===
Early Decca receivers were fitted with 3 rotating ''Decometers'' that indicated the phase difference for each pattern. The Decometers drove a second indicator that counted the number of lanes traversed &#8211; each 360 degrees of phase difference was one lane traversed. In this way, assuming the point of departure was known, a more or less unique location could be identified.
The lanes were grouped into ''zones'', with 18 green, 24 red, and 30 purple lanes in each zone. This meant that on the baseline (the straight line between the Master and its Slave) the zone width was the same for all patterns. Typical lane and zone widths (for chain 5B) are shown in the table below:
{| border="1" align="center" cellpadding="6" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;border:1px solid gray;font-size:95%"
|- style="background:#efefef;"
! Lane or Zone!! Width on Baseline
|- align = "center"
| Purple lane || 352.1m
|- align = "center"
| Red lane || 440.1m
|- align = "center"
| Green lane || 586.8m
|- align = "center"
| Zones (all patterns)|| 10563m
|-
|}
The lanes were numbered 0 to 23 for red, 30 to 47 for green and 50 to 79 for purple. The zones were labelled A to J, repeating after J. A Decca position coordinate could thus be written: Red I 16.30; Green D 35.80. Later receivers incorporated a microprocessor and displayed a position in latitude and longitude.
=== Multipulse ===
''Multipulse'' provided an automatic method of lane and zone identification by using the same phase comparison techniques described above on lower frequency signals.
The nominally continuous wave transmissions were in fact divided into a 20 second cycle, with each station in turn simultaneously transmitting all 4 Decca frequencies (5f, 6f, 8f and 9f) in a phase-coherent relationship for a brief period of 0.45 seconds each cycle. This transmission, known as Multipulse, allowed the receiver to extract the 1f frequency and so to identify which lane the receiver was in (to a resolution of a zone).
As well as transmitting the Decca frequencies of 5f, 6f, 8f and 9f, an 8.2f signal, known as Orange, was also transmitted. The beat frequency between the 8.0f and 8.2f signals allowed a 0.2f signal to be derived and so resulted in a hyperbolic pattern in which one phase difference equates to 5 zones.
Assuming that one&#8217;s position was known to this accuracy, this gave an effectively unique position.
=== Range and Accuracy ===
During daylight ranges of around 400 [[nautical mile]]s could be obtained, reducing at night to 200 to 250 nautical miles, depending on propagation conditions.
The accuracy depended on:
* Width of the lanes
* Angle of cut of the hyperbolic lines of position
* Instrumental errors
* Propagation errors (e.g. [[Skywave]])
By day these errors could range from a few meters on the baseline up to a nautical mile at the edge of coverage. At night, skywave errors were greater and on receivers without multipulse capabilities it was not unusual for the position to jump a lane, sometimes without the navigator knowing.
Although in the days of differential [[GPS]] this range and accuracy may appear poor, in its day the Decca system was one of the few, if not the only, position fixing system available to many mariners. Since the need for an accurate position is less when vessel is further from land, the reduced accuracy at long ranges was not a great problem.
== History==
=== Origins===
In 1936 [[William J. O'Brien (Decca)|William J. O'Brien]], an American engineer, contracted tuberculosis which put his career on hold for a period of two years. During this period he had the idea of position fixing by means of phase comparison of continuous wave transmissions. The initial market envisaged was for aircraft and some experiments were carried out in California in 1938. However both the American Army and Navy considered the idea too complicated.
O&#8217;Brien had a friend, Harvey F. Schwarz, who worked for the Decca company in England, and in 1939 sent him details of the system so it could be put forward to the British military. Initially [[Robert Watson-Watt]] reviewed the system but he did not follow it up. However, in October 1941 the British Admiralty Signal Establishment (ASE) became interested in the system, which was then classified as ''Admiralty Outfit QM''. O&#8217;Brien came over to the UK and conducted the first marine trials between [[Anglesey]] and the [[Isle of Man]], at frequencies of 305/610 kHz, on [[16 September]] [[1942]]. These were successful and further trials were conducted in the northern [[Irish Sea]] in April 1943 at 70/130 kHz. A three-station trial was held in conjunction with a large-scale assault and landing exercise in the Moray Firth in February/March 1944.
The success of the trials and the relative ease of use and accuracy of the system resulted in Decca receiving an order for 27 ''Admiralty Outfit QM'' receivers. The receiver consisted of an electronics unit with two dials and was known to its operators as the "Blue Gasmeter Job". A Decca chain was set up, consisting of a master station at [[Chichester]] and slaves at [[Poole]] and [[Beachy Head]]. A fourth, decoy, transmitter was located in the [[Thames Estuary]] as part of the deception that the invasion would be focussed on the [[Calais]] area.
Twenty-one minesweepers and other vessels were fitted with A''dmiralty Outfit QM'' and on [[5 June]] [[1944]] they used it to accurately navigate across the [[English Channel]] and to sweep the minefields in the planned areas. The swept areas were marked with buoys in preparation for the [[Normandy Landings]].
=== Deployment ===
After the end of [[World War II]] the Decca Navigator System expanded rapidly, particularly in areas of British influence, and at its peak it was deployed in many of the world's major shipping areas. There were 4 chains around [[England]], 1 in [[Ireland]] and 2 in [[Scotland]], 12 in [[Scandinavia]] (5 each in [[Norway]] and [[Sweden]] and 1 each in [[Denmark]] and [[Finland]]), a further 4 elsewhere in northern [[Europe]] and 2 in [[Spain]]. Other chains were established in [[Japan]] (6 chains); [[Namibia]] and [[South Africa]] (5 chains); [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]] (4 chains); [[Canada]] (4 chains around [[Newfoundland]] and [[Nova Scotia]]); North-West [[Australia]] (2 chains); the [[Persian Gulf]] (1 chain with stations in [[Qatar]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]] and a second chain in the north of the Gulf with stations in [[Iran]]) and the [[Bahamas]] (1 chain). Four chains were planned for [[Nigeria]] but only 2 chains were built and these did not enter into public service. There were also two chains in [[Vietnam]] which were used during the [[Vietnam War]] for helicopter navigation, with limited success.
=== Decca, Racal and the closedown ===
Decca Navigator was headquartered in a large residential property at Little Wymondley, Hertfordshire. There was a Decca School, at Brixham, Devon, where employees were sent on courses from time to time.
[[Racal]], the UK weapons and communications company, acquired Decca in 1981 or thereabouts. Claiming the acquisition was to acquire Decca's radar company, rather than the avionics side of the business, it sold off parts including Decca Navigator.
The [[monopoly]] on leased, not purchased, receivers by Decca generated great wealth for the company. This monopoly was later broken the early 1980s when receivers could be purchased by users, thereby reducing the cost following the lapse of the patent on the basic system technology.
A Danish company started manufacturing receivers for fishing boats which employed Decca's navigation charts, but users didn't pay rental for using the system.
In the ensuing court battle Decca lost the monopoly, and that signalled the beginning of the end. Income dwindled and eventually, the UK [[Ministry of Transport]] stepped in, having the lighthouse authorities take responsibility for operating the system in the early 1990s.
A ruling from the [[European Union]] forced the UK government to withdraw funding - for fishermen users - and started the process which eventually resulted in the system being closed down and the installations scrapped.
The Decca Navigator System provided by the [[General Lighthouse Authorities]] ceased to operate at midnight on [[31 March]] [[2000]] |
e no noticeable performance penalty when running Linux binaries as opposed to native FreeBSD ones.
Though there are many applications that run flawlessly under the compatibility layer, it should be noted that the layer is not complete, thus rendering some Linux binaries unusable on FreeBSD or limiting their functionality, possibly because this compatibility layer only supports the system calls of Linux Kernel 2.4.2, a historic release. One example of this is [[Cedega]], [[TransGaming]]'s product to run [[Microsoft Windows]] games on Linux. Its usage is largely crippled at this time due to an incomplete compatibility layer. There has, however, been limited success in using it to run games on FreeBSD [http://cedega.firepipe.net].
== License ==
As with its sister operating systems, [[OpenBSD]], [[NetBSD]] and [[DragonFlyBSD]], the code in FreeBSD is released under the terms of a variety of licenses. All of the kernel code and most newly created code is released under the terms of the two-clause [[BSD license]], which allows everyone to use and redistribute FreeBSD as they wish, as long as they do not remove the [[copyright]] notice and the BSD license itself. This does '''not''' prohibit redistribution under another license. There are also parts under the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]], [[GNU Lesser General Public License|LGPL]], [[Internet Systems Consortium|ISC]], three-clause BSD license and four-clause BSD license.
== Derivatives ==
A range of free and proprietary products are directly and/or indirectly based on FreeBSD, including Juniper routers, Apple's [[Mac OS X]], Nokia's firewall operating system, and countless others. Other [[operating systems]], including [[VxWorks]] ''(a [[Real-time computing]] operating system found running on anything from [[Linksys]] routers to the Common Core System of [[Boeing]]'s 787 [[Dreamliner]])'' and even [[Linux]], derive critical technologies from FreeBSD, illustrating the broad reach of FreeBSD technology.
'''Other works derived or created in whole or part from FreeBSD technologies:'''
* [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]], the core of Apple's [[Mac OS X]], borrows heavily from FreeBSD, including its virtual file system and network stack kernel code, as well as large portions of its "BSD" userspace component. Apple regularly continues to integrate new code from, and contribute changes to, FreeBSD.
* [[OpenDarwin]], a completely separate from Apple project that was originally based on Darwin, and hence bears considerable part of FreeBSD programming as heritage. Though the operating system is independently controlled, the developing community tries to maintain OpenDarwin's compatibility with Darwin/Mac OS X.
* [[PC-BSD]] is a FreeBSD distribution designed for desktop use with simplified package management and a graphical installer
* [[BSDeviant]] is a live FreeBSD distribution that can fit on one Mini [[CD-R]].
* [[ClosedBSD]], a distribution aimed at firewall and NAT services.
* [[GNU/kFreeBSD]]
* [[Debian GNU/kFreeBSD]], a derivative version based on [[GNU]] userland is currently being developed by [[Debian]].
* [[Ging]] is a [[live CD]] distribution based on [[Debian GNU/kFreeBSD]], hence indirectly based on FreeBSD.
* [[DragonFly BSD]] is a fork from FreeBSD 4.8 that uses an alternative multi-processor synchronization strategy from that chosen for FreeBSD release 5. It features a threaded message passing system similar to that found in [[microkernel]]s.
* [[Firefly BSD]] is a commercially-supported operating system based on the experimental DragonFly fork of FreeBSD.
* The [[FreeSBIE]] project is producing [[live CD]] distributions of FreeBSD, similar to the [[Knoppix]] distribution of [[Linux]]. The FreeSBIE project also includes a toolset to help you make your own FreeSBIE [[live file systems]] and CDROM's.
* [[Frenzy LiveCD|Frenzy]] is another FreeBSD based [[live CD]], mainly oriented towards Russian speaking users.
* [[PicoBSD]] is a one-[[floppy]] version of FreeBSD.
* [[m0n0wall]] is a FreeBSD-based embedded [[Firewall (networking)|firewall]] package.
* [[pfSense]] is a firewall/router based on [[m0n0wall]] and FreeBSD.
* [http://www.freenas.org/ FreeNAS] is NAS server based on FreeBSD/[[m0n0wall]].
* [[TrustedBSD]] is a set of trusted operating system extensions for FreeBSD, including support for [[mandatory access control]], event auditing via [[OpenBSM]], [[access control lists]], and a variety of other security features. Many of these features are now present in the main-line FreeBSD distribution.
* [[Gentoo/FreeBSD]] is a Gentoo/Linux port under FreeBSD's operating system.
* [[DesktopBSD]] is a UNIX-like, desktop-oriented operating system based on FreeBSD. Its goal is to combine the stability of FreeBSD with the ease-of-use of [[KDE]], its default graphical user interface.
== See also ==
* [[Berkeley Software Distribution#BSD_descendants|BSD descendants]]
* [[Comparison of operating systems]]
*[[Inferno (operating system)|Inferno]]
* [[FreeBSD Documentation License]]
* [[List of file systems]]
* [[FreeBSD jail]]
== Further reading ==
=== Books ===
* ''[[Absolute BSD]], The Ultimate Guide to FreeBSD''. Michael Lucas. No Starch Press, July 2002. ISBN 1886411743.
* ''BSD Hacks, 100 Industrial-Strength tips for BSD users and administrators''. [[Dru Lavigne]]. O'Reilly, May 2004. ISBN 0596006799.
* ''FreeBSD Unleashed, Second Edition''. [[Michael Urban]] and [[Brian Tiemann]]. Sams Publishing, April 2002. ISBN 0672324563.
* ''Mastering FreeBSD and OpenBSD Security''. [[Yanek Korff]], [[Paco Hope]], [[Bruce Potter]]. O'Reilly, March 2005. ISBN 0596006268.
* ''The Complete FreeBSD, 4th Edition, Documentation from the Source''. [[Greg Lehey]]. O'Reilly, April 2003 ISBN 0596005164 (also available [http://www.lemis.com/grog/Documentation/CFBSD/ online])
* ''The Design and Implementation of the FreeBSD Operating System''. [[Marshall Kirk McKusick]] and [[George V. Neville-Neil]], Addison Wesley Professional, August, 2004. ISBN 0201702452. [http://www.awprofessional.com/titles/0201702452]
* ''The FreeBSD Corporate Networkers Guide''. Ted Mittelstaedt. Addison-Wesley, December 2000. Paperback, book & CD edition, 401 pages. ISBN 0201704811.
* ''The FreeBSD Handbook, Volume 1 : User Guide, 3rd Edition''. FreeBSD Documentation Project. FreeBSD Mall, Inc. November 2003 ISBN 1571763279.
* ''The FreeBSD Handbook, Volume 2 : Admin Guide, 3rd Edition''. FreeBSD Documentation Project. FreeBSD Mall, Inc. September 2004 ISBN 1571763287.
=== World Wide Web sites ===
* [http://bobcares.com/article4.html Compiling FreeBSD Kernel] - Simple step by step approach
* [http://www.freebsd.org/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/history.html A Brief History of FreeBSD] - written by FreeBSD co-founder [[Jordan Hubbard]]
* [http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/opensource/library/os-freebsd/?ca=dgr-lnxw01FreeBSD IBM developerWorks: Why FreeBSD] - A good overview of FreeBSD.
* [http://www.cyberciti.biz/nixcraft/vivek/blogger/freebsd-tips-and-tricks.php FreeBSD Tips & Tricks] - Contains quick FreeBSD tips and tricks
* [http://www.hypexr.org/freebsd_ports_help.php Quick starters guide to package management in FreeBSD]
* [http://www.freshports.org/ FreshPorts] - Contains detailed information about the state of software in the Ports Collection
==External links==
{{commonscat|FreeBSD}}
* [http://www.FreeBSD.org/ FreeBSD] — Official Website.
* [http://www.freshports.org/ FreshPorts] — The Place for Ports
* [http://www.freebsdsoftware.org FreeBSD software] — All the software — ports — working for FreeBSD.
* [http://www.freebsdwiki.net/ FreeBSDwiki.net] — A Wiki devoted specifically to FreeBSD.
* [http://www.TrustedBSD.org/ TrustedBSD]
* [http://logo-contest.freebsd.org/result/ The new FreeBSD Logo]
* [http://www.lemis.com/grog/Documentation/CFBSD/ The Complete FreeBSD] released under [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.5/legalcode a Creative Commons license]
{{unix-like}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Fractal</title>
<id>10913</id>
<revision>
<id>42114183</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:37:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.126.172.157</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Mandelpart2.jpg|300px|right|thumb|The [[Mandelbrot set]], named after its discoverer, is a famous example of a fractal.]]
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Mandelbrot0004-highway-1.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Another region of the [[Mandelbrot set]].]] -->
A '''fractal''' is a [[geometry|geometric]] object which is rough or irregular on all scales of length, and therefore appears to be 'broken up' in a radical way. Fractals can be most simply defined as images that can be divided into parts, each of which is similar to the original object. Fractals are said to possess infinite detail, and some of them have a [[Self-similarity|self-similar]] structure that occurs at different scales, or levels of magnification. In many cases, a fractal can be generated by a repeating pattern, in a typically [[recursion|recursive]] or [[iteration|iterative]] process. The term '''''fractal''''' was coined in 1975 by [[Benoît Mandelbrot]], from the Latin ''fractus'', meaning "broken" or "fractured". Before Mandelbrot coined his term, the common name for such structures (the [[Koch snowflake]], for ex |
last refuge of the incompetent." [[Salvor Hardin]], a character in ''[[Foundation (novel)|Foundation]].''
*"The most exciting phrase to hear in science, the one that heralds new discoveries, is not 'Eureka!' (I've found it!), but 'That's funny...'"
==Selected bibliography==
In addition, see [[Isaac Asimov complete bibliography]]. For a recommended reading-order see the [[Foundation Series#List of books|Foundation Series list of books]]. Asimov aspired to write 500 books but did not quite reach that total; he wrote over 463 titles. If all titles, charts, and edited collections are counted, there are currently 509 items in his complete bibliography. Asimov could have written an ''Opus 400'', which would have been a celebration of his 400th title; the bibliography lists only up to his commemorative ''[[Opus 300]]''.
===Science fiction===
===="Greater Foundation" series====
The Robot series was originally separate from the Foundation series. The Galactic Empire novels were originally published as independent stories. Later in life, Asimov synthesized them into a single coherent 'history' that appeared in the extension of the ''Foundation'' series.
'''The Robot series:'''
* ''[[The Caves of Steel]]'' (1954), ISBN 0553293400 (first [[Elijah Baley]] SF-crime novel)
* ''[[The Naked Sun]]'' (1957), ISBN 0553293397 (second Elijah Baley SF-crime novel)
* ''[[The Robots of Dawn]]'' (1983), ISBN 0553299492 (third Elijah Baley SF-crime novel)
* ''[[Robots and Empire]]'' (1985) (sequel to the Elijah Baley trilogy)
* ''[[The Positronic Man]]'' (1993) (with Robert Silverberg, a novel based on Asimov's earlier short story "[[The Bicentennial Man]]")
'''Galactic Empire series:'''
* ''[[Pebble in the Sky]]'' (1950)
* ''[[The Stars, Like Dust]]'' (1951)
* ''[[The Currents of Space]]'' (1952)
'''Original Foundation trilogy:'''
* ''[[Foundation (novel)|Foundation]]'' (1951), ISBN 0553293354
* ''[[Foundation and Empire]]'' (1952), ISBN 0553293370
* ''[[Second Foundation]]'' (1953), ISBN 0553293362
'''Extended Foundation series:'''
* ''[[Foundation's Edge]]'' (1982), ISBN 0553293389
* ''[[Foundation and Earth]]'' (1986), ISBN 0553587579
* ''[[Prelude to Foundation]]'' (1988), ISBN 0553278398
* ''[[Forward the Foundation]]'' (1993), ISBN 0385247931 (hardcover), ISBN 0553404881 (paperback)
====Novels not part of a series====
* ''[[The End of Eternity]]'' (1955)
* ''[[Fantastic Voyage]]'' (1966) (a novelization of the movie featuring a team of American scientists traveling within a human body)
* ''[[The Gods Themselves]]'' (1972)
* ''[[Fantastic Voyage II: Destination Brain]]'' (1987) (not a sequel to the first ''Fantastic Voyage,'' but an independent story)
* ''[[Nemesis (Asimov)|Nemesis]]'' (1989)
* ''[[Nightfall (Asimov)|Nightfall]]'' (1990) (with [[Robert Silverberg]], a novel based on the earlier short story)
* ''[[The Ugly Little Boy]]'' (1992) (with Robert Silverberg, a novel based on an earlier short story)
(While primarily independent, some of these novels have very minor connections to the Foundation series.)
====Short story collections====
''Also see [[List of short stories by Isaac Asimov]]''
* ''[[I, Robot]]'' (1950), ISBN 0553294385
* ''[[The Martian Way and Other Stories]]'' (1955)
* ''[[Earth Is Room Enough]]'' (1957)
* ''[[Nine Tomorrows]]'' (1959)
* ''[[The Rest of the Robots]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Nightfall and Other Stories]]'' (1969)
* ''[[The Early Asimov]]'' (1972)
* ''[[The Best of Isaac Asimov]]'' (1973)
* ''[[Buy Jupiter and Other Stories]]'' (1975)
* ''[[The Bicentennial Man and Other Stories]]'' (1976)
* ''[[The Complete Robot]]'' (1982)
* ''[[The Winds of Change and Other Stories]]'' (1983)
* ''[[Robot Dreams]]'' (1986)
* ''[[Azazel]]'' (1988)
* ''[[Gold (Asimov)|Gold]]'' (1990)
* ''[[Robot Visions]]'' (1990) ISBN 0-451-45064-7
* ''[[Magic (Asimov)|Magic]]'' (1995)
===Mysteries===
====Novels====
* ''[[The Death Dealers]]'' (1958) (later republished as ''A Whiff of Death'')
* ''[[Murder at the ABA]]'' (1976) (also published as ''Authorized Murder'')
====Short story collections====
[[Black Widowers]] and others
* ''[[Asimov's Mysteries]]'' (1968)
* ''[[Tales of the Black Widowers]]'' (1974)
* ''[[More Tales of the Black Widowers]]'' (1976)
* ''[[Casebook of the Black Widowers]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Banquets of the Black Widowers]]'' (1984)
* ''[[The Best Mysteries of Isaac Asimov]]'' (1986)
* ''[[Puzzles of the Black Widowers]]'' (1990)
* ''[[Return of the Black Widowers]]'' (2003) contains stories uncollected at the time of Asimov's death, in addition to contributions by [[Charles Ardai]] and [[Harlan Ellison]]
===Nonfiction===
====Popular science====
'''Collections of columns from the [[Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction]]'''
# ''[[Fact and Fancy]]'' (1962)
# ''[[View from a Height]]'' (1963)
# ''[[Adding a Dimension]]'' (1964)
# ''[[Of Time, Space, & Other Things]]'' (1965)
# ''[[From Earth to Heaven]]'' (1966)
# ''[[Science, Numbers and I (book)|Science, Numbers and I]]'' (1968)
# ''[[The Solar System and Back]]'' (1970)
# ''[[The Stars in Their Course]]'' (1971)
# ''[[Left Hand of the Electron]]'' (1972)
# ''[[The Tragedy of the Moon]]'' (1973)
# ''[[Of Matters Great & Small]]'' (1975)
# ''[[The Planet that Wasn't]]'' (1976)
# ''[[Quasar, Quasar, Burning Bright]]'' (1977)
# ''[[Road to Infinity]]'' (1979)
# ''[[The Sun Shines Bright]]'' (1981)
# ''[[Counting the Eons]]'' (1983)
# ''[[X Stands for Unknown]]'' (1984)
# ''[[The Subatomic Monster]]'' (1985)
# ''[[Far as Human Eye Could See]]'' (1987)
# ''[[The Relativity of Wrong]]'' (1988)
# ''[[Out of Everywhere]]'' (1990)
# ''[[The Secret of The Universe]]'' (1990)
'''Others'''
* ''[[Asimov on Numbers]]'' (1959)
* ''[[Asimov's Chronology of Science and Discovery]]'' (1989, second edition extends to 1993)
* ''[[Asimov's Chronology of the World]]'' (1991)
* ''[[The Chemicals of Life (book)|The Chemicals of Life]]'' (1954)
* ''[[The Clock We Live On (book)|The Clock We Live On]]'' (1959)
* ''[[The Collapsing Universe (book)|The Collapsing Universe ]]'' (1977) ISBN 0-671-81738-8
* ''[[The Earth (Asimov)|The Earth]]'' (2004, revised by Richard Hantula)
* ''[[Exploring the Earth and the Cosmos]]'' (1982)
* ''[[The Human Brain (book)|The Human Brain]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Inside the Atom (book)|Inside the Atom]]'' (1956)
* ''[[Isaac Asimov's Guide to Earth and Space]]'' (1991)
* ''[[The Intelligent Man's Guide to Science]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Jupiter (Asimov)|Jupiter]]'' (2004, revised by [[Richard Hantula]])
* ''[[Life and Energy (book)|Life and Energy]]'' (1962)
* ''[[The Neutrino (book)|The Neutrino]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Our World in Space (book)|Our World in Space]]'' (1974)
* ''[[The Sun (Asimov)|The Sun]]'' (2003, revised by Richard Hantula)
* ''[[The Universe: From Flat Earth to Quasar (book)|The Universe: From Flat Earth to Quasar]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Venus (Asimov)|Venus]]'' (2004, revised by Richard Hantula)
* ''[[Views of the Universe (book)|Views of the Universe]]'' (1981)
* ''[[Words of Science and the History Behind Them]]'' (1959)
* ''[[The World of Carbon (book)|The World of Carbon]]'' (1958)
* ''[[The World of Nitrogen (book)|The World of Nitrogen]]'' (1958)
====Annotations====
* ''Asimov's Annotated "[[Don Juan]]"''
* ''Asimov's Annotated "[[Paradise Lost]]"''
* ''Asimov's Annotated [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]''
* ''The Annotated "[[Gulliver's Travels]]"''
====Guides====
* ''Asimov's Guide to the [[Bible]], vols I and II'' (1981), ISBN 0-517-34582-X
* ''Asimov's Guide to [[Shakespeare]]
===Other===
* ''[[Opus 100]]'' (1969)
* ''The Sensuous Dirty Old Man'' (1971)
* ''[[Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology]]'' ([[1972 in literature|1972]])
* ''[[Opus 200]]'' (1979)
* ''[[Isaac Asimov's Book of Facts]]'' (1979)
* ''[[The Roving Mind]]'' (1983) (collection of essays). New edition published by [[Prometheus Books]], 1997, ISBN 1-57392-181-5.
==References==
===Print media===
* Asimov, Isaac. ''In Memory Yet Green'' (1979).
:''In Joy Still Felt'' (1980).
:''I, Asimov: A Memoir'' (1994).
:''Yours, Isaac Asimov'' (1996), edited by Stanley Asimov. ISBN 0-3854-7624-8.
:''It's Been a Good Life'' (2002), edited by Janet Asimov. ISBN 1-5739-2968-9.
* Goldman, Stephen H., "Isaac Asimov", in ''Dictionary of Literary Biography,'' Vol. 8, Cowart and Wymer eds., (Gale Research, 1981), pp. 15-29.
* Gunn, James. "On Variations on a Robot", ''[[Asimov's Science Fiction|IASFM]]'', July 1980, pp. 56-81. Reprinted in the 1982 book.
:''Isaac Asimov: The Foundations of Science Fiction'' (1982). ISBN 0-19-503060-5.
:''The Science of Science-Fiction Writing'' (2000). ISBN 1-5788-6011-3.
===Online===
:''The following links were last verified on [[4 February]] [[2006]].
*[http://www.asimovonline.com/ Isaac Asimov Home Page]
**[http://www.asimovonline.com/oldsite/asimov_big_list.html Complete list of works]
**[http://www.asimovonline.com/asimov_FAQ.html FAQ]
*[http://homepage.mac.com/jhjenkins/Asimov/Asimov.html Jenkins' Spoiler-Laden Guide to Isaac Asimov] (reviews and ratings)
==Further reading==
===Print media===
* {{cite book
| last = Fiedler | first = Jean
| coauthors = Jim Mele
| title = Isaac Asimov
| year = 1982
| id = ISBN 0-8044-2203-6
}}
* {{cite book
| author = [[Joseph D. Oleander]] and [[Martin H. Greenberg]] (editors)
| title = Isaac Asimov
| year = 1974
| id = ISBN 0-8008-4258-8, Hardback ISBN 080084257X
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Patrouch | first = Joseph F.
| title = The Science Fiction of Isaac Asimov
| year = 1977
| id = ISBN 0-385-08696-2
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Touponce | first = William F.
| title = Isaac Asimov
| year = 1991
| id = ISBN 0-8057-7623-0
}}
* {{cite book
| last = White | first = Michael
| title = Asimov: The Unauthorized Life
| year = 1994
| id = ISBN 0140041303
}}
===Online===
:''The following links were last verified [[24 June]] [[2005]].
*{{isfdb name|id=Isaac_Asimov|name=Isaac Asimov}}
* |
d "before the Ark with the testimony"; the correct meaning of that phrase is open to interpretation.
===Sanctity and consecration===
Even Aaron, brother of Moses and the [[High Priest]], was forbidden to enter the place of the Ark too often. He was enjoined to enter the [[Holy of Holies]] only once per year on a designated day, and to perform certain ceremonies there (Lev. 16). Moses was directed to consecrate the Ark, when completed, with the oil of holy ointment (Ex. 30:23-26); and he was also directed to have the Ark made by [[Bezaleel]], son of [[Uri_%28Bible%29|Uri]] of the [[tribe of Judah]], and by [[Aholiab]], the son of [[Ahisamach]] of the [[tribe of Dan]] (Ex. 31:2-7). These instructions Moses carried out, calling upon "every wisehearted" one among the people to assist in the work (Ex. 35:10-12). Bezaleel the artist made the Ark (Ex. 37:1); and Moses approved the work, put the testimony in the Ark, and installed it.
In Deut. 10:1-5 a different account of the making of the Ark is given. Moses is made to say that he constructed the Ark before going upon [[Mount Sinai]] to receive the second set of tablets. The charge of carrying the Ark and the rest of the holy implements was given to the family of [[Kohath]] (of the [[tribe of Levi]]). They, though, were not to touch any of the holy things that were still uncovered by Aaron (Num. 4:2-15).
==Prophets' mentions==
The Ark of the Covenant is mentioned by [[prophet]]s in both the Bible and the [[Qur'an]].
===In the Bible===
[[Image:Folio_29r_-_The_Ark_of_God_Carried_into_the_Temple.jpg|180px|thumb|The Ark carried into the Temple]]
The only mention of the Ark in the books of the prophets is the reference to it by [[Jeremiah (prophet)|Jeremiah]], who, speaking in the days of [[Josiah]] (Jer. 3:16), prophesies a time when the Ark will no longer be needed because of the righteousness of the people. In the [[Psalms]], the Ark is twice referred to. In Ps. 78:61 its capture by the Philistines is spoken of, and the Ark is called "the strength and glory of God"; and in Ps. 132:8, it is spoken of as "the ark of the strength of the Lord."
The Ark is mentioned in one passage in the [[deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] 2 Maccabees 2:4-10, which contains a reference to a document saying that the prophet Jeremiah, "being warned of God," took the Ark, and the tabernacle, and the altar of incense, and buried them in a cave on Mount Nebo (Deut 34:1), informing those of his followers who wished to find the place that it should remain unknown "until the time that God should gather His people again together, and receive them unto mercy." Hebrews 9:4 states that the Ark contained "the golden pot that had ''[[manna]]'', and [[Aaron's rod]] that budded, and the tables of the covenant." Finally, in Revelation 11:19, the Ark is described as being in heaven, just before the woman clothed with the sun appears ([[Book of Revelation]] 12).
===In the Qur'an===
There is only a brief mention of the Ark of the Covenant in the [[Qur'an]]:
: ''Their prophet said to them, "The sign of his kingship is that the Ark of the Covenant will be restored to you, bringing assurances from your Lord, and relics left by the people of Moses and the people of Aaron. It will be carried by the angels. This should be a convincing sign for you, if you are really believers."''<br />''[[wikisource:The_Holy_Qur%27an/Al-Baqara|002:248]]''
According to some Muslim scholars, the Ark of the Covenant does not have a religious basis in [[Islam]] and Islam does not give it any special significance while others believe that it will be found by [[Mahdi]] near the [[Qiyamah|end of times]]. These Islamic scholars believe inside there will be relics left by the people of [[Moses]] and the people of [[Aaron]]. There might be the [[sceptre]]s of Moses (eg., [[Nehushtan]]), Aaron's rod, Plates of the [[Torah]], and Aaron's turban.
==History==
===Mobile vanguard===
In the march from Sinai, and at the crossing of the [[Jordan river|Jordan]], the Ark preceded the people, and was the signal for their advance (Num. 10:33; Josh. 3:3, 6). The Ark of the Covenant burned the thorns and other obstructions in the wilderness roads. According to tradition, [[spark]]s from between the two cherubim killed [[snake|serpent]]s and [[scorpion]]s. (Canticles iii) {{ref|JewishEncyclopedia}} During the crossing of the Jordan, the river grew dry as soon as the feet of the priests carrying the Ark touched its waters; and remained so until the priests -- with the Ark -- left the river, after the people had passed over (Josh. 3:15-17; 4:10, 11, 18). As memorials, [[twelve stones]] were taken from the Jordan at the place where the priests had stood (Josh. 4:1-9).
The Ark was carried into battle, such as in the [[Midian war]] (Num. 31). During the ceremonies preceding the capture of [[Jericho]], the Ark was carried round the city in the daily procession, preceded by the armed men and by seven priests bearing seven trumpets of rams' horns (Josh. 6:6-15). After the defeat at [[Ai (Bible)|Ai]], [[Joshua]] lamented before the Ark (Josh. 7:6-9). When Joshua read the Law to the people between [[Mount Gerizim]] and [[Mount Ebal]], they stood on each side of the Ark. The Ark was again set up by Joshua at [[Shiloh (Biblical)|Shiloh]]; but when the Israelites fought against Benjamin at [[Gibeah]], they had the Ark with them, and consulted it after their defeat.
===Captured by the Philistines===
The Ark is next spoken of as being in the [[tabernacle]] at [[Shiloh (Biblical)|Shiloh]] during Samuel's apprenticeship (1 Sam. 3:3). After the settlement of the [[Israelites]] in [[Canaan]], the ark remained in the tabernacle at [[Gilgal]] for a season, then was removed to Shiloh until the time of [[Eli (Judges)|Eli]], between 300 and 400 years ([[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 7:12), when it was carried into the field of battle, so as to secure, as they supposed, victory to the Hebrews; and it was taken by the [[Philistines]] (1 Sam. 4:3-11), who sent it back after retaining it seven months (1 Sam. 5:7, 8) because of the events said to have transpired. After their first defeat at [[Eben-ezer]], the Israelites had the Ark brought from Shiloh, and welcomed its coming with great rejoicing.
In the second battle, the Israelites were again defeated, and the Philistines captured the Ark (1 Sam. 4:3-5, 10, 11). The news of its capture was at once taken to Shiloh by a messenger "with his clothes rent, and with earth upon his head." The old priest, Eli, fell dead when he heard it; and his daughter-in-law, bearing a son at the time the news of the capture of the Ark was received, named him [[Ichabod]]&#8212;explained as "Where is glory?" in reference to the loss of the Ark (1 Sam. 4:12-22).
The Philistines took the Ark to several places in their country, and at each place misfortune resulted to them (1 Sam. 5:1-6). At [[Ashdod]] it was placed in the temple of [[Dagon]]. The next morning Dagon was found prostrate, bowed down, before it; and on being restored to his place, he was on the following morning again found prostrate and broken. The people of Ashdod were smitten with boils; a plague of mice was sent over the land (1 Sam. 6:5). The affliction of boils was also visited upon the people of [[Gath]] and of [[Ekron]], whither the Ark was successively removed (1 Sam. 5:8-12).
After the Ark had been among them seven months, the Philistines, on the advice of their diviners, returned it to the Israelites, accompanying its return with an offering consisting of golden images of the boils and mice wherewith they had been afflicted. The Ark was set in the field of Joshua the [[Beth-shemite]], and the Beth-shemites offered sacrifices and burnt offerings (1 Sam. 6:1-15). Out of curiosity the men of [[Beth-shemesh]] gazed at the Ark; and as a punishment over fifty thousand of them were smitten by the Lord (1 Sam. 6:19). The Bethshemites sent to [[Kirjath-jearim]], or Baal-Judah, to have the Ark removed (1 Sam. 6:21); and it was taken to the house of [[Abinadab]], whose son [[Eleazar]] was sanctified to keep it. Kirjath-jearim was the abode of the Ark for twenty years. Under Saul, the Ark was with the army before he first met the Philistines, but the king was too impatient to consult it before engaging in battle. In [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]] 13:3 it is stated that the people were not accustomed to consult the Ark in the days of [[Saul]].
===In the days of King David===
At the very beginning of his reign, [[David]] removed the Ark from Kirjath-jearim amid great rejoicing. On the way to [[Zion]], [[Uzzah]], one of the drivers of the cart whereon the Ark was carried, put out his hand to steady the Ark, and was smitten by the Lord for touching it. David, in fear, carried the Ark aside into the house of [[Obed-edom]] the [[Gittite]], instead of carrying it on to Zion, and here it stayed three months (2 Sam. 6:1-11; 1 Chron. 13:1-13).
On hearing that the Lord had blessed Obed-edom because of the presence of the Ark in his house, David had the Ark brought to Zion by the Levites, while he himself, "girded with a linen [[ephod]]," "danced before the Lord with all his might"&#8212;a performance for which he was despised and scornfully rebuked by Saul's daughter [[Michal]] (2 Sam. 6:12-16, 20-22; 1 Chron. 15). This unjustified derision on her part resulted in the permanent loss of her fertility. In Zion, David put the Ark in the tabernacle he had prepared for it, offered sacrifices, distributed food, and blessed the people and his own household (2 Sam. 6:17-20; 1 Chron. 16:1-3; 2 Chron. 1:4).
Levites were appointed to minister before the Ark (1 Chron. 16:4). David's plan of building a temple for the Ark was stopped at the advice of God (2 Sam. 7:1-17; 1 Chron. 17:1-15; 28:2, 3). The Ark was with the army during the siege of [[Rabbah] |
l might roll into any of several valleys depending on slight differences in initial position.
[[Ergodic theory|Recurrence]], the approximate return of a system towards its initial conditions, together with the sensitive dependence on initial conditions, are the two main ingredients for chaotic motion. They have the practical consequence of making [[complex systems]], such as the [[weather]], difficult to predict past a certain time range&mdash;approximately a week, in the case of weather.
==History==
Sensitive dependence on initial conditions was first described in the literature by [[Jacques Hadamard|Hadamard]] and popularized by [[Pierre Duhem|Duhem's]] 1906 book. The term butterfly effect is related to the work of [[Edward Lorenz|Lorenz]], who in a [[1963]] paper for the [[New York Academy of Sciences]] noted that &ldquo;One meteorologist remarked that if the theory were correct, one flap of a seagull's wings could change the course of weather forever.&rdquo; Later speeches and papers by Lorenz used the more poetic [[butterfly]]. According to Lorenz, upon failing to provide a title for a talk he was to present at the 139th meeting of the [[AAAS]] in [[1972]], Philip Merilees concocted “''Does the flap of a butterfly’s wings in Brazil set off a tornado in Texas?''&nbsp;” as a title.
==Mathematical definition==
A [[dynamical system]] with evolution map <math>f^t</math> displays sensitive dependence on initial conditions if points arbitrarily close become separate with increasing ''t''. If ''M'' is the state space for the map <math>f^t</math>, then <math>f^t</math> displays sensitive dependence to initial conditions if there is a &delta;>0 such that for every point ''x''&isin;M and any neighborhood ''N'' containing ''x'' there exist a point ''y'' from that neighborhood ''N'' and a time &tau; such that the distance
:<math>d(f^\tau(x), f^\tau(y)) > \delta \,.</math>
The definition does not require that all points from a neighborhood separate from the base point ''x''.
== Popular media ==
The concept of the Butterfly effect is sometimes used in popular media dealing with the idea of [[time travel]], though not always accurately. For example, in the 1952 short story by [[Ray Bradbury]], "[[A Sound of Thunder]]", the characters are determined not to change anything in the past&mdash;but in reality their mere presence could be enough to change short-term events (such as the weather), and could also have an unpredictable impact on the distant future.
In many cases, minor and seemingly inconsequential actions in the past are extrapolated over time and can have radical effects on the present time of the main characters. In the movie ''[[The Butterfly Effect]]'', Evan Treborn ([[Ashton Kutcher]]), when reading from his adolescent journals, is able to essentially "redo" parts of his past. As he continues to do this, he realizes that even though his intentions are good, the actions he takes always have unintended consequences.
==See also==
* [[Chaos theory]]
* [[Dynamical systems]]
==External links==
* [http://www.fortunecity.com/emachines/e11/86/beffect.html Butterfly Effect] (Mathematical Recreations)
* [http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Feb04/AAAS.Kleinberg.ws.html From butterfly wings to single e-mail] ([[Cornell University]])
* [http://hypertextbook.com/chaos/ The Chaos Hypertextbook]. An introductory primer on chaos and fractals.
* [http://www.butterflyeffectmovie.com/ The Butterfly Effect]. New Line Cinema's feature film ''The Butterfly Effect'' [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0289879/ IMDB]
*[http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ButterflyEffect.html Wolfram Entry]. An entry on the MathWorld Website about the "Butterfly Effect" with links to related mathematical topics.
* [http://www.monochrom.at/butterfly/ Direct Intervention Engine]. An humorous art project by [[monochrom]] dealing with the Butterfly Effect.
==References==
*{{cite book
|author = Robert L. Devaney
|title = Introduction to Chaotic Dynamical Systems
|publisher = Westview Press
|year = 2003
|id = ISBN 0813340853
}}
* {{cite journal
|journal = American Journal of Physics
|year = 2004
|title = Sea gulls, butterflies, and grasshoppers: A brief history of the butterfly effect in nonlinear dynamics
|pages = 425&ndash;427
|author = Robert C. Hilborn
|volume = 72
}}
[[Category:Chaos theory]]
[[Category:Physical phenomena]]
[[be:Эфэкт матылька]]
[[ca:Efecte papallona]]
[[de:Schmetterlingseffekt]]
[[es:Efecto mariposa]]
[[fr:Effet papillon]]
[[gl:Efecto bolboreta]]
[[it:Effetto farfalla]]
[[he:אפקט הפרפר]]
[[hu:Pillangóhatás]]
[[nl:Vlindereffect]]
[[ja:バタフライ効果]]
[[pl:Efekt motyla]]
[[pt:Efeito borboleta]]
[[sv:Fjärilseffekten]]
[[tr:Kelebek etkisi]]
[[zh:蝴蝶效应]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>B.C.</title>
<id>4025</id>
<revision>
<id>15902327</id>
<timestamp>2003-06-29T01:02:23Z</timestamp>
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<comment>Redirect to BC</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[BC]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Buckminister Fuller</title>
<id>4026</id>
<revision>
<id>15902328</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Buckminster Fuller]]
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<page>
<title>Borland</title>
<id>4027</id>
<revision>
<id>41769399</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T16:48:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = Borland Software Corporation |
company_logo = [[Image:Borland logo.png|150px]] |
company_type = Public (NASDAQ: [http://quotes.nasdaq.com/asp/SummaryQuote.asp?symbol=BORL&selected=BORL BORL]) |
company_slogan = Excellence Endures |
foundation = [[California]] (1983) |
location = [[Scotts Valley, California|Scotts Valley]], [[Santa Cruz County, California|Santa Cruz County]], [[California]] |
key_people = [[Philippe Kahn]], Founder<br />[[Tod Nielsen]], CEO |
num_employees = 1300 est. (2005) |
industry = [[Computer software]] |
products = [[C++Builder]], [[CaliberRM]], [[Delphi programming language|Delphi]], [[JBuilder]], [[Kylix programming tool|Kylix]], [[Optimizeit]], [[StarTeam]], [[Borland Together|Together]], [[VisiBroker]] |
revenue = [[image:green up.png]]$309.5 million [[United States dollar|USD]] (2004) |
homepage = [http://www.borland.com/ www.borland.com]
}}
'''Borland Software Corporation''' (formerly '''Borland International, Inc.''') is a [[Computer software|software]] company {{nasdaq|BORL}}, located in [[Scotts Valley, California|Scotts Valley]], [[California]], best known for its [[Turbo Pascal]] programming tool that has evolved into today's [[Delphi programming language]].
==The 1980s: Foundations==
The beginning of the Borland name started with a small company in [[Ireland]]. Three [[Danish people|Danish]] citizens, [[Niels Jensen]], [[Ole Henriksen]], and [[Mogens Glad]] founded Borland Ltd. in August 1981.
Borland International changed from a private to public company when it was incorporated in [[California]] on [[May 2]], [[1983]]. The company's original personnel in the US included [[Philippe Kahn]] (President) and [[Spencer Ozawa]] (Vice President Operations), with Niels Jensen, Ole Henriksen, and Mogens Glad based in [[Copenhagen]].
Philippe Kahn led the company as it developed a series of well-regarded software development tools. Their first product was [[Turbo Pascal]], initially developed by [[Anders Hejlsberg]]. 1984 saw the launch of [[SideKick]], a time organization, notebook and calculator utility, notable for being a [[Terminate and Stay Resident]] (TSR) program. In September 1987 Borland purchased [[Ansa-Software]] including their [[Borland Paradox|Paradox]] (version 2.0) [[database]] management tool. The [[Quattro Pro]] spreadsheet was launched in 1989 with, at the time, a notable charting capability.
[[Microsoft]] was the leading provider of [[programming language]]s before Turbo Pascal was released. When Borland released Turbo Pascal, Microsoft switched over to developing [[operating system]]s and [[application software]], because Turbo Pascal's [[Integrated Development Environment|IDE]] was much better than Microsoft's pure [[compilers]] and [[Interpreter (computing)|interpreters]].
Additionally, Borland was known for its practical approach towards [[software piracy]], introducing its "Borland no-nonsense license agreement." This allowed the developer/user to utilize its products "just like a book"; he or she was allowed to make multiple copies of a program, as long as only one copy was in use at any point in time.
==The 1990s: Rise and fall==
In September 1991 Borland purchased [[Ashton-Tate]], bringing the [[DBASE|dBase]] and Interbase databases to the house, however the high price they paid was to be one of the causes of subsequent financial difficulties, which were worsened when [[Microsoft]] launched the competing database [[Microsoft Access]] and bought the dBase clone [[FoxPro]] in 1992, undercutting Borland's prices.
During the early [[1990s]] Borland's implementation of [[C++]] was considered superior to then-market-trailing Microsoft. Also, its development of [[Borland Paradox|Paradox]], with its [[ObjectPAL]] programming language, pitted it against software by Microsoft, in particular Access.
By the mid-1990s, Borland fell from |
calendar]]. Preceded by [[New Year's Eve]] on [[31 December]], which is celebrated with festivities in anticipation of [[New Year's Day]].
===Winter holiday greetings===
With the winter holidays, come various different greetings appropriate for each holiday or the entire season. They are:
* [[Merry Christmas]] (sometimes referenced in Spanish or French as ''Feliz Navidad'' and ''Joyeux Noel'')
* Happy Hanukkah
* Season's Greetings
* [[Happy Holidays|Happy Holiday(s)]]
* Joyous Yule
* Happy Kwanzaa
* Happy New Year
* Happy Solstice
* Happy Thanksgiving
* Happy Winter
==National holidays==
{{further|[[national holiday]] and [[list of holidays by country]]}}
==International holidays (secular)==
Many other days are marked to celebrate events or people, but are not strictly holidays as time off work is rarely given.
* [[Perihelion]] ([[3 January|3]]-[[6 January]], depending on year and location)
* [[Valentine's Day]] ([[14 February]])
* [[Leap Day]] ([[29 February]], every four years)
* [[Astronomy Day]] (date varies depending on cycle of [[Moon]])
* [[April Fool's Day]] ([[1 April]])
* [[Earth Day]] ([[22 April]])
* [[May Day|Labour Day, Worker's Day or May Day]] ([[1 May]], ''most countries - [[United States]] and [[Canada]] are prominent exceptions)''
* [[Mother's Day]] (second Sunday in May in North America, fourth Sunday in [[Lent]] in UK)
* [[World Ocean Day]] ([[8 June]])
* [[Father's Day]] (third Sunday in June; [[19 March]], others; [[8 August]], [[Republic of China]])
* [[Halloween]] ([[31 October]])
* [[United Nations]] holidays
* [[International Women's Day]] (8th of March, particularly in Eastern European Countries)
==Other secular holidays==
Other secular holidays not observed internationally:
*[[Boxing Day]] ([[26 December]] in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]])
*[[Flag Day]] ([[14 June]] in the United States)
*[[Grandparent's Day]] (Sunday after September Labor Day - proclaimed in the United States by [[Jimmy Carter]] in 1978)
*[[Groundhog Day]] ([[2 February]] in United States and Canada)
*[[Labor Day]] (a United States federal holiday that takes place on the first Monday of September)
*[[Labour Day]] (Many European countries celebrate Labour Day on [[May 1]])
*[[Independence day]] (observed by many different countries at different dates)
*[[Lee-Jackson-King Day]] ([[20 January]]) Combined holiday celebrated in the [[Commonwealth of Virginia]] from 1984 to 2000
*[[Loyalty Day]] ([[1 May]] in the United States)
*[[Martin Luther King Day]] (third Monday in January in the United States)
*[[Mother-in-Law's Day]] (fourth Sunday in October, ''where?'')
*[[Patriot's Day]] (third Monday in April in Massachusetts and Maine, United States)
*[[Pioneer Day]] ([[24 July]] in Utah, United States)
*[[Koninginnedag|Queen's Day]] ([[30 March]] in the Netherlands)
*[[Sweetest Day]] (third Saturday in October, Ohio, Wisconsin, and Michigan in the United States)
*[[:Category:Latvian holidays|Holidays originating in ancient Latvia]]
==Unofficial holidays==
These are holidays celebrated by various groups and individuals. Some are designed to promote a cause, others recognize historical events not recognized officially, and others are "funny" holidays, generally intended as humorous distractions and excuses to share laughs among friends.
*[[24-hour comic|24-hour Comics Day]] ([[24 April]])
*[[Ask a Stupid Question Day]] ([[28 September]])
*[[Blame Someone Else Day]] (first [[Friday the 13th]] of the year)
*[[Bloomsday]] ([[16 June]] based on [[James Joyce]]'s novel ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'')
*[[Break up Day]] ([[13 February]])
*[[Buy Nothing Day]] (The Day After Thanksgiving)
*[[Evoloterra]] ([[20 July]] celebrates the first manned [[Moon Landing]])
*[[Festivus]] ([[23 December]])
*[[Flying Spaghetti Monsterism]] Holy Day (every Friday)
*[[International Cannabis Day]] ([[20 April]])
*[[International Dadaism Month]] ([[4 February]], [[1 April]], [[28 March]], [[15 July]], [[2 August]], [[7 August]], [[16 August]], [[26 August]], [[18 September]], [[22 September]], [[1 October]], [[17 October]], [[26 October]])
*[[International Talk Like a Pirate Day]] ([[19 September]])
*[[Mole Day]] ([[23 October]])
*[[No Pants Day]] (first Friday of May)
*[[Pi Approximation Day]] ([[22 July]])
*[[Pi Day]] ([[14 March]])
* [[Steak and Blowjob Day]]([[14 March]])
*[[Tax Freedom Day]] (calculated by dividing the tally of all taxes collected in each year by a tally of all income, and applying it to the calendar)
*[[Towel Day]] ([[25 May]]) (a tribute to the late [[Douglas Adams]])
*[[Wintereenmas]] ([[25 January]] through [[31 January]])
*[[X-Day]] ([[5 July]] in the Church of the SubGenius)
==Vanishing holidays==
Some holidays that were once widely celebrated are less so today, for various reasons. One example of this fact is revealed by the assumption inherent in this bit of dialogue from the 1961 musical-comedy album, ''[[Stan Freberg]] Presents The United States of America, Volume One''. [[Christopher Columbus]], who has arrived in the [[New World]] just moments earlier, tells a [[Native American]] that he wants to cash a check...
*Native: "You out of luck today. ''Banks closed''."
*Columbus: "Oh? Why?"
*Native: "Columbus Day!"
==No holidays?==
Referring to the original meaning of the term, [[Henny Youngman]] included this joke among his vast catalog of one-liners:
:"I was an [[atheist]] for awhile, but I gave it up. No holidays!"
Although Youngman's jest suggests that the list of holidays for a non-believer would necessarily be [[Empty set|the "empty set"]], many non-believers honor various holidays and "holy" days, and those of one faith often honor holidays of other faiths.
==See also==
{{cookbookpar|Holiday Recipes}}
*[[Federal holiday]]
*[[Bank Holiday]]
*[[Holiday heart syndrome]]
*[[D-Day]]
*[[Adventure tourism]]
*[[List of holidays by country]]
*[[List of holiday colors]]
*[[Annual observances in the United States]]
*[[Annual observances in the United Kingdom]]
== External links ==
* [http://directory.google.com/Top/Society/Holidays/Calendars_and_Lists/ Google category: Holidays -- Calendars and Lists]
* [http://www.support4learning.org.uk/religious_calendars/religious_calendars.cfm Sharp calendar of religious festivals]
* [http://abcnews.go.com/Health/story?id=276559&page=1 ''Holiday Stress Brings Anxiety and Abuse''] (ABC News)
* [http://www.holidaysforum.com ''Holidays'] (Holidays forum)
* [http://www.siblu.com Family Holidays]
[[Category:Holidays|*]]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[ar:أعياد]]
[[cs:Svátek]]
[[da:Ferie]]
[[de:Feiertag]]
[[el:Αργία]]
[[eo:Festa kaj feria tago]]
[[fr:Fête]]
[[ga:Lá saoire]]
[[id:Hari raya]]
[[he:חג]]
[[ka:დღესასწაული]]
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[[ja:祝日]]
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<title>History of Science and Technology/Astronomy and Astrophysics</title>
<id>13281</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of astronomy]]</text>
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<title>History of Science and Technology/Scientists and inventors</title>
<id>13283</id>
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<id>15910899</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-25T14:46:15Z</timestamp>
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<username>DavidLevinson</username>
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<comment>#REDIRECT[[List of scientists]]</comment>
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<page>
<title>Halifax</title>
<id>13285</id>
<revision>
<id>41068093</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T21:21:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>199.43.48.67</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Halifax''''' can refer to any of several things:
==Canada==
* [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia]]
* [[Halifax, Nova Scotia (former city)]]
* [[Halifax County, Nova Scotia]]
* [[Halifax (electoral district)]] (Canada)
* [[Halifax International Airport]] (Canada)
==Namibia==
* [[Halifax Island]]
==United Kingdom==
* [[Halifax, West Yorkshire]]
* [[Halifax (UK Parliament constituency)]]
* [[Halifax (bank)|Halifax bank]]
* [[Halifax College]] at the [[University of York]]
* [[Halifax RLFC]]
==United States==
* [[Halifax, Massachusetts]] (town, United States)
* [[Halifax, North Carolina]] (town, United States)
* [[Halifax, Pennsylvania]] (town, United States)
* [[Halifax, Vermont]] (town, United States)
* [[Halifax, Virginia]] (town, United States)
* [[Halifax County, North Carolina]] (county, United States)
* [[Halifax County, Virginia]] (county, United States)
==Weaponry==
* [[Handley Page Halifax]] (bomber)
* [[Halifax class frigate|''Halifax''-class frigate]]
* [[HMCS Halifax (FFH 330)|HMCS ''Halifax'' (FFH 330)]]
==Events==
* The [[1917]] [[Halifax explosion]]
==Music==
* [[Halifax (band)]], an American pop punk band
* [[The Halifax Three]], a 1960s Candadian folk music band
==People==
* [[Earl of Halifax]], The
* [[Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax]]
==Television==
* [[Halifax_f.p._(TV_series)|Halifax f.p.]] (television show)
{{disambig}}
[[af:Halifax]]
[[de:Halifax]]
[[fr:Halifax]]
[[he:הליפקס]]
[[it:Halifax]]
[[no:Halifax]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Handgun</title>
<id>13286</id>
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<timestamp>2005-04-15T18:29:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BerserkerBen</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[pistol]]</text>
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<page>
< |
reign, with his legendary sword [[Joyeuse]] in hand. After thirty years of war and eighteen battles&mdash;the [[Saxon Wars]]&mdash;he conquered [[Saxonia]] and proceeded to convert the conquered to [[Roman Catholicism]], using force where necessary.
The Saxons were divided into four subgroups in four regions. Nearest to Austrasia was [[Westphalia]] and furthest away was [[Eastphalia]]. In between these two kingdoms was that of [[Engria]] and north of these three, at the base of the [[Jutland]] peninsula, was [[Nordalbingia]].
In his first campaign, Charlemagne forced the Engrians in 773 to submit and cut down the pagan holy tree [[Irminsul]] near [[Paderborn]]. The campaign was cut short by his first expedition to Italy. He returned in the year [[775]], marching through Westphalia and conquering the Saxon fort of [[Sigiburg]]. He then crossed Engria, where he defeated the Saxons again. Finally, in Eastphalia, he defeated a Saxon force, and its leader [[Hessi]] converted to [[Christianity]]. He returned through Westphalia, leaving encampments at Sigiburg and [[Eresburg]]. All Saxony but Nordalbingia was under his control, but Saxon resistance had not ended.
Following his campaign in Italy subjugating the dukes of Friuli and Spoleto, Charlemagne returned rapidly to Saxony in 776, when a rebellion destroyed his fortress at Eresburg. The Saxons were once again brought to heel, though one [[Widukind]], a leader among them, fled instead to the [[Danes]]. Charlemagne built a new camp at [[Karlstadt]]. In [[777]], he called a national diet at Paderborn to integrate Saxony fully into the Frankish kingdom. Many Saxons were baptised.
In Summer [[779]], he again went into Saxony and reconquered Eastphalia, Engria, and Westphalia. At a diet near [[Lippe]], he divided the land into missionary districts and himself assisted in several mass baptisms ([[780]]). He then returned to Italy and, for the first time, there was no Saxon revolt. From 780 to [[782]], the land had peace.
He returned in 782 to Saxony and instituted a code of law and appointed counts, both Saxon and Frank. The laws were [[draconian]] on religious issues, and the native paganism was gravely threatened. This stirred a renewal of the old conflict. That year, in Autumn, Widukind returned and led a revolt which resulted in several assaults on the church. In response, at [[Verden, Germany|Verden]] in [[Lower Saxony]], Charlemagne ordered the beheading of 4,500 Saxons who had been caught practising paganism after converting to Christianity, known as the [[Bloody Trial of Verden]] or Massacre of Verden. The massacre led to two years of constant warfare (783-[[785]]).
The Saxons maintained the peace for seven years after the great war of 783-785, but in [[792]], the Westphalians rose up against their masters. The Eastphalians and Nordalbingians joined them in [[793]], but the insurrection did not catch on as previous ones and was completely put down by [[794]]. An Engrian rebellion followed closely in [[796]], but Charlemagne's personal presence and the presence of loyal Christian Saxons and [[Slavic peoples|Slav]]s immediately crushed it. The last insurrection of the independence-minded people occurred in [[804]], more than thirty years after Charlemagne's first campaign against them. This time, the most unruly of them all, the Nordalbingians, found themselves effectively disempowered from rebellion. According to Einhard:
:''The war that had lasted so many years was at length ended by their acceding to the terms offered by the King; which were renunciation of their national religious customs and the worship of devils, acceptance of the sacraments of the Christian faith and religion, and union with the Franks to form one people.''
===Spanish campaign===
:''See [[Battle of Roncevaux Pass]]''.
[[image:Rolandfealty.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Roland pledges his [[fealty]] to Charlemagne; from a manuscript of a ''[[chanson de geste]]''.]]
To the Diet of Paderborn had come representatives of the [[Muslim]] rulers of [[Gerona]], [[Barcelona]], and [[Huesca]]. Their masters had been cornered in the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]]n peninsula by [[Abd ar-Rahman I]], the [[Umayyad]] [[emir of Córdoba]]. The Moorish rulers offered their homage to the great king of the Franks in return for military support. Seeing an opportunity to extend [[Christendom]] and his own power and believing the Saxons to be a fully conquered nation, he agreed to go to [[Spain]].
In [[778]], he led the Neustrian army across the Western [[Pyrenees]], while the Austrasians, Lombards, and Burgundians passed over the Eastern Pyrenees. The armies met at [[Zaragoza]] and received the homage of Soloman ibn al-Arabi and Kasmin ibn Yusuf, the foreign rulers. Zaragoza did not fall soon enough for Charles, however. He could not trust the Moors, nor the [[Basques]], whom he had subdued by conquering [[Pamplona]]. He turned to leave Iberia, but as he was passing through the Pass of [[Roncesvalles]] one of the most famous events of his long reign occurred. The Basques fell on his rearguard and baggage train, utterly destroying it. Among the famous dead were the [[seneschal]] Eggihard, the count of the palace Anselm, and the [[warden]] of the [[Breton]] March [[Roland]], inspiring the subsequent creation of the [[Song of Roland]] (''Chanson de Roland'').
===Charles and his children===
During the first peace of any substantial length (780–782), Charles began to appoint his sons to positions of authority within the realm, in the tradition of the kings and mayors of the past. In 780, he had disinherited his eldest son, [[Pippin the Hunchback]], because the youth had joined a rebellion against him. Pippin had been duped, through flattery, into joining a rebellion of nobles who pretended to despise Charles' treatment of [[Himiltrude]], Pippin's mother, in 770. Charles baptised his son [[Pippin of Italy|Carloman]] as Pippin to keep the name alive in the dynasty. In [[781]], he made his oldest three sons each kings. The eldest, [[Charles, King of Neustria|Charles]], received the kingdom of [[Neustria]], containing the regions of [[Anjou]], [[Maine]], and [[Touraine]]. The second eldest, Pippin, was made [[king of Italy]], taking the Iron Crown which his father had first worn in 774. His third eldest son, [[Louis the Pious|Louis]], became [[king of Aquitaine]]. He tried to make his sons a true Neustrian, Italian, and Aquitainian and he gave their regents some control of their subkingdoms, but real power was always in his hands, though he intended each to inherit their realm some day.
The sons fought many wars on behalf of their father when they came of age. Charles was mostly preoccupied with the Bretons, whose border he shared and who insurrected on at least two occasions and were easily put down, but he was also sent against the Saxons on multiple occasions. In [[805]] and [[806]], he was sent into the the Böhmerwald (modern [[Bohemia]]) to deal with the Slavs living there ([[Czech_people|Czech]]s). He subjected them to Frankish authority and devastated the valley of the Elbe, forcing a tribute on them. Pippin had to hold the [[Avar]] and Beneventan borders, but also fought the [[Slavs]] to his north. He was uniquely poised to fight the [[Byzantine Empire]] when finally that conflict arose after Charlemagne's imperial coronation and a [[Venetia]]n rebellion. Finally, Louis was in charge of the [[Spanish March]] and also went to southern Italy to fight the duke of Benevento on at least one occasion. He took Barcelona in a great siege in the year [[797]] (see below). [[Image:Aachen-cathedral-inside.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Palatine Chapel in Aachen|Charlemagne's chapel]] at his palace in [[Aachen]].]]
It is difficult to understand Charlemagne's attitude toward his daughters. None of them contracted a sacramental marriage. This may have been an attempt to control the number of potential alliances. Charlemagne certainly refused to believe the stories (mostly true) of their wild behaviour. After his death the surviving daughters entered or were forced to enter [[monasteries]] by their own brother, the pious Louis. At least one of them, Bertha, had a recognised relationship, if not a marriage, with [[Angilbert]], a member of Charlemagne's court circle.
===During the Saxon peace===
In [[787]], Charlemagne finally directed his attention towards [[Benevento]], where Arechis was reigning independently. He besieged [[Salerno]] and Arechis submitted to [[vassalage]]. However, with his death in 792, Benevento again proclaimed independence under his son [[Grimoald III of Benevento|Grimoald III]]. Grimoald was attacked by armies of Charles' or his sons' many times, but Charlemagne himself never returned to the [[Mezzogiorno]] and Grimoald never was forced to surrender to Frankish [[suzerainty]].
In [[788]], Charlemagne turned his attention to [[Bavaria]]. He claimed Tassilo was an unfit ruler on account of his oath-breaking. The charges were trumped up, but Tassilo was deposed anyway and put in the monastery of [[Jumièges]]. In 794, he was made to renounce any claim to Bavaria for himself and his family (the [[Agilolfings]]) at the [[synod]] of [[Frankfurt]]. Bavaria was subdivided into Frankish counties, like Saxony.
In [[789]], in recognition of his new pagan neighbours, the Slavs, Charlemagne marched an Austrasian-Saxon army across the [[Elbe]] into [[Abotrite]] territory. The Slavs immediately submitted under their leader Witzin. He then accepted the surrender of the [[Wiltzes]] under Dragovit and demanded many hostages and the permission to send, unmolested, missionaries into the pagan region. The army marched to the [[Baltic]] before turning around and marching to the Rhine with much booty and no harassment. The tributary Slavs became loyal allies. In [[795]], the peace broken by the Saxons, the Abotrites and Wiltzes rose in arms with their new ma |
r" style="background: #ddffdd;" | C
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| align="left" colspan="12" | Dialect classification and periodization according to Yury &#352;erech [=&nbsp;Shevelov], ''Problems in the formation of Belorussian'', New York 1953 (=&nbsp;''Word: Journal of the Linguistic Circle of New York'', vol.&nbsp;9, supplement, monograph no.&nbsp;2), p.&nbsp;93.
|}
{{sectstub}}
The first divergence among the Old East Slavic texts is evident during the [[12th century]], during the era of Kievan Rus', i.e. some texts can be linguistically located to areas that are now in Russia, Ukraine or Belarus. This leads many Russian scholars to speak of the existence of a separate [[Russian language]] as early as the [[12th century]].
== Mutual Influences ==
{{sectstub}}
== See also ==
* [[Slavic languages]]
* [[South Slavic languages]]
* [[West Slavic languages]]
* [[Old Church Slavonic language]]
* [[Belarusian language]]
* [[Russian language]]
* [[Rusyn language]]
* [[Ukrainian language]]
[[Category:Slavic languages]]
[[ast:Eslavu Oriental]]
[[bg:Източнославянски езици]]
[[cs:Východoslovanské jazyky]]
[[de:Ostslawische Sprachen]]
[[et:Idaslaavi keeled]]
[[no:Østslaviske språk]]
[[pl:Języki wschodniosłowiańskie]]
[[sk:Východoslovanské jazyky]]
[[sr:Источнословенски језици]]
[[sv:Östslaviska språk]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elizabeth Gracen</title>
<id>10071</id>
<revision>
<id>38121610</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T08:38:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Playboy May 1992.jpg|thumb|On the cover of ''[[Playboy]]'', May 1992]]
'''Elizabeth Ward Gracen''' is an [[United States|American]] [[Actor|actress]] known almost as much for her off-screen activities as for her [[film|movie]] and [[television network|television]] roles.
Born '''Elizabeth Ward''' on [[April 3]], [[1960]] in [[Booneville, Arkansas]], [[United States|USA]], she won the titles of Miss Arkansas and [[Miss America]] in [[1982]]. She soon married and took the name of Elizabeth Gracen. The marriage did not last long, but she retained her married name. She had a minor acting career, and in [[1989]], while filming ''[[Sundown: The Vampire in Retreat]]'', she met actor [[Brendan Hughes]], and they married soon after. The couple divorced in [[1994]]. Gracen gave birth to a daughter, Quinlan Murphy, on [[July 28]], [[2005]].
Elizabeth Gracen's best-known acting role has been as the character of the Immortal Amanda in the series ''[[Highlander: The Series|Highlander]]'' and ''[[Highlander: The Raven]]''.
During the time of the sex scandals involving then-President [[Bill Clinton]], Gracen admitted that she had had a one-night affair with Clinton in [[1983]] when he was [[Governor of Arkansas]]. She has also appeared nude in ''[[Playboy]]''.
== Filmography ==
*''[[Interceptor Force 2]]'' (2002) (TV) - Adriana Sikes
*''[[Highlander: The Raven]]'' (1998) TV Series - Amanda Darieux aka Amanda Montrose (1998-1999)
*''[[Kounterfeit]]'' (1996) - Bridgette
*''[[Extreme]]'' (1995) TV Series - Callie Manners (1995)
*''[[The Expert]]'' (1995) - Liz Pierce
*''[[Highlander]]'' (1992) TV Series - Amanda Darieux (1994-1998)
*''[[Discretion Assured]]'' (1993) - Miranda
*''[[Final Mission]]'' (1993) (V) - Caitlin Cole
*''[[The Sands of Time]]'' (1992) (TV)
*''[[Lower Level]]'' (1992) (V) - Hillary
*''[[Sundown: The Vampire in Retreat]]'' (1991) - Alice
*''[[83 Hours 'Til Dawn]]'' (1990) (TV) - Maria Ranfield
*''[[Marked for Death]]'' (1990) - Melissa
*''[[The Death of the Incredible Hulk]]'' (1990) (TV) - Jasmin
*''[[Lisa (film)|Lisa]]'' (1989) - Mary
*''[[The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]'' (1989) (TV)
*''[[Pass the Ammo]]'' (1988) - Christie Lynn
*''[[Three for the Road]]'' (1987) - Nadine
==External links==
*[http://www.elizabethgracen.org Official website]
*{{imdbname|id=0001286|name=Elizabeth Gracen}}
[[Category:1960 births|Gracen, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:Living people|Gracen, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:People from Arkansas|Gracen, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:Miss America|Gracen, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:Television actors|Gracen, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:Highlander|Gracen, Elizabeth]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elizabeth Gracen/Filmography</title>
<id>10072</id>
<revision>
<id>15907910</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-30T07:15:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jeronimo</username>
<id>108</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>make a redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elizabeth Gracen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epicurus</title>
<id>10073</id>
<revision>
<id>42124366</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:57:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Flauto Dolce</username>
<id>30706</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Samos]] to [[Samos Island]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Epikur.jpg|right|thumb|234px|Bust of Epicurus]]
'''Epicurus''' ('''Epikouros''' or '''Επικουρος''' in [[Greek language|Greek]]) (341 BC, [[Samos Island|Samos]] &ndash; 270 BC, [[Athens]]) was an [[Greek philosophy|ancient Greek philosopher]], the founder of [[Epicureanism]], one of the most popular schools of [[Greek philosophy|Hellenistic Philosophy]].
==Biography==
{{Confusing}}
Epicurus was born into an Athenian émigré family &mdash; his parents, Neocles and Chaerestrate, both Athenian citizens, were sent to an Athenian settlement on the Aegean island of [[Samos Island|Samos]]. According to Apollodorus (reported by Diogenes Laertius at X.14-15), he was born on the seventh day of the month [[Gamelion]] in the third year of the 109th [[Olympiad]], in the [[Archon|archonship]] of Sosigenes (about February 341 BC). He returned to Athens at the age of eighteen to serve in military training. The playwright [[Menander]] served in the same age-class of the ephebes as Epicurus.
He joined his father in [[Colophon]] after the Athenian settlers at Samos were expelled by [[Perdiccas]] due to their revolt after [[Alexander the Great]] died (c. 320 BC). He spent the next several years in Colophon, [[Lampsacus]], and [[Mytilene]], where he founded his school at the age of 32 and gathered many disciples. In the archonship of Anaxicrates (307-306 BC), he returned to Athens where he formed his school known as The Garden, named for the garden he owned about halfway between the [[Stoa]] and the [[Academy]] that served as the school's meetingplace.
Epicurus died in the second year of the 127th Olympiad, in the archonship of Pytharatus, at the age of 72. He reportedly suffered from [[kidney stone|kidney stones]], and despite the prolonged pain involved, he is reported as saying in a letter to Idomeneus:
"We have written this letter to you on a happy day to us, which is also the last day of our life. For strangury has attacked me, and also a dysentery, so violent that nothing can be added to the violence of my sufferings. But the cheerfulness of my mind, which arises from their collection of all my philosophical contemplation, counterbalances all these afflictions. And I beg you to take care of the children of Metrodorus, in a manner worth of the devotion shown by the youth to me, and to philosophy" ([[Diogenes Laertius ]], X.22, trans. C.D. Yonge).
A growing directory of contemporary Gardens of Epicurus can be found at [http://www.gardenofepicurus.com www.gardenofepicurus.com] The Epicurean doctrines are by no means extinct.
==The School==
Epicurus' school had a small but devoted following in his lifetime. The primary members were [[Hermarchus]], the financier [[Idomeneus of Lampsacus|Idomeneus]], [[Leonteus]] and his wife [[Themista]], the satirist [[Colotes]], the mathematician [[Polyaenus of Lampsacus]], and [[Metrodorus]], the most famous popularizer of Epicureanism. This original school was based in Epicurus' home and garden. An inscription on the gate to the garden is recorded by [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] in his Epistle XXI:
:Stranger, here you will do well to tarry; here our highest good is pleasure.
The school's popularity grew and it became, along with [[Stoicism]] and [[Skepticism]], one of the three dominant schools of Hellenistic Philosophy, lasting strongly through the later [[Roman Empire]]. In Rome, [[Lucretius]] was the school's greatest proponent, composing [[On the Nature of Things]], an epic poem, in six books, designed to recruit new members. The poem mainly deals with Epicurean philosophy of nature. Another major source of information is the Roman politician and amateur philosopher [[Cicero]], although he was highly critical of Epicureanism. Another ancient source is [[Diogenes of Oenoanda]], who composed a large inscription at [[Oenoan |
tem without the system already functioning. It seems just as impossible as "pulling oneself up by the bootstraps" which Baron Münchhausen, according to stories, could do. However, solutions, accordingly called bootstrapping, exist; they are processes whereby a complex system emerges by starting simply and, bit by bit, developing more complex capabilities on top of the simpler ones.
''Bootstrapping'' describes different things in several domains.''
==Computing==
The term is believed to have entered computer jargon by way of [[Robert A. Heinlein|Heinlein's]] short story ''[[By His Bootstraps]]''.
Bootstrapping is generally considered a longer term for [[booting]], or the process of starting up any computer. "Bootstrap" most commonly refers to the program that actually begins the initialization of the computer's operating system, like [[GRUB]], [[Linux Loader|LILO]] or [[NTLDR]]. Modern [[personal computer | personal computers]] have the ability of using their [[network interface card]] (NIC) for bootstrapping, on [[IA-32]]([[x86]]) and [[IA-64]]([[Itanium]]) this method is implemented by [[Preboot Execution Environment|PXE]] and [[Etherboot]].
Bootstrapping can also refer to the development of successively more complex programming environments. The simplest environment will be, perhaps, a very basic text editor (e.g. [[ed]]) and an [[assembler]] program. Using these tools, one can write a more complex text editor, and a simple compiler for a higher-level language and so on, until one can have a [[graphical user interface|graphical]] [[integrated development environment|IDE]] and an extremely [[high-level programming language]].
:''For more detail, see [[booting]]''
=== Compilers ===
In [[compiler]] design, a bootstrap or bootstrapping compiler is a compiler that is written in the target language that it compiles. Examples include [[GNU Compiler Collection|gcc]], [[Glasgow_Haskell_Compiler|GHC]], [[OCaml]] and [[PL/I]].
:''For more detail, see [[Bootstrapping (compilers)]]''
==Linguistics==
Syntactic bootstrapping is the idea that children use syntactic knowledge they have developed to help learn what words mean -- semantics builds on top of syntax.
*[[Semantic bootstrapping]]
==Physics==
In [[physics]], the term "bootstrap" is used for the class of theories that assume that very general [[consistency]] criteria are sufficient to determine the whole theory completely. In such theories - typically examples of [[quantum field theory]] - it is impossible to divide the objects and concepts to [[elementary]] and [[composite]] ones.
*[[Bootstrap model]]
==Biology==
The idea of bootstrapping is significant in a number of fields in the [[biology|biological sciences]]. The process by which a fertilised ovum develops into an [[embryo]], particularly the way in which the nuclear [[genome]] is expressed differently in its various cells as these differentiate, is one example of bootstrapping. The evolution of progressively better adapted [[Organ_(anatomy)|organs]] through [[natural selection]] in a lineage of [[organism]]s is another. Some biologists, including [[Graham Cairns-Smith]], believe that the [[origin of life]] itself may have been a bootstrap process as one or more systems of biological information storage formed the foundation for successor systems that ultimately supplanted them culminating in the emergence of our current [[DNA]]-based system. For more details see the articles on [[embryology]], [[ontogeny and phylogeny]] and [[RNA World]].
==Electronics==
The term '''bootstrap''' has a number of meanings in [[electronics]].
In classical [[analog circuit|analog]] designs, a bootstrap circuit is an arrangement of components used to boost the [[input impedance]] of a circuit by using a small amount of positive [[feedback]], usually over two stages. This was often necessary in the early days of [[bipolar junction transistor|bipolar]] [[transistor]]s, which inherently have quite a low input impedance. The need for such arrangements has largely been alleviated by the use of modern [[field effect transistor]] designs, except when ultra-high input impedances are required. Note that because the feedback is positive, such circuits usually suffer from poor stability and noise performance compared to a circuit that doesn't bootstrap.
Another meaning is in connection with the [[booting]] process of a [[computer]] or other complex system, where the underlying electronics must arrange for the orderly startup of the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] and related electronics components. This is done long before the CPU is in a state where it can begin to execute software. Nowadays the bootstrap is coordinated by special [[integrated circuit]]s that monitor the raw [[power supply]] and provide the relevant signals to enable the CPU and other chips accordingly.
In a typical car [[alternator]], a [[direct current|DC]] field current is required before the device can produce any output. Once running, a small portion of the output is fed back to keep the field alive &mdash; this can be seen as a form of bootstrapping. The initial priming current is usually obtained from the vehicle's [[Battery (electricity)|battery]] &mdash; if the battery is totally flat the alternator won't produce any output voltage to spark the plugs or recharge the battery (by push starting for example) since it will be unable to bootstrap itself. However, in practice, a battery will usually have enough residual charge to avoid this.
In reference to a regional or national [[power grid]], bootstrapping refers to the process of restarting [[power station|generating stations]] and restoring power to the grid after a large-scale [[power outage]] or disaster. This is also referred to as ''cold starting.'' The process is required for reasons not dissimilar to the automobile case above: many power stations have [[electrical generator|AC generators]] which do not contain [[magnet|permanent magnets]], and are incapable of starting to produce electricity unless they are fed some from an outside source to energize the coils and produce a magnetic field. Once running, they use their own output power for this purpose and are self-sustaining. Some power plants are designated within the grid as being capable of a cold start (either because they have main generators which contain magnets, or have smaller auxiliary generators which do and which are capable of bringing the main ones up), and these plants are brought on-line first, and their power output directed across the grid to other plants and used to start them. In this way, generating stations across the network can be progressively brought back up.
==Statistics==
In [[statistics]] bootstrapping is a method for estimating the [[sampling distribution]] of an [[estimator]] by [[resampling (statistics)|resampling]] with replacement from the original sample. It is distinguished from the [[resampling (statistics)#Jackknife| jackknife]] procedure, used to detect [[outlier]]s, and [[cross-validation]], whose purpose is to make sure that results are repeatable. There are more complicated bootstraps for sampling without replacement, two-sample problems, regression, time series, hierarchical sampling, and other statistical problems.
For more details see [[resampling (statistics)#Bootstrap|bootstrap resampling]].
==Finance==
In [[finance]], bootstrapping refers to the procedure used to calculate the [[Zero coupon bond | zero coupon]] [[yield curve]], solving for the maturities where no instruments are available. The method uses interpolation to complete the yield curve, using available zero coupon securities with varying maturities.
It may also mean a company acquiring a competitor with a sole reason of temporarily increasing earnings per share.
Bootstrapping also means starting and operating a business with little or no money or assistance from outside investors.
==Venture capital and start-up companies==
As defined by Greg Gianforte, CEO, [[RightNow Technologies]] in an essay at [http://www.bootstrapit.com], "bootstrapping" is the act of starting a business with little or no external funding. "Bootstrappers don’t write lengthy business plans, chase deep-pocketed investors, or indulge in overly academic market research exercises. Instead, they focus all of their considerable energy, brainpower, determination and skills on creating a business that can actually succeed in the real world."
Other books by entrepreneurs on Bootstrapping include: "Bootstrap" by Ken Hess. [http://www.klhess.com/bootstrap/index.htm] and "Go it Alone" by Bruce Judson [http://www.brucejudson.com]. Bootstrapping is not well-studied or understood in Academia. Amar Bhide at Columbia [http://www.bhide.net/] and Darius Mahdjoubi [http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~darius] are two academics who focus in this area. Examples of Bootstrap Entrepreneurs include [[Bill Gates]], [[Larry Ellison]], [[Anita Roddick]] and [[Richard Branson]] and [[Michael Dell]].
With the decline since 1999 of Venture Capital for early stage companies, bootstrapping is on the rise. It is supported by groups such as the Bootstrap Network[http://www.bootstrapnetwork.com] which maintains a comprehensive resource guide on bootstrapping. [http://www.bootstrapnetwork.com/blog]
== Law ==
The "bootstrapping rule" in the rules of evidence dealt with admissability as non-hearsay of statements of conspiracy. The rule was that, in a criminal prosecution for conspiracy, the court, in deciding whether to allow the jury to consider a statement of conspiracy, cannot hear the statement itself, and that the allegation should be supported by independent evidence. If the independent evidence convinced the court that a conspiracy probably existed, only then could such a statement be introduced into trial and heard by the jury. Allowing such statements of conspiracy to prove the existence of conspir |
ervice. (2003). "The Six Wives of Henry VIII".]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07222a.htm Thurston, H. (1910). "Henry VIII". ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''. (Vol. VII). New York: Robert Appleton Company.]
*[http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/vallieres.htm Vallieres, S. (1999). "Tudor Succession Problems"]
*Weir, Alison. ''The Six Wives of Henry VIII''. Bodley Head, 1991.
==Further reading==
* Weir, Alison. ''Henry VIII: The King and His Court''. Ballantine Books, 2001.
* Williams, Neville. ''Henry VIII and His Court''. Macmillan, 1971.
==External links==
*[http://www.badley.info/history/Henry-VIII-England.biog.html Henry VIII World History Database]
*[http://www.tudor-portraits.com Buehler, Edward. (2004). "Tudor and Elizabethan Portraits".]
*[http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/aboutHenryVIII.htm Castelli, Jorge H. (2004). "Henry VIII".]
*[http://www.archsoc.com/games/Henry.html Stevens, Garry. (2003). "Henry VIII: Intrigue in the Tudor Court".]
*[http://members.ozemail.com.au/~tperrott/sirjohn.htm Perrott, Terry. (2004). "Sir John Perrott".]
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{{featured article}}
[[ar:هنري الثامن من إنكلترا]]
[[bg:Хенри VIII]]
[[ca:Enric VIII d'Anglaterra]]
[[cs:Jindřich VIII.]]
[[cy:Harri VIII o Loegr]]
[[da:Henrik 8. af England]]
[[de:Heinrich VIII. (England)]]
[[es:Enrique VIII de Inglaterra]]
[[eo:Henriko la 8-a]]
[[fr:Henri VIII d'Angleterre]]
[[ko:잉글랜드의 헨리 8세]]
[[hr:Henrik VIII., kralj Engleske]]
[[io:Henrik 8ma di Anglia]]
[[it:Enrico VIII d'Inghilterra]]
[[he:הנרי השמיני מלך אנגליה]]
[[kw:Henry VIII a Bow Sows]]
[[la:Henricus VIII Angliae Rex]]
[[mr:हेन्री आठवा]]
[[nl:Hendrik VIII van Engeland]]
[[ja:ヘンリー8世 (イングランド王)]]
[[no:Henrik VIII av England]]
[[nn:Henrik VIII av England]]
[[pl:Henryk VIII Tudor]]
[[pt:Henrique VIII de Inglaterra]]
[[ro:Henric al VIII-lea]]
[[ru:Генрих VIII (король Англии)]]
[[scn:Arricu VIII di Inghilterra]]
[[simple:Henry VIII of England]]
[[sk:Henrich VIII. (Anglicko)]]
[[sl:Henrik VIII. Angleški]]
[[sr:Хенрик VIII]]
[[fi:Henrik VIII (Englanti)]]
[[sv:Henrik VIII av England]]
[[uk:Генріх VIII]]
[[zh:亨利八世]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HTTP cookie</title>
<id>14188</id>
<revision>
<id>42071123</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:53:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.157.109.41</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>fi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''HTTP cookie''' is a packet of information sent by a [[Web server|server]] to a [[World Wide Web]] [[web browser|browser]] and then sent back by the browser each time it accesses that server. [[HTTP]] [[Magic cookie|cookies]] are used for user authentication, user tracing, and maintaining user-specific information (preferences, electronic shopping cart, etc.)
[[Image:Googlecookie.png|thumb|250px|A file used by the [[Internet Explorer]] browser to store a cookie.]]
Cookies have been of concern for [[Internet privacy]], since they can be used for tracing the browsing of a user. As a result, they have been subject to legislation in various countries such as the [[United States]], as well as the [[European Union]]. Cookies have also been criticized because the identification of users they provide is not always accurate and because they can be used for network attacks.
On the other hand, cookies have also been subject to a number of misconceptions, mostly based on the wrong claim that they are [[program]]s, while they in fact are simple pieces of data, and are therefore unable to perform any operation by themselves. In particular, many Internet users have been reported to incorrectly consider cookies as a form of [[spyware]] or [[Virus (computing)|virus]]es, which are able to read or erase a users' [[hard disk]] (a misconception perhaps complicated by the detection of cookies from certain sites by anti-spyware programs). Most modern browsers allow users to decide whether to accept cookies, but rejection makes several [[Web site]]s unusable. For example, users' preferences or shopping baskets implemented using cookies do not work if cookies are rejected. Some alternatives to cookies exist, but have their own drawbacks.
==Purpose==
Cookies are used for realizing functionalities that are specific to a user. Cookies were introduced for realizing a virtual [[Shopping cart|shopping basket]] where the user can place item to purchase. This way, a user can navigate a site where items are shown, adding or removing them from the shopping basket at any time.
Another use of cookies is for allowing users to log in a [[Web site]]. Users typically log in by inserting their credentials into a login page; cookies allow the server to know that the user is already authenticated, and is therefore allowed to access services or perform operations that are restricted to logged users.
Several Web sites also use cookies for [[Personalization|personalization]] based on users' preferences. Sites that require authentication often use this feature, which is however also present on site not requiring authentication. Personalization include presentation and functionality. For example, the [[Wikipedia]] Web site allows authenticated users to decide the [[skin (computing)|skin]] of pages; the [[Google]] search engine allows users (even non-registered ones) to decide how many hits per page they want to see.
Cookies are also used to trace users across a Web site. Third-party cookies and [[Web bug]]s, explained below, also allows for tracing across multiple sites. Tracing within a site is typically done to the aim of producing usage statistics, while tracing across sites is typically used by advertising companies to produce anonymous user profiles, which is then used to target advertising (deciding which adversiting image to show) based on the user profile.
==Realization==
[[Image:HTTPCookie.png|thumb|250px|A possible interaction between a Web browser and a server holding a Web page, in which the server sends a cookie to the browser and the browser sends it back when requesting another page.]]
Technically, cookies are arbitrary pieces of data chosen by the [[Web server]] and sent to the browser. The browser returns them unchanged to the server, introducing a [[state (computer science)|state]] (memory of previous events) into otherwise stateless [[HTTP]] transactions. Without cookies, each retrieval of a [[Web page]] or component of a Web page is an isolated event, mostly unrelated to all other views of the pages of the same site. By returning a cookie to a web server, the browser provides the server a means of connecting the current page view with prior page views. Other than being set by a web server, cookies can also be set by a [[Scripting programming language|script]] in a language such as [[JavaScript]], if supported and enabled by the Web browser.
Cookie specifications {{ref|netscape}}{{ref|rfcs}} suggest that browsers should support a minimal number of cookies or amount of memory for storing them. In particular, a browser is expected to be able to store at least 300 cookies of 4 kilobytes each, and at least 20 cookies per server or [[Internet domain|domain]].
The cookie setter can specify a date, in which case the cookie will be removed on that date. If the cookie setter does not specify a date, the cookie is removed once the user quits his or her browser. As a result, specifying a date is a way for making a cookie survive across sessions. For this reason, cookies with an expiration date are called ''persistent''.
==Misconceptions==
Since their introduction on the Internet, misconceptions about cookies circulate on the Internet and the media{{ref|thealli}}{{ref|eei}}. In 2005, [[Jupiter Research]] published the results of a survey{{ref|jupiter}}, according to which a consistent percentage of respondents believed some of the following claims:
* cookies are like [[Computer worm|worms]] and [[Computer virus|viruses]] (they can erase data from the user's hard disks);
* cookies are a form of [[spyware]] (they can read personal information stored on the user's computer);
* cookies generate [[popup]]s;
* cookies are used for [[spam (electronic)|spam]]ming;
* cookies are only used for [[advertising]].
Cookies are data, not code: they cannot erase or read information from the user's computer{{ref|slate}}. However, cookies allow for detecting the Web pages viewed by a user on a given site or set of sites. This information can be collected in an ''anonymous profile'' of the user. While su |
lins. 1991. ISBN 0060167092
* Smith, D. & Mosher, M. ''Orwell for Beginners''. 1984. London: Writers and Readers Publishing Cooperative.
* [[D. J. Taylor|Taylor, D. J.]] ''Orwell: The Life''. Henry Holt and Company. 2003. ISBN 0-8050-7473-2
* West, W. J. ''The Larger Evils''. Edinburgh: Canongate Press. 1992. ISBN 0-86241-382-6 (Nineteen Eighty-Four – The truth behind the satire.)
* West, W. J. (ed.) ''George Orwell: The Lost Writings''. New York: Arbor House. 1984. ISBN 0877957452
* [[Raymond Williams|Williams, Raymond]], ''Orwell'', Fontana/Collins, 1971
* [[George Woodcock|Woodcock, George]]. ''The Crystal Spirit''. Black Rose Books. 1966. ISBN 1551642689
==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://he.shvoong.com/books/essays/31110-bookshop-memories/ A summary of the essay "Bookshop Memories"]
* [http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/ctc/faq.htm The Chestnut Tree Cafe - George Orwell FAQ]
* [http://www.orwell.ru orwell.ru &mdash; Orwell's complete works]
* [http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Animal_Farm Wikiquote &mdash; Quotes from Animal Farm]
* [http://www.orwell.ru/library/essays/wiw/english/e_wiw "Why I Write" by Orwell]
* [http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/ Charles' George Orwell Links]
* [http://www.george-orwell.org The Complete Works of George Orwell]
* [http://us.imdb.com/name/nm0000567/ Films based on Orwell's novels] from [[Internet Movie Database]]
* [http://www.newspeakdictionary.com/index-man.html Newspeak Dictionary]
* [http://www.tidsskriftcentret.dk/index.php?id=162 The George Orwell of the Left] Books, and links to sites & articles in Scandinavian & English. (Tidsskriftcentret.dk).
* [http://www.studentsfororwell.org/ Students for an Orwellian Society]
[[Category:1903 births|Orwell, George]]
[[Category:1950 deaths|Orwell, George]]
[[Category:George Orwell|*]]
[[Category:Old Etonians|Orwell George]]
[[Category:Old Wellingtonians|Orwell, George]]
[[Category:Spanish Civil War people|Orwell, George]]
[[ar:جورج أورويل]]
[[ast:George Orwell]]
[[bg:Джордж Оруел]]
[[bn:জর্জ অরওয়েল]]
[[br:Georges Orwell]]
[[bs:George Orwell]]
[[ca:George Orwell]]
[[cs:George Orwell]]
[[da:George Orwell]]
[[de:George Orwell]]
[[eo:George ORWELL]]
[[es:George Orwell]]
[[et:George Orwell]]
[[eu:George Orwell]]
[[fi:George Orwell]]
[[fr:George Orwell]]
[[fy:George Orwell]]
[[ga:George Orwell]]
[[he:ג'ורג' אורוול]]
[[hr:George Orwell]]
[[hu:George Orwell]]
[[id:George Orwell]]
[[io:George Orwell]]
[[it:George Orwell]]
[[ja:ジョージ・オーウェル]]
[[ka:ორუელი, ჯორჯ]]
[[ko:조지 오웰]]
[[lt:Džordžas Orvelas]]
[[lv:Džordžs Orvels]]
[[mk:Џорџ Орвел]]
[[nl:George Orwell]]
[[nn:George Orwell]]
[[no:George Orwell]]
[[os:Оруэлл, Джордж]]
[[pl:George Orwell]]
[[pt:George Orwell]]
[[ro:George Orwell]]
[[ru:Оруэлл, Джордж]]
[[scn:George Orwell]]
[[sh:Džordž Orvel]]
[[simple:George Orwell]]
[[sk:George Orwell]]
[[sl:George Orwell]]
[[sr:Џорџ Орвел]]
[[sv:George Orwell]]
[[th:จอร์จ ออร์เวลล์]]
[[tr:George Orwell]]
[[uk:Орвелл Джордж]]
[[zh:乔治·奥威尔]]
[[zh-min-nan:George Orwell]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gareth Owen</title>
<id>11892</id>
<revision>
<id>37308755</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T03:52:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
<id>75561</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gareth Owen''' is a [[football (soccer)|football]] player for [[Oldham Athletic A.F.C.|Oldham Athletic]].
He previously was at [[Stoke City F.C.|Stoke City]], going out on loan to [[Torquay United F.C.|Torquay United]].
[[Category:1982 births|Owen, Gareth]]
[[Category:Living people|Owen, Gareth]]
[[Category:Welsh footballers|Owen, Gareth]]
[[Category:Stoke City F.C. players|Owen, Gareth]]
[[Category:Oldham Athletic A.F.C. players|Owen, Gareth]]
[[Category:Torquay United F.C. players|Owen, Gareth]]
{{Euro-footybio-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Great Britain</title>
<id>11893</id>
<revision>
<id>42156220</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:45:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vanka5</username>
<id>428424</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ bg</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''For an explanation of terms such as [[Great Britain]], [[British]], [[United Kingdom]], [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]], see [[British Isles (terminology)]]''
[[Image:LocationIslandGreatBritain.png|thumb|250px|Great Britain lies between Ireland and continental Europe]]
'''Great Britain''' is an island lying off the north-western coast of [[Europe]] and to the east of [[Ireland]], comprising the main territory of the [[United Kingdom]]. Great Britain is also used as a political term describing the combination of [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]], the two countries and the principality of Wales, which together comprise the entire island and include some outlying islands. Great Britain is also widely, but incorrectly, used as a synonym for the sovereign state properly known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
==Geographical definition==
With an area of 218 595[[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (84,400 [[square mile|sq.mi]]) the island of Great Britain is the largest of the [[British Isles]]. It is the largest island in [[Europe]], and [[List of islands by area|eighth largest]] in the world. It is the [[List of islands by population|third most populous island]] after [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Honshu]].
Great Britain stretches over approximately ten degrees of [[latitude]] on its longer, north-south axis. Geographically, the island is marked by low, rolling countryside in the east and south, while hills and mountains predominate in the western and northern regions. Before the end of the last [[ice age]], Great Britain was a [[peninsula]] of Europe; the rising sea levels caused by glacial melting at the end of the ice age caused the formation of the [[English Channel]], the body of water which now divides Great Britain from the European mainland.
The [[climate]] of Great Britain is milder than that of other regions of the [[Northern Hemisphere]] at the same latitude, because the warm waters of the [[Gulf Stream]] pass by the British Isles and exert a moderating influence on the weather. Cool, but not cold, temperatures, clouds more often than sun, and abundant rain are the rule in most years.
==Political definition==
Politically, ''Great Britain'' describes the combination of [[England]], [[Scotland]], and [[Wales]]. It includes outlying islands such as the [[Isles of Scilly]], the [[Hebrides]], and the island groups of [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]] but does not include the [[Isle of Man]] or the [[Channel Islands]].
Over the centuries, Great Britain has evolved politically from several independent countries (England, Scotland, and Wales) through two kingdoms with a shared [[monarch]] (England and Scotland), a single all-island [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], to the situation following [[1801]], in which Great Britain together with the island of [[Ireland]] constituted the larger [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] (UK). The UK became the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]] in the 1920s following the independence of five-sixths of Ireland as the [[Republic of Ireland]].
<!--
The following text removed:
*************
The capital of the UK is London. It is a common misconception that England, Wales and Scotland have capitals (London, Cardiff and Edinburgh respectively) but they do not, since technically they are not individual countries.
*************
We are in danger of scope creep by getting too deep in the detail of the UK. As far as capital cities are concerned, I am interested in this assertion but would like more evidence. The Queen used the term "capital city" when referring to Edinburgh addressing the Scottish Parliament. http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/page4186.asp The Scottish Justice Minister appears to believe it is a capital. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/News/Releases/2004/08/16091707 I did not search further.
-->
== History==
The Roman geographer Ptolemy called the larger island Megale Brettania (Great Britain), and the smaller island Micra Bretannia (Little Britain). Hence, originally, the term Great Britain referred to the largest island in the British Isles, just as the largest of the Canary Islands is still called Gran Canaria, and the largest of the Comoros is Grande Comore.
Nevertheless, it is sometimes supposed that '''Great Britain''' is a translation of the [[French language|French]] term '''Grande Bretagne''', which is used in [[France]] to distinguish Britain from [[Brittany]] (in French: ''Bretagne''), which had been settled in late Roman times by Romano-Celtic refugees from [[Roman Britain]], then under attack by the [[Anglo-Saxons]]. Since the English court and aristocracy was largely French-speaking for several hundred years after the [[Norman Conquest]] of [[1066]], the French term naturally passed into English usage. The term was revived during the reign of [[James I of England|King James VI of Scotland, I of England]] to describe the island, on which co-existed two separate [[Monarchy|kingdom]]s, both at that time ruled by the same monarch. Though England and Scotland each remained legally in existence as separate countries with their own parliaments, collectively they were sometimes referred to as Great Britain. In [[1707]], an [[Act of Union 1707|Act of Union]] joined both parliaments. That Act used two different terms to describe the new all island nation, a 'United Kingdom' and the 'Kingdom of Great Britain'. However, the former term is regarded by many as having been a ''description'' of the union rather than its name at that stage. Most reference books therefore describe the all-island kingdom that existed between [[1707]] and [[1800]] as the ''Kingd |
echnology (VESIT)]]
#[[Volda College]]
#[[Voorhees College]]
#[[Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam]] ([[Amsterdam]], [[The Netherlands]])
#[[Vrije Universiteit Brussel]] ([[Brussel]], [[Belgium]])
:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|V]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities starting with W</title>
<id>6496</id>
<revision>
<id>37122394</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-28T21:14:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>J. Nguyen</username>
<id>357640</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>typo on a name</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- '''W''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[WHU Koblenz School of Corporate Management]]
#[[Wabash College]] ([[Crawfordsville, Indiana]])
#[[Wageningen University]] ([[Wageningen]], [[The Netherlands]])
#[[Wagner College]]
#[[Waikato Polytechnic]]
#[[University of Waikato|Waikato University]]
#[[Wakayama University]]
#[[Wake Forest University]]
#[[Wakkanai Hokusei Gakuen Junior College]]
#[[Walden University]]
#[[Walla Walla College]]
#[[Warner Pacific College]]
#[[Warren Wilson College]]
#[[Warsaw School of Economics]]
#[[Warsaw University]]
#[[Warsaw University of Technology]]
#[[University of Warwick|Warwick University]]
#[[Waseda University]]
#[[Washburn University]]
#[[Washington and Lee University]]
#[[Washington Bible College and Capital Bible Seminary]]
#[[Washington College]]
#[[Washington State University]]
#[[Washington University in St. Louis]]
#[[Washtenaw Community College]]
#[[Waterford Regional Technical College]]
#[[Waubonsee Community College]]
#[[Wayne State University]]
#[[Waynesburg College]]
#[[Weber State University]]
#[[Webster University]]
#[[Weizmann Institute of Science]]
#[[Wellesley College]]
#[[Wells College]]
#[[Wentworth Institute of Technology]]
#[[Wesley College, Auckland]]
#[[Wesley College, Colombo]] ([[Sri Lanka]])
#[[Wesley College, Delaware]]
#[[Wesley College, Dublin]] ([[Ireland]])
#[[Wesley College, Melbourne]] ([[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] State, [[Australia]])
#[[Wesley College, Winnipeg]] (Province of [[Manitoba]], [[Canada]])
#[[Wesleyan University]]
#[[West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences]]
#[[West Chester University of Pennsylvania]]
#[[West Coast University]]
#[[West Georgia College]]
#[[West Liberty State College]]
#[[West Texas AandM University]]
#[[West University of Timisoara]]
#[[West Valley College]]
#[[West Virginia State College]]
#[[West Virginia University]]
#[[Western Baptist College]]
#[[Western Carolina University]]
#[[Western Connecticut State University]]
#[[Western Illinois University]]
#[[Western Iowa Community College]]
#[[Western Iowa Tech Community College]]
#[[Western Kentucky University]]
#[[Western Maryland College]]
#[[Western Michigan University]]
#[[Western Nebraska Community College]]
#[[Western Nevada Community College]]
#[[Western New England College]]
#[[Western New England College School of Law]]
#[[Western Oregon State College]]
#[[Western State College of Colorado]]
#[[Western Washington University]]
#[[Westfalische Wilhelms Universitat, Munster]]
#[[Westminster College, Missouri]]
#[[Westminster College, Oxford]]
#[[Westminster College, Pennsylvania]]
#[[Westminster College, Salt Lake City]]
#[[Westminster Theological Seminary]]
#[[University of Westminster|Westminster, University of]]
#[[Westmont College]]
#[[Westmoreland County Community College]]
#[[Wharton School]]
#[[Wheaton College, Illinois]]
#[[Wheaton College, Massachusetts]]
#[[Wheeling Jesuit College]]
#[[Whitecliffe College of Art and Design]]
#[[Whitman College]]
#[[Whittier College]]
#[[Whitworth College]]
#[[Wichita State University]]
#[[Widener University]]
#[[Wilfrid Laurier University]]
#[[Wilkes University]]
#[[Willamette University]]
#[[William Howard Taft University]]
#[[William Jewell College]]
#[[William Paterson College]]
#[[William Penn College]]
#[[William Rainey Harper College]]
#[[William Woods University]]
#[[Williams Baptist College]]
#[[Williams College]]
#[[Wilmington College]]
#[[Wingate University]]
#[[Winona State University]]
#[[Winthrop University]]
#[[Wittenberg University]]
#[[Wofford College]]
#[[Wolfson College, Oxford]]
#[[Worcester Polytechnic Institute]]
#[[Worthington Community College]]
#[[Wright State University]]
#[[Wroclaw Technical University]]
#[[Wu-Feng Junior College of Technology and Commerce]]
#[[Wuhan University]] ([[Wuhan]], [[China]])
#[[Wuhan University of Technology]]
:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|W]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities starting with X</title>
<id>6497</id>
<revision>
<id>35578298</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T19:59:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vizcarra</username>
<id>116263</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- '''X''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[Xavier University (Cagayan de Oro)]]
#[[Xiamen University]]
#[[Xi'an Jiao Tong University]]
#[[Xidian University]]
#[[Xiangtan University]]
:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|X]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities starting with Y</title>
<id>6498</id>
<revision>
<id>35578346</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T19:59:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vizcarra</username>
<id>116263</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] - |
discussion about current and upcoming books.
* [http://www.bwbfanclub.com BwB Fan Club] - GRRM fan club.
* {{isfdb series | id=A_Song_of_Ice_and_Fire | title=A Song of Ice and Fire}}
[[Category:A Song of Ice and Fire|Song of Ice and Fire, A]]
[[Category:Series of books|Song of Ice and Fire, A]]
[[Category:Fantasy series|Song of Ice and Fire, A]]
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[[es:Canción de hielo y fuego]]
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<page>
<title>Westeros</title>
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<id>42091760</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:49:08Z</timestamp>
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<username>RandomCritic</username>
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<comment>added [[Category:Fantasy worlds]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Westeros''' is one of the two continents described in [[George R. R. Martin]]'s fantasy series ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]''. It is loosely based on [[Britain in the Middle Ages|medieval Britain]].
==Geography==
===World===
There are three continents. The story takes place mainly on the western continent, called Westeros. The unnamed eastern continent is home to many ancient civilizations, as well as to many clans of nomadic people. Eastern civilizations known to the Westerosi include [[Ghis]] and [[Valyria]]. The free cities of [[Braavos]], [[Lys]], and [[Tyrosh]] are cities of Valyrian origin and situated close to Westeros; the Valyria-descended [[House Targaryen|Targaryens]] united and ruled [[Westeros]] for three centuries.
Of the southern continent all that is known that it is inhabited by dark-skinned people and is roughly equivalent to [[Africa]], "jungly, plague-ridden and largely unexplored". It is called Sothoryos{{ref|s-cont}}.
[[Image:Westeros.png|thumb|right|250px|The continent of Westeros]]
It has been suggested that the inhabited part of Westeros is roughly equivalent in area to [[South America]]. However, there is a large amount of land to the far north that is unmapped, due to the extremely cold temperatures and hostile inhabitants. Westeros is separated from the unnamed eastern continent by the [[Westeros#Narrow Sea|Narrow Sea]].
The north of Westeros is less densely populated than the south. There are five cities on the continent; in order of size, they are Oldtown, King's Landing, Lannisport, Gulltown, and White Harbor.
===Geographical Parts of Westeros===
Westeros is divided into areas, each ruled by a different house, and has different geographical attributes. Each part was one of the [[Seven Kingdoms]], ruled by its own king (except for the Riverlands, who were under the control of the Ironmen at the time of Aegon's conquest).
====The North====
The North is the area north of The Neck, and has been ruled by House Stark from Winterfell, first as Kings of the North and later under Aegon, for thousands of years. Most of its residents still follow the Old Gods, but some, mainly around the area of White Harbor, have taken the faith of the Seven. Its northern border is The Wall, guarded by the Night's Watch. Notable familes include the Boltons, the Karstarks, the Mormonts and the Umbers. In the North, bastards are called Snow.
====The Neck====
The Neck is small triangle of swampland immediately south of the North, and sworn to it. Home to House Reed, it is a natural border for the north, protecting it from invasion.
====The Iron Islands====
The Iron Islands are a group of seven islands in Ironman's Bay, including Pyke, Great Wyk, Old Wyk, and Harlaw, lying off the western coast of the continent The inhabitants of these harsh isles are known as Ironmen in the rest of Westeros, 'The Ironborn' amongst themselves. They are governed by House Greyjoy from Pyke, chosen to rule the Ironmen after Black Harren's line was extinguished during the Conquest. Prior to the arrival of Aegon the Conqueror, the Ironmen ruled over the riverlands and much of the coast of Westeros. The Ironmen are men of the sea, and their naval supremacy was once unmatched. The Seven of the Andals find small favor with the Ironborn, as their allegiance is given to their ancestral Drowned God.
====The Riverlands====
The Riverlands are the fertile areas between the forks of the Trident. They are the domain of House Tully of Riverrun. The Tullys were never kings of the Riverlands, but were heads of the rebel riverlords who left Harren the Black in favour of Aegon the Conqueror. In the Riverlands, bastards are called Rivers.
====The Vale of Arryn====
The Vale is the area surrounded almost completely by the Mountains of the Moon. The Vale is under the rulership of House Arryn, one of the oldest lines of Andal nobility and, before Aegon's conquest Kings of Mountain and Vale. Their seat, the Eyrie, is a castle high in the mountains, small but unassailable.
Notable Houses of this region include Hunter, Corbray, Redfort, and Royce. In the Vale, bastards are called Stone.
====The Westlands====
The Westlands are the lands to the west of the Riverlands and north of the Reach. They are ruled by House Lannister from Casterly Rock, formerly Kings of the Rock. People of this region are often called 'Westermen'. Lannisport, lying hard by Casterly Rock, is the chief town of the region and one of the great ports and cities of Westeros. Bastards in the Westlands are called Hill.
====The Reach====
The Reach is the fertile ground ruled by House Tyrell from Highgarden. The Tyrells were stewards to House Gardener, the Kings of the Reach before Aegon's conquest. After the last Gardener King was killed on the Field of Fire, the Tyrells surrendered Highgarden to Aegon and were rewarded with both the castle and the position of overlords of the Reach. One of the largest cities in Westeros, Oldtown, and home of the Maester's Citadel, is in the Reach. Bastards of the Reach are called Flowers.
====The Stormlands====
The Stormlands are the areas between King's Landing and the Sea of Dorne. In the east they are bordered by Shipbreaker's Bay. Before Aegon's conquest they were ruled by the Storm Kings, and afterwards by House Baratheon, bastard relatives to the Targaryens. Bastards of this region are named Storm.
====Dorne====
Dorne is the land to the south of the continent. High mountains separate Dorne from the nearby Reach, and the Dornish Marches are notorious for the intercine warfare between Dornishmen and the Marcher Lords of the Reach. It is ruled by the Dornish Princes of House Martell from Sunspear. Dorne differs from the other kingdoms in that its population has much Rhoynish blood, resulting from the historical migration led by the warrior-queen Nymeria. Also, Dorne is the only one of the seven kingdoms to contain significant areas of desert terrain. Dorne was the last land to be added to Aegon's kingdom - it was brought into the realm via marriage and not conquest, and the members of the ruling [[House Martell]] still style themselves "Prince" and "Princess", a result of the strong Rhoynish influence. The current Prince of Dorne is Doran Martell. Bastards in Dorne are named Sand.
===Seasons===
Westeros is at the mercy of erratic seasons that may last for many years, but whose duration is unpredictable. At the beginning of [[A Song of Ice and Fire]] the continent has enjoyed a decade-long summer, and many fear that an equally long and harsh winter will follow. It is unclear to which degree the eastern continent is subject to the same conditions. [[George R. R. Martin]] explicitly and more than once stated that the explanation of the Planet's climate will be revealed at the end of the series, so he can not disclose any further details on the issue before that point. He also stated that the explanation will be magical in nature and will not involve any sci-fi elements.{{ref|GRRM-on-seasons}}.
*208 AL - Spring
*209 AL – Great Spring Sickness
*211 AL - Summer
*254 AL – Winter
*281 AL – the Year of the False Spring
*288–298 AL – the long summer
==[[Biology]] and [[Anthropology]]==
===Sentient species===
* [[Humans]]
* [[Giants]] of subhuman intelligence. <!-- physiological description needed here -->
* [[Children of the Forest]] are frequently mentioned, possibly extinct, and have left no political or cultural heritage.
* [[Others]] only appear in the night and when it is cold (at least, according to historical accounts in Night Watch library). The conditions of the north of Westeros appear to suit their needs. Others can resurrect and control the dead; some humans can do this as well. They appear to have superior abilities in combat, but their number and origin is unknown. A remark by Martin caused some additional speculations on their place in the larger cosmology{{ref|oth-al}}.
===Animals===
Other species inhabiting the planet include species very similar to members of the [[Pleistocene]] [[megafauna]] of [[Earth]].
* [[Direwolf]] - larger and stronger than ordinary [[wolves|wolf]] (this is not necessarily true on [[Earth]]), they also exhibits magical abilities. A group of direwolves plays an important role in the story.
* [[Aurochs]] - large ancestor of the bull; allegedly was used as a mount by invincible Clarence Crabb.
* [[Mammoth]] - inhabitant of far north. Occasionally used there as a domestic animal.
===Dragons===
There are also [[Dragons]], who play an important role in the story. Only three are presently known to exist. They breathe extremely hot fire (only the fires beneath the earth and the summer sun are hotter than it, according to pyromancers). Dragons have no gender differentiation.
==History==
The rough timeline here is given in relation t |
>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the dance; see also [[Galliard (font)]].''
The '''galliard''' ('''gaillarde''', in French) was a form of [[Renaissance dance]] and music popular all over Europe in the 16th century. It is mentioned in dance manuals from England, France, Spain, Germany, and Italy, among others.
==Dance==
As a dance, the galliard is improvised, with dancers combining together patterns of steps which occupy one or more measures of music. In one measure, a galliard typically has 5 steps; in French such as basic step is called a ''cinq pas'' and in Italy, "cinque passi". This is sometimes written in English sources as ''sinkapace''.
The galliard is an athletic dance, characterized by leaps, jumps, hops, and other similar figures. The main feature that defines a galliard step is that the last two beats consist of a large jump, landing with one leg ahead of the other. This jump is called a ''cadence'', and the final landing is called the ''posture''. The sources generally describe doing any pattern first starting on the left foot, and then repeating it starting on the right foot.
A galliard pattern may also last twice as long, or more, which would involve 11 steps, or 17 steps, and so forth.
The galliard was a favorite dance of Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] of England, and although it is quite a vigorous dance, in 1589 when the Queen was in her mid fifties, John Stanhope of the Privy Chamber reported, "the Queen is so well as I assure you, six or seven galliards in a morning, besides music and singing, is her ordinary exercise" (Alan Brissenden, ''Shakespeare and the Dance'', pp 4-5).
In addition to being an entire dance, galliard steps are used within many other forms of dance. For example, 16th century Italian dances in [[Fabritio Caroso]]'s and Negri's dance manuals often have a galliard section.
One special step used during a galliard is [[lavolta]], a step which involves an intimate, close hold between a couple, with the woman being lifted into the air and the couple turning about 270 degrees, within one 6 beat measure. La Volta was considered quite a scandalous dance and some dancing masters question whether it ought to be danced at all.
Another special step used during a galliard is the tassle kick (Salti del Fiocco). These steps are found in [[Cesare Negri]]'s manual, and involve a galliard step ending with a 180 degree or 360 degree spin, during which the dancer kicks out to kick a tassle suspended between knee and waist height.
==Musical form==
Musical compositions in the galliard form appear to have been written and performed long after the dance fell out of popular use. In musical compositions, the galliard often filled the role of an ''after dance'' written in 6, which followed and mimicked another piece (sometimes a [[pavane]]) written in 4. The distinctive 6/8 rhythm can still be heard today in songs such as [[God Save the Queen]].
[[Category:European dances]]
[[Category:Historical dance]]
<!-- [[Category:Musical forms]] redundant -->
[[fr:Gaillarde]]
[[ja:ガイヤルド]]
[[pl:Galiarda]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>General surgery</title>
<id>12545</id>
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<id>33937831</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-05T05:25:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Every1blowz</username>
<id>332508</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>added category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Surgeon.jpg|thumb|250px|A surgeon operating]]
'''General surgery''' deals with surgical treatment of abdominal organs, e.g. [[intestine]]s inclusive [[esophagus]], [[stomach]], [[Colon (anatomy)|colon]], [[liver]], [[gallbladder]] and [[bile duct]]s, and furthermore of the [[thyroid]] gland (depending on the availability of head and neck surgery specialists) and [[hernia]].
In the US and in the UK, general surgeons are responsible for [[breast]] care, including the surgical treatment of [[breast cancer]]. In most other countries, breast care falls under [[Obstetrics and Gynecology]] and its sub-specialty of [[Mastology]] (or [[Senology]]).
In the last few years [[minimally invasive surgery]] has become more and more important. Considerable enthusiasm has built around [[robotic surgery]] (or, more accurately, robotic-assisted surgery), despite the scant data currently available failing to show real benefit.
==See also==
*[[Surgery]]
*[[Abdominal surgery]]
{{Medicine}}
[[Category:Surgery]]
[[Category:Surgical specialties]]
{{treatment-stub}}
[[ko:일반외과]]
[[pl:Chirurgia ogólna]]
[[pt:Cirurgia geral]]
[[tr:Genel cerrahi]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gorilla</title>
<id>12546</id>
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<id>42009435</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:50:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bookofjude</username>
<id>94969</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/221.133.205.155|221.133.205.155]] to last version by RexNL</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Gorillas
| image = LowlandGorilla.PD.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = [[Eastern Lowland Gorilla]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primate]]s
| familia = [[Hominidae]]
| genus = '''''Gorilla'''''
| genus_authority = [[Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|I Geoffroy]], [[1853]]
| type_species = ''[[Western Gorilla|Troglodytes gorilla]]''
| type_species_authority = Savage, 1847
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision =
''[[Western Gorilla|Gorilla gorilla]]''<br/>
''[[Eastern Gorilla|Gorilla beringei]]''
}}
The '''gorilla''', the largest of the [[primate]]s, is a ground-dwelling [[herbivore]] that inhabits the [[forest]]s of [[Africa]]. Gorillas are divided into two species and (under debate as of 2006) either four or five subspecies. With 92-98% of its [[DNA]] being identical to that of a human, it is the second closest living relative to [[human]]s after the two [[chimpanzee]] species.
== Physical characteristics ==
Gorillas move about by [[knuckle-walking]]. Adult males range in height from 1.65&nbsp;m to 1.75&nbsp;m (5.4 to 5.7 feet), and in weight from 140&nbsp;kg to 165&nbsp;kg (305 to 360 pounds). Females are about half the weight of males.
[[Gestation]] is 8½ months. There are typically 3&ndash;4 years between births. Infants stay with their mothers for 3&ndash;4 years. Females mature at 10&ndash;12 years (earlier in captivity); males 11&ndash;13 years, sometimes sooner if they assume leadership early. Lifespan is between 30&ndash;50 years. The [[Philadelphia Zoo]]'s [[Massa]] set the longevity record of 54 years at the time of his death.
Gorillas are mainly [[Herbivore|vegetarian]], eating fruits, leaves, and shoots. Insects make up 1-2% of their diet. Due to their diet of plant life, gorillas often have bloated stomachs.
Almost all gorillas share the same [[blood type]], B.
===Strength===
Gorillas are renowned for their strength, but no research has been conducted into how strong they are compared to humans.
==Classification==
Until recently there were considered to be three species of gorilla, The Western Lowland, The Eastern Lowland and Mountain Gorilla. There is now agreement that the gorilla is divided into two species of at least two subspecies each. More recently it has been claimed that a third subspecies exists in one of these groups. [http://www.gorillahub.com/GorillaQuickFacts.htm]
[[image:bristol.zoo.western.lowland.gorilla.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Western Lowland Gorilla]]]]
[[Primatology|Primatologists]] continue to explore the relationships between various gorilla populations. The most recent publication (''Primate Taxonomy'', [[Colin Groves]] [[2001]] ISBN 1-56098-872-X) lists two recognized [[species]], with four [[subspecies]]:
'''Gorilla gorilla''', [[Western Gorilla]]
* ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla'' [[Western Lowland Gorilla]]
* ''Gorilla gorilla diehli'' [[Cross River Gorilla]]
'''Gorilla beringei''', [[Eastern Gorilla]]
* ''Gorilla beringei beringei'', [[Mountain Gorilla]]
* ''Gorilla beringei graueri'', [[Eastern Lowland Gorilla]]
The proposed third subspecies of ''Gorilla beringei'' which has not yet received a full latin designation is the [[Bwindi Gorilla]]
Both species of gorilla are [[endangered species|endangered]], and have been subject to intense [[poaching]] for a long time. Threats to gorilla survival include [[habitat destruction]] and the [[bushmeat]] trade.
== Gorilla culture ==
[[Image:Male silverback Gorilla.JPG|right|thumbnail|250px|A silverback gorilla]]
[[Image:gorilla-kiktajm.png|thumb|left|Gorilla at the Cincinnati Zoo]]
A '''silverback''' is an adult male gorilla, typically more than 12 years of age and named for the distinctive patch of silver hair on his back. A silverback gorilla has large canines that come with maturity. Blackbacks are sexually immature males of up to 11 years of age.
Silverbacks are the strong, dominant troop leaders. Each typically leads a troop of 5 to 30 gorillas and is the center of the troop's attention, making all the decisions, mediating conflicts, determining the movements of the group, leading the others to feeding sites and taking responsibility for the safety and well-being of the troop.
Males will slowly begin to leave their original troop when they are about 11 years old, travelling alone or with a group of other males for 2&ndash;5 years before being able to attract females to form a new group and start breeding. While infant gorillas normally stay with their mother for 3&ndash;4 years, silverbacks wil |
anada."]'' ([[CNet]], Spring 2004).
*[http://www.cpcc.ca/english/index.htm Canadian Private Copying Collective] Since 1998, private copying of music for personal use is entirely legal in Canada. A levy was established on blank media sales in order to compensate artists for lost revenue due to file-sharing, and the CPCC was founded to oversee the levy process. The levy was renewed in December 2004.
*[http://www.cb-cda.gc.ca/news/c20032004fs-e.html Copyright Board of Canada] Government copyright policy.
*[http://www.lexinformatica.org/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=33&mode=thread&order=0&thold=0 Copyfight: A Tale of Two Cities] Article contrasting Ottawa and Washington, D.C.'s assessment of copyright parameters and the issue of criminal sanctions.
*[http://www.info-mech.com/drm_in_canada.html Digital Rights Management in Canada] An advocacy website offering an introduction to digital rights management and links to licensed file sharers.
*[http://www.digital-copyright.ca/ Digital Copyright Canada] A forum created to host public dialogue concerning digital copyright and related issues. Includes a news aggregate.
*[http://www.michaelgeist.ca/resc/html_bkup/nov292004.html Numbers Don't Crunch Against Downloading] Michael Geist, a professor at the University of Ottawa, discusses the financial impact of downloading on the recording industry. This column appeared in the Toronto Star, November 29th 2004.
*[http://p2pnet.net/story/3122 p2pnet.net] An op-ed urging solidarity between musicians and Canadian consumers.
==References==
* Stephanos Androutsellis-Theotokis and Diomidis Spinellis. [http://www.spinellis.gr/pubs/jrnl/2004-ACMCS-p2p/html/AS04.html A survey of peer-to-peer content distribution technologies]. ACM Computing Surveys, 36(4):335–371, December 2004. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1041680.1041681 doi:10.1145/1041680.1041681].
* Stefan Saroiu, P. Krishna Gummadi, and Steven D. Gribble. [http://www.cs.ucsb.edu/~almeroth/classes/F02.276/papers/p2p-measure.pdf A Measurement Study of Peer-to-Peer File Sharing Systems]. Technical Report # UW-CSE-01-06-02. Department of Computer Science & Engineering. University of Washington. Seattle, WA, USA.
* Ralf Steinmetz, Klaus Wehrle (Eds). [http://www.peer-to-peer.info/ Peer-to-Peer Systems and Applications]. ISBN: 3-540-29192-X, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Volume 3485, Sep 2005
*Richard Menta [http://www.mp3newswire.net/stories/2002/teentrade.html Research: File Traders Buy Records] July 22, 2002 [[MP3 Newswire]]
* [[Shuman Ghosemajumder|Ghosemajumder, Shuman]]. ''[http://shumans.com/p2p-business-models.pdf Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models]''. [[MIT Sloan School of Management]], 2002.
* Silverthorne, Sean. ''[http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item.jhtml?id=4206&t=innovation Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers?]''. [[Harvard Business School|Harvard Business School Working Knowledge]], 2004.
[[Category:File sharing|*]]
[[Category:IRC]]
[[Category:Instant messaging]]
[[da:Fildeling]]
[[de:File Sharing]]
[[es:Peer-to-peer]]
[[it:File sharing]]
[[he:שיתוף קבצים]]
[[pt:Compartilhamento de arquivos]]
[[ru:Совместное использование файлов]]
[[sv:Fildelning]]
[[zh:檔案分享]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Fontainebleau</title>
<id>10923</id>
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<id>39390665</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T21:28:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hardouin</username>
<id>70570</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Added history</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{French commune|nomcommune=Fontainebleau|
région=[[Île-de-France (région)|Île-de-France]] |
département=[[Seine-et-Marne]]<br/>(''[[sous-préfecture]]'')|
arrondissement=Fontainebleau|
canton=[[Canton of Fontainebleau|Fontainebleau]]<br>(chief town) |
insee= 77186|cp= 77300|maire= Frédéric Valletoux|mandat= 2005-2007|
intercomm=[[Communauté de communes de l'agglomération Fontainebleau-Avon|Communauté de communes<br>de l'agglomération<br>Fontainebleau-Avon]] |
longitude= 48° 24|latitude= 2° 42|alt moy= 69 m|alt mini= |alt maxi= |
hectares= 17,205|km²= 172.05|sans= 15,942|date-sans=1999|
dens= 93|date-dens=1999}}
{{FRdot|Fontainebleau}}
'''Fontainebleau''' is a [[commune in France|commune]] in the [[aire urbaine|metropolitan area]] of [[Paris]], [[France]]. It is located 55.5 km. (34.5 miles) south-southeast from the [[Kilometre Zero|center of Paris]] (as the crow flies). Fontainebleau is a ''[[sous-préfecture]]'' of the [[Seine-et-Marne]] ''[[département in France|département]]'', being the seat of the [[Arrondissement of Fontainebleau]].
Fontainebleau, together with the neighboring commune of [[Avon, Seine-et-Marne|Avon]] and three other smaller communes, form an urban area of 36,713 inhabitants (1999 census). This urban area is a satellite city of Paris.
Fontainebleau is renowned for its large and scenic [[Forest of Fontainebleau]], a favorite weekend getaway for Parisians, as well as for the historical [[Château de Fontainebleau]] of the [[kings of France]], which attracts crowds of tourists.
==History==
During the [[French Revolution]], Fontainebleau was temporarily renamed Fontaine-la-Montagne, meaning "Fountain by the Mountain" (the mountain referred to is the series of rocky formations located in the Forest of Fontainebleau).
==Tourism==
Fontainebleau is a popular tourist destination : 300,000 visit the palace and about 11 million the forest.
===Fontainebleau forest===
The forest of Fontainebleau surrounds the city and dozens of villages. It is protected by France's ''Office National des Forêts'' and is recognised as a national park that is managed partly to conserve its wild plants and trees (such as the Service Tree of Fontainebleau) and its valuable population of birds, mammals and butterflies. It is a former royal hunting park often visited by [[walking|walkers]] and [[horse riding|horse riders]]. The forest is also well regarded for [[bouldering]], and is particularly popular amongst [[climbing|climbers]].
===Royal Château de Fontainebleau===
The Royal [[Château de Fontainebleau]] is a large castle where the Renaissance was introduced to France from [[1528]] onwards.
===Other notable places===
* The European (and historical) campus of [[INSEAD]] [[business school]], and research laboratories from the ''[[École nationale supérieure des mines de Paris|École des Mines]] de Paris'' are located in Fontainebleau.
* The graves of [[G. I. Gurdjieff]] and [[Katherine Mansfield]] can be found in the cemetery at Avon.
==Transportation==
Fontainebleau is served by two stations on the [[Transilien Paris &ndash; Lyon]] suburban rail line: [[Fontainebleau &ndash; Avon (SNCF)|Fontainebleau &ndash; Avon]] and [[Thomery (SNCF)|Thomery]]. Fontainebleau &ndash; Avon station, the closest station to the town center of Fontainebleau, is located at the border between the commune of Fontainebleau and the commune of [[Avon, Seine-et-Marne|Avon]], on the Avon side of the border.
==See also==
*[[Château de Fontainebleau]]
*[[Edict of Fontainebleau]] ([[October]] [[1685]])
*[[List of climbing areas]]
*[[Milly-la-Forêt]]
==External links==
{{commons|category:Fontainebleau|Fontainebleau}}
*[http://www.fontainebleau.fr/ Fontainebleau official website]
*[http://www.chateaudefontainebleau.net/English/frame-eng.htm Château de Fontainebleau]
*[http://www.offrench.net/photos/gallery-8_location-56.php Fontainebleau forest photos]
{{Paris Metropolitan Area}}
[[Category:Communes of Seine-et-Marne]]
[[Category:Climbing areas]]
{{IledeFrance-geo-stub}}
[[cs:Fontainebleau]]
[[de:Fontainebleau]]
[[fr:Fontainebleau]]
[[it:Fontainebleau]]
[[nl:Fontainebleau]]
[[ja:フォンテヌブロー]]
[[no:Fontainebleau]]
[[pl:Fontainebleau]]
[[pt:Fontainebleau]]
[[fi:Fontainebleau]]
[[sv:Fontainebleau]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fermats little theorom</title>
<id>10924</id>
<revision>
<id>15908714</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T23:05:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Camembert</username>
<id>3113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fermat's little theorem]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fermats little theorem</title>
<id>10926</id>
<revision>
<id>15908716</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-25T16:51:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Fermat's little theorem]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fermat's little theorem]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fossil fuels</title>
<id>10927</id>
<revision>
<id>15908717</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-07T20:56:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Damian Yerrick</username>
<id>1</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>a real redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fossil fuel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fighter aircraft</title>
<id>10929</id>
<revision>
<id>42162693</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:57:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mmx1</username>
<id>263229</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Fourth Generation 1970-1990 */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{confusing}}
[[image:fighter.formation.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|375px|An [[A-10 Thunderbolt II]], [[F-86 Sabre]], [[P-38 Lightning]] and [[P-51 Mustang]] fly in formation during an air show at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia. The formation displays four generations of Air Force aircraft - 3 of them fighters]]
A '''fighter aircraft''' is a [[military aircraft]] designed primarily for attacking other [[aircraft]], as opposed to a [[bomber]], which is designed to attack ground target |
[[Isole Gemini]], although there had been small settlements of the islands of [[San Pietro di Castello]] (for which the sestiere is named) and [[Isola d'Olivolo]] since at least the [[eighth century]].
The district became divided between the [[Arsenale]], then the largest naval complex in Europe, and the [[monastery|monasteries]] in the north of the quarter. It was later altered by [[Napoleon]], who planned what are now the [[Bienniale Gardens]], and still more recently the island of [[Sant'Elena]] has been created, and land drained at other extremities of the quarter.
Other attractions in Castello include the [[Scuola di San Marco]], the [[Church of Santi Giovanni e Paolo]], the [[Scuola San Giorgio degli Schiavoni]], the [[Church of San Girogi dei Greci]], the [[Campo Santa Maria Formosa]], the [[Church of La Pieta]] and the [[Church of San Zaccaria]].
[[Category:Venice]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Common preference</title>
<id>7288</id>
<revision>
<id>34383782</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-08T17:36:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Georgia guy</username>
<id>161456</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Add Wiktionary template; please do not revert because this edit's function is to update an ancient page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Common preference''' is a term used to describe an ''everyone wins'' situation in a number of places:
{{wiktionary}}
*[[Non-zero-sum]]
*[[Taking Children Seriously]]
*[[Win-win situation]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CuteFTP</title>
<id>7291</id>
<revision>
<id>37134973</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-28T23:00:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Delpino</username>
<id>33403</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software |
| name = CuteFTP
| caption = CuteFTP 7
| developer = GlobalSCAPE
| latest_release_version = 7.1 <!-- If you update this, don't forget to update [[Comparison of FTP clients]]-->
| latest_release_date = [[June 8]], [[2005]]
| operating_system = [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]
| genre = [[FTP client]]
| license = Proprietary
| website = [http://www.globalscape.com/ globalscape.com]
}}
'''CuteFTP''' is a file transfer application (an [[FTP client]]) developed by [[GlobalSCAPE]] sporting a simple [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]-based [[graphical user interface|interface]]. Since 1999, CuteFTP Pro (now called CuteFTP Professional) has also been available, which supports more security-based features (such as [[SSH]]).
== External links ==
* [http://www.globalscape.com/products/ftp_clients.asp CuteFTP Website]
* [http://www.globalscape.com/ GlobalSCAPE Website]
{{compu-soft-stub}}
[[Category:FTP clients]]
[[zh:CuteFTP]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carsons rule</title>
<id>7292</id>
<revision>
<id>15905367</id>
<timestamp>2003-10-30T13:56:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>another one...</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Carson bandwidth rule]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Commodore 64</title>
<id>7293</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41911500</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:46:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>200.114.133.23</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Improvement in style</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
:''For the hip hop group, see [[Commodore 64 (band)]].''
{{Infobox Computer
|name = Commodore 64
|developer = [[Commodore International|Commodore Business Machines (CBM)]]
|type = [[Home computer]]
|photo = [[Image:Commodore64.jpg|250px]]
|caption = Commodore 64 (circa 1982)
|first_release_date = January, 1983
|processor = 1.023 [[Hertz|MHz]] [[MOS Technology 6510]] [[Central processing unit|processor]]
|website = [http://www.c64.org]
}}
The '''Commodore 64''' ('''C64''', '''CBM 64'''/'''CBM64''', '''C= 64'''), also sometimes nicknamed "the breadbin" due to its shape, is a [[home computer]] with 64&nbsp;[[kilobyte]]s of [[RAM]] that was popular in the 1980s. Released by [[Commodore International|Commodore Business Machines (CBM)]] to the public in August 1982 at a price of [[United States dollar|US$]] 595, it offered sound and graphics performance that compared favorably with the standard at that time. During the Commodore 64's lifetime (between 1982 and 1993), total sales exceeded 22 million units. According to the Guinness Book of World Records, the Commodore 64 still remains the best selling computer model of all time.
Unlike computers that were distributed only through authorized dealers, Commodore also targeted department stores and toy stores. The unit could be plugged directly into a television set and play games, giving it much of the appeal of dedicated [[video game console]]s like the [[Atari 2600]]. The pricing of the C64 is considered to be a major catalyst in the [[video game crash of 1983]].
Approximately 10,000 [[software]] titles were made for the Commodore 64—this includes development tools, office applications, and games. The machine is also credited with popularizing the computer [[demoscene|demo scene]]. Though the original hardware is now used only by a few hobbyists, [[emulator]]s allow anyone with a modern computer to run these programs on their desktop (with varying degrees of success and functionality).
==History==
===Origins===
[[Image:C64 artistic closeup.jpg|left|thumb|180px|Close-up of C64]]
In January 1981, [[MOS Technology|MOS Technology, Inc.]], Commodore's [[Integrated circuit|integrated-circuit]] design subsidiary, initiated a project to design the graphic and audio chips for a next generation [[video game console]]. Design work for the chips was completed in November 1981, but the console project was soon cancelled after a meeting with Commodore president [[Jack Tramiel]]. Tramiel wanted the chips to form the base for a sequel to the very popular [[VIC-20]]. He proposed that the new system ship with with 64 [[Kilobyte|kB]] of [[RAM]], which was double the quantity that most [[home computer]]s contained in late 1981. Although 64 kB of RAM cost over US$ 100 at the time, Tramiel knew that [[DRAM]] prices were falling, and would drop to an acceptable level before full production was reached.
The design team was given less than two months to develop a working prototype — [[codename]]d the '''VIC-30''' — so that it could be finished in time for the winter [[Consumer Electronics Show]] in January 1982. The C64 made an impressive debut, as recalled by Production Engineer David A. Ziembicki: "All we saw at our booth were Atari people with their mouths dropping open, saying, 'How can you do that for $595?'" The answer, as it turned out, was [[vertical integration]]; thanks to Commodore's ownership of [[MOS Technology]]'s [[semiconductor fabrication]] facilities, each C64 had an estimated production cost of only $135.
===Winning the market war===
The C64 faced a wide range of competing [[home computer]]s at its introduction in August 1982. With an impressive price point coupled with the 64's advanced hardware, it quickly out-classed many of its competitors. In the [[United States]] the greatest competitors to the C64 were the [[Atari 8-bit|Atari 800]] and [[Apple II]]. The [[Atari]] 800 was very similar in hardware terms, but it was very expensive to build, which soon forced Atari to move their production to the Far East. It also forced Atari to redesign their machine to be more cost effective, resulting in the 600XL/800XL line. The aging Apple II was no match for the C64's graphics and sound abilities, but was very expandable with its internal expansion slots, a feature lacking in the 64.
In the [[United Kingdom]], the primary competitors to the C64 were the British-built [[Sinclair Research Ltd|Sinclair]] [[ZX Spectrum]] and the [[Amstrad]] [[Amstrad CPC|CPC]]. Released a few months ahead of the C64, and selling for almost half the price, the Spectrum quickly became the market leader. The C64 would rival the Spectrum in popularity in the latter half of the 1980s, eventually outliving the Spectrum (which was discontinued in 1992).
One key to the C64's success was Commodore's aggressive marketing tactics. Commodore sold the C64 not only through its network of authorized dealers, but also placed it on the shelves of department stores, discount stores, and toy stores. Since it had the ability to output [[composite video]], the C64 did not require a specialized monitor, but could be plugged into a television set. This allowed it (like its predecessor, the VIC-20) to compete directly against video game consoles such as the [[Atari 2600]].
Aggressive pricing of the C64 is considered to be a major catalyst in the [[video game crash of 1983]]. In 1983, Commodore offered a $100 [[Rebate (marketing)|rebate]] in the United States on the purchase of a C64 upon receipt of any video game console or computer. To take advantage of the $100 rebate, some mail-order dealers and retailers offered a [[Timex Sinclair 1000]] for as little as $10 with purchase of a C64 so the consumer could send the computer to Commodore, collect the rebate, and pocket the difference.{{ref|doorstop}} [[Timex Corporation]] departed the marketplace within a year. The success of the VIC-20 and C64 also contributed significantly to the exit of [[Texas Instruments]]' [[Texas Instruments TI-99/4A|TI-99/4A]] and other competitors from the field.
===C64 successors and the 64C===
[[Image:Sx64.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Commodore SX-64 (1984)]]
In 1984 Commodore released the [[Commodore SX-64|SX-64]], a portable version of the C64. The SX-64 has the distinction of being the first ''full-colo |
3297</id>
<revision>
<id>41822634</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:44:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Akamad</username>
<id>292168</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41782101 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = Hudson's Bay Company |
company_logo = [[Image:Hudson's_Bay_Company_(coat_of_arms).png]]|
company_type = [[Public company|Public]] |
company_slogan = We are Canada's merchants |
foundation = [[London, England]] [[May 2]], [[1670]]|
location = [[Toronto, Ontario]]|
key_people = [[L. Yves Fortier]], Governor<br />[[George Heller]], President & CEO|
industry = [[Retailer|Retail (Department & Discount)]]|
num_employees = 70,000|
products = [[The Bay|The Bay]]<br />[[Zellers|Zellers]]<br />[[Home Outfitters]]<br />[[Designer Depot]]|
revenue = $7.0 billion [[Canadian dollar|CDN]] ([[image:red down.png]]$59.7 million [[Fiscal year|FY]] [[2005]])|
homepage = [http://www.hbc.com/hbc/ www.hbc.com/hbc]
}}
{|align=right
|-
|}
The '''Hudson's Bay Company''' ('''HBC'''. {{TSX|HBC}}) is the oldest [[corporation]] in [[Canada]] (and the second oldest in [[North America]]) and is one of the oldest in the world still in existence. Its initials have often been satirically interpreted as "Here Before Christ". From its longtime headquarters at [[York Factory]] on [[Hudson Bay]] it controlled the [[fur trade]] throughout much of [[United Kingdom|British]]-controlled [[North America]] for several centuries, undertaking early exploration and functioning as the ''de facto'' government in many areas of the continent prior to the arrival of large-scale settlement. Its traders and trappers forged early relationships with many groups of [[First Nations]] and its network of trading posts formed the nucleus for later official authority in many areas of western Canada and the [[United States]]. In the late 19th century, its vast territory became the largest component in the newly formed [[Dominion]] of Canada, in which the company was the largest private landowner. With the decline of the fur trade, the company evolved into mercantile business selling vital goods to settlers in the Canadian West. Today the company is best known for its [[department store]]s throughout Canada.
On January 26, 2006, HBC's board unanimously agreed to a bid of $15.25 CDN/share from [[Jerry Zucker (businessman)|Jerry Zucker]], whose original bid was $14.75 CDN/share, ending a prolonged fight between HBC and Zucker, a [[South Carolina]] billionaire financer and longtime HBC minority shareholder.
==History==
===Early years===
In the [[17th century]] the [[France|French]] had a [[monopoly]] on the Canadian [[fur trade]]. However, two French traders, [[Pierre-Esprit Radisson]] and [[Médard des Groseilliers]], learned from the [[Cree]] that the best fur country was north and west of [[Lake Superior]] and that there was a "frozen sea" still further north; correctly guessing that this was Hudson Bay, they sought French backing for a plan to set up a trading post on the Bay, thus reducing the cost of moving furs overland. However, the recently appointed French Secretary of State, [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert]], was trying to promote farming in the colony, and was opposed to exploration and trapping.
Radisson and des Groseilliers then approached a group of businessmen in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] to help finance their explorations. The Bostonians agreed on the plan's merits, and brought the two to England to elicit financing. In [[1668]], the English commissioned two ships, the ''[[Nonsuch]]'' and the ''Eaglet'' to explore possible trade into Hudson Bay. The ''Nonsuch'' was commanded by Captain [[Zachariah Gillam]] and accompanied by Groseilliers, while the ''Eaglet'' was commanded by Captain [[William Stannard]] and accompanied by Radisson. On June 5, 1668, both ships left port at [[Deptford]], [[England]], but the Eaglet was forced to turn back off the coast of [[Ireland]]. After a successful trading expedition over the winter of [[1668]]&ndash;[[1669]], the ''Nonsuch'' returned to England.
[[Image:Wpdms ruperts land.jpg|right|frame|Rupert's Land, once controlled by the Hudson's Bay Company]]
'''The Governor and Company of Adventurers of England trading into Hudson's Bay''' was incorporated on [[May 2]], [[1670]], with a [[Royal Charter]] from King [[Charles II of England|Charles II]]. The charter granted the company a monopoly over the [[Indian Trade]], especially the [[fur]] trade, in the region watered by all rivers and streams flowing into Hudson Bay in northern Canada, an area known as [[Rupert's Land]] after the first director of the Company, [[Prince Rupert of the Rhine]]. This region constitutes 3.9 million km² (1.5 million square miles) in the [[watershed]] of Hudson Bay, comprising over one-third the area of modern-day Canada and stretching into the north central [[United States]], but the specific boundaries were unknown at the time.
The company founded its first headquarters at Fort Nelson at the mouth of the [[Nelson River]] in present-day northeastern [[Manitoba]]. The location afforded convenient access to the fort from the vast interior waterway systems of the [[Saskatchewan River|Saskatchewan]] and [[Red River of the North|Red]] rivers. Other posts were quickly established around the southern edge of Hudson Bay in Manitoba and present-day [[Ontario]] and [[Quebec]]. Called "factories" (because the "factor", i.e. a person acting as a [[mercantile agent]], did business from there), these posts operated in the manner of the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] fur trading operations in [[New Netherland]].
During the spring and summer First Nations traders, who did the vast majority of the actual trapping, travelled by [[canoe]] and were received at the fort to sell their pelts. In exchange they typically received metal tools and hunting gear, often imported by the company from [[Germany]], the centre of inexpensive manufacturing in that era. Alcohol became another payment mechanism. Native addiction to alcohol became another inducement to fur trading, with their lack of European cultural history of being innured to it and which may be related, as some claim, to a lack of a form of biological resistance to extreme drunkneness that could be exploited.
The early coastal factory model contrasted with the system of the French, who established an extensive system of inland posts and sent traders to live among the tribes of the region. The conservative nature of the English company's more centralized factory system frustrated the company's founders, Radisson and Des Groseilliers, who urged bolder explorations of the continental interior. In [[1674]] they switched their allegiance back to France and in [[1682]] they founded [[La Compagnie du Nord]] to directly compete with the company. After war broke out in Europe between France and England in the [[1680s]], the two nations regularly sent expeditions to raid and capture each other's fur trading posts. In March [[1686]], the French sent a raiding party under [[Chevalier des Troyes]] over 1300 km (800 miles) to capture the company's posts along [[James Bay]]. The French appointed [[Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville]], who had shown extreme heroism during the raids, as commander of the company's captured posts. In [[1697]], d'Iberville commanded a French naval raid on the company's headquarters at York Factory. On the way to the fort, he defeated three ships of the Royal Navy in the [[Battle of the Bay (1697)|Battle of the Bay]], the largest naval battle in the history of the North American Arctic. D'Iberville's depleted French force captured York Factory by a ruse in which laid siege to fort while pretending to be a much larger army. York Factory changed hands several times in the next decade. It was finally ceded permanently to what was by then the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] (following the union of Scotland and England in 1707) in the [[1713]] [[Treaty of Utrecht (1713)|Treaty of Utrecht]]. After the treaty, the company rebuilt York Factory as a brick [[star fort]] at the mouth of the nearby [[Hayes River]], its present location.
In its trade with native peoples, the company adopted the widespread use of issuing [[wool]] blankets, called [[Hudson's Bay point blanket]]s, in exchange for the beaver pelts trapped by native hunters.
===19th century===
[[Image:Hbc post Lake Winnipeg.jpg|thumb|200px|left|A Hudson's Bay Company post on [[Lake Winnipeg]], circa 1884]]
In [[1821]], the [[North West Company]] of [[Montreal|Montréal]] and the Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a combined territory that was extended by a licence to the [[North-Western Territory]], which reached to the [[Arctic Ocean]] on the north and the [[Pacific Ocean]] on the west. Although the HBC maintained a monopoly on the fur trade during the early-mid [[19th century]], there was competition from James Sinclair and [[Andrew McDermot]] (Dermott), independent traders in the [[Red River Colony]].
One major event that lead to the demise of the HBC's monopoly in Rupert's Land was the [[Guillaume Sayer]] Trial in [[1849]]. Sayer, a [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] trapper and trader, was accused of the illegal trading of furs and brought to trial by the Court of Assiniboia, which was heavily stacked with either HBC officials or HBC supporters. During the trial, a crowd of armed Métis men led by [[Louis Riel Sr.]] gathered outside the courtroom, ready to support their Métis brother peacefully or by force if necessary. Although found guilty of illegal trade by Judge Adam Thom, no fine or punishment was levied - many reports state it was due to the intimidating crowd gathered outside the courthouse. With the cry, "Le commerce est libre! Le commerce est lib |
l becomes so great that dissolved air within the water expands to fill the plant cell - either vessel elements or [[tracheid|tracheids]]. Plants are generally able to repair cavitated xylem, for example with root pressure, but for others such as vines, cavitation often leads to mortality. In some trees, the sound of the cavitation is clearly audible.
==See also==
*The phenomenon known as [[supercavitation]] is used to allow objects to travel under water at high speed.
*[[Supercavitating propeller]]
*[[Sonoluminescence]]
*[[Cavitation number]]
==External links==
* [http://caltechbook.library.caltech.edu/1/04/bubble.htm Cavitation and Bubble Dynamics by Christopher E. Brennen]
* [http://caltechbook.library.caltech.edu/51/01/multiph.htm Fundamentals of Multiphase Flow by Christopher E. Brennen]
* [http://www.cyberdenone.com/digital_diary/digital_diary_12.html Supercavitation]
* [http://www.deepangel.com/html/the_science.html Cavitation vs. Supercavitation]
==References==
For cavitation in plants, see '''Plant Physiology''', by Taiz and Zeiger.
[[Category:Fluid dynamics]]
[[Category:Plants]]
[[Category:Pumps]]
[[cs:Kavitace]]
[[de:Kavitation]]
[[eo:Kavitacio]]
[[es:Cavitación]]
[[fi:Kavitaatio]]
[[fr:Cavitation]]
[[gl:Cavitación]]
[[it:Cavitazione]]
[[ja:キャビテーション]]
[[nl:Cavitatie]]
[[no:kavitasjon]]
[[pl:Kawitacja]]
[[pt:Cavitação]]
[[ru:Кавитация]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cyprinodontiformes</title>
<id>7808</id>
<revision>
<id>37289323</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T01:08:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Cyprinodontiformes
| image = Mummichog.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Mummichog]]<br />(''Fundulus heteroclitus heteroclitus'')
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Actinopterygii]]
| ordo = '''Cyprinodontiformes'''
| ordo_authority = [[Leo S. Berg|Berg]], 1940
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision =
[[Anablepidae]] (four-eyed fish)<br />
[[Aplocheilidae]]<br />
[[Cyprinodontidae]] (pupfish)<br />
[[Fundulidae]]<br />
[[Goodeidae]]<br />
[[Poeciliidae]] (live-bearers)<br />
[[Profundulidae]]<br />
[[Rivulidae]]<br />
[[Valenciidae]]<br />
}}
The '''Cyprinodontiformes''' is an order of [[Actinopterygii|ray-finned fish]], also called the '''Microcyprini''', and comprising mostly small, fresh-water fish. They are closely related to the [[Atheriniformes]] and are occasionally included with them. Many popular aquarium fish, such as [[killifish]] and [[live-bearing aquarium fish|live-bearers]], belong here.
Members of this order are notable for inhabiting harsh environments, such as saline or very warm waters, water of poor quality, or isolated situations where no other types of fish occur. They are typically omnivores, and often live near the surface, where they the oxygen-rich water compensates for environmental disadvantages.
[[Category:Cyprinodontiformes| ]]
[[da:Tandkarpe]]
[[de:Zahnkärpflinge]]
[[eo:Dentokarpedoj]]
[[fr:Cyprinodontiformes]]
[[he:אידרונאים]]
[[lt:Dančiakarpinės žuvys]]
[[ja:カダヤシ目]]
[[pl:Karpieńcokształtne]]
[[pt:Cyprinodontiformes]]
[[ru:Карпозубообразные]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Church of the Holy Sepulchre</title>
<id>7810</id>
<revision>
<id>41886981</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:43:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Csernica</username>
<id>10643</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Status quo */ well, looks like it moved a few inches.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Holy_sepulchre_exterior.jpg|thumb|280px|Main Entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]The '''Church of the Holy Sepulchre''', called the '''Church of the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]]''' (''Anastasis'' in [[Greek language|Greek]] and ''Surp Harutyun'' in [[Armenian language|Armenian]]) by [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]]s, is a [[Christianity|Christian]] [[church]] now within the walled [[Old City]] of [[Jerusalem]]. The ground on which the church rests is venerated by most Christians as [[Golgotha]], the [[Calvary|Hill of Calvary]], where the [[New Testament]] describes that [[Jesus]] was [[crucifixion|crucified]]. It also is said to contain the place where Jesus was reportedly buried (the [[sepulchre]]). The church has been an important [[pilgrimage]] destination since the [[4th century]]. Today it serves as the headquarters of the [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem]] and the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[Archpriest]] of the [[Basilica]] of the Holy Sepulchre.
==History==
[[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]] describes in his ''Life of Constantine'' [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-01/Npnf2-01-29.htm#P7646_3165242] how the site of the Holy Sepulchre, originally a site of veneration for the Christian community in Jerusalem, had been covered with earth and a temple of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] had been built on top. Although Eusebius does not say as much, this would probably have been done as part of [[Hadrian]]'s reconstruction of Jerusalem as [[Aelia Capitolina]] in [[135]], following the destruction of the [[Jewish Revolt]] of [[70]] and [[Bar Kokhba's revolt]] of [[132]]&ndash;[[135]]. Following his conversion to Christianity, Emperor [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine]] ordered in about [[325]]/[[326]] that the site be uncovered, and instructed Saint [[Macarius of Jerusalem|Macarius]], Bishop of Jerusalem, to build a church on the site. [[Socrates Scholasticus]] (born c. [[380]]), in his ''Ecclesiastical History,'' gives a full description of the discovery [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-02/Npnf2-02-06.htm#P394_149362] (that was repeated later by [[Sozomen]] and by [[Theodoret]]) that emphasizes the role played in the excavations and construction by Constantine's mother [[Helena, mother of Constantine the Great|Helena]], to whom is also credited the rediscovery of the [[True Cross]].
[[Image:Tomb of christ sepulchre.jpg|thumb|280px|The Edicule of the Holy Sepulchre (The Tomb of Christ) with the dome of the rotunda visible above.]]
Constantine's church was built around the excavated hill of the Crucifixion, and was actually three connected churches built over the three different holy sites, including a great [[basilica]] (the ''Martyrium'' visited by the nun [[Egeria]] in the 380s), an enclosed [[colonnade]]d [[atrium (architecture)|atrium]] (the ''Triportico'') built around the traditional Rock of Calvary, and a [[rotunda (architecture)|rotunda]], called the ''Anastasis'' ("Resurrection"), which contained the remains of the cave that Helena and Macarius had identified with the burial site of Jesus. The surrounding rock was cut away, and the Tomb was encased in a structure called the ''Edicule'' ([[Latin]] ''aediculum'', small building) or the ''Kouvoulkion'' ([[Greek language|Greek]], shrine) in the center of the rotunda. The [[dome]] of the rotunda was completed by the end of the 4th century.
This building was damaged by fire in [[614]] when the [[Sassanid dynasty|Persians]] under [[Khosrau II of Persia|Khosrau II]] invaded Jerusalem and captured the Cross. In [[630]], Emperor [[Heraclius]] marched triumphantly into Jerusalem and restored the True Cross to the rebuilt Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Under the [[Jerusalem#Arab Caliphates.2C Christian Crusaders.2C and early Ottoman rule .28638-1800s.29|Muslims]] it remained a Christian church. The early Muslim rulers protected the city's Christian sites, prohibiting their destruction and their use as living quarters, but after a riot in [[966]], when the doors and roof were burnt, the original building was completely destroyed on [[October 18]], [[1009]] by the "mad" [[Fatimid]] [[caliph]] [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]], who hacked out the Church's foundations down to bedrock. The Edicule and the east and west walls and the roof of the cut-rock tomb it encased were destroyed or damaged (contemporary accounts vary), but the north and south walls were likely protected by rubble from further damage.
However, a series of small chapels was erected on the site by [[Constantine IX]] Monomachos in [[1048]] under stringent conditions imposed by the caliphate. The rebuilt sites were taken by the [[knight]]s of the [[First Crusade]] on [[July 15]], [[1099]]. The First Crusade was envisioned as an armed pilgrimage, and no crusader could consider his journey complete unless he had prayed as a pilgrim at the Holy Sepulchre. Crusader chief [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], who became the first [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|crusader monarch of Jerusalem]], decided not to use the title "king" during his lifetime, and declared himself ''Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri'', "Protector (or Defender) of the Holy Sepulchre." The chronicler [[William of Tyre]] reports on the reconstruction in the mid-12th century, when the crusaders began to renovate the church in a [[Romanesque]] style and added a bell tower. These renovations unified the holy sites and were completed during the reign of [[Melisende of Jerusalem|Queen Melisende]] in [[1149]]. The church became the seat of the first Latin Patriarchs, and was also the site of the kingdom's [[scriptorium]]. The church was lost to [[Saladin]], along with the rest of the city, in [[1187]], although the treaty established after the [[Third Crusade]] allowed for Christian pilgrims to visit the site. [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Frederick II]] regained the city and the church by treaty in the 13th century, while he himself was under a ban of excommunication, leading to the curious result of the holiest church in Christianity being laid under [ |
the lagoons there protect the newborn from [[shark]]s.
After several weeks, the return trip starts. This round trip of 16,000&ndash;22,000&nbsp;km, at an average speed of 10&nbsp;km/h, is believed to be the longest yearly migration of any [[mammal]]. A [[whale watching]] industry has sprung up along the coast.
==Feeding==
The whale feeds mainly on [[benthos|benthic]] [[crustacean]]s which it eats by turning on its side (usually the right) and scooping up the sediments (usually on the right) from the sea floor. It is classified as a [[baleen whale]] and has a ''baleen'', or whalebone, which acts like a sieve to capture [[amphipod]]s taken in along with sand, water and other material. Mostly, the animal feeds in the northern waters during the summer; opportunistically feeds during its migration trip, and mainly lives off its extensive fat reserves.
==Physical description==
[[Image:Greywhale845.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A Gray Whale viewed from above]]
Gray Whales are covered by characteristic gray-white patterns, scars left by [[parasite]]s which drop off in the cold feeding grounds.
==Conservation and human interaction==
The only predators of adult Gray Whales are [[human]]s and [[orca]]s. After the California Gray Whales' breeding grounds were discovered in [[1857]], the animals were hunted to near extinction there. After harvesting became inefficient because of dwindling numbers, the population recovered slowly, but with the advent of factory ships in the [[20th century]], the numbers declined again. Gray Whales have been granted protection from commercial hunting by the [[International Whaling Commission]] (IWC) since [[1946]], and are no longer hunted on a large scale.
Limited hunting of Gray Whales has continued since that time, however, primarily in the [[Chukotka]] region of eastern [[Siberia]], where large numbers of Gray Whales spend the summer months. This hunt has been allowed under an "aboriginal/subsistence whaling" exception to the commercial-hunting ban. Anti-whaling groups have protested the hunt, saying that the meat from the whales is not for traditional native consumption, but is used instead to feed animals in government-run fur farms; they cite annual catch numbers that rose dramatically during the 1940s, at the time when state-run fur farms were being established in the region. Although the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] government denied these charges as recently as 1987, in recent years the [[Russia|Russian]] government has acknowledged the feeding of Gray Whale meat to animals on fur farms in the region. The Russian IWC delegation has said that the hunt is justified under the aboriginal/subsistence exemption, since the fur farms provide a necessary economic base for the region's native population.
Currently, the annual quota for the Gray Whale catch in the region is 140 whales per year. A smaller quota of 4 whales per year was established for the [[Makah]] Indian tribe of [[Washington]] at the IWC's 1997 meeting, but with the exception of a single Gray Whale killed in 1999, the Makah people have been prevented from conducting Gray Whale hunts by a series of legal challenges, culminating in a United States federal appeals court decision in December 2002 that said the [[National Marine Fisheries Service]] must prepare an [[Environmental Impact Statement]] before allowing the hunt to go forward.
As of [[2001]], the population of California Gray Whales had grown back to about 26,000 animals.
The Atlantic population of Gray Whales was hunted to extinction in the 17th century. However, in July 2005 scientists working at the [[University of Central Lancashire]] suggested that some Gray Whales be taken from the Pacific and re-introduced to the Atlantic&mdash;specifically, in the [[Irish Sea]]. Their idea would create a [[whale-watching]] industry in [[Cumbria]] in the [[United Kingdom]] and bolster the relatively fragile global population of Gray Whales. There is no indication at this time as to whether the idea will actually come to fruition. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/cumbria/4692193.stm (BBC News)]
== Captivity ==
In 1972, a 3-month-old Gray Whale named Gigi was captured for brief study, and then released near [[San Diego]].
In January 1997, the new-born baby whale J.J. was found helpless near the coast of [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], 4.2&nbsp;m long and 800&nbsp;kg in mass. Nursed back to health in [[SeaWorld]] San Diego, she was released into the Pacific Ocean on [[March 31]], [[1998]], 9&nbsp;m long and 8500&nbsp;kg in mass. She shed her radio transmitter packs three days later.
== In the news ==
A lone gray whale was seen in spring [[2005]] on the eastern coastline of [[Japan]], and around [[Tokyo]] bay. It attracted crowds of whale watchers in April, but later became entangled in a fisherman's net, drowned and was washed up in early May. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4535551.stm (BBC News)]
== External links ==
* [http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/gray-whale/news-main.htm Information on JJ from Sea World]
* U.S. International Whaling Commission (IWC) delegation's press release announcing the establishment of a [http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/pr97/oct97/iwc2.html combined Russian-Makah Gray Whale quota] (1997)
* U.S. State Department report: [http://www.users.qwest.net/~kryopak/ChukotkaHomePage.htm Russia's Chukotka Autonomous Region Overview] (1998), including the following passage documenting use of marine mammal meat in Chokotkan fur farms:
:''Marine Mammal Hunting. Marine mammal hunting is part of the traditional lifestyle of the indigenous population in coastal Chukotkan communities. Native peoples are provided with an annual quota to procure 169 whales, 10,000 ringed seals, and 3,000 walruses. Marine mammal by-products are used as food in fox ranches.''
* IWC report on [http://www.iwcoffice.org/meetings/meeting2004.htm#catches2 aboriginal/subsistence whaling quota for 2004]
* Humane Society of the U.S. page documenting the [http://www.hsus.org/marine_mammals/marine_mammals_news/federal_appeals_court_bars_makah_tribe_from_whaling.html history of the Makah whaling litigation] (2003)
* Two articles from the pro-native-whaling World Council of Whalers: [http://www.worldcouncilofwhalers.com/publications/newsletters/10.htm#chukotkan Chukotkan whaling: Technology, tradition and hope combine to save a people] (2000), and [http://www.worldcouncilofwhalers.com/whaling_around_the_world/russia.htm World whaling: Russia] (2004).
* Article from the Seattle Post-Intelligencer on cooperation between the Chukchi and Makah native people in their efforts to resume traditional whaling activities: [http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/local/196684_makah25.html Two tribes reach out across miles -- and years -- with whaling link] (2004).
{{Commons|Eschrichtius robustus}}
[[Category:Baleen whales]]
[[Category:Fauna of Canada]]
[[Category:Japanese native fauna]]
[[Category:Fauna of the United States]]
[[da:Gråhval]]
[[de:Grauwal]]
[[eo:Griza baleno]]
[[fr:Baleine grise]]
[[ko:귀신고래]]
[[lt:Pilkieji banginiai]]
[[nl:Grijze walvis]]
[[ja:コククジラ]]
[[pl:Pływacz szary]]
[[fi:Harmaavalas]]
[[sv:Gråval]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Genie</title>
<id>13027</id>
<revision>
<id>41707031</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T04:57:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jbergquist</username>
<id>707756</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Wight</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the mythological creature. For the American air-to-air nuclear missile, see [[AIR-2 Genie]]. For the Internet service provider, see [[GEnie]]. For the feral child see [[Genie (feral child)]]. For Canadian film award, see [[Genie Award]].''
[[Image:Blessing_genie_Dur_Sharrukin.jpg|thumb|right|Ancient Assyrian stone relief of a genie]]
'''Genie''' is the [[English language|English]] term for the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] "jinni | جن". In [[Arabic mythology|pre-Islamic Arabian mythology]] and in [[Islam]], a jinni (also "djinni" or "djini") is a member of the jinn (or "djinn"), a race of [[creature]]s. The word "jinn" literally means anything which has the connotation of concealment, invisibility, seclusion and remoteness.
==Etymology and definitions==
''Genie'' is the translation of the original Arabic term ''jinn'', but it is not an [[Anglicization]], as commonly thought. It was first used in English as ''geny'' to mean a guardian spirit, with the first recorded use in [[1655]]. The word came from the French ''genie'', which in turn came from the original Latin word ''genius'', for a spirit. The Latin word predates the Arabic word ''jinn'', and the two terms have not been shown to be related. The extension of meaning to the powerful spirit in Islam appeared in [[1748]] by French translators using the French term ''genie''. The definition referring to the powerful Arabian mythological spirit has since become dominant.
Amongst [[archeology|archeologists]] dealing with ancient Middle Eastern cultures, any mythological spirit lesser than a god is often referred to as a "genie", especially when describing stone reliefs or other forms of art. This practice draws on the original meaning of the term genie for simply a spirit of any sort.
==Jinn in pre-Islamic mythology==
For the ancient Semites, jinn were spirits of vanished ancient peoples who acted during the [[night]] and disappeared with the first [[light]] of [[dawn]]; they could make themselves [[invisibility|invisible]] or change shape into [[animal]]s at will; these spirits were commonly believed to be responsible for [[disease]]s and for the [[mania]]s of some [[lunatic]]s. Types of jinn include the [[ghul]] (night shade, which can change shape), the sila (which cannot change shape) and the [[ifrit]].
The Arabs believed that the jinn were spirits o |
school in Fatima College. When he was 14, he played in the under-16 and First Divisions of national schoolboys' cricket. He amassed 745 runs in the schoolboys' league that year at an astounding average of 126.16 per innings. Immediately afterwards he was selected for the Trinidad national under-16 team. When he was 15 years old, he played in his first West Indian under 19 youth tournament. In [[1984]], Lara represented West Indies in Under-19 Test Cricket. 1987 was a breakthrough year for Lara, when he broke the West Indies youth batting record. In January, [[1988]], Lara made his first-class debut for Trinidad and Tobago in the Red Stripe Cup against Barbados. The Bajan attack contained [[Joel Garner]] and [[Malcolm Marshall]]. Lara batted nearly a full day and made 92. Later in the same year, he captained the West Indies team in Australia for the Bicentennial Youth World Cup. His innings of 182 as captain of the West Indies under 23 XI against the 1988-89 Indians elevated Lara's reputation even further. He was selected for the Port of Spain Test of that season. He did not play, however, and at the same time suffered the personal setback of the death of his father. In 1989, he captained West Indies B Team in Zimbabwe and scored 145 for the West Indies 'B' team in Zimbabwe, a side that included several players with Test experience. In 1990, at the age of 20, Lara became Trinidad and Tobago's youngest ever captain and won the one-day Geddes Grant Shield. It was also in 1990 that he made his Test debut for West Indies against Pakistan, scoring 44 & 6.
Lara loves carnivals, Chinese & Italian foods, and is known to be a practical jokester.
==Career highlights==
[[Image:Brian Lara Graph.png|right|thumb|350px|Brian Lara's career performance graph.]]
*Lara showed his talent in his 5th Test, striking 277 runs against Australia in [[Sydney Cricket Ground|Sydney]], his maiden Test century. It remains the fourth highest maiden Test century by any batsman. [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/HIGHEST_MAIDEN_TONS.html]. It was also the highest individual score in all Tests between the two teams, the fourth-highest ever recorded against Australia.
*He became the first man to score seven centuries in eight first-class innings, the first being the historic record 375 against England and the last being the record 501 not out against Durham.
*After Matthew Hayden had eclipsed his Test record 375 by five runs in 2003, he reclaimed the record &mdash; a unique feat &mdash; scoring 400 not out in 2004. With this innings he became the second player to score two Test 300s, the second player to score two career 400s, the only player to achieve both these milestones, and regained the distinction of being the holder of both the record first-class individual innings and the record Test individual innings.
*He is the all-time leading run scorer in Test cricket, a record he attained on [[26 November]] [[2005]]. [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/TEST_BAT_MOST_RUNS.html]
*In the same innings, he became the second batsman to score 1000 Test runs in five different years, four days after [[Matthew Hayden]] first set the record.
* He was the fastest batsmen to 9,000, 10,000 and 11,000 Test runs, in terms of number of innings. [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/FASTEST_CAREER_TEST_RUNS/]
*He has (as of November 2005) scored 31 centuries (the most for a West Indian and 4th for all Test cricket [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/LEADING_BATSMEN_TEST_100S.html]), of which eight are double centuries (surpassed only by Bradman [http://usa.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/LEADING_BATSMEN_TEST_200S.html]) and two triple-centuries (matched only by Bradman [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/LEADING_BATSMEN_TEST_300S.html]). He has scored centuries against all Test-playing nations.
*Lara fought many lone battles as the West Indies collective batting strength slumped over the years. He has scored an astonishing 20% of his team runs [http://content-uk.cricinfo.com/ausvwi/content/story/227320.html], a feat surpassed only by Bradman (23%) and [[George Headley]] (21%). Lara scored 688 runs (a record 42% of team output and the second highest aggregate runs in history for a three-Test series) in the 2001-02 tour of [[Sri Lanka]] [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/HI_AGG_RUNS_IN_SERIES.html].
*He also scored a century and a double century in the third Test in that same Sri Lanka tour, a feat repeated only five other times in Test cricket history [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/100_EACH_INNS_TEST.html].
*A devastating batsman when in form, Lara holds the world record of scoring most runs (28) in a single [[over (cricket)|over]] in Test cricket [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/TEST_BAT_MOST_RUNS_OVER.html].
*He is fourth all-time in the category of most catches in a career by a non-Wicketkeeper [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/FIELDING/CATCHES_CAREER.html].
*In 1994, he was awarded the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality]] Award. In 1995, he was chosen as one of the [[Wisden Cricketers of the Year]].
*Comfortably [[batting average|averaging]] over 50 per innings (the benchmark for batting greatness in Test cricket), Lara has often been ranked the number one batsman in Test cricket according to the [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] Cricket Ratings [http://www.pwcratings.com].
*Lara has played some of the most brilliant innings in recent years. [[Wisden]] published a top 100 list in July 2001, a distillation of the best performances from 1,552 Tests, 54,494 innings and 29,730 bowling performances. Three innings by Lara were placed in the top 15 [http://www.rediff.com/cricket/2001/jul/30bat100.htm]. His heroic 153 not out in [[Bridgetown, Barbados]], during West Indies' 2-2 home series draw against Australia in *[[1998]]-[[1999]] was deemed the second greatest Test innings ever played, behind Bradman's 270 against England in the Third Test of the [[1936]]-[[1937]] series at [[Melbourne cricket ground|Melbourne]]. On [[13 October]], [[2003]], PricewaterhouseCoopers Ratings team published a list of top innings since 1990 under their own methodology. Lara's 213 against Australia in [[Kingston, Jamaica]] in [[1999]] came out to be the top innings. His 375 was placed 8th and his three other innings, including the 153 not out, were not far behind.
==Batting average==
Lara's [[Batting average|batting average]] in [[Test cricket|Tests]] is over 54 an innings and in [[One-day International]]s he averages over 42 an innings at a strike rate (number of runs scored per 100 balls) of close to 80. The following four graphs show his Test batting average over the years in four chronological sections:
<center>
<gallery>
Image:Lara_Career_Graph_1.gif|The beginning
Image:Lara_Career_Graph_2.gif|First drop
Image:Lara_Career_Graph_3.gif|Second drop
Image:Lara_Career_Graph_4_(revised).gif|The rise
</gallery>
</center>
#The beginning: his first 55 Test innings, from December 1990 to April 1996, with an average of 60.32
#The first drop of his batting form: innings #56 to #103, November 1996 to March 1999, with an average of 36.00
#Then second drop of his batting form: innings #108 to #138, April 1999 to April 2001, with an average of 30.58
#The rise of his form in recent years: innings #139 to #197, April 2001 to August 2004, with an average of 64.93
==Trivia==
In a 1994 [[Donald Bradman|Bradman]] Foundation charity match, Lara was famously dismissed by Australian women's cricket team all-rounder, [[Zoe Goss]].
{{West Indian batsman with a Test batting average over 50}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Courtney Walsh]] |
title=[[West Indian national cricket captains#Test match captains|West Indies Test cricket captains]] |
years=[[1996]]/[[1997|7]]-[[1999]]/[[2000]] |
after=[[Jimmy Adams]] |
}}
{{succession box |
before=[[Carl Hooper]] |
title=[[West Indian national cricket captains#Test match captains|West Indies Test cricket captains]] |
years=[[2002]]/[[2003|3]]-[[2004]] |
after=[[Shivnarine Chanderpaul]] |
}}
{{end box}}
==See also==
* ''[[Brian Lara International Cricket 2005]]
* ''[[Brian Lara Cricket]]
:''For more coverage of cricket, go to the [[Portal:Cricket|Cricket portal]].''
==External links==
* [http://usa.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/PLAYERS/WI/L/LARA_BC_04001982/ Cricinfo Profile]
* [http://www.howstat.com.au/cricket/Statistics/Players/PlayerOverview.asp?PlayerID=0979 Brain Lara's Test Statistics (by HowSTAT!)]
* [http://www.howstat.com.au/cricket/Statistics/Players/PlayerOverview.asp?PlayerID=0979 Brain Lara's One Day International Statistics (by HowSTAT!)]
* [http://www.blconline.net/ Brian Lara Cricket Online - Lara's Official Game]
[[Category:1969 births|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:ICC World XI ODI cricketers|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:Living people|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:Northern Transvaal cricketers|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:Trinidad and Tobago cricketers|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:Warwickshire cricketers|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:West Indian ODI cricketers|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:West Indian Test cricketers|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:West Indian batsmen|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:West Indian cricket captains|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:West Indian cricketers|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:Wisden Cricketers of the Year|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:World XI Test cricketers|Lara, Brian]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beagle</title>
<id>4368</id>
<revision>
<id>42074393</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:22:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Uvaduck</username>
<id>266284</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Working life */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the dog breed; for other meanings of Beagle see [[Beagle (disambiguation)]].''
<!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed. |
ontrols over prices and currency exchange rates was introduced. Also the state's right to intervene in the management of private enterprise was expanded.
In addition to the burdens imposed by high [[inflation]], businesses have been subject to pressure on the part of central and local governments, e.g., arbitrary changes in regulations, numerous rigorous inspections, and retroactive application of new business regulations prohibiting practices that had been legal. Further economic problems are two consecutive bad harvests, [[1998]]-[[1999]] and trade deficits. Also as Belorussian economy has rather tight connections with Russian economy, the default of 1998 strike hard both of them. In 1990-th povetry became significant problem. Recearch carried out in Belarus in 1996 under the support of the World Bank showed that number of the poor has sharply increased from 5 % in 1992 to 22% in 1995. According to the official statistics, 26,7% of urban population and 33,6% of rural population were below the poverty line in 2001 ([http://www.belarusembassy.org/humanitarian/poverty_assessment.htm], [http://un.by/en/undp/news/belarus/pr18-02-3-1.html], [http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/dg/povertys.nsf/0/dae4d2c00c1c7e1585256b210075cf4d?OpenDocument]).
However efforts of Belorussian government and some favourable factors such as Union with Russia, wich opened wast markets for belorussian goods and also allowed Belarus to buy oil and gas at Russia's internal price allowed Belarus to bypass severe economic hardships and criseses that many former Soviet Union transition economies encountered. It resulted in economic growth seen in recent years. According to the UN ''World Economic Situation and Prospects 2006'' report Belarus registers major economic growth: GDP growth rate as low as 3% in 1999 showed 11% (2-nd place in CIS) in 2004 and 8,5% (4-th place after Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan - oil and gas exporters - and Armenia) in 2005. In terms of GDP growth rate Belarus also outperforms neighbouring Polland, Latvia and Lithuania. Major problem in mid-1990 - inflation, as high as 300% in 1999 constantly decreases, showing 11% in 2005 (which is higher than Russia's 11.5% but lower than Ukraine's 14.5%). UN experts forecast inflation in 2006 will continue to decrease, reaching 10.5% ([http://www.un.org/esa/policy/wess/wesp2006files/wesp2006.pdf UN Report])
==In greater depth==
As part of the former [[Soviet Union]], Belarus had a relatively well-developed industrial base; it retained this industrial base following the break-up of the U.S.S.R. The country also has a broad agricultural base and a high education level. Among the former republics of the Soviet Union, it had one of the highest standards of living. But Belarusians now face the difficult challenge of moving from a state-run economy with high priority on military production and heavy industry to a civilian, free-market system.
After an initial outburst of [[capitalist]] reform from [[1991]]-[[1994]], including [[privatization]] of state enterprises, creation of institutions of private property, and entrepreneurship, Belarus under Lukashenko has greatly slowed its pace of privatization and other market reforms, emphasizing the need for a "socially oriented market economy." About 80% of all industry remains in state hands, and foreign investment has been hindered by a climate hostile to business. The banks, which had been privatized after independence, were renationalized under Lukashenko.
Economic output, which declined for several years, revived somewhat in the late [[1990s]], but the economy remains dependent on Russian subsidies. Until [[2000]], subsidies to state enterprises and price controls on industrial and consumer staples constituted a major feature of the Belarusian economy. Inflationary monetary practices, including the printing of [[money]] also has been regularly used to finance real sector growth and to cover the payment of salaries and pensions.
[[Peat]], the country's most valuable [[mineral]] resource, is used for fuel and fertilizer and in the chemical industry. Belarus also has deposits of [[clay]], [[sand]], [[chalk]], [[dolomite]], [[phosphorite]], and [[rock salt|rock]] and [[potassium]] [[salt]]. Forests cover about a third of the land, and [[lumber]]ing is an important occupation. [[Potato]]es, [[flax]], [[hemp]], [[sugarbeet]]s, [[rye]], [[oat]]s, and [[wheat]] are the chief agricultural products. [[Dairy]] and beef [[cattle]], [[pig]]s, and [[chicken]]s are raised. Belarus has only small reserves of [[petroleum]] and [[natural gas]] and imports most of its oil and gas from [[Russia]]. The main branches of industry produce tractors and trucks, earth movers for use in construction and mining, metal-cutting machine tools, agricultural equipment, motorcycles, chemicals, fertilizer, textiles, and consumer goods. The chief trading partners are Russia, [[Ukraine]], [[Poland]], and [[Germany]].
The massive nuclear accident ([[April 26]], [[1986]]) at the [[Chernobyl]] power plant, across the border in [[Ukraine]], had a devastating effect on Belarus; as a result of the radiation release, agriculture in a large part of the country was destroyed, and many villages were abandoned. Resettlement and medical costs were substantial and long-term.
In 2000, Belarus managed to unify its currency exchange rates, tightened its monetary policy, and partially liberalized the foreign currency market. These developments led to the conclusion of a staff-monitored program in cooperation with the [[International Monetary Fund]], addressing, among other topics price and wage liberalization, a widening of privatization, fiscal reform, the adoption of international accounting standards in the banking sector, and the repeal of several egregious laws and decrees to improve the investment climate. The program was conducted between April and September [[2001]], with relatively disappointing results.
The [[World Bank]] is currently considering a new country assistance strategy for Belarus, focusing on areas such as targeted social assistance, [[AIDS]]/[[HIV]] and [[tuberculosis]] prevention, environmental protection, Chernobyl-related damage, and small and medium enterprise development. In June 2001, the World Bank approved a loan of $22.6 million to finance repairs in over 450 schools, hospitals, and homes for orphans, the elderly and the disabled throughout Belarus.
According to famous Belarusian economists Anton Hryshukou and Maxim Kostyuckovich, Belarus has huge market potential though it is rather arguable when it will be able to realize and implement it. On the one hand, huge territories and relatively low cost of manpower make it ideal for outsourcing and development. On the other hand, however, it is might be a bit tricky to apply them internationally as the country is still in transitory state and needs some further reforms.
==Environmental issues==
Belarus has established ministries of energy, forestry, [[land reclamation]], and water resources and state committees to deal with ecology and safety procedures in the nuclear power industry. The most serious environmental issue in Belarus results from the accident at the [[1986]] [[Chernobyl]] [[nuclear power plant]]. About 70% of the nuclear fallout from the plant landed on Belarusian territory, and about 25% of the land is considered uninhabitable. But government restrictions on residence and use of contaminated land are not strictly enforced. As noted, the government receives [[United States|USA]] assistance in its efforts to deal with the consequences of the [[radioactive contamination|radiation]].
==Other statistics==
'''Investment (gross fixed):'''
24.2% of GDP (2005 est.)
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
* ''lowest 10%:'' 5.1%
* ''highest 10%:'' 20% (1998)
'''Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:'''
21.7 (1998)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
grain, potatoes, vegetables, sugar beets, flax; beef, milk
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
4% (2004 est.)
'''Electricity:'''
* ''production:'' 30 [[TWh]] (2004)
* ''consumption:'' 34.3 TWh (2004)
* ''exports:'' 0.8 TWh (2004)
* ''imports:'' 3.2 TWh (2003), mainly from [[Russia]] and [[Lithuania]] [https://www.uktradeinvest.gov.uk/ukti/appmanager/ukti/home?_nfpb=true&searchPageSearch_actionOverride=/pub/portlets/search/displayDetail&searchPageSearchdocument=%2FBEA+Repository%2F327%2F226047]
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
* ''fossil fuel:'' 99.5%
* ''hydro:'' 0.1%
* ''other:'' 0.4% (2001)
* ''nuclear:'' 0%
'''Oil:'''
* ''production:'' 36,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
* ''consumption:'' 285,000 bbl/day (2003 est.)
* ''exports:'' 14,500 bbl/day (2003 est.)
* ''imports:'' 360,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
'''Natural gas:'''
* ''production:'' 250 million cu m (2004 est.)
* ''consumption:'' 18.8 billion cu m (2004 est.)
* ''exports:'' 0 cu m (2004 est.)
* ''imports:'' 18.5 billion cu m (2004 est.)
'''Current account balance:'''
$312.4 million (2005 est.)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
machinery and equipment, mineral products, chemicals, metals; textiles, foodstuffs
'''Imports - commodities:'''
mineral products, machinery and equipment, chemicals, foodstuffs, metals
'''Reserves of foreign exchange & gold:'''
$835.4 million (2005 est.)
'''Debt - external:'''
$4.662 billion ([[30 June]] [[2005]] est.)
'''Exchange rates:'''
Belarusian rubles per US dollar - 2,150 (2005), 2,170 (2004), 1,790.92 (2003), 1,920 (2002), 1,390 (2001), 876.75 (2000)
==Reference==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
==See also==
*[[Economy of Europe]]
[[Category:Economy of Belarus| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Belarus]]
[[ru:Экономика Белоруссии]]
[[es:Economía de Bielorrusia]]
[[lt:Baltarusijos ekonomika]]
[[pt:Economia da Bielorrússia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Belarus</title>
|
ildings is called ''[[landscaping]]'', ''landscape maintenance'' or ''groundskeeping'', while international usage uses the term ''gardening'' for these same activities.
== Restrictions ==
Governments of most countries are restricting imports of plant material. In the past, I could send lily seeds and bulbs to friends in whatever country. Today, most of those avenues are closed. While it's a good measure to limit the spread of disease and pests, it also limits the exchange of new genetic material.
== History ==
Gardening for food extends far back into [[prehistory]]. Ornamental gardens were known in ancient times, (the [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]]), and [[ancient Rome]] had dozens of gardens. See the [[History of gardening]].
==Notable gardeners==
* See [[gardener]]s.
==See also==
{{Wikibooks}}
* [[Allotment (gardening)|Allotment]]
* [[Arboretum]]
* [[Bonsai]]
* [[Botanical gardens]]
* [[Community garden]]
* [[Compost]]
* [[Fountains]]
* [[Garden|List of gardens in fiction]]
* [[Guerrilla gardening]]
* [[Herbaceous border]]
* [[History of gardening|List of notable historical gardens]]
* [[Home economics]]
* [[Horticulture]]
* [[Landscape architecture]]
* [[Lawn]]
* [[Lawnmower]]
* [[List of garden plants]]
* [[Local food]]
* [[Never Ending Gardens]]
* [[Organic gardening]]
* [[List of organic gardening and farming topics]]
* [[Patio garden]]
* [[Parterre]]
* [[Permaculture]]
* [[Pruning]]
* [[Rain gardens]]
* [[Raised bed gardening]]
* [[Rock garden]]
* [[Roof garden]]
* [[Shrub]]
* [[Topiary]]
* [[Tree]]
* [[Vegetable farming]]
* [[Xeriscaping]]
[[Category:Gardening| ]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
[[bg:Градинарство]]
[[br:Jardinañ]]
[[da:Havebrug]]
[[de:Gärtner]]
[[es:Jardinería]]
[[eo:Ĝardenado]]
[[fa:باغبانی]]
[[fr:Jardinage]]
[[it:Giardinaggio]]
[[li:Hovenere]]
[[nl:Tuinieren]]
[[ja:園芸]]
[[pl:Ogrodnictwo]]
[[simple:Gardening]]
[[sl:Vrtnarstvo]]
[[tl:Paghahardin]]
[[ta:தோட்டக்கலை]]
[[th:การจัดสวน]]
[[vo:Gadam]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Graffiti</title>
<id>11985</id>
<revision>
<id>42123292</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:48:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Titoxd</username>
<id>227287</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.65.144.222|84.65.144.222]] ([[User talk:84.65.144.222|talk]]) to last version by Jeffrey O. Gustafson</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Graffiti Panorama rome.jpg|thumb|500px|right|Graffiti on the banks of the [[Tiber river]] in [[Rome]], [[Italy]].]]
'''Graffiti''' is a type of deliberately inscribed marking made by [[human]]s on surfaces, both private and public and is often prevalent in low-income neighborhoods. It can take the form of [[art]], [[drawing]]s or [[language|word]]s. When done without a [[property]] owner's consent it often constitutes [[vandalism]]. Graffiti has existed at least since the days of [[ancient history|ancient civilization]]s such as [[Ancient Greece| classical Greece]] and the [[Roman Empire]].
The word "graffiti" expresses the [[English plural|plural]] of "[[graffito]]", although the singular form has become relatively obscure and is largely used in [[art history]] to refer to works of art made by scratching the design on a surface. Another related term is [[sgraffito]], a way of creating a design by scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another one beneath. All of these [[English language|English]] words come from the Italian language, most likely descending from "graffiato", the past participle of "graffiare" (to scratch); ancient graffitists scratched their work into walls before the advent of spray-paint, as in [[mural|murals]] or [[fresco|frescoes]]. These words derive in their turn from the [[Greek language|Greek]] γραφειν (''graphein''), meaning "to write". [[history|Historian]]s continue to speculate over the vexing question as to where the term "graffiti" first referred to this form of marking.
==History of graffiti==
===Ancient graffiti===
[[Image:pompeii-graffiti.jpg|frame|left|The ordinary people of the [[Roman Empire]] used the language known as [[Vulgar Latin]] rather than the [[Classical Latin]] of literature, as in this political graffiti at [[Pompeii]]]]
Historically, the term ''graffiti'' originally referred to the [[inscription]]s, figure drawings, etc., found on the walls of ancient [[sepulchre|sepulcher]]s or ruins, as in the [[Catacombs of Rome]] or at [[Pompeii]]. Usage of the word has evolved to include any decorations (inscribed on any surface) that one can regard as [[vandalism]]; or to cover pictures or writing placed on surfaces, usually external walls and sidewalks, without the permission of an owner. Thus, inscriptions made by the authors of a monument are not classed as graffiti.
The first known example of "modern style" graffiti survives in the ancient Greek city of [[Ephesus]] (in modern-day [[Turkey]]) and appears to [[advertisement| advertise]] [[prostitution]], according to the tour guides of the city. It stands near the long [[mosaic]] and stone walkway and consists of a handprint, a vaguely heart-like shape, a footprint and a number. This purportedly indicates how many steps one would have to take to find a lover, with the handprint indicating payment.
[[Image:Graffiti politique de Pompei.jpg|frame|right|Ancient [[Pompeii]]an graffiti caricature of a politician.]]
The [[ancient Rome|Romans]] carved graffiti into their own walls and monuments, and examples of their work also exist in [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]. The eruption of [[Vesuvius]] preserved graffiti carved on the walls of Pompeii, and they offer us a direct insight into street life: everyday [[Latin]], insults, [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], love declarations, political consigns. In contrast to typical modern graffiti, alphabets and quotations from famous literature (especially the first line of [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]'') have been found scribbled on the walls of Pompeii, either for the pleasure of the writer or to impress, albeit anonymously, the passerby with one's familiarity with letters and literature. In an ancient variant on the "for a good time..." theme, an inscription gives the address of one Novellia Primigenia of Nuceria, apparently a great beauty and subject of constant enquiry; an illustration of a phallus was accompanied by the text, ''mansueta tene'': "Handle with care." Love was also the object of scorn:
:''Quisquis amat. veniat. Veneri volo frangere costas
:''fustibus et lumbos debilitare deae.
:''Si potest illa mihi tenerum pertundere pectus
:'' quit ego non possim caput illae frangere fuste?
:''Whoever loves, go to hell. I want to break Venus's ribs
:''with a club and deform her hips.
:''If she can break my tender heart
:''why can't I hit her over the head?
::-''CIL'' IV, 1284.
[[Hadrian]]'s Villa at [[Tivoli, Italy|Tivoli]] also has several examples.
Errors in spelling and grammar in graffiti not only inform us of the degree of literacy of many of the graffiti scrawlers, but they also give clues as to the pronunciation of spoken Latin. Such is the case with ''CIL'' IV, 7838: ''Vettium Firmum / aed''[ilem] ''quactiliar''[ii] [sic] ''rog''[ant]. Here "qu" reflects the common pronunciation of "co". Conversely, ancient graffiti also provide us with evidence of the ability to read and write among classes of people for whom literacy was not requisite and might not otherwise be assumed. For example, the 83 graffiti found at ''CIL'' IV, 4706-85 (a [[peristyle]] which had been undergoing remodeling at the time of the eruption of Vesuvius) were executed not only by the architect Crescens, but also by most of the members of the work crew for whom he served as foreman. The brothel at ''CIL'' VII, 12, 18-20 contains over 120 graffiti, the authors of which included the prostitutes as well as their clients. And finally, the [[gladiator]]ial academy at ''CIL'' IV, 4397 contained graffiti left by the gladiator Celadus Crescens (''Suspirium puellarum Celadus thraex'': "Celadus the Thracier makes the girls sigh.")
However, not only Greeks and Romans produced graffiti: the [[Maya civilization|Mayan]] site of [[Tikal]] in [[Guatemala]], also contains ancient examples. [[Viking]] graffiti survive in [[Rome]] and at [[Newgrange|Newgrange Mound]] in [[Ireland]], and [[Varangian]]s carved their [[Runic alphabet|rune]]s in [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]]. The ancient [[Ireland|Irish]] inscribed stones with an alphabet called [[Ogham]] -- this standard mode of writing may not fall into the category of graffiti. There are also examples in American history, like Signature Rock (a national landmark), along the [[Oregon Trail]].
[[Image:GenteelGrafitti.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Genteel graffiti on a fruit garden wall at [[Delapré Abbey]]]]
Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic [[French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1798|campaign of Egypt]] in the 1790s.
Art forms like [[fresco]]es and [[mural]]s involve leaving images and writing on wall surfaces. Like the prehistoric [[cave painting|wall paintings]] created by cave dwellers, they do not comprise graffiti, as the artists generally produce them with the explicit permission (and usually support) of the owner or occupier of the walls.
===Modern graffiti===
[[Image:GraffitiArtist.jpg|thumb|left|A graffiti artist at work with spray paint at a graffiti competition in [[Spitalfields]] market [[London]].]]
In the 20th century, especially during [[World War II]], '[[Kilroy was here]]' became a famous graffito, along with ''[[Chad (graffiti)|Mr. Chad]]'', a face with only the eyes and a nose hanging over the wall, saying "What No [scarce commodity]…?" during the time of [[rationing]]. Twentieth century warfare saw the advent of many new [[aviati |
e the [[Armenians]], [[Russians]], [[Vlachs]], [[Crimean Tatars in Bulgaria|Crimean Tatars]], [[Karakachans]], [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonians]] and [[Jew]]s; the people who have not declared their ethnicity are 1.1% of the total population.
In the period between [[1985]] and [[1989]], the communist government of Bulgaria attempted to forcefully assimilate the country's Turkish minority. After the introduction of the new laws in 1985, the Bulgarian government banned Turkish education and sought to erase Turkish culture and identity. Turkish names were forcefully changed to slavic ones and some 200,000 ethnic Turks emigrated permanently to Turkey in light of heavy persecution. These laws were removed after the change to democracy in the early months of [[1990]].
[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], is the mother-tongue of 84.8% of the population; it is a member of the [[Slavic languages]]. Bulgarian is the only official language, but other languages are spoken, corresponding closely to ethnic breakdown.
Most Bulgarians (82.6%) are, at least nominally, members of the [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]], the national [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] church.
Other religious denominations include [[Islam]] (12.2%), various [[Protestant]] denominations (0.7%), [[Roman Catholicism]] (0.5%), with other denominations, atheists and undeclared numbering ca. 4.1%.
==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Bulgaria]]''
* [[List of famous Bulgarians]]
* [[Bulgarian customs]]
* [[Music of Bulgaria]]
* [[Bulgarian dances]]
* [[Bulgarian cuisine]]
==Religion==
[[Image:AlexanderNevskiCathedral.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Sofia|Alexander Nevsky Cathedral]] in Sofia is one of the biggest Orthodox cathedrals in Europe.]]
Most citizens of Bulgaria belong, at least nominally, to the [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]]. It was was founded in 870 AD under the Patriarchate of Constantinople from which it obtained its first primate, its clergy and theological texts. It has been [[autocephaly|autocephalous]] since 927. The Bulgarian Patriarchate was established in Sofia after the creation of the Bulfarian Exarchate, in 1870. The Bulgarian Orthodox Church is the independent national church of Bulgaria like the other national branches of [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] and is considered an inseparable element of Bulgarian national consciousness. The church became subordinate within the [[Orthodox Church of Constantinople|Greek Orthodox Church]], twice during the periods of Byzantine (1018-1185) and Ottoman (1396-1878) domination but has been revived every time as a symbol of Bulgarian statehood without breaking away from the Orthodox dogma. In 2001, the Bulgarian Orthodox Church had 6,552,000 members in Bulgaria (82.6% of the population). However many people raised during the 45 years of [[communist]] rule are not religious even though they formally may be members of the church.
Despite the dominant position of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church in Bulgarian cultural life, a number of Bulgarian citizens belong to other religious denominations, most notably [[Islam in Bulgaria|Islam]], [[Roman Catholicism in Bulgaria|Roman Catholicism]] and [[Protestantism in Bulgaria|Protestantism]]. [[Islam in Bulgaria|Islam]] came to Bulgaria at the end of the [[14th century]] after the conquest of the country by the [[Ottomans]]. It gradually gained ground throughout the 15th and 16th centuries by the introduction of [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]] colonists and the conversion of ethnic Bulgarians. At the time of Liberation (1878) no less than 40% of the population of the country was [[Muslim]], but emigration was a key factor in reducing this percentage. In 2001, there were 967,000 [[Muslims]] in Bulgaria (12.2% of the population).
In the 16th and the 17th century missionaries from Rome converted the Bulgarian [[Paulicians]] in the districts of [[Plovdiv]] and [[Svishtov]] to [[Roman Catholicism]]. Today, their descendants form the bulk of Bulgarian Catholics whose number stands at 44,000 in 2001.
[[Protestantism]] was introduced in Bulgaria by missionaries from the United States in 1857. Missionary work continued throughout the second half of the 19th and the first half of the 20th century. In 2001, there were some 42,000 [[Protestants]] in Bulgaria.
* [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Roman Catholicism in Bulgaria]]
* [[Protestantism in Bulgaria]]
* [[Islam in Bulgaria]]
* [[Judaism]]
==National parks==
Bulgaria has over 10 major national parks and many reservation areas.
* [http://www.centralbalkannationalpark.org/en/ Central Balkan National Park]
* Golden Sands National Park
* [http://www.pirin-np.com/English/pirin-np_E.htm Pirin National Park]
* [http://www.rhodope.net/ Rhodope National Park]
* [http://www.rilanationalpark.org/en/ Rila National Park]
* Roussenski Lom National Park
* Sinite Kamani National Park
* Shoumen Plateau National Park
* [http://www.staraplanina.org/index.php Stara Planina (Balkan Mountains)]
* [http://www.discoverstrandja.com/index.htm Strandja National Park]
* [http://www.picturesofbulgaria.com/article/vitosha_national_park.html Vitosha National Park]
* Vratchansky Balkan National Park
====Additional Resources====
* [http://www.bulgariannationalparks.org/en/ Bulgarian National Parks]
* [http://www.greenbalkans.org/index_en.html Green Balkans]
== Miscellaneous topics ==
{{portal}}
* [[Communications in Bulgaria]]
* [[Foreign relations of Bulgaria]]
* [[Military of Bulgaria]]
* [[Public holidays in Bulgaria]]
* [[Reporters without borders]] world-wide press freedom index 2004: ranked 36 out of 167 countries
* [[Tourism in Bulgaria]]
* [[Transport in Bulgaria]]
* [[Bulgarian law]]
''Much of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
==Further reading==
*''A Concise History of Bulgaria'' RJ Crampton
*''Beyond Hitler's Grasp: The Heroic Rescue of Bulgaria's Jews'' Michael Bar-Zohar
*''Blue Guide: Bulgaria'' James Pettifer
*''Crown of Thorns : The Reign of King Boris III of Bulgaria, 1918-1943'' Stephane Groueff
*''The Fragility of Goodness: Why Bulgaria's Jews Survived the Holocaust'' Tzvetan Todorov
*''Lonely Planet World Guide: Bulgaria'' Paul Greenway
*''Music of Bulgaria'' Timothy Rice
*''The Rough Guide To Bulgaria'' Jonathan Bousfield
*''Voices from the Gulag: Life and Death in Communist Bulgaria'' Tzvetan Todorov
*''The Iron Fist-inside the Bulgarian secret archives'' Alexenia Dimitrova
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Bulgaria}}
===Official===
* [http://www.government.bg/fce/index.shtml?s=001&p=0023 Council of Ministers] - Official Governmental Site
* [http://www.bulgaria.bg/EN/default.htm Diplomatic missions of Republic of Bulgaria abroad] - Diplomatic missions of Republic of Bulgaria abroad
* [http://www.eypbulgaria.org/ European Youth Parliament - Bulgaria]
* [http://www.president.bg/en/index.php President.bg] - Official Presidential Site
* [http://www.parliament.bg/?lng=en Narodno Sabranie] - Official Parliamentary Site
* [http://www.minfin.government.bg/?language=english Ministry of Finance of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.mvr.bg/en/ Ministry of Interior of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.mtc.government.bg/indexe.htm Ministry of Transport and Communications of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.culture.government.bg/index.html?l=en Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.mi.government.bg/eng/ Ministry of Economy of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.minedu.government.bg/ Ministry of Education]
* [http://www.doe.bg/cgi-bin/i.pl?l=2 Ministry of Energy and Energy Resources of Bulgaria]
* [http://www2.moew.government.bg/index_e.html Ministry of Environment and Water of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.mfa.government.bg/index.php?newlang=eng Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.mod.bg/en/index.html Ministry of Defense of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.bnr.bg/RadioBulgaria/Emission_English/ National Radio] - Official Radio Site
==English language Bulgarian media==
* [http://www.bta.bg/site/en/indexe.shtml Bulgarian News Agency]
* [http://www.questbulgaria.com Quest Bulgaria Magazine (monthly)]
* [http://www.bnr.bg/en/ Radio Bulgaria – the world service of the Bulgarian National Radio]
* [http://news.dnevnik.bg Dnevnik]
* [http://www.focus-fen.net Focus English News]
* [http://novinite.com/ Sofia News Agency]
* [http://www.standartnews.com Standart (daily)]
* [http://www.sofiaecho.com The Sofia Echo (weekly)]
===Other===
*[http://www.eurofolk.com/en/ Bulgarian Folklore (Eurofolk)]
*[http://www.guide-bulgaria.com Guide to Bulgarian cities, villages, resorts and regions]
*[http://www.bulgarian-villa.com Bulgarian Building Projects]
*[http://get.info.bg Bulgaria Info Site - regions, maps, FAQ]
*[http://www.kirildouhalov.net Art, history and music of Bulgaria]
*[http://www.surva.org The Surva International Festival of the Masquerade Games in city of Pernik]
*[http://www.picturesofbulgaria.com Pictures of Bulgaria]
*[http://www.pbase.com/ngruev/bulgaria/ More Pictures of Bulgaria]
*[http://www.greatestcities.com/Europe/Bulgaria.html Map, Info and Pictures of Bulgaria and Cities]
*[http://www.balcanica.org/history/maps.html Historical maps of Bulgaria]
*[http://www.bulgarianmonastery.com Bulgarian Monasteries]
*[http://www.blackseaestates.net/DesktopDefault.aspx?tabindex=5&tabid=12, Picture Gallery of Bulgaria]
*[http://www.bulgarianfinearts.com Paintings by Bulgarian authors]
*[http://www.freeworldmaps.net/europe/bulgaria/map.html Physical map of Bulgaria]
*[http://www.worldwide-tax.com/bulgaria/indexbulgaria.asp Bulgaria economy and business indicators] Bulgaria key Data on Taxes and Income Tax.
*[http://www.eurominority.org/version/fra/projects-shop-nation-big.asp Bulgarians on Eurominority Map]
*[http://www.cadip.org/volunteer-in-bulgaria.htm Volunteer in Bulgaria]
{{EU_countries_and_candidates}}
{{Europe}}
----
[[Volga Bulgaria]] is also a historic state that existed in 10-14th centuries around the confluence of [[Volg |
ificcoast.net/~wh/Index.html The I Ching on the Net] includes full text translations of the ''I Ching'', commentaries and other links.
* {{dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Divination/I_Ching|I Ching}}
{{I Ching}}
[[Category:I Ching| ]]
[[Category:Chinese thought]]
[[Category:Chinese classic texts]]
[[Category:Divination]]
[[Category:Taoist texts]]
{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|vi}}
[[af:I-Ching]]
[[da:I Ching]]
[[de:I Ging]]
[[es:I Ching]]
[[fr:Yi Jing]]
[[ko:역경]]
[[it:I Ching]]
[[he:אי צ'ינג]]
[[nl:I Ching]]
[[ja:易経]]
[[pl:I Ching]]
[[pt:I Ching]]
[[ru:Книга Перемен]]
[[vi:Kinh Dịch]]
[[zh:易经]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of intelligence agencies</title>
<id>15284</id>
<revision>
<id>42141179</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:20:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Necrothesp</username>
<id>64853</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* [[Nigeria]] */ piped</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The following is a partial list of current '''[[intelligence agency|intelligence agencies]]'''.
==Agencies by country==
=== [[Albania]] ===
*[[National Intelligence Service (Albania)|National Intelligence Service]] (SHIK)
*[[National Intelligence Service (Albania)|State Intelligence Service]] (SHISH)
=== [[Argentina]] ===
*[[Secretaría de Inteligencia]] (SI) (Secretariat of Intelligence)
**[[Escuela Nacional de Inteligencia]] (ENI) (National Intelligence School)
**[[Dirección de Observaciones Judiciales]] (DOJ) (Directorate of Judicial Surveillance)
*[[Servicio Federal de Lucha contra el Narcotráfico]] (SEFECONAR) (Federal Counternarcotics Service)
*[[Sistema de Inteligencia Nacional]] (SIN) (National Intelligence System)
*[[Dirección Nacional de Inteligencia Criminal]] (DNIC) (National Directorate of Criminal Intelligence)
*[[Dirección Nacional de Inteligencia Estratégica Militar]] (DNIEM) (National Directorate of Strategic Military Intelligence)
*[[Inteligencia del Servicio Penitenciario Federal]] (Federal Penitentiary Service Intelligence)
*[[Inteligencia de la Policía Federal Argentina]] (Argentine Federal Police Intelligence)
*[[Inteligencia de la Policía Bonaerense]] (SIPBA) (Buenos Aires Police Intelligence)
*[[Inteligencia de la Gendarmería Nacional Argentina]] (SIGN) (Argentine National Gendarmerie Intelligence)
*[[Inteligencia de la Prefectura Naval Argentina]] (SIPN) (Argentine Naval Prefecture Intelligence)
*[[Inteligencia de la Policía de Seguridad Aeroportuaria]] (Airport Security Police Intelligence)
*[[Unidad de Inteligencia Financiera]] (UIF) (Financial Intelligence Unit)
*[[Jefatura de Inteligencia del Estado Mayor Conjunto de las Fuerzas Armadas]] (J-2) (Intelligence Department of the Joint General Staff of the Armed Forces)
**[[Central de Reunión de Inteligencia Militar]] (CRIM) (Military Intelligence Collection Center)
**[[Servicio de Inteligencia del Ejército (Argentina)|Servicio de Inteligencia del Ejército]] (SIE) (Army Intelligence Service)
**[[Servicio de Inteligencia Naval (Argentina)|Servicio de Inteligencia Naval]] (SIN) (Naval Intelligence Service)
**[[Servicio de Inteligencia de la Fuerza Aérea (Argentina)|Servicio de Inteligencia de la Fuerza Aérea]] (SIFA) (Air Force Intelligence Service)
=== [[Australia]] ===
*[[Australian Security Intelligence Organisation]] (ASIO)
*[[Australian Secret Intelligence Service]] (ASIS)
*[[Defence Intelligence Organisation]] (DIO)
*[[Defence Imagery and Geospatial Organisation]] (DIGO)
*[[Defence Signals Directorate]] (DSD)
*[[Office of National Assessments]] (ONA)
=== [[Austria]] ===
* [[Heeresnachrichtenamt]] (HNA) (Army Intelligence Office)
* [[Abwehramt]] (AWA) (Military Protective Office)
* [[Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz und Terrorismusbekämpfung]] (BVT) (Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution and Counter-Terrorism)
** [[Landesamt für Verfassungsschutz und Terrorismusbekämpfung]] (LVT) (State Offices for the Protection of the Constitution and Counter-Terrorism)
=== [[Azerbaijan]] ===
*[[Milli Tehlukesizlik Nazirliyi]] (MTN) (Ministry of National Security)
=== [[Belarus]] ===
*[[Committee for State Security]] (KGB)
=== [[Belgium]] ===
*[[Belgian State Security Service|Veiligheid van de Staat / Staatsveiligheid / Sûreté de l'État]] (SV/SE) (State Security Service)
*[[Belgian General Information and Security Service|Algemene Dienst Inlichting en Veiligheid / Service Général du Renseignement et de la Sécurité]] (ADIV/SGRS) (General Information and Security Service)
=== [[Bermuda]] ===
*[[Special Branch]]
=== [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] ===
*[[Obavještajno sigurnosna agencija]] (OSA)
*[[Agencija za istragu i zaštitu]] (SIPA)
=== [[Brazil]] ===
*[[Agência Brasileira de Inteligência]] (ABIN) (Brazilian Intelligence Agency)
=== [[Bulgaria]] ===
*[[Nacionalna razuznavatelna sluzhba]] (NRS)
*[[Nacionalna sluzhba za sigurnost]] (NSS)
=== [[Canada]] ===
*[[Canadian Foreign Intelligence Agency]] (CFIA)
*[[Canadian Security Intelligence Service]] (CSIS)
*[[Communications Security Establishment]] (CSE)
*[[Canadian Forces Security and Intelligence Branch]]
=== [[People's Republic of China|China, People's Republic of]] ===
*[[Ministry of State Security|Guojia Anquan Bu]] (Guoanbu) (Ministry of State Security)
*[[Ministry of Public Security of the People's Republic of China|Gonggong Anquan Bu]] (Gonganbu) (Ministry of Public Security)
=== [[Republic of China|China, Republic of]] ===
*[[National Security Bureau]] (NSB)
=== [[Colombia]] ===
*[[Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad]] (DAS) (Administrative Department of Security)
=== [[Croatia]] ===
*[[Protuobavještajna agencija]] (POA) (Counter-Intelligence Agency)
*[[Obavještajna agencija]] (OA) (Intelligence Agency)
*[[Vojna sigurnosna agencija]] (VSA) (Military Security Agency)
Note: POA and OA awaiting merge into [[Središnja obavještajna agencija]] (SOA) (Central Intelligence Agency)
=== [[Cuba]] ===
*[[General Intelligence Directorate|Dirección General de Inteligencia]] (DGI) (General Directorate of Intelligence)
*[[Revolutionary Armed Forces Intelligence]]
=== [[Czech Republic]] ===
*[[Bezpecnostni informacni sluzba]] (BIS)
*[[Urad pro zahranicni styky a informace]] (UZSI)
=== [[Denmark]] ===
*[[Politiets Efterretningstjeneste]] (PET) (Police Intelligence Service)
*[[Forsvarets Efterretningstjeneste]] (FE) (Defence Intelligence Service)
=== [[Egypt]] ===
*[[General Directorate of State Security Service|Al-Mukhabarat al-'Ammah]] (General Directorate of State Security Service)
* [[Mukhabarat el-Khabeya]] (Military Intelligence)
=== [[Estonia]] ===
*[[Kaitsepolitseiamet]] (KAPO) (Security Police Board)
=== [[Finland]] ===
*[[Suojelupoliisi]] (Supo) (Protection Police)
=== [[France]] ===
*[[Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire]] (DST) (Directorate of Territorial Surveillance)
*[[Direction Générale de la Sécurité Extérieure]] (DGSE) (General Directorate of External Security)
*[[Direction centrale des renseignements généraux|Direction Centrale des Renseignements Généraux]] (RG) (Central Directorate of General Intelligence)
*[[Direction du Renseignement Militaire]] (DRM) (Directorate of Military Intelligence)
*[[Direction de la Protection et de la Sécurité de la Défense]] (DPSD) (Directorate of Protection and Defense Security)
=== [[Germany]] ===
*[[Verfassungsschutz]] (Protection of the Constitution)
**[[Bundesamt fur Verfassungsschutz]] (BFV) (Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution)
**[[Landesämter für Verfassungsschutz]] (LFV) (State Offices for the Protection of the Constitution)
*[[Bundesnachrichtendienst]] (BND) (Federal Intelligence Service)
*[[Militärischer Abschirmdienst]] (MAD) (Military Protective Service)
=== [[Greece]] ===
*[[Hellenic National Intelligence Service|Ethniki Ypiresia Pliroforion]] (EYP) (National Intelligence Service)
=== [[Hungary]] ===
*[[Információs Hivatal]] (IH) (Information Office)
*[[Katonai Biztonsági Hivatal]] (KBH) (Military Security Office)
*[[Katonai Felderítő Hivatal]] (KFH) (Military Reconnaissance Office)
*[[Nemzetbiztonsági Hivatal]] (NBH) (National Security Office)
*[[Nemzetbiztonsági Szakszolgálat]] (NBSZ) (National Security Special Service)
=== [[India]] ===
*[[Defense Intelligence Agency (India)|Defense Intelligence Agency]] (DIA)
*[[Intelligence Bureau]] (IB)
*[[Research and Analysis Wing]] (RAW)
=== [[Indonesia]] ===
*[[Badan Intelijen Nasional]] (BIN)
=== [[Iran]] ===
*[[Ministry of Intelligence (Iran)|Vezarat-e Ettela'at va Amniat-e Keshvar]] (VEVAK) (Ministry of Intelligence and National Security)
=== [[Iraq]] ===
* [[Iraqi National Intelligence Service]]
* [[General Security Directorate|Mudiriyat al-Amn al-Amma]]
=== [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland, Republic of]] ===
* [[Irish Secret Service]]
* [[G2 (Republic of Ireland)|G2]] (Military Intelligence)
=== [[Israel]] ===
*[[Mossad|ha-Mossad le-Modiin ule-Tafkidim Meyuhadim]] (Mossad) (Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations)
*[[Shin Bet|Sherut ha-Bitachon ha-Klali]] (Shabak or Shin Bet)
*[[Aman (IDF)|Agaf ha-Modi'in]] (Aman)
=== [[Italy]] ===
*[[CESIS|Comitato Esecutivo per i Servizi di Informazione e Sicurezza]] (CESIS) (Executive Committee for Intelligence and Security Services)
*[[Comitato Interministeriale per le Informazioni e la Sicurezza]] (CIIS) (Inter-ministerial Committee for Intelligence and Security)
*[[SISDE|Servizio per le Informazioni e la Sicurezza Democratica]] (SISDE) (Democratic Intelligence and Security Service)
*[[SISMI|Servizio per le Informazioni e la Sicurezza Militare]] (SISMI) (Military Intelligence and Security Service)
=== [[Japan]] ===
*[[Naicho|Naikaku Jouho Chousashitsu]] (Naicho) (Cabinet Intelligence and Research Office)
*[[Public Security Intelligence Agency]] (PSIA), [[Ministry of Justice (Japan)|Ministry of Justice]]
*[[Defense Intelligence Headquarters]] (DIH), [[Defence Agency]]
*[[Intelligence and Analysis Service]] (IAS), [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]]
*[[Security Bureau (Japan)| |
ury]]. [[American Kennel Club|AKC]] and [[CKC]] did not recognise the Afghan Hound until the 1930s.
On August 3, 2005, Korean scientist [[Hwang Woo-Suk]] announced that his team of researchers had become the first team to successfully [[cloning|clone]] a dog. The dog, an Afghan Hound, was named [[Snuppy]]. Later that year, a pattern of lies and fraud by [[Hwang Woo-Suk]] came to light, throwing in doubt all his claims. Snuppy, nonetheless, was [http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/01/09/skorea.stemcell.ap/index.html a genuine clone], and thus the first cloned dog in history. ("The panel found that Hwang's claims last year to have created the world's first cloned dog, however, were genuine.")
==Famous Afghans==
*Rita from [[Oliver and Company]]
*[[Snuppy]] (see above)
*[[What-a-Mess]]
*Brainy Barker from [[Krypto the Superdog]]
[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Sight hounds]]
<!--- en:Afghan Hound --->
[[da:Afghansk mynde]]
[[de:Afghanischer Windhund]]
[[es:Sabueso afgano]]
[[eo:Afgana leporhundo]]
[[fr:Lévrier afghan]]
[[he:כלב אפגני]]
[[no:Afghansk mynde]]
[[pl:Chart afgański]]
[[sk:Afganský chrt]]
[[sr:Авганистански хрт]]
[[sv:Afghanhund]]
[[cs:Afgánský chrt]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Azawakh</title>
<id>2836</id>
<revision>
<id>40359733</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:20:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Ced.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed. The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: -->
<!-- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Dog_breeds#Infobox_Dogbreed_template -->
<!-- for full explanation of the syntax used in this template. -->
{{Infobox Dogbreed
| image = Azawakh bitch Shira-tb.jpg
| image_caption = Azawakh bitch
| name = Azawakh
| altname = Tuareg Sloughi
| country = [[Mali]]
| fcigroup = 10
| fcisection = 3
| fcinum = 307
| fcistd = http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:AXaYK5FsCsgC:www.fci.be/uploaded_files/307gb98_en.doc+site:www.fci.be+307+/+03.+06.+1998&hl=en&ie=UTF-8
| akcgroup = Hound (FSS)
| akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/asawakh/index.cfm
| ukcgroup = Sighthounds and Pariah Dogs
| ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/sighthoundspariahs/azawakh.std.shtml
| akcfss = 'akc fss breed'
}}
<!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here -->
The '''Azawakh''' is a [[sight hound]] [[dog breed]] from [[Africa]].
==Appearance==
Rangy, leggy, lean, and elegant, the Azawakh is extremely high-stationed, taller than it is long. Its back length should be 90 percent of its leg length to [[withers]] (shoulder blades). It has a deep chest, which should not go below the elbows, and a high tuck/waist.
The breed weighs from 33 to 55 pounds (15-25 kg); its height is 24 to 29 inches (60-74 cm). The coat is very short and almost absent on the belly. Its bone structure shows clearly through the skin and musculature. Its muscles lie quite flat, unlike the [[Greyhound]], and in this respect it is closer to the [[Saluki]].
Colours permitted by the [[Fédération Cynologique Internationale|FCI]] breed standard are clear sand to dark fawn/brown, red and brindle (with or without a dark mask), with white bib, tail tip, and white on all feet (which can be tips of toes to high stockings). Currently, white stockings that go above the elbow joint are considered disqualifying features in France, as is a white collar or half collar. Many other colours occur in [[Africa]] such as black, blue fawn (that is, with a lilac cast), grizzle, and blue. The Azawakh in its native land also comes in [[particolour]]. Blue [[brindle]] is also found in about 0.5% of the population; this is a normal recessive gene which again does not meet current FCI standards. The Azawakh&rsquo;s light, supple, elastic gait is a notable breed characteristic, as is a 'bouncy gallop'.
Azawakhs need to be well socialised from an early age and should be challenged with new situations.
They are a combination of a sprinter (though not as fast as a Greyhound) and a long distance runner (like a Saluki). Therefore they need a good to high level of exercise and should have regular runs off lead in large enclosed areas to run off steam.
==Temperament==
It manages to balance a close bond with its owner with a strong, almost feline independence. Attentive, distant, reserved with strangers, Azawakhs are gentle and affectionate with those they accept.
==History==
Bred by the [[Tuareg]] nomads of the [[Sahara]] and sub-Saharan [[Sahel]] in the countries of [[Mali]], [[Niger]], and [[Burkina Faso]], the breed is used there as a [[guard dog]] and to hunt [[gazelle]] and [[hare]] at speeds up to 40 miles per hour. Unlike some other Afro-Asian sighthounds it is more of a pack hunter and they bump down the quarry with hindquarters when it has been tired out. The [[Sloughi]], by comparison, is more of an independent lone hunter and has a high hunting instinct.
They are relatively uncommon in [[Europe]] and [[North America]] but there is a growing band of devotees. It is not a 'doggy' dog, being very feline in temperamanet and therefore not a good pet for mainstream owners. However, well socialised and trained, they can be good with cats, children, and strangers. The breed is not yet registered by [[CKC]] or [[American Kennel Club|AKC]] (but is recorded in AKC&rsquo;s Foundation Stock Service); it is registered with [[United Kennel Club|UKC]], [[ARBA]] and others.
==External links==
*[http://members.aol.com/tagalas American Azawakh Association]
[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Sight hounds]]
[[da:Azawakh]]
[[de:Azawakh]]
[[he:&#1488;&#1494;&#1493;&#1493;&#1488;&#1511;]]
[[no:Azawakh]]
{{Link FA|no}}
[[pl:Chart afrykański]]
[[sr:&#1040;&#1079;&#1072;&#1074;&#1072;&#1082;]]
[[sv:Azawakh]]
[[fr:Azawakh]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Automatic Teller Machine</title>
<id>2837</id>
<revision>
<id>39489823</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T21:52:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nightstallion</username>
<id>149211</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dblrdr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Automated teller machine]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Acrylic paint</title>
<id>2838</id>
<revision>
<id>41739821</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:52:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ixfd64</username>
<id>6284</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/80.249.52.136|80.249.52.136]] ([[User talk:80.249.52.136|talk]]) to last version by Buck Mulligan</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Acrylic paint''' is fast-drying [[paint]] containing pigment suspended in an [[Wiktionary:acrylic|acrylic]] polymer [[emulsion]]. Acrylic paints can be diluted with water, but become water-resistant when dry. Depending on how much the paint is diluted (with water), the finished acrylic painting can resemble a [[watercolor painting|watercolor]] or an [[oil painting]].
Acrylics were first available commercially in the 1940s, although experimental forms of acrylic resin paints had been developed as early as the 1920s in the U.S. and earlier in Germany. The first commercially available acrylic paints were actually oil compatible.
Acrylics are sometimes used in place of watercolors because acrylics dry closer to the desired color (slightly darker, usually) while watercolors dry lighter (and often unpredictably, especially for beginning artists).
Acrylics are often used as an alternative to [[oil paint]]s because acrylics dry much faster (usually within an hour or even as little as less than a minute, depending on brand and thickness of application). Oil paints, which consist of pigment suspended in an oil (usually [[flax|linseed]], or other natural oil) base, can take a very long time to dry: a few weeks or as long as several months. Acrylic paints can achieve an oil-paint-like effect, and do so in much less time. Though applied to look like oil paints, acrylics are somewhat limited due to the superior color range of oil paints,{{fact}} and the fact that acrylic paints dry to a shiny, smooth effect&mdash;not surprising since acrylic paints are, basically, plastic. Accordingly, acrylic paint cannot be removed with [[turpentine]], mineral spirits (also known as white spirits), [[ammonia]], or [[rubbing alcohol]].
Acrylic painters modify the appearance, hardness, flexibility, texture, and other characteristics of the paint surface using acrylic media. Watercolor and oil painters also use various media, but the range of acrylic media is much greater. Acrylics have the ability to bond to many different surfaces, and media can be used to adjust their binding characteristics. Media can change the sheen from gloss to matte, or can add iridescence or texture to the surface. They can also be used to build thick layers of paint: gel and molding paste media are sometimes used to create paintings with relief features that are literally sculptural.
Acrylic paints are the most commonly used in [[surrealist techniques|grattage]] (''q.v.'').
Acrylic paintings, ideally, should be recognized as being as different from oil paintings as watercolors are — in other words, as a distinct art medium with its own advantages as well as limitations, rather than as a stand-in for another meduim. There are techniques which are available only to acrylic painters, as well as restrictions unique to acrylic painting. Therefore, judging an acrylic painting as though it were an oil painting (or a watercolor) is not always appropriate.
Although the permanency of acrylics is sometimes debated by conservators, they appear more |
ax Reinhardt''. Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1965.
*Eyman, Scott. ''The Speed of Sound: Hollywood and the Talkie Revolution, 1926-1930''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997. ISBN 0-684-81162-6
*King, Geoff. ''New Hollywood Cinema: An Introduction''. New York: Columbia University Press, [[2002]].
*Merritt, Greg. ''Celluloid Mavericks: A History of American Independent Film''. Thunder's Mouth Press, 2001.
*Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey, ed. ''The Oxford History of World Cinema''. Oxford University Press, [[1999]].
*Parkinson, David. ''History of Film''. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1995. ISBN 0-500-20277-X
*Rocchio, Vincent F. ''Reel Racism. Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture''. Westview Press, 2000.
*Schrader, Paul. "Notes on Film Noir." ''Film Comment'', 1984.
*Thackway, Melissa. ''Africa shoots back: Alternative perspectives in sub-saharan francophone african film''. Indiana University Press, 2003.
*Unterburger, Amy L. ''The St. James Women Filmmakers Encyclopedia: Women on the Other Side of the Camera''. Visible Ink Press, 1999.
===Digital video===
*''Glorious Technicolor''; directed by Peter Jones. Based on the book (above); written by Basten & Jones. Documentary, ([[1998]]).
===External links===
*[http://www.precinemahistory.net/index.html The Complete History of the Discovery of Cinematography (prehistory to 1900)]
*[http://www.widescreenmuseum.com/widescreen/early-jan1930.htm American Cinematographer - January, 1930, THE EARLY HISTORY OF WIDE FILMS]
*[http://www.saunalahti.fi/animato/filmhist/filmhist.html History of Film Formats]
*[http://www.widescreenmuseum.com/oldcolor/technicolor1.htm Technicolor History]
*[http://brightbytes.com/cosite/what.html What is a Camera Obscura?]
*[http://www.filmsound.org/film-sound-history/ Film Sound History]
*[http://www.earlycinema.com/index.html An Introduction to Early cinema]
*[http://www.eonline.com/Features/Specials/Jews/ Ben Stein talks about the very large Jewish element in Hollywood]
*[http://www.realityfilm.com/study/index.html Reality Film]
*[http://www.filmsite.org/filmh.html Film History by Decade] *popup warning*
[[Category:Film]]
[[Category:History of film| ]]
[[bn:চলচ্চিত্রের ইতিহাস]]
[[da:Filmhistorie]]
[[de:Filmgeschichte]]
[[es:Historia del cine]]
[[fr:Histoire du cinéma]]
[[hu:A film története]]
[[it:Storia del cinema]]
[[lb:Geschicht vum Film]]
[[pl:Kino]]
[[pt:História do cinema]]
[[sv:Filmens historia]]
[[ta:திரைப்பட வரலாறு]]
[[tr:Sinema tarihi]]
[[zh:电影史]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cinema of France</title>
<id>10784</id>
<revision>
<id>42162471</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:54:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Freakofnurture</username>
<id>77511</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>title has an x</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{EuropeanCinema}}
[[France]] has been influential in the development of [[film]] as a [[mass medium]] and as an art form.
==History==
===Late 19th century to early 20th century===
In the late [[19th century in film|19th century]], during the early years of cinema, France produced several important pioneers. [[Auguste and Louis Lumière]] invented the [[cinématographe]] and their screening of ''L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de la Ciotat'' in [[Paris]] in [[1895 in film|1895]] is marked by many historians as the official birth of cinema. During the next few years, filmmakers all over the world started experimenting with this new medium, and France's [[Georges Méliès]] was influential. He invented many of the techniques now common in the cinematic language, and made the first ever [[science fiction film]] ''[[A Trip to the Moon]]'' (Le Voyage dans la Lune, [[1902 in film|1902]]).
Other early individuals and organizations of this period included [[Gaumont Film Company|Gaumont Pictures]] and [[Pathé Frères]]. [[Alice Guy Blaché]] was one of the first pioneers in cinema. She made her first film in [[1896 in film|1896]], ''[[La Fée aux Choux]]'', and was head of production at Gaumont [[1897 in film|1897]]-[[1906 in film|1906]], where she made in total about 400 films. Her career continued in the United States. Another pioneer who worked in France and in the United States was [[Maurice Tourneur]].
During the period between [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], [[Jacques Feyder]] became one of the founders of [[poetic realism]] in French cinema.
Beginning in [[1935 in film|1935]], renowned playwright and actor [[Sacha Guitry]] directed his first film. He made more than 30 films that are seen as the precursor to the new wave era.
In [[1937 in film|1937]] [[Jean Renoir]], the son of famous painter [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], directed what many see as his first masterpiece, ''[[The Grand Illusion (movie)|La Grande Illusion (The Grand Illusion)]].'' In [[1939 in film|1939]] Renoir directed ''[[The Rules of the Game|La Règle du Jeu]]'' (The Rules of the Game). Several movie critic's have cited this film as one of the [[Films that have been considered the greatest ever|greatest of all-time]].
[[Marcel Carne]]'s ''[[Children of Paradise|Les Enfants du Paradis (Children of Paradise)]]'' was filmed during [[World War II]] and released in [[1945 in film|1945]]. The three hour film was extremely difficult to make due to the conditions during the Nazi occupation. Set in Paris in 1828, the film was voted "Best French Film of the Century" in a poll of 600 French critics and professionals in the late [[1990s in film|1990s]].
===Post-World War II: [[1940s in film|1940s]]-[[1970s in film|1970s]]===
In the critical magazine ''[[Cahiers du cinéma]]'' founded by [[André Bazin]], critics and lovers of film would discuss film and why it worked. Modern [[film theory]] was born there. Additionally, ''Cahiers'' critics such as [[Jean-Luc Godard]], [[François Truffaut]], [[Claude Chabrol]], etc. went on to make films themselves, creating what was to become known as the French ''[[French new wave|New Wave]]''. Some of the first movies of this new genre was Truffaut's ''[[The 400 Blows]]'' (Les Quatre Cent Coups, [[1959 in film|1959]]) starring [[Jean-Pierre Léaud]] and Godard's ''[[Breathless]]'' (À bout de souffle, [[1960 in film|1960]]), starring [[Jean-Paul Belmondo]].
====Personalities from this period====
*[[André Bazin]] Editor of [[Cahiers de cinema]]
*[[Brigitte Bardot]] (actor)
*[[Jacques Becker]] Director
*[[Sarah Bernhardt]]
*[[Robert Bresson]] Director
*[[René Clément]] Director
*[[Claude Chabrol]] Director
*[[Maurice Chevalier]]
*[[Henri-Georges Clouzot]]Director
*[[Jean Cocteau]]
*[[Anatole Dauman]] Producer
*[[Henri Decae]] Cinematographer
*[[Jacques Demy]] Director
*[[Jean Eustache]] Director
*[[Jean-Luc Godard]] Director
*[[Henri Langlois]]
*[[Claude Lelouch]] Director
*[[Louis Malle]] Director
*[[Marcel Marceau]]
*[[Chris Marker]] Director
*[[Jeanne Moreau]] Actor
*[[Michel Piccoli]] Actor
*[[Guy Debord]] Critic
*[[Jean Renoir]] Director
*[[Alain Resnais]]Director
*[[Jacques Rivette]]
*[[Éric Rohmer]] Director
*[[Viviane Romance]]
*[[Jacques Tati]] (actor, comedian)
*[[Jean-Louis Trintignant]] (actor)
*[[François Truffaut]] Director
*[[Roger Vadim]] (director)
*[[Agnès Varda]] Director
*[[Jean Vigo]] Director
===[[1980s in film|1980s]]===
When [[Jean-Jacques Beineix]] made ''[[Diva]]'' ([[1981 in film|1981]]) it sparked the beginning of the 80s wave of French cinema. Movies which followed in its wake included ''[[Betty Blue]]'' (37°2 le matin, [[1986 in film|1986]]) by Beineix, ''The Big Blue'' (Le Grand bleu, [[1988 in film|1988]]) by [[Luc Besson]] and ''[[The Lovers on the Bridge]]'' (Les Amants du Pont-Neuf, [[1991 in film|1991]]) by [[Léos Carax]].
===[[1990s in film|1990s]]===
In 1991, [[Jean-Pierre Jeunet]] made ''[[Delicatessen (movie)|Delicatessen]]'', followed by the [[1995 in film|1995]] ''[[The City of Lost Children]]'' (La Cité des enfants perdus). Both films featured a distinctly fantastic style.
In the mid-1990s, [[Krzysztof Kieślowski]] released his ''Three colors'' trilogy, ''[[Three Colors: Blue|Blue]]'', ''[[Three Colors: White|White]]'' and ''[[Three Colors: Red|Red]]''.
[[Mathieu Kassovitz]]'s film ''Hate'' ([[La Haine]], 1995) made [[Vincent Cassel]] into a star.
In [[2001 in film|2001]] after a brief stint in [[Hollywood]] with the fourth [[Alien (movie)|Alien]] film (''[[Alien: Resurrection]]''), Jeunet returned to France with ''[[Amélie]]'' (''Le fabuleux destin d'Amélie Poulain'') starring [[Audrey Tautou]] and Kassovitz.
==Current situation==
As the advent of [[television]] threatened the life of [[film|cinema]] itself, countries were faced with the problem of reviving cinema-going. The French cinema market, and more generally the French-speaking market, is smaller than the English-speaking market, one reason being that some major markets such as the [[United States]] are fairly reluctant to import foreign movies. As a consequence, French movies have to be amortized on a relatively small market and thus generally have budgets far lower than their American counterparts, ruling out expensive settings and [[special effect]]s. Interestingly, the once prospering filmmaking industry of countries such as [[Italy]] has now largely been eliminated. The French government has therefore implemented various measures aimed at supporting local film production and movie theaters, including:
* the [[Canal Plus]] TV channel has a broadcast license imposing that it should support the production of movies;
* some taxes are levied on movies and TV channels for use as subsidies for movie production;
* some tax breaks are given for investment in movie productions;
* the sale of [[DVD]]s and [[videocassette]]s of movies shown in theaters is prohibited for six months after the showing in theaters, so as to ensure some revenue for movie theaters.
==Notable contemporary French cinema personalities==
<!-- this sho |
lization]]s developed at a slower rate than [[Old World]] ones.
Critics have disputed this by argueing that there was no lack of tameable megafauna; llama, vicuna, bison were all there.
'''Reference''' : E. C. Pielou, ''After the Ice Age: the return of life to glaciated North America,'' 1991
=====South America=====
South America, which had remained largely unglaciated, except for increased mountain glaciation in the [[Andes]], there was a contemporaneous but smaller wave of extinctions.
=====Australia=====
(''ca.'' 26000-15000 BP) the sudden spate of extinctions came earlier than in the Americas, but lagged well after the first arrival of humans. The Australian extinctions included:
* [[diprotodon]]s (giant relatives of the [[wombat]]s)
* ''Zygomaturus trilobus'' (a large [[marsupial]] herbivore)
* ''Palorchestes azael'' (a marsupial "[[tapir]]")
* ''Macropus titan'' (a giant [[kangaroo]])
* ''Procoptodon goliah'' (a hoof-toed giant short-faced kangaroo)
* ''Wonambi naracoortensis'' (a five-to-six-metre-long Australian constrictor [[snake]])
* ''[[Thylacoleo]] carnifex'' (a leopard-sized marsupial lion)
* ''[[Megalania prisca]]'' (a giant monitor lizard)
Some extinct megafauna, such as the [[bunyip]]-like [[diprotodon]], may be the sources of ancient [[cryptozoology|cryptozoological legends]].
===Younger prehistoric extinctions===
<!--needs moving around-->
====New Zealand====
c. 1200 years ago, several species became extinct after [[Polynesia]]n settlers arrived, including:
* Ten species of [[Moa]], giant flightless [[ratite]] birds.
* The giant Haast's Eagle, ''[[Harpagornis]]''
* The flightless predatory [[Adzebill]]s.
====Pacific, including Hawaii====
Recent research, based on [[archeology|archaeological]] and [[paleontology|paleontological]] digs on 70 different islands, has shown the numerous species went extinct as people moved across the Pacific, starting 30,000 years ago in the [[Bismarck Archipelago]] and [[Solomon Islands]] (Steadman & Martin [[2003]]). It is currently estimated that among the bird species of the Pacific some 2000 species have gone extinct since the arrivial of humans (Steadman [[1995]]). Among the extinctions were:
* The [[Moa-nalo]]s, giant grazing ducks from [[Hawaii]].
* A giant [[megapode]] from [[New Caledonia]].
* [[Mekosuchine crocodiles]] from New Caledonia [[Fiji]] and [[Samoa]].
====Madagascar====
Starting with the arrival of humans c. 2000 years ago, nearly all of the island's megafauna became extinct, including:
* the ''[[Aepyornis]]'', or Elephant Bird, a giant flightless [[ratite]] bird.
* 17 of 50 species of lemur, including:
** giant [[aye-aye]] ''(Daubentonia robusta)''; last known individual killed 1930
** sloth lemurs, including chimpanzee-sized ''[[Palaeopropithecus]]'' and gorilla-sized ''[[Archaeoindris]]''
** ''[[Megaladapis]]'', an orangutan-sized arboreal lemur
* [[giant tortoise]]
* pygmy [[hippopotamus]]
====Indian Ocean Islands====
Starting c. 500 years ago, a number of species became extinct upon human settlement of the islands, including:
* several species of giant tortoise on the [[Seychelles]] and [[Mascarene Islands]]
* 14 species of [[extinct birds|birds]] on the Mascarene Islands, including the [[Dodo]], the [[Rodrigues Solitaire]], and the unrelated [[Réunion Sacred Ibis|Réunion Solitaire]].
==The Ongoing Holocene Extinction==
The rate of extinction today appears to be similar to, or perhaps greater than, the rate during the five 'classic' [[extinction event]]s in deep geological time, such as the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]] that extinguished some 90% of the [[Paleozoic]] [[biota]], or the [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]] that eliminated all non-avian [[dinosaur]]s at the end of the [[Cretaceous]], 65 million years ago.
The current Holocene extinction differs from all previous extinction events in that it appears to be caused by a single species&mdash;humans. The coincidence between the appearance of modern humans and the extermination of large mammalian Ice Age biota ('[[megafauna]]') is thought significant by many authorities, and has been given the name 'the prehistoric overkill' by [[Paul S. Martin]], [[University of Arizona]].
Megafaunal extinctions have continued to the present day. Modern extinctions are more directly attributable to human influences. Extinction rates are minimized in the popular imagination by the survival of captive trophy populations of animals that are merely "extinct in the wild," (Père David's Deer, etc) and by marginal survivals of highly-publicized megafauna that is "ecologically extinct" ([[Giant Panda]], [[Sumatran Rhinoceros]], the North American [[Black-Footed Ferret]], etc.) and by unregarded extinctions among [[arthropod]]s. Some notable examples of modern extinctions of "charismatic" mammal fauna:
* [[Aurochs]], Europe
* [[Thylacine]] or Tasmanian Tiger, ''Thylacinus cynocephalus'', Tasmania [''extinction disputed'']
* [[Quagga]], a zebra relative, Southeast Africa
* [[Steller's Sea Cow]]
Many birds have become extinct as a result of human activity, especially birds [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to islands, including many flightless birds (''see a more complete list under ''[[extinct birds]]). Notable extinct birds include:
* the [[Dodo]], the giant flightless [[pigeon]] of [[Mauritius]], [[Indian Ocean]]
* the [[Great Auk]] of islands in the north Atlantic
* the [[Passenger Pigeon]] of North America
* several species of [[Moa]], giant flightless birds from New Zealand
Most biologists believe that we are at this moment at the beginning of a tremendously accelerated anthropogenic mass extinction. [[E.O. Wilson]] of Harvard, in ''The Future of Life'' (2002), estimates that at current rates of human destruction of the biosphere, one-half of all species of life will be extinct in 100 years. In 1998 the American Museum of Natural History conducted a poll of biologists that revealed that the vast majority of biologists believe that we are in the midst of an anthropogenic mass extinction. Numerous scientific studies since then&mdash;led by the 10,000 scientists who contribute to the [[IUCN]]'s annual [[Red List]] of threatened species&mdash;have only strengthened this consensus.
Our evidence for all previous extinction events is geological evidence, and the shortest scales of geological time usually are in the order of several hundred thousand to several million years. Even those extinction events that were caused by instantaneous events &mdash; the [[Chicxulub Crater|Chicxulub]] [[asteroid]] impact being currently the demonstrable example &mdash; unfold through the equivalent of many human lifetimes, due to the complex ecological interactions that are unleashed by the event.
There still is debate as to the extent to which the disappearance of megafauna at the end of the last [[ice age]] can also be attributed to human activities, directly, by hunting, or indirectly, by decimation of prey populations. While [[climate change]] is still cited as another important factor, anthropogenic explanations have become predominant.
Those who are skeptical about the impending mass extinction argue that even if the current rate of extinction is higher than the rate during a great [[mass extinction event]], as long as the current rate does not last more than a few thousand years, the overall effect will be small. There is still hope, argue some, that humanity can eventually slow the rate of extinction through proper ecological management. Current socio-political trends, others argue, indicate that this idea is overly optimistic. Most hopes are set on [[sustainable development]] and moderate forms of [[Anarcho-primitivism|primitivism]].
==External links==
* [http://www.well.com/user/davidu/extinction.html The Current Mass Extinction Event]
* [http://www.amnh.org/museum/press/feature/biofact.html American Museum of Natural History official statement on current mass extinction]
* [http://extinct.petermaas.nl The Extinction Website]
==References==
* Leakey, Richard and Roger Lewin, 1996, ''The Sixth Extinction : Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind'', Anchor, ISBN 0385468091.
* Martin, P.S. & Wright, H.E. Jr., eds., 1967. ''Pleistocene Extinctions: The Search for a Cause''. Yale University Press, New Haven, 440 pp., ISBN 0300007558
* Pielou, E. C., 1991, ''After the Ice Age: the return of life to glaciated North America'', University Of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226668118
* Steadman, D.W., 1995. Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific island birds: biodiversity meets zooarchaeology. ''Science'' '''267''', 1123–1131.
* Steadman, D.W., Martin, P.S., 2003. [http://www.eeb.cornell.edu/donlan/readings/Steadman%20and%20Martin%202003.pdf The late Quaternary extinction and future resurrection of birds on Pacific islands]. ''Earth-Science Reviews'' '''61''', 133–147
[[Category:Extinction events]]
[[Category:Holocene]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hollywood-Style Lindy Hop</title>
<id>14209</id>
<revision>
<id>40635004</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T23:41:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>146.186.44.179</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hollywood Style Lindy''' is an [[United States|America]]n [[dance]], a variety of [[Lindy Hop]].
The style is very popular on the west coast of the [[United States|US]], though is danced all over the USA and other countries as well.
Hollywood is the style seen in [[1930s]] and [[1940s]] movies. It was danced by [[Dean Collins]], Hal Takier, Jean Veloz and others. The style was essentially lost in the post-war era, but it was reconstructed in the late [[1990s]] by Erik Robison and Sylvia Skylar. They were the first to call it "Hollywood Style".
Hollywood Style Lindy Hop is a fun, upbeat dance with tons of opportunities to expand the style and make your own moves. The [[Swing Out]] (the b |
]
[[sk:Arménsko]]
[[sl:Armenija]]
[[sr:Јерменија]]
[[fi:Armenia]]
[[sv:Armenien]]
[[tl:Armenia]]
[[th:ประเทศอาร์เมเนีย]]
[[tr:Ermenistan]]
[[uk:Вірменія]]
[[ur:آرمینیا]]
[[zh:亞美尼亞]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Azerbaijan</title>
<id>746</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42040989</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:31:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stephen G. Brown</username>
<id>117550</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the region in northwest [[Iran]], see [[Iranian Azerbaijan]]''
{{Infobox Country|
native_name = Azərbaycan Respublikası<br>Republic of Azerbaijan|
common_name = Azerbaijan |
national_motto = none |
national_anthem = [[Azərbaycan Respublikasının Dövlət Himni]] |
image_flag = Flag of Azerbaijan.svg |
image_coat = Azericoat.gif |
image_map = LocationAzerbaijan.png |
capital = [[Baku]] |latd=40|latm=22|latNS=N|longd=49|longm=53|longEW=E|
largest_city = [[Baku]] |
official_languages = [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] |
government_type = [[Representative democracy]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Azerbaijan|President]]<br>Prime Minister |
leader_names = [[Ilham Aliyev]]<br>[[Artur Rasizade]] |
sovereignty_type = [[Collapse of the Soviet Union|Independence]] |
established_events = &nbsp;- Declared<br> &nbsp;- Formerly |
established_dates = From the [[Soviet Union]]<br>[[August 30]], [[1991]]<br> [[Azerbaijan SSR]] |
area = 86,600 |
areami² = 33,436 | <!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
area_rank = 112th |
area_magnitude = 1 E9 |
percent_water = negligible |
population_estimate = 7,911,974 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 91st |
population_census = N/A |
population_census_year = 2000|
population_density = 90 |
population_densitymi² = 233 | <!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
population_density_rank = 81st |
GDP_PPP_year = 2004 |
GDP_PPP = $37,841,000,000 |
GDP_PPP_rank = 87th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $4,500 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 112th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.729 |
HDI_rank = 101st |
HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> |
currency = [[Manat (Azerbaijan)|Manat]] |
currency_code = AZN |
time_zone = |
utc_offset = +4 |
time_zone_DST = |
utc_offset_DST = +5 |
cctld = [[.az]] |
calling_code = 994 |
footnotes = |
}}
The '''Republic of Azerbaijan''' ([[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]]: Azərbaycan or Azərbaycan Respublikası) is a country in the [[Caucasus]], at the crossroads of [[Europe]] and [[Southwest Asia]], with a coast on the [[Caspian Sea]]. It has frontiers with [[Russia]] in the north, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] in the northwest, [[Armenia]] in the west, and [[Iran]] in the south. The [[Nakhichevan|Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic]] (an [[exclave]] of Azerbaijan) borders Armenia to the north and east, Iran to the south and west, and [[Turkey]] to the northwest.
Azerbaijan is a secular state, and has been a member of the [[Council of Europe]] since 2001. A majority of the population are [[Shi'a Muslim]] and of Western [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] descent, known as [[Azerbaijanis]], or simply Azeris. The country is formally an emerging [[democracy]], however with strong [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]] rule.
== Etymology ==
There are several hypotheses regarding the origins of the name "Azerbaijan." The most common theory is that it is derived from "Atropatan." [[Atropat]] was the [[satrap]] at the time of the [[Persian empire|Persian]] [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid dynasty]], and gained independence after [[Alexander the Great]] destroyed the Achaemenids. The region was known as ''[[Medes|Media]] Atropatia'' or ''[[Atropatene]]'' at the time.
There are also alternative opinions that the term is a slight Turkification of ''Azarbaijan'', in turn an Arabicized version of the original Persian name ''Âzarâbâdagân'', made up of ''âzar+âbadag+ân'' (''âzar''=fire; ''âbâdag''=cultivated area; ''ân''=suffix of pluralization); that it traditionally means "the land of eternal flames" or "the land of fire", which is probabely implies [[Zoroastrian]] fire temples in this land. Some Azeri historians contend that the name is made up of four [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] components: ''az+er+bay+can'', which means "the land of the brave Az people" or "an elevated place for the wealthy and exalted." <!--please name some of these Azeri historians who so contend-->
Historically, a large part of the territory of the present-day Azerbaijan Republic has been called [[Arran (Azerbaijan)|Arran]], named after Arran, a legendary founder of [[Caucasian Albania]]. However, the precise location identified by this name has shifted somewhat over time, currently referring to the lowland Karabakh plains situated between the [[Kura]] and [[Araks]] rivers.
Some opponents of the name ''Azerbaijan'' assert that it is anachronistic to use it in a historical context before 1918, because, they say, the term was first introduced by the national intelligentsia in early 20th century and later was endorsed by the Bolsheviks, with intention of claiming the northern province of [[Persian Empire|Persia]]. To substantiate this claim they state that until the early 20th century the population of present-day Azerbaijan had no clear ethnic identification and referred to themselves primarily as "Muslims."
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Azerbaijan]]''
The earliest known inhabitants of what is today Azerbaijan were the [[Caucasian Albania]]ns, a [[Languages of the Caucasus|Caucasian]]-speaking people who appear to have been in the region prior to the host of peoples who would eventually invade the Caucasus. Historically Azerbaijan has been occupied by a variety of peoples, including [[Armenians]], [[Persians]], [[Roman Empire|Romans]], [[Arabs]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], [[Mongols]], [[Greek Empire]], and [[Russians]].
The first state to emerge in the territory of present-day Republic of Azerbaijan was [[Mannai|Mannae]] in the 9th century [[Anno Domini|BC]], lasting until 616 BC when it was overthrown by the [[Medes]]. The satrapies of Atropatene and [[Caucasian Albania]] were established in the [[4th century BC]] and included the approximate territories of present-day Azerbaijan and southern parts of [[Dagestan]].
[[Islam]] spread rapidly in Azerbaijan following the Arab conquests in the [[7th century|7th]]&ndash;[[8th century|8th centuries]]. After the power of the Arab Khalifate waned, several semi-independent states have been formed, the Shirvanshah kingdom being one of them. In the 11th century, the conquering [[Seljuk Turks]] became the dominant force in Azerbaijan and laid the ethnic foundation of contemporary [[Azerbaijanis]] or Azeri Turks. In the [[13th century|13]]&ndash;[[14th century|14th centuries]], the country experienced [[Mongol]]-[[Tatars|Tatar]] invasions.
Azerbaijan was part of the [[Safavids|Safavid state]] in [[15th century|15th]]&ndash;[[18th century|18th centuries]]. It also underwent a brief period of feudal fragmentation in the mid-18th to early 19th centuries, and consisted of independent khanates. Following the two wars between the [[Qajars|Qajar dynasty]] of [[Persian Empire|Persia]] and the [[Russian Empire]], Azerbaijan was acquired by Russia through the [[Treaty of Gulistan]] in 1813, and the [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]] in 1828.
After the collapse of the Russian Empire during [[World War I]], Azerbaijan declared independence and established the [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]. This first Muslim republic in the world lasted only two years, from 1918 to 1920, before the [[Soviet]] [[Red Army]] invaded Azerbaijan. Subsequently, Azerbaijan became part of the [[Soviet Union]].
Azerbaijan re-established its independence upon the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Despite a [[cease-fire]] in place since 1994, Azerbaijan has yet to resolve its conflict with [[Armenia]] over the predominantly ethnic Armenian [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] region. Azerbaijan has lost control of 16% of its territory including Karabakh, and must support some 800,000 [[refugee]]s and internally [[displaced person]]s as a result of the conflict.
== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of Azerbaijan]]''
[[Image:Ilham aliyev.jpg|right|160px|thumb|[[Ilham Aliyev]], President of Azerbaijan]]
Azerbaijan is a [[presidential republic]]. The [[head of state]] and [[head of government]] are separate from the country’s law-making body. The people elect the [[president of Azerbaijan|president]] for a five-year term of office. The president appoints all [[cabinet]]-level government administrators. A fifty-member national assembly makes the country’s laws. The people of Azerbaijan elect the [[National Assembly]]. Azerbaijan has [[universal suffrage]] above the age of eighteen.
After the presidential elections of [[Azerbaijan presidential election, 2003|October 15, 2003]], an official release of the Central Election Committee (CEC) gave [[Isa Gambar]] — leader of the largest opposition bloc, [[Bizim Azerbaycan]] ("Our Azerbaijan") — 14% percent of the electorate and the second place in election. Third, with 3.6%, came [[Lala Shevket|Lala Shevket Hajiyeva]], leader of the National Unity Movement, the first woman to run in presidential election in Azerbaijan. Nevertheless, the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], the [[Council of Europe]], [[Human Rights Watch]] and other international organizations, as well as local independent political and [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]s voiced concern about observed vote rigging and a badly flawed counting process.
Several independent local and international organizations that had been observing and monitoring the election directly or indirectly declared [[Isa Gambar]] winner |
irty". On forums and chat rooms "ecchi" is used to refer to pictures that are [[pornography|softcore pornography]], showing nothing more explicit than women's breasts.
Exactly how the term ''hentai'' came to refer to all sexually explicit content in American anime fandom is unknown. With the rise of the [[World Wide Web]], however, the term was extensively promoted by pornographic sites selling access to (frequently bootlegged) erotic manga. [[Banner ad]]s promoting these sites might, for instance advertise "live girls and hentai", with the latter meaning erotic manga as opposed to photographs. In addition, many people outside of anime and manga fandom had come to associate anime with a particular genre of extreme pornography (e.g., [[tentacle rape]]) which could easily be called ''hentai'' in Japanese as well.
"H" in Japan is now broadly used to refer to all sexual content or activity, so "H manga" are manga with sexual content&mdash;however, "H" and "hentai" are no longer interchangeable. Also, the term "ero" (エロ), short for "erotic" but closer in meaning to "porn", is now used more often instead of "H".
==Hentai media==
*Adult anime, or [[List of H anime|H anime]], is anime that relies primarily on sex.
*[[3D computer graphics|3D]] rendered graphics, a more recent development that has evolved with graphics technology. Styles tend to emulate drawn art as well as video game art. Can be in image, game, or animation form.
*Adult manga, or [[H Manga]], is manga designed for purely pornographic purposes. Plot is still used to develop character and setting, but the ultimate goal is to show scenes of sexuality. Adult manga is often sold in convenience stores, book stores, and magazine stores in Japan, and also other public places such as airports, and is far more prolific and accessible than the US adult [[comic book]] market. It is usually distributed in digest format, containing several stories by different artists.
*Adult [[CG artwork]] includes individual drawings by artists. Art can be available on websites, [[CD-ROM]]s, or in printed art books. CG artwork is used frequently in adult video games.
*Adult video games, or [[eroge]], are games with a pornographic element. They can include [[bishoujo game]]s that involve character driven plots, can exist as sex [[simulation]]s.
*Adult Dōjinshi, or [[H dojinshi|H dōjinshi]], refers to a type of work that uses copyrighted characters presented in sexual situations. It usually refers to printed manga, but can also refer to any type of visual work depicting copyrighted characters, including video games, animation, and CG artwork. Familiarity with a particular character or setting can add a sense of relating to the character over a generic character used in mainstream hentai, making dōjinshi more appealing to fans of a particular work. Despite not representing characters and licensed properties as intended, companies often view these works as a free form of license recognition and advertising through dedicated fandom. Some mangakas create hentai dojinshi with characters from their own mangas. Like [[Kazushi Hagiwara]] who create himself "Bastard - Expansion", a hentai doujin with characters from [[Bastard!!]].
*In Western [[fanfiction]] circles, hentai-based works are popularly referred to as [[Lemon (anime)|lemon]], based on a more popular hentai title called [[Cream Lemon]]. Fictions referred to as "Lime" are ones in which the characters do everything short of having sexual intercourse with each other. In Japan, the works may be referred to as "lemon" or "[[pink]]" ("pink" having sexual connotations similar to the term "blue" in the west).
*Hobbyists often add an extreme adult element to sculptures, models, figures, dolls, mannequins, or outfits.
== Hentai classification ==
There are two main categories of hentai: works that feature mainly heterosexual interactions (often abbreviated "het" by its users), and those that feature mainly homosexual interactions. This second group can be further split into [[yaoi]] and [[Yuri (animation)|yuri]] styles. ''Yaoi'' refers to [[homosexuality|homosexual]] male pairings, and ''yuri'' to [[lesbian]] pairings.
Yaoi commonly features males of ambiguous [[gender]] in both physical appearance and mannerisms. These males are called "[[bishonen|bishōnen]]," which literally means "pretty boy." The traditional "[[bear community|bear]]" of gay porn in other countries is very rare in Japan. Yaoi also exists outside of the hentai genre, since it is an ambiguous term that is applied to any form of anime that includes male homosexuality. However, it is different from [[shonen-ai|shōnen-ai]] (literally, "boy-love"), in which two males simply express romantic feelings for each other and never actually have sexual relations.
Yuri is very similar to yaoi, except that the focus is on homosexual female interactions, and the females in a typical yuri illustration or animation tend to be far less realistic than the males in yaoi. The females in yuri are known as "[[bishojo|bishōjo]]," which, predictably, translates as "pretty girl." Shōjo-ai ("girl love") is the female equivalent of shōnen-ai.
The scope of hentai encompasses the entire range of sexual [[fetish]]es, including:
*[[Bakunyuu]], the depiction of women with large breasts. Literally translated to "busty".
*[[BDSM]], focusing on domination though use of ropes, tools, [[sex toys]], and elaborate devices. Themes can include empowerment, restriction, and submitting to sexual urges.
*[[Bukkake]], a common representation of a female being used to service as many males as physically possible, who then ejaculate on her. Often depicted in public or in areas with a large number of males present.
*[[Catgirl]]s (also known as "nekos" - Japanese for "cat" - in online slang) and other anthropomorphic characters, who display animal attributes such as ears, claws, and a tail. Generally, skin is made completely visible and not covered entirely by fur, a distinction from [[furries]].
*[[Coprophilia|Coprophilial]] and [[urolagnia|urolagnial]]
*[[Deformity]]
*[[Ecchi]], focusing on nudity, partial nudity, and provocative clothing rather than pure sex.
*[[Futanari]], a depiction of females who naturally have male genitalia, often exaggerated beyond normal proportions.
*[[Guro]], focusing on imaginative gore and mutilation.
*[[Incest]]
*[[Lolicon]], includes girls who are depicted as being below the age of consent. <!-- in Japan (for sexual activities) [http://www.ageofconsent.com/japan.htm], which is 13. -->
*[[Maiesiophilia]]
*[[Milk fetishism]]
*[[Science Fiction]], [[Fantasy]] and [[Horror (genre)|Horror]]
*[[Shota]], the depiction of underage boys having intercourse with other boys, men or women.
*[[Tentacle sex]], the depiction of tentacled creatures or monsters (imaginative or otherwise) engaging in sex or rape with girls.
==See also==
*[[Anime]]
*[[Cartoon pornography]]
*[[Bishōjo game]]
*[[Bishoujo]]
*[[Bishounen]]
*[[Eroge]]
*[[H anime]]
*[[H manga]]
*[[List of H authors]] (groups, studios, production companies, circles)
*[[List of Monthly H manga]]
*[[Lolicon]]
*[[Manga]]
*[[Panchira]]
*[[Shotakon]]
*[[Shunga]]
*[[Yaoi]]
*[[Yuri (animation)]]
== External links and references ==
*[http://wakaba.c3.cx/soc/kareha.pl/1121956450 Comparative English and Japanese uses of the word]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20021212041355re_/home.attbi.com/~kagamix2/H_does_not_mean_hentai/ 'H' does not mean 'hentai']
*[http://www.hentai.co.uk/articles/hentai_past_and_present.html Hentai: Past and Present]
[[Category:hentai]]
[[Category:Japanese sex terms]]
[[Category:Anime and manga terminology]]
[[Category:Pornography]]
[[da:Hentai]]
[[de:Hentai]]
[[es:Hentai]]
[[eo:Hentajo]]
[[fr:Hentai]]
[[ko:헨타이]]
[[it:Hentai]]
[[he:האנטיי]]
[[nl:Hentai]]
[[no:Hentai]]
[[pl:Hentai]]
[[pt:Hentai]]
[[ru:Хентай]]
[[sq:Hentai]]
[[simple:Hentai]]
[[sv:Hentai]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henry VII of the Holy Roman Empire</title>
<id>14185</id>
<revision>
<id>15911756</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-31T19:24:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.82.80.242</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henry VII of England</title>
<id>14186</id>
<revision>
<id>42141864</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:26:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>61.91.223.140</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Monarch | name=Henry VII
| title= King of England, Lord of Ireland
| image=[[Image: henry7.JPG|200px]]
| reign= [[August 22]] [[1485]] - [[April 21]] [[1509]]
| coronation= [[October 30]] [[1485]]
| queen= [[Elizabeth of York]] ([[1466]]-[[1503]])
| royal house= [[House of Tudor|Tudor]]
| father= [[Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond|Edmund Tudor]] (c. [[1430]]-[[1456]])
| mother= [[Margaret Beaufort]] ([[1443]]-[[1509]])
| issue= [[Arthur, Prince of Wales]] ([[1486]]-[[1502]])<br>[[Margaret Tudor]] ([[1489]]-[[1541]])<br>[[Henry VIII of England]] ([[1491]]-[[1547]])<br>[[Elizabeth Tudor]] ([[1492]]-[[1495]])<br>[[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary Tudor]] ( [[1496]]-[[1533]])<br>[[Edmund Tudor, Duke of Somerset|Edmund Tudor, Duke of<br>Somerset]] ([[1499]]-[[1500]])<br>[[Katherine Tudor]] ([[1503]]-[[1503]])
| date of birth= [[January 28]] [[1457]]
| place of birth= [[Pembroke Castle]]
| date of death= [[April 21]] [[1509]]
| place of death= [[Richmond Palace]]
| place of burial= [[Westminster Abbey]]
}}
'''Henry VII''' ([[January 28]] [[1457]] - [[April 21]] [[1509]] |
quality such as high-definition (HDTV) and new AVC (Advanced Video Compression) standards such as MPEG4 H.264 or WM9 (very efficient emerging picture compression standards).
Not only are set-top boxes becoming smarter (they are essentially cut down PC's in their own right) they will interact with other devices such as PDA's, mobile phones, and the Internet to provide a truly flexible solution allowing local information to be tailored to specific regions (e.g. weather and news from your local area).
=== Analog switch-off ===
In general, viewers who are happy with their existing analog TV systems tend not to adopt terrestrial DTV systems (so-called "digital refuseniks").
There is also a significant number of [[DVB]] or [[free-to-air]] satellite viewers who retain analog terrestrial capability solely for news, sport, or other purely local broadcasts. The cost of a second digital set-top box for each TV just for a few local channels may be difficult to justify if these households already watch digital signals on most channels and have capital tied up in DVB-S or proprietary dish hardware.
In the subscription-TV market, many who want cable-TV-like services buy either cable TV (where available) or satellite DTV.
As such, those most able to afford terrestrial DTV equipment are the ones abandoning "over-the-air" reception for satellite or other signal sources that provide a wider selection of programming.
Governments are responding to this with an attempt to force the issue by enforcing planned "switch-off" dates for analog television, but are encountering resistance from the public, as they fear that this will mean that they will need to replace every television they own, including portable TVs and bedroom TVs, or buy additional digital receivers (a set-top box).
In the United States, many broadcasters have requested repeated extensions of the original [[2002]] deadline for ATSC availability or transmit ATSC only at significantly lower power than their main signal. The capital cost to build even an underpowered digital transmitter becomes particularly onerous for small-market stations (''see [[KXGN]]''). A bill signed into law on February 8, 2006, set the date by which this transition would be completed as [[February 17]], [[2009]]. See [[List of digital television deployments by country]].
== Technical ==
=== Formats ===
All digital TV variants can carry both [[standard-definition television]] (SDTV) and high-definition television (HDTV).
All early SDTV television standards were analog in nature, and SDTV digital television systems derive much of their structure from the need to be compatible with [[analog television]]. In particular, the [[interlace|interlaced scan]] is a legacy of analog television.
Attempts were made during the development of digital television to prevent a repeat of the fragmentation of the global market into different standards (that is, [[PAL]], [[SÉCAM]], [[NTSC]]). However, once again the world could not agree on a single standard, and hence there are two major standards in existence: the [[Europe]]an [[DVB]] system and the [[United States|U.S.]] [[ATSC]] system, plus the [[Japan]]ese system [[ISDB]].
Note: For cable, in addition to ATSC standards, the [[SCTE]] standard is used to describe Cable out-of-band metadata.
Most countries in the world have adopted DVB, but several have followed the U.S. in adopting ATSC instead ([[Canada]], [[Mexico]], [[South Korea]]). Korea has adopted S-DMB for satellite mobile broadcasting.
There could be other specialized high-resolution digital video formats in the future for markets other than home entertainment. [[Ultra High Definition Video]] (UHDV) is a format proposed by [[NHK]] of [[Japan]] that provides a resolution 16 times greater than HDTV.
=== Bandwidth ===
In current practice, HDTV uses 1280 × 720 [[pixel]]s in [[progressive scan]] mode (abbreviated ''720p'') or 1920 × 1080 pixels in [[interlace]] mode (''1080i''). SDTV has less resolution (640 x 480 or 704 × 480 pixels with NTSC, 768 × 576 or 1024 × 576 with [[PAL]] in [[4:3]] and [[16:9]] [[aspect ratio]]s respectively), but allows the bandwidth of a DTV channel (or "multiplex") to be subdivided into multiple sub-channels. The TV stations can use subchannels to carry multiple broadcasts of video, audio, or any other data, and can distribute their so-called "[[bit budget]]" as necessary, such as dropping one sub-channel down to a lower resolution in order to make another one available to show a wide-screen movie. Often, this is done automatically, using a [[statistical multiplexer]] (or "stat-mux").
Multiplexes can even reduce their overall bit budget and digital [[bandwidth]], in order to reduce the transmission [[bitrate]] and make reception easier for more distant or mobile viewers.
=== Reception ===
Today most viewers receive digital television via a set-top box, which [[decoder|decodes]] the digital signals into signals that analog televisions can understand, but a slowly growing number of TV sets with integrated receivers are already available. Access to channels can be controlled by a removable [[smart card]], for example via the [[Common Interface]] (DVB-CI) standard for Europe and via [[Point Of Deployment]] (POD) for IS or named differently [[CableCard]]. Some signals carry [[encryption]] and specify use conditions (such as "may not be recorded" or "may not be viewed on displays larger than 1m in diagonal measure") backed up with the force of law under the [[WIPO Copyright Treaty]] and national [[legislation]] implementing it, such as the U.S. [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]].
=== Protection parameters for terrestrial DTV broadcasting ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| System Parameters<br><small>(protection ratios)</small>
| Canada [13]
| USA [5]
| EBU [9, 12]<br><small>ITU-mode M3</small>
| Japan [36, 37] <sup id="fn_2_back">[[#fn_2|2]]</sup>
|-
| C/N for AWGN Channel
| +19.5 dB<br>(16.5 dB<sup id="fn_1_back">[[#fn_1|1]]</sup> )
| +15.19 dB
| +19.3 dB
| +19.2 dB
|-
| Co-Channel DTV into Analog TV
| +33.8 dB
| +34.44 dB
| +34 ~ 37 dB
| +38 dB
|-
| Co-Channel Analog TV into DTV
| +7.2 dB
| +1.81 dB
| +4 dB
| +4 dB
|-
| Co-Channel DTV into DTV
| +19.5 dB<br>(16.5 dB<sup id="fn_1_back">[[#fn_1|1]]</sup> )
| +15.27 dB
| +19 dB
| +19 dB
|-
| Lower Adjacent Channel DTV into Analog TV
| -16 dB
| -17.43 dB
| -5 ~ -11 dB<sup id="fn_3_back">[[#fn_3|3]]</sup>
| -6 dB
|-
| Upper Adjacent Channel DTV into Analog TV
| -12 dB
| -11.95 dB
| -1 ~ -10<sup id="fn_3_back">[[#fn_3|3]]</sup>
| -5 dB
|-
| Lower Adjacent Channel Analog TV into DTV
| -48 dB
| -47.33 dB
| -34 ~ -37 dB<sup id="fn_3_back">[[#fn_3|3]]</sup>
| -35 dB
|-
| Upper Adjacent Channel Analog TV into DTV
| -49 dB
| -48.71 dB
| -38 ~ -36 dB<sup id="fn_3_back">[[#fn_3|3]]</sup>
| -37 dB
|-
| Lower Adjacent Channel DTV into DTV
| -27 dB
| -28 dB
| -30 dB
| -28 dB
|-
| Upper Adjacent Channel DTV into DTV
| -27 dB
| -26 dB
| -30 dB
| -29 dB
|}
<cite id="fn_1">[[#fn_1_back|Note 1:]] </cite> The Canadian parameter, C/(N+I) of noise plus co-channel DTV interface should be 16.5 dB.<br>
<cite id="fn_2">[[#fn_2_back|Note 2:]] </cite> ISDB-T (6MHz, 64QAM, R=2/3), Analog TV (M/NTSC).<br>
<cite id="fn_3">[[#fn_3_back|Note 3:]] </cite> Depending on analog TV systems used.
=== Interaction ===
Digital teletext is an enhanced [[teletext]] service based on [[XHTML]] and [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]]. Many countries, including [[Finland]], use [[Multimedia Home Platform]] DVB-MHP for digital teletext. An alternative is the [[MHEG-5]] platform used terrestrially in the UK. Digital teletext is supposed to provide interactive services, but for this a separate "return path", such as a [[telephone]] line or [[Internet]] connection, is required.
In U.S. only, [[closed captioning]] is a subtitle service for hearing impaired people. Several languages are broadcast.
[[Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting|ISDB]] has adopted [[ARIB]] STD-B24 for interactive services. ISDB has labeled interactive services as [[data broadcasting]]. ARIB STD-B24 system is based on [[BML]]. [[BML]] is modified [[XML]] language for data broadcasting.
ISDB has been providing [[Electronic Program Guide|EPG]], [[news]], [[weather forecast]], traffic information, stock market conditions, educational program, interactive [[game]] program, TV shopping via the Internet, etc.
== Deployment ==
*[[List of digital television deployments by country]]
== See also ==
*[[Broadcast television system]]s
*[[Interactive television]]
*[[LinuxTV]]
*[[List of digital television terms]]
*[[Multimedia Home Platform]] ([[MHP]]) and [[Zapper]]
*[[Set-top box]] ([[STB]])
*[[SoC|system-on-chip]] (SoC)
*[[High-definition television]]
*[[ATSC]], [[DVB]], [[ISDB]], [[SBTVD]]
*[[ATSC tuner]]
*[[Gigaset]]
[[Category:Digital television| Digital television]]
[[Category:History of television]]
[[de:Digitales Fernsehen]]
[[es:Televisión digital]]
[[fr:Télévision numérique terrestre]]
[[ko:디지털 텔레비전]]
[[id:Televisi digital]]
[[nl:Digitale televisie]]
[[ja:デジタルテレビ]]
[[pl:Telewizja cyfrowa]]
[[pt:Televisão digital]]
[[sv:Digital television]]
[[fi:Digitaalitelevisio]]
[[zh:数字电视]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Danforth Quayle</title>
<id>8272</id>
<revision>
<id>15906281</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-08T10:32:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minesweeper</username>
<id>7279</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix double redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dan Quayle]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
|
harbour.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Barcelona seen from the [[cableway]] over the harbour]]
The counts of Barcelona became increasingly independent and expanded their territory to include all of Catalonia, later formed the [[Crown of Aragon]] who conquered many overseas possessions, ruling the western Mediterranean Sea with outlying territories as far as [[Duke of Athens|Athens]] in the 13th century. The forging of a dynastic link between the Crown of Aragon and [[Castile]] marked the beginning of Barcelona's decline.
The city is home to the [[University of Barcelona]], founded in [[1450]].
The city was devastated after the Catalonian Republic of [[1640]] - [[1652]], and again during the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] in [[1714]]. King [[Philip V of Spain]] demolished half of the merchants' quarter (''La Ribera'') to build a military citadel, as a way of both punishing and controlling the rebel city. Official use of Catalan language was forbidden, and the University withdrew.
Barcelona and the province of Catalonia were annexed by the [[First French Empire|French Empire]] of [[Napoleon I|Napoleon]] after he invaded Spain and put his brother [[Joseph Bonaparte|Joseph]] on the Spanish throne. It was returned to Spain after Napoleon's downfall.
During the 19th century, Barcelona grew with the [[industrial revolution]] and the introduction of many new industries. During a period of weaker control by the Madrid authorities, the medieval walls were torn down and the citadel of La Ribera was converted into an urban park: the modern Parc de la Ciutadella, site of the [[1888]] "Universal Exposition" ([[World's Fair]]). The exposition also left behind the ''Arc de Triomf'' and the ''Museu de Zoologia'' (a building originally used during the fair as a cafe-restaurant). The fields that had surrounded the artificially constricted city became the ''Eixample'' ("extension"), a bustling modern city surrounding the old.
[[Image:Barcelonaplazareal.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Plaça Reial off La Rambla]]
The beginning of the [[20th century]] marked Barcelona's resurgence, while [[Catalan nationalism|Catalan nationalists]] clamoured for political autonomy and greater freedom of cultural expression.
Barcelona was a stronghold for the [[Anarchism in Spain|anarchist]] cause -anarchist opposition to the call-up of reservists led to the city's [[Tragic Week]] in [[1909]]- siding with the Republic's democratically elected government during the [[Spanish Civil War]] ([[1936]]-[[1939|39]]). It was overrun by [[Francisco Franco]]'s forces in 1939, which ushered in a reign of cultural and [[political repression]] that lasted decades.
The protest movement of the [[1970s]] and the demise of the dictatorship turned Barcelona into a centre of cultural vitality, enabling it to become the thriving city it is today. While it may still be the second city of Spain, it has a charm and air that is unique and prized. A decline in the inner city population and displacement towards the outskirts and beyond raises the threat of [[urban sprawl]].
The city has been the focus of the revival of the [[Catalan language]]. Despite massive immigration of Castilian speakers from other parts of Spain in the second half of the 20th century, there has been notable success in the increased use of Catalan in everyday life.
Barcelona was the site of the [[1992 Summer Olympics]]. The largest event held in the city since the '92 Summer Olympics was the [[2004 Universal Forum of Cultures]] that was held between May and September, lasting a marathon 141 days.
Famous people who have lived and worked in Barcelona include: Master Painters [[Pablo Picasso]], [[Joan Miró]], [[Salvador Dalí]], [[Antoni Tàpies]], [[Enrique Tábara]], [[Eugenio Granell]], [[Antonio Saura]], [[Manolo Millares]], [[Juan Villafuerte]]; Architect [[Antoni Gaudí]].
See also: [[List of Counts of Barcelona]]
==Events==
* [[1888]] Universal Exposition ([[World's Fair]])
* [[1909]] Tragic Week
* [[1929]] International Exposition ([[World's Fair]])
* [[1936]] [[People's Olympiad]], cancelled because of the [[Spanish Civil War]]
* [[1952]] Eucharistic Congress
* [[1962]] In late September, major flooding kills 800+ people in the surroundings
* [[1982]] Hosted eight matches of the twelfth [[1982 Football World Cup|Football World Cup]]
* [[1992 Summer Olympics]]
* [[2004 Universal Forum of Cultures]]
* [[2006 3GSM World Congress]]
==Demographics==
[[Image:Poblacion-Barcelona-ciudad-1900-2005.png|300px|right|thumb|Demographic evolution, 1900-2005, according to the Spanish Instituto Nacional de Estadística]]
The second largest city in Spain, Barcelona numbers around 230,942 immigrants, many of them from Spain's former possessions in Latin America, particularly [[Ecuador]], [[Argentina]] and [[Colombia]]. There are large numbers of [[Moroccan]], Pakistani and Eastern European immigrants, especially from [[Romania]] and the [[Ukraine]].
==Geography==
To its north, the city borders the Besòs river and the municipalities of [[Santa Coloma de Gramenet]] and [[Sant Adrià de Besòs]]; to the south it borders the [[Zona Franca]], [[L'Hospitalet de Llobregat]] and [[Esplugues de Llobregat]]; to the east is the Mediterranean; and to the west are [[Montcada i Reixach]] and [[Sant Cugat del Vallès]].
[[Tibidabo]], a prominent peak to the northwest, is visible from much of the city.
Barcelona is divided into several districts. The following list favours [[Catalan language|Catalan-language]] names over [[Spanish language|Spanish-language]] names; [[as of 2004]], they are the most commonly used and the only official ones:
*[[Ciutat Vella]] (old city): [[El Raval]] (also known as the Barri Xinès), the [[Barri Gòtic]], and the Barri de la Ribera.
*The [[Eixample]]: Sant Antoni, Esquerra de l'Eixample ("the left side of the Eixample" with the sea at your back), Dreta de l'Eixample ("the right side of the Eixample"), Barri de la Sagrada Família
*Sants - [[Montjuïc]]: Can Tunis, Montjuïc, Hostafrancs, Sants, Poble Sec
*Les Corts
*Sarrià - Sant Gervasi: [[Pedralbes]], Sarrià, Sant Gervasi, Vallvidrera
*[[Gràcia]]: Vallcarca, Barri de la Salut, Gràcia, El Camp d'en Grassot
*Horta-Guinardó: Horta, [[El Carmel]], La Teixonera, El Guinardó
*[[Nou Barris]]: Can Peguera, Porta, Canyelles, Ciutat Meridiana, Guineueta, Prosperitat, Vallbona, Verdum, Vilapicina, Roquetes, Trinitat Vella, Trinitat Nova, Torre Baró, Torre Llobeta and Turó de la Peira.
*Sant Andreu: Barri del Congrés, Sant Andreu de Palomar
*Sant Martí: Fort Pius, Sant Martí de Provençals, [[Poble Nou]], La Verneda, el Clot
==Tourist attractions==
===Ciutat Vella===
Barcelona offers a unique opportunity for the tourist on foot to walk from Roman remains to the medieval city, and then to the modern city with its open thoroughfares and grid-iron street pattern. The historic city
center is fairly flat, while the modern city fans out towards the surrounding hills, bordered by steep streets that are vaguely reminiscent of those found in [[San Francisco]].
[[Image:Barcelonaramblas.jpg|thumb|250px|La Rambla near the waterfront]]
A notable feature is ''La Rambla,'' a boulevard that runs from the city centre to the waterfront, thronged with crowds until late at night and lined by florists, bird sellers in the higher part, craft sellers in the lowest, street entertainers, cafeterias and restaurants. Walking along ''La Rambla'' one can see the world-famous opera house [[El Liceu]], the food market of [[La Boqueria]] and the ''Plaça Reial'' (literally ''Royal Square''), with its arches and palm trees, amongst other interesting buildings. There's also a Wax Museum near the end. It is also worth keeping an eye out for pickpockets, for whom the boulevard is a favourite haunt.
La Rambla ends at the old harbour, where a statue of [[Christopher Columbus]] points eastwards across the Mediterranean Sea to his birth place of Genoa.
Next to it is the ''Museu Marítim'' (naval museum), which chronicles the history of life on the [[Mediterranean]], including a full-scale model of a [[galley]]. The museum is housed in the medieval ''Drassanes'' (shipyards), where the ships that made Catalonia a great sea power in the Mediterranean were built.
The old harbour offers all kinds of other amenities, including the second largest [[aquarium]] in the Mediterranean area and an [[IMAX]] cinema.
To the north of the Gothic Quarter lie the Jardins de Fonseré i Mestre which contain modernist buildings housing zoological and geological collections. The adjacent Parc de la Ciutadella includes both the ''Parlament de Catalunya'' (Catalan Parliament) and the Parc Zoològic de Barcelona (zoo) whose most famous resident was an albino gorilla - [[Floquet de Neu]] ("Snowflake") - that died in 2003.
===Modernist architecture===
[[Image:Sagradafamilia-overview.jpg|thumb|250px|The Sagrada Família church]]
Outstanding is the legacy of architect [[Antoni Gaudi|Antoni Gaudí]], who lived and worked in Barcelona, and who left several famous works like the [[Palau Güell]] in the city's old center, the [[Park Guell|Parc Güell]] at the northern tip of Gràcia, and the immense but still unfinished church of the [[Sagrada Familia|Sagrada Família]], which
has been under construction since [[1882]], financed by popular donations like the cathedrals in the [[Middle Ages]] (However, it is not a [[cathedral]]: the cathedral of Barcelona is the [[Cathedral of Santa Eulalia|Cathedral of Santa Eulàlia]], a Gothic building of the late Middle Ages). The Sagrada Família is billed for completion in 2020.
Another very notable modernist building in the older part of the city is the [[Palau de la Música Catalana]], designed by [[Lluís Domènech i Montaner]] and built in [[1908]].
In the modern districts of the city are several avenues on which most of the international merchants offering clothing, jewelry, leather goods and other items have their stores. The most elegant |
)|asterism]] in the 16th Century after [[Amerigo Vespucci]]'s expedition to [[South America]] in [[1501]]. Vespucci mapped the two [[star]]s, [[Alpha Centauri]] and [[Beta Centauri]] as well as the stars of the Crux. Although these stars were known to the ancient [[Greece|Greeks]], gradual [[precession]] had lowered them below the [[Europe|European]] skyline so that they were forgotten.
== Notable features ==
With the lack of a significant [[north star|pole star]] in the [[celestial sphere|southern sky]] ([[Sigma Octantis]] is closest to the pole, but is so faint as to be useless for the purpose), two of the stars of Crux (Alpha and Gamma, [[Acrux]] and [[Gacrux]] respectively) are commonly used to mark south. Following the line defined by the two stars for approximately 4.5 times the distance between them leads to a point close to the Southern Celestial Pole.
Alternatively, if a line is constructed perpendicularly between [[Alpha Centauri]] and [[Beta Centauri]], the point where the above line and this line intersect marks the Southern Celestial Pole. The two stars are often referred to as the "Pointer Stars", allowing people to easily find the top of Crux.
Contrary to some people's belief, it is not opposite [[Ursa Major]]. In fact, in tropical regions both Crux (low in the South) and Ursa Major (low in the North) can be in the sky from April to June. It is exactly opposite [[Cassiopeia (constellation)|Cassiopeia]] on the celestial sphere, and therefore cannot be in the sky with the latter at the same time. For locations south of 34&deg; southern latitude Crux is always completely in the sky.
== Other names for crux ==
In Ancient Hindu Astrology, what is referred to as 'trishanku' is the modern 'crux'. The Maori name for crux is "Te Punga" - "the anchor". It is thought of as anchor of Tama-rereti's waka/canoe (the Milky Way), where the Pointers are its rope.
== Notable deep sky objects ==
The [[Coalsack Nebula]] is the most prominent [[dark nebula]] in the skies, well visible to the naked eye as big dark patch in the southern [[Milky Way]].
Another [[deep sky object]] within Crux is the [[Open Cluster]] [[Open Cluster NGC 4755|NGC 4755]], better known as the [[Jewel Box]] or [[Kappa Crucis Cluster]], that was discovered by [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]] in 1751-1752. It lies at a distance of about 7,500 [[light year]]s and consists of approximately 100 stars spread across an area of about 20 light-years square.
== History ==
[[Image:Southern cross appearing on a number of flags.PNG|thumb|The Southern Cross appearing on a number of flags]]
Due to [[precession]] of the [[equinox]] the stars comprising Crux were visible from the [[Mediterranean]] area in [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]], so their stars had to be known by [[Greeks|Greek]] astronomers. However, it was not regarded as a constellation of its own, but rather as part of [[Centaurus]].
The ''invention'' of Crux as a separate constellation is generally attributed to the French astronomer [[Augustin Royer]] in [[1679]]. It was known in that shape well before that, however.
The five brightest [[star]]s of Crux ([[Alpha Crucis|&alpha;]], [[Beta Crucis|&beta;]], [[Gamma Crucis|&gamma;]], [[Delta Crucis|&delta;]], and [[Epsilon Crucis|&epsilon;]] Crucis) appear on the flags of [[flag of Australia|Australia]], [[flag of Brazil|Brazil]], [[flag of New Zealand|New Zealand]] (epsilon omitted), [[Papua New Guinea]], and [[Samoa]], and also the Australian States and Territories of [[flag of Victoria|Victoria]], the [[flag of Australian Capital Territory|Australian Capital Territory]], the [[flag of Northern Territory|Northern Territory]], as well as the flag of [[Magallanes Region of Chile]], and several [[Argentine]] provincial flags and emblems. The flag of the [[Mercosur]] trading zone displays the four brightest stars (epsilon omitted). Crux also appears on the Brazilian [[Brazil|coat of arms]]. A stylized version of Crux appears on the [[Eureka Flag]]. The constellation was also used on the dark blue, shield-like patch worn by personnel of the U.S. Army's [[Americal Division]], which was organized in the Southern Hemisplere, on the island of [[New Caledonia]], and also the blue diamond of the U.S. [[1st Marine Division]], which fought on the Southern Hemisphere islands of [[Guadalcanal]] and [[New Britain]].
A stone image of the constellation has also been left at the archaelogical site of [[Machu Picchu]], [[Peru]].
==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* (&alpha;<sup>1,2<sup> Cru) &ndash; 0.87 (double 1.3, 1.73) '''[[Acrux]]'''
:* (&beta; Cru) 1.25 '''[[Becrux]]''' or '''Mimosa'''
:* (&gamma; Cru) &ndash; double 1.59, 6.42 '''[[Gacrux]]'''
:* (&delta; Cru) 2.79; '''[[Decrux]]''' [''Delcrux'']
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Epsilon Crucis|&epsilon; Cru]] 3.59; [[Zeta Crucis|&zeta; Cru]] 4.06; [[Theta1 Crucis|&theta;<sup>1</sup> Cru]] 4.32; [[Theta2 Crucis|&theta;<sup>2</sup> Cru]] 4.72; [[Eta Crucis|&eta; Cru]] 4.14; [[Iota Crucis|&iota; Cru]] 4.69; [[Kappa Crucis|&kappa; Cru]] 5.89; [[Lambda Crucis|&lambda; Cru]] 4.62; [[Mu1 Crucis|&mu;<sup>1</sup> Cru]] 4.03; [[Mu2 Crucis|&mu;<sup>2</sup> Cru]] 5.08
:Other notable stars:
:* [[HD 108147]] 7.00 &ndash; has a planet
==External links, References==
* [http://nla.gov.au/nla.ms-ms7860 Letter of Andrea Corsali 1516-1989: with additional material] ("the first description and illustration of the Southern Cross, with speculations about Australia ...") digitised by the National Library of Australia.
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/crux/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Crux].
* ''The Cambridge Guide to the Constellations'', Michael E. Bakich, Cambridge University Press, 1995, pg. 85.
*''[[Universe (book)|Universe: The Definitive Visual Dictionary]]'', Robert Dinwiddie, DK Adult Publishing, (2005), pg. 396.
{{ConstellationList}}
<br clear="all" />
{{Commons|Crux}}
[[Category:Crux constellation| ]]
[[Category:National_symbols]]
[[af:Crux]]
[[ca:Creu del Sud]]
[[da:Sydkorset]]
[[de:Kreuz des Südens]]
[[es:Crux]]
[[eo:Suda Kruco (konstelacio)]]
[[fr:Croix du Sud]]
[[ga:An Chros]]
[[ko:남십자자리]]
[[id:Crux]]
[[it:Crux]]
[[he:הצלב הדרומי]]
[[la:Crux (sidus)]]
[[lt:Pietų Kryžius]]
[[hu:Dél Keresztje (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Zuiderkruis]]
[[ja:みなみじゅうじ座]]
[[nn:Sørkrossen]]
[[pl:Krzyż Południa (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Crux]]
[[ru:Южный Крест (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Južný kríž]]
[[fi:Etelän risti]]
[[sv:Södra korset]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวกางเขนใต้]]
[[vi:Nam Thập Tự]]
[[zh:南十字座]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cepheus</title>
<id>6360</id>
<revision>
<id>34624814</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-10T16:09:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tijawi</username>
<id>738620</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cepheus''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] for ''gardener'') may refer to:
*'''Cepheus''', King of [[Ethiopia]] in [[Greek mythology]]. ''See'' [[Cepheus, King of Aethiopia]] and [[Boast of Cassiopeia]].
*'''Cepheus''', King of [[Tegea]] in [[Greek mythology]].
*'''[[Cepheus (constellation)|Cepheus]]''', one of the 88 modern [[constellation]]s.
{{dab}}
[[bg:Цефей]]
[[de:Kepheus (Äthiopien)]]
[[es:Cefeo]]
[[it:Cepheus]]
[[pt:Cepheus]]
[[ru:Кефей]]
[[sk:Kefeus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cassiopeia</title>
<id>6361</id>
<revision>
<id>38754723</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T12:16:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Samsara</username>
<id>19527</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+Michael Ende character</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cassiopeia''' can refer to:
* [[Cassiopeia (mythology)]] (or Casseipeia), a queen of Aethiopia in Greek mythology. See also [[Boast of Cassiopeia]].
* [[Cassiopeia (constellation)|Cassiopeia]], a northern constellation representing the queen.
* [[Cassiopeia_Train|Cassiopeia]], the name of an overnight rail service in Japan.
* [[Cassiopea (Encantadia)|Cassiopea]], the first Queen of Lireo in the ''Encantadia'' fantasy series of GMA Network.
* [[Casio Cassiopeia]], a series of pocket PCs.
* [[Casiopea]], a Japanese jazz fusion group.
* [[Cassiopeia (Battlestar Galactica)]], a tv character from Battlestar Galactica.
* Cassiopeia, a tortoise featured in [[Michael Ende]]'s fantasy book [[Momo]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Cassiopeia]]
[[nl:Cassiopeia]]
[[pl:Kasjopeja]]
[[ru:Кассиопея]]
[[sk:Cassiopeia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cetus</title>
<id>6362</id>
<revision>
<id>38593395</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T09:19:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BorgQueen</username>
<id>382591</id>
</contributor>
<comment>remove StargateGlyph</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Cetus |
abbreviation = Cet |
genitive = Ceti |
symbology = the [[Whale]] or Sea Monster |
RA = 1.42 |
dec= &minus;11.35 |
areatotal = 1231 |
arearank = 4th |
numberstars = 3 |
starname = [[Beta Ceti|&beta; Cet]] (Deneb Kaitos)&dagger; |
starmagnitude = 2.04 |
meteorshowers =
*[[October Cetids]]
*[[Eta Cetids]]
*[[Omicron Cetids]] |
bordering =
*[[Aries]]
*[[Pisces]]
*[[Aquarius]]
*[[Sculptor (constellation)|Sculptor]]
*[[Fornax]]
*[[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]]
*[[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] |
latmax = 70 |
latmin = 90 |
month = November |
notes = '''Note:''' &dagger;[[Mira]] (&omicron; Cet) is magnitude 2.0 at its brightest.
}}
'''Cetus''' (a name from [[Greek mythology]], referring to a [[Whale]] or [[Sea monster]], see [[Ceto]]) is a [[constellation]] of the southern sky, in the region known as the [[Water (astronomy)|Water]], near other watery constellations like [[Aquarius]], [[Pisces] |
kin abscess.
==Perianal abscess==
Perianal abscesses can be seen in patients with for example [[inflammatory bowel disease]] (such as [[Crohn's disease]]) or [[diabetes]]. Often the abscess will start as an internal wound caused by ulceration or hard stool. This wound typically becomes infected as a result of the normal presence of feces in the rectal area, and then develops into an abscess. This often presents itself as a lump of tissue near the [[anus]] which grows larger and more painful with the passage of time.
Like other abscesses, perianal abscesses may require prompt medical treatment, such as an incision and debridement or [[Lancing (surgical procedure)|lancing]].
==See also==
*[[Boil]]
*[[Sterile abscess]]
[[Category:Infectious diseases]]
[[de:Abszess]]
[[es:Absceso]]
[[fr:Pustule]]
[[it:Ascesso]]
[[ms:Bisul]]
[[nl:Abces]]
[[tl:Abseso]]
==External links==
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001353.htm MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia - Abscess]
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000863.htm MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia - Skin Abscess]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abwehr</title>
<id>1033</id>
<revision>
<id>41304442</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T11:59:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.171.20.110</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>That has no place in this article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Abwehr''''' was a [[Germany|German]] [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] organization from [[1921]] to [[1944]]. The verb ''abwehren'' means "to ward off", implying [[counterespionage]]; this term was used as a concession to [[Allies of World War I|Allied]] demands that Germany's post-[[World War I]] intelligence activities be for "defensive" purposes only. After [[February 4]], [[1938]], its name in full was '''''Amt Ausland/Abwehr im Oberkommando der Wehrmacht''''' (Foreign Bureau/Defence of the Armed Forces High Command).
Despite its name, the purpose of the Abwehr was to obtain military intelligence concerning nations of interest to the German government. Its headquarters were located at 76/78 Tirpitzufer in [[Berlin]], adjacent to the offices of the [[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht]] (OKW).
==The Abwehr before Canaris==
The Abwehr was created in 1921 as part of the [[Ministry of Defence (Germany)|Ministry of Defence]] when Germany was allowed to form the [[Reichswehr]], the [[Armed Forces|military organization]] of the [[Weimar Republic]]. The first head was Major Friedrich Gempp, a former deputy to [[Walther Nicolai|Col. Walther Nicolai]], the head of German inteligence during World War I. At that time it was composed of only three officers and seven former officers plus a clerical staff. By the [[1920s]] it was organized into three sections:
*I. [[Reconnaissance]]
*II. [[Cipher]] and Radio Monitoring
*III. Counterespionage
The [[German Navy|German Navy's]] intelligence staff merged with the Abwehr in [[1928]].
In the [[1930s]], with the rise of the [[Nazi]] movement, the Ministry of Defence was reorganized; surprisingly, on [[June 7]], [[1932]], a naval officer, Capt. Konrad Patzig, was named chief of the Abwehr, despite the fact that it was staffed largely by Army officers. But perhaps not surprisingly, due to the small size of the organization and its limited importance at that time, it was unsuitable for a more ambitious Army officer. Another possible factor was that naval officers had more foreign experience than their Army counterparts and understood more of foreign affairs. However, all three services eventually developed their own intelligence staff.
Because of Abwehr-sponsored reconnaissance flights across the border with [[Poland]], Patzig soon had confrontations with [[Heinrich Himmler]], head of the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]]. Army leaders feared that the flights would endanger the secret plans for an attack on Poland. Patzig was fired in January [[1935]] as a result, and was sent to command the new [[pocket battleship]] ''[[Admiral Graf Spee]]''; he later became Chief of Naval Personnel. His replacement was another Reichsmarine captain, [[Wilhelm Canaris]].
==The Abwehr under Canaris==
===Before the War===
[[Image:Wilhelmcanaris.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Wilhelm Canaris]]
Before he took over the Abwehr on [[January 1]], the soon-to-be Admiral Canaris was warned by Patzig of attempts by Himmler and [[Reinhard Heydrich]] to take over all German intelligence organs. Canaris, a master of backroom dealings which were so much a part of life, thought he knew how to deal with them. But even while he tried to maintain an at-least cordial relationship with them, the antagonism between the Abwehr and the SS did not stop with Canaris at the helm.
It came to a head in [[1937]] when [[Adolf Hitler]] decided to help [[Josef Stalin]] in the latter's purge against the [[Red Army|Soviet military]]. Hitler ordered that the German Army staff should be kept in the dark about Stalin's intentions, for fear that they would warn their Soviet counterparts. Accordingly, special SS teams, accompanied by burglary experts from the criminal police, broke into the secret files of the General Staff and the Abwehr and removed documents related to German-Soviet collaboration. To conceal the thefts, fires were started at the break-ins, which included Abwehr headquarters.
When Hitler replaced the [[Ministry of War]] with the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW), the Abwehr became its intelligence agency, although with some degree of independence therefrom. Canaris reorganized the agency in [[1938]], establishing the following major departments, which existed until its dissolution:
* I. [[Espionage]]
** '''G''' false documents
** '''H West''' army west (Anglo-American intelligence)
** '''H Ost''' army east (Soviet intelligence)
** '''Ht''' army technical
** '''i''' communications
** '''L''' airforce
** '''M''' naval
** '''T/Lw''' technical air force
** '''W''' economics
* II. [[Sabotage]] and special tasks
* III. Counterespionage
Both Army and Navy officers headed these sections.
In this reorganizaton, Canaris took care to surround himself with a hand-picked staff, notably his second-in-command, [[Hans Oster]] and [[Erwin Lahousen|Erwin von Lahousen]], Section II Chief. All but one were not members of the Nazi party. The exception was Rudolf Bamler, who was appointed as chief of Section III to cement Himmler's trust in him, but Canaris made sure to keep a tight leash on him and gave him limited access to operational information.
===The Abwehr During World War II===
Under Canaris the Abwehr expanded and proved relatively efficient during the early years of the war. Its most notable success was [[Operation Nordpol]], which was an operation against the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] underground network, which at the time was supported by the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Special Operations Executive]]. In March [[1941]], the Germans forced a captured SOE radio operator to transmit messages to Britain in a code that the Germans had obtained. Even though the operator gave every indication that he was compromised, the receiver in Britain did not notice this. Thus the Germans had been able to penetrate the Dutch operation and maintained this state of affairs for two years, capturing agents that were sent and sending false intelligence and [[sabotage]] reports until the British caught on.
But it was ineffective overall for several reasons. Much of its intelligence was deemed politically unacceptable to the German leadership. Moreover, it was in direct competition/conflict with SS intelligence activities under Reinhard Heydrich and [[Walter Schellenberg]]. The animosity between the SS and Abwehr did not stop there. Many of the Abwehr's operatives — including Canaris himself — were in fact anti-Nazi and were involved in many assassination attempts against Hitler, including the most serious one on [[July 20 Plot|July 20, 1944]]. Canaris even employed [[Jew]]s in the Abwehr and used the agency to help a small number of Jews to escape from Germany into [[Switzerland]]. But perhaps the biggest reason was that Canaris himself sought to undermine the Nazi cause.
Despite the Abwehr's many intelligence coups, its effectiveness was more than negated by agents who — with Canaris's blessing — aided the Allies in whatever covert means were necessary. He personally gave false information which discouraged Hitler from invading [[Switzerland]]. He also persuaded [[Francisco Franco]] not to allow German forces to pass through Spain to invade [[Gibraltar]]. He even provided intelligence to the Allies on German intentions as well.
The SS continually undermined the Abwehr by putting several Abwehr officers under investigation, believing them (correctly) to be involved in anti-Hitler plots. The SS also accused Canaris of being defeatist in his intelligence assessments, especially on the Russian campaign. One such briefing reportedly resulting in Hitler seizing Canaris by the lapels, and demanding to know whether the intelligence chief was insinuating that Germany would lose the war.
===The Frau Solf Tea Party and the End of the Abwehr===
{{main|Frau Solf Tea Party}}
The incident which eventually resulted in the dissolution of the Abwehr came to be known as the "[[Frau Solf Tea Party]]", which took place on [[September 10]], [[1943]].
Frau Johanna (or Hanna) Solf, the widow of Dr. [[Wilhelm Solf]], a former Colonial Minister under [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] and ex-[[Ambassador]] to [[Japan]], had long been involved in the anti-Nazi intellectual movement in Berlin. At a tea party hosted by her, a new member was included in the circle, an attractive young Swiss doctor named Reckse. It turned out that Dr. Reckse was an agent of the [[Gestapo]], to which he reported on the tea party and turned over several incriminating documents.
The Solf circle was tipped off and h |
vate Christian [[Stony Brook School]] (grades 7-12). Audio lectures.
*[http://www.cit.gu.edu.au/~s285238/Roman/RomanEmpire.html 18 centuries of Roman Empire by Howard Wiseman] (Maps of the Roman/Byzantine Empire throughout its lifetime)
*[http://www.friesian.com/romania.htm Rome & Romania, 27 BC–1453 AD] (Detailed maps of Rome/Byzantium and its neighbors)
*[http://www.neobyzantine.org/byzantium/index.php Byzantine Glory — the mosaic of Byzantine History and Culture]
*[http://www.doaks.org/ehbvol.html The Economic History of Byzantium]
==Bibliography==
* Georg Ostrogorsky. "History of the Byzantine State", 2nd edition, New Brunswick (NJ) 1969. (George Ostrogorsky, Георгије Острогорски)
* Warren Treadgold. "A History of the Byzantine State and Society", Stanford, 1997.
* Helene Ahrweiler, "Studies on the Internal Diaspora of the Byzantine Empire", Harvard University Press, 1998.
* John Julius Norwich, "Byzantium", 3 Volumes, Viking, 1991.
*{{cite book | author=Runciman, Steven | title=Byzantine Civilisation | publisher=Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. | year=1966 | editor= | id=}}
==References==
#Helene Ahrweiler, ''Les Europeens'', pp.150, Herman (Paris), 2000.
#Steven Runciman, ''The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and his Reign'', p.9. University Press (Cambridge), 1990.
#Edward Gibbon, ''Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', chapter 53.
#Norman Cantor, ''Medieval History, the Life and Death of a Civilization'', 1963
#J.M. Hussey, ''The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV — The Byzantine Empire Part I, Byzantium and its Neighbors'', Cambridge University Press 1966
#http://www.greece.org/Romiosini/talk1.html
#http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/oconnor/oconnor/content/columbus.html
#{{cite book | author=Runciman, Steven | title=Byzantine Civilisation | publisher=Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. | year=1966 | editor= | id=}}
{{Middle Ages}}
{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|cs}}
{{Link FA|hu}}
{{Link FA|ja}}
{{Link FA|ro}}
[[Category:Former countries in Europe]]
[[Category:Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Byzantine Empire|*]]
[[Category:Greek culture]]
[[Category:Former monarchies]]
[[Category:Empires|Byzan]]
[[ar:إمبراطورية بيزنطية]]
[[bg:Византийска империя]]
[[be:Бізантыйская імпэрыя]]
[[bs:Bizantijsko carstvo]]
[[cs:Byzantská říše]]
[[da:Østromerske Kejserdømme]]
[[de:Byzantinisches Reich]]
[[el:Βυζαντινή αυτοκρατορία]]
[[es:Imperio Bizantino]]{{Link FA|es}}
[[eo:Bizanca imperio]]
[[fa:بیزانس]]
[[fr:Empire byzantin]]
[[gl:Imperio bizantino]]
[[ko:비잔티움 제국]]
[[hr:Bizant]]
[[id:Kekaisaran Romawi Timur]]
[[it:Impero Romano d'Oriente]]
[[he:האימפריה הביזנטית]]
[[ka:ბიზანტია]]
[[la:Imperium Romanum Orientale]]
[[lt:Bizantija]]
[[hu:Bizánci Birodalom]]
[[nl:Byzantijnse Keizerrijk]]
[[ja:東ローマ帝国]]
[[no:Det bysantinske riket]]
[[pl:Cesarstwo bizantyjskie]]
[[pt:Império Bizantino]]
[[ro:Imperiul Bizantin]]
[[ru:Византийская империя]]
[[sk:Byzantská ríša]]
[[sl:Bizantinsko cesarstvo]]
[[sr:Византијско царство]]
[[fi:Bysantin valtakunta]]
[[sv:Bysantinska riket]]
[[tl:Silangang Imperyong Romano]]
[[tr:Bizans İmparatorluğu]]
[[uk:Візантійська імперія]]
[[zh:拜占庭帝国]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Byzantium</title>
<id>3719</id>
<revision>
<id>41519753</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T22:29:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tom harrison</username>
<id>42168</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.120.50.133|82.120.50.133]] ([[User talk:82.120.50.133|talk]]) to last version by Rich Farmbrough</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the city. See also [[Byzantine Empire]].''
'''Byzantium''' was an [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[city-state]], founded by [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] colonists from [[Megara]] in [[667 BC]] and named after their king [[Byzas]]. The name "Byzantium" is a [[Latinization]] of the original [[Thracian]]-Greek name '''Byzantion''' (&#914;&#965;&#950;&#940;&#957;&#964;&#953;&#959;&#957;; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]).
After siding with [[Pescennius Niger]] against the victorious [[Septimius Severus]] the city was [[siege|besieged]] by [[Roman Empire|Rome]] and suffered extensive damage in AD [[196]]. Byzantium was rebuilt by the now [[Roman Emperor]] [[Septimius Severus]] and quickly regained its previous prosperity. The location of Byzantium attracted [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]] who, in AD [[330]], refounded it as [[New Rome|Nova Roma]] or Constantinoupolis ([[Constantinople]], [[Greek language|Greek]] &#922;&#969;&#957;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#953;&#957;&#959;&#973;&#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#962;) after a [[prophet]]ic [[dream]] was said to have identified the location of the city. The East Roman Empire which had its capital in Constantinople from then until [[1453]], has often been called the [[Byzantine Empire]] or Byzantium by modern scholars. By extension, the name ''Byzantium'' is often used to refer to the Byzantine Empire, its territory, and its customs.
Of course it did not take a prophet to see that this combination of [[imperialism]] and location would play an important role as the crossing point between two [[continent]]s ([[Europe]] and [[Asia]]), and later a magnet for [[Africa]] and others as well, in terms of [[commerce]], [[culture]], [[diplomacy]] and [[strategy]]. At a strategic position, Constantinoupolis was able to control the route between Asia and Europe, as well as the passage from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the ''Euxinos Pontus'' ([[Black Sea]]).
The Patriarch of Constantinople, "head" of the church of Byzantium, answered only to the Emperor who held most religious power. When the Muslims conquered Constantinople both the Emperor and the Patriarch were killed. The position of head of the Greek Orthodox Church was given to Gennadius II Scholarius by the conquering Muslim [[Mehmed II | Sultan Mehmed II]].
On [[May 29]] [[1453]], the city [[Fall of Constantinople|fell]] to the [[Ottoman Turks]] and was part of the [[Ottoman Empire]] until its official dissolution on [[November 1]], [[1922]]. Since then it has remained a part of the [[Republic of Turkey]] (first declared on [[January 20]] [[1921]], generally recognized on [[October 29]] [[1923]]).
In the [[20th century]] the city was renamed [[Istanbul]]. The renaming became official in [[1930]].
==See also==
* [[Constantinople]] details the history of the city before the [[Fall of Constantinople|Turkish conquest of 1453]].
* [[Istanbul]] details the history of the city after it was renamed in the twentieth century and describes the modern city.
==External links==
* Description of Byzantine monetary system - fifth Century BC : [http://www.galmarley.com/framesets/fs_monetary_history_faqs.htm History of money FAQ's]
==References==
*Jeffreys, Elizabeth and Michael, and Moffatt, Ann. 1981. ''Byzantine Papers: Proceedings of the First Australian Byzantine Studies Conference, Canberra, 17-[[19 May]] [[1978]]''. Australian National University, Canberra.
* [http://www.istanbulinfolink.com/the_city/istanbul/history_1.htm Istanbul Historical Information - Istanbul Informative Guide To The City]. Retrieved Jan. 6, 2005.
* [http://www.guideistanbul.net/tablo1a.htm The Useful Information about Istanbul]. Retrieved Jan. 6, 2005.
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Turkey]]
[[Category:Megarian colonies]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek cities]]
[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Turkey]]
[[cs:Byzantion]]
[[da:Byzans]]
[[de:Byzantion]]
[[et:Bütsants]]
[[el:Βυζάντιο]]
[[es:Bizancio]]
[[eo:Bizanco]]
[[fr:Byzance]]
[[ko:비잔티온]]
[[id:Bizantium]]
[[nds:Byzanz]]
[[ja:ビュザンティオン]]
[[sk:Byzantion]]
[[fi:Bysantti]]
[[sv:Byzantion]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Biotic</title>
<id>3721</id>
<revision>
<id>15902036</id>
<timestamp>2005-03-12T19:17:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Philthecow</username>
<id>157812</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Fix Double Redirect - [[WP:WS|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ecology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Berlin Wall</title>
<id>3722</id>
<revision>
<id>42050092</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:24:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>-jkb-</username>
<id>93757</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Official crossings and usage */ oops, + brackets for the images...</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Berlin-wall.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Remnant of the Berlin Wall near Potsdamer Platz, June 2003|Remnant of the Berlin Wall near [[Potsdamer Platz]], June [[2003]].]]
The '''Berlin Wall''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Die Berliner Mauer''), initially constructed in [[1961]] and dismantled in the weeks following [[November 9]], [[1989]], was the most prominent part of the [[GDR border system]] and was an iconic symbol of the [[Cold War]].
Conceived of by the administration of [[Walter Ulbricht]] and approved by Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]], the wall was a long [[separation barrier]] between [[West Berlin]] and [[East Germany]], which permanently closed the border between [[East Berlin|East]] and West Berlin for a period of twenty-eight years. It was built during the post-[[World War II]] period of [[History of Germany since 1945|divided Germany]], in an effort to stop the drain of labour and economic output associated with the daily migration of huge numbers of professionals and skilled workers between East and West Berlin, and the attendant [[defector|defections]], which had political and economic consequences for the [[Eastern bloc|Communist bloc]]. It effectively de |
by choosing datum points and fixing a geodetic datum, ISO uses the terminology ''coordinate reference system'', while IERS speaks of a ''reference frame''. A datum transformation again is referred to by ISO as a ''coordinate transformation''. (ISO 19111: Spatial referencing by coordinates).
== Point positioning ==
Point positioning is the determination of the coordinates of a point
on land, at sea, or in space with respect to a coordinate system.
Point position is solved by computation from measurements linking the
known positions of terrestrial or extraterrestrial points with the
unknown terrestrial position. This may involve transformations
between or among astronomical and terrestrial coordinate systems.
The known points used for point positioning can be, e.g.,
[[triangulation]] points of a higher order network, or [[GPS]] satellites.
Traditionally, a hierarchy of networks has been built to allow point
positioning within a country. Highest in the hierarchy were
triangulation networks. These were densified into networks of
[[traverse]]s ([[polygons]]), into which local mapping surveying measurements, usually
with measuring tape, corner prism and the familiar red and white
poles, are tied.
Nowadays all but special measurements (e.g., underground or high
precision engineering measurements) are performed with [[GPS]]. The
higher order networks are measured with [[static GPS]], using differential
measurement to determine vectors between terrestrial points. These
vectors are then adjusted in traditional network fashion. A global polyhedron of permanently operating GPS stations under the auspices of the [[IERS]] is used
to define a single global, geocentric reference frame which serves as the "zeroth order"
global reference to which national measurements are attached.
For [[surveying]] mappings, frequently [[Real Time Kinematic GPS]] is employed,
tying in the unknown points with known terrestrial points close by in
real time.
One purpose of point positioning is the provision of known points for
mapping measurements, also known as (horizontal and vertical) control.
In every country, thousands of such known points exist in the terrain
and are documented by the national mapping agencies. Constructors and
surveyors involved in real estate will use these to tie their local
measurements to.
== Geodetic problems ==
In geometric geodesy we formulate two standard problems: the geodetic
principal problem and the geodetic inverse problem.
; Geodetic principal problem <nowiki>(also: first geodetic problem)</nowiki> : Given a point (in terms of its coordinates) and the direction ([[azimuth]]) and distance from that point to a second point, determine (the coordinates of) that second point.
; Geodetic inverse problem <nowiki>(also: second geodetic problem)</nowiki> : Given two points, determine the azimuth and length of the line (straight line, great circle or geodesic) that connects them.
In the case of plane geometry (valid for small areas on the Earth's
surface) the solutions to both problems reduce to simple [[trigonometry]].
On the sphere, the solution is significantly more complex, e.g., in
the inverse problem the azimuths will differ between the two end
points of the connecting [[great circle]], arc, i.e. the geodesic.
On the [[ellipsoid of revolution]], solutions in closed form do not exist, so rapidly converging series expansions have traditionally been used.
In the general case, the solution is called the [[geodesic]] for the surface considered. It may be nonexistent or non-unique. The differential equations for the [[geodesic]] can be solved numerically, e.g., in [[MATLAB]].
== Geodetic observational concepts ==
Here we define some basic observational concepts, like angles and
coordinates, defined in geodesy (and astronomy as well), mostly from the
viewpoint of the local observer.
* The ''[[plumbline]]'' or ''vertical'' is the direction of local gravity, or the line that results by following it. It is slightly curved.
* The ''[[zenith]]'' is the point on the [[celestial sphere]] where the direction of the gravity vector in a point, extended upwards, intersects it. More correct is to call it a <direction> rather than a point.
* The ''[[nadir]]'' is the opposite point (or rather, direction), where the direction of gravity extended downward intersects the (invisible) celestial sphere.
* The celestial ''horizon'' is a plane perpendicular to a point's gravity vector.
* ''[[Azimuth]]'' is the direction angle within the plane of the horizon, typically counted clockwise from the North (in geodesy) or South (in astronomy and France).
* ''[[Elevation]]'' is the angular height of an object above the horizon, Alternatively zenith distance, being equal to 90 degrees minus elevation.
* ''Local topocentric coordinates'' are azimuth (direction angle within the plane of the horizon) and elevation angle (or zenith angle) and distance.
* The North ''[[celestial pole]]'' is the extension of the Earth's ([[precession|precessing]] and [[nutation|nutating]]) instantaneous spin axis extended Northward to intersect the celestial sphere. (Similarly for the South celestial pole.)
* The ''celestial equator'' is the intersection of the (instantaneous) Earth equatorial plane with the celestial sphere.
* A ''[[meridian]] plane'' is any plane perpendicular to the celestial equator and containing the celestial poles.
* The ''local meridian'' is the plane containing the direction to the zenith and the direction to the celestial pole.
== Geodetic observing instruments ==
The [[level]] is used for determining height differences and height reference systems, commonly referred to
[[mean sea level]]. The traditional [[spirit level]] produces these practically most useful heights above sea level directly; the more economical use of GPS instruments for height determination requires precise knowledge of the figure of the [[geoid]], as GPS only gives heights above the [[GRS80]] reference ellipsoid. As geoid knowledge accumulates, one may expect use of GPS heighting to spread.
The [[theodolite]] is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles to target points. These angles are referred to the local vertical. The [[tacheometer]] additionally determines, electronically or electro-optically, the distance to target, and is highly automated in its operations. The method of [[free station position]] is widely used.
For local detail surveys, tacheometers are commonly employed although the old-fashioned rectangular technique using angle prism and steel tape is still an inexpensive alternative. More and more, also real time kinematic (RTK) GPS techniques are used. Data collected is tagged and recorded digitally for entry into a [[Geographic information system|Geographic Information System]] (GIS) data base.
Geodetic [[GPS]] receivers produce directly three-dimensional coordinates in a [[geocentric]] coordinate frame. Such a frame is, e.g., [[WGS84]], or the frames that are regularly produced and published by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service ([[IERS]]).
GPS receivers have almost completely replaced terrestrial instruments for large-scale base network surveys. For planet-wide geodetic surveys, previously impossible, we can still mention [[satellite laser]] and Very Long Baseline Interferometer ([[VLBI]]) techniques. All these techniques also serve to monitor Earth rotation irregularities as well as plate tectonic motions.
[[Gravity]] is measured using [[gravimeters]]. There are two basic kinds of gravimeters. ''Absolute'' gravimeters, which nowadays can also be used in the field, are based directly on measuring the acceleration of free fall (for example, of a reflecting prism in a vacuum tube). They are used for establishing the vertical geospatial control. Most common ''relative'' gravimeters are spring based. They are used in gravity [[survey]]s over large areas for establishing the figure of the geoid over these areas. Most accurate relative gravimeters are ''superconducting'' gravimeters, and these are sensitive to one thousandth of one billionth of the Earth surface gravity. Twenty-some superconducting gravimeters are used worldwide for studying Earth [[tide]]s, [[rotation]], interior, and [[ocean]] and atmospheric loading, as well as for verifying the Newtonian constant of [[gravitation]].
== Units and measures on the ellipsoid ==
Geographical [[latitude]] and [[longitude]] are stated in the units degree,
minute of arc, and second of arc. They are ''angles'', not metric
measures, and describe the ''direction'' of the local normal to the
[[reference ellipsoid]] of revolution. This is ''approximately'' the
same as the direction of the plumbline, i.e., local gravity, which is
also the normal to the geoid surface. For this reason, astronomical
position determination, measuring the direction of the plumbline by
astronomical means, works fairly well provided an ellipsoidal model of
the figure of the Earth is used.
A geographic mile, defined as one minute of arc on the equator, equals 1,855.32571922 m. A nautical mile is one minute of astronomical latitude. The radius of curvature of the ellipsoid varies with latitude, being the longest at the pole and shortest at the equator as is the nautical mile.
A metre was originally defined as the 40 millionth part of the length of a meridian. This means that a kilometre is equal to (1/40,000) * 360 * 60 meridional minutes of arc, which equals 0.54 nautical miles. Similarly a nautical mile is on average 1/0.54 = 1.85185... km.
==Temporal change==
In geodesy, temporal change can be studied by a variety of techniques. Points
on the Earth's surface change their location due to a variety of mechanisms:
* Continental plate motion, [[plate tectonics]]
* Episodic motion of tectonic origin, esp. close to fault lines
* Periodic effects due to Earth tides
* [[glaciation|Postglacial]] land uplift due to isostatic adjustment
* Va |
were increasingly preoccupied in Sicily, however, it came increasingly under the control of the bishops of Würzburg, whose rights were formalized in [[1168]]. The name "Franconia" fell out of usage, but the Bishop of [[Würzburg]] revived it in his own favour in [[1442]] and held it until [[Napoleon]]'s reforms.
In [[1803]], Napoleon incorporated the Bishop of Würzburg's Eastern Franconia into [[Bavaria]], to which it still belongs today. Culturally it is in many ways different from Bavaria proper, however. While "Old Bavaria" is overwhelmingly [[Catholic]], Franconia is a mixed area. Some parts such as [[Würzburg]], [[Aschaffenburg]] and [[Bamberg]] are predominantly Catholic, while others such as [[Bayreuth]], [[Ansbach]] and [[Nuremberg]] are predominantly [[Protestantism|Protestant]]. Most Franconians do not like to be called Bavarians.
Even if there is no Franconian state, red and white are regarded as state colours (Landesfarben) of Franconia.
==See also==
*[[East Franconian German]]
*[[Franconian German]]
==External links==
*[http://www.tacitus.nu/historical-atlas/regents/germany/franconia.htm Dukes of Franconia]
==Reference==
*[[Norman Cantor|Cantor, Norman]], ''The Civilization of the Middle Ages'' 1993. ISBN 0-06-017033-6
[[Category:Subdivisions of Germany]]
[[de:Franken (Region)]]
[[eo:Frankonio]]
[[fr:Franconie]]
[[nl:Francië]]
[[no:Franken]]
[[pl:Frankonia]]
[[pt:Francônia]]
[[ru:Франкония]]
[[sv:Franken]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>FileMan</title>
<id>11402</id>
<revision>
<id>15909148</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-25T07:50:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MichaelDubner</username>
<id>191434</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>stubs-organization</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''FileMan''' is a set of utilities written by [[George Timson]] in the late 1970s and early 1980s, using [[MUMPS]], which provide a meta-data function for MUMPS applications. The FileMan utilities allow the definition of data structures, menus and security, reports, and forms, allowing someone to set up applications without tremendous experience in the MUMPS programming language.
Its first use was in the development of medical applications for the Veterans Administration, now called the Department of Veterans Affairs, a branch of the [[United States]] Government.
Since it was a work created by the government, a copyright cannot be placed on the source code, making the source code in the public domain. Because of this, it has been used for rapid development of applications across a number of organizations, including commercial products.
FileMan may be used standalone, or may be used with the [[VA Kernel]], which provides an operating system neutral environment for applications.
{{compu-soft-stub}}
[[Category:Operating systems]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court</title>
<id>11404</id>
<revision>
<id>41825147</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:05:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>That Guy, From That Show!</username>
<id>419920</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>migrate {{web reference}} (deprecated) to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court''' (or '''FISC''') is a [[United States federal courts|U.S. federal court]] authorized under {{UnitedStatesCode|50|1803}} and established by the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act]] of [[1978]] (known as FISA for short). Its jurisdiction is to oversee requests for surveillance [[Warrant (law)|warrants]] by federal police agencies (primarily the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|F.B.I.]]) against suspected foreign [[secret agent|intelligence agents]] inside the United States.
==FISA warrant==
Each application for one of these surveillance warrant (called a FISA warrant) is made before an individual judge of the court. Like a [[grand jury]], FISC is not an [[Adversary system|adversarial court]]: the federal government is the only party to its proceedings. However, the court may allow third parties to submit briefs as ''[[amicus curiae|amici curiae]]''. If an application is denied by one judge of the FISC, the federal government is not allowed to make the same application to a different judge of the FISC. Instead, denials must be appealed to the [[United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review]]. Such appeals are rare: the first appeal from the FISC to the Court of Review was made in [[2002]], 24 years after the founding of the FISC.
It is also rare for FISA warrant requests to be turned down by the court. Through the end of [[2004]], 18,761 warrants were granted, while just five were rejected (many sources say four). Fewer than 200 requests had to be modified before being accepted, almost all of them in [[2003]] and [[2004]]. The four known rejected requests were all from [[2003]], and all four were partially granted after being resubmitted for reconsideration by the government. Of the requests that had to be modified, few if any were before the year [[2000]]. In subsequent years, according to journalist [[Joshua Micah Marshall]], the breakdown was as follows:{{ref|TalkingPoints051217}}
{| class="wikitable"
! Year !! Modified requests
|-
| 2000 || 1 request modified
|-
| 2001 || 2 requests modified
|-
| 2002 || 2 requests modified (both modifications later reversed)
|-
| 2003 || 79 requests modified (out of 1724 granted)
|-
| 2004 || 94 requests modified (out of 1758)
|}
On [[May 17]], [[2002]], the court rebuffed then-[[Attorney General]] [[John Ashcroft]], releasing an opinion that alleged that [[FBI]] and [[Justice Department]] officials had "supplied erroneous information to the court in more than 75 applications for search warrants and wiretaps, including one signed by then-FBI Director Louis J. Freeh".{{ref|WaPo020823}} Whether this rebuke is related to the court starting to modify drastically more requests in [[2003]] is unknown.
On [[December 16]], [[2005]], the [[New York Times]] reported that the [[George W. Bush|Bush]] administration had been conducting surveillance against U.S. citizens without the knowledge of the FISC since [[2002]].{{ref|Nyt051216}} On [[December 20]], [[2005]], Judge James Robertson resigned his position with the FISC, apparently in protest of the secret surveillance.{{ref|WaPo051221}}
The government's apparent circumvention of the FISC may also be related to the increase in court-ordered modifications to warrant requests.
==Closed hearings and classified proceedings==
Because of the sensitive nature of its business, the FISC is a "secret court": its hearings are closed to the public, and, while records of the proceedings are kept, those records are also not available to the public. (Copies of those records with [[classified]] information redacted out can and have been made public.) Due to the classified nature of its proceedings, only government attorneys are usually permitted to appear before the FISC. Due to the nature of the matters heard before it, FISC hearings may need to take place at any time of day or night, weekdays or weekends; thus, at least one judge must be "on call" at all times to hear evidence and decide whether or not to issue a warrant.
==Composition==
When the court was founded, it was composed of seven [[United States district court|federal district]] judges appointed by the [[Chief Justice of the United States]], each serving a seven year term, with one judge being appointed each year. In [[2001]], the [[USA PATRIOT Act]] expanded the court from seven to eleven judges<!-- Public Law 107-56 § 208-->, and required that at least three of the judges of the court be from within twenty miles of the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]]. No judge may be appointed to this court more than once, and no judge may be appointed to both the Court of Review and the FISC.
==Current membership==
{| class="wikitable"
! Judge
! Judicial District
! Date Appointed
! Term Expiry
|-
| [[Colleen Kollar-Kotelly]] ''(presiding)''
| [[U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia|District of Columbia]]
| [[May 19]], [[2002]]
| [[May 18]], [[2009]]
|-
| [[Dee Benson]]
| [[U.S. District Court for the District of Utah|District of Utah]]
| May 2004
| May 2011
|-
| [[Robert C. Broomfield]]
| [[U.S. District Court for the District of Arizona|District of Arizona]]
| [[October 1]], [[2002]]
| [[May 18]], [[2009]]
|-
| [[James G. Carr]]
| [[U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Ohio|Northern District of Ohio]]
| [[May 19]], [[2002]]
| [[May 18]], [[2008]]
|-
| [[John E. Conway]]
| [[U.S. District Court for the District of New Mexico|District of New Mexico]]
| [[May 19]], [[2002]]
| [[May 18]], [[2007]]
|-
| [[Michael J. Davis]]
| [[U.S. District Court for the District of Minnesota|District of Minnesota]]
| [[May 18]], [[1999]]
| [[May 18]], [[2006]]
|-
| [[Nathaniel M. Gorton]]
| [[U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts|District of Massachusetts]]
| [[May 18]], [[2001]]
| [[May 18]], [[2008]]
|-
| [[Claude M. Hilton]]
| [[U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia|Eastern District of Virginia]]
| [[May 18]], [[2001]]
| [[May 18]], [[2007]]
|-
| [[Malcolm Howard]]
| [[U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina|Eastern District of North Carolina]]
| 2005
| 2012
|-
| [[George P. Kazen]]
| [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Texas|Southern District of Texas]]
| [[May 18]], [[2003]]
| [[May 18]], [[2010]]
|-
| ''[[James Robertson (judge)|James Robertson]]''
| ''[[U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia|District of Columbia]]''
| ''[[May 19]], [[2002]]''
| ''[[May 18]], [[2006] |
There is a tremendous demand for cocaine in the U.S. market, particularly among those who are making incomes affording [[luxury]] spending, such as single adults and various professionals. Cocaine’s status as a [[club drug]] shows its immense popularity among the “party crowd”. Cocaine’s high revenues may be due to the drug’s psychologically addictive nature, which makes the cessation of use quite difficult. It has become much more popular as a middle class drug in the [[United Kingdom]] in recent years.
==Pharmacology==
===Appearance===
[[Image:Cocaine3.jpg|166px|right|thumb|Cocaine powder.]]
Cocaine in its purest form is a white, pearly product. Cocaine appearing in powder form is a [[salt]], typically cocaine [[hydrochloride]] ([[CAS registry number|CAS]] 53-21-4). Cocaine is frequently adulterated or “cut” with various powdery fillers to increase its surface area; the substances most commonly used in this process are [[baking soda]], sugars, such as [[lactose]], [[inositol]], and [[mannitol]], and local anesthetics, such as [[lidocaine]]. Adulterated cocaine is often a white, off-white or pinkish powder.
The color of “crack” cocaine depends upon several factors including the origin of the cocaine used, the method of preparation — with [[ammonia]] or [[sodium bicarbonate]], and the presence of impurities, but will generally range from a light brown to a pale brown. Its texture will also depend on the factors which affect color, but will range from a crumbly texture, which is usually the lighter variety, to hard, almost crystalline nature, which is usually the darker variety.
===Forms of cocaine===
====Cocaine sulfate====
Cocaine sulfate is produced by [[Maceration|macerating]] coca leaves along with [[water]] that has been acidulated with [[sulfuric acid]], or a naphtha-based solvent, like [[kerosene]] or [[benzene]]. This is often accomplished by putting the ingredients into a vat and stamping on it, in a manner similar to the traditional method for crushing [[grape]]s. After the cocaine is extracted, the water is evaporated to yield a pastey mass of impure cocaine sulfate.
The sulfate itself is an intermediate step to producing cocaine hydrochloride. In [[South America]] it is commonly smoked along with tobacco, and is known as ''pasta'', ''basuco'', ''basa'', ''pitillo'', ''paco'' or simply ''paste''. It is also gaining popularity as a cheap drug (.30-.70 U.S. cents per "hit" or dose) in [[Argentina]].
====Freebase====
{{main|Freebase}}
As the name implies, “freebase” is the [[Base (chemistry)|base]] form of cocaine, as opposed to the [[salt]] form of cocaine hydrochloride. Whereas cocaine hydrochloride is extremely [[soluble]] in [[water]], cocaine base is insoluble in water and is therefore not suitable for drinking, snorting or injecting. Cocaine hydrochloride is not well-suited for smoking because the [[temperature]] at which it [[evaporation|vaporizes]] is very high, and close to the temperature at which it [[combustion|burns]]; however, cocaine base [[evaporation|vaporizes]] at a low temperature, which makes it suitable for inhalation.
Smoking freebase is preferred by many users because the cocaine is absorbed immediately into [[blood]] via the [[lungs]], where it reaches the [[brain]] in about five seconds. The rush is much more intense than sniffing the same amount of cocaine nasally, but the effects do not last as long. The peak of the freebase rush is over almost as soon as the user exhales the vapor, but the high typically lasts 5–10 minutes afterwards. What makes freebasing particularly dangerous is that users typically don't wait that long for their next hit and will continue to smoke freebase until none is left. These effects are similar to those that can be achieved by injecting or “slamming” cocaine hydrochloride, but without the risks associated with [[intravenous]] drug use (although there are other serious risks associated with smoking freebase).
Freebase cocaine is produced by first dissolving cocaine hydrochloride in water. Once dissolved in water, cocaine hydrochloride (Coc HCl) disassociates into protonated cocaine [[ion]] (CocH<sup><small>+</small></sup>) and [[chloride]] ion (Cl<sup><small>-</small></sup>). Any [[solid]]s that remain in the [[solution]] are not cocaine (they are part of the cut) and are removed by [[Filter (chemistry)|filtering]]. A base, typically [[ammonia]] (NH<sub><small>3</small></sub>), is added to the [[solution]] to remove the extra [[proton]] from the cocaine. The following net [[chemical reaction]] takes place:
<div align="center" style="line-height: 2em;">NH<sub><small>3</small></sub> + CocH<sup><small>+</small></sup> + Cl<sup><small>-</small></sup> → NH<sub><small>4</small></sub>Cl + Coc</div>
As freebase cocaine (Coc) is insoluble in water, it [[Precipitation (chemistry)|precipitates]] and the solution becomes cloudy. To recover the freebase, [[diethyl ether]] is added to the solution: Since freebase is highly soluble in ether, a vigorous shaking of the mixture results in the freebase being dissolved in the ether. As [[ether]] is insoluble in water, it can be [[siphon]]ed off. The ether is then left to evaporate, leaving behind the nearly pure freebase.
This procedure is dangerous because of the hazards of handling diethyl ether: it is extremely [[flammable]], its vapors are heavier than air and can “creep” from an open bottle, and in the presence of oxygen it can form [[diethyl ether peroxide|peroxide]]s which can spontaneously combust. Demonstrative of the dangers of the practice, the famous comedian [[Richard Pryor]] used to perform a well known skit in which he poked fun at himself during a 1980 incident in which he caused an explosion and set himself on fire while attempting to smoke “freebase”, presumably still wet with ether.
====Crack cocaine====
[[Image:Crack street dosage.jpg|thumb|right|A pile of crack cocaine "rocks".]]
Because of the dangers of using ether to produce pure freebase cocaine, cocaine producers began to omit the step of removing the freebase cocaine precipitate from the ammonia mixture. Typically, filtration processes are also omitted. The end result of this process is that the cut, in addition to the ammonium salt (NH<sub><small>4</small></sub>Cl), remains in the freebase cocaine after the mixture is evaporated. The “rock” which is thus formed also contains a small amount of water. When the rock is heated this water boils, making a crackling sound (hence the name “crack”). [[Baking soda]] is now most often used as a base rather than ammonia for reasons of lowered stench and toxicity; however, any weak base can be used to make crack cocaine. Strong bases, such as sodium hydroxide, tend to [[hydrolyze]] some of the cocaine into non-psychoactive [[ecgonine]].
The net reaction when using baking soda (also called sodium bicarbonate, with a chemical formula of NaHCO<sub><small>3</small></sub>) is:
<div align="center" style="line-height: 2em;">CocH<sup><small>+</small></sup> + Cl<sup><small>-</small></sup> + NaHCO<sub><small>3</small></sub> → Coc + H<sub><small>2</small></sub>O + CO<sub><small>2</small></sub> + NaCl</div>
Crack is unique because it offers a strong cocaine experience in small, low-priced packages. In the [[United States]], crack cocaine is often sold in small, inexpensive dosage units frequently known as “nickels” or “nickel rocks” (referring to the price of [[United States dollar|$]]5.00), and also “dimes” or “dime rocks” ($10.00) and sometimes as “twenties” or “solids”, and “forties”. The quantity provided by such a purchase varies depending upon many factors, such as local availability, which is affected by geographic location. A twenty may yield a quarter gram or half gram on average, yielding 30 minutes to an hour of effect if hits are taken every few minutes. After the $20 or $40 mark, crack and powder cocaine are sold in grams or fractions of ounces. Many inner-city addicts with a regular dealer will “work a corner”, taking money from anyone who wants crack, making a buy from the dealer, then delivering part of the product while keeping some for themselves.
Although consisting of the same active drug as powder cocaine, crack cocaine in the United States is seen as a drug primarily by and for the inner city poor (the stereotypical "crack head" is a poor, urban, usually [[homeless]] [[person of color]]). While insufflated powder cocaine has an associated glamour attributed to its popularity among mostly middle and upper class whites (as well as [[musician]]s and entertainers), crack is perceived as a [[skid row]] drug of squalor and desperation. In many US jurisdictions, possession or sale of crack cocaine carries a harsher penalty than an equivalent amount of powder cocaine.
Street names for crack include “bones”, "candy", "cheese", “devil’s [[dandruff]]”, "devil's candy", “devil drug”, “devilsmoke”, “dope” "food”, "girl",“hard”, "juice", "krills", “lle" (Spanish), “llello" (Spanish), “matter”, “smoke”, "white bitch", “work”, "yay”, "yayo”, "yeyo", “yoda”, “yola” "Sos" or "Sosa" (Dutch); but most commonly, it is simply called “rock”. Crack cocaine was extremely popular in the mid and late [[1980s]], especially in inner cities, although its popularity declined through the [[1990s]]. In [[1998]], [[Gary Webb]]'s book ''Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion'' linked the “crack explosion” to the [[CIA]] funding of the |
="preserve">[[Image:Bagpipe performer.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A piper playing the [[Great Highland Bagpipe]].]]
'''Bagpipes''' are a class of [[musical instrument]], [[aerophone]]s using enclosed [[reed (music)|reed]]s. The term is equally correct in the singular or plural, although pipers most commonly talk of "pipes" and "the bagpipe".
==Overview==
A bagpipe minimally consists of an air supply, a bag, and a [[chanter]]. Optionally, further chanters and/or [[drone]]s can be added.
===Air supply===
The most common method of supplying air to the bag is by a blowpipe, into which the player blows. The blowpipe can be fitted with a non-return valve, or the player can close the tip of the blowpipe with their tongue while they breathe.
A more recent innovation, dating from the 16th or 17th centuries, is the use of a [[bellows]] to supply air. This has the advantage that the supplied air has not been heated and moistened by the player's breathing. Bagpipes using bellows can therefore use more refined and/or delicate reeds and can be played for longer.
The possibility of using an artificial air supply, such as an air compressor, is one occasionally discussed by pipers but although [http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~music/mcblare/ experiments] have been made in this direction, widespread adoption seems unlikely.
===Bag===
The bag is simply an airtight (or near airtight) reservoir which can hold air while the player breathes. This means that the player can play independently of the need to take breaths. It also has the advantage that the player can breathe more naturally, and so can play comfortably for long periods of time. Materials for the bag vary widely: most common are skins of local animals, for example, goat, sheep, cow, and so on. In modern times, players have experimented with modern materials such as [[rubber]], [[goretex]], and other airtight fabrics.
When made of skin, the bag is usually saddle-stitched with an extra strip folded over the seam to prevent air leaking. Holes are cut in the bag to accomodate the stocks, the connectors which the various pipes are attached to the bag with. With more modern materials, the seam is usually stitched and then a strip of material glued in place to achieve the same purpose. These bags are often fitted with rubber collars to insert the stocks in, which can result in a better, tighter fit with less chance of damaging the bag while attaching the stocks.
===Chanter===
The chanter is the melody pipe, played by one or both hands. There are three main categories of chanter: a chanter internally can be bored such that the inside walls are parallel for the full length of the chanter, or it can be bored in the shape of a cone. Additionally, the reed can be a single or a double reed. A single reeded chanter can only be parallel bored, as conical bored chanters do not work with a single reed. However, both conical and parallel bored chanters operate with double reeds, and double reeds are by far the more common.
The chanter is usually open ended; thus, there is no way for the player to stop the pipe sounding easily. This means that most bagpipes share a [[legato]] sound where there are no rests in the music. Primarily because of this inability to stop playing, embellishments (which vary between types of bagpipe) are used to break up notes and to create the illusion of dynamic effect. Because of their importance, these embellishments are often highly technical systems specific to each bagpipe which take much study to master.
A few bagpipes (the [[Northumbrian bagpipe]], the [[Uilleann pipes]]) have closed ends or stop the end on the player's leg, so that when the player covers all the holes (known as closing the chanter) it becomes silent. This allows for staccato playing on these instruments, although even where the chanter can be silenced, complex embellishment systems often still evolve.
Although the majority of chanters are unkeyed, some make extensive use of keys to extend the range and/or the number of [[accidental (music)|accidentals]] the chanter can play. It is possible to produce chanters with two bores and two holes for each note. The double chanters have a full loud sound comparable to the 'wet' sound produced by an accordion.
An unusual kind of chanter is the regulator of the Uilleann pipes. This chanter is in addition to the main melody chanter and plays a limited number of notes, operated by keys. It is fitted in the stock for the drones and is played with the wrist, allowing the player to produce a limited but effective chordal accompaniment.
A final variant of the chanter is the two-piped chanter (confusingly also usually called a double chanter). Two separate chanters are designed, to be played with different hands. Effectively, when they are played, one chanter is always providing a drone accompaniment to the other.
===Drone===
Most bagpipes have at least one drone. A drone is most commonly a cylindrical tube with a single reed, although drones with double reeds do exist. The drone is designed in two or more parts, with a sliding joint so that the pitch of the drone can be manipulated. Some drones have a tuning bead, which effectively alters the length of the drone by opening a hole, allowing the drone to be tuned to two or more distinct pitches. The tuning bead may also sut off the drone altogether.
==History==
[[Image:Hendrik ter Brugghen - De doedelzakspeler.jpg|thumb|left|The bagpiper, by Hendrik ter Brugghen]]
===Ancient origins===
Although the early history of the bagpipe is still unclear, it seems likely that the instrument was first developed in pre-Christian times. The Roman Emperor [[Nero]] is thought to have been a player, reportedly saying he would do penance, for not winning a poetry contest, by playing in public on the ''tibia utricularis'' (the Latin name for bagpipe). There are [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] depictions of pipers, and the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] legions are thought to have marched to bagpipes. The idea of taking a whole or "case" skinned bag and combining it with a chanter and a blowpipe(inflation device) seems to have originated with various ethnic groups in the Roman Empire. Although the [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] word sum·pon·yah´ (סומפניה), appearing in Daniel 3:5, 10, and 15, has been translated "dulcimer" (a stringed instrument) and "symphony", modern Bible translations generally render the expression as "bagpipe." Koehler and Baumgartner’s Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros gives the meaning "bagpipe" (Leiden 1958, p. 1103).
===Spread and development===
When they were first introduced to the [[British Isles]] is debatable. Findings of statuettes of bagpipers in Roman era archeological digs in England could indicate a diffusion of the bag technology from that vector. Ireland has references going back at least to the Middle Ages. An explosion of popularity seems to have occurred from around the year 1000; the tune used by [[Robert Burns]] for "[[Scots Wha Hae]]", "Hey Tutti Taiti", is traditionally said to have been the tune played as [[Robert the Bruce]]'s troops marched to the [[Battle of Bannockburn]] in [[1314]].
Many of the secondary sources from the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are misleading or verging on fantasy (organist Grattan Flood, and his "The Story of the Bagpipe", published in 1911, are particularly bad in this respect), but continue to be quoted and referenced to the present day. For example, an oft-repeated claim is that the [[Great Highland Bagpipe]] was banned after the [[Jacobite Rising|'45 Rising]]. This claim is untrue; there is no mention of the bagpipe in the [[Act of Proscription]], and the entire myth seems to stem from the [[1822]] letterpress of Donald MacDonald's ''A Collection of the Ancient Martial Music of Caledonia, called Piobaireachd''. Although Donald MacDonald produced the music for this volume, his English (as a native [[Gaelic]] speaker) was incapable of rendering the florid prose in the introduction, purported to be his.
===Recent history===
With the growth of the British Empire, often spearheaded by Highland regiments of the British Army, the Great Highland Bagpipe was diffused world-wide. This surge in popularity, boosted by the huge numbers of pipers trained for the two World Wars in the 20th century, coincided with a decline in the popularity of many traditional forms of bagpipe throughout Europe, which began to be displaced by instruments from the classical tradition and later by gramaphone and radio.
In the modern era the use of bagpipes has become a common tradition for military funerals and memorials in the [[anglophone]] world, and they are often used at the funerals of high-ranking civilian public officials as well. Weddings, dances and parties are also venues for piping, in fact any social event, that can be given a lift by the addition of this unique instrumental music.
In English-speaking regions, a bagpipe player is known as a "bagpiper" or "piper," and the [[Family name|surname]] Piper derives from the latter term. Other European surnames, such as Pfeiffer (German), Gaitero (Spanish), Gajdar (Czech), Dudar (Hungarian), and Tsambounieris (Greek), may also signify that an ancestor was a player of the pipes.
==Modern usage==
===Types of bagpipes===
{{main|Types of bagpipes}}
Bagpipes today are widely spread across Europe and the Middle East, as well as through much of the former [[British Empire]]. The name bagpipe has almost become synonomous with its best-known form, the [[Great Highland Bagpipe]], overshadowing the great number and variety of traditional forms of bagpipe. Despite the decline of these other types of pipes over the last few centuries, in recent years many of these pipes have seen a resurgence or even revival as traditional musicians have sought them out; for exam |
/contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hazaras.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The Hazaras. Photo by Hadi Zaheer]]
{{Ethnic group| image=
|group=Hazaras
|poptime=''c. '' 9 million (est.)
|popplace=[[Afghanistan]]:<br> 8,000,000 <br>
[[Iran]]:<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; 300,000<br>
[[Pakistan]]:<br> &nbsp;&nbsp; 300,000<br>
|langs=[[Persian language|Persian]] ([[Hazaragi]] dialect), also [[Dari]]
|rels=[[Shi'a]]( Some [[Ismaili]]), some [[Sunni]]
|related=[[Iranian peoples|Iranian]], [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]], [[Mongols|Mongol]]<br>
}}
The '''Hazara''' ethnic group resides mainly in the central [[Afghanistan]] mountain region called '[[Hazarajat]] or [[Hazaristan]]'. They make up anywhere between 19-25% of Afghanistan's population, but an accurate census has not been taken in decades so there is little information to verify at present. There are also significant populations of Hazaras in [[Pakistan]] and [[Iran]].
==History and origins==
Historically, the Hazara seem to have mainly [[Mongoloid]] origins with some Caucasoid admixture, as evidenced by physical attributes and parts of the [[culture]] and [[language]]. It is commonly believed that the Hazara are descendants of [[Genghis Khan]]'s army, which marched into the area during the [[12th century]], but there are also beliefs holding Hazaras as descendents of the [[Koshanis]], the ancient dwellers of Afghanistan famous for constructing the [[Buddhas of Bamiyan]]; or Hazaras as people of Turckic origin. Proponents of the Mongolid view hold that many of the [[Mongol]] soldiers and their families settled in the area and remained there after the [[Mongol empire]] dissolved in the [[13th century]], converting to [[Islam]] and [[Cultural diffusion|adopting local customs]].
However, the main Mongolid theory is contested on the basis of historical events surrounding Genghis Khan's invasion of what today constitutes Central Afghanistan. The invading Mongol armies encountered fierce resistance from the locals around [[Bamiyan]], who had Asian features like the invading Mongols. This suggests that people with Mongoloid features inhabited Central Afghanistan, possibly of [[Uighur]] [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] origin, long before Genghis Khan's invasion and probably arrived there in much earlier waves of migration out of [[Central Asia]].
Historical records also mention that in a particularly bloody battle around Bamiyan, Genghis Khan's grandson [[Motochin]] was killed. He ordered Bamiyan burnt to the ground in retribution, renaming it [[Ma-Obaliq]] ("Uninhabitable Abode").
After the fall of the [[Il-Khan]] empire in [[Persian Empire|Persia]], the [[Safavid]] [[Shah Abbas]] drove out the '[[Infidel]] [[Mongols]]' from Persia to [[Khorasan]] (present day Afghanistan). Some sources say he drove out the [[Uzbeks]] but the distinction is unclear. Around the year ad 1550, the first mention of 'Hazaras' are made by the court historians of [[Shah Abbas]], as well as in the [[Baburnama]] distinguishing Hazaras from the [[Chughtai]] [[Uzbeks]]. This is when the national identity of Hazaras apparently began.
The 'Global Gene Project' reported over a quarter of their sample Hazara males in [[Pakistan]] to have the [[Y-Chromosome]] of [[Genghis Khan]].
Much more information on history is available at [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=402&letter=C]
==Language==
The [[Hazaragi language]] is a unique [[dialect]] of the [[Persian language]], with some [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] vocabulary. Hazaragi is categorized in the Indo-European language family, and 16% to 20% of Afghanistanis speak it. Many of the urban Hazaras in the larger cities of [[Kabul]] and [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] speak [[Dari]], while Hazaras from the [[Dai Kundi]] and [[Dai Zangi]] regions have the many admixture of the [[Mongolian]] in their language. Hazaras in [[Pakistan]] date back to around [[1890]], and use more [[Urdu]] and [[English language|English]] words.
==Religion==
Hazaras are predominantly [[Shi'a]] [[Muslim]]s, although there are significant populations of [[Sunni]] and [[Ismaili]] Hazaras in north and northwestern [[Afghanistan]]. Often Sunni Hazaras can blur the lines with the [[Tajiks]] and [[Pashtuns]]. The [[Aimagh]] (Chahar Aimaq) Hazaras for instance are predominantly [[Sunni]].
==Political==
Since the early [[1990s]], most Hazaras are members of the [[Hizb-e-Wahdat]] political party. The most influential member, prior to his capture and execution by the [[Taliban]], was [[Abdul Ali Mazari]]. His [[death]] made him the symbolic leader of many of the Hazara people.
==External links==
* [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v70n5/013572/013572.web.pdf Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in Pakistan (American Journal of Human Genetics, 2002)]
* [http://www.oxfordancestors.com/papers/mtDNA04%20DNALandscape.pdf Where west meets east: the complex mtDNA landscape of the southwest and Central Asian corridor (Oxford Ancestors)]
* [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/02/0214_030214_genghis.html Genghis Khan a Prolific Lover, DNA Data Implies (National Geographic, 2003)]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Asia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Iranian peoples]]
[[Category:Mongol peoples]]
[[de:Hazara]]
[[es:Hazara]]
[[fr:Hazaras]]
[[ja:ハザラ人]]
[[no:Hazarere]]
[[pl:Hazarowie]]
[[zh:哈扎拉族]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hawala</title>
<id>14132</id>
<revision>
<id>39829112</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T03:34:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Descendall</username>
<id>195820</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hawala''' (also known as '''hundi''') is an [[informal value transfer system]] used primarily in the [[Middle East]], [[Africa]] and [[Asia]].
Its origins are not entirely clear, but it is believed to have been used first in the financing of long-distance trade in the early [[medieval]] period on [[trading route]]s such as the [[Silk Road]], the Eastern [[Mediterranean]] and the [[Indian Ocean]]. Hawala is mentioned in texts of [[Islamic jurisprudence]] as early as the [[8th century]]. In [[South Asia]], it appears to have developed into a fully-fledged [[money market instrument]], which was only gradually replaced by the instruments of the formal [[banking system]] in the first half of the [[20th century]]. Today hawala is probably used mostly for [[migrant worker]]s' remittances to their countries of origin.
In the most basic variant of the hawala system, money is transferred via a network of hawala brokers, or hawaladars. A customer approaches a hawala broker in one city and gives a sum of money to be transferred to a recipient in another, usually foreign, city. The hawala broker calls another hawala broker in the recipient's city, gives disposition instructions of the funds (usually minus a small commission), and promises to settle the [[debt]] at a later date.
The unique feature of the system is that no [[Promissory_note|promissory instrument]]s are exchanged between the hawala brokers; the transaction takes place entirely on the [[honor system]]. As the system does not depend on the legal enforceability of claims, it can operate even in a defunct legal and juridical environment.
No records are produced of individual transactions; only a running tally of the amount owed one broker by the other is kept. Settlements of debts between hawala brokers can take a variety of forms, and need not take the form of direct cash transactions.
In addition to commissions, hawala brokers often earn their profits through bypassing official [[exchange rate]]s. Generally the funds enter the system in the source country's [[currency]] and leave the system in the recipient country's currency. As settlements often take place without any foreign exchange transactions, they can be made at ([[black market|black]]) market rates rather than official rates.
Hawala is attractive to customers because it provides a fast, convenient and safe transfer of funds, usually with a far lower commission than that charged by banks. Its advantages are most pronounced when the receiving country applies distortive exchange rate regulations (as has been the case for many typical receiving countries such as [[Pakistan]] or [[Egypt]]) or when the banking system in the receiving country is underdeveloped (e.g. due to weak legal environment in places such as [[Afghanistan]], [[Yemen]], [[Somalia]]).
Furthermore, the transfers are informal and not effectively regulated by governments, which is a major advantage to customers with [[tax]], [[currency control]], [[immigration]], or other legal concerns. For the same reasons, governments disfavor the system, and accusations have been made in recent years that [[terrorism|terrorist]] funding often changes hands through hawala networks.
==Hundis (The Bill of Exchange) ==
It can also be noted that Hundis are also referred to [[legal]] [[financial]] instruments evolved on the Indian sub-continent. These were used in trade and credit transactions they were used as remittance instruments for the purpose of transfer of funds from one place to another. In the era of bygone kings and the [[British Raj]] these Hundis served as Travellers Cheque. They were also used as credit instruments for borrowing and as bills of exchange for trade transactions.
Technically, a Hundi is an unconditional order in writing made by a person directing another to pay a certain sum of money to a person named in the order. Hundis being a part of informal system have no legal staus now and these were not covered under the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881. They were mostly used as cheques by indigenous [[bankers]].
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:British India hundi.jpg|frame| |
nations use these modern (auto-) cannon on their lighter vehicles. Typical of the type is the [[25 mm caliber|25 mm]] [[M242|'Bushmaster']] cannon mounted on the LAV and [[M2 Bradley|Bradley]] [[Infantry fighting vehicle|armoured vehicles]].
A cannon generally refers to a high velocity, low trajectory, direct fire weapon such as the main gun on most modern main battle tanks.
A howitzer generally refers to a weapon using a lower velocity than a cannon, which fires on a higher trajectory, and provides indirect fire.
These are both differentiated from a [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]], which fires a low velocity (by comparison) round at very high trajectory at much more limited range.
In [[slang]] usage, ''cannon'', or sometimes ''hand-cannon'', refers a very large handgun, especially those with a calibre over 0.357".
==Reference== [[Image:Tsar-Pushka.jpg|thumb|[[Tsar Cannon]], the largest ever made, by [[Andrey Chokhov]].]]
* ''The World's Great Artillery'' (2002), Hans Halberstadt. ISBN 0760733031
== See also ==
* [[Electrothermal-chemical technology]]
* [[Artillery]]
* [[Gunpowder]]
* [[Spud gun]]
==Patents==
* {{US patent|5236}} -- ''Casting ordnance''
* {{US patent|6612}} -- ''Cannon''
* {{US patent|13851}} -- ''Muzzle loading ordnance''
[[Image:Delo.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A historic cannon, The [[East Slovak Museum]] in [[Košice]]]]
{{commons|Cannon}}
[[Category:Artillery]]
[[bg:Артилерийско оръдие]]
[[de:Kanone]]
<!--[[en:Cannon]]-->
[[es:Cañón (artillería)]]
[[eo:Kanono]]
[[fr:Canon (artillerie)]]
[[he:&#1514;&#1493;&#1514;&#1495;]]
[[nl:Kanon]]
[[no:Kanon]]
[[pl:Armata]]
[[sl:Top]]
[[sv:Kanon (vapen)]]
[[vi:Sơn pháo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cherniahovsk</title>
<id>7055</id>
<revision>
<id>15905149</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-04T00:59:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eclecticology</username>
<id>372</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Chernyakhovsk]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Mouse (computing)</title>
<id>7056</id>
<revision>
<id>41815799</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:57:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PseudoSudo</username>
<id>825566</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.52.130.139|203.52.130.139]] ([[User_talk:203.52.130.139|talk]]) to last version by Discospinster</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Mouse-mechanism-cutaway.png|thumb|300px|'''Operating a mechanical mouse. ''' <br>'''1:''' Moving the mouse turns the ball.<br>'''2:''' X and Y rollers grip the ball and transfer movement.<br>'''3:''' Optical encoding disks include light holes.<br>'''4:''' Infrared [[Light-emitting diode|LED]]s shine through the disks.<br>
'''5:''' Sensors gather light pulses to convert to X and Y velocities.]]
[[Image:First_Computer_Mouse_pic_2.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The first computer mouse]]
A '''mouse''' is a handheld [[pointing device]] for [[computer]]s, being a small object fitted with one or more buttons and shaped to sit naturally under the hand. The underside of the mouse houses a device that detects the mouse's motion relative to the flat surface on which it moves. The mouse's 2D motion is typically translated into the motion of a [[Cursor (computers)|pointer]] on the [[computer display|display]].
It is called a mouse primarily because the cord on early models resembled the rodent's tail, and also because the motion of the pointer on the screen can be mouse-like.
==Mice==
===Early mice===
[[Image:firstmouseunderside.jpg|frame|right|300px|The first computer mouse, held by inventor [[Douglas Engelbart]], showing the wheels that contact the working surface.]]
The mouse was invented by [[Douglas Engelbart]] of [[Stanford Research Institute]] in [[1963]] after extensive [[usability testing]]. It was also called the bug, but eventually this was dropped in favor of mouse. It was one of several experimental pointing devices developed for Engelbart's oN-Line System ([[NLS (computer system)|NLS]]), which was both a hardware and software system. The other devices were designed to exploit other body movements&mdash;for example, head-mounted devices attached to the chin or nose&mdash;but ultimately, the mouse won out because of its simplicity and convenience.
The first mouse was bulky and used two gear wheels perpendicular to each other: the rotation of each wheel was translated into motion along one [[Coordinate_axis|axis]] in the plane. Engelbart received [[patent]] US3541541 on [[November 17]], [[1970]] for an ''"X-Y Position Indicator For A Display System"''. At the time, Engelbart intended that users would hold the mouse continuously in one hand and type on a five-key [[chord keyset]] with the other.
===Mechanical mice===
A later variation on the mouse, invented in the early [[1970]]s by [[Bill English (computer engineer)|Bill English]] at [[Xerox PARC]], replaced the external wheels with a single ball that could rotate in any direction. The ball's motion, in turn, was detected using perpendicular wheels housed inside the mouse's body. This variant of the mouse resembled an inverted [[trackball]] and was the predominant form used with [[personal computer]]s throughout the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]]. The Xerox PARC group also settled on the modern technique of using both hands to type on a full-size QWERTY keyboard and grabbing the mouse as needed.
Modern computer mice took form at the [[École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne]] (EPFL) under the inspiration of Professor [[Jean-Daniel Nicoud]] and the hands of [[engineer]] and [[watchmaker]] [[André Guignard]]. A spin-off of EPFL, [[Logitech]], launched the first popular mice.
The major movement translation techniques are by optical, mechanical and inertial sensors.
===Optical mice===
[[Image:Mouse-patents-englebart-rid.png|thumb|300px|right|Early mouse patents. (left to right) Opposing track wheels by ''Englebart'', 11/70, [http://www.freepatentsonline.com/image-3541541-1.html 3541541]. Ball and wheel by ''Rider'', 9/74, [http://www.freepatentsonline.com/3835464.htm 3835464]. Ball and two rollers with spring by ''Opocentsky'', 10/76, [http://www.freepatentsonline.com/3987685.html 3987685].]]
[[Image:Opto_mouse_sensor.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The optical sensor from a Microsoft Wireless IntelliMouse Explorer 1.0A.]]
Whereas a mechanical mouse uses a ball and wheels to detect the movement of the mouse, an optical mouse uses a [[light emitting diode]] and [[photodiode]]s to detect the movement of the [[mouse pad]].
Early optical mice, such as those invented by [[Steve Kirsch]] of [[Mouse Systems Corporation]], could be used only on a special metallic-surface ([[mouse pad]]) printed with a grid of fine blue and grey lines. As computing power grew cheaper, it became possible to embed more powerful special-purpose [[image processing]] [[integrated circuit|chips]] in the mouse. This advance enabled the mouse to detect the relative motion of the mouse on a wide variety of surfaces, in turn translating the movement of the mouse over the surface into the movement of the pointer, eliminating the need for a special mouse pad. This advance paved the way for widespread adoption of optical mice.
Modern surface-independent optical mice work by using an [[optoelectronic|optical]] [[sensor]] to take successive pictures of the surface the mouse is operating on. Most of these mice use LEDs to illuminate the surface that is being tracked; LED optical mice are often mislabeled as "Laser Mice", probably because a red LED is used in almost all optical mice, and the laser color many people are most familiar with is red. Changes between one frame and the next are processed by the [[image processing]] part of the [[integrated circuit|chip]] and translated into movement on the two [[Coordinate axis|axes]]. For example, the Agilent Technologies ADNS-2610 optical mouse sensor processes 1512 frames per second: each frame is a rectangular array of 18*18 [[pixels]], and each pixel can sense 64 different levels of gray.
Optomechanical mice detect movements of the ball optically, giving the precision of optical without the surface compatibility problems, whereas optical mice detect (relative) movement of the surface by examining the light reflected off it.
====Laser mice====
[[image:computer.mouse.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Two wireless computer mice with scroll wheels]]
In [[2004]], [[Logitech]], along with [[Agilent Technologies]], introduced the [[laser]] mouse with its MX 1000 model. This mouse uses a small laser instead of an LED. The new technology can increase the detail of the image taken by the mouse. The companies claim that this leads to a 20x increase in the sensitivity to the surface features used for navigation compared to conventional optical mice (see [[interference]]). Gamers have complained that the MX 1000 does not respond immediately to movement after it is picked up, moved, and then put down on the mouse pad. Newer revisions of the mouse do not seem to suffer from this problem, which is a power-saving feature. (Almost all optical mice, laser or LED based, also implement this power-saving feature, except those intended for use in gaming, where a millisecond of delay is significant.) Since it is a wireless mouse, the engineers designed it to save as much power as possible. In order to do this, the mouse blinks the laser when in standby mode (8 seconds after the last motion). This function also increases the laser life.
As early as 1998, [[Sun Microsystems]] provided a laser mouse with their Sun SPARC Station servers and workstations.
====Optical versus mechanical mice====
[[Image:Optical_mouse_shining.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Logitech iFeel optical mouse uses a red LED to project lig |
choice in [[Disk_format|disk-formatting]] utilities).
=== Software ===
All IBM PCs includes a relatively small piece of software stored in [[read-only memory|ROM]]. The original IBM PC 40 kB ROM included 8 kB for [[power-on self-test]] (POST) and basic input/output system ([[BIOS]]) functions plus 32 kB [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] in ROM ([[IBM Cassette BASIC|Cassette BASIC]]). The ROM BASIC interpreter was the default user interface if no [[DOS]] [[boot disk]] was present. [[Microsoft BASICA interpreter|BASICA]] was distributed on floppy disk and provided a way to run the ROM BASIC under [[PC-DOS]] control.
== IBM PC and PS/2 models ==
<table border=1>
<caption>''The IBM PC range'' :</caption>
<tr><th>Model name</th><th>Introduced</th><th>CPU</th><th>Features</th></tr>
<!------------------------------------------------------------------------->
<tr><td>[[IBM PC|PC]]</td><td>Aug 1981</td><td>8088</td><td>Floppy disk system</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[IBM Personal Computer XT|XT]]</td><td>Mar 1983</td><td>8088</td><td>Slow [[hard disk]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>XT/370</td><td>Oct 1983</td><td>8088</td><td>[[System/370]] [[IBM mainframe|mainframe]] [[emulation]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>3270 PC</td><td>Oct 1983</td><td>8088</td><td>With [[3270 terminal]] emulation</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[IBM PCjr|PCjr]]</td><td>Nov 1983</td><td>8088</td><td>Floppy-based home computer</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[IBM Portable|PC Portable]]</td><td>Feb 1984</td><td>8088</td><td>Floppy-based portable</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[IBM Personal Computer/AT|AT]]</td><td>Aug 1984</td><td>286</td><td>Medium-speed hard disk</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[IBM Convertible|Convertible]]</td><td>Apr 1986</td><td>8088</td><td>Microfloppy laptop portable</td></tr>
<tr><td>XT 286</td><td>Sep 1986</td><td>286</td><td>Slow hard disk, but zero [[wait state]] memory on the motherboard. This 6 MHz machine was actually faster than the 8 MHz ATs (when using planar memory) because of the zero wait states</td></tr>
</table>
<table border=1>
<caption>''The [[IBM Personal System/2|PS/2]] series'' :</caption>
<tr><th>Model</th><th>Introduced</th><th>CPU</th><th>Features</th></tr>
<!-------------------------------------------------------------------->
<tr><td>25</td><td>August 1987</td><td>8086</td><td>PC bus (limited expansion)</td></tr>
<tr><td>30</td><td>April 1987</td><td>8086</td><td>PC bus</td></tr>
<tr><td>30</td><td>August 1987</td><td>286</td><td>PC bus</td></tr>
<tr><td>50</td><td>April 1987</td><td>286</td><td>[[Micro Channel Architecture]] [[computer bus|bus]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>50Z</td><td>June 1988</td><td>286</td><td>Faster Model 50</td></tr>
<tr><td>55 SX</td><td>May 1989</td><td>386SX</td><td>MCA bus</td></tr>
<tr><td>60</td><td>April 1987</td><td>286</td><td>MCA bus</td></tr>
<tr><td>70</td><td>June 1988</td><td>386</td><td>Desktop, MCA bus</td></tr>
<tr><td>P70</td><td>May 1989</td><td>386</td><td>Portable, MCA bus</td></tr>
<tr><td>80</td><td>April 1987</td><td>386</td><td>Tower, MCA bus</td></tr>
</table>
<table border=1>
<caption>''IBM PC compatible specifications'' :</caption>
<tr><th>CPU</th><th>Clock<br/> speed<br/> (MHz)</th><th>CPU <br/>bus <br/> width ([[bit|bits]])</th><th>System <br/>Bus <br/>width (bits)</th><th>RAM <br/>([[megabyte|megabytes]])</th><th>[[Floppy disk|Floppy<br/>disk drive]]</th><th>[[Hard disk|Hard drive]] <br/>([[megabyte|megabytes]])</th><th>[[Operating system|Operating<br/>system]]</th></tr>
<!--------------------------------------------------------------------------------->
<tr><td>8088</td><td>4.77–9.5</td><td rowspan=3>16</td><td>8</td><td rowspan=2>1 <sup>(1)</sup></td><td rowspan=2>5.25", 360 KB<br/>3.5", 720 KB<br/>3.5", 1.44 MB</td><td>10–40</td><td rowspan=2>[[PC-DOS]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>8086</td><td>6–12</td><td rowspan=2>16</td><td>20–60</td></tr>
<tr><td>286</td><td>6–25</td><td>1–8 <sup>(1)</sup></td><td>5.25", 360 KB<br/>5.25", 1.2 MB </td><td>20–300</td><td>[[PC-DOS]], [[OS/2]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>386</td><td rowspan=2>16–33</td><td rowspan=2>32</td><td>32</td><td rowspan=2>1–16 <sup>(2)</sup></td><td rowspan=2>3.5", 720 KB<br/>3.5", 1.44 MB </td><td rowspan=2>40–600</td><td rowspan=2>[[Unix|UNIX]]</td></tr>
<tr><td>386SX</td><td>16</td></tr>
</table>
# Under DOS, RAM is expanded beyond 1 MB with [[Expanded memory|EMS]] memory boards
# Under DOS, RAM is expanded beyond 1 MB with normal "[[Extended memory |extended]]" memory and a memory management program.
== See also ==
*[[IBM PC compatible]] (aka IBM PC clone)
*[[List of IBM products]]
== References ==
*Norton, Peter (1986). ''Inside the IBM PC. Revised and enlarged''. New York. Brady. ISBN 0-89303-583-1.
*IBM Corporation ([[August 12]], [[1981]]). [http://www-1.ibm.com/ibm/history/documents/pdf/pcpress.pdf Personal Computer Announced By IBM] (PDF format). Press Release in the historical archives of IBM.
*Mueller, Scott (1992) ''Upgrading and Repairing the PCs, Second Edition'', Que Books, ISBN 0-88022-856-3
== External links ==
*[http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c=274 IBM PC] The beginning of the PC: the IBM PC - model 5150.
*[http://oldcomputers.net/ibm5150.html IBM 5150 listing]
*[http://world.std.com/~swmcd/steven/rants/pc.html Limitations of the IBM PC Architecture] History of the IBM PC Architecture
*[http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=anews.Aucbvax.2735 ''"IBM Personal Computer"''] — The first [[USENET]] post to review the ''IBM PC''.
*[http://www.google.com/groups?q=ibm+group:net.micro.pc&hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&scoring=d&as_drrb=b&as_mind=1&as_minm=1&as_miny=1981&as_maxd=1&as_maxm=1&as_maxy=1983&selm=bnews.mhuxh.1069&rnum=28 Google Groups] thread from 1982 indicating that IBM PCs with 16K RAM were actually manufactured and sold. (The statement that 16K machines were sold is hard to believe and hence frequently challenged).
*[http://www.uncreativelabs.org Uncreative Labs] Dedicated to the IBM PC/XT
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<page>
<title>Counties of Ireland</title>
<id>15033</id>
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<id>42086871</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:10:14Z</timestamp>
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<comment>rv - [[County Londonderry]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The [[island]] of '''[[Ireland]]''' has 32 '''[[county|counties]]''', the [[Republic of Ireland]] made up of 26 of these; [[Northern Ireland]] comprises the remaining 6. The counties are subdivisions of the ancient [[Provinces of Ireland]], made up, in general, from smaller territories. While the provinces have existed in some form for many centuries, the counties developed under the Anglo-Norman and British administrations, with the first counties formed in the century after Strongbow's arrival and the last, Wicklow, finally formalised in 1606.
The counties were subsequently adopted by sporting and cultural organisations such as the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]], which organises its activities on county lines and today they attract strong loyalties, particularly in the sporting field.
The strict definition of what constitutes a county in Ireland has been slightly blurred by a growing association of some of the population to their respective [[administrative county]], most prominently noticeable (due to historical influences) in the counties of [[North Tipperary]], [[South Tipperary]] and in more recent times the divisions of County Dublin, [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]], [[Fingal]] and [[South Dublin]]. Currently the "traditional" 32 counties remain in use as the basis of local identity and sporting loyalties.
==Map==
{| align=" |
returned to Portugal in [[1477]] with very low spirits. Disillusioned and depressed he fell into a deep melancholy and abdicated to his son João. After this, he retired to a monastery in [[Sintra]] where he died in 1481. His death was mourned in the country, by the people who loved the king, and by the nobles who were starting to fear his successor.
Afonso was a direct descendant of [[Edward III of England]] through his son [[John of Gaunt]] and therefore was a direct descendant of [[William the Conqueror]], [[King of England]].
===Afonso's marriages and descendants===
Afonso married first to his cousin [[Isabel of Coimbra]] in [[1447]]. Isabel died in [[1455]] and Afonso married again (although not recognized by the Papacy) in [[1475]], this time to [[Joan, princess of Castile|Joan of Castile]] (known as "la Beltraneja"), daughter of [[Henry IV of Castile]] and [[Joan of Portugal]]. This marriage was an attempt to inherit the throne of Castile as Joan was the sole daughter of Henry IV. However this didn't happen as Afonso lost a short war with Castile.
{| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse;"
|- bgcolor=cccccc
!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
|colspan=4|'''By [[Isabel of Coimbra]]''' ([[1432]]-[[December 2]] [[1445]]; married on [[February 2]] [[1387]])
|-
|Prince John||[[January 29]] [[1451]]||[[1451]]||&nbsp;
|-
|[[Saint Joan of Portugal|Princess Joan]]||[[February 6]] [[1452]]||[[May 12]] [[1490]]||Known as Saint Joan of Portugal or Saint Joan Princess. [[Canonized]] in [[1693]] by [[Pope Innocent XII]]
|-
|[[John II of Portugal|John II]]||[[March 3]] [[1455]]||[[October 25]] [[1495]]||Who succeeded him as 13th [[King of Portugal]].
|-
|colspan=4|'''[[Joan, princess of Castile|Joan of Castile]]''' ([[1462]]-[[1530]]; married on [[May 30]] [[1475]])
|-
|colspan=4|'''By [[Maria Álvares de Carvalho]]''' (?-?)
|-
|[[Álvaro Soares de Carvalho]]||c. [[1467]]||[[1557]]||Natural son.
|}
'''See also:''' [[Kings of Portugal family tree]], [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] (contemporary Portuguese naval general)
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[[zh:阿方索五世 (葡萄牙)]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Afonso VI of Portugal</title>
<id>1662</id>
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'''Afonso VI''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su}}/; [[English language|English]] ''Alphonzo'' or ''Alphonse''), or ''Affonso'' (Old Portuguese), ([[August 21]],[[1643]]-[[September 12]], [[1683]]) was the twenty-second (or twenty-third according to some historians) [[Kings of Portugal|King]] of [[Portugal]], the second of the [[House of Braganza]], known as '''the Victorious''' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Vitorioso'').
He succeeded his father ([[João IV]]) in [[1656]] at the age of thirteen. His mother, ([[D. Luisa de Gusmão]]) was named regent in his father's will. At the age of three, he had suffered an illness that left him paralyzed on the left side of his body, as well as leaving him mentally unstable. This, plus his disinterest in ruling left his mother as regent for six years, until 1662. Luisa oversaw military victories over the [[Spain|Spanish]] at [[Ameixial]] ([[June 8]] [[1663]]) and [[Montes Claros]] ([[June 17]] [[1665]]), culminating in the final Spanish recognition of Portugal's independence on [[February 13]] [[1668]]. Colonial affairs saw the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] conquest of [[Jaffnapatam]], Portugal's last colony in [[Sri Lanka]] ([[1658]]) and the cession of [[Bombay]] and [[Tangier]] to [[England]] ([[June 23]] [[1661]]) as dowry for Afonso's sister, [[Catherine of Braganza]] who had married King [[Charles II of England]]. English mediation in 1661 saw the [[Netherlands]] acknowledge Portuguese rule of [[Brazil]] in return for uncontested control of Sri Lanka.
In [[1667]] In 1662, the [[Conde de Castelo-Melhor|Count of Castelo-Melhor]] saw an opportunity to gain power at court by befriending the king. He managed to convince the king that his mother was out to steal his throne and exile him from Portugal. As a result, Afonso took control of the throne and his mother sent to a convent.
[[Image:AfonsoVIPortugal.jpg|left|thumb|150px]]He was married to ([[Marie Françoise of Nemours]]), the daughter of the Duke of Savoy, in 1666, but this marriage would not last long. Marie, or Maria Francisca, as the Portuguese call her, filed for an annullment in 1667 based on the impotence of the king. The Church granted her the annulment, and she married Afonso's brother, D. Pedro, (future ([[D. Pedro II]])). That same year, D. Pedro managed to gain enough support to force the king to relinquish control of the government and he became the Prince Regent. Afonso was banished to the island of [[Terceira]] in the [[Azores]] for seven years, returning to Portugal shortly before he died at [[Sintra]] in [[1683]].
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==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1643 births|Afonso VI of Portugal]]
[[Category:1675 deaths|Afonso VI of Portugal]]
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[[pt:Afonso VI de Portugal]]
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<page>
<title>Alphonso I of Spain</title>
<id>1663</id>
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<id>15900129</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-13T06:47:33Z</timestamp>
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<id>234035</id>
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<comment>{{disambig}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">There has not been a monarch known as '''Alphonso''' or '''Alfonso I of Spain''', the first king of that name of the unified [[Spain]] being [[Alfonso XII of Spain|Alfonso XII]] ([[1874]]-[[1885]]).
Several precursor kingdoms have had an '''Alfonso I'''. You may have been looking for:
*[[Alfonso I of Asturias]] ([[739]]-[[757]]).
*[[Alfonso I of Aragon]] and Navarre ([[1104]]-[[1134]]), known as ''the Battler''.
*[[Alfonso II of Aragon|Alfons I, Count of Barcelona]] ([[1162]]-[[1196]]) known as ''el Cast (the Chaste)'' or ''el Trobador (the Troubadour)'', also Alfonso II of Aragon.
{{disambig}}</text>
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<page>
<title>Alfonso II of Asturias</title>
<id>1664</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-19T16:01:57Z</timestamp>
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<username>Yearofthedragon</username>
<id>472</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Spain.Santiago.de.Compostela.Alfonso.II.jpg|thumb|Statue Alfonso II, Santiago de Compostela]]
'''Alfonso II''' ([[759]]-[[842]], king [[791]]), [[Alfonso I of Asturias|Alfonso I]]'s reputed grandson, bears the name of "the Chaste."
The [[Arab]] writers who speak of the [[Spain|Spanish]] kings of the north-west as the Beni-Altons, appear to recognize them as a royal stock derived from Alfonso I.
The events of his reign are in reality unknown. Poets of a later generation invented the story of the secret marriage of his sister Ximena with Sancho, count of Saldana, and the feats of their son [[Bernardo del Carpio]]. Bernardo is the hero of a ''[[cantar de gesta]]'' (''chanson de geste'') written to please the anarchical spirit of the nobles.
==References==
*{{1911}}
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{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Asturian monarchs|King of Asturias]]|years=[[791]]–[[842]]}}
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{{end}}
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<title>Alphonso III of Spain</title>
<id>1665</id>
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<comment>red Alfonso III of León</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Alfonso III of León]]</text>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Analytical engine]]
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<comment>red Alfonso IV of León</ |
hm, which factorizes <math>z^n-1</math> into [[Cyclotomic polynomial|cyclotomic polynomials]]&mdash;these often have coefficients of 1, 0, or &minus;1, and therefore require few (if any) multiplications, so Winograd can be used to obtain minimal-multiplication FFTs and is often used to find efficient algorithms for small factors. Indeed, Winograd showed that the DFT can be computed with only <math>O(n)</math> multiplications, leading to a proven achievable lower bound on the number of irrational multiplications for power-of-two sizes; unfortunately, this comes at the cost of many more additions, a tradeoff no longer favorable on modern [[central processing unit|processor]]s with [[floating-point unit|hardware multipliers]]. In particular, Winograd also makes use of the PFA as well as an algorithm by Rader for FFTs of ''prime'' sizes. [[Rader's FFT algorithm|Rader's algorithm]], exploiting the existence of a [[generating set of a group|generator]] for the multiplicative [[group (mathematics)|group]] modulo prime <math>n</math>, expresses a DFT of prime size <math>n</math> as a cyclic [[convolution]] of (composite) size <math>n-1</math>, which can then be computed by a pair of ordinary FFTs via the [[convolution theorem]] (although Winograd uses other convolution methods). Another prime-size FFT is due to L. I. Bluestein, and is sometimes called the [[chirp-z algorithm]]; it also re-expresses a DFT as a convolution, but this time of the ''same'' size (which can be zero-padded to a [[power of two]] and evaluated by radix-2 Cooley-Tukey FFTs, for example), via the identity <math>jk = -(j-k)^2/2 + j^2/2 + k^2/2</math>.
== FFT algorithms specialized for real and/or symmetric data ==
In many applications, the input data for the DFT are purely real, in which case the outputs satisfy the symmetry
:<math>f_{n-j} = f_j^*,</math>
and efficient FFT algorithms have been designed for this situation (see e.g. Sorensen, 1987). One approach consists of taking an ordinary algorithm (e.g. Cooley-Tukey) and removing the redundant parts of the computation, saving roughly a factor of two in time and memory. Alternatively, it is possible to express an ''even''-length real-input DFT as a complex DFT of half the length (whose real and imaginary parts are the even/odd elements of the original real data), followed by O(''n'') post-processing operations.
It was once believed that real-input DFTs could be more efficiently computed by means of the [[Discrete Hartley transform]] (DHT), but it was subsequently argued that a specialized real-input DFT algorithm (FFT) can typically be found that requires fewer operations than the corresponding DHT algorithm (FHT) for the same number of inputs. Bruun's algorithm (above) is another method that was initially proposed to take advantage of real inputs, but it has not proved popular.
There are further FFT specializations for the cases of real data that have [[even and odd functions|even/odd ]] symmetry, in which case one can gain another factor of (roughly) two in time and memory and the DFT becomes the discrete cosine/sine transform(s) ([[discrete cosine transform|DCT]]/[[discrete sine transform|DST]]). Instead of directly modifying an FFT algorithm for these cases, DCTs/DSTs can also be computed via FFTs of real data combined with O(''n'') pre/post processing.
== Accuracy and approximations ==
All of the FFT algorithms discussed so far compute the DFT exactly (in exact arithmetic, i.e. neglecting [[floating-point]] errors). A few "FFT" algorithms have been proposed, however, that compute the DFT ''approximately'', with an error that can be made arbitrarily small at the expense of increased computations. Such algorithms trade the approximation error for increased speed or other properties. For example, an approximate FFT algorithm by Edelman et al. (1999) achieves lower communication requirements for [[parallel computing]] with the help of a fast-multipole method. A [[wavelet]]-based approximate FFT by Guo and Burrus (1996) takes sparse inputs/outputs (time/frequency localization) into account more efficiently than is possible with an exact FFT. Another algorithm for approximate computation of a subset of the DFT outputs is due to Shentov et al. (1995). Only the Edelman algorithm works equally well for sparse and non-sparse data, however, since it is based on the compressibility (rank deficiency) of the Fourier matrix itself rather than the compressibility (sparsity) of the data.
Even the "exact" FFT algorithms have errors when finite-precision floating-point arithmetic is used, but these errors are typically quite small; most FFT algorithms, e.g. Cooley-Tukey, have excellent numerical properties. The upper bound on the [[approximation error|relative error]] for the Cooley-Tukey algorithm is O(&epsilon; log ''n''), compared to O(&epsilon; ''n''<sup>3/2</sup>) for the naïve DFT formula (Gentleman and Sande, 1966), where &epsilon; is the machine floating-point relative precision. In fact, the [[root mean square]] (rms) errors are much better than these upper bounds, being only O(&epsilon; &radic;log ''n'') for Cooley-Tukey and O(&epsilon; &radic;''n'') for the naïve DFT (Schatzman, 1996). These results, however, are very sensitive to the accuracy of the twiddle factors used in the FFT (i.e. the [[trigonometric function]] values), and it is not unusual for incautious FFT implementations to have much worse accuracy, e.g. if they use inaccurate [[generating trigonometric tables|trigonometric recurrence]] formulas. Some FFTs other than Cooley-Tukey, such as the Rader-Brenner algorithm, are intrinsically less stable.
In [[fixed-point arithmetic]], the finite-precision errors accumulated by FFT algorithms are worse, with rms errors growing as O(&radic;''n'') for the Cooley-Tukey algorithm (Welch, 1969). Moreover, even achieving this accuracy requires careful attention to scaling in order to minimize the loss of precision, and [[fixed-point FFT algorithms]] involve rescaling at each intermediate stage of decompositions like Cooley-Tukey.
To verify the correctness of an FFT implementation, rigorous guarantees can be obtained in O(''n'' log ''n'') time by a simple procedure checking the linearity, impulse-response, and time-shift properties of the transform on random inputs (Ergün, 1995).
==Multidimensional FFT algorithms==
As defined in the [[Discrete Fourier transform#Multidimensional DFT|multidimensional DFT]] article, the multidimensional DFT
:<math>f_\mathbf{j} = \sum_{\mathbf{k}=0}^{\mathbf{n}-1} e^{-2\pi i \mathbf{j} \cdot (\mathbf{k} / \mathbf{n})} x_\mathbf{k}</math>
transforms an array <math>x_\mathbf{k}</math> with a <math>d</math>-dimensional [[coordinate vector|vector]] of indices <math>\mathbf{k}=(k_1 = 0 \ldots n_1-1, \cdots, k_d = 0 \ldots n_d-1)</math> by a set of <math>d</math> nested summations. Equivalently, it is simply the composition of a sequence of <math>d</math> one-dimensional DFTs, performed along one dimension at a time (in any order).
This compositional viewpoint immediately provides the simplest and most common multidimensional DFT algorithm, known as the '''row-column''' algorithm (after the two-dimensional case, below). That is, one simply performs a sequence of <math>d</math> one-dimensional FFTs (by any of the above algorithms): first you transform along the <math>k_1</math> dimension, then along the <math>k_2</math> dimension, and so on (or actually, any ordering will work). This method is easily shown to have the usual <math>O(N \log N)</math> complexity, where <math>N = n_1 n_2 \cdots n_d</math> is the total number of data points transformed. In particular, there are <math>N/n_1</math> transforms of size <math>n_1</math>, etcetera, so the complexity of the sequence of FFTs is:
:<math>N/n_1 O(n_1 \log n_1) + \cdots + N/n_d O(n_d \log n_d) = O(N [\log n_1 + \cdots + \log n_d]) = O(N \log N).</math>
In two dimensions, the <math>x_\mathbf{k}</math> can be viewed as an <math>n_1 \times n_2</math> [[matrix (mathematics)|matrix]], and this algorithm corresponds to first performing the FFT of all the rows and then of all the columns (or vice versa), hence the name.
In more than two dimensions, it is often advantageous for [[cache]] locality to group the dimensions recursively. For example, a three-dimensional FFT might first perform two-dimensional FFTs of each planar "slice" for each fixed <math>k_1</math>, and then perform the one-dimensional FFTs along the <math>k_1</math> direction. More generally, an (asymptotically) optimal [[cache-oblivious]] algorithm consists of recursively dividing the dimensions into two groups <math>(k_1, \cdots, k_{d/2})</math> and <math>(k_{d/2+1}, \cdots, k_d)</math> that are transformed recursively (rounding if <math>d</math> is not even) (see Frigo and Johnson, 2005). Still, this remains a straightforward variation of the row-column algorithm that ultimately requires only a one-dimensional FFT algorithm as the base case, and still has <math>O(N \log N)</math> complexity. Yet another variation is to perform matrix [[transpose|transpositions]] in between transforming subsequent dimensions, so that the transforms operate on contiguous data; this is especially important for [[out-of-core]] and [[distributed memory]] situations where accessing non-contiguous data is extremely time-consuming.
There are other multidimensional FFT algorithms that are distinct from the row-column algorithm, although all of them have <math>O(N \log N)</math> complexity. Perhaps the simplest no |
rdo logudorese]].
== Typical constitutional elements of Gallurese ==
*the plural form of nouns in -i ("ghjanni or polti" [doors]) like in Corsican and Italian, and not in -s like in Sardinian ("jannas"), [[Latin]], Spanish, Catalan, etc.
*final words in -dd- (like "casteddu, beddu" [castle, beautiful]), the same as in Sardinian and southern Corsican (but "castellu, bellu" in northern Corsican);
*-r- modified to -l- ("poltu"[port], while "portu" in Corsican and Sardinian);
*-chj- and -ghj- sounds ("ghjesgia [church], occhji [eyes]), like in Corsican, when Sardinian is "cresia, ogros".
*"lu", "la", "li" articles like in former Corsican dialects ("u", "a", "i" in modern Corsican, "su", "sa", "sos", "sas" in Sardinian);
== Gallurese and its Corsican heritage ==
It is deeply controversial, and in fact discussed, whether Gallurese should be included in the [[Corsican language]], as a minor form or a [[dialect]] of this one, or instead included (as now is) in Sardinian. An evident similarity, indeed, exists between Corsican (especially southern dialects) and Gallurese, and as evident as the distance from the bordering Sardo logudorese. Undoubtedly the two idioms are in some elements similar and quite certainly they are reciprocally influenced.
Sardinian language is deeply conservative, ancient, Latin-based and historically influenced from [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Catalan language|Catalan]]. Southern Corsican should be derived by the idiom spoken all over the island before Italian and French hard influences (dialect of [[Bastia]] presents notable similarities to Tuscan). Before French domination, standard Italian was for centuries the cultural language of the island. Moreover, it has to be noted that there was a progressive mutation of the languages between Sardinia, [[Corsica]] and [[Tuscany]].
Academically, and in scholastical classification, Gallurese is often considered a [[Sardinian language]] for two main reasons (that could be controversial):
#First of all, a ''geographical'' reason could not allow any different classification; oppositors however stress that the [[Catalan language|Catalan]] spoken in [[Alghero]] and the [[Tabarchino]] ([[Ligurian]]) spoken in the minor island of [[Sant'Antioco]] are not actually submitted to this rule.
#A genetical reason immediately follows the geographical one: undoubtedly (?), Gallurese has a common origin with the other languages of Sardinia, and it is very likely that any change, any development might have been built upon a common basic structure, and not on a different starting idiom.
This genetical reason links the Corsican languages and the Sardinian languages in a remote ''Romania africana'' : only the true Sardinian dialects are the heirs of this former unity.
But in the recent regional law (No. 26, 1997) voted by the Sardinian Parliament, the Gallurese (with the Sassarese) is not considered as a Sardinian language but in the same category as [[Catalan language]] of Alghero or [[Tabarchino]].
== Hypothesis on Gallurese's development ==
The occasions of contact between the idioms could be interesting, in order to know more about the genesis and the development of Gallurese. Before the [[Phoenician languages]], the presumed [[Paleosardinian]] language of the [[Nuragici people]] should have been evenly distributed over the island, but [[archaeological]] evidence of the language is only found at a few points on the island.
Phoenicians came and invaded the island, only two main areas remaining free from their control and their influence, the two traditionally independent areas of Sardinia: Gallura and [[Barbagia]]. Here the contact with surrounding areas was broken, supposedly. So there should locally remain the influences of [[Balari]] (a Sardinian people that came from [[Spain]]), probably with protoiberic influences. Then [[Rome]] came, and defeated Balari, therefore Rome was in Gallura too, as it was in Barbagia. Maybe it could be presumed that when the [[Latin|Latin language]] entered, only some part of the idiom was different, so the difference could have came later.
The greatest difference could perhaps be born in the age of [[Giudicati]], it could be [[Pisa]], and the quality of the presence of Pisa to start separating the local speaking. Since the defeat of arab pirate Musetto, [[1000]]-[[1050]], Pisa was in the northern Giudicato with the sole "disturb" of [[Genoa]] (and the Doria family), then it would have remained there as the main dominator. As known, we know most of medieval [[sardinian history]] thanks to the Pisan ''liber fondachi'', the registry of paid [[tax]]es, which is so detailed to let us consider Pisan presence as a heavy influence.
From this point perhaps the languages begin to part, along time producing what lets now underline that there is some [[Italian language]] and some [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] in Gallurese. But talking about Corsica, the mere institution of a common ''Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae'' ([[1297]]), more a formal political act than a concrete creation of power at the beginning, does not allow to consider that particular relationships were established between the islands just as an effect of this institution, being the main action of [[Aragon]], at that time, the first conquer of Giudicati, mainly [[Arborea]], and it took quite a century or something more. Pisans remained in Sardinia for a while, as their [[Romanesque architecture]] and some of their idioms attest.
It could be interesting to investigate if the Tuscan ingredients of Gallurese effectively came from this domination, because in this case, a Tuscan influence would have presumedly affected a Sardinian version, resulting in a modified Sardinian version (then it still could be a Sardinian version). It would consequently be classified as a Sardinian language for a genetical reason.
In this hypothesis we were considering Sardinian as if Corsican could modify it, but the contrary could be possible, as well, and there could also be a possible Sardinian influence on Corsican. It could also be that Corsican had been influenced by Sardinian. Or it could eventually be that they both were influenced by the same factors, received in their own territories separately and with different actions, finally producing not so distant results. External influences could consent this hypothesis: Sardinia had a wider population, and in its history has been more subject to foreign influences than Corsica. Invasions and taxes would probably have caused an eventual movement in the direction of the minor island, less probably the other way, even if the establishment of a few groups of Corsicans in Sardinia is known. Also, the little distance between Corsica and Tyrrhenic (tuscan) islands would let suppose more frequent practical contacts, while in Sardinia these contacts were more decisive on a point of local administration.
Contacts between the two islands were again intense in 17th century, when [[France]] entered in commercial relationship with Sardinia, provoking (not completely unintentionally) a certain [[contraband]] in the Bocche di Bonifacio (the narrow channel that divides the two islands); the need of using a common [[jargon]] on the coast is of evident relevance. Its diffusion however was not so wide, presumedly.
Similarities do exist also with [[Maremma]], in southern Tuscany-northern [[Latium]], with which there were no relationships. All this would tend to suggest that a common evolution had interested the areas. Some authors like Maxia believe that, in analogy among themselves, all the coastal areas of [[Tyrrhenian Sea]] should have lived an evolutive moment perhaps at the same time. But the point is not obviously the similarity, because it would not be sufficient to a classification. Current central logudorese sardinian is not similar, in phonetics, to medieval logudorese sardinian (cfr. Pittau [http://web.tiscali.it/pittau/Sardo/silki.html]), although no one would ever deny that it is the same language. How much did it change, from what was it changing, what happened in Gallura and from what Gallurese started, are still unanswered questions, by now.
A proposed proof of a common genetical root between Gallurese and Sardinian regards the turning to Italian language of both logudorese and gallurese people when they abandon their respective natural idioms: considering the relevant similarity in the use of their second language (Italian), it could be not immediately unfair to consider that the genetical root should be common, even if the "musical" result is different.
==External links==
*http://interromania.free.fr/media/pdf/maxia/studii_storici_sui_dialetti_della_sardegna.pdf
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=sdn Ethnologue report for Gallurese]
*http://web.tiscali.it/consultagallurese/index.html
*http://web.tiscali.it/consultagallurese/attivita.htm
*http://www.infosardinia.it/linguasarda.htm
*http://www.legambientegallura.com/lo_stazzo.htm
*http://www.sardiniapoint.it/33.html
*http://www.unionesarda.it/unione/2000/21-10-00/GALLURA/OLB03/A05.html
*http://www.uniud.it/cip/min_tutelate_scheda.htm
*http://eiha.crs4.it/cultura/opereWord/lingua/lingua.doc
*Walther von WARTBURG "La fragmentation linguistique de la Romania", Paris, Librairie C. Klincksieck, 1967.
[[Category:Sardinian language]]
[[Category:Languages of Italy]]
{{Link FA|it}}
[[fr:Gallurais]]
[[it:Dialetto gallurese]]
[[pl:Język gallurski]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gary Busey</title>
<id>13030</id>
<revision>
<id>41684769</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:21:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MisterHand</username>
<id>604893</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41438447 using [[: |
st staff members, his chief of staff General [[Hans Speidel]], chief naval aide Admiral [[Friedrich Ruge]] and his personal aide Captain [[Hellmuth Lang]], all of whom were heavily involved in the anti-Nazi conspiracy within the Wehrmacht.]]
On [[July 17]], [[1944]] Rommel's [[Charley Fox|staff car was strafed]] by an [[Royal Canadian Air Force|RCAF]] [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire]], and he was hospitalized with major head injuries. In the meantime, after the failed [[July 20 Plot]] against [[Adolf Hitler]] a major crackdown was conducted throughout the Wehrmacht. As the investigation proceeded, numerous connections started appearing that tied Rommel with the conspiracy, in which many of his closest aides were deeply involved. At the same time, local Nazi party officials reported on Rommel's extensive and scornful criticism of Nazi leadership during the time he was hospitalized. [[Martin Bormann|Bormann]] was certain of Rommel's involvement, [[Joseph Goebbels|Goebbels]] was not.
The true extent of Rommel's knowledge of, or involvement with, the plot is still unclear. After the war, however, his wife maintained that Rommel had been against the plot as it was carried out. It has been stated that Rommel wanted to avoid giving future generations of Germans the perception that the war was lost because of a backstab, the infamous [[Dolchstoßlegende]], as it was commonly believed by some Germans following WWI. Instead, he favored a coup where Hitler would be taken alive and made to stand trial before the public.
[[Image:Erwin rommel death.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A memorial at the site of Field Marshall Erwin Rommel's [[suicide]] outside of the town of Herrlingen, [[Baden-Württemberg]], [[Germany]] (west of [[Ulm]])]]
Due to Rommel's popularity with the German people, Hitler gave him an option to commit [[suicide]] with [[cyanide]] or face a humiliating sham trial before [[Roland Freisler]]'s "[[Volksgerichtshof|People's Court]]" and the murder of his family and staff. Rommel ended his own life on [[October 14]], [[1944]], and was buried with full military honours. After the war his diary was published as ''The Rommel Papers''. He is the only member of the [[Third Reich]] establishment to have a museum dedicated to his person and his career. His grave can be found in Herrlingen, a short distance west of [[Ulm]].
==Battles==
*[[Battle of Arras (1940)]]
*[[Siege of Tobruk]] ([[1941]])
*[[Battle of Gazala]] ([[1942]])
*[[Battle of Bir Hakeim]] ([[1942]])
*[[First Battle of El Alamein]] ([[1942]])
*[[Battle of Alam Halfa]] ([[1942]])
*[[Second Battle of El Alamein]] ([[1942]])
*[[Battle of the Kasserine Pass]] ([[1943]])
*[[Battle of Normandy]] ([[1944]])
==In fiction==
He was portrayed by [[James Mason]] in the [[1951]] [[Film|movie]] ''The Desert Fox'', and also by [[Karl Michael Vogler]] in the [[1970]] biographical [[film]] ''[[Patton (film)|Patton]]'', starring [[George C. Scott]], and by [[Hardy Kruger]] in the [[1988]] television [[miniseries]] ''[[War and Remembrance]]''.
In [[Philip K. Dick]]'s [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternate history]] novel "[[The Man in the High Castle]]", it is mentioned that Rommel is currently the Nazi-appointed president of the United States of America in the early 1960s.
In [[Douglas Niles]]'s and [[Michael Dobson]]'s alternate history novel ''[[Fox on the Rhine]]'', Hitler was killed by the bomb plot of [[July 20]] [[1944]]. This led to Rommel's survival, and a different quick offensive strike. This was repelled and the book ended with his surrender to the Americans and British, believing that the Germans would be better off with the western powers than with the Soviets. ''Fox on the Rhine'' was followed by a sequel book ''Fox on the Front''.
In [[Donna Barr]]'s novel ''Bread and Swans'' the historical Rommel shares his concerns and career with a fictitious younger brother, Pfirsich,
aka [[The Desert Peach]]. Both Rommels also appear as focal characters of Barr's long-running comic strip series about "The Peach."
==Quotations about Rommel==
<!-- only a few selected quotes to be included in main article here -->
*The [[British Parliament]] considered a censure vote against [[Winston Churchill]] following the surrender of Tobruk. The vote failed, but in the course of the debate, Churchill would say:
**''"We have a very daring and skillful opponent against us, and, may I say across the havoc of war, a great General."''
*[[Churchill]] again, on hearing of Rommel's death:
**''"He also deserves our respect, because, although a loyal German soldier, he came to hate Hitler and all his works, and took part in the conspiracy to rescue Germany by displacing the maniac and tyrant. For this, he paid the forfeit of his life. In the sombre wars of modern democracy, there is little place for chivalry” ''
*[[Theodor Werner]] was an officer who, during World War I, served under Rommel.
**''"Anybody who came under the spell of his personality turned into a real soldier. He seemed to know what the enemy were like and how they would react."''
*Attributed to General [[George S. Patton]] in North Africa (referring to ''"[[Infantry Attacks]]"'')
**''"Rommel, you magnificent bastard! I read your book!"''
==Quotations==
*"Sweat saves blood, blood saves lives, and brains saves both."
*"Mortal danger is an effective antidote for fixed ideas."
*"The best form of welfare for the troops is first-rate training."
*"Don't fight a battle if you don't gain anything by winning."
*"In a man-to-man fight, the winner is he who has one more round in his magazine."
*"Courage which goes against military expediency is stupidity, or, if it is insisted upon by a commander, irresponsibility."
*"So long as one isn't carrying one's head under one's arm, things aren't too bad."
*"A risk is a chance you take; if it fails you can recover. A gamble is a chance taken; if it fails, recovery is impossible."
*"There is one unalterable difference between a soldier and a civilian: the civilian never does more than he is paid to do."
*"What difference does it make if you have two tanks to my one, when you spread them out and let me smash them in detail?"
*"The best plan is the one made when the battle is over."
*"In the absence of orders, go find something and kill it."
*"The officers of a panzer division must learn to think and act independently within the framework of the general plan and not wait until they receive orders."
*"Men are basically smart or dumb and lazy or ambitious. The dumb and ambitious ones are dangerous and I get rid of them. The dumb and lazy ones I give mundane duties. The smart ambitious ones I put on my staff. The smart and lazy ones I make my commanders."
*"Be an example to your men, in your duty and in private life. Never spare yourself, and let the troops see that you don't in your endurance of fatigue and privation. Always be tactful and well-mannered and teach your subordinates to do the same. Avoid excessive sharpness or harshness of voice, which usually indicates the man who has shortcomings of his own to hide."
*"The future battle on the ground will be preceded by battle in the air. This will determine which of the contestants has to suffer operational and tactical disadvantages and be forced throughout the battle into adoption compromise solutions."
*"Anyone who has to fight, even with the most modern weapons, against an enemy in complete command of the air, fights like a savage against modern European troops, under the same handicaps and with the same chances of success."
*"One must not judge everyone in the world by his qualities as a soldier: otherwise we should have no civilization."
*"The art of concentrating strength at one point, forcing a breakthrough, rolling up and securing the flanks on either side, and then penetrating like lightning deep into his rear, before the enemy has time to react-is ''[[Blitzkrieg]]''."
*"Messages can't be intercepted if they aren't sent, can they?"
*"This business with the Jews has got to stop."
==References==
{{commons|Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel}}
* ''The Battle of Alamein: Turning Point, World War II'', by [[John Bierman|Bierman]] and [[Colin Smith|Smith]] ([[2002]]). ISBN 0670030406
* ''Rommel's Greatest Victory'', by Samuel W. Mitcham, Samuel Mitcham. ISBN 0891417303
* ''Meeting the Fox: The Allied Invasion of Africa, from Operation Torch to Kasserine Pass to Victory in Tunisia'', by Orr Kelly. ISBN 0471414298
* ''INSIDE THE AFRIKA KORPS: The Crusader Battles, 1941-1942''. ISBN 1853673226
* ''Alamein'', by Jon Latimer. ISBN 0674010167
* ''Tank Combat in North Africa: The Opening Rounds : Operations Sonnenblume, Brevity, Skorpion and Battleaxe February 1941-June 1941 (Schiffer Military History)'', by Thomas L. Jentz. ISBN 0764302264
* ''Rommel's North Africa Campaign: September 1940 - November 1942'', by Jack Greene. ISBN 1580970184
* ''Tobruk 1941: Rommel's Opening Move (Campaign, 80)'' by Jon Latimer. ISBN 1841760927
* ''21st Panzer Division: Rommel's Africa Korps Spearhead (Spearhead Series)'', by Chris Ellis. ISBN 0711028532
* ''Afrikakorps, 1941-1943: The Libya Egypt Campaign'', by Francois De Lannoy. ISBN 2840481529
* ''With Rommel's Army in Libya'' by Almasy, Gabriel Francis Horchler, Janos Kubassek. ISBN 0759616086
* ''Generalfeldmarschall Rommel : opperbevelhebber van Heeresgruppe B bij de voorbereiding van de verdediging van West-Europa, 5&nbsp;November 1943 tot 6 juni 1944'' by Hans Sakkers (1993). ISBN 90-800900-2-6 [text/photobook in Dutch about Rommel at the Atlantic Wall 1943/44]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.badley.info/history/Rommel-Erwin-Johannes-Eugen-Germany.biog.html Rommel Chronology World History Database]
* |
] is one of the most famous Vaishnavite temples in India.]]
{{main|Vaishnavism}}
A Vaishnavite considers '''''[[Vishnu|{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}]]''''' ({{lang|sa|विष्णु}}) as the Supreme Being, and considers other deities as subordinate (as demigods). Accordingly, many Vaishnavites, for example, believe that ''{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}'' ultimately grants ''{{Unicode|mokṣha}}''. Vaishnavites consider worship of "other gods" as secondary due to ''[[Krishna|{{Unicode|Kriṣhṇa}}]]''’s (who is a form of ''{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}'') sayings in the ''{{Unicode|Gītā}}'':
'' Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, their wishes are granted by Me'' (''{{Unicode|Gītā}}'': 7:21-22)
'' O Arjuna, even those devotees who worship other subordinate deities (e.g., ''Devas'', for example) with faith, they also worship Me, [but] following non-injunction'' (''{{Unicode|Gītā}}'': 9:23).
==== Shaivism ====
{{main|Shaivism}}
Similar to Vaishnavism, many Shaivites hold that '''''[[Shiva]]''''' ({{lang|sa|शिव}}) is the Supreme Being and all other deities sprung forth from him. They follow either [[monistic]] or [[dvaita|dualistic]] philosophies.
==== Shaktism ====
{{main|Shaktism}}
''{{Unicode|Shāktas}}'' worship the Mother Goddess ''Shakti'' (or '''''[[Devi|{{Unicode|devī}}]]''''') in all of her forms, whilst not rejecting the importance of the masculine divinity. The "History of the ''{{Unicode|Shākta}}'' Religion" explains that ''The ''{{Unicode|Shāktas}}'' conceive their Great Goddess as the personification of primordial energy and the source of all divine and cosmic evolution. She is identified with the Supreme Being, conceived as the Source and the Spring as well as the Controller of all the forces and potentialities of Nature.'' It is associated with ''[[Vedanta|{{Unicode|Vedānta}}]]'', ''[[Samkhya|{{Unicode|Sāṃkhya}}]]'' and ''[[Tantra]]'' philosophies, is ultimately monist, and has a rich tradition of ''[[Bhakti yoga]]'' associated with it.
==== Smartism ====
{{main|Smartism}}
'''''{{Unicode|Smārtas}}''''' invariably follow ''Advaita'' (monist) philosophy, seeing multiple manifestations emanating from a single source called ''Brahman''. It is seen as ultimate unity, with the personal "gods" (deities) being different manifestations of ''Brahman'' which can be called by different names. Smartism is the only branch of Hinduism that adopts these ideas strictly. The ''{{Unicode|Smārtas}}'' perspective dominates the view of Hinduism in the West because of the influence of eminent ''{{Unicode|Smārtins}}'' like Swami [[Vivekananda]].
== Hindu sacred texts ==
{{main|Hindu scripture}}
The overwhelming majority of Hindu [[scripture|sacred texts]] are composed in the [[Sanskrit language]]. Indeed, much of the [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and [[linguistic]] philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is sometimes claimed to be inextricably linked to study of the Vedas and relevant Hindu scriptures.
===Shruti===
{{main|Shruti}}
The ''[[Veda]]s'' ({{Unicode|वेद}}, literally, "Knowledge") are considered as ''Shruti'' by the Hindus. They are said to have been revealed by the ''[[Brahman]]'' to the ''[[rishi|{{Unicode|Ṛiṣhi}}]]s'' while the latter were in deep meditation. While the overwhelming majority of Hindus may never read the ''[[Veda]]s'', there prevails in them a reverence for this transcendental notion of "Eternal Knowledge". The four ''[[Veda]]s'' (the ''[[Rig Veda|{{Unicode|Ṛig}}]], [[Yajur Veda|Yajur]], [[Sama Veda|{{Unicode|Sāma}}]] and [[Atharva Veda]]s'') are various ''{{Unicode|shākhās}}'' or branches of knowledge. Depending on the branch, different commentaries and instructions are associated with each Veda. The ''{{Unicode|Ṛig}} Veda'' contains mantras to invoke the ''devas'' for the fire-sacrifice rituals, the ''{{Unicode|Sāma}} Veda'' has chants to be sung there, the ''Yajur Veda'' has actual prosaic instructions for the sacrifices and the ''Atharva Veda'' comprises of semi-magical (sic) spells against enemies, sorcerers, diseases and mistakes during the sacrificing ritual. The Vedas, apart from the hymn (''[[mantra]]'') or the ''[[Samhita|{{Unicode|Saṃhitā}}]]'' (संहिता) portion, also have three layers of commentaries integrally incorporated within them. These are: the ''[[Brahmana|Brāhmaṇas]]'' (ब्राह्मण, not to be confused with ''Brahman'') containing prose commentaries on the rituals, the ''[[Aranyaka|{{Unicode|Āraṇyakas}}]]'' (आरण्यक) containing the mystical explanations of the mantras, and the ''[[Upanishad|{{Unicode|Upaniṣhads}}]]'' (उपनिषद्) containing highly philosophical and metaphysical writings about the nature of, and the relationship between the soul (''[[Atman|{{Unicode|ātman}}]]'') and the ''[[Brahman]]''. Each Veda also has various law books and ritual manuals loosely associated with it, like the ''[[Dharmashastra|{{Unicode|Dharmashāstra}}]]s'', ''{{Unicode|Grihyasūtras}}'', etc., but most people do not consider them as an integral part of the ''Shruti'' or the Vedic literature.
The ''{{Unicode|Upaniṣhads}}'' set Hindu philosophy apart with its embrace of transcendent and yet multiple immanent forces that is subjective to each individual, seen by some as an identification of unity in diversity. Modern indology suggests that while early Hinduism is most reliant on the four [[Veda]]s, Classical Hinduism, from the ''[[Yoga]]'' and ''[[Vedanta]]'' to ''[[Tantra]]'' and ''[[Bhakti]]'' streams, was moulded around the ''{{Unicode|Upaniṣhads}}''. The Vedas are full of mysticism and allegories. While many schools like Smartism and Advaitism encourage people to interpret the Vedas philosophically and metaphorically and not too literally, Vaishnavism stresses the literal meaning (''mukhya v{{Unicode|ṛ}}itti'') as primary and indirect meaning ({{Unicode|gauṇa vṛitti}}) as secondary: ''{{Unicode|sākṣhād upadesas tu shrutih}}'' - "The instructions of the shruti-sh{{Unicode|ā}}stra should be accepted literally, without so-called ''fanciful or allegorical interpretations''." (Jiva Gosvami, ''{{Unicode|Kṛiṣhna}} Sandarbha'' 29.26-27). The very sound of the Vedic mantras is considered as "purifying" by many Hindus, hence the rigour in learning pronunciation. The rigorous oral tradition of transmitting the Vedas has helped in its perfect preservation.
[[Image:Mindsenses.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''The Bhagavad Gita'' describes the mind as turbulent and obstinate. 'The Chariot of the Body': The five horses represent the five senses (tongue, eyes, nose, ears and skin). The rein symbolises the mind, the driver is the intelligence while the passenger is the spirit soul.]]
===Bhagavad Gita===
{{main|Bhagavad Gita}}
The '''''{{Unicode|Bhagavad Gītā}}''''' (भागवद् गीता), often referred to as the ''{{Unicode|Gītā}}'', is one of the more popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It is a summary of the [[Vedic religion|Vedic]], [[Yoga|Yogic]], [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] and [[Tantric Buddhism|Tantric]] branches of [[Hindu philosophy|philosophy]]. The ''{{Unicode|Bhagavad Gītā}}'', meaning "The Divine Song", refers to itself as a ''Yoga Upani{{Unicode|ṣ}}had'' and is sometimes called ''{{Unicode|Gītopaniṣad}}''. It expounds on ''[[Karma Yoga]]'', ''[[Bhakti Yoga]]'' and ''[[Jnana Yoga|{{Unicode|Jñāna}} Yoga]]''. It is an integral part of the epic ''[[Mahabharata|{{Unicode|Mahābhārata}}]]'', and contains philosophical sermons taught by ''[[Krishna|{{Unicode|Kṛiṣhṇa}}]]'', an incarnation of ''{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}'', to the ''{{Unicode|Pāṇḍava}}'' princes just before a great war.
While technically, it is considered as ''[[Smriti|{{Unicode|Smṛiti}}]]'' text, it has singularly achieved the status of ''[[Shruti]]'', or ''Revealed Knowledge''. The ''{{Unicode|Bhagavad Gītā}}'' is described as the essence of the ''Vedas''. The ''{{Unicode|Gītā}}'' is easy to follow, and is also one of the most popular books in Hinduism. Unlike the ''Vedas'', which are more [[esoteric]] and intricate, the ''{{Unicode|Gītā}}'' is read by many practicing Hindus.
===Smriti===
{{main|Smriti}}
The other Hindu texts form the latter category—the '''''{{unicode|Smṛitis}}''''' (lit., "memory"), all of which laud the ''Vedas''; the most notable of them are the ''[[Mahabharata|{{Unicode|Mahābhārata}}]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana|{{Unicode|Rāmāyaṇa}}]]'', major [[epic poetry|epic]]s considered sacred by almost all followers of ''San{{Unicode|ā}}tana Dharma''. Their stories are arguably familiar to the vast majority of Hindus. Other texts considered important by today's Hindus include the ''{{Unicode|Shrīmad Bhāgavatam}}'', described as the spotless epic detailing devotion to ''{{Unicode|Viṣhnu}}'' as the highest goal, ''[[Devi Mahatmya|{{Unicode|Devī Mahātmya}}]]'', an ode to ''[[Devi|{{Unicode|Devī}}]]'', and the ''[[Yoga Sutras|{{Unicode|Yoga Sūtras}}]]'', a key meditative yoga text of ''Shri [[Patanjali|{{Unicode|Patañjali}}]]''. There are also a number of revered Hindu ''[[Tantras]]'', the ''[[Manusmriti|{{unicode|Manusmṛiti}}]]'', the 18 ''[[Purana|{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}]]s'' which vividly describe later Hinduism's deities and mythology, and [[List of sutras|{{Unicode|Sūtras}}]] that command the respect of various Hindu sects of different persuasion, some including the ''{{Unicode|Mahanirvāṇa Tantra}}'', ''[[Tirumantiram]]'' and ''[[Shiva Sutras|{{Unicode|Shiva Sūtras}}]]''. The eighteen ''[[Purana|{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}]]s'', or ''Ancients'', are divided into three groups of six. The ''{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}s’'' groups and their contents are: 1) the ''{{Unicode|Brahmā Purāṇa}}s'': ''{{Unicode|Brahma Purāṇa}}'', ''{{Unicode|Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa}}'', ''Brahma Vaivarta'' ''{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}'', ''{{Unicode|Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa}}'', ''{{Unicode|Bhaviṣhya Purāṇa}}'', and the ''{{Unicode|Vāmana Purāṇa}}''; 2) the ''{{Unicode|Viṣhnu Purāṇa}}s'': the ''{{Unicode|Viṣhnu Purāṇa}}'', the ''{{Unicode|Bhāgavata Purāṇa}}'', the ''{{Unicode|Nāradeya Purāṇa}}'', the ''{{Unicode|Garuḍa Purāṇa}}'', the ''Padma'' ''{{Unicod |
e called [[Draco]] wrote the laws of the city-state of [[Athens]]; and being quite cruel, this code prescribed the death penalty for any offense. In 594 BC, [[Solon]], the ruler of Athens, created a new [[Solonian Constitution|constitution]]. It eased the burden of the workers, however it made the ruling class to be determined by wealth, rather than by birth. [[Cleisthenes of Athens|Cleisthenes]] again reformed the Athenian constitution and set it on a democratic footing in [[508]] BC.
[[Aristotle]] (c. 350 BC) was also one of the first in recorded history to formally make the distinction between law and constitutional law. He was the first to establish the ideas of constitution, the idea of constitutionalism and attempt to classify different forms of constitution/government. The most basic definition he used to describe a constitution in general terms was "the arrangement of the offices in a state". In his work ''[[Constitution of Athens]]'', [[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]], [[Nicomachean Ethics]] explored different forms of constitutions. He classified both what he regarded as good and bad constitutions, and came to the conclusion that the best constitution was a mixed system, including monarchic, aristocratic, and democratic elements. He also distinguished between citizens, who had the exclusive opportunity to participate in the state, and non-citizens and slaves who did not.
[[Japan]]'s ''[[Seventeen-article constitution]]'' written in [[604]], reportedly by [[Prince Shotoku|Prince Shōtoku]], is an early example of a constitution in Asian political history. Influenced by [[Buddhism|Buddist]] teachings, the document focuses more on social morality than institutions of government ''per se'' and remains a notable early attempt at a government constitution. Another is the [[Constitution of Medina]], drafted by the prophet of [[Islam]], [[Muhammad]], in [[622]].
In [[England]], [[Henry I of England|King Henry I]]'s proclamation of the [[Charter of Liberties]] in [[1100]] bound the king for the first time in his treatment of the clergy and the nobility. This idea was extended and refined by the English barony when they forced [[John I of England|John I]] to sign the [[Magna Carta]] in [[1215]]. The most important single article of the Magna Carta, related to "''[[habeas corpus]]''", provided that the king was not permitted to imprison, outlaw, exile or kill anyone at a whim -- there must be [[due process]] of law first. This article, Article 39, of the Magna Carta read:
''No free man shall be arrested, or imprisoned, or deprived of his property, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any way destroyed, nor shall we go against him or send against him, unless by legal judgement of his peers, or by the law of the land.''
[[Image:Konstytucja 3 Maja.jpg|left|thumb|350px|''May 3rd Constitution'' (painting by [[Jan Matejko]], [[1891]]). King Stanisław August (left, in regal [[ermine]]-trimmed cloak), enters [[St. John's Cathedral]], where [[Sejm]] [[Chamber of Deputies|deputies]] will swear to uphold the new [[Constitution]]; in background, [[Warsaw's Royal Castle]], where the Constitution has just been adopted.]]
This provision became the cornerstone of English liberty after that point. The [[social contract]] in the original case was between the king and the nobility, but was gradually extended to all of the people. It led to the system of [[Constitutional Monarchy]], with further reforms shifting the balance of power from the monarchy and nobility to the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]].
Around 1240, the [[Copt]]ic Egyptian Christian writer, [['Abul Fada'il Ibn al-'Assal]], wrote the [[Fetha Negest]] in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. 'Ibn al-Assal took his laws partly from apostolic writings and partly from former law codes of the [[List of Byzantine emperors|Byzantine]] rulers such as Justinian. There are a few historical records claiming that this law code was translated into [[Ge'ez]] and entered Ethiopia around [[1450]] in the reign of [[Zara Yaqob]]. Even so, its first recorded use in the function of a constitution (supreme law of the land) is with [[Sarsa Dengel]] beginning in 1563. The Fetha Negest remained the supreme law in Ethiopia until 1931, when a modern-style Constitution was first granted by Emperor [[Haile Selassie]] I.
The oldest written constitution of an existing nation may be that of [[San Marino]]. The ''[[Leges Statutae Republicae Sancti Marini]]'' was written in [[Latin]] and consists of six books. The first book, with 62 articles, establishes councils, courts, various executive officers and the powers assigned to them. The remaining books cover criminal and civil [[law]], judicial procedures and remedies. Written in [[1600]], the document was based upon the ''Statuti Comunali'' (Town Statute) of [[1300]], influenced by the ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'' and still remains the basic law in effect today.
The [[Massachusetts|Commonwealth of Massachusetts]] adopted its constitution in [[1780]], before the ratification of the [[Articles of Confederation]] and the United States Constitution. It is probably the oldest still-functioning ''nominal'' constitution, that is, where the document specifically declares itself to be a constitution. All [[US states]] have constitutions and are considered to be sovereign republics that have delegated some important powers to a larger federal republic.
The [[United States Constitution]], ratified [[1789]], was influenced by the British constitutional system, plus the writings of [[Polybius]], [[John Locke|Locke]], [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]], and others. The document became a benchmark for [[republicanism|republican]] and codified constitutions written thereafter and is commonly believed to be the oldest modern, national, codified constitution in the world.
[[Poland]]´s [[Sejm]] adopted the [[Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791]], which is claimed to be the first modern constitution in Europe. The [[Corsican Constitution]] of [[1755]] and [[Swedish Constitution of 1772]] also deserve a mention.
==See also==
* [[List of national constitutions]]
* [[European constitution| European Union (proposed) constitution]]
* [[UN Charter]]
* [[Apostolic constitution]] (a class of [[Roman Catholic Church]] documents)
'''Judicial philosophies of constitutional interpretation'''
''(note: generally specific to [[United States|U.S.]] [[constitutional law]])''
*[[Originalism]]
*[[Strict constructionism]]
*[[Judicial activism]]
*[[Judicial restraint]]
== External links ==
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-61 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Constitutionalism
*[http://www.constitution.org/ The Constitution Society] "A private non-profit organization dedicated to research and public education on the principles of constitutional republican government"
*[http://www.oefre.unibe.ch/law/icl ''International Constitutional Law'':] English translations of various national constitutions
*[http://www.staff.amu.edu.pl/~wroblew/html/en_pr_konst.html ''Constitutional Law''] "Constitutions, bibliography, links"
*[http://wiki.grazingchaos.org/ chaosWiki] - Including a fully modifiable copy of the US constitution.
===Some national constitutions===
*[http://www.constitution.org/ Constitution Society] - [http://www.constitution.org/cons/natlcons.htm National Constitutions]
*[http://webthes.senado.gov.br/web/const/const88.pdf Constitution of Brazil] <nowiki>[PDF]</nowiki>
*[http://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf Constitution of Finland] <nowiki>[PDF]</nowiki>
*[[:fr:Constitutions françaises|French constitutions (French)]]
*[http://www.parliament.ge/files/68_1944_216422_konst.pdf Constitution of Georgia]
*[[Constitution of Hungary| Constitution of Hungary]]
*[http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/welcome.html Constitution of India]
*[http://www.iranonline.com/iran/iran-info/Government/constitution.html Constitution of Iran]
*[http://www.concourt.am/wwconst/constit/italy/italy--e.htm Constitution of Italy] - [http://www.quirinale.it/costituzione/costituzione.htm ''In Italian'']
*[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Japan Constitution of Japan]
*[http://www.ccourt.go.kr/ccout_quick/english.asp Constitution of Repubic of Korea(South Korea)]-[http://www.ccourt.go.kr/ccout_quick/korean.asp ''In Korean'']-[http://www.ccourt.go.kr/ccout_quick/chinese.asp ''In Chinese'']
*[http://www.gov.ph/aboutphil/constitution.asp Constitution of the Philippines]
*[http://www.sejm.gov.pl/prawo/konst/angielski/kon1.htm Constitution of Poland]
*[http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-01.htm Constitution of Russia]
*[http://www.parlamento.pt/const_leg/crp_port/index.html Constitution of Portugal], [http://www.parlamento.pt/const_leg/crp_port/constpt2005.pdf (PDF)] - also in [http://www.parlamento.pt/ingles/cons_leg/crp_ing/index.html English (HTML)], [http://www.parlamento.pt/ingles/cons_leg/Constitution_definitive.pdf English (PDF)], [http://www.parlamento.pt/frances/const_leg/crp_franc/index.html French], [http://www.parlamento.pt/espanhol/const_leg/crp_esp/index.html Spanish]
*[http://www.humanrights.lv/doc/latlik/satver~1.htm Constitution of Latvia] - [http://www.saeima.lv/Likumdosana/satversme_izdr.htm ''In Latvian'']
*[http://www3.lrs.lt/cgi-bin/preps2?Condition1=211295&Condition2= Constitution of Lithuania]
*[http://www.riksdagen.se/templates/R_Page____6357.aspx Constitution of Sweden]
*[http://www.admin.ch/ch/itl/rs/1/c101ENG.pdf Constitution of Switzerland (PDF, English translation)] - also in [http://www.admin.ch/ch/d/sr/c101.html German], [http://www.admin.ch/ch/f/rs/c101.html French], [http://www.admin.ch/ch/i/rs/c101.html Italian], [http://www.admin.ch/ch/itl/rs/1/index.htm other languages]
*[http://www.findlaw.com/casecode/constitution/ Constitution of The United States of America] - Annotated version of the [[United States Constitut |
ren, the pain may not be the main feature, and the patient simply moves less (elderly) or refuse to use the affected limb (children).
When faced with joint pain, a doctor will generally ask about several other medical symptoms (such as [[fever]], skin symptoms, breathlessness, [[Raynaud's phenomenon]]) that may narrow down the [[differential diagnosis]] to a few items, for which testing can be done.
Arthritis and fever together are pointers towards ''septic arthritis'' (see below). This is a [[medical emergency]], and requires urgent referral to a [[rheumatology|rheumatologist]].
==Diagnosis==
The various types of arthritis can be distinguished by the pace of onset, the age and sex of the patient, the amount of (and which) joints affected, additional symptoms such as [[psoriasis]], [[iridocyclitis]], [[Raynaud's phenomenon]], and rheumatoid nodules, and other clues.
[[Blood test]]s and [[X-ray]]s of the affected joints are often performed to make the diagnosis. X-rays can show erosions or bone appositions.
Screening blood tests: [[full blood count]], [[electrolytes]], [[renal function]], [[liver enzyme]]s, [[calcium]], [[phosphate]], [[protein electrophoresis]], [[C-reactive protein]] and the [[erythrocyte sedimentation rate]] (ESR). Specific tests are the [[rheumatoid factor]], [[antinuclear factor]] (ANF), [[extractable nuclear antigen]] and specific antibodies whenever the ANF is found to be positive.
==Treatment==
Treatment options vary depending on the precise condition, but include [[surgery]], and drug treatment, reduction of joint stress, [[Physical therapy|physical]] and [[Occupational therapy|occupational therapy]], and [[pain management]]. There are also numerous herbal remedies that purportedly treat arthritis, including ''[[Harpagophytum procumbens]]''. For specifics, see the articles on the individual conditions listed below.
In March 2005, researchers at [[Harvard Medical School]] and [[Brigham and Women's Hospital]] in the USA found that a diet rich in [[oily fish]] raised the body's production of an anti-inflammatory fat, and may thus reduce the effects of arthritis. According to their study published in the [[Journal of Experimental Medicine]], this diet worked best when combined with low [[aspirin]] doses.
==Types of arthritis==
Primary forms of arthritis:
* [[Septic arthritis]]
* [[Rheumatoid arthritis]]
* [[Osteoarthritis]]
* [[Gout]] and [[pseudogout]]
* [[Juvenile arthritis]]
* [[Still's disease]]
* [[Ankylosing spondylitis]]
Secondary to other diseases:
* [[Lupus erythematosus|Systemic lupus erythematosus]] (SLE)
* [[Henoch-Schönlein purpura]]
* [[Psoriatic arthritis]]
* [[Reiter's syndrome]]
* [[Reactive arthritis]]
* [[Hemochromatosis]]
* [[Hepatitis]]
* [[Wegener's granulomatosis]] (and many other [[vasculitis]] syndromes)
* [[Familial Mediterranean fever]] (FMF), [[Hyperimmunoglobinemia D with recurrent fever|HIDS]] (hyperimmunoglobulinemia D and periodic fever syndrome) and [[TRAPS]] ([[TNF-alpha]] receptor associated periodic fever syndrome).
Diseases that can mimic arthritis:
* [[Pierre Marie-Bamberger syndrome]] (hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy, a [[paraneoplastic phenomenon]] of [[lung cancer]])
* [[multiple myeloma]]
* [[osteoporosis]]
* ''others''
==History==
While evidence of primary ankle osteoarthritis has been discovered in dinosaurs, the first known traces of human arthritis date back as far as [[4500 BC]]. It was noted in skeletal remains of [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] found in [[Tennessee]] and parts of what is now Olathe, Kansas. Evidence of arthritis has been found throughout history from Otzi, the name of a mummy (circa 3000 BC) found along the border of modern Italy and Austria, to the Egyptian mummies circ 2590 BC. Around 500 BC willow bark gained popularity when it was discovered that this bark could help relieve some of the aches and pains of arthritis. It wasn't until over 2000 years later in the early 1820s that European scientists began to scientifically study what the chemical compound was in willow bark that alleviated the arthritis symptoms. They discovered the compound was salicin. When they isolated salicin, however, they found it was very noxious to the stomach. Almost 80 years later, in 1897, an employee of Bayer Company -- then a dye production company -- named Felix Hoffman discovered how to isolate the compound and make it less irritating to the stomach. Hoffman was attempting to make the drug in order to help his father who was suffering with arthritis. In 1899, Bayer Company trademarked Hoffman's discovery under the name "Aspirin." Today it is believed that over a trillion tablets of aspirin have been sold worldwide. [http://www.arthritis.org/resources/arthritistoday/2000_archives/2000_01_02_TimeLine.asp].
==External links==
*[http://www.arthritis.org Arthritis Foundation] ([[non-profit organisation]])
*[http://www.ar-i.org Arthritis Rheumatism International] (International Patient Advoacacy Group)
*[http://www.rheumatology.org American College of Rheumatologists] (US professional body) - also contains classification criteria of important forms of arthritis
*[http://www.rheumatology.org.uk British Society for Rheumatology] (UK professional body)
*[http://www.arthritismd.com ArthritisMD] (Physician submitted articles) - research based arthritis articles by physicians
[[Category:Arthritis| ]]
[[Category:Skeletal disorders]]
[[Category:Inflammations]]
[[Category:Rheumatology]]
[[de:Arthritis]]
[[es:Artritis]]
[[eo:Artrito]]
[[fr:Arthrite]]
[[ia:Arthritis]]
[[io:Artrito]]
[[it:Artrosi]]
[[nl:Artritis]]
[[ja:関節リウマチ]]
[[pl:Artretyzm]]
[[pt:Artrite]]
[[uk:Артрит]]
[[zh:关节炎]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>April 2</title>
<id>1777</id>
<revision>
<id>42163021</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T06:01:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv sorry for your loss. However, without a wikipedia article or significant noteability, she doesn't belong here</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom -->
{| style="float:right;"
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|{{AprilCalendar}}
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|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=2}}
|}
'''April 2''' is the 92nd day of the year (93rd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]], with 273 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[69]] - [[Galba]], governor of Spain, names himself ''legatus senatus populique Romani'', breaking the line of Roman emperors begun with [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Augustus]].
*[[1453]] - [[Mehmed II]] begins his siege of [[Constantinople]] ([[&#304;stanbul]]), which would fall on [[May 29]]
*[[1513]] - [[Juan Ponce de Leon]] sets foot on [[Florida]] becoming the first known [[Europe]]an to do so.
*[[1755]] - Commodore [[William James (naval commander)|William James]] captures [[pirate]] fortress of Severndroog on west coast of [[India]].
*[[1792]] - The [[Coinage Act (1792)|Coinage Act]] is passed establishing the [[United States Mint]].
*[[1801]] - [[Napoleonic Wars]]: [[Battle of Copenhagen]] - The British destroy the Danish fleet.
*[[1863]] - [[Richmond Bread Riots]]: [[Food]] shortages incite hundreds of angry women to [[rioting|riot]] in [[Richmond, Virginia]] and demand the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] government to release emergency supplies.
*[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Siege of Petersburg]] broken - [[United States|Union]] troops capture the trenches around [[Petersburg, Virginia]], forcing [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[Robert E. Lee]] to retreat.
*1865 - American Civil War: Confederate President [[Jefferson Davis]] and most of his Cabinet flee the Confederate capital of [[Richmond, Virginia]].
*[[1900]] The [[Foraker Act]] passes through [[Congress]], giving [[Puerto Ricans]] limited [[self-rule]].
*[[1902]] - "Electric Theatre", the first movie theater in the [[United States]], opens in [[Los Angeles, California]].
*[[1917]] - [[World War I]]: U.S. President [[Woodrow Wilson]] asks the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] for a [[declaration of war]] on [[Germany]].
*1917 - The first [[woman]] ever elected to the U.S. Congress, [[Jeannette Rankin]], takes her seat as a representative from [[Montana]].
*[[1930]] - [[Haile Selassie]] is proclaimed emperor of [[Ethiopia]].
*[[1941]] - The [[radio]] program ''[[Life of Riley]]'' airs for the first time.
*[[1956]] - [[General Motors]] board member [[Alfred P. Sloan]] steps down after 19 years as chairman with [[Albert Bradley]] as his successor.
*1956 - ''[[As the World Turns]]'' and ''[[The Edge of Night]]'' first aired on the [[CBS]] network in the [[United States]], as the first half-hour serial dramas.
*[[1964]] - The [[Saab Automobile|Saab]] board starts ''Project Gudmund'' to develop a new and larger [[automobile|car]], later released as the [[Saab 99]].
*[[1971]] - The final broadcast of ''[[Dark Shadows]]'' airs on [[ABC-TV]].
*[[1972]] - Actor [[Charlie Chaplin]] returns to the [[United States]] for the first time since being labeled a [[communism|communist]] in the early [[1950s]] during the [[Red Scare]].
*1972 - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Easter Offensive]] begins - [[North Vietnam]]ese soldiers of the 304th Division take the northern half of [[Quang Tri Province]].
*[[1973]] - Launch of [[LexisNexis]] computerized legal research service.
*[[1975]] - Vietnam War: Thousands of civilian [[refugee]]s flee from the [[Quang Ngai Province]] in front of advancing [[North Vietnam]]ese troops.
*[[1978]] - Prime-time Soap Opera ''[[Dallas (TV series)|Dallas]]'' premieres on [[CBS]], beginning a 13-year run.
*[[1980]] - U.S. President [[Jimmy Carter]] signs the [[Crude Oil Windfall Profits Tax Act]] in an effort to help the U.S. [[economics|economy]] rebound.
*[[1982]] - [[Falklands War]]: [[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands]] by [[Argentina]]. The disputed [[Fal |
) - then the new FTA will consist of the old FTA plus the new country (or countries).
A '''Free Trade Area''' is a region in which obstacles to unrestricted trade have been reduced to a minimum.
Within an industrialized country there are usually few if any significant barriers to the easy exchange of goods and services between parts of that country. For example, there are usually no trade [[tariff]]s or import [[quota]]s; there are usually no delays as goods pass from one part of the country to another (other than those that distance imposes); there are usually no differences of taxation and regulation.
Between countries on the other hand, many of these barriers to the easy exchange of goods can and often do occur. It is commonplace for there to be import duties of one kind or another (as goods enter a country) and the levels of sales tax and regulation often vary by country.
The aim of a [[free trade]] area is to so reduce barriers to easy exchange that trade can grow as a result of specialisation, division of labour, and most importantly via (the theory and practice of) [[comparative advantage]]. The theory of comparative advantage argues that in an unrestricted marketplace (in equilibrium) each source of production will tend to specialize in that activity where it has comparative (rather than absolute) advantage. The theory argues that the net result will be an increase in income and ultimately wealth and well-being for everyone in the free trade area. However the theory refers only to aggregate wealth and says nothing about the distribution of wealth. In fact there may be significant losers, in particular among the recently protected industries with a comparative disadvantage. The proponent of free trade can, however, retort that the gains of the gainers exceed the losses of the losers.
== See also ==
*[[trade]]
*[[List of Free Trade Agreements]]
*[[List of Trade blocs]]
*[[List of international trade topics]]
*[[free trade zone]]
<!--
==External links==
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[[Category:International trade]]
[[es:Tratado de Libre Comercio]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>French fries</title>
<id>10885</id>
<revision>
<id>42083592</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:42:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>143.107.18.108</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''French fried potatoes''' (North America; often shortened to '''French fries''' or '''fries''') or '''chips''' (outside North America) are long, narrow pieces of [[potato]] that have been deep-fried. They are known as ''chips'' in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], and the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] (excluding [[Canada]]). They are usually shortened to ''fries'' in [[North America]].
[[Image:frit.jpg|thumb|400px|French fries and a "vleeskroket": a traditional Dutch dish.]]
==Name==
===Usage===
In the regions where the word "chips" is in more common usage, the term "french fries" is usually also understood, but is reserved for the thinner American-style variant as opposed to the much thicker slices of potato found in "[[fish and chips]]". In the [[United States|U.S.]] and [[Canada]], "chips" usually means [[potato chips]] (called "crisps" in the U.K.), which while also made of fried potato, are a completely different type of food. In [[Australia]], "chips" is used for both potato chips and french fries - the latter is qualified as "hot chips" if there is a chance of confusion.
===Origin===
The logical explanation of the origin of the North American name of the dish is that it derives from potatoes that have been "fried in the French manner". The English verb ''fry'' is ambiguous: it can refer to both to sautéing and to deep-fat frying, while the [[French language|French]] "pommes frites" ("fried potatoes") refers unambiguously to deep frying.
Some feel that the word "french" in "french fries" refers to the verb "to french", which means "to cut in thin lengthwise strips before cooking" (Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Tenth Ed.) On the other hand, "to french" is defined as "to prepare, as a chop, by partially cutting the meat from the shank and leaving bare the bone so as to fit it for convenient handling" (Oxford English Dictionary) in other dictionaries, seeming to suggest that the meaning of this process is not necessarily as set as it may appear. In addition, the verb "to french" did not start appearing until after "french fried potatoes" had appeared in the English-speaking world.
In any case, the first ''f'' in ''french fries'' is generally written in lower case, because it does not refer directly to nationality.
Other accounts say that they were once called 'German fries' but the name was changed either for political reasons ([[Germany]] was the enemy of the United States and Allied forces during [[WWI]] and [[World War II|WWII]]) or for simple historical reasons (a traditional theory poses that it was in France during [[World War I]] that American soldiers first encountered the dish). This seems unlikely, as Germany was not as famous for its "french fries" as other European countries, in addition to the fact that German immigrants did not seem to bring the dish over to the United States.
The [[Belgians]] are noted for claiming that french fries are Belgian in origin, but have presented no absolute evidence; the French have also been cited as possible creators of the dish, though most in France associated fries with Belgium. The Spanish claim that the dish was invented in Spain, the first European country in which the potato appeared via the [[New World]] colonies, and then spread to Belgium which was then under Spanish rule. However as Belgian immigrants lived in Spain at the time, it may have well been a 'Spanish' dish invented by a Belgian chef. Whether or not french fries were invented in Belgium or Spain, they have become the national dish, and they ([[Belgium]]) are the "symbolic" creators, at least for the rest of Europe. French fries have gained international prominence perhaps partly due to their pre-eminence in [[fast food|fast-food]] menus, propagated by fast-food chains like [[McDonald's]] and [[Burger King]] (Hungry Jacks in [[Australia]]). This came about through the introduction of the frozen french fry invented by the [[J.R. Simplot Company]] in the early 1950's. Prior to the legendary handshake deal between Ray Kroc of McDonald's and Jack Simplot of the J.R. Simplot Company, fries were hand cut and peeled in the back of McDonald's stores, but the advent of the frozen product dovetailed with Kroc's need for quick prep products and expansion of his new franchise across America. In America, french fries are typically served with [[hamburger]]s, a latter-day descendant of the French "steak-frites" combination. They are also often eaten with meat, fish, and vegetables or by themselves. They also make up half of the classic food combinations ''[[fish and chips]]'' and "moules-frites", a popular Belgian dish consisting of steamed [[mussel]]s and french fries.
Another claim is that the inclusion of the word "French" in the fried potatoes is most likely a confusion as to the nationality of those who introduced the food to American and Canadian soldiers in [[World War I]]. When American and Canadian soldiers were stationed in southern Belgium, where many major battles of World War I took place, they were served "pommes frites". Since the region of Belgium the soldiers were in was predominantly French-speaking, the soldiers brought the dish back to North America incorrectly as "french fries".
==History==
Many possible claims as to the origin of "french fries" exist.
Many attribute the dish to [[France]], and offer as evidence a notation by U.S. President [[Thomas Jefferson]]. "Potatoes deep-fried while raw, in small slices" are noted in a manuscript in Thomas Jefferson's hand (circa 1801) and the recipe almost certainly comes from his French chef, Honoré Julien. In addition, from 1813 ("The French Cook" by Louis Ude) on recipes for what can be described as "french fries" occur in popular American cookbooks. Recipes for fried potatoes in French cookbooks date back at least to Menon's "Les soupers de la cour" (1755). However, according to the Food Reference Web site, the first reference to ''French fried potatoes'' in English was in [[1894]] in [[O. Henry]]'s ''Rolling Stones'', "Our countries are great friends. We have given you [[Marquis de la Fayette|Lafayette]] and French fried potatoes."
However, when the controversy over [[Freedom Fries]] first began, the French embassy claimed that the food was actually [[Belgian]]. Belgium itself also lays claim as the "origin" of French Fries. [[Jo Gerard]], a famous Belgian historian, claims to have proof that this recipe for potatoes was already used in 1680, in the area of the Meuse valley, between Dinant and Liège, Belgium. The poor inhabitants of this region had the custom of accompanying their meals with small fried fish, but when the river was frozen and they were unable to fish, they cut potatoes lengthwise and fried them in oil to accompany their meals. (Belgian Federal Portal) In 1861, a Belgian entrepreneur named Frits is said to have opened a stand selling this product. He is also said to have given it its own name, frites, which is the French name for the dish in Belgium. Even up to today every village in Belgium has several of these fries (friterie) stands selling fries as the main dish and, in case something extra is desired, a varied choice of fried meat products to go with it.
The Spanish claim for originating french fries claims the first appeara |
Rokuro and their friend Hiroshi Jinkawa. After Jet Jaguar is used by the Seatopians to lure Megalon to Tokyo, Goro manages to regain control, and sends Jet Jaguar to Monster Island to bring Godzilla back to fight Megalon. An extended fight scene then takes place, with Godzilla and Jet Jaguar, the latter newly giant-sized and self-directed, fighting Megalon and Gigan in the hills outside Tokyo. The film ends with Megalon and Gigan defeated, Godzilla returning to Monster Island, and Jet Jaguar returning to his previous, human-sized state.
==The worst Godzilla film?==
Although produced mainly for children in Japan, this film is debated amongst fans to be one of the worst of the series. It is also one of the most widely seen due to it falling into the [[public domain]] (which has changed, thanks to [[Toho]]), and is considered by many to be one of the reasons for the low opinion of Godzilla commonly held in the U.S. It was one of two Godzilla films featured as episodes on ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'', an American television comedy that mocks [[B-movie]]s (the other being ''[[Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster]]'').
However, not all Godzilla fans share this low opinion. Some fans of the successful [[tokusatsu]] [[superhero]] genre find ''Godzilla vs. Megalon'' an enjoyable instance of the genre.
==Trivia==
* While the principal scenes were shot in less than a week and the special effects scenes (by [[Teruyoshi Nakano]]) took three weeks, the overall production (including planning) took six months, especially since this was originally not going to be a Godzilla film (see below).
* [[Jet Jaguar]] was the earliest example of a [[fanservice]] in a Godzilla film, the result of a contest [[Toho]] had in mid-to-late [[1972]] for children to come up with a new hero for them to use (to capitalize on the many [[tokusatsu]] and [[anime]] [[superhero]] and [[super robot]] shows that were all the rage at the time). The winner of the contest was an [[elementary school]] student, who submitted the drawing of a robot called ''Red Arone'', which superficially resembled both [[Ultraman]] and [[Mazinger Z]] (both of which were very popular at the time). The robot was renamed "Jet Jaguar" and was set to star in a film vehicle for him, titled ''Jet Jaguar vs. Megalon'', which pitted him against [[Megalon]] (a previously unused Godzilla monster design). However, Toho figured Jet Jaguar would not be able to carry the film on his own, either in screen appearance or marketing value (both important to Toho), so they shut the project down during pre-production after doing some tests and storyboards. Several weeks later, screenwriter [[Shinichi Sekizawa]] was called in to rewrite the script to add [[Godzilla]] and [[Gigan]], providing more marquee value (especially since Godzilla was still very popular with children).
* According to Teruyoshi Nakano, the Godzilla suit was made in a week, the fastest suit ever made to date. [[Haruo Nakajima]], the original Godzilla suit actor, had just left the series, so it was refitted for [[Shinji Takagi]]. (Nakajima did try out the costume upon his visit to the studio in behind-the-scenes footage.)
==Credits==
===Staff===
*Producer: [[Tomoyuki Tanaka (producer)|Tomoyuki Tanaka]]
*Director: [[Jun Fukuda]]
*Special Effects Director: [[Teruyoshi Nakano]]
*Screenplay: [[Shinichi Sekizawa]], [[Jun Fukuda]]
*Music: [[Riichiro Manabe]]
**Ending Theme: "With Godzilla and Jet Jaguar, Punch Punch Punch" (''Gojira to Jetto Jagâ de Panchi Panchi Panchi'')
**Performed by [[Masato Shimon]]
===Cast===
*Goro Ibuki: [[Katsuhiko Sasaki]]
*Rokuro "Roku-chan" Ibuki: [[Hiroyuki Kawase]]
*Hiroshi "Jinko" Jinkawa: [[Yutaka Hayashi]]
*Antonio, Emperor of Seatopia: [[Robert Dunham]]
*Seatopian Agent Leader: [[Kotaro Tomita]]
*Seatopian Agent: [[Wolf Otsuki]]
*JSDF General: [[Kanta Mori]]
*Godzilla: [[Shinji Takagi]]
*Megalon: [[Hideto Odachi]]
*Jet Jaguar: [[Tsugutoshi Komada]]
*Gigan: [[Kenpachiro Satsuma]] (as Kengo Nakayama)
==External links==
* [http://www.geocities.com/nmdecke/GodzillavsMegalon.html Godzilla vs. Megalon movie review]
* {{imdb title|id=0070122|title=Gojira tai Megaro}}
{{Template:Godzilla}}
[[Category:1973 films]]
[[Category:Japanese films]]
[[Category:Godzilla films]]
[[Category:MST3K movies]]
[[Category:Public domain films]]
[[ja:%E3%82%B4%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A9%E5%AF%BE%E3%83%A1%E3%82%AC%E3%83%AD]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Godzilla vs The Cosmic Monster</title>
<id>11999</id>
<revision>
<id>27134741</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-02T04:03:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Apostrophe</username>
<id>110322</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Godzilla vs Biollante</title>
<id>12000</id>
<revision>
<id>40151305</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T15:11:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
<id>477460</id>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Film |
name = Godzilla vs. Biollante |
image = |
director = [[Kazuki Omori]] |
producer = [[Tomoyuki Tanaka (producer)|Tomoyuki Tanaka]]<br>[[Shogo Tomiyama]] |
writer = [[Shinichirō Kobayashi]] (story)<br>[[Kazuki Omori]] |
starring = [[Kunihiko Mitamura]]<br>[[Yoshiko Tanaka]]<br>[[Koji Takahashi]]<br>[[Megumi Odaka]] |
music = [[Koichi Sugiyama|Kouichi Sugiyama]] |
distributor = [[Toho]] |
released = [[December 16]], [[1989]] |
runtime = 105 min. |
language = [[Japanese language|Japanese]]<br>[[English language|English]] |
imdb_id = 0097444 |
budget = |
}}'''''Godzilla vs Biollante''''' (''Gojira Tai Biollante'') is a [[1989]] [[daikaiju]] [[eiga]], the seventeenth entry in [[Toho]]'s [[Godzilla]] series and a direct sequel to ''[[The Return of Godzilla]]''. It was the first film in the series released in the [[Heisei]] period ([[Emperor Hirohito]] had passed away earlier in the year), but would become the second film in the [[VS Series]], also called the Heisei Series. It was directed by [[Kazuki Omori]] with special effects by [[Koichi Kawakita]].
This film focuses [[biotechnology]], specifically the dangers of its use, its potential effects on the [[balance of power]], and the threat of [[germ warfare]]. In addition to the genetic mutation [[Biollante]] and the second incarnation of the "Super X" flying battleship, it features a heavy element of [[espionage]] and several action sequences inspired by the [[James Bond]] films.
==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
The movie begins where ''The Return of Godzilla'' left off, with [[Godzilla]] sealed away inside of a volcano and a scientific team picking through the ruins of a ravaged district of [[Tokyo]], searching for tissue samples left behind by Godzilla. The search is successful. However, a mercenary unit attacks and kills the scientists, stealing the tissue samples and escaping.
Meanwhile, in the [[Middle East]], a [[Japanese people|Japanese]] researcher named Dr. Shiragami looks forward to returning home to [[Japan]] with his daughter, Erika. Unfortunately, a terroristic bombing destroys the research facility in which he works and kills his daughter.
Segue five years later. Dr. Shiragami is now a haunted dreamer, who has lately turned a majority of his attention to the study of the psychic energy of [[roses]]. A young psychic named [[Miki Saegusa]], who also heads an institution for intuitive children, aids him in his research. Dr. Shiragami is now seen as a harmless old man who uses his scientific knowledge to satisfy his own curiosity.
However, two groups are watching Shiragami: a gang of thieves hired by a rival scientific company a group of assassins from a Middle Eastern country called Saradia. As it turns out, Dr. Shiragami is involved in the study of Godzilla cells, which are kept in a high security facility. It is believed by Shiragami's employers that he is aiding them in figuring out how to utilize the cells' properties to strengthen crop growth. But Shiragami, unbeknownst to everyone but himself, as been conducting his own secret experiments...
When both the thieves and the assassins catch each other breaking into the facility, a gunfight ensues. It is interrupted by an attack of a giant, mobile plant that kills one man and nearly kills another. The thieves flee, and the assassin barely escapes from the creature's grasp. Neither group realizes that they have just encountered the result of Dr. Shiragami's secret experimentations.
The next morning a giant flower is seen in [[Tokyo Bay]], and Dr. Shiragami confesses that he combined the DNA of roses with that of Godzilla. Furthermore, he confesses privately to a young official that he had, in a fit of desperate grief, added the DNA of his daughter Erika to the mutated genetic structure, so that some of the creature is composed of Erika as well.
Meanwhile, the thieves send a letter to the [[Diet of Japan|Diet]], informing Japan's government that they have planted a bomb inside of [[Mt. Mihara]], Godzilla's current prison. If the Godzilla cells are not handed over, the thieves threaten to detonate the bombs and release Godzilla. With the entire country held hostage, the government is forced to comply.
The trade-off with the thieves goes well until the Saradian agent (the assassin) shows up, killing the two remaining thieves before being driven off. The thieves die before they can show the officials how to deactivate the explosives, which are set on a timer. The bombs go off, Mt. Mihara erupts, and the mighty Godzilla is once again free.
Upon hearing Godzilla's roar, Biollante's blossom opens, and the creature begins calling |
mp>
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<ip>82.210.117.215</ip>
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<comment>moved to a less general bio stub category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Helene Kröller-Müller''' ([[February 11]], [[1869]] &ndash; [[December 14]], [[1939]]) was one of the first European women to put together a major art collection.
She was born '''Helene Emma Laura Juliane Müller''' into a wealthy industrialist family in [[Germany]]. She married a [[Netherlands|Dutch]]man named [[Anton Kroller|Anton Kröller]] in [[1888]] and used both surnames in accordance with Dutch tradition.
Helene Kröller-Müller was an avid [[art|art collector]], and one of the first people to recognise the genius of [[Vincent van Gogh]]. She also collected works by other modern artists.
In [[1935]], she donated to the Dutch people her entire collection totalling approximately 12,000 objects. Held in the care of the Dutch government, the [[Kröller-Müller Museum]] was opened in [[1938]] near the town of [[Otterlo]] in the [[Netherlands]].
[[Category:1869 births|Kröller-Müller, Helene]]
[[Category:1939 deaths|Kröller-Müller, Helene]]
[[Category:German art collectors|Kröller-Müller, Helene]]
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[[nl:Helene Kröller-Müller]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hans-Georg Gadamer</title>
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<id>40891354</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gadamer.jpg|thumb|right|Hans-Georg Gadamer]]
'''Hans-Georg Gadamer''' ([[February 11]], [[1900]] &ndash; [[March 13]], [[2002]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[philosopher]] best known for his 1960 [[magnum opus]], ''[[Truth and Method]]'' (''Wahrheit und Methode'').
== Life ==
Gadamer was born in [[Marburg]], [[Germany]], as the son of a pharmaceutical [[chemist]] who later also served as the [[rector]] of the [[university]] there. Gadamer resisted his father's urging to take up the [[natural sciences]] and grew more and more interested in the [[humanities]]. He grew up and studied in [[Breslau]] under [[Hönigswald]], but soon moved back to Marburg to study with the [[Neo-Kantian]] philosophers [[Paul Natorp]] and [[Nicolai Hartmann]]. He defended his [[dissertation]] in 1922.
Shortly thereafter, Gadamer visited [[Freiburg]] and began studying with [[Martin Heidegger]], who was then a promising young scholar who had not yet received a professorship. He thus became one of a group of students such as [[Leo Strauss]], [[Karl Löwith]], and [[Hannah Arendt]]. He and Heidegger became close, and when Heidegger received a position at [[Marburg]], Gadamer followed him there. It was Heidegger's influence that gave Gadamer's thought its distinctive cast and led him away from the earlier neo-Kantian influences of Natorp and Hartmann.
Gadamer [[habilitation| habilitated]] in 1929 and spent most of the early 1930s lecturing in Marburg. Unlike Heidegger, Gadamer was strongly anti-[[Nazi]], although he was not politically active during the [[Third Reich]]. He did not receive a paid position during the Nazi years and never entered the Party; only towards the end of the War did he receive an appointment at [[Leipzig]]. In 1946, he was found to be untainted by Nazism by the American occupation forces and named rector of the university. Communist East Germany was little more to Gadamer's liking than the Third Reich, and he left for West Germany, accepting first a position in [[Frankfurt am Main]] and then the succession of [[Karl Jaspers]] in [[Heidelberg]] in 1949. He remained in this position, as emeritus, until his death in 2002.
It was during this time that he completed his ''magnum opus'' ''Truth and Method'' (in 1960) and engaged in his famous debate with [[Jürgen Habermas]] over the possibility of transcending history and culture in order to find a truly objective position from which to criticize society. The debate was inconclusive, but marked the beginning of warm relations between the two men. It was Gadamer who secured Habermas's first professorship in [[Heidelberg]]. Another attempt to engage [[Jacques Derrida]] proved less enlightening because the two thinkers had so little in common. After Gadamer's death, Derrida called their failure to find common ground one of the worst debacles of his life and expressed, in the main obituary for Gadamer, his great personal and philosophical respect.
== Work ==
Gadamer's philosophical project, as explained in ''[[Truth and Method]]'', was to elaborate on the concept of "[[hermeneutics|philosophical hermeneutics]]", which Heidegger initiated but never dealt with at length. Gadamer's goal was to uncover the nature of human understanding. In the book Gadamer argued that "truth" and "method" were at odds with one another. He was critical of two approaches to the human science (''Geisteswissenschaften''). On the one hand, he was critical of modern approaches to humanities that modeled themselves on the natural sciences (and thus on rigorous scientific methods). On the other hand, he took issue with the traditional approach to the humanities, stemming from [[Wilhelm Dilthey]], which believed that correctly interpreting a text meant recovering the original intention of the author who wrote it.
In contrast to both of these positions, Gadamer argued that people have a 'historically effected consciousness' (''wirkungsgeschichtliches Bewußtsein'') and that they are embedded in the particular history and culture that shaped them. Thus interpreting a text involves a 'fusion of horizons' where the scholar finds the ways that the text's history articulates with their own background. ''Truth and Method'' is not meant to be a programmatic statement about a new 'hermeneutic' method of interpreting texts. Gadamer intended ''Truth and Method'' to be a description of what we always do when we interpret things (even if we do not know it).
''Truth and Method'' was published twice in English, and the revised edition is now considered authoritative. The German-language edition of Gadamer's Collected Works includes a volume in which Gadamer elaborates his argument and discusses the critical response to the book. Finally, Gadamer's essay on [[Celan]] (entitled "Who Am I and Who Are You?") is considered by many -- including [[Heidegger]] and Gadamer himself -- as a "second volume" or continuation of the argument in ''Truth and Method''.
In addition to his work in hermeneutics, Gadamer is also well known for a long list of publications on Greek philosophy. Indeed, while ''Truth and Method'' became central to his later career, much of Gadamer's early life centered around studying the classics. His work on Plato, for instance, is considered by some to be as important as his work on hermeneutics.
==Quotes==
*''Nothing exists except through language.''
*''I basically only read books that are over 2,000 years old.''
*''In fact history does not belong to us; but we belong to it. Long before we understand ourselves through the process of self-examination, we understand ourselves in a self-evident way in the family, society and state in which we live. The focus of subjectivity is a distorting mirror. The self-awareness of the individual is only a flickering in the closed circuits of historical life. That is why the prejudices [pre-judgments (Vorurteil)] of the individual, far more than his judgments, constitute the historical reality of his being.'' (Gadamer 1989:276-7, tr.)
*''The more language is a living operation, the less we are aware of it. Thus it follows from the self-forgetfulness of language that its real being consists in what is said in it. What is said in it constitutes the common world in which we live and to which the whole great chain of tradition reaching us from the literature of foreign languages, living as well as dead. The real being of language is that into which we are taken up when we hear it &mdash; what is said.'' (Gadamer 1976:33 tr.)
== Bibliography ==
*Hans-Georg Gadamer: A Biography. By Jean Grondin. Yale University Press. 2004
*Philosophical Apprenticeships. By Hans-Georg Gadamer. MIT Press. 1985 ''(Gadamer's memoir)''Ġ
==See also==
*[[Hermeneutics]]
*[[Radical hermeneutics]]
*[[Interpretation]]
*[[Emilio Betti]]
*[[Friedrich Schleiermacher]]
*[[Wilhelm Dilthey]]
*[[Rudolf Bultmann]]
*[[Historical School]]
*[[Ranke]]
*[[Heidegger]]
*[[Derrida]]
*[[Habermas]]
*[[Critical Theory]]
*[[Frankfurt School]]
*[[Augustine of Hippo]]
*[[Luther]]
*[[Paul Ricoeur]]
==External links==
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/gadamer/ Hans-Georg Gadamer at Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
*[http://www.svcc.edu/academics/classes/gadamer/gadamer.htm Hans-Georg Gadamer website]
*[http://www.ms.kuki.tus.ac.jp/KMSLab/makita/gdmhp/ghp_kchrono_d.html Chronology (in German)]
*[http://www.ms.kuki.tus.ac.jp/KMSLab/makita/gdmhp/ghp_wwerk_d.html Works by Gadamer]
[[Category:1900 births|Gadamer, Hans-Georg]]
[[Category:2002 deaths|Gadamer, Hans-Georg]]
[[Category:20th century philosophers|Gadamer, Hans-Georg]]
[[Category:Hermeneutics|Gadamer, Hans-Georg]]
[[Category:Centenarians|Gadamer, Hans-Georg]]
[[Category:Philosophers|Gadamer, Hans-Georg]]
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[[Category:German philosophers|Gadamer, Hans-Georg]]
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<page>
<title>HomePage.</title>
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<id>21556835</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-22T07:25:36Z</timestamp>
|
868]] |
TimeZone = [[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-6/[[Daylight saving time|DST]]-5 |
Latitude = 30°13'N to 35°N |
Longitude = 84°51'W to 88°28'W |
Width = 190 mi/306 |
Length = 330 mi/531 |
HighestElev = [[Mount Cheaha]] 2,408 ft/734 |
MeanElev = 499 ft/152 |
LowestElev = 0 ft/0 |
ISOCode = US-AL |
Website = www.alabama.gov
}}
[[[[image:AlaUrb.gif |thumb|center|250px|Alabama Cities and Urban Areas/Sprawl]]
{| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; clear:right; width:300px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;" class="toccolours"
|'''[[List of U.S. state mottos|State motto]]'''||''[[Audemus jura nostra defendere]]''
|-
|'''[[List of U.S. state birds|State bird]]'''||[[Northern Flicker|Yellowhammer]]
|-
|'''[[List of U.S. state flowers|State flower]]'''||[[Camellia]]
|-
|'''[[List of U.S. state songs|State song]]'''||"[[Alabama (song)|Alabama]]"
|-
|'''[[List of U.S. state trees|State tree]]'''||[[Longleaf Pine]]
|-
|'''[[List of U.S. state spirits|State spirit]]'''||[[Conecuh Ridge Whiskey|Conecuh Ridge]]
|-
|'''[[List of U.S. state reptiles|State reptile]]'''||[[Red-bellied turtle]]
|}
</div>
'''Alabama''' is a [[U.S. state|state]] located in the [[Southern United States|Southern]] [[United States]].
==History==
''Main article: [[History of Alabama]]''
The memory of the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] presence is particularly strong in Alabama. Among Native American people once living in present Alabama were [[Alabama (people)|Alabama]] (Alibamu), [[Cherokee]], [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw]], [[Creek people|Creek]], [[Koasati]], and [[Mobile (people)|Mobile]]. Trade with the Northeast via the [[Ohio River]] began during the Burial Mound Period ([[1000 BC]]-A.D. [[700]]) and continued until European contact. Meso-American influence is evident in the agrarian Mississippian culture that followed.
The [[France|French]] established the first [[Europe]]an settlement in the state with the establishment of [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] in [[1702]]. Southern Alabama was French from [[1702]]&ndash;[[1763]], part of British West Florida from [[1763]]&ndash;[[1780]], and part of Spanish West Florida from [[1780]]&ndash;[[1814]]. Northern and central Alabama was part of British Georgia from [[1763]]&ndash;[[1783]] and part of the American Mississippi territory thereafter. Its statehood delayed by the lack of a coastline (rectified when Andrew Jackson captured Spanish Mobile in [[1814]]), Alabama became the 22nd state in [[1819]].
The state of Alabama seceded from the Union on [[January 11]], [[1861]] and became the [[Alabama Republic]] and on [[February 18]] [[1861]] became a [[Confederate States of America|Confederate state]]. While not many battles were fought in the state, it contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]]. After the war a provisional government was set up in [[1865]] and Alabama was officially readmitted to the Union on July 14 [[1868]].
The cradle of the Confederacy during the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]], Alabama was at stage center in the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|civil rights movement]] of the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]].
==Law and government==
''Main article: [[Law and Government of Alabama]]''
===Local & County Government===
Alabama has 67 [[county|counties]], each having its own elected legislative branch, usually called the Board of Commissioners, which usually also has executive authority in the county. Due to the restraints placed in the [[Alabama Constitution]], all but 7 counties (Jefferson, Lee, Mobile, Madison, Montgomery, Shelby, and Tuscaloosa) in the state have little to no [[home rule]]. Instead, most counties in the state have to lobby to the Local Legislation Committee the state legislature to get simple local policies such as waste disposal to land use zoning.
Alabama is an alcohol monopoly or [[Alcoholic beverage control state]].
===Political Climate===
The current governor of the state is [[Bob Riley (Alabama)|Bob Riley]] and the two U.S. senators are [[Jeff Sessions|Jefferson B. Sessions III]] and [[Richard Shelby|Richard C. Shelby]] (all three from the [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]]). The current [[Alabama Constitution]] was adopted in [[1901]].
During [[Reconstruction]] following the [[American Civil War]], Alabama was occupied by federal troops of the [[Third Military District]] under [[John Pope (military officer)|General John Pope]]. In [[1877]], the Reconstruction period ended with the recognition of [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] as President-elect. [[White people|White]] Southerners assumed control of the government and passed laws to [[racial segregation|segregate]] and disenfranchise black residents. The state became part of the "[[Solid South]]," a one-party system in which the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] became essentially the only political party in every Southern state. For nearly 100 years, local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party primary, with generally no Republican challenger running.
From [[1876]] through [[1956]], Alabama supported only Democratic presidential candidates, by margins as high as 73 percentage points. In [[1960]], Alabama gave most of its electoral votes to [[Harry F. Byrd]] as a protest. In [[1964]], the national [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] began to win more votes in the South by following a "[[Southern Strategy]]" which emphasized "[[States' rights|states' rights]]" and the increasing liberalism of the national Democratic Party. The first such candidate was conservative [[Barry Goldwater]], who became the first Republican candidate supported by Alabama. In [[1968]], Alabama supported native son and [[American Independent Party]] candidate [[George Wallace]].
The last Democratic candidate to win Alabama's votes in a presidential election was Southerner [[Jimmy Carter]] in [[1976]]. Today, the Republican party has become increasingly dominant in conservative Alabama politics. However, in local politics, Democrats still control many offices, including majorities in both houses of the Legislature, and registered Democrats outnumber Republicans in the state. In 2004, [[George W. Bush]] won Alabama's nine electoral votes by a margin of 25 percentage points with 62.5% of the vote. The only 11 counties voting Democratic were [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] counties, where [[African American]]s are in the majority.
Alabama is located in the [[Bible Belt]], and its educational policies reflect this. According to the [[Alan Guttmacher Institute]], Alabama requires sex education classes to emphasize "that [[homosexuality]] is not an acceptable lifestyle to the general public and that homosexual conduct is a criminal offense under the laws of the state." While the mandate is not typically enforced in Alabama classrooms, it is unclear whether or not the official requirements have changed since the Supreme Court's ruling in [[Lawrence v. Texas]]. According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], in 2000, Alabama was home to 4,561 same-sex male couples and 4,167 same-sex female couples.
*[[U.S. presidential election, 2004, in Alabama]]
==Geography==
''Main article: [[Geography of Alabama]]''
{{ussm|alabama.PNG|al}}
Alabama is the 30<sup>th</sup> largest state in the United States with 135,775 km<sup>2</sup> (52,423 mi<sup>2</sup>) of total area. 3.19% of that is water, making Alabama 23<sup>rd</sup> in the amount of surface water, also giving it the second largest inland waterway system in the [[United States]]. About three-fifths of the land area is a gentle [[plain]] with a general incline towards the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. The [[North Alabama]] region is mostly mountainous, with the [[Tennessee River]] cutting a large valley creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes. The lowest point east of the [[Mississippi River]] lies in [[Dekalb County]] along a creek cutting tower ridges, and creating [[Buck's Pocket State Park]]. Another natural wonder is "Land Bridge" the longest natural bridge span east of the [[Mississippi River]]. Alabama generally ranges in [[elevation]] from [[sea level]] at [[Mobile Bay]], to a little more than 1800 [[foot (unit)|feet]] or 550 [[metre|meters]] in the Appalachian mountains in the northeast. The highest point is [[Mount Cheaha]].
==Economy==
[[Image:wiki_alabama.jpg|thumb|275px|Greetings from Alabama]]
According to the [[Bureau of Economic Analysis]], the [[2003]] total [[gross state product]] was $132 billion. The [[per capita income]] for the state was $26,505 in 2003. Alabama's [[agricultural]] outputs include [[poultry]] and [[Egg (food)|eggs]], [[cattle]], plant nursery items, [[peanut]]s, [[cotton]], [[grains]] such as [[maize|corn]] and [[sorgum]], [[vegetables]], [[milk]], [[soybeans]], and [[peaches]]. Even though neighboring [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] is called the [[Peach State]], Alabama produces twice as many peaches annually. Its [[Industry|industrial]] outputs include [[iron]] and [[steel]] products, including cast-iron and steel pipe, [[paper]], [[lumber]], and [[wood]] products, [[mining]] (mostly coal), and [[plastic]] products, cars and trucks, and [[apparel]]. Also, Alabama produces [[aerospace]] and [[electronic]] products, mostly in the [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] area, home of the [[NASA]] [[George C. Marshall Space Flight Center]] and the [[United States Army Aviation and Missile Command|US Army Missile Command]], headquartered at [[Redstone Arsenal]].
Also, the city of [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] is a busy seaport |
*[http://www.war-ofthe-worlds.co.uk/ history and impact of The War Of The Worlds]
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/anthonywest/ 1984 audio interview of Anthony West, son of H. G. Wells, by Don Swaim of CBS Radio - RealAudio]
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/PR6045xE58xW67/ The world set free], a story of mankind, by H. G. Wells, 1914. (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] & [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/PR6045xE58xW67/1f/world_set_free.pdf layered PDF] format)
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:57:57Z</timestamp>
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</contributor>
<comment>/* Hypertext fiction */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[computing]], '''hypertext''' is a [[user interface]] [[paradigm]] for displaying [[document]]s which, according to an early definition (Nelson 1970), "branch or perform on request." The most frequently discussed form of hypertext document contains automated [[reference|cross-reference]]s to other documents called [[hyperlink]]s. Selecting a [[hyperlink]] causes the computer to display the linked document within a very short period of time.
A document can be static (prepared and stored in advance) or dynamically generated (in response to user input). Therefore, a well-constructed hypertext system can encompass, incorporate or supersede many other user interface paradigms like menus and command lines, and can be used to access both static collections of cross-referenced documents and interactive [[application software|applications]]. The documents and applications can be local or can come from anywhere with the assistance of a [[computer network]] like the [[Internet]]. The most famous implementation of hypertext is the [[World Wide Web]].
The term "hypertext" is often used where the term [[hypermedia]] would be more appropriate.
==History==
Foreshadowing hypertext was a simple technique used in various reference works (dictionaries, encyclopedias, etc.), consisting of setting a term in small capital letters, as an indication that an entry or article existed for that term (within the same reference work). In addition to such manual cross-references, there were experiments with various methods for arranging layers of annotations around a document. The most famous example is the [[Talmud]].
The point of hypertext is to deal with the problem of [[information overload]]. All of the persons mentioned below were obsessed with the realization that humanity is simply drowning in information, so that, too often, decisionmakers keep making foolish decisions and scientists inadvertently duplicate existing work (e.g., the belated rediscovery of [[Gregor Mendel]]'s work).
In the early 20th century, two visionaries attacked the cross-referencing problem through proposals based on labor-intensive brute force methods. [[Paul Otlet]] proposed a proto-hypertext concept based on his monographic principle in which all documents would be decomposed down to unique phrases stored on index cards. In the 1930s, [[H.G. Wells]] proposed the creation of a [[World Brain]]. For reasons of cost neither proposal got very far.
Therefore, all major histories of hypertext start with [[1945]], when [[Vannevar Bush]] wrote an article in ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]'' called "[[As We May Think]]," about a futuristic device he called a [[Memex]]. He described the device as mechanical desk linked to an extensive archive of microfilms and able to display books, texts or any document from the library, and further able to automatically follow references from any given page to the specific page referenced.
Most experts do not consider the Memex to be a true hypertext system. However, the story starts with the Memex because "As We May Think" directly influenced and inspired the two American men generally credited with the invention of hypertext, [[Ted Nelson]] and [[Douglas Engelbart]].
Nelson coined the word "hypertext" in 1965 and helped [[Andries van Dam]] develop the [[Hypertext Editing System]] in 1968 at [[Brown University]]; Engelbart had begun working on his [[NLS (computer system)|NLS]] system in 1962 at [[Stanford Research Institute]], although delays in obtaining funding, personnel and equipment meant that its key features were not completed until 1968.
After funding for NLS slowed to a trickle in 1974, progress on hypertext research nearly came to a halt. During this time, the [[ZOG (hypertext)|ZOG]] at Carnegie Mellon started as an [[artificial intelligence]] research project under the supervision of [[Allen Newell]]. Only much later would its participants realize that their system was a hypertext system. ZOG was deployed in 1980 on the U.S.S. Carl Vinson and later commercialized as KMS.
The first hypermedia application was the [[Aspen Movie Map]] in 1977.
The early 1980s saw a number of experimental hypertext and hypermedia programs, many of whose features and terminology were later integrated into the Web. However, none of these systems achieved widespread success or name recognition with consumers.
Guide was the first hypertext system for personal computers, but it was not very successful. Guide was quite expensive and difficult to use, as it had originally been developed for UNIX workstations and was subsequently ported to [[DOS]]. It was immediately eclipsed by HyperCard.
In August 1987, [[Apple Computer]] revealed its [[HyperCard]] application for its [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] line of computers at the MacWorld convention in Boston. HyperCard was an immediate hit and helped to popularize the concept of hypertext with the general public (although as [[Jakob Nielsen]] later pointed out, it was technically a hypermedia system because its hyperlinks originated only from regions on the screen). The first hypertext-specific academic conference also took place that year.
Meanwhile, Nelson had been working on and advocating his Xanadu system for over two decades, and the commercial success of HyperCard stirred [[Autodesk]] to invest in his revolutionary ideas. The project limped on for four years without ever releasing a complete product, before Autodesk pulled the plug in the midst of the 1991-1992 recession.
In late 1990, [[Tim Berners-Lee]], a scientist at [[CERN]], invented the [[World Wide Web]] to meet the demand for automatic information sharing between scientists working in different universities and institutes all over the world. Early in 1993, the [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications]] (NCSA) at the [[University of Illinois]] released a first version of their [[Mosaic browser]] to replace the two lacking existing [[web browser]]s: one that ran only on [[NeXTSTEP]] and one that was minimally [[Usability|user-friendly]]. Mosaic ran in the [[X Window System]] environment, popular in the research community, and offered usable window-based interaction. Web traffic exploded from only 500 known web servers in 1993 to over 10,000 in 1994 after the release of browser versions for both the PC and Macintosh environments.
All the earlier hypertext systems were quickly overshadowed by the success of Tim Berners-Lee's [[World Wide Web]], even though the latter lacked many features of those earlier systems such as [[typed link]]s, [[transclusion]] and [[source tracking]].
==Implementations==
Besides the already mentioned HyperCard and World Wide Web, there are other noteworthy implementations of hypertext, with different feature sets:
*[[Microsoft Word]] has evolved in orientation from paper to in-computer documents.
*[[Information Presentation Facility]] used for displaying help in the [[IBM]] operating systems.
*[[Windows Help]]
*Adobe's [[Portable Document Format]] supports links.
*[[Texinfo]], the [[GNU]] help system.
*[[Project Xanadu]]
*[[XML]] with the [[XLink]] extension.
*The many implementations of [[wiki]], like the [[MediaWiki]] system that powers [[Wikipedia]], that aim to compensate for the lack of integrated editors in most Web browsers.
==Academic Conferences==
One of the top academic conferences for new research in hypertext is the annually held [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]'s Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia ([http://www.ht04.org/ HT 2004])
Although not exclusively about hypertext, the World Wide Web series of conferences, organized by [http://www.iw3c2.org IW3C2], includes many papers of interest. There is a [http://www.iw3c2.org/conferences/ list] with links to all conferences in the series.
==Hypertext fiction==
''See main article [[Hypertext fiction]]''
The development of this branch of [[electronic literature]] coincided with the growth and proliferation of hypertext developm |
ean-Paul Sartre]] -- existentialist philosopher
*[[Michel Serres]]
*[[Voltaire|Jean-Marie Arouet dit Voltaire]] -- [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] author, [[deist]]/[[agnostic]] philosopher
*[[Éric Weil|Eric Weil]] -- philosopher
*[[Simone Weil]]
==Politicians==
See also: [[List of Prime Ministers of France|Prime Ministers of France]], [[President of France|Presidents of France]]
*[[Robert Badinter]] -- lawyer, statesman and anti death sentence activist
*[[François Bayrou]] -- UDF party leader
*[[Léon Blum]]
*[[José Bové]] -- altermondialist
*[[Aristide Briand]]
*[[Jacques Chirac]]
*[[Georges Clemenceau]]
*[[Gaspard de Coligny]]
*[[Bertrand Delanoë]]
*[[Jacques Delors]]
*[[Félix Faure]], President of France who died of a heart attack while making love to his mistress
*[[Charles de Gaulle]]
*[[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]]
*[[François Pierre Guillaume Guizot|Guizot]], Prime Minister
*[[Gisèle Halimi]] lawyer and feminist activist
*[[François Hollande]] -- PS (Socialist Party) leader
*[[Jean Jaurès]], politician, pacifist
*[[Lionel Jospin]]
*[[Bernard Kouchner]] -- founder of [[Medecins du Monde]] and other "[[French Doctors]]"
*[[Jean-Marie Le Pen]] -- Leader of the extrem right party in France, Front National
*[[Pierre Mendès-France]] -- Lawyer and Statesman
*[[Honoré Mirabeau]]
*[[François Mitterrand]] -- Lawyer and Statesman
*[[Jean Monnet]]
*[[Henri Philippe Pétain]] -- Head of ''Vichy'' France
*[[Alexandre de Prouville]], Viceroy of [[New France]]
*[[Jean-Pierre Raffarin]] -- Prime Minister of France since 2002
*[[Nicolas Sarkozy]] -- President of the right wing party
*[[Victor Schoelcher]] -- anti-slavery activist
*[[Charles Maurice de Talleyrand]]
*[[Maurice Thorez]]
*[[Jacques Toubon]]
*[[Dominique Voynet]] -- Physician and Green politician
==Popes==
See [[List of French popes]]
==Resistance workers==
See also [[French Resistance]]
*[[Lucie Aubrac|Lucie Samuel-Aubrac]](born 1912), human rights activist
*[[Raymond Aubrac]] (born 1914), statesman
*[[Robert Benoist]] (1895-1944), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative, champion race car driver
*[[Denise Bloch]] (1915-1945), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative: King's Commendation for Brave Conduct, Legion of Honor, French Resistance Medal
*[[Andrée Borrel]] (1919-1944), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative: Croix de Guerre
*[[Madeleine Damerment]] (1917-1944), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative: Legion of Honor, Croix de Guerre, Médaille combattant volontaire de la Résistance
*[[Marie Louise Dissard]]
*[[William Grover-Williams]] (1903-1945), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative, champion race car driver
*[[Cecily Lefort]] (1900-1945), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative: Croix de Guerre
*[[Pierre Mendès-France]] (1907-1982), lawyer, statesman
*[[Jean Moulin]] (1899-1943), statesman
*[[Abbé Pierre]] (1912- ), Priest and founder of [[Emmaus]]
*[[Christian Pineau]](1904-1995), statesman
*[[Eliane Plewman]] (1917-1944), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative: Croix de Guerre
*[[Germaine Ribière]]
*[[Élise Rivet]] (1890-1945), nun executed by Nazis for aiding the resistance
*[[Lilian Rolfe]] (1914-1945), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] agent executed by the Nazis
*[[Odette Sansom]] (1912-1995), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative: George Cross, MBE, Legion of Honor
*[[Suzanne Spaak]], Belgian-born agent: "Red Orchestra" intelligence network; executed 1944
*[[Violette Szabo]] (1921-1945), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative: George Cross, Croix de Guerre
*[[Jean-Pierre Wimille]] (1908-1949), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative, champion race car driver
==Scientists==
===A-C===
*[[Louis Agassiz]] -- geologist
*[[André-Marie Ampère]] -- scientist
*[[François Arago]] -- physicist, astronomer (and also politician)
*[[Antoine Arbogast]] -- mathematician
*[[Jean-Baptiste Biot]] -- physicist
*[[Jean-Charles de Borda]] -- mathematician, physicist, political scientist
*[[Henri Braconnot]] -- chemist and pharmacist
*[[Louis de Broglie]] -- 1929 Physics Nobel Prize winner.
*[[Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot]] -- physicist
*[[Augustin Louis Cauchy]] -- mathematician
*[[Jean-François Champollion]] -- egyptologist
*[[Emilie du Chatelet]] -- 18th century mathematician
*[[Georges Charpak]] -- physicist, Nobel prize winner (Polish born)
*[[Marquis de Condorcet]] -- philosopher, mathematician and political scientist
*[[Charles-Augustin de Coulomb]] -- physicist, mathematician, engineer
*[[Jacques-Yves Cousteau|Jacques Cousteau]], Marine scientist
*[[Joseph Cugnot]]
*[[Irène Joliot-Curie]] -- scientist
*[[Pierre Curie]] -- scientist
===D-M===
*[[Guillaume Delisle]], cartographer
*[[René Descartes]] -- scientist and philosopher
*[[Girard Desargues]] -- mathematician
*[[Georges Duby]] -- historian
*[[Pierre de Fermat]] -- mathematician
*[[Joseph Fourier]] -- mathematician and physicist
*[[Pierre Gassendi]] -- philosopher mathematician
*[[Pierre-Gilles de Gennes]] -- physicist, Nobel prize winner
*[[Évariste Galois]] -- mathematician
*[[Frédéric Joliot]] -- scientist
*[[Joseph Louis Lagrange]] -- mathematician
*[[Pierre-Simon Laplace]] -- mathematician and physicist
*[[Antoine Lavoisier]]
*[[Jean-Marie Lehn]] -- chemist, Nobel prize winner in 1987
*[[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], anthropologist
*[[Antoine Lévi-Leblond]] -- physicist
*[[Albert Mathiez]] -- historian
*[[André Michaux]] -- botanist and explorer
*[[Jules Michelet]] -- historian
*[[Abraham de Moivre]] -- mathematician
*[[Theodore Monod]] -- naturalist and theologian
*[[Claude Mossé]] -- (Ms), historian
===P-V===
*[[Denis Papin]]
*[[Louis Pasteur]] -- scientist
*[[Blaise Pascal]] -- mathematician and philosopher
*[[Étienne Pascal]] -- mathematician
*[[Henri Poincaré]] -- mathematician and physicist
*[[Simeon Poisson]] -- mathematician and physicist
*[[Michel Rolle]] -- mathematician
*[[Jean Rostand]]
*[[Albert Soboul]] -- historian
*[[Jean-Pierre Vernant]] -- historian
*[[Pierre Vidal-Naquet]] -- historian and Civil Rights activist
*[[Pierre Vilar]], historian
*[[Christophe Victor]] -- geographer
*[[Paul-Emile Victor]] -- ethnologist
==Sculptors==
*[[Frédéric Bartholdi]]
*[[Antonin Carlés]]
*[[Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux]]
*[[César Baldaccini|César]]
*[[Antoine-Denis Chaudet]]
*[[Camille Claudel]]
*[[Paul Dubois]]
*[[Raymond Duchamp-Villon]]
*[[Alexandre Falguière]]
*[[Jean Antoine Houdon]]
*[[Antonin Idrac]]
*[[Georges Lacombe]]
*[[Antonin Mercié]]
*[[Hippolyte Moulin]]
*[[Auguste Préault]]
*[[Auguste Rodin]]
*[[Francois Rude]]
*[[Niki de Saint Phalle]]
==Social Activists==
*[[Hubertine Auclert]] -- journalist and feminist leader
*[[Simone de Beauvoir]] -- author, philosopher, and feminist
*[[Sophie de Condorcet]] -- feminist
*[[Maria Deraismes]] -- feminist
*[[Marguerite Durand]] -- journalist and feminist leader
*[[Olympe de Gouges]] -- feminist
*[[Samir Kassir]] -- journalist
*[[Pierre Seel]], homosexual survivor of the concentration camps, activist, author
*[[Séverine]] -- feminist
*[[Flora Tristan]] -- feminist
==Soldiers==
*[[Louis Nicolas Davout]]
*[[Bob Denard]]
*[[Alfred Dreyfus]]
*[[Ferdinand Foch]]
*[[Bertrand du Guesclin]]
*[[Charles Leclerc]]
*[[Jean de Lattre de Tassigny]]
*[[Simon de Montfort]]
*[[Michel Ney]]
==Athletes==
*[[Sarah Abitbol]] -- pairs figure skater (with S. Bernadis)
*[[Tariq Abdul-Wahad]] -- basketball player (born Olivier Saint-Jean)
*[[Louis Acaries]] -- boxer, former world title challenger, now promoter
*[[Luc Alphand]] -- Alpine skier
*[[Jacques Anquetil]] -- cyclist
*[[Fabien Barthez]] -- football player
*[[Stephane Bernadis]] -- pairs figure skater (with S. Abitbol)
*[[Serge Betsen]] -- [[Cameroon]] born French citizen, rugby player
*[[Serge Blanco]] -- [[Venezuela]] born French citizen, rugby player
*[[Louison Bobet]] -- cyclist
*[[Surya Bonaly]] -- figure skater
*[[Andrée Brunet]] & [[Pierre Brunet]] -- 1928 & 1932 Olympic skating Gold Medalists
*[[Philippe Candeloro]] - figure skater
*[[Eric Cantona]] -- football player
*[[Georges Carpentier]] -- world champion boxer
*[[Marcel Cerdan]] -- world champion boxer
*[[Eugene Criqui]] -- world champion boxer
*[[Jean Cruguet]] -- jockey of [[Seattle Slew]]
*[[Richard Dacoury]] -- basketball player
*[[Emile Delahaye]] -- race car pioneer
*[[Marcel Desailly]] -- [[Ghana]] born French citizen, football player
*[[David Douillet]] -- judo
*[[Isabelle Duchesnay]] & [[Paul Duchesnay]] -- ice dancers
*[[André Fabre]] -- horse trainer
*[[Laurent Fignon]] -- cyclist
*[[Just Fontaine]] -- football player
*[[Jacques Fouroux]] -- rugby union player and coach
*[[Lucien Gaudin]] -- fencer
*[[Thierry Henry]] -- football player
*[[Bernard Hinault]] -- cyclist
*[[Cristobal Huet]] -- hockey player
*[[Constant Huret]] -- cyclist
*[[Olivier Jacque]] -- motorcycle rider
*[[Rene Jacquot]] -- boxer, underdog who became world champion
*[[Laurent Jalabert]] -- cyclist
*[[Jean-Claude Killy]] -- skier
*[[Raymond Kopa]] -- football player
*[[Pascal Lavanchy]] -- ice dancer (with S. Moniotte)
*[[Suzanne Lenglen]] -- tennis player
*[[Bixente Lizarazu]] - football player
*[[Jeannie Longo]] -- cyclist
*[[Laure Manaudou]] -- swimmer
*[[Amélie Mauresmo]] -- tennis player
*[[Jean Max]] -- [[Formula 1]] driver
*[[Jose Meiffret]] -- cyclist
*[[Eric Millot]] -- figure skater
*[[Alain Mimoun]] -- athlete
*[[Sophie Moniotte]] -- ice dancer (with P. Lavanchy)
*[[Antoine Monteiro]] -- boxer, lost to [[Santos Laciar]] for the world title
*[[Carole Montillet]] -- skier
*[[Hellé Nice]] -- pioneer female race car driver
*[[Yannick Noah]] -- tennis player
*[[Tony Parker]] -- [[Belgium|Belgian]] born French citizen, basketball player
*[[Gwendal Peizerat]] -- ice dancer
*[[Marie-José Perec]] -- athlete
*[[Mary Pierce]]-- [[Canada|Canadian]] born French citizen, tennis player
*[[Julien Pillet]] -- fencer
*[[Michel Platini]] -- football player
*[[Alain Prost]] -- automobile racer
*[[Antoine Rigaudeau]] -- basketball player
*[[Georges Stern]] |
57.104.6]] ([[User talk:204.57.104.6|talk]]) to last version by Schaengel89</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{benin infobox}}
The '''Republic of Benin''' is a country in [[West Africa]], [[Geographical renaming|formerly known as]] [[Dahomey]] or Dahomania. It has a small coast line with the [[Bight of Benin]] in the south, borders [[Togo]] in the west, [[Nigeria]] in the east, and [[Burkina Faso]] and [[Niger]] in the north.
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Benin]]''
[[Image:La Fête à Abomey(1908). - Danse de fêticheuses de Fon.jpg|thumb|left|Celebration at [[Abomey]], 1908]]
The African kingdom of [[Dahomey]] originated in Benin. By the [[17th century]], the kingdom, ruled by an ''oba'', stretched beyond the borders of present-day Benin, covering a large part of West-Africa. The kingdom was prosperous and established slave trading relations with the [[Europe]]ans (mostly [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]]) who first arrived in the late 15th century. The coastal part of the kingdom became known as the [[Slave Coast]].
By the [[18th century]], Dahomey started to fall apart, enabling the [[France|French]] to take over the area in [[1892]]. In [[1899]], the land became part of the [[French West Africa]] colony, still as Dahomey. In [[1958]], it was granted autonomy as the Republic of Dahomey, and full independence started on [[August 1]], [[1960]].
For the next 12 years, ethnic strife contributed to a period of turbulence. There were several coups and regime changes, with three main figures dominating - [[Sourou Apithy]], [[Hubert Maga]], and [[Justin Ahomadegbé]] - each of them representing a different area of the country. These three agreed to form a presidential council after violence had marred the [[1970]] elections. In [[1972]], a military coup led by [[Mathieu Kérékou]] overthrew the council. He established a [[marxism|Marxist]] government under the control of [[Military Council of the Revolution]] (CNR), and the country was renamed to the People's Republic of Benin in [[1975]]. In [[1979]], the CNR was dissolved and elections took place. By the late [[1980s]], Kérékou abandoned Marxism after an economic crisis and decided to re-establish a parliamentary [[capitalist]] system. He was defeated in [[1991]] elections, becoming the first black African president to step down after an election. He returned to power after winning the [[1996]] vote. In [[2001]], a closely fought election resulted in Kérékou winning another term. His opponents claimed there were some election irregularities.
== Politics ==
{{Politics of Benin}}
The parliament of Benin is formed by the 83-seat National Assembly (''Assemblée Nationale''), for which elections are held every four years. Head of the government and head of state is the president, who is chosen in separate presidential elections held every five years. The president appoints a council of ministers. According to the constitution of [[1990]], a president may serve a maximum of 2 five-year terms. There is also a 70-year age limit for presidential candidates.
{{main|Politics of Benin}}
== Departments ==
''Main article: [[Departments of Benin]]''
Benin is divided into twelve [[department]]s:
*[[Alibori Department|Alibori]]
*[[Atakora Department|Atakora]]
*[[Atlantique Department|Atlantique]]
*[[Borgou Department|Borgou]]
*[[Collines Department|Collines]]
*[[Donga Department|Donga]]
*[[Kouffo Department|Kouffo]]
*[[Littoral Department|Littoral]]
*[[Mono Department|Mono]]
*[[Ouémé Department|Ouémé]]
*[[Plateau Department|Plateau]]
*[[Zou Department|Zou]]
== Geography ==
[[Image:Benin map.png|200px|thumb|Map of Benin|right| ]]
:''Main article: [[Geography of Benin]]''
Stretched between the [[Niger River]] in the north and the [[Bight of Benin]] in the south, Benin's elevation is about the same for the entire country. Most of the population lives in the southern coastal plains, where Benin's largest cities are also located, including [[Porto Novo]] and [[Cotonou]]. The north of the country consists mostly of [[savanna]] and semi-arid highlands.
The climate in Benin is hot and humid with relatively little rain, although there are two rainy seasons (April-July and September-November).
== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Benin]]''
The economy of Benin remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture, [[cotton]] production, and regional trade. Growth in real output has averaged a stable 5% in the past six years, but rapid population rise has offset much of this increase. [[Inflation]] has subsided over the past several years. In order to raise growth still further, Benin plans to attract more foreign investment, place more emphasis on [[tourism]], facilitate the development of new food processing systems and agricultural products, and encourage new information and communication technology. The 2001 privatization policy should continue in telecommunications, water, electricity, and agriculture in spite of initial government reluctance. The [[Paris Club]] and bilateral creditors have eased the external debt situation, while pressing for speeded-up structural reforms.
== Demographics ==
[[Image:Benin 20050824 6.jpg|thumb|picture from Benin]]
[[Image:Benin 20050824 7.jpg|thumb|picture from Benin]]
[[Image:Benin 20050824 8.jpg|thumb|group in Benin]]
[[Image:Benin 20050824 5.jpg|thumb|children in Benin]]
''Main article: [[Demographics of Benin]]''
There are about 40 different ethnic groups living in Benin, the largest being the [[Fon people|Fon]] who account for about 49% of Benin's population. Other ethnic groups include the [[Adja]], [[Yoruba]], Somba and [[Bariba]]. Most of these ethnic groups have their own languages, although [[French language|French]] is the official language, which is spoken mostly in the cities. Of the indigenous languages, the [[Fon language|Fon]] and [[Yoruba language]]s are most common.
Indigenous religions are predominant, although significant parts of the population are [[christianity|Christian]] (chiefly [[Catholic Church in Benin|Roman Catholic]]) and [[Islam|Muslim]]. Local practices and traditions are often combined with those of Christianity and Islam.
== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Benin]]''
It is believed that [[Vodun]] (or "Voodoo", as it is commonly known) originated in Benin and was introduced to [[Brazil]], the [[Caribbean Islands]], and parts of North America by [[slavery|slave]]s taken from this particular area of the [[Slave Coast]]. The indigenous religion of Benin is practiced by about 60% of the population. Since 1992 Vodun has been recognized as one of Benin's official religions, and a National Vodun Holiday is celebrated on January 10.
''See also'': [[List of Beninese writers]]
== Miscellaneous topics ==
[[Image:Phonecard-thermomagnetic-ptt-benin-presse.jpg|thumb|A phone card from Benin]]
*[[Communications in Benin]]
*[[Foreign relations of Benin]]
*[[List of cities in Benin]]
*[[Military of Benin]]
*[[Reporters Without Borders]] Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2004: 27 out of 167 countries
*[[Transportation in Benin]]
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Benin}}
===Government===
*[http://www.gouv.bj/ Benin Government Portal] official site
*[http://www.beninembassyus.org/ The Republic of Benin Embassy to the United States of America] government information and links
===News===
*[http://allafrica.com/benin/ allAfrica - Benin] news headline links
*[http://www.laraignee.org/ L'Araignee] (in French)
*[http://www.africatime.com/Benin/index.asp/ Allafrica news - Benin]
*[http://www.benininfo.com/ benininfo ] (news in french)
*[http://www.sonagnon.net/ sonagnon.net] (news in french)
*[http://www.quotidienlematinal.com/ quotidien le martinal]
*[http://www.lc2international.tv/ LC2 international TV] (Live TV )
===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1064527.stm BBC News] - Country Study: ''Benin''
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bn.html CIA World Factbook - ''Benin'']
*[http://www.mbendi.co.za/land/af/be/p0005.htm MBendi - Information for Africa]
*[http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/bn/ US State Department - ''Benin''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
===Directories===
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Benin.html Columbia University Libraries - ''Benin''] directory category of the WWW-VL
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Benin/ Open Directory Project - ''Benin''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/benin.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Benin''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Benin/ Yahoo! - ''Benin''] directory category
=== IT ===
*[http://www.lyzdigital.com/ IT consulting und certification] (in French)
===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}
{{Africa}}
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Benin| ]]
[[af:Benin]]
[[ar:بنن]]
[[an:Benín]]
[[bg:Бенин]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bénin]]
[[bn:বেনিন]]
[[bs:Benin]]
[[ca:Benín]]
[[cs:Benin]]
[[da:Benin]]
[[de:Benin]]
[[et:Benin]]
[[es:Benín]]
[[eo:Benino]]
[[eu:Benin]]
[[fa:بنین]]
[[fr:Bénin]]
[[gd:Benin]]
[[gl:República de Benín - République du Bénin]]
[[ko:베냉]]
[[ht:Benen]]
[[hr:Benin]]
[[io:Benin]]
[[id:Benin]]
[[is:Benín]]
[[it:Benin]]
[[he:בנין]]
[[la:Beninum]]
[[lv:Benina]]
[[lt:Beninas]]
[[li:Benin]]
[[hu:Benin]]
[[mk:Бенин]]
[[ms:Benin]]
[[na:Benin]]
[[nl:Benin]]
[[nds:Benin]]
[[ja:ベナン]]
[[no:Benin]]
[[nn:Benin]]
[[pl:Benin]]
[[pt:Benim]]
[[ro:Benin]]
[[ru:Бенин]]
[[scn:Benin]]
[[simple:Benin]]
[[sk:Benin]]
[[sl:Benin]]
[[sr:Бенин]]
[[fi:Benin]]
[[sv:Benin]]
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[[tr:Benin]]
[[uk:Бенін]]
[[zh:贝宁]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bermuda</title>
<id>3460</id>
<revision>
<id>42108706</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:58:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:spa |
way, the [[cipher]] can be distinguished from [[randomness|random]]. More sophisticated variations allow the key to be recovered faster than [[Brute force attack|exhaustive search]].
For any particular cipher, the input difference must be carefully selected if the attack is to be successful. An analysis of the algorithm's internals is undertaken; the standard method is to trace a path of highly probable differences through the various stages of encryption, termed a ''differential characteristic''.
Since differential cryptanalysis became public knowledge, it has become a basic concern of cipher designers. New designs are expected to be accompanied by evidence that the algorithm is resistant to this attack, and many, including the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]], have been [[Mathematical proof|proved]] to be secure against the attack.
==Specialized types==
*[[Higher order differential cryptanalysis]]
*[[Impossible differential cryptanalysis]]
*[[Boomerang attack]]
==See also==
*[[Cryptography]]
*[[Linear cryptanalysis]]
==References==
* Eli Biham, Adi Shamir, Differential Cryptanalysis of the Data Encryption Standard, Springer Verlag, 1993. ISBN 0-387-97930-1, ISBN 3-540-97930-1.
* Biham, E. and A. Shamir. (1990). Differential Cryptanalysis of DES-like Cryptosystems. Advances in Cryptology &mdash; CRYPTO '90. Springer-Verlag. 2&ndash;21.
* Eli Biham, Adi Shamir,"Differential Cryptanalysis of the Full 16-Round DES," CS 708, Proceedings of CRYPTO '92, Volume 740 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, December 1991.
http://www.cs.technion.ac.il/users/wwwb/cgi-bin/tr-get.cgi/1991/CS/CS0708.ps
* Coppersmith, Don. (1994). The data encryption standard (DES) and its strength against attacks. ''IBM Journal of Research and Development'', '''38'''(3), 243&ndash;250. [http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/rd/383/coppersmith.pdf]
== External links ==
* [http://www.engr.mun.ca/~howard/Research/Papers/ldc_tutorial.html A tutorial on differential (and linear) cryptanalysis]
* [http://www.cs.ut.ee/~helger/crypto/link/block/dc.php Helger Lipmaa's links on differential cryptanalysis]
* [http://home.earthlink.net/~mylnir/desdoc.html A description of the attack applied to DES]
{{Block_ciphers}}
[[Category:Cryptographic attacks]]
[[de:Differentielle Kryptoanalyse]]
[[fr:Cryptanalyse différentielle]]
[[pl:Kryptoanaliza r&#243;&#380;nicowa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Document Type Definition</title>
<id>8537</id>
<revision>
<id>41593549</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T10:32:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.18.59.45</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* DTD criticisms and alternatives */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Document Type Definition]]''' ('''DTD'''), defined slightly differently within the [[XML]] and [[Standard Generalized Markup Language|SGML]] specifications, is one of several SGML and [[XML schema]] languages, and is also the term used to describe a document or portion thereof that is authored in the DTD language. A DTD is primarily used for the expression of a schema via a set of declarations that conform to a particular [[markup]] syntax and that describe a class, or ''type'', of SGML or XML documents, in terms of constraints on the structure of those documents. A DTD may also declare constructs that are not always required to establish document structure, but that may affect the interpretation of some documents.
While DTD is native to the SGML and XML specifications, its capabilities are somewhat limited compared to more modern schema languages such as [[XML Schema]] and [[RELAX NG]].
As an expression of a schema, a DTD specifies, in effect, the syntax of an "application" of SGML or XML, such as the derivative language [[HTML]] or [[XHTML]]. This syntax is usually a less general form of the syntax of SGML or XML.
In a DTD, the structure of a class of documents is described via element and attribute-list declarations. Element declarations name the allowable set of elements within the document, and specify whether and how declared elements and runs of character data may be contained within each element. Attribute-list declarations name the allowable set of attributes for each declared element, including the [[data type|type]] of each attribute value, if not an explicit set of valid value(s).
==Associating DTDs with documents==
A DTD is associated with a particular document via a [[Document Type Declaration]], which is a bit of markup that appears near the start of the associated document. The declaration establishes that the document is an instance of the type defined by the referenced DTD.
The declarations in a DTD are divided into an ''internal subset'' and an ''external subset''. The declarations in the internal subset are embedded in the Document Type Declaration in the document itself. The declarations in the external subset are located in a separate text file. The external subset may be referenced via a ''[[public identifier]]'' and/or a ''[[system identifier]]''. Programs for reading documents may not be required to read the external subset.
===Examples===
Here is an example of a Document Type Declaration containing both public and system identifiers:
<code>&lt;!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd"></code>
Here is an example of a Document Type Declaration that encapsulates an internal subset consisting of a single entity declaration:
<code>&lt;!DOCTYPE foo [ <!ENTITY greeting "hello"> ]></code>
All HTML 4.01 documents are expected to conform to one of three SGML DTDs. The public identifiers of these DTDs are constant and are as follows:
* <code>[http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd -//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN]</code>
* <code>[http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd -//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN]</code>
* <code>[http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/frameset.dtd -//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Frameset//EN]</code>
The system identifiers of these DTDs, if present in the Document Type Declaration, will be [[Uniform Resource Identifier|URI reference]]s. System identifiers can vary, but are expected to point to a specific set of declarations in a resolvable location. SGML allows for public identifiers to be mapped to system identifiers in ''catalogs'' that are optionally made available to the URI resolvers used by document parsing software.
==XML DTDs and schema validation==
The XML DTD syntax is one of several [[XML schema]] languages.
A common misconception is that non-validating XML parsers are not required to read DTDs, when in fact, the DTD must still be scanned for correct syntax as well as for declarations of entities and default attributes. A non-validating parser may, however, elect not to read ''external entities'', including the external subset of the DTD. If the XML document depends on declarations found only in external entities, it should assert <code>standalone="no"</code> in its [[XML declaration]].
===Differences between SGML and DTD syntax===
The syntax of SGML and XML DTDs are very similar, but not identical.
* The [http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/HTML4.decl SGML declaration for HTML 4.01], for example, allows its [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/dtd.html DTD] to specify whether elements require start and end tags, which would be impossible in an XML DTD. Consider the following element declaration for [[HTML 4.01]]:<br/><code><!ELEMENT [[BR]] - O EMPTY -- forced line break <nowiki>--></nowiki></code><br/>The <code>-</code> after the element name "BR" means a start tag, <code>&lt;BR&gt;</code>, is required and the <code>O</code> after that makes the end tag, <code>&lt;/BR&gt;</code> optional (in fact, [http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/struct/text.html#edef-BR the W3C recommendation] forbids the end tag). On the other hand, XML languages share [http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-sgml-xml-971215 a common SGML declaration], one that simplifies the DTD syntax but disallows any tag omission (XML itself also prohibits comments within the declaration such as <code>-- forced line break --</code>). Thus, the [http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/dtds.html#a_dtd_XHTML-1.0-Strict XHTML 1.0 specification] which specifies an XML-based version of HTML, only allows for<br/><code><!ELEMENT br EMPTY></code><br/>and the element must be written as either <code>&lt;br&gt;&lt;/br&gt;</code> or in a special shortened format as <code>&lt;br /&gt;</code>. In addition, XML element tags are [[case-sensitive]], so the HTML <code>BR</code> element [http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/#h-4.2 '''must''' be written in lowercase in XHTML] as defined above (<code>br</code>).
* Element declarations in XML cannot exclude other elements. For example, in HTML,<br/><code><!ELEMENT FORM - - (%flow;)* -(FORM) -- interactive form <nowiki>--></nowiki></code><br/>defines a <code>FORM</code> element that includes certain elements (with an SGML [[entity]]) but, due to the <code>-(FORM)</code> part, cannot include other <code>FORM</code>s. In XHTML the <code>FORM</code> is thus defined as<br/><code><!ELEMENT form %form.content;></code><br/>which simply includes certain elements.
{{section-stub}}
==XML DTD Example==
An example of a very simple XML DTD to describe a list of persons is given below:
<!ELEMENT people_list (person*)>
<!ELEMENT person (name, birthdate?, gender?, socialsecuritynumber?)>
<!ELEMENT name (#PCDATA) >
<!ELEMENT birt |
cofinal''' if for every ''a'' in ''A'' there is a ''b'' in ''B'' such that ''a'' &le; ''b''. The '''cofinality''' of ''A'' is the least [[cardinal number|cardinality]] of a cofinal subset and is denoted cf(''A''). Cofinality is only an interesting concept if there is no [[greatest element]] in ''A'' since otherwise the cofinality is 1.
A cardinal &kappa; such that cf(&kappa;) = &kappa; is called [[regular cardinal|regular]]; otherwise it is called '''singular'''.
Note that the definition of cofinality given above relies on the [[axiom of choice]], as it uses the fact that every non-empty set of [[cardinal number]]s has a least member. The cofinality of a partially ordered set ''A'' can alternatively be defined as the least [[ordinal number|ordinal]] ''x'' such that there is a function from ''x'' to ''A'' with cofinal image. This second definition makes sense without the axiom of choice. If the axiom of choice is assumed, as will be the case in the rest of this article, then the two definitions are equivalent.
Cofinality can also be similarly defined for a [[directed set]] and it is used to generalize the notion of a [[subsequence]] in a [[Net (mathematics)|net]].
== Examples ==
* The set of all maximal elements ''M'', of a partially ordered set ''A'', is a subset of every cofinal set in ''A''. Thus if ''A'' is finite, its cofinality is equal to the cardinality of ''M''.
* A subset of the natural numbers '''N''', is cofinal in '''N''', if and only if it is infinite.
* It follows from the above example that, the cofinality of ℵ<sub>0</sub> is ℵ<sub>0</sub>. Thus ℵ<sub>0</sub> is [[regular cardinal|regular]].
* Let ''A'' be a set of order ''n'', and consider the subsets of ''A'' with order less than or equal to ''m''. This is a partial order under inclusion with cofinality ''n'' [[choose]] ''m''.
* The cofinality of any nonzero finite ordinal, or indeed any finite directed set, is 1, since they have a greatest element.
* The cofinality of the [[real number]]s with their usual ordering is ℵ<sub>0</sub>, since '''N''' is cofinal in '''R'''. Note that the usual ordering of '''R''' is not order isomorphic to ''c'', the cardinality of the continuum, so may have different cofinality.
==Properties==
If ''A'' admits a [[total order|totally ordered]] cofinal subset, then we can find a subset ''B'' which is well-ordered and cofinal in ''A''. Moreover, any cofinal subset of ''B'' whose cardinality is equal to the cofinality of ''B'' is well-ordered, and these sets are all [[order isomorphism|order isomorphic]].
For any infinite [[cardinal number]] &kappa;, one equivalent definition is cf(κ) is the least cardinal such that there is an [[unbounded]] function from it to κ. Another closely related equivalent definition is cf(&kappa;) = the cardinality of the smallest collection of sets of strictly smaller cardinals such that their sum is &kappa;; more precisely
:<math>\mathrm{cf}(\kappa) = \inf \{ \mathrm{card}(I)\ |\ \kappa = \sum_{i \in I} \lambda_i\ \mathrm{and}\ (\forall i)(\lambda_i < \kappa)\}</math>
That the set above is nonempty comes from the fact that
:<math>\kappa = \bigcup_{i \in \kappa} \{i\}</math>
i.e. the [[disjoint union]] of &kappa; singleton sets. This implies immediately that cf(&kappa;) &le; &kappa;.
The cofinality of any totally ordered set is regular, so one has cf(&kappa;) = cf(cf(&kappa;)).
Using [[König's theorem]], one can prove &kappa; < &kappa;<sup>cf(&kappa;)</sup> and &kappa; < cf(2<sup>&kappa;</sup>) for any infinite cardinal &kappa;.
The last inequality implies that the cofinality of the [[cardinality of the continuum]] must be uncountable. On the other hand,
:<math> \aleph_\omega = \bigcup_{n < \omega} \aleph_n </math>.
the [[ordinal number]] &omega; being the first infinite ordinal, so that the cofinality of <math>\aleph_\omega</math> is card(&omega;) = <math>\aleph_0</math>. (In particular, <math>\aleph_\omega</math> is singular.) Therefore,
:<math>2^{\aleph_0}\neq\aleph_\omega,</math>
(Compare to the [[continuum hypothesis]], which states <math>2^{\aleph_0}= \aleph_1</math>.)
Generalizing this argument, one can prove that for a [[limit ordinal]] &delta;
:<math>\mathrm{cf} (\aleph_\delta) = \mathrm{cf} (\delta) </math>.
[[Category:Order theory]]
[[Category:Set theory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chibi-Usa</title>
<id>6694</id>
<revision>
<id>26905556</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-30T19:55:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ReyBrujo</username>
<id>139561</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Categorized</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chibiusa]] {{R from alternate spelling}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Citadel</title>
<id>6695</id>
<revision>
<id>38986784</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T23:27:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
<id>293907</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about a type of fortification. For other meanings of this word, please see: [[Citadel (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Ireland-Citadel.jpg|thumbnail|Citadel's view from the top of an Irish castle]]
[[Image:Fort San Felipe del Morro.aerial view.jpg|thumb|[[Fort San Felipe del Morro|San Felipe del Morro]].]]
A '''citadel''' is a [[Fortification|fortress]] for protecting a [[town]], sometimes with a [[castle]] in its middle. The term derives from the same [[Latin language|Latin]] root as the word "city", ''civis'', meaning citizen.
Citadels are most often used to protect a garrison or political power from the inhabitants of the town it is defending. They were designed to ensure loyalty from the town which they defended. For example [[Barcelona]] had a great citadel built in 1714 to intimidate the [[Catalan]]s against repeating their mid 17th and early 18th century rebellions against the Spanish central government. In the 19th century, as soon as the political climate had liberalised enough to permit it, the people of Barcelona had the citadel torn down, and replaced it with the city's main central park, the [[Parc de la Ciutadella]]. In ancient Gr. the citadel, placed on a [[commanding]] eminence, was important in the life of the people, serving as a [[refuge]] and [[stronghold]] in peril and containing military and food supplies, the [[shrine]] of the god and a royal [[palace]]. In the [[Middle Ages]] the citadel was the last defense of a besieged army, often held after the town had been conquered, and affording retreat to the country around the town.
In a [[fortification]] with [[bastion]]s, the '''citadel''' is the strongest part of the system, sometimes well inside of the outer walls and bastions, but often forming part of the outer wall for the sake of economy. It is positioned to be the last line of defense should the enemy breach the other components of the fortification system.
[[Category:Fortification]]
[[de:Zitadelle]]
[[eo:Citadelo]]
[[fr:Citadelle]]
[[it:Cittadella]]
[[nl:Citadel]]
[[pl:Cytadela]]
[[ru:Цитадель]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chainmail</title>
<id>6696</id>
<revision>
<id>42063432</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:34:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>165.21.154.109</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Manufacture */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Morgan Bible 28r detail.jpg|thumb|200px|"[[David]] rejects the unaccustomed armour" (detail of fol. 28r of the 13th century [[Morgan Bible]])]]
'''Mail''' (also '''maille''', often given as '''chain mail''' or '''chain maille''', though this is a modern usage) is a type of [[armour]] or jewelry that consists of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh. Mail can sometimes be punctured by a [[spear]] or shorn by the blow from a heavy [[axe]] or [[sword]] and its flexibility means that its wearer is still somewhat vulnerable to blunt weapons. Nevertheless, it was an effective and popular defense for its ability to stop cutting weapons from piercing the skin. [[Medieval medicine|Medieval physicians]] could usually set [[Fracture (bone)|broken bone]]s, but when it came to preventing [[infection]] they were woefully inadequate. Thus the mail was weak in defending against wounds which could be more easily mended but strong against those to which the soldier was most vulnerable. The word ''chainmail'' is of relatively recent coinage, having been in use only since the 1700s, prior to this it was refered to simply as ''mail'' [http://www.regia.org/warfare/Mail.htm].
The word itself refers to the armour material, not the garment made from it. A shirt made from mail is a [[hauberk]], if knee-length; [[haubergeon]] if waist-length. Mail socks are called ''chausses'', mail hood as ''coif'' and mail mittens as ''mitons'''. A mail collar hanging from a helmet is ''camail''.
==History==
[[Image:Guerrier de Vachères (profil).png|thumb|right|Statue of a [[Gaul|Gallic]] warrior. Note the highly unusual vertical orientation of the chainmail armour.]]
Mail was invented some time in the mid [[1st millennium BC]], but it is unknown where and by whom it was first used. It may have been invented independently in [[Japan]] and in [[Europe]]. The earliest finds altogether are from a [[5th century BC]] [[Celt]]ic chieftain's burial located in Ciumesti, Romania. The [[Greek language|Greek]] term, [[cataphract]], came to be associated with heavy [[cavalry]] (as opposed to light [[mounted archer]]s). The [[Roman Republic]] first came into con |
economy]].
*[[1936]] - [[New York City]] radio station [[WQXR]] is officially founded.
*[[1937]] - ''[[The Dandy]]'', the world's longest-running comic, is first published.
*[[1944]] - The [[Greek Civil War]] breaks out in a newly-liberated [[Greece]], between [[Communism|communists]] and [[monarchist|royalists]].
*[[1947]] - [[Tennessee Williams]]' play ''[[A Streetcar Named Desire]]'' opens on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]].
*[[1953]] - The [[Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty]], between the [[United States]] and the [[Republic of China]], is signed in [[Washington, DC]].
*[[1964]] - [[Berkeley Free Speech Movement]]: Police arrest over 800 students at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], following their takeover and sit-in at the administration building in protest at the UC Regents' decision to forbid protests on UC property.
*[[1967]] - At [[Groote Schuur Hospital]] in [[Cape Town]], [[South Africa]], a transplant team headed by [[Christiaan Barnard]] carries out the first [[heart transplant]] on a human (53-year-old [[Louis Washkansky]]).
*1967 - The luxury train [[20th Century Limited]] completes its last run from [[New York City]] to [[Chicago]] (the train was inaugurated on [[June 15]], [[1902]]).
*[[1970]] - [[October Crisis]]: In [[Montreal, Quebec]], kidnapped British Trade Commissioner [[James Cross]] is released by the [[Front de Libération du Québec]] terrorist group after being held hostage for 60 days. Police negotiate his release and in return the Canadian government grants five terrorists from the FLQ's Chenier Cell their request for safe passage to [[Cuba]].
*[[1971]] - [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]]: After [[Pakistan]] launches airstrikes on Indian airfields, [[India]] retaliates by invading [[East Pakistan]].
*[[1973]] - [[Pioneer program]]: [[Pioneer 10]] sends back the first close-up images of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]].
*[[1976]] - [[Patrick Hillery]] becomes the sixth [[President of Ireland]].
*1976 - The [[Sex Pistols]] begin their controversial UK tour, where they are banned from performing at many venues.
*[[1979]] - In [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], eleven fans are killed during a stampede for seats before a [[The Who|Who]] concert at [[U.S. Bank Arena|Riverfront Coliseum]].
*[[1982]] - A soil sample is taken from [[Times Beach, Missouri]] that will be found to contain 300 times the safe level of [[dioxin]].
*[[1984]] - [[Bhopal Disaster]]: A [[methyl isocyanate]] leak from a [[Union Carbide]] pesticide plant in [[Bhopal]], [[India]], kills more than 3,800 people outright and injures 150,000-600,000 others (some 6,000 of whom would later die from their injuries) in one of the worst industrial disasters in history.
*[[1989]] - [[Cold War]]: In a meeting off the coast of [[Malta]], US President [[George H. W. Bush]] and Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] release statements indicating that the [[cold war]] between their nations may be coming to an end (some commentators from both nations exaggerated the wording and independently declared the Cold War over).
*[[1990]] - At [[Detroit Metropolitan Airport]], Northwest Airlines Flight 1482 collides with Northwest Airlines Flight 299 on the runway, killing 8 passengers and 4 crew members aboard flight 1482.
*1990 - Government of [[Pakistan]] formed National Highway Authority.
*[[1992]] - [[UN Security Council Resolution 794]] is unanimously passed, approving a coalition of [[United Nations]] peacekeepers led by the [[United States]] to form [[UNITAF]], tasked with establishing peace and ensuring that humanitarian aid is distributed in [[Somalia]].
*1992 - The Greek [[oil tanker]] ''Aegean Sea'', carrying 80,000 tonnes of [[crude oil]], runs aground in a storm while approaching [[A Coruña (province)|La Coruña]], [[Spain]], and spills much of its cargo.
*[[1997]] - In [[Ottawa]], [[Canada]], representatives from 121 countries sign a [[treaty]] prohibiting manufacture and deployment of anti-personnel [[landmines]]. The [[United States]], [[People's Republic of China]], and [[Russia]] do not sign the treaty, however.
*[[1999]] - [[NASA]] loses radio contact with the [[Mars Polar Lander]] moments before the spacecraft enters the [[Mars (planet)|Martian]] atmosphere.
*[[2005]] - International Day of Action On Climate Change, to mark the first meeting of the Parties to the [[Kyoto Protocol]]. Includes [http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Thousands_demand_climate_change_action| rallies in Australia].
*2005 - [[XCOR Aerospace]] makes first manned rocket aircraft delivery of US Mail in Mojave, California.
*2005 - [[Adobe Systems]] acquires the company Macromedia, Inc.
==Births==
*[[1368]] - King [[Charles VI of France]] (d. [[1422]])
*[[1560]] - [[Jan Gruter]], Dutch critic (d. [[1627]])
*[[1596]] - [[Nicolo Amati]], Italian violin maker (d. [[1684]])
*[[1684]] - [[Ludvig Holberg]], Norwegian historian and writer (d. [[1754]])
*[[1755]] - [[Gilbert Stuart]], American painter (d. [[1828]])
*[[1776]] - [[Johann Spurzheim]], German neuroscientist (d. [[1832]])
*[[1800]] - [[France Prešeren]], Slovenian poet (d. [[1849]])
*[[1826]] - [[George McClellan]], U.S. Civil War general (d. [[1885]])
*[[1838]] - [[Cleveland Abbe]], American meteorologist (d. [[1916]])
*1838 - [[Octavia Hill]], British housing and open-space activist (d. [[1912]])
*[[1842]] - [[Ellen Swallow Richards]], American scientist (d. [[1911]])
*[[1857]] - [[Joseph Conrad]], Polish-born British writer (d. [[1924]])
*[[1883]] - [[Anton Webern]], Austrian composer (d. [[1945]])
*[[1884]] - [[Rajendra Prasad]], first [[President of India]] (d. [[1963]])
*[[1886]] - [[Manne Siegbahn]], Swedish physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1978]])
*[[1895]] - [[Anna Freud]], Austrian-born British psychoanalyst (d. [[1982]])
*[[1899]] - [[Ikeda Hayato]], [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (d. [[1965]])
*[[1900]] - [[Ulrich Inderbinen]], Swiss mountain guide (d. [[2004]])
*1900 - [[Richard Kuhn]], Austrian biochemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1967]])
*[[1911]] - [[Nino Rota]], Italian composer (d. [[1979]])
*[[1921]] - [[Phyllis Curtin]], American soprano
*[[1922]] - [[Sven Nykvist]], Swedish cinematographer
*[[1925]] - [[Ferlin Husky]], American singer
*1925 - [[Kim Dae-jung]], [[President of South Korea]] and [[Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1927]] - [[Andy Williams]], American singer
*[[1930]] - [[Jean-Luc Godard]], French film director
*[[1931]] - [[Franz Josef Degenhardt]], German author and singer
*[[1932]] - [[Corry Brokken]], Dutch singer
*[[1933]] - [[Paul J. Crutzen]], Dutch chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1934]] - [[Viktor Gorbatko]], Soviet cosmonaut
*[[1937]] - [[Bobby Allison]], American race car driver
*[[1942]] - [[Alice Schwarzer]], German journalist
*[[1946]] - [[Joop Zoetemelk]], Dutch cyclist, World Cycling Champion and Olympic gold medalist
*[[1948]] - [[Ozzy Osbourne]], British singer
*[[1949]] - [[John Akii-Bua]], Ugandan athlete and Olympic gold medalist (d. [[1997]])
*1949 - [[Mickey Thomas]], American singer ([[Jefferson Starship]])
*[[1951]] - [[Rick Mears]], American race car driver
*[[1953]] - [[Franz Klammer]], Austrian skier
*[[1955]] - [[Steven Culp]], American actor
*[[1959]] - [[Eamonn Holmes]], Northern Irish television presenter
*[[1960]] - [[Daryl Hannah]], American actor
*1960 - [[Igor Larionov]], Russian ice hockey player
*1960 - [[Julianne Moore]], American actor
*[[1965]] - [[Steve Harris (actor)|Steve Harris]], American actor
*1965 - [[Katarina Witt]], German figure skater, World Figure Skating Champion and Olympic gold medalist
*[[1968]] - [[Brendan Fraser]], American actor
*[[1970]] - [[Christian Karembeu]], [[France national football team|French]] international footballer and World Cup winner
*[[1972]] - [[Bucky Lasek]], Proffesional Skateboarder
*[[1973]] - [[Holly Marie Combs]], American actress
*[[1977]] - [[Adam Małysz]], Polish ski-jumper
*[[1979]] - [[Rainbow Sun Francks]], Canadian actor
*[[1980]] - [[Anna Chlumsky]], American actress
*[[1985]] - [[Amanda Seyfried]], American actress
*[[2005]] - [[Prince Sverre Magnus of Norway]]
==Deaths==
*[[1048]] - [[Al-Biruni]], mathematician
*[[1154]] - [[Pope Anastasius IV]]
*[[1265]] - [[Odofredus]], Italian jurist
*[[1533]] - [[Vasili III]], Grand Prince of Moscow (b. [[1479]])
*[[1610]] - [[Honda Tadakatsu]], Japanese general (b. [[1548]])
*[[1765]] - [[Lord John Philip Sackville]], British cricketer (b. [[1713]])
*[[1789]] - [[Claude Joseph Vernet]], French painter (b. [[1714]])
*[[1815]] - [[John Carroll]], first Roman Catholic archbishop in the U.S. (b. [[1735]])
*[[1882]] - [[Archibald Campbell Tait]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (b. [[1811]])
*[[1888]] - [[Carl Zeiss]], German lens maker (b. [[1816]])
*[[1892]] - [[Afanasy Fet]], Russian poet (b. [[1820]])
*[[1894]] - [[Robert Louis Stevenson]], British writer (b. [[1850]])
*[[1902]] - [[Robert Lawson (architect)|Robert Lawson]], New Zealand architect (b. [[1833]])
*[[1912]] - [[Prudente José de Morais Barros]], [[President of Brazil]] (b. [[1841]])
*[[1919]] - [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], French impressionist painter (b. [[1841]])
*[[1941]] - [[Christian Sinding]], Norwegian composer (b. [[1856]])
*[[1949]] - [[Maria Ouspenskaya]], Russian-born American actress (b. [[1876]])
*[[1972]] - [[Bill Johnson (jazz musician)|Bill Johnson]], American musician (b. [[1872]])
*[[1973]] - [[Emile Christian]], American musician (b. [[1895]])
*[[1979]] - [[Dhyan Chand]], Indian hockey player and Olympic gold medalist (b. [[1905]])
*[[1980]] - [[Oswald Mosley]], British politician (b. [[1896]])
*[[1996]] - [[Georges Duby]], French historian specializing in the Middle Ages (b. [[1919]])
*[[1999]] - [[Madeline Kahn]], American actress and comedian (b. [[1942]])
*1999 - [[Scatman John]], American singer (lung cancer) (b. [[1942]])
*[[2000]] - [[Gwendolyn Brooks]], American poet (b. [[1917]])
*[[2002]] - [[Glenn Quinn]], Irish actor (b. [[1970]])
|
ome implied condition, the shipowner is liable for any loss or damage suffered by the shipper by reason of his goods not being delivered at the named place, even though such delivery has become impossible. There is another reason why the precise description of the place of delivery often becomes important. It is only on the arrival of the ship at the place described as the place of delivery that the obligation of the consignee of the goods to take delivery commences. Delay involves considerable loss and expense to the shipowner. The shipper or consignee is not responsible for any delay which occurs before the ship has arrived at the place of delivery described in the bill of lading.
(6) The goods may be deliverable by the terms of the bill of lading to a named consignee, and to him only, but more usually they are made deliverable to the ''order or assigns'' of the named consignee or of the shipper. If the goods are made deliverable to order or assigns the bill of lading is a negotiable instrument, or, in other words, the right to the goods, and the rights and liabilities under the contract contained in the bill of lading, may be transferred by indorsement and delivery of the document. When an indorsement has once been made by the shipper or consignee writing his name and nothing more on the back of the bill of lading, the rights in and under it may be transferred from hand to hand by mere delivery. A bill of lading so indorsed is said to be indorsed ''in blank.'' But the shipper or consignee may restrict the negotiability of the bill of lading by indorsing it not ''in blank,'' but with a direction requiring delivery to be made to a particular person or indorsee, or to his order. This is called an indorsement ''in full.'' When an indorsement has been made ''in full'' to a named indorsee or order, such indorsee must again indorse ''in blank'' or ''in full'' to effect a new transfer of the rights in the bill of lading.
(7) The amount or rate of freight payable is stated in the bill of lading, either expressly, or, not uncommonly when the freight under the bill of lading is the same as under the charter-party, by reference to the charter-party. A common form of such reference is ''freight and other conditions, as per charter-party.'' It may here be mentioned that this form of words does not incorporate in the contract under the bill of lading all the terms and conditions of the charter-party, but only those which apply to the person who is to take delivery, and relate to matters ejusdem generis, or similar to the payment of freight, such as demurrage and the like. The conditions of the charter-party thus incorporated do not include, for instance, the exceptions in the charter-party so as to add them to the exceptions in the bill of lading. Freight, unless it is otherwise provided by the contract, is payable only on delivery of the goods at their destination. If the voyage is interrupted and its completion becomes impossible, the shipowner cannot claim payment of freight even pro rata itineris. He loses his freight altogether. This is so even when the completion of the voyage is prevented by causes for which the shipowner is not responsible, such as the act of God or the king's enemies, or perils which are within the express exceptions in the bill of lading. When the voyage is interrupted by accident, and indeed in any case, the goods may, by agreement between the shipowner and the consignee, be delivered at some place short of their destination upon payment of a freight pro rata; that is to say, proportional to the length of voyage accomplished, and such an agreement may be implied in certain circumstances from the conduct of the consignee in taking delivery before they arrive at their destination. In all such cases it will be a question of fact whether the goods were in fact delivered upon the terms, express or implied, that freight pro rata should be paid. As a rule such an agreement would not be implied where the shipowner is unable or unwilling to forward the goods to their destination, and the owner of the goods, therefore, has no option but to take delivery where offered.
When the ship is disabled and cannot proceed, or she is prevented by some obstacle from proceeding to the place of delivery named in the bill of lading, and the shipowner is unwilling or unable to forward the goods by another ship, even though he may be excused for his failure to carry the goods to their destination, he is not entitled to be paid any part of the freight; and the consignee is entitled to have the goods delivered to him either at the place where the vessel has taken refuge in her disabled condition, or, if the obstacle arises without disablement of the vessel, at the place which is nearest and most reasonably convenient at the time and in the circumstances when the further prosecution of the voyage has to be abandoned. On the other hand, after the goods have been shipped, so long as the shipowner is ready and willing to carry the goods to their destination, or, if the ship is disabled, to forward them to their destination by some other ship without unreasonable delay, the owner of the goods cannot require the goods to be delivered to him at any place short of their destination without payment of the full freight. Sometimes the freight, either wholly or in part, is made payable in advance. If freight payable in advance has become due, even though the ship is lost before it is paid, it must, in the absence of some special provision to the contrary, still be paid, and freight already paid in advance does not become repayable because the goods do not reach their destination. If, however, goods upon which freight has been paid in advance are lost, and the shipowner is liable for their loss, the amount of freight paid in advance must be taken into account in assessing the damage recoverable from the shipowner.
(8) There is no part of the bill of lading which is of greater practical importance or which demands more careful consideration by shipowner and shipper alike than that which sets forth the excepted perils: those perils, or in other words causes of loss, for which the shipowner is to be exempt from liability. By the common law, as we have seen, the exemption of the carrier, apart from express contract, extended only to loss by the act of God or the king's enemies. The expression ''act of God'' requires a word of explanation. It will be sufficient to say that it is not synonymous with force majeure; but it includes every loss by force majeure in which human agency, by act or negligence, has had no part. The list of excepted perils varies much in different forms of bills of lading. In the older forms it usually included perils of the seas, robbers and pirates, restraint of princes and rulers, fire and barratry (that is, wilful wrongdoing) of the master and crew. The list, however, has grown in modern times, and is still growing; the tendency being to exempt the shipowner from liability for all loss which does not arise from his own personal default, or from the negligence of his managers or agents in failing to provide a vessel seaworthy and fit for the voyage at its commencement. It is important to point out in this connection that there are two duties which the shipowner is always presumed to undertake, and which are assumed to be unaffected and unqualified by the exceptions, unless a contrary intention is very clearly expressed by the terms of the contract. In the first place, he undertakes absolutely that the ship in which the goods are shipped is fit at the commencement of the voyage for the service to be performed. If during the voyage loss arises even from dangers of the seas or other excepted peril which would not have occurred if the vessel had been seaworthy and fit for the voyage at its commencement, the shipowner is not protected by the exceptions, and is liable for the loss. In the second place, there is an implied undertaking by the shipowner that all reasonable care will be taken by himself, his servants and agents, safely to carry and deliver at their destination the goods received by him for carriage. Should loss or damage occur during the voyage, though the direct cause of such loss or damage be perils of the seas or other excepted peril, still the shipowner cannot claim exemption under the exceptions, if the shipper can prove that the loss or damage would not have occurred but for the negligence of the master or crew, or other servants of the shipowner. The shipowner, in other words, is bound, with his servants, to use all reasonable care to prevent loss by excepted perils and by any other cause.
=== Express stipulations. ===
*It must not be supposed that even these primary obligations, which are introduced into every contract of affreightment not by express terms of the contract.
*It has now become common form to stipulate that the shipowner shall not be liable for any loss arising from the negligence of his servants, or that he shall not be liable for loss by the excepted perils even when brought about by the negligence of his servants.
*And with regard to seaworthiness, it is not uncommon for the shipowner to stipulate that he shall not be responsible for loss arising even from the unseaworthiness of the ship on sailing, provided that due care has Been taken by the owner and his agents and servants to make the ship seaworthy at the commencement of the voyage.
*There is indeed no rule of English law which prevents a shipowner from exempting himself by the terms of the bill of lading from liability for damage and loss of every kind, whether arising from unseaworthiness or any other cause whatsoever.
*In such a case the goods are carried at their owner's risk, and if he desires protection he must obtain it by insurance.
*In this respect the law of England permits greater freedom of contract than is allowed by the law of some other states.
*The owners, agents and mast |
taxes themselves (such as the Jewish Community of [[Berlin]]). See [[Status of religious freedom in Germany]] and [[Separation of church and state#Germany|Separation of church and state in Germany]].
Over six million Jews were killed in Germany or neighbouring countries during the period of 1940 to 1945. This action, known as the [[Holocaust]], is the largest example of murder based on religious motivation in the history of Europe. The term [[genocide]] was created to describe the behavior of the German government during the Holocaust. The [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]] was adopted by the [[UN General Assembly]] to prevent future crimes against humanity of this nature.
Also of note is that Germany hosts one of only seven [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]] [[Bahá'í House of Worship|Houses of Worship]] in the world. Completed in 1964, it is located at the foot of the Taunus Mountains in the village of Langenhain, approximately 25 kilometers (15.5&nbsp;[[mile|mi]])west of [[Frankfurt]].
===Education===
{{main|Education in Germany}}
[[Image:klasse.jpg|300px|thumb|Classroom at a secondary school in Germany in 1998]]
Germany has one of the world's highest levels of education and many famous universities. The most important foreign languages taught at school are [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[Latin]], [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Greek language|Ancient Greek]]. [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] are not taught everywhere. Since the end of [[World War II]], the number of youths entering [[university|universities]] has more than tripled, but university attendance still lags behind many other European nations. In the annual league of top-ranking universities compiled by [[Shanghai Jiaotong University]] in 2004, Germany came 4th overall, but with only 7 universities in the top 100 (to compare, the [[United States]] had 51). The highest ranking university, at #45, was the [[Technical University of Munich|TU Munich]]. Most German universities are state-owned and free of charge. Additionally university students are often supported by the so called BAFÖG, a federal subsidy, running as high as €290 as interest free credit plus €290 as direct payment.
German educational ideals differ considerably from anglo-saxon educational ideals, emphasizing socialisation, debate, vocal participation in class and critical faculties. Consequently the results of the [[PISA (student assessment)|PISA student assessments]], that revealed comprehension of the respective subject matters only, were a shock to the German public but no surprise to many educational experts. The comparatively low scores brought on heated debate about how the school system should be changed. Furthermore it was revealed that more than in other countries students with higher-earning parents are better-educated and tend to achieve higher results. There is also some diversity between the schools of the various states that determine their respective school system independently. Failing integration of foreigners also proved to be a big educational obstacle, as in many urban schools teachers are more occupied teaching their numerous foreign students basic German instead of algebra or physics.
In addition to academic education, Germany also has an elaborate system of [[vocational education]], called the ''dual system'', which combines apprenticeship in enterprises with theoretical teaching in vocational schools.
Germany prohibits home-schooling; however, this is still practiced by a number of people. There has been some publicity to government prosecution of this practice.
The German school system consists of an elementary school (Grundschule) where pupils go for 4 years (1st-4th grade, in some German states to the 6th grade) after that, in some states, they go to a secondary school where they learn English, French or Latin as their first foreign language (erste Fremdsprache). In the 5th grade (the 7th in states with secondary schools) they have to decide wether they will go to a [[Hauptschule]] (5th or 7th-9th grade), where they only have English as a foreign language and have less chance to get a job, or a [[Realschule]] (7th-10th grade), where they can learn both English and French but also have less chance to get a job, or a [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] (5th or 7th-12th or 5th or 7th-13th grade), where they learn English and French or Latin. In some schools (''Humanistisches Gymnasium'') they may learn [[(Ancient) Greek]] beginning in the 9th grade. In the 11th grade in a Gymnasium, they may learn Spanish, (Ancient) Greek or Russian (not at every school available). In some states one can learn Chinese, Arabic and Japanese beginning from the 11th grade (e.g. [[Bremen (state)|Bremen]]). In Germany it is easier to get a job when you have an [[Abitur]], which you get when you have successfully taken the exams at the end of the 12th or 13th grade (the final years at the Gymnasium).
Most German states have the [[Gesamtschule]] (comprehensive school), too. It offers diplomas after the 10th grade (Hauptschulabschluß, Mittlere Reife) and after the 13th grade ([[Abitur]]).
The school system depends on the state, as a result of German federalism there are huges differences between the states.
Contrary to the first impression, the Abitur does not correspond with the US highschool diploma but with the Associate Degree in college. Germans finish their equivalent of the highschool diploma in their 10th grade exams leading to the degree of Mittlere Reife. In the Oberstufe (literally upper level) of Gymnasium they achieve the Allgemeine Hochschulreife (the ability to directly jump into university courses - usually what is achieved in U.S. colleges). This decision of the German states seriously impairs international comparisons of university attendance, as what is usually done in college elsewhere is done in German schools. Considering the high drop-out rates of pre-bachelor courses in the U.S., the low attendance of Germans in university might altogether be a statistical myth.
German companies expect German universities to complete the education of the students. Training-on-the-job and the like are either uncommon or simply introductory, as companies demand readymade employees from the educational system. This is the reason why only globalization and european unification produced the need for intermediate degrees, such as the Bachelor Degree, that is being introduced into the German system from 2005 onward. Again, the German Bachelor Degree differs from international standards as it is a rather hard degree trying to reconcile the economy's demand for readymade employees with a shorttime degree which tends to package the bulk of the original 4,5 year Magister Degree's subject matter into a 3 year course.
==Transportation==
{{main|Transport in Germany}}
[[Image:Autobahn 1-999.png|thumb|250px|Map of the German autobahn network]]
Due to its central situation in Europe a very high traffic volume exists in Germany. In particular for the goods traffic it represents an important transit country. This constantly shifted in the past decades from the rail on the road, so that the Federal Government introduced 2005 a freeway toll for trucks. In addition, the individual traffic increased in an extent that on German roads a traffic volume very high in the international comparison prevails. This development went in particular debited to the rail traffic: Due to profitability lacking above all highways as well as goods and marshalling yards quietly put as well as long-distance passenger traffic connections were adjusted. Also for the future a strong increase of traffic is expected, therefore the federal traffic route plan sees 2003 in the period 2001-2015 an investment volume of altogether approx.. 150 billion euro forwards, in order to master the expected increase in the motorized passenger traffic (1997-2015) around 20% and in the goods traffic (1997-2005) around 64%.
[[Image:DeutscheBahn_gobeirne.jpg|thumb|250px|[[InterCity Express]] train (generation III), [[Stuttgart]].]]
The traffic in Germany has a long tradition, not only owing to the automobile industry, but also, because the first [[Autobahn]] of the world was built in Germany, the [[AVUS]]. Germany possesses one of the densest road systems of the world. It covers 12,037 [[kilometre]]s (7,479&nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) Autobahns and 41,386 kilometres (25,716&nbsp;mi) federal highways. In contrast to other
European countries, German Autobahns have no blanket [[speed limit]]. However, signposted limits are in place on many dangerous or congested stretches, and where traffic noise or pollution poses a nuisance; some of these limits apply only at night or only in wet conditions.
A vehicle is not permitted to use the Autobahn unless it can attain a speed of at least 60 km/h (37&nbsp;mph).
An other way to travel is via rail [[Deutsche Bahn]]. Deutsche Bahn (DB) is the major German railway company.
There are significant differences between the financing of long-distance and short-distance (or local) trains in Germany. The [[InterCity Express]] or ICE is a type of high-speed train operated by DB in Germany and neighboring countries, for example to Zürich, Switzerland or Vienna, Austria. ICE-trains also run at lower speeds to Amsterdam, Netherlands and to Liège and Brussels, Belgium on the Belgian highspeed way.
==Social issues==
{{main|Social issues in Germany}}
The German social market economy ([[German language|German]]: ''soziale Marktwirtschaft'') helped bring about the "economic miracle" (the German "''[[Wirtschaftswunder]]''") that rebuilt Germany from ashes after World War II to one of the most impressive economies in Europe. Still today, [[Ludwig Erhard]], minister of economics in the [[ |
sotrop]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alpha rays</title>
<id>1265</id>
<revision>
<id>15899757</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Trelvis</username>
<id>15</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to full article </comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alpha particle]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alpha particles</title>
<id>1266</id>
<revision>
<id>15899758</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Trelvis</username>
<id>15</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to full article </comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alpha particle]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alpha decay</title>
<id>1267</id>
<revision>
<id>41615194</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:06:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Racoontje</username>
<id>407719</id>
</contributor>
<comment>An alpha particle is the same thing as a helium *nucleus*, not a helium *atom*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Nuclear_processes}}
'''Alpha decay''' is a form of [[radioactivity|radioactive]] decay in which an [[atomic nucleus]] ejects an [[alpha particle]] through the electromagnetic force and transforms into a nucleus with [[atomic weight|mass number]] 4 less and [[atomic number]] 2 less.
For example:
:<math>
{}^2{}^{38}_{92}\hbox{U}\;\to\;{}^2{}^{34}_{90}\hbox{Th}\;+\;{}^4_2\hbox{He}^{2+},
</math>
although this is usually written as:
:<math>
{}^{238}\hbox{U}\;\to\;^{234}\hbox{Th}\;+\;\alpha.
</math>
Note that an [[alpha particle]] is a [[helium]] nucleus, and that both mass number and atomic number are conserved.
Alpha decay can essentially be thought of as [[nuclear fission]] where the parent nucleus splits into two daughter nuclei. Alpha decay is fundamentally a [[quantum tunneling]] process. Unlike [[beta decay]], alpha decay is governed by the [[strong nuclear force]].
Alpha particles with their typical kinetic energy of 5 MeV (that is ≈0.13% of their total energy, i.e. 110 TJ/kg), have a speed of 15,000 km/s.
Because of alpha decay, virtually all of the [[helium]] produced in the [[United States]] and elsewhere comes from trapped underground deposits associated with minerals containing [[uranium]] or [[thorium]], and brought to the surface as a by-product of [[natural gas]] production.
[[Alpha particles]] emitted by radioactive nuclei are among the most hazardous forms of [[ionizing radiation|radiation]], if these nuclei are incorporated within a human body. As any heavy charged particle, alpha particles lost their energy in very short distance in dense media, causing significant damage to surrounding biomolecules. On the other hand, the external alpha irradiation cannot cause any damages because alphas are completely absorbed by a very thin ([[micrometer]]s) dead layer of [[skin]] as well as by few centimeters of air. However, if a substance radiating alpha particles is injected, ingested or inhaled by an organism it may become a risk, potentially inflicting very serious damage to the [[organism]]s' [[genetics|genetic]] makeup.
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[[Category:Radioactivity]]
[[de:Alphazerfall]]
[[fr:Radioactivité α]]
[[ko:알파 붕괴]]
[[is:Alfasundrun]]
[[it:Decadimento alfa]]
[[he:קרינת אלפא]]
[[hu:Alfa-részecske]]
[[ja:アルファ崩壊]]
[[pl:Rozpad alfa]]
[[ru:Альфа-распад]]
[[sl:Razpad alfa]]
[[sv:Alfasönderfall]]
[[zh:Α衰变]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AI</title>
<id>1268</id>
<revision>
<id>25762433</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-17T19:36:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrokenSegue</username>
<id>101451</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Artificial intelligence is probably a better place to redirect to</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Artificial intelligence]] {{R from abbreviation}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Extreme poverty</title>
<id>1270</id>
<revision>
<id>40129712</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T09:58:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cantus</username>
<id>46083</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Extreme poverty''' is the most severe state of [[poverty]], where people have minimal or very limited access to basic necessities, such as [[food]], [[clothing]], [[shelter]], [[education]] and [[health care]]. The [[World Bank Group|World Bank]] defines extreme poverty as living on US $1 or less per day, and estimates that 1.1 billion people currently live under these conditions. Eradiction of extreme poverty and [[hunger]] by [[2015]] is a [[Millennium Development Goals|Millennium Development Goal]].
Extreme poverty is most common in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]].
==See also==
*[[List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty]]
*[[Income inequality metrics]]
*[[Make Poverty History]]
*[[Poverty line]]
*[[Poverty reduction]]
==References==
*Sachs, Jeffrey (2005). ''The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time'' Penguin Press Hc ISBN 1594200459
{{expand list}}
==External links==
*[http://topics.developmentgateway.org/poverty/rc/BrowseContent.do~source=RCContentUser~folderId=3330 Poverty Indicators, Statistics & Measurement]
*[http://www.census.gov/hhes/poverty/povmeas/papers/elastap4.html Is There Such a Thing as an Absolute Poverty Line Over Time?]
* [http://aspe.hhs.gov/poverty/papers/relabs.htm New Light on the Behavior of Poverty Lines Over Time]
*[http://www.whiteband.org/ WhiteBand.org - Global Call to Action Against Poverty]
{{econ-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Analytical engine</title>
<id>1271</id>
<revision>
<id>41777238</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:56:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.226.135.121</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Remove vandalism from 199.248.201.204</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''analytical engine''', an important step in the [[history of computers]], is the design of a mechanical modern general-purpose [[computer]] by the British professor of mathematics [[Charles Babbage]]. It was first described in [[1837]], but Babbage continued to work on the design until his death in [[1871]]. Because of financial, political, and legal issues, the engine was never actually built. General-purpose computers that were logically comparable to the analytical engine did not come into existence until about 100 years later.
Some believe that the technological limitations of the time were a further obstacle to the construction of the machine; others believe that the machine could have been built successfully with the technology of the era if funding and political support had been stronger.
==Design==
Charles Babbage's first attempt at a mechanical computing device was the [[difference engine]], a special-purpose computer designed to tabulate [[logarithm]]s and [[trigonometric function]]s by evaluating approximate [[polynomial]]s. As this project faltered for personal and political reasons, he realized that a much more general design was possible, he started work designing the analytical engine.
The analytical engine was to be powered by a [[steam engine]] and would have been over 30 meters long and 10 meters wide. The input (programs and data) was to be provided to the machine on [[punch card]]s, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical [[loom|looms]]. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. It employed ordinary base-10 fixed-point arithmetic. There was a store (i.e., a memory) capable of holding 1,000 numbers of 50 digits each. An arithmetical unit (the "mill") would be able to perform all four arithmetical operations.
The programming language to be employed was akin to modern day [[assembly language|assembly languages]]. Loops and conditional branching were possible and so the language as conceived would have been [[Turing-complete]]. Three different types of punch cards were used: one for arithmetical operations, one for numerical constants, and one for load and store operations, transferring numbers from the store to the arithmetical unit or back. There were three separate readers for the three types of cards.
In 1842, the Italian mathematician [[Federico Luigi, Conte Menabrea|Luigi Menabrea]], whom Babbage had met while travelling in Italy, wrote a description of the engine in French. In [[1843]], the description was translated into English and extensively annotated by [[Ada Lovelace|Ada King, Countess of Lovelace]], who had become interested in the engine ten years earlier. In recognition of [[Ada Byron's notes on the analytical engine|her additions to Menabrea's paper]], she has been described as the first computer [[programmer]]. The modern computer programming language [[Ada programming language|Ada]] is named in her honor.
==Partial construction==
In [[1878]], a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science recommended against constructing the analytical engine, which sank Babbage's efforts for government funding.
In [[1910]], Babbage's son Henry P. Babbage reported that a part of the mill and the printing apparatus had been constructed
and had been used to calculate a (faulty) list of multiples of [[pi]]. This constituted only a small part of the whole engine; it was not programmable and had no storage.
==Influence==
===Computer science===
The analytical engine was then all but forgotten with three known exceptions. [[Percy Ludgate]] wrote about the engine in 1915 and even designed his own analytical engine (it was drawn up in detail b |
comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hexameter''' is a [[literature|literary]] and [[poetry|poetic]] form, consisting of six [[metrical foot|metrical feet]] per line as in the ''[[Iliad]]''. It was the standard epic metre of both the Greeks and the Romans, and was used in other types of composition too -- in [[Horace]]'s satires, for instance, and [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]''. In [[Greek mythology]], hexameter was invented by [[Phemonoe]].
The hexameter has never enjoyed a similar popularity in English, where the standard metre is [[iambic pentameter]]; however, various English poems have been written in hexameter over the centuries. There are numerous examples of [[iambic]] hexameter from the 16th century and a few from the 17th; the most prominent of these is [[Michael Drayton]]'s ''Poly-Olbion'' ([[1612]]) in hexameter couplets. An example from Drayton:
:Nor any other wold like Cotswold ever sped,
:So rich and fair a vale in fortuning to wed.
In the 17th century the iambic hexameter, or [[alexandrine]], was used as a substitution in the [[heroic couplet]], and as one of the types of permissible lines in lyrical stanzas and the [[Pindaric]] odes of [[Abraham Cowley|Cowley]] and [[John Dryden|Dryden]].
Several attempts were made in the 19th century to naturalise the [[dactylic hexameter]] to English, by [[Longfellow]], [[Arthur Hugh Clough]] and others, none of them particularly successful. [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] wrote many of his poems in six foot iambic and [[sprung rhythm]] lines. In the 20th century a loose ballad-like six-foot line with a strong medial pause was used by [[William Butler Yeats|Yeats]]. The iambic six-foot line has also been used occasionally, and an accentual six-foot line has been used by translators from the Latin and many poets.
''See also'': [[Dactylic hexameter]]
== External links ==
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/stc/Coleridge/poems/Hexameters.html Example in English] by [[Coleridge]]
* [http://www.skidmore.edu/classics/courses/metrica Hexametrica], a tutorial on Latin dactylic hexameter at [[Skidmore College]].
[[Category:Poetic form]]
{{poetry-stub}}
[[ca:Hexàmetre]]
[[da:Heksameter]]
[[de:Hexameter]]
[[es:Hexámetro]]
[[it:Esametro]]
[[nl:Hexameter]]
[[no:Heksameter]]
[[nn:Heksameter]]
[[ru:Гекзаметр]]
[[sv:Hexameter]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch</title>
<id>14161</id>
<revision>
<id>41715731</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T06:32:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dismas</username>
<id>152983</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>missing punctuation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch''' is a fictional [[weapon]] from the film ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]''. Although a minor gag in the film, the '''Holy Hand Grenade''' (as it is more popularly known) has gone on to be one of the most frequently referred to elements of '''[[Monty Python]]''' humour.
The fictional Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch is a reference to the "actual" [[Holy Lance|Holy Spear of Antioch]]. The supposed Holy Spear was unearthed from the floor of a Church during the [[Siege of Antioch]] ([[1098]]) by crusaders on the [[First Crusade]], found by a poor and otherwise unknown monk named [[Peter Bartholomew]]. Its "discovery", during the darkest hours of the siege when all hope seemed lost, quickly became a source of contention between the [[pious]] crusaders who believed Peter, and the more [[pragmatic]] who didn't; yet in the end its "discovery" was credited by the crusaders in inspiring them to overcome seemingly impossible odds in breaking through the siege to continue on their quest to Jerusalem.
The Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch is also a satire of a type of royal [[regalia]] known as a [[globus cruciger]], specifically the [[Sovereign's Orb]] of the United Kingdom. The Sovereign's Orb similarly has a band of jewels running along the center, and a half-band on the top hemisphere, with a cruciform at the crest.
{{spoiler}}
[[Image:1118418304632.jpg|150pix|thumb|right|A "squeeze toy" replica of the Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch]]
The Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch was a "sacred relic" carried by [[Franciscan]] monk Brother Maynard and is used near the film's conclusion to destroy a [[Rabbit of Caerbannog|killer rabbit]] that blocks the path of [[King Arthur]] and his hapless [[knight-errant|Knights Errant]]. Although unusually ornate in design, the Holy Hand Grenade functions like any other [[hand grenade]]. Its destructive power equals that of a medium size explosion.
Particularly important is the counting to three after the pulling of the triggering pin (the surmounted cross), complicated by [[King Arthur]]'s mental block on counting. The instructions for its use are in the fictitious "Book of Armaments" ("Chapter 2, verses 9-21"):
: "And the LORD spake, saying, first shalt thou take out the Holy Pin. Then, shalt thou count to three. No more, no less. Three shall be the number thou shalt count, and the number of the counting shall be three. Four shalt thou not count, nor either count thou two, excepting that thou then proceed to three. Five is right out. Once the number three, being the third number, be reached, is counted, then lobbest thou thy Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch towards thy foe, who, being naughty in My sight, shall snuff it."
Some other parts of the ritual before using the Holy Hand Grenade are some blessings done beforehand, specifically, other readings from the Book of Armaments, such as "Chapter 4, Verses 16-20", read before Brother Maynard asks another monk to "skip a bit" to the instructions:
"O Lord, bless this, Thy hand grenade, that with it, Thou mayest blow Thine enemies to tiny bits... in Thy mercy."
==Cultural references==
[[Image:Worms HolyHandGrenade.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Holy Hand Grenade, in ''[[Worms (game)|Worms 3D]]'']]
The very name "holy hand grenade" has become a part of popular culture.
* The ''[[Worms (game)|Worms]]'' series of [[computer game]]s features a weapon called the holy hand grenade, which looks rather like the Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch and is distinguished by the fact that unlike the other types of grenade in the game, which have variable-length fuses that can be controlled by the player, it is equipped only with a three-second [[fuse (explosives)|time fuse]] that only starts once the holy hand grenade has come to rest on the ground, in reference to King Arthur's mental block on counting. It's notable that the weapon's explosion is preceded by a chorus singing ''[[Hallelujah]]'' in the style of [[George Frideric Handel|Handel's]] [[Messiah (Handel)|''Messiah'']].
* In the computer game ''[[Fallout 2]]'', the player may, when travelling through the wasteland, come across a cave with a large number of knights near its entrance, one of which asks the player whether he has found the Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch. Inside the cave there is a foul beast, an allusion to the Killer Rabbit.
* Computer RPG [[Moraff's World]] has a holy hand grenade as an instant-kill weapon
* It is in the ''[[Bard's Tale (1985)|Bard's Tale]]'' series of games.
* It is in the 2005 version of the Codex [[Black Templars]] for the [[Miniature wargaming|tabletop miniature wargame]] game of ''[[Warhammer 40,000]]'' It is a item called the Holy Orb of Antioch, which in its rules is a special type of grenade.
* It is in the computer game ''[[Duke Nukem: Time to Kill]]'' as a grenade that bounces and follows the opponent, giving substantial damage when exploding. It has the same design as the Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch.
* It is in the American TV series ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]''. Grenades containing [[holy water]], designed to combat [[vampire]]s, were called "holy hand grenades". This, in turn, spawned the [[Buffy the Vampire Slayer Collectible Card Game|Buffy-themed]] [[trading card game]] where the Holy Hand Grenade is card number 14 in the 1999 series.
* In the [[roleplaying game]] [[Shadowrun]]'s third edition, the generic [[grenade launcher]] from the previous two editions was renamed the Ares Antioch Grenade Launcher.
* The [[GURPS]] worldbook ''GURPS Camelot'' not only gives full statistics for the Holy Hand Grenade in GURPS terms but also notes its peculiar absence from any Arthurian source other than ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]''.
* Supervillain [[Mojo Jojo]] of ''[[The Powerpuff Girls]]'' uses the "five is right out" line in one of his speeches.
[[Category:Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]
[[Category:Fictional weapons]]
[[fr:Sainte Grenade d'Antioche]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Timeline of Polish history</title>
<id>14162</id>
<revision>
<id>41397737</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T01:39:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Micga</username>
<id>199971</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* 13th century */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Poland}}
'''Timeline of Polish History'''
Dates and most important events in Polish history from prehistoric times
up to the present day.
==10th century==
; [[966]] : [[Baptism of Poland]]
; [[968]] : [[Jordan (bishop of Poland)|Jordan]] becomes the first Polish bishop
; [[992]] : Death of Mieszko I; [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Boleslaus I the Brave]] becomes Duke of Poland
; [[997]] [[April 23]] : Martyrdom of St. [[Adalbert of Prague]]
==11th century==
; [[1000]] [[March 15]] : [[Congress of Gniezno]] concludes
; [[1018]] : Signing of the [[Peace of Bautzen]]
; [[1025]] [[April 18]] : Coronation of Boleslaus I the Brave
; 1025 [[June 17]] : Death of Boleslaus I the Brav |
re for the whole population is closer to 90%, see notes)
|- style="text-align:center;"
| 2
| [[German language|German]] and [[High German|German dialects]]<br><small>([[Alsatian language|Alsatian]], [[West Central German|Lorraine German]], etc.)</small>
| 970<br><small>(of whom Alsatian: 660;<br>standard German: 210;<br>Lorraine German: 100)
| 2.12%<br><small>(of whom Alsatian: 1.44%;<br>standard German: 0.46%;<br>Lorraine German: 0.22%)
|- style="text-align:center;"
| 3
| [[Arabic language|Arabic]]<br><small>(essentially [[Maghreb Arabic]])</small>
| 940
| 2.05%
|- style="text-align:center;"
| 4
| [[Occitan|Oc languages]]<br><small>([[Languedocien language|Languedocian]], [[Gascon]], [[Provençal]], etc.)</small>
| 610<br><small>(another 1,060 had some exposure)
| 1.33%<br><small>(another 2.32% had some exposure, see notes)
|- style="text-align:center;"
| 5
| [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
| 580
| 1.27%
|- style="text-align:center;"
| 6
| [[Oïl languages]]<br><small>([[Picard language|Picard]], [[Gallo language|Gallo]], [[Poitevin-Saintongeais]], etc.)</small>
| 570<br><small>(another 850 had some exposure)
| 1.25%<br><small>(another 1.86% had some exposure, see notes)
|- style="text-align:center;"
| 7
| [[Italian language|Italian]] (and dialects)
| 540
| 1.19%
|- style="text-align:center;"
| 8
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| 485
| 1.06%
|- style="text-align:center;"
| 9
| [[Breton language|Breton]]
| 280<br><small>(another 405 had some exposure)
| 0.61%<br><small>(another 0.87% had some exposure, see notes)
|- style="text-align:center;"
| 10
| About 400 other languages <small>([[Polish language|Polish]], [[Berber languages]], [[East Asian language|East Asian languages]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Franco-Provençal]], [[Corsican language|Corsican]], [[Basque language|Basque]], etc.) as well as no answers</small>
| 2,350<br><small>(of whom English: 115)
| 5.12%<br><small>(of whom English: 0.25% of total adult population)
|- style="text-align:center;"
|
| '''Total'''
| 45,762<br><small>(46,680 including those with two mother tongues who were counted twice)
| 102%<br><small>(2% have both French and another language as their mother tongues, and thus are counted twice)
|}
If we add up people with mother tongue and people with some exposure to the language before the age of 5, then the five most important languages in metropolitan France are (note that the percentages add up to more than 100, because many people are now counted twice):
* French: 42,100,000 (92%)
* Oc languages: 1,670,000 (3.65%)
* German and German dialects: 1,440,000 (3.15%)
* Oïl languages: 1,420,000 (3.10%)
* Arabic: 1,170,000 (2.55%)
===Cities===
[[Image:France cities.png|thumb|right|300px|[[Metropolitan France]]'s urban areas of more than 100,000 inhabitants]]
The principal cities by population include:
:[[Aix-en-Provence]], [[Ajaccio]], [[Albi]], [[Amiens]], [[Angers]], [[Angouleme]], [[Bastia]], [[Belfort]], [[Besançon]], [[Bordeaux]], [[Brest, France|Brest]], [[Caen]], [[Calais]], [[Cannes]], [[Carcassonne]], [[Charleville-Mézières]], [[Clermont-Ferrand]], [[Colmar]], [[Dijon]], [[Dunkerque]], [[Evreux]], [[Grenoble]], [[La Rochelle]], [[Le Havre]], [[Le Mans]], [[Lille]], [[Limoges]], [[Lyon]], [[Marseille]], [[Metz]], [[Montpellier]], [[Mulhouse]], [[Nancy]], [[Nantes]], [[Nice]], [[Nîmes]], [[Orléans]], [[Paris]], [[Perpignan]], [[Poitiers]], [[Quimper]], [[Reims]], [[Rennes]], [[Roubaix]], [[Rouen]], [[Saint-Étienne]], [[Saint-Nazaire]], [[Strasbourg]], [[Tarbes]], [[Toulon]], [[Toulouse]], [[Tourcoing]], [[Tours]] and [[Valence, Drôme|Valence]].
{{seealso|Languages of France|French metropolitan areas|List of towns in France}}
== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of France}}
*[[Education in France]]
*[[Académie française]]
*[[French literature]]
*[[French art]]
*[[List of French people]]
*[[Cuisine of France]]
*[[Cinema of France]]
*[[Music of France]]
*[[Holidays in France]]
*[[Social structure of France]]
===Marianne===
[[Image:Timbpt2.jpg|right|thumbnail|100px|French postage stamp depicting Marianne]]
{{main|Marianne}}
[[Marianne]] is a symbol of the French Republic. She is an allegorical figure of liberty and the Republic and first appeared at the time of the [[French Revolution]]. The earliest representations of Marianne are of a woman wearing a Phrygian cap. The origins of the name Marianne are unknown, but Marie-Anne was a very common first name in the 18th century. Anti-revolutionaries of the time derisively called her La Gueuse (the Commoner).
It is believed that revolutionaries from the South of France adopted the Phrygian cap as it symbolised liberty, having been worn by freed slaves in both Greece and Rome. Mediterranean seamen and convicts manning the galleys also wore a similar type of cap.
Under the Third Republic, statues, and especially busts, of Marianne began to proliferate, particularly in town halls. She was represented in several different manners, depending on whether the aim was to emphasize her revolutionary nature or her "wisdom." Over time, the Phrygian cap was felt to be too seditious, and was replaced by a diadem or a crown. In recent times, famous French actresses are given the title of Marianne. Recent ones are [[Sophie Marceau]], and [[Laetitia Casta]]. She also features on everyday articles such as postage stamps and coins.
===Religion===
[[Image:BayonneCatedral.JPG|thumb|[[Bayonne]] Cathedral]]
: ''Main article: [[Religion in France#Religion|Religion in France]].''
Traditionally a predominantly [[Roman Catholic]] country, yet also with [[anticlerical]] leanings, France has since the 1970s been a very secular country. Freedom of religion is constitutionally a right, inspired by the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]]. The dominant concept of the relationships between the public sphere and religions is that of ''[[laïcité]]'', which implies that the government and government institutions (such as [[French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools|schools]]) should not endorse any particular religion or intervene in religious dogma, and that religions should refrain from intervening in policy-making. Tensions occasionally erupt about alleged or real discrimination against minorities; see [[Islam in France]].
The government does not maintain statistics as to the religion of its inhabitants. Statistics from an unspecified source and date given in the [[CIA World Factbook]] gives the following number: Roman Catholic 83 to 88%, [[Islam|Muslim]] 5 to 10%, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] 2%, [[Judaism|Jewish]] 1%. However, in a [http://a1692.g.akamai.net/f/1692/2042/1h/medias.lemonde.fr/medias/pdf_obj/sondage030416.pdf 2003 poll] 41% said that the existence of [[God]] was "excluded" or "unlikely". 33% declared that "atheist" described them rather or very well, and 51% said they were "Christian". When questioned about their religion, 62% answered Roman Catholic, 6% Muslim, 2% Protestant, 1% Jewish, 2% "other religions" (except for [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] or [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], which were negligible), 26% "no religion" and 1% declined to answer. A [[Gallup]] poll established that 15% of the French population attend places of worship.
==Terminology==
===Origin of the country's name===
The name France comes from [[Medieval Latin]] ''Francia'', which literally means "land of the [[Franks]], Frankland". Originally it applied to the whole Frankish Empire, extending from southern France to eastern Germany. At the [[Treaty of Verdun]] in 843, the Frankish Empire was divided in three parts, and eventually only two: ''Francia Occidentalis'' (i.e. "Western Frankland") and ''Francia Orientalis'' (i.e. "Eastern Frankland"). The rulers of ''Francia Orientalis'', who soon claimed the imperial title and wanted to reunify the Frankish Empire, dropped the name ''Francia Orientalis'' and called their realm the [[Holy Roman Empire]] (see [[History of Germany]]). The kings of ''Francia Occidentalis'' successfully opposed this claim, and managed to preserve ''Francia Occidentalis'' as an independent kingdom, distinct from the Holy Roman Empire. The [[Battle of Bouvines]] in 1214 definitely marked the end of the efforts by the Holy Roman Empire to reunify the old Frankish Empire by conquering France.
Since the name ''Francia Orientalis'' had disappeared, there arose the habit to refer to ''Francia Occidentalis'' as ''Francia'' only, from which the word France is derived. The French state has been in continuous existence since 843 (except for a brief interruption in 885-887), with an unbroken line of heads of states since the first king of ''Francia Occidentalis'' ([[Charles the Bald]]) to the current president of the French Republic ([[Jacques Chirac]]). Noticeably, in [[German language|German]], France is still called ''Frankreich'', which literally means "''[[Reich]]'' (realm) of the Franks". In order to distinguish from the Frankish Empire of [[Charlemagne]], France is called ''Frankreich'', while the Frankish Empire is called ''Frankenreich''.
The name of the Franks itself is said to come from the [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] word *''frankon'' which means "javelin, lance". Another proposed etymology is that Frank means "the free men", based on the fact that the word ''frank'' meant "free" in the ancient Germanic languages. However, rather than the ethnic name of the Franks coming from the word ''frank'' ("free"), it is more probable that the word ''frank'' (& |
ome associated with the drug, causing a frequent user to take the drug as a response to bad news or mild [[depression]]. This activation strengthens the response that was just made. If the drug was taken by a fast acting route such as injection or inhalation, the response will be the act of taking more cocaine, so the response will be reinforced. Powder cocaine, being a [[club drug]] is most commonly available in the evening and night hours. Since cocaine is a [[stimulant]], a user will often drink large amounts of [[alcohol]] during and after usage or smoke [[marijuana]] to dull the effects to help one achieve slumber. These several hours of temporary relief and pleasure will further reinforce the positive response. Other downers such as heroin and various pharmaceuticals are often used for the same purpose, further increasing addiction potential and harmfulness.
It is speculated that cocaine's addictive properties stem from its [[DAT]]-blocking effects (in particular, increasing the dopaminergic transmission from [[ventral tegmental area]] neurons). However, a study has shown that mice with no dopamine transporters still exhibit the rewarding effects of cocaine administration [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/13/7699]. Later work demonstrated that a combined DAT/SERT knockout eliminated the rewarding effects [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/98/9/5300]. The rewarding effects of cocaine are influenced by [[circadian rhythms]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15087244&query_hl=23], possibly by involving a set of genes termed "clock genes" [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16094306&query_hl=18].
===Treatment===
[[Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT) shows promising results. Spiritual based [[Twelve-step program]]s such as [[Cocaine Anonymous]] (modeled on [[Alcoholics Anonymous]]) have some success combatting this problem. A [[cocaine vaccine]] is also being tested which may prevent the recipient from feeling the desirable effects of the drug, although a similar effort to develop a [[heroin]] vaccine was abandoned as ineffective in the [[1970s]].
====GVG====
[[Image:Dopamine_monkey.png|300px|right|thumb|[[Positron Emission Tomography]] scans showing the average level of dopamine receptors in 6 primates's brains. Red is high- and blue is low-concentration of dopamine receptors. The higher the level of dopamine, the fewer receptors there will be.]]
Studies have shown that [[gamma vinyl-gamma-aminobutyric acid]] (gamma vinyl-GABA, or GVG), a drug normally used to treat [[epilepsy]], blocks cocaine's action in the [[brain]]s of [[primate]]s. GVG increases the amount of the neurotransmitter [[gamma-aminobutyric acid|GABA]] in the brain and reduces the level of [[dopamine]] in the region of the brain which is thought to be involved in addiction. In January [[2005]] the [[US Food and Drug Administration]] gave permission for a Phase I [[clinical trial]] of GVG for the treatment of addiction. Another drug currently tested for anti-addictive properties is the cannabinoid antagonist [[rimonabant]].
====GBR 12909====
GBR 12909 (Vanoxerine) is a [[dopamine reuptake inhibitor|selective dopamine uptake inhibitor]]. Because of this, it reduces cocaine's effect on the brain, and may help to treat cocaine addiction. Studies have shown that GBR, when given to primates, suppresses cocaine self-administration.
====Venlafaxine====
[[Venlafaxine]] ([[Effexor]]), although not a dopamine re-uptake inhibitor, is a potent [[serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor]] which has been successfully used to combat the depression caused by cocaine and to a lesser extent, the addiction associated with the drug itself. Venlafaxine has been shown to have significant withdrawal problems itself, and can lead to lifetime use due to these withdrawal effects. A statistically significant number of people prescribed Effexor have committed suicide (2 attempts per 1000 patients, vs 1.56 suicides per 1000 untreated depressives).
====Coca Tea====
[[Coca tea]] has been used for the treatment of cocaine dependence. Two reports{{citation needed}} found that treatment that includes coca tea can be successful in controlling relapse to cocaine dependence. In one study, coca tea plus counseling was used to treat cocaine dependence in 23 cocaine-addicted coca paste smokers seeking treatment at an outpatient clinic in Lima, [[Peru]]. Cocaine lapses fell from 4.35 times a month prior to treatment to 1.22 during treatment. Mean abstinence increased from 32 days before treatment to 217.2 days during treatment. The results support the effectiveness of [[Coca tea]] for preventing relapse in cocaine-addicted patients.
==Usage==
===In the United States===
====Overall usage====
The National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) reported in [[1999]] that cocaine was used by 3.7 million Americans, or 1.7 percent of the household population aged 12 and over. Estimates of the current number of those who use cocaine regularly (at least once per month) vary, but 1.5 million is a widely accepted figure within the research community.
Although cocaine use had not significantly changed over the six years prior to 1999, the number of first-time users went from 574,000 in 1991, to 934,000 in 1998 &mdash; an increase of 63%. While these numbers indicated that cocaine is still widely present in the United States, cocaine use was significantly less prevalent than it was during the early 1980s. Cocaine use peaked in [[1982]] when 10.4 million Americans (5.6 percent of the population) reportedly used the drug.
====Usage among youth====
The [[1999]] [[Monitoring the future|Monitoring the Future]] (MTF) survey found the proportion of American students reporting use of powder cocaine rose during the 1990s. In [[1991]], 2.3 percent of eighth-graders stated that they had used cocaine in their lifetime. This figure rose to 4.7 percent in 1999. For the older grades, increases began in 1992 and continued through the beginning of 1999. Between those years, lifetime use of cocaine went from 3.3 percent to 7.7 percent for tenth-graders and from 6.1 percent to 9.8 percent for twelfth-graders. Lifetime use of crack cocaine, according to MTF, also increased among eighth-, tenth-, and twelfth-graders, from an average of 2 percent in 1991 to 3.9 percent in 1999.
Perceived risk and disapproval of cocaine and crack use both decreased during the 1990s at all three grade levels. The 1999 NHSDA found the highest rate of monthly cocaine use was for those aged 18&ndash;25 at 1.7 percent, an increase from 1.2 percent in 1997. Rates declined between 1996 and 1998 for ages 26&ndash;34, while rates slightly increased for the 12&ndash;17 and 35+ age groups. Studies also show people are experimenting with cocaine at younger ages. NHSDA found a steady decline in the mean age of first use from 23.6 years in 1992 to 20.6 years in 1998.
====Availability====
Cocaine is readily available in all major U.S. metropolitan areas. According to the ''Summer 1998 Pulse Check'', published by the U.S. [[Office of National Drug Control Policy]], cocaine use had stabilized across the country, with a few increases reported in [[San Diego]], [[Bridgeport, Connecticut|Bridgeport]], [[Miami, Florida|Miami]], and [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]. In the West, cocaine usage was lower, which was thought to be because some users were switching to [[methamphetamine]], which was cheaper and provides a longer-lasting high. Numbers of cocaine users are still very large, with a concentration among city-dwelling youth.
====Sources====
In [[1999]], [[Colombia]] was the world's leading producer of cocaine. Three-quarters of the world's annual yield of cocaine was produced there, both from cocaine base imported from [[Peru]] (primarily the [[Huallaga Valley]]) and [[Bolivia]], and from locally grown [[coca]]. There was a 28 percent increase in the amount of potentially harvestable [[coca]] plants in [[Colombia]] in [[1998]]. This, combined with crop reductions in [[Bolivia]] and [[Peru]], made [[Colombia]] the nation with the largest area of coca under cultivation. Coca grown for traditional purposes by indigenous communities, a use which is still present and is permitted by Colombian laws, only makes up a small fragment of total coca production, most of which is used for the illegal drug trade. Attempts to eradicate coca fields through the use of defoliants have devastated part of the farming economy in some coca growing regions of Colombia, and strains appear to have been developed that are more resistant or immune to their use. Whether these strains are natural mutations or the product of human tampering is unclear. These strains have also shown to be more potent than those previously grown, increasing profits for the drug cartels responsible for the exporting of cocaine. The cultivation of coca has become an attractive, and in some cases even necessary, economic decision on the part of many growers due to the combination of several factors, including the persistence of worldwide demand, the lack of other employment alternatives, the lower profitability of alternative crops in official crop substitution programs, the eradication-related damages to non-drug farms, and the spread of new strains of the coca plant.
====Distribution====
Cocaine shipments from [[South America]] transported through [[Mexico]] or [[Central America]] are generally moved over land or by air to staging sites in northern Mexico. The cocaine is then broken down into smaller loads for smuggling across the [[US-Mexico border|U.S.&ndash;Mexico border]]. The primary cocaine importation points in the [[United States]] are in [[Arizona]], southern [[California]], southern [[Florida]], and [[Texas]]. Typically, land vehicles are driven across the U.S.-Mexico border.
Cocai |
ach tense is named according to its combination of aspects and time.
So we have for the present tense:
*Present Simple (not progressive/continuous, not perfect; simple): "I eat"
*Present Progressive (progressive, not perfect): "I am eating"
*Present Perfect (not progressive, perfect): "I have eaten"
*Present Perfect Progressive (progressive, perfect): "I have been eating"
...and for the past tense:
*Past Simple (not progressive/continuous, not perfect; simple): "I ate"
*Past Progressive (progressive, not perfect): "I was eating"
*Past Perfect (not progressive, perfect): "I had eaten"
*Past Perfect Progressive (progressive, perfect): "I had been eating"
(Note that, while many elementary discussions of English grammar would classify the Present Perfect as a past tense, from the standpoint of strict linguistics – and that elucidated here – it is clearly a species of the present, as we cannot say of someone now deceased that he "has eaten" or "has been eating"; the present auxiliary implies that he is in some way ''present'' (alive), even if the action denoted is completed (perfect) or partially completed (progressive perfect).)
Another aspect that does survive in English, but that is no longer productive, is the [[frequentative]], which conveys the sense of continuously repeated action; while prominent in [[Latin]], it is omitted from most discussions of English grammar, as it suggests itself only by [[Scandinavian language|Scandinavian]] [[suffix]]es no longer heard independently from the words to which they're affixed (e.g., "blabber" for "blab", "chatter" for chat", "dribble" for "drip", "crackle" for "crack", etc.).
Note that the aspectual systems of certain dialects of English, such as [[Hawaiian Creole English]] and [[African-American Vernacular English]], are quite different from standard English, and often distinguish aspect at the expense of tense.
==Aspect in Slavic languages==
In [[Slavic languages]] there is only one type of aspectual opposition which forms two grammatical aspects: [[perfective aspect|perfective]] and [[imperfective aspect|imperfective]] (in contrast with English which has two aspectual oppositions: perfect vs. neutral and progressive vs. nonprogressive). The aspectual distinctions exist on the lexical level - there is no unique method to form a perfective verb from a given imperfective one (or conversely).
With a few exceptions each Slavic verb is either perfective or imperfective. Most verbs form strict pairs of one perfective and one imperfective verb with generally the same meaning. However, in each Slavic language there is a number of verbs which are bi-aspectual and act as both imperfective and perfective. They are mainly borrowings from non-Slavic languages, but some native verbs also belong to this group. As opposed to them, mono-aspectual verbs are mainly native. There are mono-aspectual imperfective verbs without perfective equivalents (among others, verbs with the meaning ''to be'' and ''to have'') as well as perfective verbs without imperfective equivalents (for instance, verbs with the meaning 'become ...', e.g. ''to become paralyzed'' etc.).
Perfective aspect allows the speaker to describe the action as finished, completed, finished in the natural way. Imperfective aspect does not present the action as finished, but rather as continuing or repeating.
An example will be made of the verb "to eat" in the [[Serbian language]]. The verb translates into Serbian either as "jesti" (imperfective) or "pojesti" (perfective). Now, both aspects could be used in the same tense of Serbian. For example:
{| border=1
!colspan=3|[[Serbian language|Serbian]]
|-
|Example||Tense||Aspect
|-
|Ja sam jeo||rowspan=2|past||imperfective
|-
|Ja sam pojeo||perfective
|-
|Ja sam bio jeo||rowspan=2|[[Pluperfect tense|pluperfect]]||imperfective
|-
|Ja sam bio pojeo||perfective
|-
|Ja &#263;u jesti||rowspan=2|future||imperfective
|-
|Ja &#263;u pojesti||perfective
|}
''Ja sam pojeo'' signals that the action was completed. Its meaning can be given as "I ate (something) and I finished eating (it)"; or "I ate (something) up".
''Ja sam jeo'' signals that the action took place (at a specified moment, or in the course of one's life, or every day, etc.); it may mean "I was eating", "I ate" or "I've been eating".
The [[Polish language]] can also serve as a typical Slavic language. All following examples are Polish.
'''Imperfective''' verbs mean:
* actions in progress, just going states and activities, with significant course (in opinion of the speaker);
* activities posing the background for other (perfective) activities, ex. ''czytałem książkę, gdy zadzwonił telefon'' 'I was reading the book when the telephone rang';
* simultaneous activities, ex. ''będę czytać książkę, podczas gdy brat będzie pisać list'' 'I will be reading the book while brother will be writing the letter';
* durative activities, lasting through some time, e.g. ''krzyczał'' 'he was shouting', ''będzie drgać'' 'it will be vibrating';
* motions without a strict aim, ex. ''chodzę'' 'I am walking here and there';
* multiple (iterative) activities, ex. ''dopisywać'' 'to insert many times to the text', ''będziemy wychodziły'' 'we will go out (many times)';
* non-resultative activities, only heading towards some purpose: ''będę pisał list'' 'I will be writing the letter';
* continuous states, ex. ''będę stać'' 'I will be standing'.
'''Perfective''' verbs mean past or future, but not present activities – an activity which is happening now cannot be ended, so it cannot be perfective. Perfective verbs mean:
* states and activities which were ended (even if a second ago) or which will be ended, with insignificant course, short or treated as a whole by the speaker, ex. ''krzyknął'' 'he shouted', ''drgnie'' 'it will stir';
* single-time activities, ex. ''dopisać'' 'to insert to the text', ''wyszedł'' 'he has gone out';
* actions whose goals have already been achieved, even if with difficulty, ex. ''przeczytałem'' 'I have read', ''doczytała się'' 'she finished reading and found what she had sought';
* reasons for the state, ex. ''pokochała'' 'she came to love', ''zrozumiesz'' 'you (sg.) will understand', ''poznamy'' 'we will get to know';
* the beginning of the activity or the state, ex. ''wstanę'' 'I will stand up' (and I will stand), ''zaczerwienił się'' 'he reddened';
* the end of the activity or the state, ex. ''dośpiewaj'' 'sing till the end';
* activities executed in many places, on many objects or by many subjects at the same time, ex. ''powynosił'' 'he carried out (many things)', ''popękają'' 'they will break out in many places', ''poucinać'' 'to cut off many items';
* actions or states which last some time, ex. ''postoję'' 'I will stand for a little time', ''pobył'' 'he was (there) for some time'.
Most '''simple''' Polish verbs are imperfective (the same in other Slavic languages), ex. ''iść'' 'to walk, to go', ''nieść'' 'to carry', ''pisać'' 'to write'. But there are also few simple perfective verbs, ex. ''dać'' 'to give', ''siąść'' 'to sit down'. There exist many perfective verbs with suffixes and without prefixes, ex. ''krzyknąć'' 'to shout', ''kupić'' 'to buy' (cf. the imperfective ''kupować'' with a different suffix).
Numerous perfective verbs are formed from simple imperfectives by '''prefixation'''. To create the perfective counterpart, verbs use various [[prefix]]es without any clear rules. The actual prefix can even depend on a dialect or special meaning, ex. the perfective counterpart to ''malować'' is ''pomalować'' when it means 'to paint a wall', or ''namalować'' when it means 'to paint a picture'.
Besides the strict perfective equivalent, a number of other prefixed verbs may be formed from a given simple imperfective verb. They all have similar but distinct meaning. And they form, as a rule, their own imperfective equivalents by means of '''suffixation''' (attaching [[suffix]]es) or stem '''alternation'''. Example:
* ''prać'' 'to wash / clean clothes with water and soap / washing powder' is a simple imperfective verb;
* ''uprać'' is its perfective counterpart while ''doprać'', ''przeprać'', ''oprać'' are other derived perfective verbs with a little different meanings;
* ''dopierać'', ''przepierać'', ''opierać'' are secondary imperfective verbs which are counterparts for ''doprać, przeprać, oprać'' respectively; ''*upierać'' does not exist because the basic verb ''prać'' is the imperfective counterpart of ''uprać''.
There is a number of verbs which form their aspectual counterparts by simultaneous prefixation and suffixation or by suppletion, ex. (the first one is imperfective) ''stawiać - postawić'' 'to set up', ''brać - wziąć'' 'to take', ''widzieć - zobaczyć'' 'to see'.
Special imperfective verbs are those which express aimless motions. They are mono-aspectual, i.e they have no perfective equivalents. They are formed from other imperfective verbs by stem alternations or suppletion, ex. ''nosić'' 'to carry around' (from ''nieść''), ''chodzić'' 'to walk around, to go around' (from ''iść'' 'to go, to walk'). However, when such a verb gets an aim anyway, it becomes iterative: ''chodzić do szkoły'' 'to go to school'.
Other iteratives build another group of mono-aspectual imperfective verbs. They are formed from other imperfective verbs, including the previous group: ''chadzać'' 'to walk around usually' (from ''chodzić''), ''jadać'' 'to eat usually' (from ''jeść'' 'to eat'). Both groups are not too numerous: most Polish verbs cannot form iterative counterparts.
Perfective verbs which express activities executed in many places, on many objects or by many subjects at the same time, and those which express actions or states which last some time, have no imperfe |
[[February 11]], [[1986]], in [[Madison, Wisconsin]], at the age of 65.
== Continuation of the series ==
In recent years, [[Brian Herbert]] (Frank's son) and [[Kevin J. Anderson]] have begun adding to the [[Dune universe]], using notes left behind by Frank Herbert on both the history of the [[Dune universe]] before the events of ''Dune'' and the novel he had planned to follow ''Chapterhouse: Dune''. They are now preparing two post-Chapterhouse novels ([[Hunters of Dune]] and [[Sandworms of Dune]]) based on the "Dune 7" outline Frank Herbert left behind at his death.
See also [[Frank Herbert#Controversies|'Controversies']] below.
== Ideas and themes==
{{QuoteSidebar|40%|#eeffff|right|Quotation|
''I think science fiction does help, and it points in very interesting directions. It points in relativistic directions. It says that we have the imagination for these other opportunities, these other choices. We tend to tie ourselves down to limited choices. We say, "Well, the only answer is...." or, "If you would just. . . ." Whatever follows these two statements narrows the choices right there. It gets the vision right down close to the ground so that you don't see anything happening outside. Humans tend not to see over a long range. Now we are required, in these generations, to have a longer range view of what we inflict on the world around us. This is where, I think, science fiction is helping. I don't think that the mere writing of such a book as Brave New World or [[Nineteen Eighty-Four|1984]] prevents those things which are portrayed in those books from happening. But I do think they alert us to that possibility and make that possibility less likely. They make us aware that we may be going in that direction.''|Frank Herbert.}}
Frank Herbert used his science fiction novels to explore complex ideas involving [[philosophy]], [[religion]], [[psychology]], [[politics]] and [[ecology]], which have inspired many of his readers to become interested in these areas. The underlying thrust in Frank Herbert's work was his fascination with the question of human survival and [[evolution]]. Frank Herbert has attracted a fanatical fanbase, many of whom have tried to read everything Frank Herbert has written, fiction or non-fiction, and see Frank Herbert as something of a guru. Indeed such was the devotion of some of his readers that Frank Herbert was at times accused of trying to create a cult.
There are a number of key themes in Herbert's work:<br>
* A concern with [[Leadership]]. He especially explored the human tendency for human beings to follow charismatic leaders slavishly. He delved deeply into both the flaws and potentials of [[bureaucracy]] and [[government]].
* Herbert was probably the first science fiction author to popularise ideas about [[Ecology]] and [[Systems Thinking]]. He stressed the need for humans to think both systematically and long term.
* The relationship between [[religion]], [[politics]] and [[power (sociology)|power]].
* Human survival and evolution: Herbert writes of the [[Fremen]], the [[Sardaukar]], and the [[The Dosadi Experiment|Dosadi]], who are molded by their terrible living conditions into dangerous super-races.
* Human possibilities and potential: Herbert offered [[Mentat]]s, the [[Bene Gesserit]] and the [[Bene Tleilax|Bene Tleilax]] as different visions of human possibilities.
* The nature of [[sanity]] and [[Mental illness|madness]]. Frank Herbert was interested in the work of [[Thomas Szasz]] and [[Anti-psychiatry]].
* The possible effects and consequences of consciousness altering chemicals, such as [[Melange|Spice]] in the Dune saga.
* How [[language]] shapes the way people [[thought|think]]. More specifically Frank Herbert was influenced by [[Alfred Korzybski]]'s [[General Semantics]]
* [[Sociobiology]]. How our instincts unconsciously influence our behaviour and society.
* [[Learning]], [[teaching]] and [[thinking]].
Frank Herbert carefully refrained from offering his readers firm answers to many of the questions he explored.
== Status and impact in science fiction ==
''Dune'' is the best-selling science fiction novel, and the ''Dune'' saga is the best-selling science fiction series, ever. In addition, ''Dune'' has received widespread critical acclaim, winning the [[Nebula Award]] in 1965 and sharing the Hugo Award in 1966. According to contemporary [[Robert A. Heinlein]], Herbert's opus was "Powerful, convincing, and most ingenious."
''Dune'' is also considered a landmark novel for a number of reasons:
* Like [[Robert A. Heinlein|Robert Heinlein]]'s 1961 ''[[Stranger in a Strange Land]]'', Herbert's 1963 ''Dune'' represented a move toward a more [[literary]] approach to the science fiction novel. Before this period, it was often said that all a SF novel needed to be successful was a great technological idea. Characterization and great story took a distant second place.
* ''Dune'' is a landmark of [[soft science fiction]]. Herbert deliberately suppressed technology in his Dune universe so he could address the future of humanity, rather than the future of Humanity's technology. ''Dune'' considers the way humans and their institutions might change over time.
* ''Dune'' was the first major ecological SF novel. Frank Herbert was a great populariser of scientific ideas; many of his fans credit Frank Herbert for introducing them to philosophy and psychology. In ''Dune'' he helped popularize the term 'ecology', and some of the field's concepts, vividly imparting a sense of planetary awareness. Gerald Jonas explains in the [[The New York Times|New York Times]] Book Review: "''So completely did Mr. Herbert work out the interactions of man and beast and geography and climate that [Dune] became the standard for a new subgenre of `ecological' science fiction.''" As popularity of Dune rose, Herbert embarked on a lecture tour of college campuses, explaining how the environmental concerns of Dune's inhabitants were analogous to our own.
* Finally ''Dune'' is considered truly epic world building. [[Library Journal|The Library Journal]] reports that "''Dune is to science fiction what [[The Lord of the Rings]] is to fantasy.''" Frank Herbert imagined every facet of his creation &mdash; lovingly including glossaries, quotes, documents and histories &mdash; to bring his universe alive to his readers, and no science fiction novel before it had such a deeply realized reality.
Herbert wrote over twenty novels after ''Dune'' that some regard as being of variable quality. Books like ''[[The Green Brain]]'', ''[[The Santaroga Barrier]]'' and ''[[Hellstrom's Hive]]'' seemed to hark back to the days before ''Dune'' when a good technological idea was all that was needed to drive a sci-fi novel. And some fans of the ''Dune'' saga are critical of the follow-up novels as being sub-par.
Herbert never equalled the critical acclaim he received from ''Dune''. Neither his sequels to ''Dune'' nor any of his other books won a Hugo or [[Nebula Award|Nebula]], although almost all of them were New York Times' Bestsellers. Some felt that ''[[Children of Dune]]'' was almost too literary and too dark to get the recognition it may have deserved, and that ''The Dosadi Experiment'' lacked an epic quality fans had come to expect.
To conclude, Malcolm Edwards in the ''[[The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction|Encyclopedia of Science Fiction]]'' wrote:
: "''Much of [Herbert's] work makes difficult reading. His ideas were genuinely developed concepts, not merely decorative notions, but they were sometimes embodied in excessively complicated plots and articulated in prose which did not always match the level of thinking...His best novels, however, were the work of a speculative intellect with few rivals in modern [science fiction].''"
== Controversies ==
Since his death the main controversy among his fans is whether the new Dune books by Brian Herbert and Kevin Anderson should be considered canonical. Some critics suggest that these books do not have the quality of the original series, especially with regard to the articulation of complex ideas about human life that was such a concern of Frank Herbert; in their own right, however, the new books have won a great deal of critical acclaim and awards. Since Frank Herbert wrote his last novel (MAN OF TWO WORLDS) in collaboration with his son Brian, and since he also asked Brian to write further Dune novels with him (particularly the story of the Butlerian Jihad), there can be no question that these books follow the wishes and intent of the original author. Some fringe fans have even gone so far as to suggest that Herbert and Anderson do not indeed have the notes and outlines they claim, though both authors have offered sufficient proof in several forums.
Some fans were upset that Brian Herbert and Kevin Anderson did not use the apocryphal [[Dune Encyclopedia]] compiled by Dr. Willis E. McNelly (1920&ndash;2003). Frank Herbert himself did not accept McNelly's Encyclopedia as canonical. In response to the controversy, Dr. McNelly issued the following statement along with Herbert and Anderson, ""Some fans may have noticed apparent inconsistencies between DUNE: HOUSE ATREIDES (1999) and THE DUNE ENCYCLOPEDIA (1984), compiled by Dr. Willis E. McNelly. To clear up any confusion that might exist, the authors think it is important to explain that THE DUNE ENCYCLOPEDIA reflects an alternate "DUNE universe" which did not necessarily represent the "canon" created by Frank Herbert. Frank Herbert's son, Brian Herbert, writing with Kevin J. Anderson, IS continuing to establish the canon of the DUNE universe. This is being done with the full approval of the owner of the DUNE copyright, the Herbert Limited Partnership.
"While Frank Herbert himself considered THE DUNE ENCYCLOPEDIA interesting and entertaining, he did not refer to Dr. McNelly's derivative work w |
over 90&nbsp;&deg;F (32&nbsp;&deg;C), and winter temperatures rarely drop below 0&nbsp;&deg;F (&minus;17&nbsp;&deg;C). Average monthly precipitation ranges from about two to four&nbsp;[[inch|inches]] (4 to 9&nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]]), being heaviest in the summer months. Snowfall, which normally occurs from November to early April, ranges from 1 to 10&nbsp;inches (3&nbsp;to&nbsp;25&nbsp;cm) per month.[http://www.weather.com/activities/other/other/weather/climo-monthly-graph.html?locid=USMI0229&from=36hr_bottomnav_undeclaredAirportCode=KDET&SafeCityName=Detroit&StateCode=MI&Units=none&IATA=DTW] The highest recorded temperature was 103.0&nbsp;&deg;F (39.0&nbsp;&deg;C) on [[June 25]], [[1988]], while the lowest recorded temperature was &minus;17.0&nbsp;&deg;F (&minus;27.0&nbsp;&deg;C) on [[January 19]], [[1994]].[http://weather.yahoo.com/climo/USMI0229_f.html]
{{seealso|Neighborhoods and projects in Detroit, Michigan}}
== Demographics ==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:3px; text-size:80%; text-align:right"
|align=center colspan=3| '''City of Detroit <br>Population by year [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html]'''
|-
|Year || Population
|Rank
|-
|1840 || 9,102
|40
|-
|1850 || 21,019
|30
|-
|1860 || 45,619
|19
|-
|1870 || 79,577
|18
|-
|1880 || 116,340
|18
|-
|1890 || 205,876
|15
|-
|1900 || 285,704
|13
|-
|1910 || 465,766
|9
|-
|1920 || 993,078
|4
|-
|1930 || 1,568,662
|4
|-
|1940 || 1,623,452
|4
|-
|1950 || 1,849,568
|5
|-
|1960 || 1,670,144
|5
|-
|1970 || 1,511,482
|5
|-
|1980 || 1,203,339
|6
|-
|1990 || 1,027,974
|7
|-
|2000 || 951,270
|10
|}
===Overview===
Since the city was founded under the French, [[French colonization of the Americas|French colonial]] influence can be found in many place names (''Gratiot Avenue'', ''Beaubien Street'', ''Cadieux Road'', ''Chene Park''). Only a small percentage of area residents are descendents of [[18th-century]] French settlers.
Detroit's population increased more than sixfold during the first half of the 20th century, due largely to a massive influx of Eastern European and [[U.S. South|Southern]] migrants&mdash;both white and black&mdash;who came to work in the burgeoning automobile industry. One consequence is that [[Metro Detroit]] has a higher percentage of blacks than any other northern U.S. metropolitan area&mdash;roughly one quarter of the metropolitan population. Altogether, more than a million African-Americans live in the area, over 80% within city limits. With the suburban outflux, Metro Detroit is among the nation's most racially segregated regions.[http://newdetroit.obscorp.com/obsportal/modules/tinycontent01/print.php?id=1]
Metro Detroit's ethnic communities are diverse and include descendants of the French founders, as well as [[Germany|Germans]], [[Poland|Poles]], [[Ireland|Irish]], [[Italy|Italians]], and [[Greece|Greeks]] who settled during the city's early 20th century industrial boom. Metro Detroit has the largest concentration of [[Belgians]] outside of [[Belgium]]. The Detroit area is also home to a large [[Assyrian people|Chaldean-Assyrian]] population and to the country's largest concentration of Arab Americans. Chaldean-owned businesses are the retail life of the Detroit neighborhoods,[http://www.chaldeanchat.net/forums/viewtopic.php?t=4157] including some 90% of the city's "party stores" (selling high volumes of [[lottery]] tickets, [[hard liquor]], [[beer]], [[potato chips]], and other snack foods). The southwest side of the city contains a notable [[Chicano]] community and the area has in recent years been renamed "[[Mexicantown]]" to reflect the large number of retail, restaurant, commercial, and industrial properties owned by the [[Hispanic]] population.
Up until the 1980s, there was a growing [[gay]] community in the northern part of the city in the area surrounding the City's ''Palmer Park'' along Woodward Avenue. The community disappeared as crime rates rose and gays often found themselves the object of discriminatory law enforcement targeting, with many residents eventually migrating north to the cities of [[Ferndale, Michigan|Ferndale]] and [[Royal Oak, Michigan|Royal Oak]].
===Population===
As of the [[census]][[Geographic references#2|<sup>2</sup>]] of [[2000]], there were 951,270 people, 336,428 households, and 218,341 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 6,855.1/mi² (2,646.7/km²). There were 375,096 housing units at an average density of 2,703.0/mi² (1,043.6/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 81.55% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 12.26% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.33% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.97% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.03% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.54% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.32% from two or more races. 4.96% of the population was [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There were 336,428 households out of which 33.9% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 26.7% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 31.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.1% were non-families. 29.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.2% had someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.45.
In the city the population was spread out with 31.1% under the age of 18, 9.7% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 10.4% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 89.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $29,526, and the median income for a family was $33,853. Males had a median income of $33,381 versus $26,749 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $14,717. 26.1% of the population and 21.7% of families were below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 34.5% of those under the age of 18 and 18.6% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.
In a 1998 government study by the National Institute for Literacy[http://www.nifl.gov], 47% of Detroiters were deemed as "[[literacy|functionally illiterate]]." Detroit's population trends may imply that today this figure is significantly higher. At the same time, some 72% of all Detroit children are born to single unwed mothers.[http://www.ncfc.net/travwhit.html]
== Economy ==
[[Image:Detroit GM headquarters.jpg|thumb|right|275px|A United States Coast Guard Cutter passes the [[Renaissance Center]], headquarters of General Motors.]]
Detroit and the surrounding region constitute a manufacturing powerhouse, most notably as home to the American [[automobile]] industry and the [[Big three|Big Three]] auto companies. [[General Motors]] is based in Detroit, [[Ford Motor Company]] in nearby [[Dearborn, Michigan|Dearborn]], and one of the two world headquarters for [[DaimlerChrysler]] in [[Auburn Hills, Michigan|Auburn Hills]] (the other is in [[Stuttgart]], [[Germany]]). Dotting the Detroit landscape are countless offices and plants in the automotive support business: parts, supplies, electronics, and design. It is not uncommon in Detroit to hear radio ads or to spy billboards in which multimillion-dollar auto corporations make insider sales pitches to one another. Nevertheless, there is a flip side to the automotive dominance: because of its almost singular dependence on the auto industry, Detroit is more acutely vulnerable to economic cycles than most large cities. According to one saying, "When the auto industry hiccups, Detroit coughs, and when the auto industry catches a cold, Detroit gets pneumonia." Detroit is often one of the first cities to feel the effects of a nationwide recession and one of the last to recover from it.
Including the Big Three, there are seventeen [[Fortune 500]] companies headquartered in Metro Detroit, including [[Borders Group|Borders Books and Music]], [[Comerica]], [[Federal-Mogul]], Kelly Services, and Lear Corporation. Detroit is home to [[Compuware]] and the national pizza chain [[Little Caesars]]. Other major industries include advertising, medical services, chemicals, computer software, and casino gambling.
''J.W. Westcott II'', which is the only floating [[post office]] in the world, operates on the Detroit River.
== Law and government ==
The city is run by the mayor and under a charter adopted on [[July 1]], [[1974]]. The same charter renamed the common council to the city council whose members are full-time legislators elected at-large on a nonpartisan ballot. Detroit has a "[[Mayor-council government|strong mayoral]]" system, with the mayors not requiring council approval of departmental appointments. Although the council approves budgets, by court interpretation the mayor is not obligated to adhere to any earmarking of funds for projects and departments. City ordinances must be approved by the council as well as contracts in excess of variable amounts. Municipal [[election]]s for mayor, city council and city clerk are held every year congruent to 1 [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] 4 (e.g., 1993, 1997, 2001, 2005, 2009).
In addition to [[property tax]], the city levies an [[income tax]] of 2.65% on residents, 1.325% on non-residents, and 1.6% on corporations. Revenue is also obtained from the Detroit-owned Water and Sewer Department which operates most of the fresh water and [[wastewater treatment]] facilities within the metropolitan area. The city has a budget deficit estimated at $214 to $400 million. A financial default by the city and a state-ordered receivership could ne |
cation]]
*[[Lakeview High School]]
*[[Michigan Youth Challenge Academy]]
*[[Operation Graduation]]
*[[Pennfield Senior High School]]
=== High schools (Private) ===
*[[Battle Creek Academy]]
*[[St. Philip Catholic High School]]
=== Primary and middle schools (Public) ===
*[[Harper Creek Junior High School]]
*[[Lakeview Junior High School]]
*[[Pennfield Dunlap Middle School]]
*[[Northwestern Junior High School]]
*[[Southeastern Junior High School]]
*[[Southwestern Junior High School]]
*[[W.K. Kellogg Junior High School]]
*[[Beadle Lake Elementary School]]
*[[Sonoma School]]
*[[Wattles Park Elementary School]]
*[[Westlake Elementary School]]
=== Primary and middle schools (Private) ===
*[[St. Joseph Elementary School]]
*[[St. Philip Elementary/Middle School]]
*[[Battle Creek Christian School]]
*[[Adventurous Beginnings for Children]]
=== Secondary schools ===
*[[Battle Creek Area Mathematics and Science Center]], an accelerated secondary school that focuses primarily on math and science education.
== Points of interest ==
* [[Leila Arboretum]]
== Sports ==
The [[Southwest Michigan Devil Rays]], a Class A [[minor league baseball]] team, affiliated with the [[Tampa Bay Devil Rays]], plays in the [[Midwest League]]. The team was known as the ''Michigan Battle Cats'' until [[2003 in sports|2003]] and as the ''Battle Creek Yankees'' until 2004. The team's home park is [[C.O. Brown Stadium]]. The team is planning to move to [[Midland, MI]] after the 2006 season.
== Transportation ==
Battle Creek is situated on the [[U.S. Highway 12|historic U.S. 12]] route, largely replaced in Michigan by [[Interstate 94]].
[[Kalamazoo, Michigan|Kalamazoo's]] [[Kalamazoo-Battle Creek International Airport]] serves Battle Creek. Locally, W.K. Kellogg Airport serves the general aviation needs of the communtiy. The airport is also home to [[Western Michigan University]]'s College of Aviation and the Michigan [[Air National Guard]]'s 110th Fighter Wing which flies the [[A-10]] and [[O/A-10]] aircraft.
{{start amtrak box}}
{{amtrak one to three | previous=[[Kalamazoo, Michigan]] | route1=[[Michigan Services|The Blue Water]] | route2=[[Michigan Services|The Wolverine]]<br>(#350, #351, #354, #355) | route3=[[Michigan Services|The Wolverine]]<br>(#352, #353) | next1=[[East Lansing, Michigan]] | next2=[[Jackson, Michigan]] | next3=[[Albion, Michigan]]}}
{{end box}}
==Notable persons==
* [[John Harvey Kellogg]], Battle Creek Sanitarium founder, inventor of [[corn flakes]]
* [[Will Keith Kellogg]], founder of [[Kellogg Company]], John Harvey's brother
* [[C. W. Post]], founder of [[Postum Cereal Company]]
* [[Sojourner Truth]], ex-slave and ardent abolitionist
* [[Rob Van Dam]], [[professional wrestler]] with [[WWE]] and [[ECW]]
* [[Jason Newsted]], former [[Metallica]] bassist
* [[Dick Martin]], co-host of the popular comedy-variety show [[Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In]] (1968-1973)
* [[Betty Hutton]], one of the most-original and most-colorful singers in twentieth century American pop music
* [[Marion Hutton]], best-known for her vocals with [[Glenn Miller]]'s orchestra
==External links==
*[http://www.battlecreek.org/ Official website]
{{Geolinks-US-cityscale|42.32|-85.18}}
{{Michigan}}
[[Category:Calhoun County, Michigan]]
[[Category:Cities in Michigan]]
[[de:Battle Creek (Michigan)]]
[[pt:Battle Creek (Michigan)]]
[[simple:Battle Creek (Michigan)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baghdad</title>
<id>4492</id>
<revision>
<id>42072856</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:09:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zsinj</username>
<id>597658</id>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/158.123.254.78|158.123.254.78]] to last version by Daanschr</comment>
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[[Image:Iraq_map.png|right|frame|Location of Baghdad within Iraq]]
'''Baghdad''' ({{lang-ar|بغداد}}, from [[Persian language|Persian]] بغداد , Baagh-daad meaning "given by God") is the [[capital]] of [[Iraq]] and of [[Baghdad (province)|Baghdad Province]]. It is the second-largest [[city]] in [[Southwest Asia|south-west Asia]] after [[Tehran]] and the second-largest city in the Arab world after [[Cairo]], with the 2003 population estimated at 5,772,000. Situated on the [[Tigris|Tigris River]] at {{coor dm|33|20|N|44|26|E|}}, the city was once the center of [[Dar al-Islam|Islamic civilization]].
==History==
The city of Baghdad is often said to have been founded on the west bank of the Tigris on [[30 July]] [[762]] by the [[Abbasid|Abbasid dynasty]], led by [[caliph]] [[al-Mansur]]; however, the city of Baghdad is mentioned in pre-Islamic texts, including the [[Talmud]]. Thus Baghdad was probably built on the site of this earlier [[Persian Empire|Persian]] city. This city replaced [[Ctesiphon]], the capital of the [[Persian Empire]] (which is located 20 miles southeast of Baghdad), and [[Damascus]], as the capital of an [[Umayyad]] [[Islam|Muslim]] empire stretching from [[North Africa]] to [[Iran|Persia]]. The origin of the city's name is most likely from the [[Persian language|Persian]] for "God-given" derived from "bagh" (God) and "dad" (given); so it most likely represented a very beautiful and pleasant city hence the words "given by God". A minority view believes it to be from an [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] phrase for "[[domestic sheep|sheep]] enclosure." The city was designed as a circle about 2 kilometers in diameter, leading it to be known as the "Round City". The original design ([http://islamicceramics.ashmol.ox.ac.uk/Abbasid/baghdad.htm http://islamicceramics.ashmol.ox.ac.uk/Abbasid/baghdad.htm]) shows a ring of residential and commercial structures along the inside of the city walls, but the final construction added another ring, inside the first. In the center of the city lay the mosque, as well as headquarters for guards. The purpose or use of the remaining space in the center is unknown.
The roundness points to the fact that it was based on Persian precedents such as [[Firouzabad]] in [[Iran|Persia]].<small>[[Baghdad#References|1]]</small> The two designers who were hired by [[al-Mansur]] to plan the city's design were [[Naubakht]], a former [[Persians|Persian]] Zoroastrian who also determined that the date of the foundation of the city would be astrologically auspicious, and [[Mashallah]], a former Jew from [[Khorasan]], [[Iran]].<small>[[Baghdad#References|2]]</small>
It is believed that Baghdad was the largest city in the world from 775 to 935. It could be the first city with a population above 1,000,000.[http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201a.htm]
===A Center of learning===
Within a generation of its founding, Baghdad became a hub of learning and [[commerce]]. Some sources suggest that it contained over a million inhabitants, though others say the actual figure may have been only a fraction of this. A large portion of the population of Baghdad originated from all over [[Iran]] especially from [[Khorasan]]. Many of the tales in [[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights]] are set in the Baghdad of this period&mdash;dubbed ''Madinat as-Salam'' ("City of Peace") by [[Shahrazad]]&mdash;and feature its most celebrated ruler, the fifth 'Abbasid caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]].
Baghdad was one of the largest and most cosmopolitan cities in the world, home to Muslims, [[Christianity|Christians]], [[Jew]]s and [[paganism|pagan]]s from across the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]].
===Early invaders===
The city's population was between 300,000 and 500,000 in the 9th century. Baghdad's early meteoric growth slowed due to troubles within the Caliphate, including relocations of the capital to [[Samarra]] (during 808&ndash;819 and 836&ndash;892), the loss of the western and easternmost provinces, and periods of political domination by the [[Iran]]ian [[Buwayhid]]s (945&ndash;1055) and [[Seljuk Turks]] (1055&ndash;1135). Nevertheless, the city remained one of the cultural and commercial hubs of the Islamic world until [[February 10]], [[1258]], when it was sacked by the [[Mongols]] under [[Hulagu Khan]]. The Mongols massacred 800,000 of the city's inhabitants, including the Abbasid Caliph [[Al-Musta'sim]], and destroyed large sections of the city. The [[canal]]s and [[dyke (construction)|dykes]] forming the city's [[irrigation]] system were also destroyed. The [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|sack of Baghdad]] put an end to the Abbasid Caliphate, a blow from which the [[Islamic]] civilization never fully recovered.
At this point Baghdad was ruled by the [[Il-Khanids]], the [[Mongol]] emperors of [[Iran]]. In 1401, Baghdad was again sacked by the Mongols, led by [[Timur]] ("Tamerlane"). It became a provincial capital controlled by the [[Jalayirid]] (1400&ndash;1411), [[Black Sheep Turkmen|Qara Quyunlu]] (1411&ndash;1469), [[White Sheep Turkmen|Aq Quyunlu]] (1469&ndash;1508), and [[Safavid]] (1508&ndash;1534) dynasties. In 1534, Baghdad was conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]]. Under the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], Baghdad fell into a period of decline, partially as a result of the enmity between its rulers and [[Iran|Persia]]. For a time, Baghdad had been the largest city in the [[Middle East]] before being overtaken by [[Constantinople]] in the 16th century. The [[Nuttall Encyclopedia]] reports the 1907 population of Baghdad as 185,000.
===Independence===
Baghdad remained under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule until the establishment of the kingdom of [[Iraq]] under [[United Kingdom|British]] control in 1921, followed by formal independence in 1932 and full independence in 1946. The city's population grew from an estimated 145,000 in 1900 to 580,000 in 1950 of which 140,000 were [[Jewish]]. During the 1970s Baghdad experienced |
to fear that a communist revolution was inevitable. Throughout Europe numerous [[aristocracy|aristocrats]] and [[conservative]] intellectuals as well as capitalists and industrialists lent their support to fascist movements in their countries which arose in emulation of Italian fascism while in Germany numerous right wing nationalist groups arose, particularly out of the post-war [[Freikorps]] which were used to crush both the Spartacist uprising and the Munich Soviet.
However, certain anti-communist authors have disputed the view of fascism as a reaction against socialist revolutionary movements and instead stressed what they believed to be essential similarities between communism and fascism in both theory and practice. The noted [[Austrian School]] [[economist]] [[Friedrich Hayek]], author of ''[[The Road to Serfdom]]'', argued that various modern [[totalitarian]] movements, including fascism and communism, have common philosophical roots, both springing from the opposition to the [[classical liberalism]] of the 19th century. Anti-communists arguing from these positions see it as far more than a coincidence that [[Benito Mussolini]] himself was an enthusiastic [[Marxist]] socialist and a prominent member of the Italian Socialist Party before the [[World War I]], while many philosophical founders of fascism, such as [[Sergio Panunzio]] and [[Giovanni Gentile]], came from a Marxist or [[syndicalist]] background.
With the worldwide [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s it seemed that liberalism and the liberal form of capitalism was doomed and communist and fascist movements swelled. These movements were bitterly opposed to each other and fought each other frequently. The most notable example of this conflict was the [[Spanish Civil War]], which became a [[proxy war]] between the fascist countries and their international supporters who backed [[Francisco Franco]] and the worldwide Communist movement (allied uneasily with [[anarchists]] and [[Trotskyists]]) who backed the [[Popular Front]] and were aided chiefly by the [[Soviet Union]].
Initially, the [[Soviet Union]] supported the idea of a coalition with the western powers against [[Nazi Germany]] as well as [[popular front]]s in various countries against domestic fascism. This policy was largely unsuccessful due to the distrust shown by the western powers (especially Britain) towards the Soviet Union. The [[Munich Agreement]] between Germany, France and Britain heightened Soviet fears that the western powers were endeavoring to force them to bear the brunt of a war against Nazism. The Soviets changed their policy and negotiated a non-aggression pact with Germany, known as the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] in 1939. The Soviets later argued that this was necessary to buy them time to prepare for an expected war with Germany. However, some critics question this claim, pointing out that along with a non-aggression clause, the pact also laid out extensive economic cooperation between the Soviets and Germans, in the form of the [[German-Soviet Commercial Agreement]], providing Nazi Germany some of the materials it needed to build its war machine. This detail is used by the aforementioned critics to argue that Stalin expected the war to be waged solely between Germany and the Western Allies, with the Soviet Union keeping its neutrality while its two greatest enemies fought each other.
Whatever the case, it is clear that Stalin did not expect the Germans to attack until 1942, so he was taken by surprise when Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, with [[Operation Barbarossa]]. Fascism and communism reverted to their relationship as lethal enemies - with the war, in the eyes of both sides, becoming one between their respective ideologies.
==Anti-communism in the United States and Cold War==
The first major manifestation of anti-communism in the [[United States]] occurred [[1919]]-[[1920]] in the [[Red Scare]] led by Attorney General [[Alexander Mitchell Palmer]].
Following [[World War II]] and the rise of the [[Soviet Union]] many of the objections to Communism took on an added urgency because of the stated Communist view that the ideology was universal. The fear of many anti-Communists within the United States was that Communism would triumph throughout the entire world and eventually be a direct threat to the government of the United States. This view led to the [[domino theory]] in which a communist takeover in any nation could not be tolerated because it would lead to a [[chain reaction]] which would result in a triumph of world communism. There were fears that powerful nations like the Soviet Union and the [[People's Republic of China]] were using their power to forcibly assimilate other countries into communist rule, in a new form of [[Imperialism]]. The Soviet Union's expansion into [[Central Europe]] after World War II was seen as evidence of this. These actions prompted many politicians to adopt a kind of [[pragmatism|pragmatic]] anti-Communism, opposing the ideology as a way of limiting the expansion of the [[Soviet Empire]]. The US policy of halting further communist expansion came to be known as [[containment]].
The United States government has usually motivated its anti-communism by citing the human rights record of some communist states, most notably the Soviet Union during the Stalin era, [[Maoism|Maoist]] China, the short-lived [[Khmer Rouge]] government in [[Cambodia]] led by [[Pol Pot]] and [[North Korea]], because those states ended up killing of millions of their own people and continued to suppress civil liberties of the surviving population.
Anti-communism became significantly muted after the fall of the Soviet Union and [[Eastern bloc]] communist regimes in Central Europe in 1991, and the fear of a worldwide Communist takeover is no longer a serious concern. Remnants of anti-communism remain, however, in United States foreign policy toward [[Cuba]], mainland [[China]], and [[North Korea]]. In the case of Cuba, the United States continues to maintain economic sanctions against the island in a policy which is sharply criticized outside of the United States, but which has substantial support in the US, particularly from the conservative wing of American politics.
Due to American trade interests in China, much of the United States foreign policy establishment does not regard China as communist in any meaningful sense. Nevertheless, there is some hostility toward China, particularly among conservative Congressional Republicans which can be regarded as remnants of anti-communism. For example, national security issues were raised during Chinese state-owned CNOOC Ltd.'s takeover bid for [[Unocal]], an American energy firm. North Korea remains staunchly [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] and economically [[Isolationism|isolationist]], and tensions between the country and the US have heightened as the result of reports that it is stockpiling [[nuclear weapon]]s and is generally willing to sell its nuclear and conventional weapons technology to any group that can pay their prices.
==Repression and Anti-Communism==
After the October Revolution, allied intervention troops tried to crush the revolution. In the summer of 1918, some 13,000 American soldiers, 44,000 British, 13,000 French, and 80,000 Japanese were fighting against the [[Red Army]]. In addition, these countries provided significant financial and material help to the [[White Movement]] (e.g., United States provided 500,000 [[United States dollar|US dollars]], 400,000 [[rifle]]s, etc.).
Communist political parties and organizations were actively opposed by conservative governments in [[Eastern Europe]] after the failed communist revolutions around 1920, in [[Nazi Germany]] and German-occupied Europe, in [[Japan]] during [[World War II]], in China by the [[Kuomintang]] in the 1920s and 1930s, in post-war [[Taiwan]] and [[South Korea]], in [[Latin America]] by various right-wing military regimes ([[Augusto Pinochet]] in [[Chile]], [[Dirty War]] in [[Argentina]], civil war in [[El Salvador]], etc), and in many other places and instances.
There was also some anti-communist [[political repression]] in the [[United States]], most notably in the [[Red Scare]] of the 1920s and the [[McCarthyism|McCarthyist]] era after [[World War II]].
Communists and communist sympathizers often emphasize the persecution of their political movement by "reactionary" forces, which they feel is being downplayed by capitalist governments. Anti-communists respond to this by pointing out that communist governments have often used similar methods to deal with their political enemies, including fellow communists (indeed, the repression of fellow communists is often brought up as an argument for the idea that such governments were not actually communistic). Regarding this issue, the opinions of communists are divided: some of them support the actions of those communist governments on the grounds that they were necessary in order to deal with dangerous terrorists and criminals, while other communists agree that such actions cannot be justified and put in question the self-proclaimed communist nature of the governments willing to carry them out.
Little is known about anti-communist massacres after World War II, not least because of the efforts by the anti-communist regimes to cover up such events. Such a massacre happened on the island of Jeju (South Korea) in April 1948. The estimates of the number of victims range from 30,000 to 140,000. Another example is the [[228 Incident]] in [[Taiwan]] in [[1947]], which until recently was considered a taboo subject even in private (although not many communists were involved).
During the Cold War many authoritarian regimes, often supported by the US, used the fear of communism as a means of legitimizing repression or as an excuse to persecute its opponents. [[Augusto Pinochet]]'s [[Chile]], for example, is often cited by critics as an example of this, although others ar |
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