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dEd%252fOp%252dEd%252fColumnists%252fNicholas%2520D%2520Kristof]. Popular author [[Michael Crichton]] states in his novel ''[[State of Fear]]'':
<blockquote>Since the ban, two million people a year have died unnecessarily from malaria, mostly children. The ban has caused more than fifty million needless deaths. Banning DDT killed more people than Hitler. (page 487) </blockquote>
One of the salient pro-DDT arguments is that the treatment was used long enough to eliminate insect-borne diseases in the West but now that it is only needed in poorer countries in Africa, Asia and elsewhere it has been banned. Paul Driessen, author of ''Eco-Imperialism: Green Power, Black Death'', argues that the epidemic of malaria in Africa not only takes the lives of 2 million people a year, but leaves those who survive malaria unable to contribute to the economy while sick and more vulnerable to subsequent diseases that might kill them. Many African resources are tied up with the sick or in caring for them, leaving the world's poorest countries even poorer. While raising important questions about how the West deals with health crises in the Third World, the core of the argument made by Driessen and others is questioned.
Although the publication of ''Silent Spring'' undoubtedly influenced the U.S. ban on DDT in 1972, the reduced usage of DDT in malaria eradication began the decade before because of the emergence of DDT-resistant mosquitos. Indeed Paul Russell, a former head of the Allied Anti-Malaria campaign observed that eradication programs had to be wary relying on DDT for too long as "resistance has appeared [after] six or seven years." [Garret, 1994]
Furthermore, the application of DDT that proved most troubling to environmentalists (and indeed, health officials) was in agriculture. Even as anti-malaria programs were reducing their usage of DDT, producers of cotton and other cash crops were spraying ever increasing amounts of the pesticide, further limiting DDT's overall effectiveness. As noted above, El Salvador actually saw its cases of malaria increase during years of high DDT usage, directly contradicting the claims of Crichton and others. [Chapin & Wasserstrom, 1981]
Were DDT used in the way its supporters propose it may do more harm than good in the fight against malaria. While anti-environmentalists like to paint a picture of radicals endangering human life to save a few birds, even Carson herself pointed out in "Silent Spring" that :
<blockquote>"No responsible person contends that insect-borne disease should be ignored ... The question that has now urgently presented itself is whether it is wise or responsible to attack the problem by methods that are rapidly making it worse."</blockquote>
Indeed, the problems facing health officials in their fight against malaria neither begin nor end with DDT. Experts tie the spread of malaria to numerous factors including the resistance of the malaria microbe itself to the drugs traditionally used to treat the illness [http://info-pollution.com/ddtban.htm] and a chronic lack of funds in the worst hit countries. The latter was perhaps made worse when the U.S. withdrew funding from an early and effective eradication program in 1963 [Garret, 1994].
The general thesis of DDT supporters is that the alternatives to DDT are generally more expensive, more toxic to humans and not always as effective at controlling malaria and insect-borne diseases. However, the primary worry of many experts is not the usage of DDT per se, but a potential overuse (however difficult this is to define with exactitude).
The controlled usage of DDT continues to this day for the purposes of public health and, to a lesser extent, agriculture. The U.S. has continued to use DDT under the conditions of the 1972 ban.
== External links ==
=== Toxicity ===
*[http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts35.html Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry: ToxFAQs for DDT, DDE and DDD]
*[http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp35-c9.pdf CDC ATSDR DDT toxicity reference list (PDF)]
*[http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/ddt.htm EXTOXNET: Pesticide Information Profiles&mdash;DDT]
*[http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/reflist6.htm Oregon State University EXTOXNET DDT toxicity reference list]
*[http://www.scorecard.org/chemical-profiles/summary.tcl?edf_substance_id=50-29-3 Scorecard: The Pollution Information Site&mdash;DDT]
=== Environmental impact ===
*[http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/doetqp/courses/env440/lectures/lec25/lec25.html Microbial Degradation of Pesticides]
*[http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc83.htm DDT and its Derivatives - Environmental Aspects]
*[http://umbbd.ahc.umn.edu/ddt/ddt_map.html Aerobic pathway of DDT metabolization]
*[http://umbbd.ahc.umn.edu/ddt2/ddt2_map.html Anaerobic pathway of DDT metabolization]
*[http://www.inchem.org/documents/jmpr/jmpmono/v00pr03.htm Pesticide residues in food 2000 : DDT]
*[http://www.inchem.org/documents/jmpr/jmpmono/v84pr49.htm Pesticide residues in food&mdash;1984]
*[http://www.ces.clemson.edu/ees/lee/organochlorines.html Environmental Fate Evaluation of DDT, Chlordane and Lindane]
*[http://www.reason.com/rb/rb010704.shtml DDT, Eggshells, and Me]
*[http://www.epa.gov/history/publications/formative6.htm EPA : Pesticides and Public Health]
=== Malaria and DDT ===
*[http://www.3billionandcounting.com Site claiming 3 billion (sic) deaths due to DDT ban]
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/04/AR2005060400130.html If Malaria's the Problem, DDT's Not the Only Answer], a [[Washington Post]] column by [[entomologist]] May Berenbaum
*[http://www.gladwell.com/2001/2001_07_02_a_ddt.htm The Mosquito Killer], a ''[[The New Yorker|New Yorker]]'' article about [[Fred Soper]] by [[Malcolm Gladwell]]
*[http://info-pollution.com/ddtban.htm The DDT ban myth]
*[http://www.iea.org.uk/files/upld-publication26pdf?.pdf Malaria and the DDT Story]
*[http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Malaria_and_DDT Malaria and DDT]
*[http://kenethmiles.blogspot.com/2004_02_01_kenethmiles_archive.html#107570569615970184 Putting Myths to Bed]
*The [http://www.fightingmalaria.org/news.php?ID=575 Kill Malarial Mosquitoes NOW!] coalition, a project of the international [[NGO]] [[Africa Fighting Malaria]]
==References==
* [http://www.fightingmalaria.org/faq.php#g2 Africa fighting malaria FAQ] Retrieved Feb. 16, 2005.
* Bailey, R. ([[12 June]] [[2002]]). [http://reason.com/rb/rb061202.shtml ''Silent Spring'' at 40: Rachel Carson&#8217;s classic is not aging well] ''Reason Online'',
* Bate, R. ([[24 April]] [[2001]]). [http://www.spiked-online.com/Articles/000000005591.htm Without DDT, malaria bites back] ''spiked-online.com''
* [http://www.eubusiness.com/Trade/050202110354.lpm3ezfm/view?searchterm=ddt%20uganda EU warns Uganda over plans to use DDT to fight malaria] ([[2 February]] [[2005]]) EUbusiness.com
* Chapin, G. & Robert W. (1981) [http://timlambert.org/2005/10/chapin/ Agricultural production and malaria resurgence in Central America and India], ''Nature'', '''293''', 181-185.
* [http://www.jcu.edu.au/jrtph/vol/v04corin.pdf Corin, S. E & Weaver, S.A. (2005) A risk analysis model with an ecological perspective on DDT and malaria control in South Africa, ''Journal of Rural and Tropical Public Health'' '''4''': 21-32]
* Garrett, L. (1994) The Coming Plague: Newly Emerging Diseases in a World Out of Balance, Penguin Books, UK.
* Lirri, E. & Ntabadde, A. ([[15 February]] [[2005]]) [http://allafrica.com/stories/200502150787.html Experts Defend DDT Use] ''Allafrica.com''
* Lundholm, C. E. (1997) DDE-induced eggshell thinning in birds: Effects of p, p′-DDE on the calcium and prostaglandin metabolism of the eggshell gland. ''Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Pharmacology, Toxicology and Endocrinology'' '''118''' (2), 113-128.
* Milloy, S. J. (1999) [http://www.junkscience.com/ddtfaq.htm 100 things you should know about DDT.] Retrieved Feb. 16, 2005.
* Risebrough, R. W. (1998). [http://www.umich.edu/~esupdate/library/98.05-06/risebrough.html Endocrine Disrupters and Bald Eagles: A Response].
* Roberts, D. R. (2004) [http://www.eco-imperialism.com/Roberts%20-%20Senate%20testimony%20-%20malaria.pdf Testimony, United States Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations].
* Tren, R. & Bate, R. (2004) [http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa-513es.html South Africa's War against Malaria: Lessons for the Developing World], ''Cato Policy Analysis'' No. 513.
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<page>
<title>Data set</title>
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<comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[statistics]], a '''data set''' is a [[set]] of [[data]] consisting of:
#a list of [[research subject|research subjects]] and
#the [[data vector]] associated with each.
See also: [[Statistical theory]]
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Another meaning: [[Data set (IBM mainframe)]]
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<title>DMA</title>
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<comment>robot Adding: |
. Parker and the Vicious Circle]]</cite>, in which she was played by [[Jennifer Jason Leigh]].
Dorothy Parker's image appeared on a 29¢ U.S. commemorative postage stamp in the Literary Arts series issued August 22, 1992.
The Oxford English Dictionary attributes the following to Parker: wisecrack, one-night stand.
==Publications==
* Enough Rope (1926)
* Sunset Gun (1927)
* Close Harmony (1929) (play)
* Laments for the Living (1930)
* Death and Taxes (1931)
* After Such Pleasures (1933)
* Collected Poems: Not So Deep As A Well (1936)
* Here Lies (1939)
* The Portable Dorothy Parker (1944)
* The Ladies of the Corridor (1953) (play)
* Constant Reader (1970)
* A Month of Saturdays (1971)
* Not Much Fun: The Lost Poems of Dorothy Parker (1996)
==Sources==
* John Keats, ''You Might As Well Live: The Life and Times of Dorothy Parker'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1970).
* Marion Meade, ''Dorothy Parker: What Fresh Hell is This?'' (New York: Villard, 1988).
* Kevin C. Fitzpatrick, ''A Journey into Dorothy Parker's New York'' (Berkeley, CA: Roaring Forties Press, 2005).
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{gutenberg author|id=Dorothy_Parker|name=Dorothy Parker}}
*[http://www.nndb.com/people/512/000045377/ Entry in NNDB]
*[http://www.dorothyparker.com The Dorothy Parker Society] photos of Parker's homes, haunts
*[http://www.dorothyparker.com/walk.html Algonquin Round Table Walking Tours]
*[http://www.cs.rice.edu/~ssiyer/minstrels/index_poet_P.html#Parker Minstrels Archive] section on Parker's works
*[http://rpo.library.utoronto.ca/poet/248.html Selected Poems by Dorothy Parker]
*[http://www.randomhouse.com/boldtype/ohenry/0900/winners1919.html The O. Henry Award winners]
*[http://www.americanpoems.com/poets/parker Poems by Dorothy Parker]
[[Category:1893 births|Parker, Dorothy]]
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<title>Donne, John</title>
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<page>
<title>Dylan Thomas</title>
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<comment>/* Life */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dylan Marlais Thomas''', ([[October 27]] [[1914]] &ndash; [[November 9]] [[1953]]) was a [[Wales|Welsh]] [[poet]] and [[writer]].
Thomas will be played by Welsh actor [[Michael Sheen]] in the upcoming film biopic ''Caitlin'', charting the troubled relationship between the poet and his wife Caitlin (to be played by [[Miranda Richardson]]).
==Life==
[[Image:Dylan thomas birthplace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|5 Cwmdonkin Drive, Swansea: the birthplace of Dylan Thomas]]
Dylan Thomas was born in the coastal town of [[Swansea]], [[Wales]]. His father David, who was a writer and possessed a degree in English, brought his son up to speak [[English language|English]] rather than Thomas's mother's native [[Welsh language|Welsh]]. He attended the boys-only Swansea Grammar School, (later known as Bishop Gore Grammar School, now reincarnated as Bishop Gore Comprehensive School), at which his father taught English Literature. It was in the school's magazine that the young Dylan saw his first poem published. Dylan Thomas's middle name, "Marlais", came from the [[bardic name]] of his uncle, the [[Unitarian]] minister, Gwilym Marles (whose real name was William Thomas). Thomas's childhood was spent largely in Swansea, with regular summer trips to visit his mother's family on their [[Carmarthen]] farm. These rural sojourns, and their contrast with the town life of Swansea, would inform much of his work, notably many short stories and radio essays and the poem "[[Dylan Thomas/Fern Hill|Fern Hill]]".
In [[1937]], Thomas married [[Caitlin Macnamara]] (1913-1994), and would have three children with her, throughout the relationship, littered with affairs. January of 1939 saw the birth of their first child, a boy whom they named '''Llewelyn''' (died in 2000). He was followed in March of [[1943]] by a daughter, [[Aeronwy Thomas|Aeronwy]]. A second son and third child, '''Colm Garan''', was born in July, 1949.
Thomas wrote half his poems and many short stories when he lived at 5 Cwmdonkin Drive&mdash;"[[And death shall have no dominion]]" is one of the best known works written at this address. By the time he left the family home in [[1934]] he was one of the most exciting young poets writing in the English language. He collapsed on November 4, 1953 at the [[White Horse Tavern]] after drinking heavily while in [[New York City]] on a promotional tour; Thomas later died at St. Vincent's hospital, aged 39.
The primary cause of his death is recorded as [[pneumonia]], with pressure on the [[brain]] and a fatty [[liver]] given as contributing factors. His penultimate words were: "I've had 18 straight whiskeys, I think this is a record." His final words were to [[Liz Reitell]], to whom he said "I love you, but I am alone". Following his death, his body was brought back to Wales for burial in the village churchyard at [[Laugharne, Wales|Laugharne]], where he had enjoyed his happiest days. In [[1994]], his widow, Caitlin, was buried alongside him. Their former home, the [[Boat House, Laugharne]], is now a memorial to Thomas.
==Career and Influence==
Dylan Thomas is widely considered one of the greatest [[20th century]] poets writing in English, frequently mentioned alongside [[Robert Frost|Frost]], [[William Butler Yeats|Yeats]], and [[T. S. Eliot]] in lists of the century's most important poets. He remains the leading figure in [[Anglo-Welsh literature]]. His vivid and often fantastic imagery was a rejection of the trends in 20th Century verse: while his contemporaries gradually altered their writing to serious topical verse (political and social concerns were often expressed), Thomas gave himself over to his passionately felt emotions, and his writing is often both intensely personal and fiercely lyrical. Thomas, in many ways, was more in alignment with the [[Romanticism|Romantics]] than he was with the poets of his era ([[W. H. Auden|Auden]] and Eliot, to name but two). Thomas' short stories are poetry exploded. Most notably is a semi-autobiographical selection published in 1940 entitled, 'Portrait of an Artist as a Young Dog', in which he explores his youth.
Thomas's circle, sometimes known as the "Kardomah Boys" after the coffee shop where they often met, included the composer and old school friend, [[Daniel Jones (composer)|Daniel Jones]], the poet [[Vernon Watkins]], and the artists [[Alfred Janes]] and [[Mervyn Levy]].
He is particularly remembered for the remarkable radio-play ''[[Under Milk Wood]]'', for his poem "[[Do not go gentle into that good night]]," which is generally interpreted as a plea to his dying father to hold onto life, and for the short stories "[[A Child's Christmas in Wales]]." and "[[The Outing]]". There are many memorials to Thomas in his home town of [[Swansea]], including a statue in the maritime quarter, the Dylan Thomas Theatre, and the [[Dylan Thomas Centre]]. The latter building, formerly the Guildhall, was opened by ex-[[President of the United States|President]] of the [[United States]] [[Jimmy Carter]], one of Thomas's most famous fans, following its conversion. It is now a literature centre, where exhibitions and lectures are held, and is the setting for the city's annual Dylan Thomas Festival.
Another monument to Thomas stands in Cwmdonkin Park, close to his birthplace at 5 Cwmdonkin Drive; this was one of his favourite childhood haunts. The memorial is inscribed with lines from one of his best-loved poems, "[[Fern Hill]]." Several of the pubs in Swansea also have associations with the poet. One of Swansea's oldest pubs, the ''No Sign Bar'', was a regular haunt, renamed the Wine Vaults in his story ''The Followers''.
It has been suggested that [[Bob Dylan]], who was born Robert Allen Zimmerman, changed his name in tribute to Dylan Thomas. Bob Dylan has often denied this, responding in a 1966 interview, "Get that straight, I didn’t change my name in honor of Dylan Thomas. That’s just a story. I’ve done more for Dylan Thomas than he’s ever done for me." In [[1965]] he claimed that he took the name from an uncle named Dillon, adding, "I've read some of Dylan Thomas' stuff, and it's not the same as mine." In his [[2004]] biography, ''Chronicles Vol.1'', however, Dylan admits that Dylan Thomas was relevant to his choice of alias (although he still acknowledges no influence or tribute, saying only that "Dylan" sounds like "Allen," his middle name and original choice for a surname de plume). Dylan is also billed as Robert Milkwood Thomas on [[Steve Goodman]]'s "Somebody Elses Troubles" where he plays piano and harmonises on the eponymous track.
==Quotes==
* "Do not go gentle into that good night / rage, rage against the dying of the light"
* "Though lo |
]]'' (1999) and ''Bird People of China'' (1998).
[[Kiyoshi Kurosawa]] and [[Hirokazu Koreeda]] both launch acclaimed careers.
===2000 and after===
[[Hayao Miyazaki]] comes out of retirement to direct ''[[Spirited Away]]'' (''Sen to Chihiro no Kamikakushi''; 2001), breaking Japanese box office records and winning the U.S. [[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature]]. In [[2002]], ''[[Dolls (movie)|Dolls]]'' is released, followed by a high-budget remake, ''[[Zatoichi]]'' in 2003, both directed and written by [[Takeshi Kitano]]. The [[horror film|horror]] films ''[[Ring (film)|Ringu]]'' and ''[[Ju-on: The Grudge]]'' are remade in English and met with commercial success. In 2005, director [[Seijun Suzuki]] made his 56th film, ''[[Princess Raccoon]]''. [[Hirokazu Koreeda]] proclaims film festival awards around the world with two of his films ''[[Distance (film)|Distance]]'' and ''[[Nobody Knows]]''.
==References==
* {{cite book
| last = Richie | first = Donald
| year = 2005
| title = A Hundred Years of Japanese Film: A Concise History, with a Selective Guide to DVDs and Videos
| publisher = Kodansha America
| id = ISBN 4770029950
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Bowyer | first = Justin
| year = 2004
| title = 24 Frames: The Cinema of Japan and Korea
| publisher = Wallflower Press, London
| id = ISBN 1904764118
}}
==External links==
* [http://www.jmdb.ne.jp/ Japanese Movie Database (in Japanese)]
* [http://www.lisashea.com/japan/movies/mov_main.html Lisa's Japanese Movie Listing]
* [http://www.midnighteye.com/ Midnight Eye]
* [http://www.cinemasie.com/ Cinemasie]
* [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/eac/japan/RefSourceJpnCinema.htm Resources for the study of Japanese Cinema at the University of Iowa Library]
* [http://www.quad4x.net/yojinbo/ Colin's Master's of Cinema Page]
* [http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/japan-60-1.jsp Japanese Cinema to 1960] by Gregg Rickman
*[http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/discussionpapers/2005/Iles2.html The Problem of Identity in Contemporary Japanese Horror Films], discussion paper by Timothy Iles in the [http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/ ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies''], [[6 October]] [[2005]].
*[http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/discussionpapers/2005/Iles.html Female Voices, Male Words: Problems of Communication, Identity and Gendered Social Construction in Contemporary Japanese Cinema], discussion paper by Timothy Iles in the [http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/ ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies''], [[31 January]] [[2003]].
*[http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/contents/filmreviews.html Reviews of Japanese Films], in the [http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/ ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies''].
* [http://cinema.3yen.com/ Cinema.3Yen] - Daily news and info on Cinema from Japan.
==See also==
*[[Anime]]
*[[Eastern cinema]]
*[[wiktionary:Glossary:Japanese film credit terms|Glossary:Japanese film credit terms]]
*[[History of cinema]]
*[[Japanese Academy Awards]]
*[[Japanese television programs]]
*[[List of Japanese Actors]]
*[[List of Japanese Actresses]]
*[[List of Japanese Directors]]
*[[List of Japanese language films]]
*[[List of Japanese movie studios]]
*[[Seiyu|Seiy&#363;]]
*[[Tendency film]]
*[[Tokusatsu]]
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<comment>/* Further Readings */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{EasternCinema}}The history of [[Chinese_language|Chinese-language]] [[film|cinema]] has three separate threads of development: [[Cinema of Hong Kong]], [[Cinema of China]], and [[Cinema of Taiwan]]. The cinema of [[Mainland China]] after [[1949]] has grown up somewhat suppressed by the [[Chinese Communist Party|Communist]] regime until recent times, although certain films with political overtones are still routinely censored or banned in China itself. Most of these films though are allowed to be shown abroad in commercially distributed [[theater]]s or in [[film festival]]s.
==The Beginnings: Shanghai as the Center==
Motion pictures were introduced to [[China]] in [[1896]]. The first recorded screening of a motion picture in China occurred in [[Shanghai]] on [[August 11]], [[1896]], as an "act" on a variety bill. The first Chinese film, a recording of the [[Beijing Opera]], ''The Battle of Dingjunshan'', was made in November [[1905]]. For the next decade the production companies were mainly foreign-owned, and the domestic [[film]] industry did not start in earnest until [[1916]], centering around Shanghai, a thriving entrepot center and the largest city in the Far East then.
During the 1920s film technicians from the [[United States]] trained Chinese technicians in Shanghai, and American influence continued to be felt there for the next two decades. The first truly important Chinese films were produced starting from the 1930s, when the "progressive" or "left-wing" films were made, like Cheng Bugao's ''Spring Silkworms'' (1933), Sun Yu's ''The Big Road'' (1935), and Wu Yonggang's ''The Goddess'' (1934). During this time the [[Kuomintang|Nationalists]] and the [[Chinese_Communist_Party|Communists]] struggled for power and control over the major studios, and their influence can be seen in the ensuing films produced. The post-1930 era is called the first "golden period" of Chinese cinema, where several talented directors, mainly leftist, worked. The period also produced the first big Chinese movie stars, namely [[Hu Die]], [[Ruan Lingyu]], [[Zhou Xuan]], and [[Jin Yan]]. Other major films of the period include ''Song of the Fishermen'' (1934)'', Crossroads'' (1937), and ''Street Angel'' (1937).
The [[Second Sino-Japanese War|Japanese invasion of China]], in particular their occupation of Shanghai, ended this golden run in Chinese cinema. All production companies except Xinhua closed shop, and many of the filmmakers fled Shanghai, relocating in Hong Kong, Communist- and Nationalist-controlled regions, and elsewhere.
==The Second Golden Age: the late 1940s, and the Communist Era==
The film industry continued to develop after [[1945]]. A major Chinese production house, the Lianhua Film Company, re-established itself in Shanghai after the war and once again became the basis for leftist directors. Many showed the disillusionment with the oppressive rule of [[Chiang Kai-shek]]'s Nationalist Party. ''Myriads of Lights'' (1948), ''Crows and Sparrows'' (1949), ''San Mao'' (1949), and, most importantly, ''The Spring River Flows East'' (1947) are the classics produced during this period. ''The Spring River Flows East'', a three-hour-long two-parter which depicts the struggles of ordinary Chinese folks during the Sino-Japanese war, was immensely popular during its time, making social and political references to the period. The Wenhua Film Company, one of the two important production companies formed by left-leaning film-makers in the city (the other one being Lianhua), also contributed some of the masterpieces of this era. ''Springtime in a Small Town'' or ''Spring in a Small Town'' (1948), a film made by Shanghainese director [[Fei Mu]] prior to the revolution, is often regarded by Chinese film critics as the greatest Chinese film of all time, as well as being one of the most influential (an acclaimed 2002 remake by one of the Fifth Generation Chinese film maker Tian Zhuangzhuang can also be seen).
With the Communist takeover in [[1949]], the government saw motion pictures as an important mass production art form and [[propaganda]]. The number of movie-viewers increased sharply, from 47 million in [[1949]] to 415 million in [[1959]]. In the 17 years between the founding of the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[Cultural Revolution]], 603 feature films and 8,342 reels of documentaries and [[newsreel]]s were produced, sponsored as [[Communist Party of China|Communist]] [[propaganda]] by the government. Chinese filmmakers were sent to [[Moscow]] to study Soviet filmmaking. In [[1956]], the Beijing Film Academy was opened. The first wide-screen Chinese film was produced in 1960. [[Animations|Animated_films]] using a variety of folk arts, such as papercuts, shadow plays, puppetry, and traditional paintings, also were very popular for entertaining and educating children. The thawing of censorship in 1956-7 and the early 1960s led to more indigeneous Chinese films being made which were less reliant on their Soviet counterparts. The most prominent filmmaker of this era is [[Xie Jin]], whose two films in particular, ''The Red Detachment of Women'' (1961) and ''Two Stage Sisters'' (1965), exemplify the growing expertise China has in the craft of motion pictures.
==The Cultural Revolution and its Aftermath==
During the [[Cultural Revolution]], the film industry was severely restricted. Almost all previous films were banned, and only a few new ones were produced, the most notable being a ballet version of the revolutionary opera ''The Red Detachment of Women''. Feature film production came almost to a standstill in the early years from 1966 to 1972.
In the years immediately following the Cultural Revolution, the film industry again flourished as a medium of popular entertainment. Domestically produced films played to large audiences, and tickets for foreign [[film festival]]s sold quickly. The industry tried to revive crowds by making more innovative and "exploratory" films which take in ideas from the West.
In the [[1980s]] the film industry fell on hard times, faced with t |
is indicated in the fossil record.<ref>Evaluation of the Rate of Evolution in Natural Populations of Guppies (Poecilia reticulata) "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9072971&query_hl=2]"</ref>
Information about the early development of life includes input from the fields of geology and [[planetary science]]. These sciences provide information about the history of the Earth and the changes produced by life. A great deal of information about the early Earth has been destroyed by geological processes over the course of time.
<br style="clear:both;">
====History of life====
<!-- for future reference, heh, here's a ref to stromatolite debate that I took out because it messed up formatting -
"Ancient microfossils from Western Australia are again the subject of heated scientific argument: are they the oldest sign of life on Earth, or just a flaw in the rock?" "[http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/space/SpaceRepublish_497964.htm]" -->
{{main|Timeline of evolution}}
The [[chemical evolution]] from [[Catalyst|self-catalytic chemicals]] to [[life]] (see [[Origin of life]]) is not a part of biological evolution.
[[Image:Stromatolites.jpg|right|thumb|280px|[[Precambrian]] [[stromatolite]]s in the Siyeh Formation, [[Glacier National Park (US)|Glacier National Park]]. In 2002, William Schopf of [[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]] published a controversial paper in the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' arguing that formations such as this possess 3.5 billion year old [[fossil]]ized [[alga]]e microbes. If true, they would be the earliest known life on earth.]]
Not much is known about the earliest developments in life. However, all existing organisms share certain traits, including cellular structure, and [[genetic code]]. Most scientists interpret this to mean all existing organisms share a common ancestor, which had already developed the most fundamental cellular processes, but there is no [[scientific consensus]] on the relationship of the three domains of life ([[Archaea]], [[Bacterium|Bacteria]], [[Eukaryota]]) or the [[origin of life]]. Attempts to shed light on the earliest history of life generally focus on the behavior of [[macromolecule]]s, particularly [[RNA]], and the behavior of [[complex system]]s.
The emergence of oxygenic [[photosynthesis]] (around 3 billion years ago) and the subsequent emergence of an oxygen-rich, non-reducing atmosphere can be traced through the formation of [[Banded iron formation|banded iron]] deposits, and later [[red bed]]s of iron oxides. This was a necessary prerequisite for the development of [[aerobic respiration|aerobic]] [[cellular respiration]], believed to have emerged around 2 billion years ago.
In the last billion years, simple multicellular plants and animals began to appear in the oceans. Soon after the emergence of the first animals, the [[Cambrian explosion]] (a period of unrivaled and remarkable, but brief, organismal diversity documented in the fossils found at the [[Burgess Shale]]) saw the creation of all the major body plans, or [[phylum (biology)|phyla]], of modern animals. This event is now believed to have been triggered by the development of the [[Homeobox|Hox genes]]. About 500 million years ago, [[plant]]s and [[fungi]] colonized the land, and were soon followed by [[arthropod]]s and other animals, leading to the development of land [[ecosystem]]s with which we are familiar.
{{-}}
=== Misconceptions about modern evolutionary biology ===
Many critics of evolution claim that the theory robs life and the universe of any transcendental meaning. Indeed, one of the great strengths of evolution by natural selection is that it has no need for a supernatural intelligence or any intelligent design. As [[Louis Menand]] has pointed out, what was radical about Darwin's theory of speciation through natural selection was not the notion of evolution &mdash; a concept people espoused before Darwin, and a word that does not appear in ''The Origin of Species'' &mdash; but his materialism: "Darwin wanted to establish ... that the species &mdash; including human beings &mdash; were created by, and evolve according to, processes that are entirely natural, chance-generated, and blind" (Menand 2001: 121).
Nevertheless, many critiques of the modern evolutionary thought involve misunderstandings of the theory itself, or of science in general.
====Evolution and devolution====
One of the most common misunderstandings of the theory is that one species can be "more highly evolved" than another, that evolution is necessarily progressive, or that its converse is "[[devolution (fallacy)|devolution]]". Evolution provides no assurance that later generations are more intelligent, complex, or morally worthy than earlier generations. The claim that evolution results in moral progress is not part of modern evolutionary theory - it was made by [[Social Darwinism|Social Darwinists]] who thought the subjugation of the poor and minority groups was favored by evolution.
Evolution does involve "progression," however, one one interpretation of that term since the earliest lifeforms were much simpler than many of the species existing today. In that sense, there clearly has been a gradual progression over time from simple organisms to complex - and in some cases intelligent - lifeforms. However, the theory provides no guarantee that any particular organism existing today will become more intelligent, more complex, bigger, or stronger in the future. In fact, evolution can favor lower intelligence, lower complexity, and so on if those traits become a selective disadvantage in the organism's environment. Moreover,
====Speciation====
Another misunderstanding is the claim that [[Speciation|speciation]] &ndash; the origin of new species &ndash; has never been directly observed. This is a misunderstanding of both science and evolution. First, scientific discovery does not occur solely through [[Reproducibility|reproducible]] [[Experiment|experiments]]; the principle of [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]] allows natural scientists to infer causes through their empirical effects. Second, Darwin provided a compellingly large amount of evidence to support his theory. Moreover, since the publication of ''On the Origin of Species'' scientists have confirmed Darwin's hypothesis by data gathered from sources that did not exist in his day, such as [[DNA]] similarity among species and new [[Fossil record|fossil]] discoveries.
[[Image:Darwin's finches.jpeg|thumb|left|125px|The existence of several different, but related, finches on the [[Galapagos Islands]] convinced Darwin of the occurrence of speciation]]
A variation of this assertion is that "microevolution" has been observed and "macroevolution" has not been observed. Some creationists redefine [[macroevolution]] as a change from one "kind" to another. One of Darwin's key insights was to view species statistically &mdash; that is, a "species" is not a homogeneous and immutable thing; rather, it consists of a mass of individuals that vary in form from one another and from their offspring. This view was substantiated with the development of Mendelian genetics, which distinguishes different species in terms of differences in the frequencies of particular genes. "Microevolution" and "macroevolution" both refer fundamentally to the same thing, changes in gene frequencies. The difference between them is primarily one of scale; that is, qualitative differences between species is the result of quantitative differences in gene frequencies. Commonly, macroevolution is defined as microevolution over a longer timescale. Some scientists, such as Stephen Jay Gould, use the term macroevolution to instead describe evolutionary processes that occur at the level of species or above.
Evidence of the mechanisms for the larger scales of time comes from evidence of the mechanisms for the smaller scales of time. The differences between macroevolution and microevolution are a result of this change of scale and do not necessitate mechanisms of change other than those already found in microevolution.
<br style="clear:both;">
====Entropy====
Another misconception is the claim that evolution violates the [[second law of thermodynamics]]. The second law holds that in a [[closed system]], [[entropy]] will tend to increase or stay the same. The misconception is that entropy means "disorder" and evolution means an increase in order (thus, a ''decrease'' in entropy). This is a misunderstanding of both entropy and evolution. "Entropy" does not mean "disorder" in a generic way (any set of objects may be ordered in any number of ways; disorder from one perspective may be order from another). Secondly, entropy refers specifically to differences in useable energy; an example of which is temperature differences. (See [[entropy]] for a more precise discussion.)
What ''appears'' to be a violation of the second law is not evolution (meaning, the development of new species of life) but rather life itself. But the existence of life does not violate the second law of thermodynamics for two reasons. First, the second law of thermodynamics applies only to a closed system. Earth is not a closed system because it receives an energy input from the sun. However much life may proliferate on earth, the energy of the sun does dissipate over time.
Second, as James Clerk Maxwell argued, the second law is not deterministic, it is probabilistic (see [[Statistical mechanics]]). For example, molecules within a container move at different velocities; the temperature of the contents is an average. The more time passes, the greater the probability that differ |
s not affected by [[Earth's atmosphere|air]] and most [[reagent]]s. Heat, moisture, [[oxygen]], and most [[corrosion|corrosive]] agents have very little chemical effect on gold, making it well-suited for use in [[coin]]s and [[jewelry]]; conversely, [[halogen]]s will chemically alter gold, and [[aqua regia]] dissolves it.
Common [[oxidation state]]s of gold include +1 (gold(I) or aurous compounds) and +3 (gold(III) or auric compounds). Gold ions in solution are readily [[reduction (chemistry)|reduced]] and [[Precipitation (chemistry)|precipitated]] out as gold metal by the addition of virtually any other metal as the reducing agent. The added metal is [[oxidation|oxidized]] and dissolves allowing the gold to be displaced from solution and be recovered as a solid precipitate.
Recent research undertaken by Frank Reith of the Australian National University shows that microbes play an important role in the formation of gold deposits, transporting and precipitating gold to form grains and nuggets that collect in alluvial deposits.
[http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/enviro/EnviroRepublish_1032376.htm]
==Applications==
Pure gold is too soft for ordinary use and is hardened by [[alloy]]ing with silver, copper, and other metals. Gold and its many alloys are most often used in [[jewelry]], [[Coin|coinage]] and as a standard for [[money|monetary]] exchange in many countries. Because of its high electrical conductivity and resistance to corrosion and other desirable combinations of physical and chemical properties, gold also emerged in the late [[20th century]] as an essential industrial metal.
*Gold can be made into [[gold thread|thread]] and used in [[embroidery]].
*Gold performs critical functions in [[computer]]s, communications equipment, [[spacecraft]], [[jet aircraft]] engines, and a host of other products.
*The resistance to oxidation of gold has led to its widespread use as thin layers [[Electroplating|electroplated]] on the surface of electrical connectors to ensure a good connection.
*Gold is used in restorative dentistry especially in tooth restorations such as [[crown (dentistry)|crowns]] and [[bridges]].
*[[Colloidal gold]] (a gold [[nanoparticle]]) is an intensely [[color]]ed solution that is currently studied in many labs for medical, biological and other applications. It is also the form used as gold paint on [[ceramic]]s prior to firing.
*[[Chlorauric acid]] is used in [[photography]] for toning the silver image.
*[[Gold(III) chloride]] is used as a [[catalyst]] in [[organic chemistry]]. It is also the usual starting point for making other gold [[Inorganic compound|compounds]].
* Gold is used as a coating enabling biological material to be viewed under a [[scanning electron microscope]].
* Many competitions and honors, such as the [[Olympics]] and the [[Nobel Prize]], award a gold [[medal]] to the winner (with [[silver]] to the second-place finisher, and [[bronze]] to the third.)
*Since it is a good reflector of both infrared and visible light, it is used for the protective coatings on many artificial [[satellite]]s and on the astronauts helmets to prevent blindness from the sun.
*[[Disodium aurothiomalate]] is a treatment for rheumatoid [[arthritis]] (administered intramuscularly). It inhibits [[lymphocyte]] proliferation, [[lysosome|lysosomal]] enzyme release, the release of [[reactive oxygen species]] from [[macrophage]]s, and [[IL-1]] production. However, it can also cause photosensitive [[rash]]es, gastrointestinal disturbance, and [[kidney]] damage.
*The gold isotope Au-198, ([[half-life]]: 2.7 days) is used in some [[cancer]] treatments and for treating other diseases.
*Gold flake is used on and in some gourmet sweets and drinks. Called [[varak]] or (varaq) in India. Having no reactivity it adds no taste but is taken as a delicacy. Some use it as an excuse to create super-expensive delicacies ($1,000 cocktails). For similar reasons, it also used as the basis for some superstitious, over the top, health claims. Only the salts and radioisotopes (mentioned above) have any evidence of medicinal value.
*[[White gold]] (an alloy of gold with [[platinum]], [[palladium]], [[nickel]], and/or [[zinc]]) serves as a substitute for platinum.
*[[Green gold]] (a gold/[[silver]] alloy) is used in specialized jewelry while gold alloys with copper (reddish color) are more widely used for that purpose ([[rose gold]])*.
==History==
Gold ( [[Sanskrit]] ''jval'',[[Tamil]] ''thangAm'' [[Greek language|Greek]] χρυσóς [''khrisós''], [[Latin]] ''aurum'' for "shining dawn", [[Anglo-Saxon language|Anglo-Saxon]] ''gold'', [[Chinese language|Chinese]] &#37329; [''j&#299;n''],[[Japanese language|Japanese]] &#37329; [''kin''] ) has been known and highly valued since prehistoric times. It may have been the first metal used by [[human]]s and was valued for ornamentation and rituals. [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s from as early as [[2600 BCE]] describe gold, which king [[Tushratta]] of the [[Mitanni]] claimed was as "common as dust" in Egypt. Egypt and [[Nubia]] had the resources to make them major gold-producing areas for much of history. Gold is also mentioned several times in the [[Old Testament]]. The south-east corner of the [[Black Sea]] was famed for its gold. Exploitation is said to date from the time of [[Midas]], and this gold was important in the establishment of what is probably the world's earliest coinage in [[Lydia]] between [[630s BCE|643 and 630 BCE]].
The European exploration of the Americas was fueled in no small part by reports of the gold ornaments displayed in great profusion by [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] peoples, especially in [[Central America]], [[Peru]], and [[Colombia]].
Gold has long been considered one of the most [[precious metal]]s, and its value has been used as the standard for many [[currency|currencies]] (known as the [[gold standard]]) in history. Gold has been used as a symbol for purity, value, royalty, and particularly roles that combine these properties (see [[gold album]]).
Gold in antiquity was relatively easy to obtain geologically; however, 75% of all gold ever produced has been extracted since [[1910]].[http://www.goldsheetlinks.com/production2.htm] It has been estimated that all the gold in the world that has ever been refined would form a single cube [[1 E2 m|20 m]] (66 ft) a side.
The primary goal of the [[alchemy|alchemists]] was to produce gold from other substances, such as [[lead]] &mdash; presumably by the interaction with a mythical substance called the [[philosopher's stone]]. Although they never succeeded in this attempt, the alchemists promoted an interest in what can be done with substances, and this laid a foundation for today's [[chemistry]]. Their symbol for gold was the [[circle with a point at its centre|circle with a point at its center]] (&#x2609;), which was also the [[astrology|astrological]] symbol, the [[Egypt]]ian [[Egyptian hieroglyph|hieroglyph]] and the ancient [[Chinese character]] for the [[Sun]] (now &#26085;). For modern attempts to produce artificial gold, see [[gold synthesis]].
During the [[19th century]], [[gold rush]]es occurred whenever large gold deposits were discovered, including the [[California gold rush|California]], [[Colorado gold rush|Colorado]], [[Central Otago goldrush|Otago]], [[Australia]], [[Witwatersrand]], [[Black Hills]], and [[Klondike, Yukon|Klondike]] gold rushes.
Because of its historically high value, much of the gold mined throughout history is still in circulation in one form or another.
==Occurrence==
{{See also|:Category:Gold minerals}}
[[Image:GoldNuggetUSGOV.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A gold nugget]]
[[Image:Native gold nuggets.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Raw gold from California (top) and Australia (bottom), showing [[octahedron|octahedral]] formations]]
Due to its relative chemical inertness gold is usually found as the native metal or alloy. Occasionally large accumulations of native gold (also known as [[gold nugget|nuggets]]) occur but usually gold occurs as minute grains. These grains occur between mineral grain boundaries or as inclusions within minerals. Common gold associations are [[quartz]] often as [[vein]]s and sulfide minerals. The most common sulfide associations are [[pyrite]], [[chalcopyrite]], [[galena]], [[sphalerite]], [[arsenopyrite]], [[stibnite]] and [[pyrrhotite]]. Rarer mineral associations are [[petzite]], [[calaverite]], [[sylvanite]], [[muthmannite]], [[nagyagite]] and [[krennerite]].
Gold is widely distributed in the Earth's [[Crust (geology)|crust]] at a background level of 0.03 [[gram|g]]/1000 [[kilogram|kg]] (0.03 [[Parts per million|ppm]] by weight). [[Hydrothermal]] [[ore]] deposits of gold occur in [[metamorphic rock]]s and [[igneous rock]]s; [[alluvial deposit]]s and [[placer deposit]]s originate from these sources.
The primary source of gold is usually igneous rocks or surface concentrations. A deposit usually needs some form of secondary enrichment to form an economically viable ore deposit: either chemical or physical processes like [[erosion]] or solution or more generally [[metamorphism]], which concentrates the gold in sulfide minerals or quartz. There are several primary deposit types, common ones are termed reef or vein. Primary deposits can be weathered and eroded, with most of the gold being transported into stream beds where it congregates with other heavy minerals to form placer deposits. In all these deposits the gold is in its native form. Another important ore type is in [[sedimentary]] black [[shale]] and [[limestone]] deposits containing finely disseminated gold and other [[platinum]] group metals.
Gold occurs in sea water at 0.1 to 2 [[milligram|mg]]/[[tonne|t]] (0.1 to 2 [[Parts per billion|ppb]] by weight) depending on sample location.
==Production==
{{Main articles|[[Gold prospecting]], [[Gold mining]] and [[Gold extraction]]}}
[[Image:Gold mine.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The entrance to an undergro |
V'' is volume, ''R'' is the [[universal gas constant]], ''T'' is temperature, and ''n'' is the number of moles of gas (1 mole = 6.022×10<sup>23</sup> molecules).
The most common refrigeration cycle uses an electric motor to drive a [[gas compressor|compressor]]. In an automobile the compressor is driven by a [[pulley]] on the engine's [[crankshaft]], with both using electric motors for air circulation. Since [[evaporation]] occurs when [[heat]] is absorbed, and [[condensation]] occurs when heat is released, air conditioners are designed to use a compressor to cause pressure changes between two compartments, and actively pump a refrigerant around. A refrigerant is pumped into the cooled compartment (the evaporator coil), where the low pressure and load temperature cause the refrigerant to evaporate into a vapour, taking heat with it. In the other compartment (the condenser), the refrigerant vapour is compressed and forced through another heat exchange coil, condensing into a liquid, rejecting the heat previously absorbed from the cooled space.
==== Humidity ====
Refrigeration air conditioning equipment usually reduces the [[humidity]] of the air processed by the system. The relatively cold (below the [[dewpoint]]) evaporator coil condenses water vapor from the processed air, (much like an ice cold drink will condense water on the outside of a glass), sending the water to a drain and removing water vapor from the cooled space and lowering the relative humidity. Since humans perspire to provide natural cooling by the [[evaporation]] of perspiration from the skin, drier air (up to a point) improves the comfort provided. The comfort air conditioner is designed to create a 40% to 60% relative humidity in the occupied space. In food retailing establishments large open chiller cabinets act as highly effective air dehumidifing units.
==== Refrigerants ====
"[[Freon]]" is a trade name for a family of fluorocarbon [[refrigerants]] manufactured by [[DuPont]] and other companies. These refrigerants were commonly used due to their superior stability and safety properties. Unfortunately, evidence has accumulated that these chlorine bearing refrigerants reach the upper atmosphere when they escape. The chemistry is poorly understood but general consensus seems to be that CFCs break up in the [[stratosphere]] due to [[UV]]-radiation, releasing their chlorine atoms. These chlorine atoms act as [[catalyst]]s in the breakdown of ozone, which does severe damage to the [[ozone layer]] that shields the Earth's surface from the strong UV radiation. The chlorine will remain active as a catalyst until and unless it binds with another particle forming a stable molecule. CFC refrigerants in common but receding usage include R-11 and R-12. Newer and more environmentally-safe refrigerants include HCFCs (R-22, used in most homes today) and HFCs (R-134a, used in most cars) have replaced most CFC use.
=== Evaporation coolers ===
The aforementioned Persian cooling systems were evaporation coolers. In very dry climates, such affectionately called "[[swamp cooler|swamp coolers]]" are popular for improving comfort during hot [[weather]]. The evaporative cooler is a device that draws outside air through a wet pad. The [[sensible heat]] of the incoming air, as measured by a [[Dry-bulb temperature|dry bulb thermometer]], is reduced. The total heat ([[sensible heat]] plus [[latent heat]]) of the entering air is unchanged. Some of the sensible heat of the entering air is converted to latent heat by the evaporation of water in the wet cooler pads. If the entering air is dry enough, the results can be quite comfortable. These coolers cost less and are mechanically simple to understand and maintain.
An early type of cooler, using ice for a further effect, was patented by [[John Gorrie]] of [[Apalachicola]], FL in 1842, who used the device to cool the patients of his malaria hospital.
A three-stage absorptive cooler exists that first dehumidifies the air with a spray of salt brine. The brine [[osmosis|osmotically]] absorbs water vapor from the air. The second stage sprays water in the air, evaporatively cooling (via [[absorptive refrigeration]]) the air. Finally, to control the humidity, the air passes through another brine spray. The brine is reconcentrated by distillation. The system is used in some hospitals because, with filtering, a sufficiently hot regenerative distillation controls airborne organisms.
=== Absorptive chillers ===
Some buildings use gas turbines to generate electricity. The exhausts of these are hot enough to drive an [[absorptive chiller]] that produces cold water. The cold water is then run through radiators in air ducts for hydronic cooling. The dual use of the energy, both to generate electricity and cooling, makes this technology attractive when regional utility and fuel prices are right. Producing heat, power, and cooling in one system is known as [[trigeneration]].
== Power ==
Air conditioner equipment power in the [[United States|U.S.]] is often described in terms of "tons of refrigeration". A "ton of refrigeration" is defined as the cooling power of one [[short ton]] (2000 [[pound (mass)|pound]]s or 907 [[kilogram]]s) of [[ice]] melting in a 24-hour period. This is equal to 12,000 [[BTU]] per [[hour]], or 3510 [[watt]]s (http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/appenB9.html). Residential "[[Central air conditioning|central air]]" systems are usually from 1 to 5 tons (3 to 20 kW) in capacity.
The use of electric/compressive air conditioning puts a major demand on the nation's [[electrical power grid]] in warm weather, when most units are operating under heavy load. In the aftermath of the [[2003 North America blackout]] locals were asked to keep their air conditioning off. During peak demand, additional [[power plant]]s must often be brought online, usually [[natural gas]] fired plants because of their rapid startup. A [[1995]] study of various utility studies of residential air conditioning concluded that the average air conditioner wasted 40% of the input energy. This energy is lost, ironically, in the form of heat, which must be pumped out. There is a huge opportunity to reduce the need for new power plants and to conserve energy.
In an automobile the A/C system will use around 5 [[horsepower|hp]] (4 kW) of the engine's [[power (physics)|power]].
== Insulation ==
[[thermal insulation|Insulation]] reduces the required power of the air conditioning system. Thick walls, reflective roofing material, curtains and trees next to building also cut down on system and energy requirements.
== Home air conditioning systems around the world ==
Domestic air conditioning is most prevalent and ubiquitous in the first-world nations of East Asia ([[Japan]], [[South Korea]], [[Taiwan]], etc.). In this area, with soaring summer temperatures and a relatively high standard of living, air conditioning is considered a necessity and not a luxury. Japanese-made domestic air conditioners are usually window or split types, the latter being more modern and expensive.
In the United States, home air conditioning is more prevalent in the South and on the East Coast, in some parts of which it has reached the ubiquity it enjoys in East Asia. Central air systems are most common in the United States, and are virtually standard in all new dwellings in the state of [[Florida]].
In Europe, home air conditioning remains a rarity, and this lack is largely responsible for the estimated 35000 deaths left in the wake of the [[European Heat Wave of 2003|2003 heat wave]].
==See also==
* [[Central air conditioning]]
* [[Energy]]
* [[Evaporative cooler]]
* [[Heat pump]]
* [[Heating (disambiguation)|Heating]]
* [[HVAC]]
* [[Portable air conditioners]]
* [[Refrigeration]]
==External links==
===Operation===
* [http://www.howstuffworks.com/ac.htm How Air Conditioners Work] Article by HowStuffWorks
===Tips & Guides===
* [http://homesite.com.au/indoors/living-areas/airconditioning-systems/tips-and-guides/cooling-your-home/2 Cooling your home] homesite.com.au
===Servicing Information===
* [http://www.nasw.org/users/davidt/files/trouble1.html Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Troubleshooting Guide]
* [http://www.repairclinic.com/0088_16_3.asp How Air Conditioners Work] Article by RepairClinic
* [http://www.allhvacinfo.com/Contractors_Residential_Air_Conditioning/Contractors_Residential_Air_Conditioning.htm Directory of Air Conditioning Contractors]
* [http://www.geokiss.com/hsoftware.htm Free Cooling & Heating Load Calculation Programs & Spreadsheets]
* [http://www.hvacwebconnection.com/Directory/mf_ac.htm Directory of Air Conditioning Manufacturers]
===Energy Efficiency===
*[http://www.aceee.org/ ACEEE] (USA)
*[http://www.aceee.org/consumerguide/aircon.htm ACEEE - Consumer Guide to Home Energy Savings (Air Conditioning)]
*[http://www.aceee.org/new/eedb.htm ACEEE - Energy Efficiency Program Database]
*[http://www.aceee.org/consumerguide/topcac.htm ACEEE - Top-Rated Energy-Efficient Central Air Conditioners]
*[http://www.eere.energy.gov/ U.S DoE Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy] (USA)
*[http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumerinfo/factsheets/aircond.html U.S DoE EERE - Energy-Efficient Air Conditioning]
*[http://www.energystar.gov/ Energy Star] (USA)
*[http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=cac.pr_central_ac Energy Star - Central Air Conditioners]
*[http://www.powerwater.com.au/ PowerWater] (Australia)
*[http://www.powerwater.com.au/powerwater/factsheets/airconditioners.html PowerWater - Energy Efficient Air Conditioners]
*[http://www.eca.gov.uk UK Enhanced Capital Allowance Scheme (ECA)] ''UK Government scheme to provide tax rebates for companies who use products which are ECA approved''
*[http://doityourself.com/appliance/majors.htm Understanding Energy Efficient Ratings]
*[http://doityourself.com/aircond/index.shtml How to lower the energy usage of central air conditioning]
|
FE]], [[polyethylene]] or [[aluminium]] (not [[stainless steel]]) and undergo a cleaning process ([[passivation]]) to remove all contamination prior to the introduction of peroxide. (Note that while compatible at room temperature, polyethylene can explode with peroxide in a fire.)
In the presence of certain catalysts, such as {{Iron}}<sup>2+</sup> or {{Titanium}}<sup>3+</sup>, the decomposition may take a different path, with free radicals such as HO&middot; ([[hydroxyl]]) and HOO&middot; being formed. A combination of H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> and Fe<sup>2+</sup> is known as [[Fenton's reagent]].
=== Redox reactions ===
In aqueous solution, hydrogen peroxide can oxidize or reduce a variety of inorganic ions. When it acts as a reducing agent, [[oxygen]] gas is also produced. In [[acid]] solution {{Iron}}<sup>2+</sup> is oxidized to Fe<sup>3+</sup>,
:2 Fe<sup>2+</sup>([[Aqueous|aq]]) + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> + 2 [[Hydronium|H<sup>+</sup>]](aq) &rarr; 2 Fe<sup>3+</sup>(aq) + 2H<sub>2</sub>O([[Liquid|l]])
and [[sulfite]] (SO<sub>3</sub><sup>2&minus;</sup>) is oxidized to [[sulfate]] (SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2&minus;</sup>). However, [[potassium permanganate]] is reduced to {{Manganese}}<sup>2+</sup> by acidic H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>. Under [[alkaline]] conditions, however, some of these reactions reverse; Mn<sup>2+</sup> is oxidized to Mn<sup>4+</sup> (as [[Manganese(IV) oxide|MnO<sub>2</sub>]]), yet Fe<sup>3+</sup> is reduced to Fe<sup>2+</sup>.
:2 Fe<sup>3+</sup> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> + 2 [[Hydroxide|OH<sup>&minus;</sup>]] &rarr; 2 Fe<sup>2+</sup> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O + [[Oxygen|O<sub>2</sub>]]
Hydrogen peroxide is frequently used as an [[Redox|oxidising agent]] in organic chemistry. One application is for the oxidation of [[thioether]]s to [[sulfoxide]]s.{{an|thioether}} For example, [[methyl]] [[phenyl]] sulfide was oxidised to methyl phenyl sulfoxide in 99% yield in methanol in 18 hours (or 20 minutes using a [[Titanium(III) chloride|TiCl<sub>3</sub>]] catalyst):
:Ph-S-CH<sub>3</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> &rarr; Ph-S(O)-CH<sub>3</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>O
Alkaline hydrogen peroxide is used for [[epoxidation]] of electron-deficient alkenes such as [[acrylic acid]]s, and also for oxidation of [[alkylborane]]s to [[alcohol]]s, the second step of [[hydroboration-oxidation]].
=== Formation of peroxide compounds ===
Hydrogen peroxide is a weak acid, and it can form [[hydroperoxide]] or [[peroxide]] [[salt]]s or derivatives of many metals. For example, with aqueous solutions of [[chromic acid]] (CrO<sub>3</sub>), it can form an unstable blue peroxide CrO(O<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>. It can also produce peroxoanions by reaction with [[anion]]s; for example, reaction with [[borax]] leads to [[sodium perborate]], a bleach used in laundry detergents:
:[[Borax|Na<sub>2</sub>B<sub>4</sub>O<sub>7</sub>]] + 4 H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> + 2 [[Sodium hydroxide|NaOH]] &rarr; 2 [[Sodium perborate|Na<sub>2</sub>B<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>(OH)<sub>4</sub>]] + H<sub>2</sub>O
H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> converts [[carboxylic acid]]s (RCOOH) into peroxy acids (RCOOOH), which are themselves used as oxidizing agents. Hydrogen peroxide reacts with [[acetone]] to form [[acetone peroxide]], and it interacts with [[ozone]] to form [[hydrogen trioxide]]. Reaction with [[urea]] produces [[carbamide peroxide]], used for whitening teeth. An acid-base adduct with [[triphenylphosphine oxide]] is a useful "carrier" for H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> in some reactions.
=== Basicity ===
Hydrogen peroxide is a much weaker [[Base_(chemistry)|base]] than water, but it can still form adducts with very strong acids. The [[superacid]] [[Hydrogen fluoride|HF]]/[[Antimony pentafluoride|SbF<sub>5</sub>]] forms unstable compounds containing the (H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub>)<sup>+</sup> ion.
== Manufacture ==
Hydrogen peroxide is manufactured today almost exclusively by the autoxidation of 2-ethyl-9,10-dihydroxyanthracene to 2-ethylanthraquinone and hydrogen peroxide using oxygen from the air. The [[anthraquinone]] derivative is then [[Liquid-liquid extraction|extracted]] out and reduced back to the dihydroxy compound using [[hydrogen]] gas in the presence of a metal [[catalyst]]. The overall equation for the process is deceptively simple:
H<sub>2</sub> + O<sub>2</sub> &rarr; H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>
However the economics of the process depend on effective recycling of the quinone and extraction solvents, and of the [[hydrogenation]] [[catalyst]].
Formerly inorganic processes were used, employing the [[electrolysis]] of an aqueous solution of [[sulfuric acid]] or [[acidic ammonium bisulfate]] (NH<sub>4</sub>HSO<sub>4</sub>), followed by [[hydrolysis]] of the peroxydisulfate ((SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub>)<sup>2&minus;</sup> which is formed.
In 1994, world production of H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> was around 1.9 million [[tonne]]s, most of which was at a concentration of 70% or less. In that year bulk 30% H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> sold for around US$0.54 per [[Kilogram|kg]], equivalent to US$1.50 per kg (US$0.68 per [[pound (mass)|lb]]) on a "100% basis".
==Concentration==
Hydrogen peroxide works best as a propellant in extremely high concentrations. However, there are very few suppliers of high-purity hydrogen peroxide, and they are averse to selling to any but the largest institutions. As a result, amateurs wishing to use this for rocket fuel usually have to purchase 70% or lower-purity (most of the remaining 30% is water, and sometimes there are traces of stabilizing materials, such as tin), and increase its concentration themselves. Many try [[distillation]], but this is extremely dangerous with hydrogen peroxide; peroxide vapour can detonate at a temperature of about 70 &deg;C. A safer approach is [[sparging]], possibly followed by [[fractional freezing]], but, even when using this method, contaminants may still often cause explosions.
In the 1950s, high-test peroxide was more readily available, but because, of safety concerns, bulk manufacturers have since switched over to handling lower concentrations of H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> whenever possible. Some amateur groups have expressed interest in manufacturing their own peroxide, for their use and for sale in small quantities to others.
== Hazards ==
Hydrogen peroxide vapour can detonate above 70&deg;C, so it is critical to keep solutions and vapour cool. Distillation of hydrogen peroxide at normal pressures is highly dangerous. Hydrogen peroxide vapours can form sensitive contact explosives with hydrocarbons such as greases. Hazardous reactions ranging from ignition to explosion have been reported with [[alcohol]]s, [[ketone]]s, [[carboxylic acid]]s (particularly [[acetic acid]]), [[amine]]s and [[phosphorus]].
Hydrogen peroxide, if spilled on clothing (or other flammable materials), will preferentially evaporate water until the concentration reaches sufficient strength, then clothing will spontaneously ignite. Leather generally contains metal ions from the tanning process and will often catch fire quite quickly.
Concentrated hydrogen peroxide (>50%) is corrosive, and even domestic-strength solutions can cause irritation to the eyes, [[mucous membrane]]s and skin. '''Swallowing hydrogen peroxide solutions is particularly dangerous, as decomposition in the stomach releases large quantities of gas (10 times the volume of a 3% solution) leading to internal bleeding.'''
'''severe pulmonary irritation by inhalation over 10%.'''
The [[IARC]] lists hydrogen peroxide in [[List of IARC Group 3 carcinogens|Group 3]]: ''not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans''. One study on mice found an increase in cancers of the digestive system following ingestion of hydrogen peroxide, but other animal studies have proven inconclusive. Hydrogen peroxide is produced as a byproduct of oxygen metabolism, and virtually all organisms possess enzymes known as [[peroxidase]]s, which catalyse the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen (''see [[#Decomposition|Decomposition]] above'').
A leak of [[high-test peroxide]] (85%-98% hydrogen peroxide) from a [[torpedo]] caused an [[Russian submarine Kursk explosion (2000)|explosion]] that sealed the fate of the [[Russian submarine Kursk]]. Also an earlier, very similar accident on [[HMS Sidon (P259)]] claimed 13 lives.
* [http://msds.fmc.com/msds/100000010225-MSDS_US-E.pdf MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET]
* [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfactsx4.html ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry FAQ]
==External links==
* [http://www.tecaeromex.com Hydrogen Peroxide Distillation]
* http://www.h2o2.com
* [http://www.erps.org Experimental Rocket Propulsion Society]
* [http://peswiki.com/energy/Directory:Hydrogen_Peroxide_as_Fuel Hydrogen Peroxide as fuel] ''PESWiki.com''
* [http://www.chem-world.com Shangyuchem, an oxygen company]
* [http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/ NIST Standard Reference Database]
* [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index |
ded Lisp Interpreter<br>
Embedded Mode<br>
embedded system<br>
embedding<br>
EMBLA Pro<br>
embosser<br>
EMC<br>
EMD Enterprises, Inc.<br>
EMDIR<br>
Emerald<br>
Emitter Coupled Logic<br>
EML<br>
EMM<br>
EMM386<br>
emote<br>
emoticon<br>
empeg<br>
empire<br>
empty element tag<br>
EMS<br>
emTeX<br>
EMU8000<br>
emulation<br>
emulator<br>
Emulator program<br>
EMX<br>
enabling<br>
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encode<br>
encoder<br>
encryption<br>
-endian<br>
endless loop<br>
End Of Line<br>
End of Medium<br>
End Of Text<br>
End Of Transmission<br>
end tag<br>
End Transmission Block<br>
end-user<br>
Engelbart, Douglas<br>
engine<br>
English programming language<br>
Enhanced Capabilities Port<br>
Enhanced Dynamic Random Access Memory<br>
Enhanced Graphics Adapter<br>
Enhanced IDE<br>
Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics<br>
enhanced parallel port<br>
Enhanced Small Disk Interface<br>
enhancement<br>
ENIAC<br>
Enigma<br>
ENOB<br>
ENQ<br>
Ente Nazionale Italiano di Unificazione<br>
enterprise<br>
Enterprise Application Integration<br>
Enterprise JavaBeans<br>
Enterprise Resource Planning<br>
Enterprise Systems CONnectivity<br>
EntireX<br>
entity-relationship diagram<br>
entity-relationship model<br>
entropy<br>
Entry Sequenced Data Set<br>
enumerated type<br>
enumeration<br>
environment<br>
environment variable<br>
Envoy<br>
[[end-of-file|EOF]] '''DONE'''<br>
EOL<br>
EOT<br>
EOU<br>
EOUG<br>
EP<br>
EPCS<br>
EPILOG<br>
EPIM<br>
EPL<br>
epoch<br>
EPP<br>
EPROM<br>
EPROM OTP<br>
EPROS<br>
EPS<br>
EPSILON<br>
epsilon<br>
epsilon squared<br>
EPSIMONE<br>
EPSS<br>
EqL<br>
EQLOG<br>
EQLog<br>
Eqn<br>
equals<br>
equational logic<br>
Equel<br>
equivalence class<br>
equivalence class partitioning<br>
equivalence relation<br>
ER<br>
er<br>
[[Engineering Research Associates|ERA]] '''DONE''' (Engineering Research Associates)<br>
era<br>
Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory<br>
erase<br>
ERC<br>
ERCIM<br>
ERD<br>
EREW PRAM<br>
ERFPI<br>
ergonomic<br>
ergonomics<br>
ERGO-Shell<br>
Eric Conspiracy<br>
Eric S. Raymond<br>
Eris<br>
Erlang<br>
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ERP<br>
error<br>
error-based testing<br>
error correcting memory<br>
error detection and correction<br>
es<br>
ES-1<br>
ESA<br>
ESC<br>
ESCAPE<br>
escape<br>
escape sequence<br>
ESCD<br>
ESCON<br>
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ESD<br>
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ESF<br>
ESI<br>
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ESL<br>
ESLPDPRO<br>
ESML<br>
ESMTP<br>
ESP<br>
ESPOL<br>
ESPRIT<br>
ESR<br>
essential complexity<br>
Estelle<br>
Esterel<br>
EstPC<br>
ET<br>
et<br>
ET++<br>
eta abstraction<br>
eta conversion<br>
eta expansion<br>
eta reduction<br>
ETB<br>
ETC<br>
e-text<br>
ETHER<br>
EtherGate<br>
[[Ethernet]] '''DONE'''<br>
Ethernet address<br>
Ethernet meltdown<br>
EtherTalk<br>
ethics<br>
ETM<br>
ETRN<br>
ETSI<br>
ETX<br>
Euclid<br>
Euclidean Algorithm<br>
Euclid's Algorithm<br>
Eudora<br>
EULA<br>
EULER<br>
EuLisp<br>
EUnet Ltd.<br>
Euphoria<br>
Eureka<br>
Eureka step<br>
Eurisko<br>
Eurocard<br>
Euro-ISDN<br>
EuroNet<br>
EuropaNET<br>
European Academic and Research Network<br>
European Computer-Industry Research Centre GmbH<br>
European Strategic Programme for Research in Information Technology<br>
European Telecommunications Standards Institute<br>
EUUG<br>
EV6<br>
Eva<br>
EVALUATE<br>
evaluation<br>
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evaluator<br>
EVE<br>
event<br>
event-driven<br>
EVGA<br>
evil<br>
evil and rude<br>
evolutionary algorithm<br>
evolutionary computation<br>
evolutionary programming<br>
evolution strategy<br>
EWOS<br>
exa-<br>
Exabyte<br>
exabyte<br>
examining the entrails<br>
EXAPT<br>
Exceed<br>
Excel<br>
Excelan<br>
Excelerator<br>
exception<br>
exception handler<br>
EXCH<br>
Exchange Server<br>
excl<br>
exclamation mark<br>
EXE<br>
EXEC<br>
exec<br>
EXEC 2<br>
EXEC 8<br>
executable<br>
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execute<br>
execution<br>
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Executive Systems Programming Oriented Language<br>
exercise, left as an<br>
exhaustive testing<br>
existential quantifier<br>
EXODUS<br>
eXodus<br>
EXOS<br>
expanded memory<br>
expanded memory manager<br>
expanded memory page frame<br>
Expanded Memory Specification<br>
expansion card<br>
expansion slot<br>
expect<br>
eXperimental LISP<br>
Experimental Physics Control Systems<br>
Experimental Programming Language<br>
Expert Judgement Models<br>
expert system<br>
Expert Systems Ltd.<br>
explicit parallelism<br>
explicit type conversion<br>
exploit<br>
Exploratory Data Analysis<br>
exponent<br>
exponential<br>
exponential-time<br>
exponential-time algorithm<br>
Express<br>
expression<br>
expression tree<br>
extend<br>
extended addressing<br>
Extended Affix Grammar '''DONE'''<br>
Extended ALGOL<br>
Extended Architecture<br>
Extended Backus-Naur Form<br>
Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code<br>
Extended BNF<br>
Extended C++<br>
Extended Capabilities Port<br>
Extended Concurrent Prolog<br>
Extended Data Out Dynamic Random Access Memory<br>
Extended Data Out Random Access Memory<br>
Extended Fortran Language<br>
eXtended Graphics Array<br>
Extended Industry-Standard Architecture<br>
extended memory<br>
extended memory manager<br>
Extended Memory Specification<br>
Extended ML<br>
Extended Pascal<br>
Extended Self-containing Prolog<br>
Extended System Configuration Data<br>
Extended Tiny<br>
Extended Video Graphics Array<br>
eXtended Video Graphics Array<br>
extensible<br>
extensible database<br>
Extensible Markup Language<br>
Extensible Shell<br>
Extensible Stylesheet Language<br>
Extensible VAX Editor<br>
extension<br>
extensional<br>
extensional equality<br>
extensionality<br>
Extension Language Kit<br>
Exterior Gateway Protocol<br>
eXternal Data Representation<br>
external memory<br>
EXTRA<br>
extranet<br>
EXUG<br>
[[eyeball search]] '''DONE'''<br>
EZ<br>
ezd<br>
e-zine<br>
f2c<br>
F2F<br>
F68K<br>
FAC<br>
face time<br>
face-to-face<br>
Facile<br>
facsimile<br>
FACT<br>
fact<br>
factor<br>
FAD<br>
failover<br>
failure<br>
failure-directed testing<br>
FAIR<br>
Fairchild F8<br>
fall back<br>
fall forward<br>
fall over<br>
fall through<br>
fall thru<br>
FALSE<br>
fandango on core<br>
FAP<br>
FAQ<br>
FAQL<br>
FAQ list<br>
faradise<br>
farkled<br>
farm<br>
farming<br>
FARNET<br>
fas<br>
FASBOL<br>
fascist<br>
FASE<br>
FAST<br>
Fast ATA<br>
Fast ATA-2<br>
Fast Ethernet<br>
Fast Fourier Transform<br>
Fast Packet<br>
Fast Page Mode Dynamic Random Access Memory<br>
Fast SCSI<br>
FAT<br>
FAT32<br>
fatal<br>
fatal error<br>
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fault-based testing<br>
fault tolerance<br>
fault tolerant<br>
fault tree analysis<br>
fax<br>
Fax over IP<br>
FC<br>
FC-AL<br>
FCB<br>
F-code<br>
FCP<br>
FC-PGA<br>
FCS<br>
FDC<br>
FDDI '''DONE'''<br>
FDISK<br>
fd leak<br>
fdlibm<br>
FDMA<br>
FDSE<br>
FDSP<br>
FDT<br>
fdx<br>
FEA<br>
fear and loathing<br>
feasible<br>
feature<br>
feature creature<br>
feature creep<br>
featurectomy<br>
feature key<br>
feature shock<br>
FEC<br>
Federal Geographic Data Committee<br>
Federal Information Exchange<br>
Federal Information Processing Standards<br>
Federal Networking Council<br>
Federation Against Software Theft<br>
feedback<br>
feedback control<br>
feed-forward<br>
Feel<br>
feep<br>
feeper<br>
feeping creature<br>
feeping creaturism<br>
FEL<br>
femto-<br>
fence<br>
fencepost error<br>
fepped out<br>
FEPROM<br>
Fermat prime<br>
Ferranti F100-L<br>
ferrite core memory<br>
Ferroelectric RAM<br>
Ferroelectric Random Access Memory<br>
Fetch<br>
fetch-execute cycle<br>
FF< |
{{URS}}
|{{FIN}}
|{{ITA}}
|-
|1990
|{{FRG}}
|{{TCH}}
|{{FRA}}
|-
|1991
|{{ITA}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{URS}}
|-
|1992
|{{EUN}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{EST}}
|-
|1993
|{{GER}}
|{{RUS}}
|{{FRA}}
|-
|1994
|{{ITA}}
|{{RUS}}
|{{GER}}
|-
|1995
|{{GER}}
|{{FRA}}
|{{BLR}}
|-
|1996
|{{BLR}}
|{{RUS}}
|{{ITA}}
|-
|1997
|{{BLR}}
|{{GER}}
|{{POL}}
|-
|1998
|{{NOR}}
|{{GER}}
|{{RUS}}
|}
== Women ==
''[[Romanization#Cyrillic|Romanization]] of [[Cyrillic alphabet]]-based names follows the [[Biathlon#Governing body|IBU]]'s athlete records''.
''See the [[List of IOC country codes]] for expansions of country abbreviations.''
=== Individual (15 km) ===
This event was first held in [[1984]]. Through 1988 the distance was 10 km.
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1"
! Year
! style="background:gold" width="210" | Gold
! style="background:silver" width="210" | Silver
! style="background:#cc9966" width="210" | Bronze
|-
| 1984
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Venera Chernychova]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liudmila Zabolotniana]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Tatiana Brylina]]|URS}}
|-
| 1985
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Kaya Parve]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sanna Grønlid]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eva Korpela]]|SWE}}
|-
| 1986
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eva Korpela]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Siv Bråten]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sanna Grønlid]]|NOR}}
|-
| 1987
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sanna Grønlid]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Kaya Parve]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Tuija Vuoksialo]]|FIN}}
|-
| 1988
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anne Elvebakk]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Elin Kristiansen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Venera Chernychova]]|URS}}
|-
| 1989
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Petra Schaaf]]|FRG}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anne Elvebakk]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Davidova]]|URS}}
|-
| 1990
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Davidova]]|URS}}
|[[Image:Flag of Bulgaria.svg|22px]] [[Iva Schkodreva]] ([[Bulgaria|BUL]])
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Petra Schaaf]]|FRG}}
|-
| 1991
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Petra Schaaf]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Grete Ingeborg Nykkelmo|Grete I. Nykkelmo]]|NOR}}
| [[Image:Flag of Bulgaria.svg|22px]] [[Iva Schkodreva]] ([[Bulgaria|BUL]])
|-
| 1993
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Petra Schaaf]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Myriam Bédard]]|CAN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Paramygina]]|BLR}}
|-
| 1995
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Corinne Niogret]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}}
| [[Image:Flag of Bulgaria.svg|22px]] [[Ekaterina Dafovska]] ([[Bulgaria|BUL]])
|-
| 1996
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Emmanuelle Claret]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Melnik]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Petrova]]|UKR}}
|-
| 1997
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|UKR}}&sup1;
|[[Image:Flag of Bulgaria.svg|22px]] [[Ekaterina Dafovska]] ([[Bulgaria|BUL]])
|-
| 1999
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|UKR}}&sup1;
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Corinne Niogret]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Albina Akhatova]]|RUS}}
|-
| 2000
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Corinne Niogret]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Shumei Yu]]|CHN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|-
| 2001
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|UKR}}&sup1;
|-
| 2003
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Katerina Holubcova]]|CZE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|BLR}}&sup1;
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Gunn Margit Andreassen]]|NOR}}
|-
| 2004
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Pyleva]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Albina Akhatova]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Petrova]]|UKR}}
|-
|[[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Andrea Henkel]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ribo Sun]]|CHN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Linda Tjørhom]]|NOR}}
|}
(&sup1; Olena Zubrilova changed her citizenship from Ukrainian to Belarusian in 2002)
=== Sprint (7.5 km) ===
This event was first held in [[1984]]. Through 1988 the distance was 5 km.
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1"
! Year
! style="background:gold" width="210" | Gold
! style="background:silver" width="210" | Silver
! style="background:#cc9966" width="210" | Bronze
|-
| 1984
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Venera Chernychova]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sanna Grønlid]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Andrea Grossegger]]|AUT}}
|-
| 1985
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sanna Grønlid]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Kaya Parve]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Venera Chernychova]]|URS}}
|-
| 1986
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Kaya Parve]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Nadeshda Belova]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eva Korpela]]|SWE}}
|-
| 1987
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Elena Golovina]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Venera Chernychova]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anne Elvebakk]]|NOR}}
|-
| 1988
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Petra Schaaf]]|FRG}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eva Korpela]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anne Elvebakk]]|NOR}}
|-
| 1989
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anne Elvebakk]]|NOR}}
|[[Image:Flag of Bulgaria.svg|22px]] [[Zwetana Krasteva]] ([[Bulgaria|BUL]])
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Natalia Prikostshikova]]|URS}}
|-
| 1990
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anne Elvebakk]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Petcherskaia|Svetlana Davidova]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Elin Kristiansen]]|NOR}}
|-
| 1991
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Grete Ingeborg Nykkelmo|Grete I. Nykkelmo]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Petcherskaia|Svetlana Davidova]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Elena Golovina]]|URS}}
|-
| 1993
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Myriam Bédard]]|CAN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Nadejda Talanova]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Elena Belova]]|RUS}}
|-
| 1995
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anne Briand]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Corinne Niogret]]|FRA}}
|-
| 1996
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Romasko]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ann Elen Skjelbreid]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg|Magdalena Wallin]]|SWE}}&sup1;
|-
| 1997
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Romasko]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|UKR}}&sup2;
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}&sup1;
|-
| 1999
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Zellner]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|UKR}}&sup2;
|-
| 2000
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Skjelbreid]]|NOR}}&sup3;
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Katrin Apel]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Zellner]]|GER}}
|-
| 2001
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Kati Wilhelm]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]|NOR}}&sup3;
|-
| 2003
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sylvie Becaert]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Petrova]]|UKR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Katerina Holubcova]]|CZE}}
|-
| 2004
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]|NOR}}&sup3;
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anna Bogaliy-Titovets|Anna Bogaliy]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ekaterina Ivanova|Ivanova]]|BLR}}, {{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Glagow|Glagow]]|GER}}
|-
| [[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Zaitseva]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|BLR}}&sup2;
|}
(&sup1; Magdalena Wallin married biathlete Henrik Forsberg in 1996)<br>
(&sup2; Olena Zubrilova changed her citizenship from Ukrainian to Belarusian in 2002)<br>
(&sup3; Liv Grete Skjelbreid married biathlete Raphaël Poirée in 2000)
=== Pursuit (10 km) ===
This event was first held in [[1997]].
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1"
! Year
! style="background:gold" width="210" | Gold
! style="background:silver" width="210" | Silver
! style="background:#cc9966" width="210" | Bronze
|-
| 1997
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|UKR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Romasko]]|RUS}}
|-
| 1998
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Corinne Niogret]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Zellner]]|GER}}
|-
| 1999
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|UKR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Halinarova]]|SVK}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Zellner]]|GER}}
|-
| 2000
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Florence Baverel-Robert]]|FRA}}
|-
| 2001
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Corinne Niogret]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|-
| 2003
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sandrine Bailly|Bailly]]|FRA}}, {{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Glagow|Glagow]]|GER}}
| <center>-</center>
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]|RUS}}
|-
| 2004
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Glagow]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anna Bogaliy-Titovets|Anna Bogaliy]]|RUS}}
|-
| [[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Xianying Liu]]|CHN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Zaitseva]]|RUS}}
|}
=== Mass start (12.5 km) ===
This event was first held in [[1999]]. In 2002, the distance was 15 km.
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1"
! Year
! style="background:gold" width="210" | Gold
! style="background:silver" width="210" | Silver
! style="background:#cc9966" width="210" | Bronze
|-
| 1999
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|UKR}}&sup1;
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Petrova]]|UKR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|-
| 2000
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Galina Koukleva]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Corinne Niogret]]|FRA}}
|-
| 2001
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Glagow]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]|NOR}}
|-
| 2002
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|BLR}}&sup1;
|{{flag athl i |
when new common carriers, including [[Daini Denden]], were permitted to enter the field. [[NTT Worldwide Telecommunications Corp]] (Kokusai Denshin Denwa Company) lost its monopoly hold on international communications activities in 1989, when [[Nihon Kokusai Tsushin]] and other private overseas communications firms began operations.
In 1992 Japan also had more than 12,000 televisions stations, and the country had more than 350 radio stations, 300 AM radio stations and 58 FM. Broadcasting innovations in the 1980s included sound multiplex (two-language or stereo) broadcasting, satellite broadcasting, and in 1985 the University of the Air and teletext services were inaugurated.
Japan has been the world leader in telecommunications in the [[1980s]], but this position that has been challenged by the [[United States]]' [[dot-com]] industry in the 1990s and the emerging [[tiger states]] in Asia. While the United States is leading in digital content, [[South Korea]] is leading in broadband access, India is leading in software, and [[Taiwan]] is leading in research and development.
[[Category:Communications by country|Japan]]
[[Category:Communications in Japan| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Japan</title>
<id>15580</id>
<revision>
<id>39913070</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T19:58:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Slambo</username>
<id>107930</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Marine transport */ disambig container</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Transportation in Japan''' is modern and efficient, serving a population of over 100 million people.
==Rail transport==
[[Image:Yamanote line train.jpg|thumb|Yamanote Line, [[Tokyo]]]]
[[Image:KumamotoStreetcarA.jpg|thumb|[[Tram|Streetcar]] in [[Kumamoto, Kumamoto|Kumamoto]]]]
In [[Japan]], [[railway]]s are a major means of passenger [[transport]], especially for mass and high-speed transport between major cities and for commuter transport in [[metropolitan area]]s. Seven [[Japan Railway]] companies, once state-owned until 1987, cover most parts of Japan. There also are railway services operated by private rail companies, regional governments, and companies funded by both regional governments and private companies. Japanese trains are also famous for always being on time.
Total railways of 23,670.7 [[kilometre|km]] include entirely electrified 2,893.1 km of 1.435-[[metre|m]] [[standard gauge]] and 89.8 km of 1.372-m [[narrow gauge]],
89.8 km of which is electrified. Half of 20,656.8 km 1.067-m gauge and 3.6 km of 31 km 0.762-m gauge are electrified (1994).
Due to the country being an island there are no links to adjacent countries. There has been a proposal of a tunnel to [[Sakhalin]], which would the be connected to Russian mainland via another tunnel.
[[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]], [[Kobe, Hyogo|Kobe]], [[Kyoto, Kyoto|Kyoto]], [[Nagoya, Aichi|Nagoya]], [[Osaka, Osaka|Osaka]], [[Sapporo, Hokkaido|Sapporo]], [[Sendai, Miyagi|Sendai]], [[Tokyo]] and [[Yokohama]] have [[metro]] systems.
See also [[Rail transport in Japan]], [[monorails in Japan]], [[Shinkansen]].
===External links===
*[http://www.jistac.net/gif/jr.pdf Railway map]
==Road transport==
[[Image:FujiChuoExpressway.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Chuo Expressway]] has beautiful views of [[Mount Fuji]].]]
Japan has 1,152,207 km of highways with 863,003 km (including 6,114 km of [[Expressways of Japan|expressways]]) paved and 289,204 km of unpaved ways (1997 est.). A single network of high-speed, divided, limited-access [[toll road]]s connects major cities on [[Honshu]], [[Shikoku]] and [[Kyushu]]. [[Hokkaido]] has a separate network, and [[Okinawa Island]] has a highway of this type. In the year 2005, the toll collecting companies, formerly [[Japan Highway Public Corporation]], have been transformed into private companies in public ownership, and there are plans to sell parts of them. The aim of this policy is to encourage competition and decrease tolls.
Road passenger and freight transport expanded considerably during the 1980s as private ownership of motor vehicles greatly increased along with the quality and extent of the nation's roads. The [[Japan Railway]]s Group companies operates long-distance bus service on the nation's expanding expressway network. In addition to relatively low fares and deluxe seating, the buses are well utilized because they continue service during the night, when air and train service is limited.
The cargo sector grew rapidly in the 1980s, recording 274.2 billion ton-kilometers in 1990. The freight handled by motor vehicles, mainly trucks, in 1990, was over 6 billion tons, accounting for 90 percent of domestic freight tonnage and about 50 percent of ton-kilometers.
Recent large infrastructure projects were the construction of the [[Great Seto Bridge]] and the [[Tokyo Wan Aqua-Line]] (opened 1997).
''see also:'' [[National highways of Japan]]
==Marine transport==
[[Image:FerryMiyajima7511.jpg|thumb|right|Ferry Miyajima on the [[Inland Sea]] near [[Miyajima, Hiroshima]]]]
[[Waterway]]s are about 1,770 km; seagoing craft ply all coastal inland seas.
The twenty-two major [[seaport]]s designated as special important ports by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport include [[Chiba, Chiba|Chiba]], Fushiki/[[Toyama, Toyama|Toyama]], [[Himeji, Hyogo|Himeji]], [[Hiroshima, Hiroshima|Hiroshima]], [[Kawasaki, Kanagawa|Kawasaki]], [[Kitakyushu, Fukuoka|Kitakyushu]], [[Kobe, Hyogo|Kobe]], [[Kudamatsu, Yamaguchi|Kudamatsu]], [[Muroran, Hokkaido|Muroran]], [[Nagoya, Aichi|Nagoya]], [[Niigata, Niigata|Niigata]], [[Osaka, Osaka| Osaka]], [[Sakai, Osaka|Sakai]]/Senpoku, [[Sendai, Miyagi|Sendai]]/[[Shiogama, Miyagi|Shiogama]], [[Shizuoka, Shizuoka|Shimizu]], [[Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi|Shimonoseki]], [[Tokyo]], [[Tomakomai, Hokkaido|Tomakomai]], [[Wakayama, Wakayama|Wakayama]], [[Yokkaichi, Mie|Yokkaichi]], and [[Yokohama, Kanagawa|Yokohama]].
Japan has 662 ships of 1,000 GRT or over, totaling 13,039,488 [[GRT]] or 18,024,969 [[DWT]]. There are 146 bulk ships, 49 [[cargo]], 13 [[chemical]] [[Tanker (ship)|tanker]]s, 16 combination bulk, 4 with combination of ore and oil, 25 [[containerization|container]], 45 [[liquefied gas]], 9 [[passenger]], 2 passenger and cargo combination ships, 214 [[petroleum]] tankers, 22 refrigerated cargo, 48 roll-on/roll-off, 9 short-sea passenger, and 60 vehicle carriers (1999 est.).
[[Ferry|Ferries]] connect Hokkaido to Honshu, and Okinawa Honto to Kyushu and Honshu.
==Pipelines==
Japan has 84 km of [[pipeline]]s for [[crude oil]], 322 km for [[petroleum]] products, and 1,800 km for [[natural gas]].
==Air transport==
[[Image:KansaiAirport_Departures.JPG|thumb|Kansai Airport, [[Osaka]]]]
Japan has many [[airport]]s. The main international gateways are [[Narita International Airport]] (Tokyo area), [[Kansai International Airport]] (Osaka/Kobe/Kyoto area), and [[Chubu Centrair International Airport]] (Nagoya area). The main domestic hub is [[Tokyo International Airport]] (Haneda Airport), Asia's busiest airport; other major traffic hubs include [[Osaka International Airport]] (Itami Airport), [[New Chitose Airport]] outside [[Sapporo]], and [[Fukuoka Airport]]. 14 [[heliport]]s are estimated to exist (1999).
The two main [[airline]]s are [[All Nippon Airways]] and [[Japan Airlines]]. Other passenger carriers include [[Skymark Airlines]], [[Skynet Asia Airways]], and [[Air Do]]. [[United Airlines]] and [[Northwest Airlines]] are major international operators from Narita Airport.
Domestic air travel in Japan has historically been highly regulated. From [[1972]], the three major domestic airlines (JAL, ANA, and JAS) were allocated certain routes, with JAL and ANA sharing trunk routes, and ANA and JAS sharing local feeder routes. JAL also had a flag-carrier monopoly on international routes until [[1986]]. Airfares were set by the government until 2000, although carriers had freedom to adjust the standard fares starting in [[1995]] (when discounts of up to 50% were permitted). Today, fares can be set by carriers, but the government retains the ability to veto fares that are impermissibly high.
==See also==
*[[List of airports in Japan]]
*[[List of railway companies in Japan]]
*[[List of railway electification systems in Japan]]
*[[List of Railway Stations in Japan]]
*[[Japan Highway Public Corporation]]
==External links==
*[http://www.hyperdia.com/ Hyperdia] - Travel planning tool supporting English and Japanese
*[http://www.jorudan.co.jp/english/norikae/e-norikeyin.html Jorudan] - Travel planning tool supporting English and Japanese
*[http://www.kotsu.metro.tokyo.jp/util/english/ Toei Transportation Information] - English Tokyo subway information and multilingual maps
[[Category:Transportation in Japan|*]]
[[fr:Transport au Japon]]
[[id:Transportasi di Jepang]]
[[ja:&#26085;&#26412;&#12398;&#20132;&#36890;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Japan</title>
<id>15582</id>
<revision>
<id>42019763</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:48:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.80.195.125</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Debates and frictions */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Foreign relations of Japan}}
Despite the burst of the [[Japanese asset price bubble]] in the early 1990s and the subsequent slow economic growth, [[Japan]] remains a major economic and cultural power. Japan has diplomatic relations with nearly all independent nations and has been an active member of the [[United Nations]] since 1956. Japanese foreign policy has aimed to promote peace and prosperity for the Japanese people, and arguably for humanity in general, by working closely with the West and supporting the United Nations.
During the Cold War, Japanese foreign policy was unidimensional, focusing mainly on the economic realm. In recent years, however, Japan |
ng
* en route—on the way
* en suite—as a set
* [[entente]]—diplomatic agreement or cooperation
* entre nous—confidentially (''between us'')
* entrepreneur
* [[escargots]]&mdash;snails as food, a delicacy; lit. ''snail'', animal
* [[escritoire]] (spelt ''écritoire'' in French) —a writing table
* [[esprit de corps]]&mdash;a feeling of solidarity among members of a group, morale; lit. ''spirit of body''
* [[Exposé (journalism)|exposé]]—a published exposure of a fraud or scandal
* extraordinaire—extraordinary
== F ==
* fainéant—a slacker
* fait accompli&mdash;something that has happened and is unlikely to be reversed
* faute de mieux—for want of better
* [[faux]]—fake
* [[faux amis]]&mdash;used to refer to words in two different languages that have the same [[etymology]], but different meanings; lit. ''false friends'' such as the French verb "rester" which means ''to stay'' rather than ''to rest''
* [[faux pas]]&mdash;a social blunder, or "mis-step"
* [[femme fatale]]—an alluring, mysterious woman
* fiancé—a man engaged to be married
* fiancée—a woman engaged to be married
* [[film noir]]—a genre of dark-themed movies
* fils—used after a man's surname to distinguish a son from a father
* [[fin de siècle]]&mdash;comparable to (but not exactly the same as) [[turn-of-the-century]] but with a connotation of decadence
* flambeau—a lighted torch
* flâneur—an aimless idler
* [[fleur-de-lis]]—a stylized-flower heraldic device
* [[folie à deux]]—a simultaneous occurrence of delusions in two closely related people
* [[force majeure]]—an overpowering event, an act of God
* frisson—a thrill
== G ==
* gaffe—blunder
* garçon—lit. ''boy'' or ''male servant'', but often used by English speakers to summon the attention of a male [[waiter]] (actually insulting in French)
* gauche—tactless
* gaucherie—boorishness
* gendarme—a police officer (slang, irreverent)
* [[genre]]—a type or class
* [[glissade]]—slide down a slope
* grande dame—a venerable woman
* [[Grand Prix motor racing|Grand Prix]]—a type of motor racing, lit. "Grand Prize" or "Big Prize"
== H ==
* habitué—one who regularly frequents a place
* [[haute couture]]—trend-setting fashion.
* [[haute cuisine]]—a manner of preparing food. Lit. ''upper kitchen''.
* haute école—advanced horsemanship. Lit. ''upper school''
* hauteur—arrogance
* haut monde—fashionable society
* [[Honi soit qui mal y pense|honni soit qui mal y pense]]&mdash;''Shame on him who thinks ill of it'' or sometimes translated as ''Evil be to him who evil thinks'', the motto of the most noble [[Order of the Garter]] (modern French writes ''honni'' instead of old French ''honi'')
* hors de combat—out of the fight
* [[hors d'œuvre]]
== I ==
* [[idée fixe]]—a leitmotiv, an obsession
* insouciant—nonchalant
* [[Ingenue (stock character)|ingénue]]—an innocent young woman
== J ==
* J’accuse—the (generally untranslated) title of [[Émile Zola]]’s expose of the [[Dreyfus affair]] (''I accuse''), also used generally in allusion to a political or social indictment
* Je-ne-sais-quoi&mdash;an indefinable, usually compelling quality ([[charisma]]); lit. ''I don't know what''
* joie de vivre&mdash;''joy of living''
== K ==
== L ==
* l'affaire [proper name]—a cause célèbre, ''e.g.'', ''l’affaire Enron'', in allusion to [[Dreyfus affair|L’Affaire Dreyfus]]
* [[laisser-faire]]—a policy of minimal interference, usu. in reference to government regulation of commerce
* layette—a set of clothing and accessories for a new baby
* la petite mort—an [[orgasm]]
* [[Lese majesty|lèse majesté]]—treason, an affront
* [[l'esprit de l'escalier]]&mdash;thinking of the right comeback too late, lit. ''staircase wit''. Originally a witticism of [[Denis Diderot|Diderot]], the French [[Encyclopedist|encyclopedist]], in his ''Paradoxe sur le Comédien''.
* L'état c'est moi—the (frequently untranslated) remark attributed to [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] (''I am the state''), also used generally in allusion to an overweening ego
* liaison—a close relationship or connection, an affaire
* [[Liberté, égalité, fraternité|Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité]]&mdash;Liberty, Equality, Fraternity (motto of the French Republic)
* [[littérateur]]—a literary person. Pejorative in French
* longueur—a tedious passage in drama or literature
* louche—of questionable taste, shady.
== M ==
* [[maître d']]
* [[ménage à trois]]&mdash;a sexual arrangement between three people, not typically used if all three are of the same sex; lit. ''household for three''
* Merci beaucoup!&mdash;''Thank you very much!''
* milieu—environment, setting
* [[mirepoix (cuisine)|mirepoix]]&mdash;a cooking mixture of two parts onions and one part each of celery and carrots[http://www.foodreference.com/html/fmirepoix.html]
* mise en place—a food assembly station in a commercial kitchen
* [[mise en scène]]
* moi&mdash;''me''; often used in English as an ironic reply to an accusation, for example "[[wikt:Pretentious|Pretentious]]? ''Moi?''"
* mousse—a whipped dessert or a hairstyling foam
== N ==
* né (masculine) form of née
* née (feminine)&mdash;''born''; past participle of naître, ''to be born''. Often used to give someone or something's former or [[maiden name]]: ''[[Martha Washington]], ''née'' Martha Dandridge''.
* n'est-ce pas ?&mdash;''Isn't it?'', used after a statement, as in ''Right?''
* [[noblesse oblige]]—honorable behavior expected of high rank
* non&mdash;''No''
* [[nom de guerre]]—a [[pseudonym]]
* [[nom de plume]], pl. noms de plume&mdash;''[[pen name]]''
* nouveau—newfangled
* [[nouveau riche]]&mdash;newly rich
== O ==
*
== P ==
* [[papier-mâché]], lit. ''chewed paper''
* par excellence&mdash;quintessential, lit. ''by excellence''
* pardon–''I'm sorry''; ''Excuse me?''
* [[pas de deux]]—a close relationship between two people, a duet in ballet
* passé–out of fashion
* peignoir—a woman’s dressing gown, a negligee (in French also a [[bathrobe]])
* [[pièce de résistance]] &mdash; ''the one that resists'', the best (among numerous examples). In French, [[pièce de résistance]] can mean the main course in a meal.
* [[Pied a terre|pied-à-terre]]—a second home, usually an [[apartment]] in the city
* plat de résistance&mdash;the main dish of a meal, lit. ''dish of resistance''
* plus ça change—the more things change, the more they stay the same (from ''plus ça change, plus c’est la même chose'')
* précis—a concise summary
* prix fixe—a fixed-price meal
* poseur—a person who pretends to be something he is not, a phony
* [[prêt-à-porter]]—ready-to-wear clothing
* prud-homme—an upstanding citizen, skilled workman
== Q ==
* Quel dommage!&mdash;''What damage!" or "What a shame!"
* Quelle horreur!&mdash;A usually sarcastic phrase meaning ''What a horrible thing!'', lit. ''What horror!''
* Qu'est-ce que c'est?&mdash;''What is this?''
== R ==
* raison d'être&mdash;justification for existence, ''reason for being''
* raconteur—a conversationalist
* rapprochement—the establishment of cordial relations
* recherché—obscure, pretentious
* roué—a hedonist <!-- roue (without accent) wheel -->
* [[rendezvous]]&mdash;a ''meeting'', ''appointment'', or ''date''; usually written rendez-vous in French and sometimes in English
* restaurateur—a restaurant owner
* risqué—sexually suggestive. (in French, the meaning of "risqué" is ''risky'', with no sexual connotation)
* Laissez les bons temps rouler&mdash;''Let the good times roll''. Strongly associated with [[Cajun]] culture, and not commonly used by Francophones outside of [[Louisiana]].
* Le Roi est mort. Vive le Roi!&mdash;''[[The King is dead. Long live the King]]!''
* [[roman à clef]]&mdash;a fictional account of a true story, lit. ''novel with a key''
== S ==
* Sacré bleu!&mdash;General exclamation of horror and shock; used to avoid the oath “Sacré Dieu!”, lit. ''Sacred God!''; This is a very dated expression, not used anymore in French; sometimes contracted and unaccented: “sacrebleu”.
* sang-froid—great coolness and composure under strain. lit. ''cold blood''
* sans—without
* savoir-faire;''know-how''
* ''savoir-vivre'' &mdash; ''etiquette''
* s'il vous plaît (SVP)&mdash;''please'', lit. ''if it pleases you'', ''if you please''
* soi-disant—self described, lit. ''oneself saying'',
* soupçon—a very small amount
* [[soupe du jour]]&mdash;''soup of the day''
* succès d’estime—an important but unpopular achievement
== T ==
* table d'hôte—a full-course meal offered at a fixed price
* tableau vivant—in drama, a scene in which actors remain still as if in a picture
* tête-à-tête &mdash;a private or tense meeting, lit. ''head-to-head''
* touché—acknowledgment of an effective counterpoint. lit. ''hit!''. Used in French to point a successful shot.
* tour de force&mdash;a masterly or brilliant stroke, creation, effect, or accomplishment, lit. ''feat of strength''
* très—very (slang, generally ironic)
== U ==
== V ==
* vis-à-vis&mdash;in comparison with or in relation to, lit. ''face-to-face''; also used to refer to the opposite corner of an intersection, i.e. catercorner (coll. kitty-corner).
* Vive la différence&mdash;''Long live the difference'', generally referring to difference between male and female
* Vive la France!&mdash;''Long live France!'', sometimes said with tongue-in-cheek sarcasm
* Voilà! or Et voilà!&mdash;'There you go!'' or ''And there you have it!''
* [[volte-face]]—a complete reversal of opinion or position
* [[Voulez-vous coucher avec moi?|Voulez-vous coucher avec moi (ce soir)?]] &mdash; "Do you want to sleep with me (tonight)?"
* [[Voyeurism|voyeur]]—a peeping tom
== W - X - Y - Z ==
* Zut alors!&mdash;''Darn it!'', a general exclamation. Like "Sacré bleu", this is considered dated by modern French speakers. (Just plain ''zut'' is still in use, however - |
y by the nobles. As central rule degenerated, the stage was set for a defeat at the hands of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. In 1521, ''Nándorfehérvár'' (today [[Belgrade]]) fell, and in 1526, the Hungarian army was destroyed in the [[Battle at Mohács]].
Through the centuries the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] has kept its old "constitution", based on freedom of nobles, privileged people (Saxons, Jász-kuns) and [[free royal town]]s e.g. [[Buda]] (Ofen), [[Košice]] (Kassa), Pressburg (Pozsony, today: [[Bratislava]]), Klausenburg (Kolozsvár, today [[Cluj-Napoca]]).
=== Early modern times (1526 - 1718) ===
Based on previous agreements, the [[Habsburgs]] ruled as kings of Hungary from 1526 to 1918.
In 1526, after [[Ottoman wars in Europe|some 150 years of war with Turks in the south]], the Turks finally conquered parts of Hungary, and continued their expansion [[Ottoman wars in Europe|until 1556]]. With the conquest of Buda in 1541 by the Turks, Hungary fell into three parts. Present-day Slovakia, western [[Transdanubia]], present-day [[Burgenland]], western Croatia and parts of north-eastern present-day Hungary went to the Habsburgs, and became a province of their empire under the name [[Royal Hungary]]. The Austrian Emperors were formally crowned as Kings of Hungary. [[Transylvania]], in turn, became independent and a Turkish vassal state. The remaining central area (mostly present-day Hungary), including the capital of [[Buda]], became a province of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. A large part of the area became devastated by permanent warfare. Most smaller settlements disappeared. Rural people could survive only in larger settlements owned directly and protected by the Sultan, in the so called [[Khaz towns]]. The Turks were indifferent to the type of Christian religion of their subjects and the Habsburg counter-reformation measures could not reach this area. As a result, the majority of the population of the area became Protestant (Calvinist). In 1686, [[Austria]]-led Christian forces reconquered Buda, and in the next few years, all of the country except areas near [[Timişoara]] (Temesvár). In the 1699 [[Treaty of Karlowitz]] these changes were officially recognized, and in 1718 the entire Kingdom of Hungary was restored from the Ottomans.
Pressburg (Pozsony, today: Bratislava) became the new capital (1536-1784), coronation town (1563-1830) and seat of the Diet (1536-1848) of Hungary. [[Trnava]] (Nagyszombat), in turn, became the religious center in 1541.
Parallelly, between 1604 and 1711, there was a series of anti-Habsburg (i.e. anti-Austrian) and anti-Catholic (requiring equal rights and freedom for all Christian religions) uprisings, which &ndash; with the exception of the last one &ndash; took place in Royal Hungary, more exactly on the territory of present-day Slovakia. The uprisings were usually organized from Transylvania. The last one was an uprising led by [[Francis II Rákóczi|Francis Rákóczi]] (''II. Ferenc Rákóczi''), who was chosen by the people to be the future king. When Austrians crushed the rebellion in 1711, Rákóczi was in Poland. He later fled to France, finally Turkey, and lived to the end of his life (1735) in nearby [[Rodosto]]. Afterwards, to make further armed resistance impossible, the Austrians blew up some castles, and let peasants to remove stones from most others (the ''végvár''s among them).
See also: [[Moldavian Magnate Wars]], [[Stephen Bathory, King of Poland]], [[Battle of Vienna]] <!--likely should be linked from main text body-->
=== 18th century (1718 - 1780) ===
This period was characterized by a reconstruction of the country. The Habsburg rulers pursued a re-settlement of ravaged areas with new immigrants from present-day Austria and Germany, from the northern and eastern parts of the country (present-day Slovakia and Romania), and from Serbia.
=== Enlightenment (1780 - 1848) ===
Influenced by the [[French revolution]], and in response to attempts at Germanisation by [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] (ruled 1780-1790), there emerged a national revival movement in Hungary of the Magyars, but also of all the other non-Magyar nationalities living in the Kingdom of Hungary.
During the [[Napoleonic Wars]] and afterwards, the Hungarian Diet had not convened for decades. In the 1820s, the Emperor was forced to convene the Diet, and thus a Reform Period began. Nevertheless, its progress was slow, because the nobles insisted on retaining their privileges (no taxation, exclusive voting rights, etc.). Therefore the achievements were mostly of national character (e.g. introduction of Hungarian as the official language of the country, instead of the former Latin). The other nationalities of the country protested against these measures.
The first measurements of the population on the area of the Kingdom of Hungary (including Croatia and Transylvania) were performed in the late 18th century. Different estimates based on these measurements put the proportion of the Magyars in the Kingdom (with or without Croatia) at 29% to 42% towards the end of the 18th century. A first thorough research in 1836-40 put the percentage of Magyars at 36-37% (without Croatia 48%) and a census in 1850-51 at 45.4% in all the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary. The official percentages of the other nationalities according to the 1850-51 census (although it was criticised for bias towards the percentage of Hungarians and Germans already at that time) were:
*Slovaks (18.6%)
*Germans (11.8%)
*Romanians (10.1%)
*Serbs and Croats (5.6%)
*Ukrainians and Ruthenians (4.8%)
*Others (3.7%)
The [[Habsburg]] Emperors and particularly the chancellor [[Klemens Wenzel von Metternich|Metternich]] refused to implement reforms and this led to a national revolution.
=== The 1848 Revolution (1848 - 1849) ===
''See also:'' [[The Revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas]].
The revolution started on [[March 15]], [[1848]], with a bloodless revolution in Pest and Buda (mass demonstrations forcing the imperial governor to accept all demands) followed by various insurrections throughout the kingdom, which enabled Hungarian reformists to declare Hungary's autonomy within the Habsburg Empire, under the governor [[Lajos Kossuth]] and the first Prime minister [[Lajos Batthyány]]. During the subsequent civil war, the Magyars, and with them foreign revolutionaries that came to fight after their own revolutions were crushed, had to fight against the Austrian Army, but also against the [[Serbs]], [[Croats]], [[Slovaks]], [[Romanians]] and Transylvanian [[German people|Germans]] living on the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary, who had their own ethnic-national movements, and were unwilling to accept a Hungarian dominance. (Though, ethnic allegiances weren't that clear at the time: the majority of revolution-starting Buda and Pest was German-speaking, while revolutionary poet and national icon [[Sándor Petőfi]] was of Serbian and Slovak descent.)
Faced with revolution at home in Vienna too, Austria first accepted Hungary's autonomy. However, after the Austrian revolution was beaten down, and [[Franz Joseph of Austria|Franz Joseph]] replaced his mentally retarded uncle [[Ferdinand of Austria|Ferdinand I]] as Emperor, Austria again refused to accept Hungarian autonomy, and a civil war followed. Initially, the Hungarian forces (''Honvédség'') defeated Austrian armies (at [[Battle of Pákozd|Pákozd]] in September 1848 and at [[Battle of Isaszeg|Isaszeg]] in April 1849), during which they even declared Hungary's total independence of Austria in April 1849. Because of the success of revolutional resistance, Franz Joseph had to ask for help from "''The Gendarme of Europe''", Czar [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]], and Russian armies invaded Hungary, causing antagonism between the Hungarians and the Russians. Julius Freiherr von Haynau, the leader of the Austrian army who then became governor of Hungary for a few months of retribution, ordered the execution of 13 leaders of the Hungarian army (only a minority of which spoke Hungarian) in [[Arad, Romania|Arad]] and the Prime minister Batthyány in [[Pest (city)|Pest]].
[[Lajos Kossuth]] went into exile, with stations in the USA (where a [[Kossuth County, Iowa|county in Iowa]] was named after him), in Istanbul and in the Italian city of Turin. Realizing the biggest political error of the Revolution and himself &ndash; the confrontation with the minorities of Hungary &ndash; he popularized the idea of a multi-ethnic confederation of republics along the Danube, which might have prevented the escalation of hostile feelings between the ethnic groups in these areas. Many of Kossuth's revolutionary comrades in exile, including the sons of one of his sisters, stayed in the USA, and fought on the Union side in the US Civil War.
=== After the revolution (1849 - 1867) ===
[[Image:Hungary1850.png|thumb|right|Map of the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] in 1850]]
Following the war of 1848-49, the whole country was in "passive resistance". Archduke [[Albrecht von Habsburg]] was appointed governor of the Kingdom of Hungary, and this time was remembered for [[Germanization]] pursued with the help of Czech<!-- (!) --> officers.
=== Austria - Hungary (1867 - 1918) ===
[[Image:Historic counties of Hungary.png|thumb|right|Map of the counties in the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] around 1880]]
Following the rise of resistance throughout the Hungarian kingdom, the rise of [[romantic nationalism]] among the various ethnicities, and foreign aggression from [[Prussia]] (1866), the Austrian leadership under [[Franz Joseph]] was desperate to calm the domestic political situation. This led to the [[Compromise of 1867]] (also called ''Ausgleich'') between Austria and Hungary, which turned the Habsburg Empire into the dual monarchy of [[Austria-Hungary]] &ndash; Austria and Hungary maintained essentially separate governments under the same monarch. Foreign policy, Military and |
gh of Newham|Newham]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Waltham Forest|Waltham Forest]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Haringey|Haringey]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Enfield|Enfield]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Barnet|Barnet]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Harrow|Harrow]]</li>
<li>[[London Borough of Hillingdon|Hillingdon]]</li>
</ol>
|}
==History==
[[Image:GLCArms.jpg|thumb|Arms of Greater London Council]]
Greater London was formally created by the [[London Government Act 1963]], which took force on [[1 April]] [[1965]], replacing the former [[administrative counties of England|administrative counties]] of [[Middlesex]] and [[County of London|London]], adding the [[City of London|City]], which was not under the London County Council, and absorbing parts of [[Kent]], [[Hertfordshire]], [[Surrey]], and [[Essex]]. Greater London is bounded by the [[Home Counties]] of [[Essex]], [[Hertfordshire]], [[Buckinghamshire]], [[Berkshire]], [[Surrey]], and [[Kent]].
Greater London originally had a two-tier system of local government, with the [[Greater London Council]] (GLC) sharing power with the [[Corporation of London]] (governing the small City of London) and the 32 London borough councils. The Greater London Council was abolished in [[1986]] under the government of [[Margaret Thatcher]], with some of its functions devolved to the Corporation and the boroughs, and others reverting to central government. In [[2000]] the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government created a [[Greater London Authority]] consisting of a [[London Assembly]] and a [[Mayor of London]] to govern the entire area. The 2000 and 2004 Mayoral elections were both won by [[Ken Livingstone]], the final leader of the GLC.
The population on the current territory of Greater London rose from about 1.1 million in [[1801]] (back then only about 0.85 million people were in the urban area of London, while 0.25 million were living in villages and towns not yet part of London) to an estimated 8.6 million in [[1939]], but declined to 6.8 million around [[1980]], before starting to rebound in the beginning of the 1980s. As of 2003, the population in Greater London has only recovered the level of the beginning of the 1970s (which was also the level of population in 1921). Some researchers expect the population of Greater London to reach 8.15 million by 2016, which would still be 0.45 million short of the 1939 peak, but it is hard to make exact predictions for such a distant date.
Wider definitions of London's metropolitan area (the [[London commuter belt]]) extend over a far larger region with about 12 million to 12.5 million in it, but generally include districts distinct from London proper.
The term 'Greater London' had been used before [[1965]], particularly to refer to the area covered by the [[Metropolitan Police Service]] (which did not coincide with Greater London until [[2000]]), however the term '[[Metropolitan Police District]]' is now preferred.
===Historical population===
Please note: Figures here are for Greater London in its 2001 limits. Figures before 1971 have been reconstructed by the Office for National Statistics based on past censuses in order to fit the 2001 limits. Figures from 1981 onward are midyear estimates (revised as of 2004), which are more accurate than the censuses themselves, known to underestimate the population of London.
1891, April 5/6 5,572,012
1901, March 31/April 1 6,506,954
1911, April 2/3 7,160,525
1921, June 19/20 7,386,848
1931, April 26/27 8,110,480
1939, Midyear estimate 8,615,245
1951, April 8/9 8,196,978
1961, April 23/24 7,992,616
1971, April 25/26 7,452,520
1981, Midyear estimate 6,805,000
1991, Midyear estimate 6,829,300
2001, Midyear estimate 7,322,400
2003, Midyear estimate 7,387,900
2006, Midyear estimate 7,511,989
==External links==
*[http://www.london.gov.uk/ Greater London Authority]
{{United_Kingdom_regions}}
{{England_counties}}
{{London}}
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[[fr:Région anglaise du grand Londres]]
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<page>
<title>Georg Henrik von Wright</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Georg Henrik von Wright''' (pronounced, roughly, ''vrikt'') ([[June 14]], [[1916]] &ndash; [[June 16]], [[2003]]) was a [[Finland|Finnish]] [[philosopher]], who succeeded [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] as professor at the [[University of Cambridge]]. He published in English, [[Finnish language|Finnish]], German, and in his mother tongue [[Swedish language|Swedish]].
Von Wright's writings come under two headings. The first is analytic philosophy and [[philosophical logic]] in the Anglo-American vein. His 1951 books, ''An Essay in [[modal logic|Modal Logic]]'' and ''Deontic Logic'', were landmarks in the postwar rise of formal modal logic and its [[deontic logic|deontic]] interpretation. He was an authority on [[Wittgenstein]], editing his late work. He is a leader of modern Finnish philosophy, which specializes in [[philosophical logic]], analysis, [[philosophy of language]], [[philosophy of mind]], and the close study of [[Charles Peirce]]. The other vein in Von Wright's writings is moralist and pessimist. During his last 20 years, partly under the influence of [[Oswald Spengler]], he wrote several books, the best known being ''The Myth of Progress'', questioning whether our apparent material and techological progress can really be considered progress. He eventually discovered that Wittgenstein too had read Spengler, and (to the astonishment of von Wright) had liked him as well.
== Works ==
*''The Logical [[problem of induction|Problem of Induction]]'', PhD thesis, [[31 May]] [[1941]]
*''Den logiska empirismen'' (Logical Empirism), in Swedish, 1945
*''Über Wahrscheinlichkeit'' (On Chance), in German, 1945
*''An Essay in [[modal logic|Modal Logic]]'', 1951
*''A Treatise on Induction and [[Probability]]'', 1951
*''Deontic Logic'', 1951
*''Tanke och förkunnelse'' (Thought and Preaching), in Swedish, 1955
*''Logical Studies'', 1957
*''Logik, filosofi och språk'' (Logic, philosophy and language), in Swedish, 1957
*''The Varieties of [[Goodness]]'', 1963. He considered this his best and most personal work.
*''[[Norm_(philosophy)|Norm]] and [[Action (philosophy)|Action]]'', 1963
*''The Logic of [[Preference]]'', 1963
*''Essay om naturen, människan och den vetenskaplig-tekniska revolutionen'' (Essay on Nature, Man and the Scientific-Technological Revolution), in Swedish, 1963
*''An Essay in [[deontic logic|Deontic Logic]]'', 1968
*''[[Time]], [[Change]] and [[Contradiction]]'', 1969
*''Tieteen filosofian kaksi perinnettä'' (The Two Traditions of the Philosophy of Science), in Finnish, 1970
*''[[Explanation]] and [[Understanding]]'', 1971
*''[[Causality]] and [[Determinism]]'', 1974
*''Handlung, Norm und [[Intention]]'' (Action, Norm and Intention), in German, 1977
*''Humanismen som livshållning'' (Humanism as an approach to Life), in Swedish, 1978
*''[[Freedom]] and [[Determination]]'', 1980
*''Wittgenstein'', 1982
*''Philosophical Papers I-III'', 1983-1984
*''Filosofisia tutkielmia'' (Philosophical Dissertations), in Finnish, 1985
*''Vetenskapen och förnuftet'' (Science and Reason), in Swedish, 1986
*''Minervan Pöllö'' (The Owl of Minerva), in Finnish, 1991
*''Myten om framsteget'' (The Myth of Progress), in Swedish, 1993
*''The Tree of [[Knowledge]]'', 1993
*''Att förstå sin samtid'' (To Understand one's own Time), in Swedish, 1994
*''Six Essays in [[philosophical logic|Philosophical Logic]]'', 1996
*''Viimeisistä ajoista. Ajatusleikki'' (On the End Times. A Thought Experiment.), in Finnish, 1997
*''Logiikka ja humanismi'' (''Logic and Humanism''), in Finnish, 1998
*''In the Shadow of [[Descartes]]'', 1998
*''Mitt liv som jag minns det'' (My Life as I Remember it), in Swedish, 2001
Works by Wittgenstein von Wright helped edit, published by Blackwell unless otherwise stated:
* 1961. ''Notebooks 1914-1916''.
* 1967. ''Zettel''.
* 1969. ''On Certainty''.
* 1971. ''ProtoTractatus -- An Early Version of Tractatus Logico- Philosophicus''. Cornell University Press.
* 1973. ''Letters to C.K. Ogden with Comments on the English Translation of the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus''.
* 1974. ''Letters to Russell, Keynes and Moore''.
* 1978 (1956). ''Remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics''.
* 1980. ''Remarks on the Philosophy of Psychology. Vols 1,2''.
* 1980. ''Culture and Value''.
* 1982. ''Last Writings on the Philosophy of Psychology, Vol. 1''. ''Vol. 2'', 1992.
[[Category:1916 births|Wright, Georg Henrik von]]
[[Category:2003 deaths|Wright, Georg Henrik von]]
[[Category:Finland-Swedes|Wright, Georg Henrik]]
[[Category:Finnish philosophers|Wright, Georg Henrik]]
[[Category:Finnish nobility|Wright, Georg Henrik]]
[[Category:Swedish nobility|Wright, Georg Henrik]]
[[Category:Swedish philosophers|Wright, Georg Henrik]]
[[Category:Swedish language writers|Wright, Georg Henrik]]
[[de:Georg Henrik von Wright]]
[[fr:Georg Henrik von Wright]]
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[[sv:Geor |
ourt) require specific admission to that court's bar in order to practice before it, but there is no separate examination process for federal courts, and admission is usually granted as a matter of course to any attorney licensed in the state where the particular federal court sits.
Although most European countries have divided legal professions, with different kinds of lawyers performing different functions, only [[Spain]] has a division which generally corresponds to the division in Britain between barristers/advocates and solicitors. ''Procuradores'' represent the interests of a litigant in court, while ''abogados'' is the general term for other lawyers. Procuradores are regulated by Royal Decree 2046 of 1982, which approved the General Statute of the Procuradores, and the Organic Law no.6 of 1985. The General Statute regulates the qualifications and conduct of the procuradores. Thus, obligations to act ''pro bono'' are laid down by Article 13.
==See also==
* [[Advocate]]
* [[Solicitor]]
==External links==
*[http://www.austbar.asn.au/ Australian Bar Association (barristers in the Commonwealth of Australia)]
*[http://www.barcouncil.org.uk/ Bar Council (barristers in England and Wales)]
*[http://www.barlibrary.com/ Bar Library of Northern Ireland]
*[http://www.hkba.org/ Hong Kong Bar Association (barristers in Hong Kong)]
*[http://www.advocates.org.uk Faculty of Advocates (advocates in Scotland) ]
*[http://www.jonathanmitchell.info/advocates.html Further material on advocates in Scotland]
*[http://www.lawlibrary.ie/ Irish Bar Council (barristers in the Republic of Ireland)]
*[http://www.austbar.asn.au/section/5889.html List of Australian law links, including several bar associations]
*[http://www.nswbar.asn.au/ Bar Association of New South Wales (Australia)]
*[http://www.vicbar.com.au/ Victorian Bar Association (Australia)]
*[http://www.qldbar.asn.au/ Queensland Bar Association (Australia)]
*[http://www.sabar.org.au/ South Australian Bar Association (Australia)]
*[http://www.wabar.asn.au/ Western Australian Bar Association (Australia)]
*[http://www.lsuc.on.ca Law Society of Upper Canada]
*[http://www.hklawsoc.org.hk/ Law Society of Hong Kong]
[[Category:Legal occupations]]
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[[Category:Lawyers]]
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[[zh:訟務律師]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Battle of Gettysburg</title>
<id>4849</id>
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<comment>Revert to revision 41793521 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Gettysburg
|partof=the [[American Civil War]]
|image=[[Image:Battle of Gettysburg, by Currier and Ives.png|300px]]
|caption=''The battle of Gettysburg, Pa. July 3d. 1863'', by Currier and Ives
|date=[[July 1]]&ndash;[[July 3|3]], [[1863]]
|place=[[Adams County, Pennsylvania]]
|result=[[United States|Union]] victory
|combatant1=[[United States of America]]
|combatant2=[[Confederate States of America]]
|commander1=[[George Meade|George G. Meade]]
|commander2=[[Robert E. Lee]]
|strength1=83,289
|strength2=75,054
|casualties1=23,049 (3,155 killed, 14,529 wounded, 5,365 captured/missing)
|casualties2=28,000 (3,500 killed, 18,000 wounded, 6,500 captured/missing)
}}
{{Campaignbox Gettysburg Campaign}}
The '''Battle of Gettysburg''' ([[July 1]]&ndash;[[July 3|3]], [[1863]]), fought in and around the town of [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania]], as part of the [[Gettysburg Campaign]], was the bloodiest{{Ref|blood}} battle of the [[American Civil War]] and is frequently cited as the war's [[Turning point of the American Civil War|turning point]]. [[Union army | Union]] [[Major General]] [[George G. Meade]]'s [[Army of the Potomac]] decisively defeated attacks by [[Confederate army|Confederate]] General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s [[Army of Northern Virginia]], ending Lee's second and final invasion of the [[Northern United States | North]].
==Background and movement to battle==
Shortly after Lee's army won a decisive victory over the Army of the Potomac at the [[Battle of Chancellorsville]] ([[May 1]]&ndash;[[May 3|3]], [[1863]]), Lee decided upon a second invasion of the North. Such a move would upset [[United States|Federal]] plans for the summer campaigning season and possibly relieve the besieged Confederate garrison at [[Vicksburg, Mississippi|Vicksburg]], and it would allow the Confederates to live off the bounty of the rich Northern farms while giving war-ravaged [[Virginia]] a much needed rest. Also Lee's 75,000-man army could threaten [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]], and [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] and give voice to the growing peace movement in the North.
Thus, on [[June 3]] Lee's army began to shift northward from [[Fredericksburg, Virginia]]. In order to attain more efficiency in his commands, Lee had reorganized his two large corps into three new corps. [[James Longstreet]] retained command of his First Corps. However, the old corps of Lieutenant General [[Stonewall Jackson|Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson]] was divided into two, with the Second Corps going to Lt. Gen. [[Richard S. Ewell]] and the new Third Corps commanded by Lt. Gen. [[A.P. Hill]]. The [[Gettysburg Confederate Order of Battle]] lists the units and commanders of the [[Army of Northern Virginia]].
The Federal Army of the Potomac, under Maj. Gen. [[Joseph Hooker]], consisted of seven infantry corps, a cavalry corps, and an Artillery Reserve, for a combined strength of more than 90,000 men. However, [[Abraham Lincoln]] would soon replace Hooker with Maj. Gen. [[George G. Meade]], due to Hooker's defeat at the [[Battle of Chancellorsville]] and his timid response to Lee's second invasion north of the Potomac. The [[Gettysburg Union Order of Battle]] lists the units and commanders of the Army of the Potomac after Meade assumed command.
The first major action of the campaign took place on [[June 9]] between the opposing cavalry forces at [[Brandy Station]], near [[Culpeper, Virginia]]. The Confederate cavalry under [[J.E.B. Stuart]] was nearly bested by the Federal horsemen, but Stuart eventually prevailed. However, this battle, the largest cavalry engagement of the war, proved that for the first time, the Union horse soldier was equal to his Southern counterpart.
By mid-June, the Army of Northern Virginia was poised to cross the [[Potomac River]] and enter [[Maryland]]. After defeating the Federal garrisons at [[Winchester, Virginia|Winchester]] and [[Martinsburg, West Virginia|Martinsburg]], Ewell's Second Corps began crossing the river on [[June 15]]. Hill's and Longstreet's corps followed on [[June 24]]&ndash;[[June 25|25]]. Hooker's army pursued, keeping between the U.S. Capital and Lee's army. The Federals crossed the Potomac on [[June 25]]&ndash;[[June 27|27]].
Meanwhile, in a controversial move, Lee allowed J.E.B. Stuart to take a portion of the army's cavalry and ride around the [[Union Army|Union army]]. However, Lee's orders gave Stuart much latitude, and both generals are to blame for the long absence of Stuart's cavalry, as well as for the failure to assign a more active role to the cavalry left with the army. Stuart and his three best brigades were absent from the army during the crucial phase of the approach to Gettysburg and the first two days of battle. By [[June 29]], Lee's army was strung out in an arc from [[Chambersburg, Pennsylvania]], 28 miles (45 km) northwest of [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania|Gettysburg]], to [[Carlisle, Pennsylvania|Carlisle]], 30 miles (48 km) north of Gettysburg, to near [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania|Harrisburg]] and [[Wrightsville, Pennsylvania|Wrightsville]] on the [[Susquehanna River]].
In a dispute over the use of the forces defending the [[Harpers Ferry, West Virginia|Harpers Ferry]] garrison, Hooker offered his resignation, and [[Abraham Lincoln]] and General-in-Chief [[Henry W. Halleck]], who were looking for an excuse to get rid of Hooker, immediately accepted the resignation. They replaced him on [[June 27]]&ndash;[[June 28|28]] with Maj. Gen. [[George Meade | George Gordon Meade]], commander of the [[V Corps (ACW)|V Corps]].
When, on [[June 29]], Lee learned that the Army of the Potomac had crossed its namesake river, he ordered a concentration of his forces around [[Cashtown-McKnightstown, Pennsylvania | Cashtown]], located at the eastern base of South Mountain and eight miles (13 km) west of Gettysburg.
On [[June 30]], while part of Hill's Corps was in Cashtown, one of Hill's brigades, North Carolinians under [[J. Johnston Pettigrew]], ventured toward Gettysburg. The memoirs of Maj. Gen. [[Henry Heth]], Pettigrew's division commander, claimed that Pettigrew was in search of a large supply of shoes in town, but this explanation has been largely discounted by historians.
When Pettigrew's troops approached Gettysburg on [[June 30]], they noticed Federal cavalry under Brig. Gen. [[John Buford]] west of town, and Pettigrew returned to Cashtown without engaging them. When Pettigrew told Hill and Henry Heth about what he had seen, neither general believed that there was a substantial Federal force in or near the town, suspecting that it had been only Pennsylvania militia. Despite General Lee's order to avoid a general engagement until his entire army was concentrated, Hill decided to mount a significant [[reconnaissance | reconnaissance in force]] the following morning to determine the size and strength of the enemy force in his front. Around 5 a.m. on Wednesday, [[July 1]], Heth's division advanced to Gettysburg.
The terrain of Gettysburg and vicinity is described in [[Gettysburg Battlefield]].
|
fined the territorial limits of Iraq without taking into account the aspirations of the different ethnic and religious groups in the country, in particular those of the Kurds to the north. Britain had to put down a major revolt against its policies between 1920 and 1922. During the [[Iraqi revolt against the British|revolt]] Britain used gas and air attacks on Iraqi villagers {{ref|ref1}}.
In the Mandate period and beyond, the British supported the traditional, Sunni leadership (such as the tribal ''[[shaykh]]''s) over the growing, urban-based nationalist movement. The Land Settlement Act gave the tribal shaykhs the right to register the communal tribal lands in their own name. The Tribal Disputes Regulations gave them judiciary rights, whereas the Peasants' Rights and Duties Act of 1933 severely reduced the tenants, forbidding them to leave the land unless all their debts to the landlord had been settled. The British resorted to military force when their interests were threatened, as in the [[1941]] [[Iraq coup (1941)|Rashīd `Alī al-Gaylānī coup]]. This coup led to a [[Anglo-Iraqi War | British invasion of Iraq]] using forces from the [[British Indian Army]] and the [[Arab Legion]] from [[Jordan]].
=== The Iraqi Monarchy ===
[[Emir]] [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faysāl ibn Husayn]], leader of the Arab revolt against the Ottoman sultān during the [[Great War]], and member of the Sunni Hāshimite family from Mecca, became the first king of the new state. He obtained the throne partly by the influence of [[T.E. Lawrence]]. Although the monarch was legitimized and proclaimed King by a [[plebiscite]] in 1921, nominal independence was only achieved in 1932, when the British [[Mandate]] officially ended.
In 1927, huge oil fields were discovered near [[Kirkuk]] and brought economic improvement. Exploration rights were granted to the Iraqi Petroleum Company, which despite the name, was a British oil company.
King Faysāl I was succeeded by his son [[Ghazi I of Iraq|Ghāzī]] in December [[1933]]. King Ghāzī's reign lasted five and a half years. He claimed Iraqi sovereignty over Kuwait. An avid amateur racer, the king drove his car into a lamppost and died [[3 April]] [[1939]]. His son [[Faisal II of Iraq|Faysāl]] followed him to the throne.
King [[Faisal II of Iraq|Faysāl II]] (1935 – 1958) was the only son of King Ghāzī I and Queen `Aliyah. The new king was four when his father died. His uncle [['Abd al-Ilah|`Abd al-Ilāh]] became regent (April 1939 – May 1953).
In [[1945]], Iraq joined the [[United Nations]] and became a founding member of the [[Arab League]]. At the same time the Kurdish leader Mustafā Barzānī led a rebellion against the central government in [[Baghdad|Baghdād]]. After the failure of the uprising Barzānī and his followers fled to the [[Soviet Union]].
In [[1948]], Iraq and five other Arab countries fought a war with the newly-declared State of [[Israel]]. The fighting continued till May 1949 when a cease-fire agreement was signed. The cost of the war had a negative impact on Iraq's economy. The government had to allocate 40 percent of available funds to the army and for the [[Palestinian]] refugees. Oil royalties paid to Iraq were halved when the pipeline to [[Haifa]] was cut. The war and the hanging of several [[Jew]]ish [[business]]men led to the departure of most of Iraq's Jewish community. Jews had lived in Mesopotamia for at least 2,500 years.
Iraq signed the [[Baghdad Pact|Baghdād Pact]] in 1956. It allied Iraq, [[Turkey]], [[Iran]], [[Pakistan]], the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. Its headquarters were in [[Baghdad|Baghdād]]. The Pact constituted a direct challenge to [[Egypt]]ian president [[Gamal Abdal Nasser|Gamāl `Abd an-Nāsir]]. In response, `Abd an-Nāsir launched a media campaign that challenged the legitimacy of the Iraqi monarchy.
In February 1958, [[Hussein of Jordan|King Husayn]] of [[Jordan]] and `Abd al-Ilāh proposed a union of Hāshimite monarchies to counter the recently formed Egyptian-Syrian union. The prime minister [[Nuri as-Said|Nūrī as-Sa`īd]] wanted [[Kuwait]] to be part of the proposed Arab-Hāshimite Union. Shaykh `Abd-Allāh as-Salīm, the ruler of Kuwait, was invited to Baghdād to discuss Kuwait's future. This policy brought the government of Iraq into direct conflict with Britain, which did not want to grant independence to Kuwait. At that point, the monarchy found itself completely isolated. Nūrī as-Sa`īd was able to contain the rising discontent only by resorting to ever greater political oppression.
[[List of Kings of Iraq]]
=== The Republic ===
Inspired by [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Gamāl `Abd an-Nāsir]], officers from the Nineteenth Brigade known as "Free Officers", under the leadership of Brigadier [[Abdul-Karim Qassem|`Abd al-Karīm Qāsim]] (known as ''"az-Za`īm"'', 'the leader') and Colonel [[Abdul Salam Arif|`Abd as-Salām `Arif]] overthrew the Hāshimite monarchy on [[14 July]] [[1958]]. King Faysāl II and `Abd al-Ilāh were executed in the gardens of ar-Rihāb Palace. Their bodies (and those of many others in the royal family) were displayed in public. Nūrī as-Sa`īd evaded capture for one day, but after attempting to escape disguised as a veiled woman, he was caught and shot.
The new government proclaimed Iraq to be a [[republic]] and rejected the idea of a union with Jordan. Iraq's activity in the Baghdād Pact ceased.
When Qāsim distanced himself from `Abd an-Nāsir, he faced growing opposition from pro-Egypt officers in the Iraqi army. `Arif, who wanted closer cooperation with Egypt, was stripped of his responsibilities and after a convenient trial thrown in prison.
When the garrison in [[Mosul]] rebelled against Qāsim's policies, he allowed the Kurdish leader Barzānī to return from exile in the Soviet Union to help suppress the pro-Nāsir rebels.
In [[1961]], [[Kuwait]] gained independence from Britain and Iraq claimed sovereignty over Kuwait. Britain reacted strongly to Iraq's claim and sent troops to Kuwait to deter Iraq. Qāsim was forced to back down and in October [[1963]], Iraq recognised the sovereignty of Kuwait.
A period of considerable instability followed. Qāsim was assassinated in February [[1963]], when the [[Ba'ath Party|Ba`th Party]] took power under the leadership of General [[Ahmed Hasan al-Bakr|Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr]] ([[prime minister]]) and Colonel [[Abdul Salam Arif|`Abd as-Salām `Arif]] (president). Nine months later `Abd as-Salam Muhammad `Arif led a successful coup against the Ba`th government. On [[13 April]] [[1966]], President `Abd as-Salām `Arif died in a helicopter crash and was succeeded by his brother, General [[Abdul Rahman Arif|`Abd ar-Rahman `Arif]]. Following the [[Six Day War]] of [[1967]], the Ba`th Party felt strong enough to retake power ([[17 July]] [[1968]]). Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr became president and chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC).
Barzānī and the Kurds who had begun a rebellion in 1961 were still causing problems in 1969. The secretary-general of the Ba`th party [[Saddam Hussein|Saddām Husayn]] was given responsibility to find a solution. It was clear that it was impossible to defeat the Kurds by military means and in [[1970]] a political agreement was reached between the rebels and the Iraqi government.
Iraq's economy recovered sharply after the 1968 revolution. The Arif brothers had spent close to 90% of the national budget on the army but the Ba`th government gave priority to agriculture and industry. The British [[Iraq Petroleum Company]] monopoly was broken when a new contract was signed with [[ERAP]], a major French oil company. Later the IPC was nationalised. As a result of these policies Iraq experienced fast economic growth.
During the 1970s, border disputes with Iran and Kuwait caused many problems. Kuwait's refusal to allow Iraq to build an harbour in the [[Shatt al-Arab|Shatt al-`Arab]] delta strengthened Iraq's belief that conservative powers in the region were trying to control the [[Persian Gulf]]. Iran's occupation of numerous islands in the [[Strait of Hormuz]] didn't help alter Iraq's fears. The border disputes between Iraq and Iran were temporarily resolved with the signing of the [[Algiers Accord]] on [[6 March]] [[1975]].
[[Image:AlBakr.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Saddām Husayn talking with Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr]]
In 1972 an Iraqi delegation visited [[Moscow]]. The same year diplomatic relations with the US were restored. Relations with Jordan and Syria were good. Iraqi troops were stationed in both countries. During the 1973 [[October War]], Iraqi divisions engaged Israeli forces.
In retrospect, the 1970s can be seen as a high point in Iraq's modern history. A new, young, technocratic elite was governing the country and the fast growing economy brought prosperity and stability. Many Arabs outside Iraq considered it an example. However, the following decades would not be so good.
==Rule Under Saddām==
In July [[1979]], Bakr resigned, and his chosen successor, [[Saddam Hussein|Saddām Husayn]], assumed the offices of both President and Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council. He was the de facto ruler of Iraq for some years before he formally came to power.
Territorial disputes with [[Iran]] led to an inconclusive and costly eight-year war, the '''[[Iran-Iraq War]]''' ([[1980]] – [[1988]], termed ''[[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah|Qādisiyyat]]-Saddām'' – 'Saddām's [[Qādisiyyah]]'), eventually devastating the economy. Iraq declared victory in 1988 but actually achieved a weary return to the ''[[status quo ante bellum]]''. The war left Iraq with the largest military establishment in the Persian Gulf region but with huge debts and an ongoing rebellion by [[Kurd]]ish elements in the northern mountains. The government, it is alleged, suppressed the rebellion by using weapons on civilian targets.
A mass [[chemical weapon]]s attack on the city of [[Halabja poison gas attack|Halabja]] in March 1988 during the [[Iran-Iraq War]] is usually attributed to Saddam's re |
f the parameter]]
The word catenary is derived from the Latin word for "chain." The curve is also called the alysoid, funicular, and chainette. [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] claimed that the curve of a chain hanging under gravity would be a [[parabola]], but this was disproved by [[Joachim Jungius|Jungius]] in a work published in 1669. In [[1691]], [[Leibniz]], [[Christiaan Huygens]], and [[Johann Bernoulli]] derived the [[equation]] in response to a challenge by [[Jakob Bernoulli]]. Huygens first used the term 'catenaria' in a letter to Leibniz in 1690, and [[David Gregory]] wrote a treatise on the catenary in 1690. However [[Thomas Jefferson]] is usually credited with the English word 'catenary' [http://www.pballew.net/arithme8.html].
If you roll a parabola along a straight line, its [[focus]] traces out a catenary (see [[roulette (curve)|roulette]]). As proved by [[Euler]] in 1744, the catenary is also the curve which, when rotated about the x axis, gives the surface of minimum [[surface area]] (the [[catenoid]]) for the given bounding [[circle]]. [[square (geometry)|Square]] wheels can roll perfectly smoothly if the road has evenly spaced bumps in the shape of a series of inverted catenary curves. The wheels can be any regular polygon, but one must use the correct catenary, corresponding correctly to the shape and dimensions of the wheels.
The intrinsic equation of the shape of the catenary is given by the [[hyperbolic function]] and exponential equivalent
:<math>y = a \cdot \cosh \left ({x \over a} \right ) = {a \over 2} \cdot \left (e^{x/a} + e^{-x/a} \right ).</math>
==Suspension bridges==
[[image:GoldenGateBridge.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Golden Gate Bridge]], California, USA. Suspension bridges follow a parabolic, not catenary, curve]]
While free-hanging chains follow the curve of the hyperbolic function above, oddly enough [[suspension bridge]] chains or cables, which are tied to the bridge deck at uniform intervals, follow a parabolic curve, much as Galileo originally claimed ([http://whistleralley.com/hanging/hanging.htm derivation]).
It is interesting to note that when suspension bridges are constructed, the suspension cables initially sag hyperbolically, before being tied to the deck below, and then gradually assume a parabolic curve as additional connecting cables are tied to connect the main suspension cables with the bridge deck below.
==The inverted catenary arch==
[[Image:gateway_arch.jpg|right|thumb|210px|The [[Jefferson National Expansion Memorial|Gateway Arch]] in [[Saint Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]], an inverted catenary (almost)]]
The catenary is the ideal form for an arch which supports only itself. If made of individual elements whose contacting surfaces are [[perpendicular]] to the curve of the arch, no significant shear forces will be present at the joints, and the thrust into the ground will be directly along the line of the arch.
The [[Jefferson_National_Expansion_Memorial|Gateway Arch]] in [[Saint Louis, Missouri|Saint Louis]], [[Missouri]], [[United States]] follows the form of an inverted catenary. It is 630 feet wide at the base and 630 feet tall. The exact formula
:<math>y = -127.7 \cdot \cosh({x / 127.7}) + 757.7</math>
is displayed inside the arch.
In [[structural engineering]] a '''catenary shell''' is a structural form, usually made of [[concrete]], that follows a catenary curve. The profile for the shell is obtained by using flexible material subjected to [[gravity]], converting it into a rigid [[formwork]] for pouring the concrete and then using it as required, usually in an inverted manner.
A [[kiln]], a kind of oven for firing [[pottery]], may be made from firebricks with a body in the shape of a catenary arch, usually nearly as wide as it is high, with the ends closed off with a permanent wall in the back and a temporary wall in the front. The bricks (mortared with fireclay) are stacked upon a temporary form in the shape of an inverted catenary, which is removed upon completion. The form is designed with a simple length of light chain, whose shape is traced onto an end panel of the form, which is inverted for assembly. A particular advantage of this shape is that it does not tend to dismantle itself over repeated heating and cooling cycles &mdash; most other forms such as the vertical [[cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]] must be held together with steel bands.
[[Image:LaPedreraParabola.jpg|thumb|150px|Catenaric [[arch]]es in Gaudí's [[Casa Milá]].]]
The [[Catalunya|Catalan]] [[architect]] [[Antoni Gaudí]] made extensive use of catenary shapes in his cathedral [[Sagrada Familia]]. In order to solve for the ideal vault lines he built inverted scale models of the numerous domes by using threads under tension to represent stones under compression.
==Other uses of the term==
*In railway [[engineering]], a '''catenary structure''' consists of [[overhead lines]] used to deliver electricity to a [[railway]] [[locomotive]], [[multiple unit]], [[railcar]], [[tram]] or [[trolleybus]] through a [[pantograph (rail)|pantograph]] or a [[trolleypole]]. These structures consist of an upper structural wire in the form of a shallow catenary, short suspender wires, which may or may not contain insulators, and a lower conductive contact wire. By adjusting the tension in various elements the conductive wire is kept parallel to the centerline of the track, reducing the tendency of the pantograph or trolley to bounce or sway, which could cause a disengagement at high speed.
*In semi-rigid [[airship]]s, a '''catenary curtain''' is a fabric and cable internal structure used to distribute the weight of the [[gondola]] across a large area of the ship's [[envelope]].
*In conveyor systems, the '''catenary''' is the portion of the belt underneath the conveyor that is traveling back to the top. It is the weight of the catenary that keeps tension in the belt.
==External links==
*[http://whistleralley.com/hanging/hanging.htm Hanging With Galileo] - mathematical derivation of formula for suspended and free-hanging chains; interactive graphical demo of parabolic vs. hyperbolic suspensions.
*[http://web.njit.edu/~jcl7/pastimes/catenary/index.html Catenary Demonstration Experiment] - An easy way to demonstrate the Mathematical properties of a cosh using the hanging cable effect. Devised by Jonathan Lansey
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<title>Color temperature</title>
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<comment>/* Categorizing different lighting */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">"White light" is commonly described by its '''color temperature'''. A traditional [[incandescent]] light source's color temperature is determined by comparing its hue with a theoretical, heated [[black body|black-body radiator]]. The lamp's color temperature is the temperature in [[kelvin]]s at which the heated black-body radiator matches the hue of the lamp.
== Categorizing different lighting ==
Because it is the standard against which other light sources are compared, the color temperature of a black-body radiator is equal to its surface temperature in kelvins, using the temperature scale named after the 19th-century British physicist [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin]]. (Note: it should not be construed that the ''color'' temperature refers to the [[Heat|''thermal'']] temperature of anything other than the black-body radiator.)
An [[Incandescent light bulb|incandescent light]] is very close to being a black-body radiator.
However, many other light sources, such as [[Fluorescent lamp|fluorescent lamps]], do not emit radiation in the form of a black-body curve, and are assigned what is known as a [[Color temperature#Correlated color temperature|correlated color temperature]] (CCT), which is the color temperature of a black body which most closely matches the lamp's light emission curve. Because such an approximation is not required for incandescent light, the CCT for an incandescent light is simply its unadjusted kelvin value derived from the comparison to a heated black-body radiator.
As the [[sun]] crosses the sky, it may appear to be red, orange, yellow, white, or blue, depending on position. The changing colors of the sun and sky as the day passes also match colors produced by a black-body radiator at certain temperatures in kelvins. [[Image:Color temp2.png|center|Increasing hues of the Planckian locus]]
[Note this diagram is only a symbolic-representation; the colors shown have not been calculated with any colorimetric accuracy.
[http://www.techmind.org/colour/coltemp.html Here's a colorimetrically accurate diagram.] ]
Some common examples:
* 1200 K: a candle
* 2800 K: tungsten lamp (ordinary household bulb), sunrise and sunset
* 3000 K: studio lamps, photofloods,
* 5000 K: electronic flash, average daylight. A designation of D50 stands for "Daylight 5000K" and is the most common standard for professional light booths for [[photography]], [[graphic art]]s, and other purposes.
* 6000 K: bright midday sun
* 7000 K: lightly overcast sky
* 8000 K: hazy sky
* 10,000 K: heavily overcast sky
From these observations, it becomes clear that blue is the "hotter" color, while red is actually the "cooler" color. This is the exact opposite of the associations both colors have taken on, with "red" as "hot", and "blue" as "cold". The traditional associations come from a variety of sources, such as the fact that water and ice reflect the color of daylight, making them appear blue, and [[frostbite| frostbitten]] flesh often appears blue. Plus, as i |
stitute Awards|AFI Awards 2005]]
* [[2004 American Film Institute Awards|AFI Awards 2004]]
* [[2003 American Film Institute Awards|AFI Awards 2003]]
* [[2002 American Film Institute Awards|AFI Awards 2002]]
* [[2001 American Film Institute Awards|AFI Awards 2001]]
==External links==
*[http://www.afi.com/ AFI Website]
*[http://www.afi.com/about/history.aspx History of AFI]
*[http://www.afifest.com AFI Fest (AFI Los Angeles Film Festival) Official Website]
*[http://www.ukhotmovies.com/film-festivals/los-angeles-film-festival/information.html AFI Los Angeles Film Festival - History and Information]
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<page>
<title>Auteur theory</title>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''auteur theory''' is the theory that a film (or a body of work) by a director (or, rarely, a producer) reflects the personal vision and preoccupations of that director, as if he or she were the work's primary "author" ([[auteur]]). The auteur theory has had a major impact on [[film criticism]] worldwide ever since it was first advocated by [[François Truffaut]] in 1954. "Auteurism" is the method of analyzing films based on this theory (or, alternately, the characteristics of a director's work that makes him an auteur). Both the Auteur Theory and the auteurism method of film analysis are frequently associated with the [[French New Wave]] and the film critics who wrote for the [[Cahiers du cinéma]].
''For a list of directors who are considered '''auteurs''', go to the article [[Auteur]]''.
__NOTOC__
==Truffaut's theory==
In his [[1954]] essay ''Une certaine tendance du cinéma français'' ("a certain tendency in the French cinema") [[François Truffaut]] coined the phrase "la politique des auteurs", and asserted that the worst of [[Jean Renoir]]'s movies would always be more interesting than the best of [[Jean Delannoy]]'s. "Politique" might very well be translated as "policy," "polemic" or "program"; it involves a conscious decision to look at movies and to value them in a certain way. Truffaut provocatively said, "There are no good and bad movies, only good and bad directors."
Much of Truffaut's writing of this period (as too that of his colleagues at the film criticism magazine ''[[Cahiers du cinéma]]'') was designed to lambast post-war French cinema, and especially the big production films of the ''cinéma de qualité'' ("quality films") that Truffaut's circle referred to with disdain as ''cinéma de papa'' (or "Dad's cinema"). Their sudden discovery of a host of great American movies which flooded France at the end of the war (the [[Vichy France|Nazi occupation]] had prevented the French from seeing such classics as [[The Maltese Falcon]] and [[Citizen Kane]]) incited Truffaut to take up arms against what he considered to be an old-fashioned and sterile cinema. (One of the unfortunate ironies of the auteur theory is that, at the very moment Truffaut was writing, the Hollywood [[studio system]] of the 1950's had destroyed much of what he had appreciated.)
Truffaut's thinking was indebted to the work of [[André Bazin]], co-founder of the ''Cahiers du cinéma'' (where Truffaut worked), who promoted the idea that films should reflect a director's personal vision and who championed such filmmakers as [[Howard Hawks]], [[Alfred Hitchcock]] and [[Jean Renoir]]. Although Bazin provided a forum for auteurism to flourish, he himself remained wary of its excesses.
Another key element of Truffaut's theory comes from [[Alexandre Astruc]]'s notion of the ''caméra-stylo'' or "camera-pen" and the idea that directors should wield their cameras like writers use their pens and that they need not be hindered by traditional storytelling.
Truffaut and the members of the ''Cahiers'' recognized that moviemaking was an industrial process. However, they proposed an ideal to strive for: the director should use the commercial apparatus the way a writer uses a pen and, through the [[mise en scène]], imprint his or her vision on the work (conversely, the role of the screenwriter was minimized in their eyes). While recognizing that not all directors reached this ideal, they valued the work of those who neared it.
Truffaut's theory maintains that all good directors (and many bad ones) have such a distinctive style or consistent theme that their influence is unmistakable in the body of their work. Truffaut himself was appreciative of both directors with a marked visual style (such as [[Alfred Hitchcock]]), and those whose visual style was less pronounced but who had nevertheless a consistent theme throughout their movies (such as [[Jean Renoir]]'s humanism).
==Impact of the "auteur theory"==
The ''auteur theory'' was used by the directors of the ''[[nouvelle vague]]'' (New Wave) movement of French cinema in the 1960s (many of whom were also critics at the ''Cahiers du cinéma'') as justification for their intensely personal and idiosyncratic films.
The approach soon found a home in English-language film criticism. In the U.K., ''Movie'' adopted auteurism and in the U.S., [[Andrew Sarris]] introduced it in the essay, "Notes on the Auteur Theory" in 1962. This essay is where the half-French, half-English term, "auteur theory," originated. To be classified as an "auteur", according to Sarris, a director must accomplish technical competence in his or her technique, personal style in terms of how the movie looks and feels, and interior meaning (although many of Sarris's auterist criteria were left vague). Later in the decade, Sarris published ''The American Cinema: Directors and Directions, 1929-1968'', which quickly became the unofficial bible of auteurism.
The auteurist critics&mdash;[[François Truffaut|Truffaut]], [[Jean-Luc Godard|Godard]], [[Claude Chabrol|Chabrol]], [[Éric Rohmer|Rohmer]]&mdash;wrote mostly about directors (as they were directors themselves), although they also produced some shrewd appreciations of actors. Later writers of the same general school have emphasized the contributions of star personalities like [[Mae West]]. However, the stress was on directors, and screenwriters, producers and others have reacted with a good deal of hostility. Writer [[William Goldman]] has said that, on first hearing the auteur theory, his reaction was, "What's the punchline?"
==Criticism of the "auteur theory"==
Starting in the 1960s, there has been a backlash against the auteur theory. [[Pauline Kael]] and [[Andrew Sarris|Sarris]] feuded in the pages of ''[[The New Yorker]]'' and various film magazines. One reason for the backlash is the collaborative aspect of shooting a film (one person cannot do everything) and in the theory's privileging of the role of the director (whose name, at times, has become more important than the movie itself). In [[Pauline Kael|Kael]]'s review of [[Citizen Kane]], a classic film for the auteur model, she points out how the film involved the talents of co-writer [[Herman J. Mankiewicz]] and cinematographer [[Gregg Toland]] and would have been hurt without their distinctive ability. Also, the very people who championed the auteur theory backed away from it. [[Jean-Luc Godard|Godard]] handed over much creative control to others (most notably [[Jean-Pierre Gorin]]) in his later films while, in a twist of irony, Truffaut's later films embraced the same formalism he rejected early on in his career. Also, with costly films like [[Michael Cimino]]'s [[Heaven's Gate (film)|Heaven's Gate]], the excesses of auteurism not only created uncreative films, they put studios out of business.
However, even with the reevaulation of auteurism, the auteur theory continues to influence new filmmakers to this day.
==See also==
* [[mise en scène]]
==External links==
* [http://movies.groups.yahoo.com/group/a_film_by/ An auteurist film discussion group]
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<title>Action film</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Action movie]]</text>
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<title>Akira Kurosawa</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Kurosawa}}
{| id="toc" width="300" align="right" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="float:right; margin: 0em 0em 0em 0.5em; width:300px;"
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! align="center" colspan="2" style="background:#efefef;" | <big>Akira Kurosawa</big>
|-
| align="center" colspan="2"| Japanese Film director
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" style="background:#efefef;" | ''[[Wikiquote:{{PAGENAME}}|"There is something that might be called cinematic beauty. It can only be expressed in a film, and it must be present for that film to be a moving work. When it is very well expressed, one experiences a particularly deep emotion while watching that film. I believe that it is this quality that draws people to c |
Trypho'', 100) Tertullian argued in the same manner, saying, "As Eve had believed the serpent, so Mary believed the angel. The delinquency which the one occasioned by believing, the other by believing effaced." (''On the Flesh of Christ'', 17) St. Irenaeus declared that Mary became "the cause of salvation, both to herself and the whole human race," because "what the virgin Eve had bound fast through unbelief, this did the virgin Mary set free through faith." (''Against Heresies'', Book III, cap. 22, 4) St. Jerome coined the phrase, "Death came through Eve, but life has come through Mary." (''Letter XXII, To Eustochium'', 21)
== Parallelisms in other religions ==
In [[Islam]], the prophet [[Muhammed]] is considered the sinless bearer of the kalam of Allah (speech of God), just as in definitive Catholic formulation, Mary is the sinless bearer of Christ, the Word of God.
[[Anahita]] (or Nahid in Modern Persian), the mother of [[Mitra]], whose name means "unstained" or "immaculate", was an ancient Persian deity. Her cult was strongest in Western Iran, and had parallels with that of the Semitic Near Eastern "Queen of Heaven", deification of the planet Venus. The largest temple with a Mithraic connection is the Seleucid temple at Kangavar in western Iran (c. 200 BC), dedicated to "Anahita, the Immaculate Virgin Mother of the Lord Mithras".
[[Isis]] was also sometimes described as immaculate. "Immaculate is our Lady Isis," is the legend around an engraving of Serapis and Isis, described by C W King, in ''The Gnostics and their Remains''.
== Common misinterpretation ==
There is a widespread misunderstanding of the term ''immaculate conception''. Many people, even many Catholics, believe this refers to the conception of Jesus by Mary. Nearly every time this term is used in the mass media, it is in reference to the conception of Jesus by Mary. The conception of Jesus by Mary is more properly called the [[incarnation]] of Christ. The phrase "Immaculate Conception," by Catholic interpretation, is not directly connected to the concept of the "Virgin Birth." The Catholic Church celebrates the Immaculate Conception on [[8 December]], exactly nine months before the official birthday of Mary. The [[Annunciation|Incarnation of Christ]] is celebrated on [[25 March]], nine months before [[Christmas Day]].
==See also==
*[[Feast of the Immaculate Conception]]
*[[Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception]]
*[[Perpetual virginity of Mary]]
*[[Original sin]]
== References ==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/library/docs_pi09id.htm ''Ineffabilis Deus'' (Apostolic Constitution of Pope Pius IX defining the dogma of the Immaculate Conception)]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07674d.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry on the Immaculate Conception]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11312a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Original Sin]
==Opinion==
* [http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=4&SID=3 "St. Augustine and Original Sin"] — a short article on the different understandings of Original Sin in Eastern and Western Christianity.
* [http://www.rosicrucian.com/zineen/magen214.htm Rosicrucians: The Immaculate Conception] (esoteric Christian view)
[[Category:Blessed Virgin Mary]]
[[Category:Catholic theology and doctrine]]
[[Category:Liturgical Calendar]]
[[cs:Dogma o neposkvrněném početí Panny Marie]]
[[da:Jomfru Marias ubesmittede undfangelse]]
[[de:Unbefleckte Empfängnis]]
[[es:Inmaculada Concepción]]
[[eo:Senmakula koncipiĝo]]
[[fr:Immaculée conception]]
[[it:Immacolata concezione]]
[[la:Immaculata Conceptio]]
[[li:Ónbevlekde óntvangenis]]
[[hu:Szeplőtelen fogantatás]]
[[nl:Onbevlekte Ontvangenis]]
[[ja:無原罪の御宿り]]
[[ru:Непорочное зачатие]]
[[sv:Immaculata conceptio]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Scilly Isles</title>
<id>15257</id>
<revision>
<id>31839806</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-18T11:58:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Saga City</username>
<id>138511</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>revamped in line with new guidance</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This phrase may refer to:
*the [[Isles of Scilly]], an archipelago off the west of Cornwall, Great Britain, or
*[[The Scilly Isles, Surrey|The Scilly Isles]], an area of Surrey, England.
{{geodis}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isle of Skye</title>
<id>15259</id>
<revision>
<id>39605090</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T16:39:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Grinner</username>
<id>62080</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Broadford, Isle of Skye|Broadford</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:OM Storr 2004.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Old Man of Storr, Skye]]
The '''Isle of Skye''', usually known simply as '''Skye''' (''An t-Eilean Sgitheanach'' in [[Scottish Gaelic]]) is the largest and most northerly island in the [[Inner Hebrides]] of [[Scotland]]. [[Scots Gaelic]] "sgiath" means "winged".
Its name came via [[Old Norse]] ''Skið'' = "ski" (and similar meanings), as an alteration of a [[Pictish]] original which is recorded in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] sources as ''Scitis'' ([[Ravenna Cosmography]]) and ''Scetis'' (on [[Ptolemy]]'s map). Some legends associate the isle with the mythic figure of [[Scáthach]].
==Geography==
[[Image:Skye landsat.jpeg|thumb|right|300 px|Landsat photo]]
At [[1 E9 m²|1700]] [[square kilometre|km²]] (656 [[square mile|mi²]]), Skye is the second largest island in [[Scotland]] after ''[[Lewis]] and [[Harris]]'' (which form a single island). The island has some of the most dramatic and challenging mountain terrain in Scotland, including the [[Cuillin]], as well as a rich heritage of ancient monuments, [[castle]]s, and [[memorial]]s.
The southwest side of Skye is a series of [[peninsula]]s, including [[Sleat]], [[Strathaird]], [[Minginish]] and [[Duirinish]], with [[Waternish]] and [[Trotternish]] to the northwest. Surrounding islands include [[Raasay]], [[Scalpay, Inner Hebrides|Scalpay]] and [[Soay]].
==History==
Skye has sites showing occupation by [[Mesolithic]] hunter-gatherers, such as the site at ''An Corran'' in ''Staffin'' which appears to have been in contact with occupants of the rock shelter at [[Sand, Applecross]] on the coast of [[Ross and Cromarty|Wester Ross]].
Skye suffered [[famine]] and clearances over the latter part of the [[18th century]], leading to its badly depleted population of less than 10,000 at the [[1991]] [[Census]]. In [[2001]] the usually resident population was found to be 8,748.
[[Image:Skye Road Bridge.JPG|thumb|300px|[[Skye bridge]] Isle of Skye]]
The [[Skye Bridge]], linking Skye with the mainland of Scotland was built in the [[1990s]], with an unpopularly expensive toll. Some locals formed a protest group – SKAT (Skye and Kyle Against Tolls). They refused to pay the toll on the grounds that they had the right of free passage on any highway within the Kingdom of Scotland. On [[21 December]] [[2004]] it was announced that the [[Scottish Executive]] had purchased the [[toll bridge]] from its owners and that tolls were abolished.
==Culture==
[[Image:Scotland Skye Trotternish.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Black house|Restored Black house,]] Isle of Skye]]
Of all the Inner Hebrides, Skye has the most in common with the [[Outer Hebrides]], with nearly half the population speaking Gaelic, and many belonging to the [[Free Church of Scotland]], known for its strict observance of the [[Sabbath]].
The [[Talisker Single Malt|Talisker Distillery]], which produces a [[single malt whisky|single malt]] [[whisky]], is beside [[Loch Harport]] on the west coast of the island.
[[Dunvegan Castle]] has been the seat of [[Clan MacLeod]] since the [[1200s|thirteenth century]].
The Isle of Skye has been immortalised in the traditional song ''[[The Skye Boat Song]]'' and in the book ''[[To the Lighthouse]]'' by [[Virginia Woolf]].
==Transport==
Skye is linked to the mainland by the [[Skye Bridge]], while [[ferry|ferries]] sail from [[Armadale, Isle of Skye|Armadale]] on the island to [[Mallaig]], and from [[Kylerhea]] to [[Glenelg, Scotland|Glenelg]]. Ferries also run from [[Uig, Skye|Uig]] to [[Tarbert, Harris|Tarbert]] on [[Harris]] and [[Lochmaddy]] on [[North Uist]], and from [[Sconser]] to [[Raasay]].
Bus Services run to [[Inverness]] and [[Glasgow]], and there are infrequent local services on the island, mainly starting from [[Portree]] or [[Broadford, Isle of Skye|Broadford]]. Train services run from [[Kyle of Lochalsh]] at the mainland end of the [[Skye Bridge]] to [[Inverness]].
Ferries to and from Armadale are sometimes synchronised with train arrivals and departures at Mallaig. If you are getting the 08.20 (Monday to Saturday only) or 12.40 train from Glasgow Queen Street to Mallaig, you can connect with the ferry to Armadale. However, on Sundays in July and August, you should call Caledonian MacBrayne in Mallaig (01687-462403) and ask them to delay the ferry for you, as the 12.40 from Glasgow arrives at 17.48, while the ferry's scheduled departure time is 17.45.
The 09.05 and 14.25 ferries from Armadale to Mallaig also connect with train departures, arriving in Glasgow Queen Street at 15.45 and 21.25, respectively.
==Towns and villages==
[[Image:Scotland Skye cliffs.jpg|thumb|300px|Cliffs near Point Neist]]
The main settlements on the island are connected by the [[A87 road]], [[Portree]], [[Sconser]] and [[Broadford]] lying on the northeast coast, and [[Uig, Skye|Uig]] on the northwest. <!--Other p-->Places on the island include:
*[[Armadale, Isle of Skye|Armadale]]
*[[Bernisdale]], [[Borreraig]], [[Broadford, Isle of Skye|Broadford]]
*[[Carbost]]
*[[Duntulm]]
*[[Dunvegan]], and nearby [[Dunvegan Castle]]
*[[Edinbane]], [[Elgol]]
*[[Fiskavaig]], [[Flodigarry]]
*[[Glenbrittle]], [[Glendale, I |
type of configuration virtually never occurs). <!--how is that done then?-->
{| align="right" class="wikitable"
|+ Parallel ATA Pins
|-
! Pin
! Function
! Pin
! Function
|-
|1 || Reset || 2 || Ground
|-
|3 || Data 7 || 4 || Data 8
|-
|5 || Data 6 || 6 || Data 9
|-
|7 || Data 5 || 8 || Data 10
|-
|9 || Data 4 || 10 || Data 11
|-
|11 || Data 3 || 12 || Data 12
|-
|13 || Data 2 || 14 || Data 13
|-
|15 || Data 1 || 16 || Data 14
|-
|17 || Data 0 || 18 || Data 15
|-
|19 || Ground || 20 || Key
|-
|21 || DDRQ || 22 || Ground
|-
|23 || I/O Write || 24 || Ground
|-
|25 || I/O Read || 26 || Ground
|-
|27 || IOC HRDY || 28 || Cable Select
|-
|29 || DDACK || 30 || Ground
|-
|31 || IRQ || 32 || No Connect
|-
|33 || Addr 1 || 34 || GPIO_DMA66_Detect
|-
|35 || Addr 0 || 36 || Addr 2
|-
|37 || Chip Select 1P || 38 || Chip Select 3P
|-
|39 || Activity || 40 || Ground
|}
ATA's ribbon cables had 40 wires for most of its history, but an 80-wire version appeared with the introduction of the ''Ultra DMA/66'' (''UDMA4'') mode. All of the additional wires in the new cable are [[ground (electricity)|ground]] wires, interleaved with the previously defined wires. The interleaved ground wire reduces the effects of [[capacitive coupling]] between neighboring signal wires, thereby reducing [[crosstalk]]. Capacitive coupling is more of a problem at higher transfer rates, and this change was necessary to enable the 66 megabytes per second (MB/s) transfer rate of ''UDMA4'' to work reliably. The faster ''UDMA5'' and ''UDMA6'' modes also require 80-conductor cables.
Though the number of wires doubled, the number of connector pins and the pinout remain the same as on 40-conductor cables, and the external appearance of the connectors is identical. Internally, of course, the connectors are different: The connectors for the 80-wire cable connect a larger number of ground wires to a smaller number of ground pins, while the connectors for the 40-wire cable connect ground wires to ground pins one-for-one.
The ATA standard has always specified a maximum cable length of just 46 cm (18 inches). This can cause difficulties in connecting drives within a large computer case, or when mounting several physical drives into one computer, and it all but completely eliminates the possibility of using parallel ATA for external devices. Although longer cables are widely available on the market, it must be understood that they are outside the parameters set by the specifications. The same is true of the "rounded" cables also commonly available: The ATA standard describes flat cables with particular [[impedance]] and [[capacitance]] characteristics. This is of course not a guarantee that other cables will not work, but an indication that nonstandard cables should be used, if at all, with caution.
If two devices attach to a single cable, one is commonly referred to as a ''master'' and the other as a ''slave''. The master drive generally appears first when the computer's [[bios]] and/or [[operating system]] enumerates available drives. On old BIOSes (486 era and older) the drives are often misleadingly referred to by the bios as "C" for the master and "D" for the slave.
If there is a single device on a cable, in most cases it should be configured as ''master''. However, some hard drives have a special setting called ''single'' for this configuration ([[Western Digital]], in particular). Also, depending on the hardware and software available, a single drive on a cable can work reliably even though configured as the ''slave'' drive (this configuration is most often seen when a CDROM has a channel to itself).
A drive setting called ''[[cable select]]'' was described as optional in ATA-1 and has come into fairly widespread use with ATA-5 and later. A drive set to "cable select" automatically configures itself as master or slave, according to its position on the cable. Cable select is controlled by pin 28. The host controller grounds this pin; if a device sees that the pin is grounded, it becomes the master device; if it sees that pin 28 is open, the device becomes the slave device.
With the 40-wire cable it was very common to implement cable select by simply cutting this wire between the two device connectors. This puts the slave device at the end of the cable, and the master on the "middle" connector. This arrangement eventually was standardized in later versions of the specification. Unfortunately, if there is just one device on the cable, this results in an unused "stub" of cable. This is undesirable, both for physical convenience and electrical reasons: The stub causes [[signal reflections]], particularly at higher transfer rates.
When the 80-wire cable was defined for use with UDMA4, these details were changed. The master device now goes at the end of the cable, so if there is only one device on the cable, there is no cable "stub" to cause reflections. Also, cable select is now implemented in the slave device connector, usually simply by omitting the contact from the connector body. Since 80-wire cables require special connectors anyway, this was a small additional effort. The standard also dictates color-coded connectors for easy indentification by both installer and cable maker.
Although they are in extremely common use, the terms ''master'' and ''slave'' do not actually appear in current versions of the ATA specifications. The two devices are correctly referred to as ''device 0'' (master) and ''device 1'' (slave), respectively. It is a common myth that "the master drive arbitrates access to devices on the channel." In fact, the drivers in the host operating system perform the necessary arbitration and serialization. If device 1 is busy with a command then device 0 cannot start a command until device 1's command is complete, and vice versa. There is therefore no suggestion in the ATA protocols that one device has to ask the other if it can use the channel. Both are really "slaves" to the driver in the host OS.
==ATA standards versions, transfer rates, and features==
The following table shows the names of the versions of the ATA standards and the transfer modes and rates supported by each. Note that the transfer rate for each mode (for example, 66.7 MB/sec for UDMA4, commonly called "Ultra-DMA 66") gives its maximum theoretical transfer rate on the cable. This is simply two bytes multiplied by the effective clock rate, and presumes that every clock cycle is used to transfer end-user data. In practice, of course, protocol overhead reduces this value.
Congestion on the host bus to which the ATA controller is attached may also limit the maximum burst transfer rate. For example, the maximum data transfer rate for conventional [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] bus is 133 MB/sec, and this is shared among all active devices on the bus.
In addition, [[as of October 2005]] no ATA [[hard drive]]s exist capable of measured sustained transfer rates of above 80 MB/sec. Furthermore, sustained transfer rate tests do not give realistic throughput expectations for most workloads: They use I/O loads specifically designed to encounter almost no delays from seek time or rotational latency. Hard drive performance under most workloads is limited first and second by those two factors; the transfer rate on the bus is a distant third in importance. Therefore, transfer speed limits above 66 MB/sec only really affect performance when the hard drive can satisfy all I/O requests by reading from its internal [[cache]] &mdash; a very unusual situation, especially considering that such data is usually already buffered by the operating system.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Standard
! Other Names
! Transfer Modes Added (MB/sec)
! Other New Features
! ANSI Reference
|-
| ATA-1 || ATA, IDE || [[programmed input/output|PIO]] 0,1,2 (3.3, 5.2, 8.3)<br>Single-word DMA 0,1,2 (2.1, 4.2, 8.3)<br>Multi-word DMA 0 (4.2)|| up to 528 MB || [http://www.t13.org/project/d0791r4c-ATA-1.pdf X3.221-1994]<br>(obsolete since 1999)
|-
| ATA-2 || EIDE, Fast ATA,<br> Fast IDE, Ultra ATA || PIO 3,4: (11.1, 16.6)<br>Multi-word DMA 1,2 (13.3, 16,6) || 24-bit LBA (up to 8.4 GB) || [http://www.t13.org/project/d0948r4c-ATA-2.pdf X3.279-1996]<br>(obsolete since 2001)
|-
| ATA-3 || EIDE || " || 28-bit LBA (up to 137 GB)<br>[[Self-Monitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology|S.M.A.R.T.]], Security || [http://www.t13.org/project/d2008r7b-ATA-3.pdf X3.298-1997]<br>(obsolete since 2002)
|-
| ATA/ATAPI-4 || ATAPI-4, ATA-4, Ultra ATA/33 || Ultra DMA 0,1,2 (16.7, 25.0, 33.3) <br>aka Ultra-DMA/33 || Support for CD-ROM, etc., <br>via ATAPI packet commands || NCITS 317-1998
|-
| ATA/ATAPI-5 || ATA-5, Ultra ATA/66 || Ultra DMA 3,4 (44.4, 66.7)<br>aka Ultra DMA 66 || 80-wire cables || NCITS 340-2000
|-
| ATA/ATAPI-6 || ATA-6, Ultra ATA/100 || UDMA 5 (100)<br>aka Ultra DMA 100 || 48-bit LBA (up to 144 PB)<br>Automatic Acoustic Management || NCITS 347-2001
|-
| ATA/ATAPI-7 || ATA-7, Ultra ATA/133 || UDMA 6 (133)<br>aka Ultra DMA 133<br>SATA/150 || [[SATA]] 1.0, Streaming feature set, long logical/physical sector feature set for non-packet devices || NCITS 361-2002
|-
| ATA/ATAPI-8 || ATA-8 || -- || -- || in progress
|}
In August 2004, Sam Hopkins and Brantley Coile of [[Coraid]] specified a lightweight protocol to carry ATA commands over [[Ethernet]] instead of directly connecting them to a PATA host controller. This permitted the established block protocol to be reused in [[Network-attached storage]] applications.
==External links==
* [http://www.pcguide.com/ref/hdd/if/ide/over-c.html Overview and History of the IDE/ATA Interface]
* [http://www.ata-atapi.com/hist.htm ATA/ATAPI history]
* [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/pc-hardware-faq/enhanced-IDE/part1/ E |
es of Poirot and Miss Marple. In the final Poirot novel ''[[Curtain (novel)|Curtain]]'', Christie killed her creation and explained in her diary that she had always found him insufferable. She had a great fondness for Miss Marple, who was based largely on Christie's own grandmother, so she allowed Miss Marple to solve one more mystery in ''[[Sleeping Murder]]'' and return to the solitude of her village. However, since ''Sleeping Murder'' had been written quite a while previously, at least one character (Colonel Arthur Bantry, husband of Jane Marple's friend, Dolly) who had been declared deceased in earlier-released mysteries reappeared alive and well.
==Works==
* 1920 ''[[The Mysterious Affair at Styles]]'' (her first book, which introduced [[Hercule Poirot]], [[Chief Inspector Japp]] and [[Arthur Hastings|Captain Hastings]])
* 1922 ''[[The Secret Adversary]]'' (introduced [[Tommy and Tuppence]])
* 1923 ''[[Murder on the Links]]''
* 1924 ''[[The Man in the Brown Suit]]''
* 1924 ''[[Poirot Investigates]]'' (eleven short stories)
* 1925 ''[[The Secret of Chimneys]]''
* 1926 ''[[The Murder of Roger Ackroyd]]''
* 1927 ''[[The Big Four (novel)|The Big Four]]''
* [[1928 in literature|1928]] ''[[The Mystery of the Blue Train]]'' ISBN 0425130266
* 1929 ''[[Partners in Crime (novel)|Partners in Crime]]'' (fifteen short stories)
* 1929 ''[[The Seven Dials Mystery]]''
* 1930 ''[[The Murder at the Vicarage]]'' (introduced [[Miss Marple|Jane Marple]])
* 1930 ''[[The Mysterious Mr. Quin]]'' (introduced Mr. Harley Quin, short stories)
* 1931 ''[[The Sittaford Mystery]]''
* 1932 ''[[Peril at End House]]''
* 1933 ''[[The Hound of Death]]'' (twelve short mysteries)
* 1933 ''[[Lord Edgware Dies]]'' (also known as ''Thirteen at Dinner'')
* 1933 ''[[The Thirteen Problems]]'' (Thirteen short mysteries, featuring Miss Marple)
* [[1934 in literature|1934]] ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'' ISBN 0425200450
* 1934 ''[[Parker Pyne Investigates]]'' (twelve short mysteries) (introduced [[Parker Pyne]] and [[Ariadne Oliver]])
* 1934 ''[[The Listerdale mystery]]'' (twelve short mysteries)
* 1935 ''[[Three Act Tragedy]]'' (also known as ''Murder in Three Acts'')
* 1935 ''[[Why Didn't They Ask Evans?]]'' (also known as ''The Boomerang Clue'')
* 1935 ''[[Death in the Clouds]]'' (also known as ''Death in the Air'')
* 1936 ''[[The A.B.C. Murders]]'' (also known as ''The Alphabet Murders'')
* 1936 ''[[Murder in Mesopotamia]]''
* 1936 ''[[Cards on the Table]]''
* 1937 ''[[Death on the Nile]]''
* 1937 ''[[Dumb Witness]]'' (also known as ''Poirot Loses a Client'')
* 1937 ''[[Murder in the Mews]]'' (Four short stories, featuring Hercule Poirot)
* 1938 ''[[Appointment with Death]]''
* [[1939 in literature|1939]] ''[[And Then There Were None]]'' (first published as ''Ten Little Niggers'', also known as ''Ten Little Indians'') ISBN 0312979479
* [[1939 in literature|1939]] ''[[Murder is Easy]]'' (also known as ''Easy to Kill'')
* [[1939 in literature|1939]] ''[[Hercule Poirot's Christmas]]'' ISBN 0425177416
* [[1939 in literature|1939]] ''[[The Regatta Mystery|Regatta Mystery and Other Stories]]'' (Nine short stories)
* 1940 ''[[Sad Cypress]]''
* 1941 ''[[Evil Under the Sun]]''
* 1941 ''[[N or M?]]''
* 1941 ''[[One, Two, Buckle My Shoe]]'' (also known as ''An Overdose of Death'')
* 1942 ''[[The Body in the Library]]''
* 1942 ''[[Five Little Pigs]]'' (also known as ''Murder in Retrospect'')
* 1942 ''[[The Moving Finger]]''
* 1944 ''[[Towards Zero]]''
* 1944 ''[[Sparkling Cyanide]]'' (also known as ''Remembered Death'')
* 1945 ''[[Death Comes as the End]]''
* 1946 ''[[The Hollow]]'' (also known as ''Murder After Hours'')
* 1947 ''[[The Labours of Hercules]]'' (twelve short mysteries featuring Hercule Poirot)
* 1948 ''[[Taken at the Flood]]'' (also known as ''There is a Tide'')
* 1948 ''[[Witness for the Prosecution and Other Stories]]''
* 1949 ''[[Crooked House]]''
* 1950 ''[[A Murder is Announced]]''
* 1950 ''[[Three Blind Mice and Other Stories]]''
* 1951 ''[[They Came to Baghdad]]''
* 1951 ''[[The Under Dog and Other Stories]]'' (Nine short stories)
* 1952 ''[[Mrs McGinty's Dead]]'' (also known as ''Blood Will Tell'')
* 1952 ''[[They Do It with Mirrors]]''
* 1953 ''[[A Pocket Full of Rye]]''
* 1953 ''[[After the Funeral]]'' (also known as ''Funerals are Fatal'')
* 1955 ''[[Hickory Dickory Dock (novel)|Hickory Dickory Dock]]'' (also known as ''Hickory Dickory Death'')
* 1955 ''[[Destination Unknown (novel)|Destination Unknown]]'' (also known as ''So Many Steps to Death'')
* 1956 ''[[Dead Man's Folly]]''
* 1957 ''[[4.50 From Paddington|4.50 from Paddington]]'' (also known as ''What Mrs. McGillycuddy Saw'')
* 1957 ''[[Ordeal by Innocence]]''
* 1959 ''[[Cat Among the Pigeons]]''
* 1960 ''[[The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding]]'' (Six short stories)
* 1961 ''[[The Pale Horse (novel)|The Pale Horse]]''
* 1962 ''[[The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side]]''
* 1963 ''[[The Clocks (novel)|The Clocks]]''
* 1964 ''[[A Caribbean Mystery]]''
* 1965 ''[[At Bertram's Hotel]]''
* 1966 ''[[Third Girl]]''
* 1967 ''[[Endless Night]]''
* 1968 ''[[By the Pricking of My Thumbs (novel)|By the Pricking of My Thumbs]]''
* 1969 ''[[Hallowe'en Party]]''
* 1970 ''[[Passenger to Frankfurt]]''
* 1971 ''[[Nemesis (Christie)|Nemesis]]''
* 1971 ''[[The Golden Ball and Other Stories]]'' (Fifteen short stories)
* 1972 ''[[Elephants Can Remember]]''
* 1973 ''[[Akhnaton (play)|Akhnaton - A play in three acts]]''
* 1973 ''[[Postern of Fate]]'' (final Tommy and Tuppence, last novel Christie wrote)
* 1974 ''[[Poirot's Early Cases]]'' (eighteen short mysteries)
* 1975 ''[[Curtain (novel)|Curtain]]'' (Poirot's last case, written four decades earlier)
* 1976 ''[[Sleeping Murder]]'' (Miss Marple's last case, written four decades earlier)
* 1979 ''[[Miss Marple's Final Cases and Two Other Stories]]''
* 1997 ''[[While the Light Lasts and Other Stories]]'' (also known as ''The Harlequin Tea Set and Other Stories'')
Co-authored works:
* 1931 ''[[The Floating Admiral]]'' written together with [[G. K. Chesterton]], [[Dorothy L. Sayers]] and certain other members of the [[Detection Club]].
Plays adapted into novels by Charles Osborne:
* 1998 ''[[Black Coffee (book)|Black Coffee]]''
* 2001 ''[[The Unexpected Guest]]''
* 2003 ''[[The Spider's Web]]''
Works written as Mary Westmacott:
* 1930 ''[[Giant's Bread]]''
* 1934 ''[[Unfinished Portrait (novel)|Unfinished Portrait]]''
* 1944 ''[[Absent in the Spring]]''
* 1948 ''[[The Rose and the Yew Tree]]''
* 1952 ''[[A Daughter's a Daughter]]''
* 1956 ''[[The Burden (novel)|The Burden]]''
Plays:
* 1928 ''[[Alibi]]''
* 1930 ''[[Black Coffee (play)|Black Coffee]]''
* 1936 ''[[Love from a Stranger]]''
* [[1937 or 1939]] ''[[A Daughter's a Daughter]]'' (Never Performed)
* 1940 ''[[Peril at End House]]''
* 1943 ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Indians]]''
* 1945 ''[[Appointment With Death]]''
* 1946 ''[[Murder on the Nile/Hiddon Horizon]]''
* 1949 ''[[Murder at the Vicarage]]''
* 1951 ''[[The Hollow]]''
* 1952 ''[[The Mousetrap]]''
* 1953 ''[[Witness for the Prosecution]]''
* 1954 ''[[The Spider's Web]]''
* 1956 ''[[Towards Zero]]''
* 1958 ''[[Verdict]]''
* 1958 ''[[The Unexpected Guest]]''
* 1960 ''[[Go Back for Murder]]''
* 1962 ''[[Rule of Three]]''
* 1972 ''[[Fiddler's Three]]'' (Originally written as Fiddler's Five. Never Published. Final play she wrote.)
* 1973 ''[[Aknaton]]'' (Written in 1937)
* 1977 ''[[Murder is Announced]]''
* 1981 ''[[Cards on the Table]]''
* 1993 ''[[Murder is Easy]]''
* 2000? ''[[And Then There Were None]]''
Radio Plays:
* 1937 ''[[The Yellow Iris]]''
* 1947 ''[[Three Blind Mice]]''
* 1948 ''[[Butter In a Lordly Dish]]''
* 1960 ''[[Personal Call]]''
Television Plays:
* 1937 ''[[Wasp's Nest]]''
==Movie Adaptions==
Agatha Christie is no stranger to the cinema. Over the last 78 years, Poirot, Miss Marple, Tommy and Tuppence, Mr. Quin, Parker Pyne, and many others have been portrayed on numerous occasions:
* 1928 ''[[Die Abenteuer G. m. b. H]]'' (The Secret Adversary)
* 1928 ''[[The Passing of Mr. Quinn]]''
* 1931 ''[[Alibi]]''
* 1931 ''[[Black Coffee (film)|Black Coffee]]''
* 1934 ''[[Lord Edgware Dies]]''
* 1937 ''[[Love From A Stranger]]''
* 1945 ''[[And Then There Were None]]''
* 1947 ''[[Love From A Stranger]]''
* 1957 ''[[Witness for the Prosecution]]''
* 1960 ''[[The Spider's Web]]''
* 1962 ''[[Murder, She Said]]'' (Based on [[4.50 From Paddington]])
* 1963 ''[[Murder at the Gallop]]'' (Based on [[After The Funeral]])
* 1964 ''[[Murder Most Foul]]'' (Based on [[Mrs. McGinty's Dead]])
* 1964 ''[[Murder Ahoy!]]'' (An original Movie, not based on any of the books)
* 1966 ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Indians]]''
* 1966 ''[[The Alphabet Murders]]'' (Based on The ABC Murders)
* 1972 ''[[Endless Night]]''
* 1974 ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]''
* 1975 ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Indians]]''
* 1978 ''[[Death on the Nile]]''
* 1980 ''[[The Mirror Crack'd]]''
* 1982 ''[[Evil Under the Sun]]''
* 1984 ''[[Ordeal by Innocence]]''
* 1988 ''[[Appointment with Death]]''
* 1989 ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Indians]]''
==Television Plays==
* 1938 ''[[Love from a Stranger]]''
* 1947 ''[[Love from a Stranger]]''
* 1949 ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Indians]]''
* 1959 ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Indians]]''
* 1970 ''[[Murder at the Vicarage]]''
* 1980 ''[[Why Didn't They Ask Evans?]]''
* 1982 ''[[The Spider's Web]]''
* 1982 ''[[The Seven Dials Mystery]]''
* 1982 ''[[The Agatha Christie Hour]]''
* 1982 ''[[Murder is Easy]]''
* 1982 ''[[The Witness for the Prosecution]]''
* 1983 ''[[Partners in Crime]]''
* 1983 ''[[A Caribbean Mystery]]''
* 1983 ''[[Sparkling Cyanide]]''
* 1984 ''[[The Body in the Library]]''
* 1985 ''[[Murder With Mirrors]]''
* 1985 ''[[The Moving Finger]]''
* 1985 ''[[A Murder Is Announced]]''
* 1985 ''[[A Pocket Full of Rye]]''
* 1985 ''[[Thirten At Dinner]]''
* 1986 ''[[Dead Man's Folly]]
* 1986 ''[[Murder in Three Acts]]''
* 1986 ''[[Murder |
hed the regular season hot. Taking their third consecutive AL Central title, the Tribe shocked the baseball world by beating the heavily-favored [[New York Yankees]] in the [[1997 American League Division Series|Divisional Series]] (3-2). After getting payback for 1996 against the Baltimore Orioles in the [[1997 American League Championship Series|ALCS]], the Tribe went on to finish a bittersweet season against the [[Florida Marlins]]. In a [[1997 World Series|dramatic series]], which featured (among other oddities) one of the coldest games in World Series history, Indians fans were reminded that the [[Curse of Rocky Colavito]] was not, in fact, dead: with the Indians in the lead going into the bottom of the ninth inning of game seven, the Marlins managed to tie the game. Relief Pitcher [[Jose Mesa]], who is largely blamed by Tribe fans for the loss, gave up the run. The Marlins went on to clinch the title in the bottom of the eleventh, with [[Edgar Renteria]] driving the game winning RBI just past the glove of leaping Indians second baseman [[Tony Fernandez]]. In his 2002 autobiography, Indians shortstop [[Omar Vizquel]] directly blamed Mesa for the loss.
In [[1998 in baseball|1998]], the Indians fell short of returning to the World Series for a third time in four seasons, being beaten by the New York Yankees in the [[1998 American League Championship Series|ALCS]]. In [[1999 in baseball|1999]], the [[1999 American League Division Series|Divisional Series]] was the stage for one of the biggest collapses in MLB postseason history; the Indians, who were in command with a two games to none lead going into game three, gave up three consecutive games to the Boston Red Sox. The debacle cost Indians manager [[Mike Hargrove]] his job.
In [[2000 in baseball|2000]], the Indians got off to a mediocre start, going 44-42 at the break. They soon caught fire and went 46-30 the rest of the way to finish 90-72. Unfortunately, it wasn't enough as they ended up five games behind the [[Chicago White Sox]] in the Central division and missed the [[wild card (sports)|wild card]] by one game to the [[Seattle Mariners]]. In 2000, [[Larry Dolan]] bought the Indians for $323 million from Richard Jacobs, who, along with his late brother David, had paid $35 million for the club in 1986.
[[2001 in baseball|2001]] saw a return to prominence for the Indians. After losing [[Manny Ramirez]] and [[Sandy Alomar Jr.]] to free agency, the Tribe signed former-[[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|MVP]] [[Juan Gonzalez]], who arguably had one his best years in 2001, and reclaimed the Central division with a 91-71 record. One of the highlights of the season was a game televised nationally on ESPN on August 5th, where the Indians erased a 12-run deficit to the Mariners and won the game in extra innings, now known as [[the Impossible Return]]. The playoff run was short lived, however, as they were eliminated in the [[2001 American League Division Series|first round]] by the juggernaut Mariners.
==== The Shapiro years ====
In the 2001 offseason, GM [[John Hart (baseball)|John Hart]] resigned and his assistant [[Mark Shapiro]] took the reins. Shapiro decided that the Indians team was aging, and needed to be rebuilt with young minor-league talent. This sent Cleveland fans in an uproar, as Shapiro traded fan favorite pitching ace [[Bartolo Colon]] for then-unknowns [[Brandon Phillips]], [[Cliff Lee]], and [[Grady Sizemore]], and the Indians struggled through [[2002 in baseball|2002]] and [[2003 in baseball|2003]], posting losing records both years.
In [[2004 in baseball|2004]], the young talent finally started to hit its stride, and the Indians were a terrific offensive team. Unfortunately, the [[bullpen]] was a major Achilles heel. They blew more than 20 [[save (sport)|save]]s that year, and the Indians finished with an 80-82 record.
In early [[2005 in baseball|2005]], the offense was anemic, and couldn't score runs like the year before. However, the offense soon picked up, and the Indians began a 9-game winning streak in mid-June, going over .500 for good. After a brief July slump, the Indians caught fire in August, and they cut a 15.5 game deficit in the Central Division to the White Sox down to 1.5 games. However, the season came to a heartbreaking end as the Indians went on to lose six of their last seven games, five of them by one run, and missed the playoffs by only two games.
During the [[2006 in baseball|2006]] offseason the Indians traded the popular [[Coco Crisp]] along with [[David Riske]] and [[Josh Bard]] to the [[Red Sox]] for reliever [[Guillermo Mota]], third base prospect [[Andy Marte]], catching prospect [[Kelly Shoppach]], a player to be named later and cash, and [[Arthur Rhodes]] to the [[Phillies]] for outfielder [[Jason Michaels]]. Many fans saw the trade of Crisp for a package littered with prospects as more of a rebuilding move than a trade that would push the Indians into the playoffs in the coming season. Shapiro defended the move, citing the inclusion of Marte, regarded as one of the game's top prospects, and Mota, whom Shapiro feels can be the Tribe's setup man. "It was," Shapiro said, "too much to turn down."
==Trivia==
*The Indians' non-competitiveness during the 1960s through the 1980s became a subject for humor. A standard joke of the time had a judge asking a child in a parental custody battle which parent he preferred to live with. The child says neither one, they both beat me &mdash; the judge then asks who does he want to live with and the answer is "the Cleveland Indians, they don't beat anybody."
*[[Richie Scheinblum]], an outfielder who played with the Indians from 1965 to 1969, joked, "Maybe we should change our name to the Cleveland Utility Company. All we have are [[utility player]]s," meaning players who were kept on the roster because they played several positions, but none of them particularly well.
*On [[June 4]], [[1974]] the Indians hosted "Ten Cent [[Beer]] Night", but had to forfeit the game to the [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] due to drunken and unruly fans.
*In 1981, [[Lon Simmons]], then broadcasting for the [[Oakland Athletics]], told his listeners, "The A's leave after this game for Cleveland. It was only by a 13 to 12 vote that they decided to go." The suggestion was that, despite being in a pennant race that would eventually see them win their division, the A's would rather forfeit all the games in the series than actually go to Cleveland; not that they were afraid of the Indians, then having a typically terrible season, but that the city would be terribly unpleasant.
*That same season, [[Graig Nettles]], a [[New York Yankees]] third baseman who had begun his career with the Indians, took the intercom of the team's charter flight, and said, "We will soon be landing in Cleveland. Please set your watches back 42 minutes."
*The Indians were the subject of a 1989 [[film|movie]], ''[[Major League (movie)|Major League]]'', which starred [[Charlie Sheen]] and [[Tom Berenger]]. Sequels followed in 1994 and 1998.
*The team's most notable fan, comedian [[Drew Carey]], poked fun at the rest of baseball while he promoted his new [[sitcom]] ''[[The Drew Carey Show]]'' in 1995. In the promos, he often uttered the now-famous line:
:''Finally, it's '''your''' team that sucks!''
==Quick facts==
*'''Founded:''' [[1893]], as the Grand Rapids, Michigan, franchise in the minor [[Western League]]. Moved to Cleveland in [[1900]] after the [[National League]] had vacated the city following the [[1899]] season, and when the Western League was renamed the American League. The American became a major league in [[1901]]. Cleveland is thus a charter member of the American League.
*'''Formerly known as:''' the Cleveland Blues ([[1901]]), Broncos/Bronchos ([[1902]]) and Naps ([[1903]]-[[1914]]). They were called the Blues because they wore blue uniforms. When reporters referred to them as the "Bluebirds", which the players hated, the players chose the name Broncos or Bronchos. The name was changed to the Naps when [[Nap Lajoie|Napoleon Lajoie]] was the team's star player.
*'''Uniform colors:''' Navy blue and red with silver trim
*'''Logo design:''' "Chief Wahoo" (a smiling Indian [[caricature]]) and a cursive capital "I"
*'''Mascot:''' Slider
*'''Playoff appearances''' (9): [[1920]], [[1948]], [[1954]], [[1995]], [[1996]], [[1997]], [[1998]], [[1999]], [[2001]]
==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
[[Image:Nap_Lajoie_Baseball_Card.jpg|right|thumb|[[Nap Lajoie]] on a 1911 [[baseball card]]]]
{|
|valign="top"|
Elected mainly on basis of performance with the Indians
*[[Earl Averill]]
*[[Lou Boudreau]]
*[[Stan Coveleski]]
*[[Larry Doby]]
*[[Bob Feller]]
*[[Elmer Flick]]
*[[Addie Joss]]
*[[Nap Lajoie]]
*[[Bob Lemon]]
*[[Al Lopez]]
*[[Joe Sewell]]
*[[Tris Speaker]]
*[[Early Wynn]]
|width="100"|&nbsp;
|valign="top"|
Other Hall-of-Famers associated with Indians
*[[Steve Carlton]]
*[[Dennis Eckersley]]
*[[Ralph Kiner]]
*[[Eddie Murray]]
*[[Hal Newhouser]]
*[[Phil Niekro]]
*[[Satchel Paige]]
*[[Gaylord Perry]]
*[[Sam Rice]]
*[[Frank Robinson]]
*[[Hoyt Wilhelm]]
*[[Dave Winfield]]
*[[Cy Young]]
|}
<br clear="all">
==Current roster==
{{:Cleveland Indians roster}}
==Minor league affiliations==
* '''AAA:''' [[Buffalo Bisons]], [[International League]]
* '''AA:''' [[Akron Aeros]], [[Eastern League]]
* '''Advanced A:''' [[Kinston Indians]], [[Carolina League]]
* '''A:''' [[Lake County Captains]], [[South Atlantic League]]
* '''Short A:''' [[Mahoning Valley Scrappers]], [[New York-Penn League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Burlington Indians]], [[Appalachian League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[VSL Indians]], [[Venezuelan Summer League]]
==See also==
*[[List of the Top 100 Greatest Indians Roster]]
*[[Cleveland Indians/Award winners and league leaders |
racist]], [[sexist]], [[classist]] or otherwise needlessly hateful comments.
* Opinionated statements: Posting messages expressing their own opinions as generally accepted facts without offering any proof or analysis.
* Spoiling: Deliberately revealing the ending or an important part of movie, book, game etc.
* [[Bump (internet)|Bumping]] an old discussion, or rehashing a highly controversial past topic, particularly in smaller online communities.
* Deliberate and repeated misspelling of other people's nicks in order to disturb or irritate them in a conversation.
* Promising nonexistent [[pornography]] to people who post in the forum, producing an interminable flood of "[[me too|please send]]" messages (especially common in the [[alt.sex]] Usenet hierarchy in the mid-1990s) [http://groups.google.com/group/alt.sex/browse_frm/thread/58cde5e8022c292e/478e88c152e6b67b] [http://groups.google.com/group/alt.sex/browse_frm/thread/239abd534a03819f/f493eb2332e312d3]
=== Attention-seeking trolls ===
This class of trolls seeks to incite as many responses as possible and to absorb a disproportionate share of the collective [[attention span]].
* Advertising another forum, especially a rival or a hated forum.
* Claiming to be someone they cannot possibly be: "As an actual, real-life [[samurai]], I have some problems with (the film) ''[[The Seven Samurai]]''."
* No longer having affiliation to or current knowledge of the subject at hand, yet continually posting opinions and commentary as "experts".
* Messages containing a deliberate flaw or error: "I think ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' is [[Roman Polanski]]'s best film."
* Asking for help with an implausible task or problem: "How do I season my Crock Pot? I don't want everything I cook in it to taste the same."
* Intentionally naive questions: "Can I cook pasta in [[Evian]] instead of water"
* Intentional typos: "Does anyone have a copy of [[Super Mario Bros.|Super Maria Bras.]] for the [[Nintendo Entertainment System|Nintendo]]?"
* Messages containing a self-referential appeal to status. "[[Pepsi|Pepsi-Cola]] is for [[white trash]]. I prefer a real soft drink like [[Coke|Coca-Cola]]."
* Intentionally posting an outrageous argument, deliberately constructed around a fundamental but obfuscated flaw or error. Often the poster will become defensive when the argument is refuted, and may continue the [[thread]] through the use of further flawed arguments; this is referred to as "feeding" the troll.
* A subclass of the above is the [[invalid proof|flawed proof]] of an important unsolved [[mathematics | mathematical]] problem or impossibility (e.g. 1 = 2); however, these may not always be troll-posts, and are sometimes, at least, mathematically interesting.
* Politically contentious messages: "Everyone knows that all Republicans/Democrats are evil."
* Posting politically sensitive images in inappropriate places.
* Feigning innocence, after a [[flamewar]] ensues.
* Off-topic complaints about personal life, even threats of suicide: sometimes, this is the "cry for help" troll.
* Plural or paranoid answers to personal opinions expressed by individuals: "I don't think that all of you really believe that -— you're just ganging up on me!"
* Paramour trolls get a thrill from establishing serial online affairs with females of a group. This incites public rivalry among the women who once thought the nicknames, poetry, and declarations of affection were exclusive to them. Since the online love affair is developed separately in chat programs, it takes a long time for the online cat-fight to be detected.
* Combinations of the above. For example, a troll combines inflammatory statements with poor grammar and [[Internet slang]] (aka 'netspeak' or 'chatspeak'): "lmfao! d00d, ur so week minded an predictable i thought i wan iggied i play ya like a card"
===Other examples===
Some trolls may denounce a particular [[religion]] in a religion newsgroup, though historically, this would have been called "[[flamebait]]". Like those who engage in [[flaming]], self-proclaimed or alleged Internet trolls sometimes resort to [[innuendo]] or misdirection in the pursuit of their objective. It is possible to distinguish between comments that are flamebait and as a result of trolling: flames have the intent of being anti-social and offensive, while trolling comments are intended to provoke a reaction, though trolling comments may also be perceived as being anti-social, although that may not have been the intent of the author.<!--What exactly does this last sentence mean? Too subtle a point for me!-->
A variant of the second variety ([[inflammatory]] messages) involves posting content obviously at odds with the (stated or unstated) focus of the group or forum; for example, posting [[cat]]-meat recipes on a [[pet]] lovers forum, posting [[evolution]]ary theory on a [[creationism|creationist]] forum (or vice versa), or posting messages about how all [[Western dragon|dragon]]s are boring in the [[usenet|USENET]] group ''alt.fan.dragons''.
The "[[Internet sock puppet|sock-puppet]]" troll enters a forum using several different identities. As provocative postings from one identity draw increasingly critical comment from other forum members, the troll enters the discussion under a second identity in support of the first. Alternatively, the troll may under the second identity criticise the first in order to develop credibility or esteem on the forum.
[[Cross posting|Cross-posting]] is a popular method of Usenet trolls: a cross-posted article can be discussed simultaneously in several unrelated and/or opposing newsgroups; this is likely to result in a [[flame war]]. For instance, an anti-[[fast food]] flame bait might be cross-posted to healthy eating groups, [[environmentalist]] groups, [[animal rights]] groups, as well as a totally off-topic [[artificial intelligence]] newsgroup.
An example of a successful troll is the well-known "Oh how I envy American students" [[Usenet|USENET]] [[thread]] which had 3,000-odd follow-ups. A new USENET newsgroup, "alt.genius.bill-palmer", was created by [http://igor.chudov.com/ Igor Chudov] for the purpose of creating an outlet for discussing a controversial USENET personality, [[Bill Palmer]], himself an alleged USENET troll who managed to make his personality the center of all discussions. A swirl of messages attempting to disprove his alleged status as [[genius]], cross-posted to hell and back, made "a.g.b-p", the most popular new "alt.*" newsgroup of the year. Its creator was [http://www.cyberussr.com/hcunn/usenet/palm-chudov.html nominated] for the "Troll of the Year [[1996]]" award.
==Motivation==
Self-proclaimed "trolls" may style themselves as [[devil's advocate|devil's advocates]], [[Gadfly (social)|gadflies]] or "[[culture jamming|culture jammers]]", challenging the dominant discourse and assumptions of forum discussions in an attempt to break the [[status quo]] of [[groupthink]] &mdash; the belief system that prevails in their absence.
Some critics claim that genuine "devil's advocates" generally identify themselves as such, out of respect for etiquette and courtesy, while trolls may dismiss etiquette and courtesy altogether. Most discussion of what motivates Internet trolls comes from other Internet users who claim to have observed trolling behavior. There is little scholarly literature to describe either the term or the phenomenon. The comments of accused trolls might be unreliable, since they may, in fact, be intending to stir controversy, rather than to advance understanding of the phenomenon. Likewise, accusers are often motivated by a desire to defend a particular Internet project, and references to an Internet user as a troll might not be based on the actual goals of the person so named. As a result, identifying the goals of Internet trolls is most often [[speculation|speculative]]. Still, several basic goals have been attributed to Internet trolls, according to the type of disruption they are believed to be provoking.
Further complicating the issue, many accusatory labelers fail to first question whether the alleged "troll" material actually is disruptive (a requisite component of trolling behavior) before being declared as such. Thus, many "trolls" are born of a second party's too-quick own inference of intent, accurate or not.
Proposed motivations for trolling:
* Trolling can be described as a [[breaching experiment]], which, because of the use of an alternate [[persona]], allows for normal social boundaries and rules of [[etiquette]] to be tested or otherwise broken, without serious consequences. This may be part of an attempt to test the limits of some discourse, or to identify reactive personalities. By removing identities and histories from the situation, leaving only the discourse, some [[scientist]]s believe that it is possible to run [[social engineering]] experiments using troll methods. However, few believe that [[troll organization]]s are engaged in science, and a few scattered individuals, with no particular method or [[thesis]], cannot be described as scientists. They might however be engaged in [[research]].
* Anonymous attention-seeking: The troll seeks to ''dominate'' the thread by inciting anger, and effectively [[Thread Hijacking|hijacking]] the topic at hand.
* Amusement: To some people, the thought of a person getting angry over statements from total strangers is entertaining. This could be categorized as a form of ''[[schadenfreude]]'' - trolls with amusement motives deriving pleasure from the actual frustration/anger/pain (or what they may perceive in their own minds as such) from their targets.
* Anger: Some people use trolling to express their |
]] path when thrown into the air" is falsifiable (and, in fact, false; think of a feather&mdash;a better statement would be: "all objects follow a parabolic path when thrown in a [[vacuum]] and acted upon by gravity", which is itself falsified when considering paths that are a measureable proportion of the planet's radius).
===Ethics===
Many philosophers have held that claims about [[ethics|morality]] (such as "murder is evil" and "John was wrong to steal that money") are not part of scientific inquiry; their function in language is not even to state facts, but simply to express certain moral sentiments. Hence they are not falsifiable.
===Theism ===
On the view of some, [[theism]] is not falsifiable, since the existence of [[god|God]] is typically asserted without sufficient conditions to allow a falsifying observation. If God is a transcendental being that can escape the realm of the observable, claims about God's non-existence can not be supported by a lack of observation. It is quite consistent for a theist to agree that the existence of God is unfalsifiable, and that the proposition is not scientific, but to still claim that God exists. This is because the theist claims to have presentable evidence that ''verifies'' the existence of God. This is, of course, a matter of interest for anyone who places stock in witnesses who claim to have seen God or ideas like [[natural theology]]--the [[argument from design]] and other [[a posteriori]] [[arguments for the existence of God]]. (See [[non-cognitivism]].) However, arguments relating to alleged actions and eye-witness accounts, rather than the existence, of [[god|God]] may be falsifiable. See [[nontheism]] for further information.
===Conspiracy theories===
Some so-called "[[Conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]]," at least as defended by some people, are essentially unfalsifiable because of their logical structure. Conspiracy theories usually take the form of uncircumscribed [[existential quantification|existential statements]], alleging the existence of some action or object without specifying the place or time at which it can be observed. Failure to observe the phenomenon can then always be the result of looking in the wrong place or looking at the wrong time. Conspiracy theorists can, and often do, defend their position by claiming that lying and other forms of fabrication are, in fact, a common tool of governments and other powerful players and that evidence suggesting that a conspiracy did not occur has been fabricated.
===Economics===
Many viewpoints in [[economics]] are often accused of not being falsifiable, mainly by [[sociologists]] and other [[social scientists]] in general.
The most common argument is made against [[rational expectations]] theories, which work under the assumption that people act to maximize their [[utility]]. However, under this viewpoint, it is impossible to disprove the fundamental theory that people are utility-maximizers. The [[political scientist]] [[Graham T. Allison]], in his book ''[[Essence of Decision]]'', attempted to both quash this theory and substitute other possible models of behavior.
===Historicism===
Theories of [[history]] or [[politics]] which allegedly predict the future course of history have a logical form that renders them neither falsifiable nor verifiable. They claim that for every historically significant event, there exists an historical or economic law that ''determines'' the way in which events proceeded. Failure to identify the law does not mean that it does not exist, yet an event that satisfies the law does not prove the general case. Evaluation of such claims is at best difficult. On this basis, Popper himself argued that neither [[Marxism]] nor [[psychoanalysis]] were science, although both made such claims. Again, this does not mean, that any of these types of theories are necessarily invalid. [[Popper]] considered falsifiability a test of whether theories are scientific, not of whether theories are valid.
===Memetics===
The model of [[cultural evolution]] known as [[memetics]] is as of yet unfalsifiable, as its practitioners have been unable to determine what constitutes a single meme, and more importantly, what determines the survival of a meme. For the theory to be falsifiable, more exact accounts of this are needed, as currently every outcome of cultural evolution can be explained memetically by suitable choice of competing memes. This does not, however, mean that all epidemological theories of social and cultural spread are unscientific, as some of them have (mostly due to smaller scope) more exact terms of transmission and survival.
===Solipsism===
In philosophy, [[solipsism]] is, in essence, non-falsifiable. Solipsism claims that the [[Universe]] exists entirely in one's own mind. This can straightforwardly be seen not to be falsifiable, because whatever evidence one might adduce that is contrary to solipsism can be, after all, dismissed as something that is "in one's mind." In other words, there is no evidence that one could possibly adduce that would be ''inconsistent'' with the proposition that everything that exists, exists in one's own mind. This view is somewhat similar to [[Cartesian scepticism]], and indeed, Cartesian skepticism has been rejected as unfalsifiable as well by many philosophers.
===Physical laws===
The laws of [[physics]] are an interesting case. Occasionally it is suggested that the most fundamental laws of physics, such as "force equals mass times acceleration" (F=ma), are not falsifiable because they are definitions of basic physical concepts (in the example, of "force"). More usually, they are treated as falsifiable laws, but it is a matter of considerable controversy in the philosophy of science what to regard as evidence for or against the most fundamental laws of physics. [[Isaac Newton]]'s [[Newton's laws of motion|laws of motion]] in their original form were falsified by experiments in the twentieth century (eg, the anomaly of the motion of Mercury, the behavior of light passing sufficiently close to a star, the behavior of a particle being accelerated in a [[cyclotron]], etc), and replaced by a theory which predicted those phenomena, [[General Relativity]], though Newton's account of motion is still a good enough approximation for most human needs. In the case of less fundamental laws, their falsifiability is much easier to understand. If, for example, a biologist hypothesizes that, as a matter of scientific law (though practising scientists will rarely actually state it as such), only one certain gland produces a certain hormone, when someone discovers an individual without the gland but with the hormone occurring naturally in their body, the hypothesis is falsified.
The range of available testing apparatus is also sometimes an issue - when [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] showed [[Roman Catholic Church]] scholars the [[Galilean moon|moons of Jupiter]], there was only one telescope on hand, and telescopes were a new technology, so there was some debate about whether the moons were real or possibly an artifact of the telescope or of the type of telescope. Fortunately, this type of problem can usually be resolved in a short time, as it was in Galileo's case, by the spread of technical improvements. Diversity of observing apparatus is quite important to concepts of falsifiability, because presumably any observer with any appropriate apparatus should be able to make the same observation and so prove a thesis false.
==References==
*[[Karl Popper]], ''[[The Logic of Scientific Discovery]]'' (New York: Basic Books, 1959).
*[[Thomas Kuhn]], ''[[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]]'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).
*[[Paul Feyerabend]], ''[[Against Method]]'' (London: Humanities Press, 1975).
==External links==
*[http://www.galilean-library.org/falsificationism.html Problems with Falsificationism] explained at The Galilean Library
==See also==
*[[Cognitive bias]]
*[[Defeasible reasoning]]
*[[Duhem-Quine thesis]]
*[[Fallibilism]]
*[[Obsolete scientific theories]]
*[[Occam's Razor]]
*[[Philosophy of mathematics]]
*[[Philosophy of science]]
*[[Predictive power]]
[[Category:Epistemology]]
[[ar:قابلية التكذيب]]
[[bg:Фалсифицируемост]]
[[cs:Falzifikace]]
[[de:Falsifizierbarkeit]]
[[es:Falsacionismo]]
[[fi:Fallibilismi]]
[[fr:Réfutabilité]]
[[he:הפרכה]]
[[is:Hrekjanleiki]]
[[it:Falsificabilità]]
[[ja:反証可能性]]
[[nl:Falsifieerbaarheid]]
[[no:Falsifikasjon]]
[[pt:Falseabilidade]]
[[ro:Falsificabilitate]]
[[ru:Фальсифицируемость]]
[[sv:Falsifikation]]
[[uk:Принцип спростовуваності]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Freikorps</title>
<id>11284</id>
<revision>
<id>40230381</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T02:52:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The designation of '''Freikorps''' ([[German language|German]] for "Free Corps", i.e. [[militia]]) was originally applied to voluntary armies. The first freikorps were recruited by [[Frederick II of Prussia]] during the [[Seven Year's War]]. Other known freikorps appeared during the [[Napoleon_I_of_France#Battles_in_Spain.2C_Austria.2C_and_Russia|Napoleonic Wars]] and were led for example by [[Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow]]. The freikorps were regarded as unreliable by regular armies, so that they were mainly used as sentries and for minor duties.
However, the meaning of the word has changed over time. After [[1918]], the term was used for the [[far-right]] [[paramilitary]] organizations that sprang up around [[Germany]] as soldiers returned in defeat from [[World War I]]. It was one of the many [[Weimar paramilitary groups]] active during that time. Many German veterans felt profoundly disconnected from |
ion)
[[Category:History of England]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Interstellar cloud</title>
<id>14979</id>
<revision>
<id>39963224</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T03:18:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Krash</username>
<id>219529</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dab "Plasma"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Interstellar cloud''' is the generic name given to an accumulation of gas, [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] and [[Cosmic dust|dust]] in our and other [[galaxy|galaxies]]. Put differently, an interstellar cloud is a denser-than-average region of the [[interstellar medium]]. Depending on the density, size and temperature of a given cloud, the [[hydrogen]] in it can be neutral ([[H I region]]s), ionized ([[H II region]]s) (ie. a plasma), or molecular ([[molecular cloud]]s).
[[image:interstellar.cloud.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|Over 200 newly formed stars are scattered within a cavern-like, gaseous, interstellar cloud ([[NGC 604]]). The stars irradiate the gas with energetic ultraviolet light stripping electrons from atoms and exciting them - producing a characteristic nebular glow.]]
== Chemical compositions ==
Analysing the composition of interstellar clouds is achieved by studying [[electromagnetic radiation]] that we receive from them. Large [[radio telescope]]s scan the intensity in the sky of particular [[frequency|frequencies]] of electromagnetic radiation which are characteristic of certain molecules' [[electromagnetic spectroscopy|spectra]]. Some interstellar clouds are cold and tend to give out EM radiation of large [[wavelength]]s. We can produce a map of the abundance of these molecules to produce an understanding of the varying composition of the clouds. In hot clouds, there are often ions of many elements, whose spectra can be seen in visible and ultraviolet light.
[[Radio telescope]]s can also scan over the frequencies from one point in the map, recording the intensities of each type of molecule. Peaks of frequencies mean that an abundance of that molecule or atom is present in the cloud. The height of the peak is proportional to the relative percentage that it makes up.
== Unexpected chemicals detected in interstellar clouds ==
Until recently the rates of reactions in interstellar clouds were expected to be very slow, with minimal products being produced due to the low temperature and density of the clouds. However, large [[organic chemistry|organic]] molecules were observed in the spectra that scientists would not have expected to find under these conditions. The reactions needed to create them normally only occur at much higher temperatures and pressures. The fact that they were found indicates that these chemical reactions in interstellar clouds take place faster than suspected. These reactions are studied in the [[CRESU experiment]].
== See also ==
* [[Interstellar medium]]
* [[List of molecules in interstellar space]]
[[Category:Interstellar media|Cloud]]
[[Category:Nebulae]]
[[ca:Pols interestel·lar]]
[[de:Interstellare Wolke]]
[[es:Nube interestelar]]
[[fr:Nuage interstellaire]]
[[it:Nube interstellare]]
[[nl:Nevels en gaswolken]]
[[ja:宇宙塵]]
[[pl:Obłok międzygwiazdowy]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Imhotep</title>
<id>14980</id>
<revision>
<id>41665861</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T22:59:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.19.14.29</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Modern cultural impact */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Imhotep.jpg|thumb|Imhotep, the one who comes in peace]]
'''Imhotep''' (sometimes spelled '''Immutef''', '''&#550;mhotep''', or '''Ii-em-Hotep''', Egyptian ''ii-m-&#7717;tp'') was a [[vizier]], [[wizard]], and the first [[architect]] and [[physician]] known by name to written history. As the [[Pharaoh]] [[Djoser|Djosèr]]'s [[Vizier]], he designed the [[Pyramid of Djzosèr]] ([[Step Pyramid]]) at [[Saqqara]] in [[History of Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] around [[27th century BC|2630]]-[[27th century BC|2611 BC]], during the [[third dynasty of Egypt|3rd Dynasty]]. He may also have been responsible for the first known use of [[column]]s in [[architecture]]. His name means ''the one who comes in peace''.
Imhotep also served as [[chancellor]] to the [[pharaoh]] and high priest of the sun god [[Ra]] at [[Heliopolis]]. He was said to be a son of [[Ptah]], his mother being a mortal named ''Khredu-ankh''. He was revered as a genius and showered with titles. The full list of titles is: ''Chancellor of the King of Lower Egypt, First after the King of Upper Egypt, Administrator of the Great Palace, Hereditary nobleman, High Priest of Heliopolis, Builder, Sculptor and Maker of Vases in Chief''. Imhotep is credited as the founder of Egyptian medicine, and as author of the [[Edwin Smith papyrus]], detailing cures, ailments and [[anatomy|anatomical]] observations. The Edwin Smith Papyrus was probably written around [[1700 BC]] but may perhaps go back to texts written around 1000 years earlier.
Two thousand years after his death, his status was raised to that of a [[god]]. Imhotep became the god of [[medicine]] and [[healing]]. He was linked to [[Asclepius]] by the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]]s. As the ''son of Ptah'', his mother was sometimes said to be [[Sekhmet]], who was often said to be married to Ptah, since she was the patron of [[Upper Egypt]]. As he was thought of as the inventor of healing, he was also sometimes said to be the one who held [[Nuit]] (deification of the ''sky'') up, as the separation of Nuit and [[Geb]] (deification of the ''earth'') was said to be what held [[chaos]] back. Due to the position this would have placed him in, he was also sometimes said to be Nuit's son. In artwork he is also linked with [[Hathor]], who was the wife of [[Ra]], [[Maat]], which was the concept of truth and justice, and [[Amenhotep son of Hapu]], who was another deified architect.
The location for Imhotep's tomb is still unknown. Many Egyptologists have tried locating it but so far haven't succeeded. The general consensus is that his tomb is located at [[Saqqara]].
== Fringe theories ==
One fringe theory, supported by a very few amateur Egyptologists, is that Imhotep has strong similarities to the biblical [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]] [http://www.s8int.com/joseph.html]. Some have suggested the biblical Joseph is a composite created by the authors of the [[Torah]] from a [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] individual and Imhotep, the authors confusing Imhotep for Joseph.
== Modern cultural impact==
''Imhotep'' is also the name of a [[fictional character]] played by [[Boris Karloff]] in the [[1932]] movie ''[[The Mummy (1932 movie)|The Mummy]]'', and of a similar character played by [[Arnold Vosloo]] in the [[1999]] movie ''[[The Mummy (1999 movie)|The Mummy]]'' and its [[2001]] sequel ''[[The Mummy Returns]]''. The architect Imhotep most likely provided the name (but just the name) for the character.
'Imhotep' is also the name of the mortuary priest in [[Agatha Christie]]'s novel '[[Death Comes as the End]]'.
'Imhotep' is also the name of wide receiver Imhotep Durham for the Virginia Cavaliers football team for the year of [[2004]].
'Imhotep' is also the name of a well-known [[French people|French]] [[hip hop music|rapper]] from the group [[Iam]].
'Imhotep' was used as a continuing [[in-joke]] in the BBC series [[Look Around You]], portrayed as an [[Easter Island]] monolith.
The name Imhotep was used by a minor [[Goa'uld]] in the [[Stargate SG-1]] episode 'The Warrior'. '''''Spoiler:''''' Imhotep pretended to be a [[Jaffa (Stargate)|Jaffa]], and led an army of Jaffa in order to kill other Goa'uld and gain power. He was killed by SG-1.
== See also ==
* [[List of Egypt-related topics]]
** [[History of Ancient Egypt]]
*** [[Old Kingdom]]
*** [[Third dynasty of Egypt]]
** [[Pharaoh]]
** [[Pyramid of Djoser]]
** [[Ptah]]
* ''Other lists''
** [[List of people known by one name]]
** [[List of deities]]
** [[List of architects]]
* [[Timeline of medicine and medical technology]]
* [[Column]]
{{Ancient Egyptians}}
[[Category:Ancient Egyptians]]
[[Category:Egyptian gods]]
[[Category:Wisdom gods]]
[[ar:إمحوتب]]
[[ca:Imhotep]]
[[da:Imhotep]]
[[de:Imhotep]]
[[es:Imhotep]]
[[fr:Imhotep]]
[[it:Imhotep]]
[[la:Imuthes]]
[[lt:Imhotepas]]
[[hu:Imhotep]]
[[ms:Imhotep]]
[[nl:Imhotep]]
[[pl:Imhotep]]
[[pt:Imhotep]]
[[ro:Imhotep]]
[[ru:Имхотеп]]
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[[zh:伊姆荷太普]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iktinos</title>
<id>14981</id>
<revision>
<id>29298031</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-26T17:48:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LeonardoRob0t</username>
<id>389639</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: pt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Iktinos''' (also '''Iktious''' or '''Ictinus''') was an [[architect]] active in the mid [[5th century BC]], who, together with [[Kallikrates]] designed the [[Parthenon]] (447&ndash;432 BC) in [[Athens]], [[Greece]].
Little is known about the life of Iktinos, most contemporary information being based on the writings of [[Plutarch]].
The most complete surviving example of Iktinos's work is the [[Temple of Hephaestus]] in Athens, which has been preserved almost intact as a result of having been a Christian Church. It is a [[Doric order|Doric]] temple.
Iktinos is also believed to have designed the [[temple of Apollo at Bassae]], the first known use of a [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] column, and also the [[Telesterion]] shrine of [[Eleusis]], a gigantic hall used in the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]].
The artist [[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres]] painted a scene showing Iktinos together with the lyric poet [[Pindar]] - the painting is known as ''Pindar and Ictinus'' and is exhibited at the [[National Gallery, L |
omotor retardation]] or lack of motivation before mood starts to improve. Although this appears to be a paradox, studies indicate the suicidal ideation is a relatively common component of the initial phases of antidepressant therapy, and it may be even more prevalent in younger patients such as pre-adolescents and teenagers. It is strongly recommended that other family members and loved ones monitor the young patient's behavior, especially in the first eight weeks of therapy, for any signs of suicidal ideation or behaviors.
===Sexual===
[[Sexual dysfunction]] is a very common side effect, especially with [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor|SSRIs]]. [[Bupropion]], a DRI, in many cases results in a moderately increased libido. Some clinicians have found that adding bupropion to a regimen of SSRI medications can sometimes alleviate some degree of sexual dysfunction. However, the mechanism of action for bupropion appears to be unique and quite different from other mood elevators, among these being a stimulant-like effect and concurrent insomnia, especially in the first few weeks of use. Moreover, some patients, as seen with most psycho-active drugs, cannot tolerate it at all.
==Opioids==
Opium has been known as an antidepressant since Biblical times.[http://opioids.com/red.html] Various [[Opiates]] were commonly used as antidepressants until the mid-1950s, when they fell out of favor with medical orthodoxy due to their addictive nature. A [[clinical trial]] conducted at Harvard Medical School in 1995,[http://opioids.com/buprenorphine/buprefdep.html] demonstrated that a majority of treatment-refractory, unipolar, non[[psychotic]], major depression patients could be successfully treated with an opioid medication called [[Buprenorphine]]. While opioids have been proven to substantially relieve symptoms of depression, re-acceptance of this fact has been severely hampered by governmental narcotic [[Prohibition (drugs)|prohibition]] efforts.
==Controversy==
Several studies have stimulated doubt about the effectiveness of antidepressants. The studies cite that the difference between antidepressants and placebo is negligible. Antidepressants work only slightly better than placebo, and the Food and Drug Administration has not informed physicians of how little benefit most of these depression drugs offer (Kirsch I, Moore TJ, Scoboria A, Nicholls SS (2002a), The emperor's new drugs: an analysis of antidepressant medication data
submitted to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Prevention & Treatment 5:Article 23[http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume5/toc-jul15-02.html]).
Through a Freedom of Information Act request, two psychologists obtained 47 studies used by the FDA for approval of the six antidepressants prescribed most widely between 1987-99. Overall, antidepressant pills worked 18 % better than placebos, a statistically significant difference, "but not meaningful for people in clinical settings," says University of Connecticut psychologist Irving Kirsch. He and co-author Thomas Moore released their findings in "Prevention and Treatment," an e-journal of the American Psychological Association.
More than half of the 47 studies found that patients on antidepressants improved no more than those on placebos, Kirsch says. "They should have told the American public about this. The drugs have been touted as much more effective than they are." He says studies finding no benefit have been mentioned only on labeling for [[Celexa]], the most recently approved drug. The others included in his evaluation: [[Prozac]], [[Paxil]], [[Zoloft]], [[Efexor]] and [[Serzone]].
Additional papers have been published regarding the benefits of atypical vs. typical antidepresants. These are timely papers given the need for [[Evidence based medicine | evidence based medicine]], as well as the cost of health care. Discussion of a key paper reviewing this topic titled "Quantitative analysis of sponsorship bias in economic studies of antidepressants" can be found at an [http://journalreview.org/view_pubmed_article.php?pmid=14645020&specialty_id=18 an on line journal club]
==Alternative medicine==
Despite controversy, alternative treatments for depression such as the herbal remedy [[St John's wort]] and the amino acid derivative [[S-adenosyl methionine|SAM-e]] have also gained popularity in recent years, although their effectiveness varies. Clinical trials have shown SAM-e to be as effective as standard antidepressant medication, with many fewer side effects (Delle Chiaie et al., 2002; Mischoulon and Fava, 2002). Most studies conclude that St. John's wort is usually as effective against depressions as other modern medication, again with fewer side effects, and it is widely prescribed for depression in [[Europe]]. However, a recent study showed St. John's wort to be no more effective than a placebo in cases of severe depression (Hypericum Depression Trial Study Group, 2002). [[Tryptophan]] dietary supplements, although banned in many countries due to impurities that caused a blood disease, have also been used as natural antidepressants. Dietary supplements of [[5-HTP]], a chemical the body forms from tryptophan and uses to make serotonin, have shown some promising research results but need further study.
==References==
* Roberto Delle Chiaie, Paolo Pancheri and Pierluigi Scapicchio. (2002). Efficacy and tolerability of oral and intramuscular S-adenosyl- L-methionine 1,4-butanedisulfonate (SAMe) in the treatment of major depression: comparison with imipramine in 2 multicenter studies. Am J Clin Nutr, 76 (5): 1172S-1176S
* Mischoulon D, Fava M. (2002). Role of S-adenosyl-L-methionine in the treatment of depression: a review of the evidence. Am J Clin Nutr, 76 (5): 1158S-61S.
* Hypericum Depression Trial Study Group (2002). Effect of Hypericum perforatum (St John's Wort) in Major Depressive Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial. JAMA, 287 (14):1807-1814.
==External links==
* [http://www.drada.org/ReferenceShelf/goldstein.html Pharmacological treatment of Mood Disorder]
* [http://www.emental-health.com/depr_history.htm#1950s A brief history of depression - 1950s]
* [http://www.emental-health.com/depr_treatment.htm#antidepressantdrugs Treating depression - Antidepressant drugs]
* [http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/aug2003/nimh-07.htm Creation of New Neurons Critical to Antidepressant Action in Mice]
* [http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/chemicals/fluoxetine/fluoxetine_final.pdf NIH Expert Panel Report on the reproductive and developmental toxicology of Prozac (Fluoxetine)]
* [http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/chemicals/fluoxetine/fluoxetine_monograph.pdf NIH Monograph on the potential human reproductive and developmental effects of Prozac (Fluoxetine)]
* [http://www.psych.org/psych_pract/treatg/pg/Depression2e.book.cfm American Psychiatric Association 2000 Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Major Depressive Disorder]
* [http://www.bap.org.uk/consensus/antidepressant.pdf British Association for Psychopharmacology 2000 Evidence Based Guidelines for Treating Depressive Disorders with Antidepressants]
[[Category:Antidepressants| ]]
[[de:Antidepressivum]]
[[fi:Masennuslääke]]
[[fr:Antidépresseur]]
[[ja:抗うつ薬]]
[[nl:Antidepressivum]]
[[pt:Antidepressivo]]
[[ru:Антидепрессанты]]
[[sv:Antidepressiva läkemedel]]
[[uk:Антидепресант]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Auger electron</title>
<id>2389</id>
<revision>
<id>41406971</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T02:58:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dcteas17</username>
<id>703210</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>pronunciation error</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Auger emission''' (pronounced Oh-jhay) is a phenomenon in [[physics]] in which the emission of an [[electron]] from an [[atom]] causes the emission of a second electron. This second ejected electron is called an '''Auger electron'''.
The name ''Auger electron'' comes from one of its discoverers, [[Pierre Victor Auger]]. The name does not come from the similarly-named device, the [[auger]].
When an [[electron]] is removed from a core level of an [[atom]], leaving a vacancy, an electron from a higher energy level may fall into the vacancy, resulting in a release of [[energy]]. Although sometimes this energy is released in the form of an emitted [[photon]], the energy can also be transferred to another electron, which is then ejected from the atom.
Upon ejection the [[kinetic energy]] of the Auger electron corresponds to the difference between the energy of the initial electronic transition and the ionization energy for the shell from which the Auger electron was ejected. These energy levels depend on the type of atom and the chemical environment in which the atom was located. [[Auger electron spectroscopy]] stimulates the emission of Auger electrons by bombarding a sample with either [[X-ray]]s or energetic electrons and measures the intensity of Auger electrons as a function of the Auger electron energy. The resulting spectra can be used to determine the identity of the emitting atoms and some information about their environment.
A similar Auger effect occurs in [[semiconductor]]s. An electron and [[electron hole]] can recombine giving up their energy to an electron in the conduction band, increasing its energy.
The reverse effect is known as [[impact ionization]].
==History==
The Auger emission process was discovered in the 1920s by [[Lise Meitner]], an Austrian physicist. Subsequently [[Pierre Victor Auger]], a French Physicist, also discovered the process. Auger reported the discovery in the journal ''Radium'' in 1925 and it was Auger that had the process named after him.
[[fr:Électron Auger]]
[[hu:Auger-effektus]]
[[Category:Atomic physics]]
[[Category:Foundational quantum physics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Asset</title>
<id>2390< |
o 64 KB long. There are standardized meanings for certain types and names. One such is that the ".TYPE" extended attribute is used to determine the file type. Its value comprises a list of one or more file types associated with the file, each of which is a string, such as "Plain Text" or "HTML document". Thus a file may have several types.
====POSIX extended attributes====
On [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like]] systems, the [[ext2]], [[ext3]], [[ReiserFS]] version 3, [[XFS]], [[JFS]], and [[Berkeley Fast File System|FFS]] filesystems allow the storage of extended attributes with files. These include an arbitrary list of "name=value" strings, where the names are unique, which can be accessed by their "name" parts.
====MIME types====
[[MIME]] types are widely used in many [[Internet]]-related applications, and increasingly elsewhere, although their usage for on-disc type information is rare. These consist of a standardised system of identifiers consisting of a ''type'' and a ''sub-type'', separated by a [[slash (punctuation)|slash]] &mdash; for instance, <tt>text/html</tt> or <tt>image/gif</tt>. These were originally intended as a way of identifying what type of file was attached to an [[e-mail]], independent of the source and target operating systems. MIME types are used to identify files on [[BeOS]], as well as store unique application signatures for application launching.
== See also ==
* [[Audio file format]]
* [[Document file format]]
* [[Chemical file format]]
* File formats suited to [[Future proofing]] electronic files
* [[Filename extension]]
*[[Free file format]]
* [[Graphics file format]]
*[[Image file formats]]
* [[List of file formats]]
* [[Object file format]]
* [[Video file format]]
* [[Object format]]
* [[Open format]]
* [[Magic number (programming)]]
== References ==
* {{cite web
| accessdate = February 9
| accessyear = 2005
| url = http://markcrocker.com/rexxtipsntricks/rxtt28.2.0301.html
| title = Extended Attribute Data Types
| work = REXX Tips & Tricks, Version 2.80
}}
* {{cite web
| accessdate = February 9
| accessyear = 2005
| url = http://markcrocker.com/rexxtipsntricks/rxtt28.2.0300.html
| title = Extended Attributes used by the WPS
| work = REXX Tips & Tricks, Version 2.80
}}
* {{cite web
| accessdate = February 9
| accessyear = 2005
| url = http://www.howzatt.demon.co.uk/articles/06may93.html
| title = Extended Attributes - what are they and how can you use them ?
| work = Roger Orr
}}
== External links ==
* [http://www.wwwcentral.net/ The File Extension Archives - Large archive of file extensions]
* [http://extensions.pndesign.cz/ File extensions database - Large database of file extensions and file types]
* [http://www.fileinfo.net/ FileInfo.net - The File Extensions Resource]
* [http://www.sharpened.net/helpcenter/extensions.php File Extensions and File Formats Listed Alphabetically]
* [http://www.wotsit.org/ The Programmer's File Format Collection]
* [http://www.freesoftwaremagazine.com/free_issues/issue_01/focus_format_history/ Format wars] Article on Free Software Magazine about the history of file formats
[[Category:Computer file formats]]
[[ca:Format de fitxer]]
[[cs:Formát souboru]]
[[de:Dateiformat]]
[[fr:Format de données]]
[[it:Formato di file]]
[[hu:Fájlformátum]]
[[nl:Bestandsformaat]]
[[ja:ファイルフォーマット]]
[[pl:Format]]
[[ru:Формат файла]]
[[fi:Tiedostomuodot]]
[[zh:文件格式]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First Vatican Council</title>
<id>11390</id>
<revision>
<id>41430950</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T07:02:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Thorsen</username>
<id>717889</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| class=toccolours align=right width=300 style="margin:0 0 1em 1em"
|-
| colspan="2" bgcolor="lightgreen" style="font-size:120%" align="center"|'''''Concilio ecumenico Vaticano I'''''
|-
|'''Date'''
|[[1869]]-[[1870]]<br>(formally closed in [[1960]] prior to [[Second Vatican Council|Vatican II]])
|-
|'''Accepted by'''
|[[Catholicism]], with exception of [[Old Catholic Church]]
|-
|'''Previous Council'''||[[Council of Trent]]
|-
|'''Next Council'''
|[[Second Vatican Council]]
|-
|'''Convoked by'''||[[Pope Pius IX]]
|-
|'''Presided by'''||[[Pope Pius IX]]
|-
|'''Attendance'''||744
|-
|'''Topics of discussion'''||[[rationalism]], [[liberalism]], [[materialism]]; [[inspiration of Scripture]]; [[papal infallibility]]
|-
|'''Documents and statements'''|| ''Dei Filius'', ''Pastor Aeternus''
|-
|colspan="2" align="center"|[[Ecumenical council|chronological list of Ecumenical councils]]
|}
The '''First Vatican Council''' was summoned by [[Pope Pius IX]] by the bull ''[[Aeterni Patris]]'' of [[June 29]], [[1868]]. The first session was held in [[Saint Peter's Basilica]] on [[December 8]], [[1869]]. It was the 20th [[ecumenical council]] of the [[Roman Catholic]] church. Nearly 800 church leaders attended.
The [[pope]]'s primary purpose was to obtain confirmation of the position he had taken in his ''[[Syllabus of Errors]]'' ([[1864]]), condemning a wide range of positions associated with [[rationalism]], [[liberalism]], and [[materialism]].
The purpose of the council was, besides the condemnation, to define the doctrine concerning the church. In the three sessions, there was discussion and approval of only two constitutions: ''Dei Filius'', the ''Dogmatic Constitution On The Catholic Faith'' (which defined, among other things, the sense in which Catholics believe the [[Bible]] is inspired by God) and ''Pastor Aeternus'', the ''First Dogmatic Constitution on the Church of Christ'', dealing with the primacy and [[papal infallibility|infallibility]] of the bishop of Rome when solemnly defining dogma.
The definition of papal infallibility was not on the original agenda of topics to be discussed (Pius IX felt it would be improper for him to introduce the topic), but was added soon after the council convened. It was controversial, not because many did not believe the pope to be infallible when defining dogma, but because many who did so believe did not think it prudent to define the doctrine formally. [[John Henry Newman]], for instance, thought such a formal definition might push away potential converts. Some feared it might lead to renewed suspicion of Catholics as having a foreign allegiance. Such a view was taken by two-thirds of the bishops from the United States and many from France and Germany.
About 60 members of the council effectively abstained by leaving [[Rome]] the day before the vote. [[Archbishop]] (later [[Canonization|canonized]]) [[Antonio Maria Claret]], confessor to the Spanish royal court and founder of the Missionary Sons of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (Claretian Missionaries), strongly condemned the "blasphemies and heresies uttered on the floor of this Council," and was one of the strong defenders on the issue of papal infallibility. He was the only member of the council to be canonized as saint (beatified in 1934 and canonized by [[Pope Pius XII]] in 1950). He later died in a Cistercian monastery in Fontroide, France, in October 24, 1870. The discussion and approval of the constitution gave rise to serious controversies which led to the withdrawal from the church of those known as [[Old Catholic Church|Old Catholics]].
The outbreak of the [[Franco-Prussian War]] interrupted the council. It was suspended following the [[Italian unification|capture of Rome]] and never resumed. It was not officially closed until decades later, when it was formally brought to an end as part of the preparations for the [[Second Vatican Council]]. The results of the council marked the triumph of the [[Ultramontanism]] movement.'''
==See also==
*[[Ecumenical council]]
*[[Second Vatican Council]]
==External links==
*[http://www.dailycatholic.org/history/20ecume1.htm Decrees of the Council]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15303a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]
*[http://www.claret.org/en/claret/biografia.php]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/library/docs_le13ae.htm Æterni Patris "On the Restoration of Christian Philosophy"]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01177a.htm Article from Catholic Encyclopedia on Æterni Patris]
== Further reading ==
* ''The Catholic Church in the Modern World'' by [[E.E.Y. Hales]] (Doubleday, 1958)
[[Category:1870]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church Councils|Vatican 1]]
[[cs:1. vatikánský koncil]]
[[de:Erstes Vatikanisches Konzil]]
[[es:Concilio Vaticano I]]
[[fr:Ier concile œcuménique du Vatican]]
[[it:Concilio Vaticano I]]
[[la:Concilium Vaticanum Primum]]
[[nl:Eerste Vaticaans Concilie]]
[[ja:第1ヴァティカン公会議]]
[[no:Første Vatikankonsil]]
[[pl:Sobór Watykański I]]
[[pt:Primeiro Concílio do Vaticano]]
[[sk:Prvý vatikánsky koncil]]
[[sv:Första Vatikankonciliet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>First Council of the Lateran</title>
<id>11391</id>
<revision>
<id>39490339</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T21:56:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Csernica</username>
<id>10643</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>be explicit about who's doing the reckoning here.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{catholic}}
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="400"
! colspan="2" bgcolor="lightgreen" style="font-size:120%" |''First Council of the Lateran''
|-
|Date ||[[1123]]
|-
|Accepted by ||[[Catholicism]]
|-
|Previous Council||[[Fourth Council of Constantinople]]
|-
|Next Council ||[[Second Council of the Lateran]]
|-
|Convoked by||[[Pope Calixtus II]]
|-
|Presided by||[[Pope Calixtus II]]
|-
|Attendance||300-1000
|-
|Topics of discussion||[[Investiture Controversy]]
|-
|Documents and |
the adenovirus will require regular doses to add the missing gene every time.
===Adeno-associated viruses===
[[Adeno-associated virus]]es, from the [[parvovirus]] family, are small viruses with a genome of single stranded DNA. These viruses can insert genetic material at a specific site on chromosome 19. There are a few disadvantages to using AAV, mainly the small amount of DNA it can carry and the difficulty in producing it. This type of virus is being used, however, because it is [[pathogen|non-pathogenic]] (most people carry this harmless virus). In contrast to adenoviruses, most people treated with AAV will not build an immune response to remove the virus and the cells that have been successfully treated with it. Several trials with AAV are on-going or in preparation, mainly trying to treat muscle and eye diseases, the two tissues where the virus seems particularly useful.
== Problems and ethics ==
For the safety of gene therapy, the [[Weismann barrier]] is fundamental in the current thinking. [[Soma-to-germline feedback]] should therefore be impossible. However, there are indications {{fact}} that the Weissman barrier can be breached. One way it might possibly be breached is if the treatment were somehow misapplied and spread to the testes and therefore would infect the germline against the intentions of the therapy.
==Publications==
[http://www.liebertpub.com/hum Human Gene Therapy], published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., is a rapid-publication, peer-reviewed journal covering all aspects of human gene therapy.
==See also==
*[[Genetic engineering]] -- [[DNA]] -- [[technology assessment]] -- [[Pharmacological Gene Therapy]]
==External links==
* [http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/genetherapy/ Gene Therapy: Molecular Bandage?] University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center
*[http://www.whatsnextnetwork.com/health/index.php?cat=61 Latest Advances In Gene Research]
* [http://www.asgt.org/ The American Society of Gene Therapy]
* [http://www.esgt.org/ The European Society of Gene Therapy]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20030219034830/http://www.gtherapy.co.uk/ 2003 news relating to gene therapy]
* [http://www.cheng.cam.ac.uk/research/groups/biosci/index.html Research Group at Cambridge, UK working on an overcomming current hurdles to successful gene therapy]
* [http://www.gene-watch.org Council for Responsible Genetics]
==References==
#Zinc finger nucleases: custom-designed molecular scissors for genome engineering of plant and mammalian cells. ''Nucleic Acids Res. 2005 Oct 26; 33(18): 5978-90'' [http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=16251401 Full text]
[[Category:Molecular biology]]
[[Category:Applied genetics]]
[[Category:Medical research]]
[[Category:Bioethics]]
[[da:Genterapi]]
[[de:Gentherapie]]
[[es:Terapia génica]]
[[eo:Genterapio]]
[[fr:Thérapie génique]]
[[it:Terapia genica]]
[[he:ריפוי גני]]
[[nl:Gentherapie]]
[[ja:遺伝子治療]]
[[pl:Terapia genowa]]
[[ru:Генотерапия]]
[[sv:Genterapi]]
[[zh:基因治療]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Galatea</title>
<id>12893</id>
<revision>
<id>34682278</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-11T00:02:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CJLL Wright</username>
<id>259138</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+ [[Galathea National Park]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Galatea''' may refer to:
*[[Galatea (mythology)]], a nymph in Greek mythology
*[[74 Galatea]], an asteroid
*[[Galatea, New Zealand|Galatea]], a village in the [[North Island]] of [[New Zealand]]
*[[Galatea (Justice League Unlimited)]], an evil clone of the cartoon version of Supergirl
*[[Galatea (Raphael)]] or ''The Triumph of Galatea'', a Renaissance fresco by the painter Raphael
*[[Galatea (computer game)]], an interactive fiction work by Emily Short
*[[Galatea (moon)]], a moon of Neptune
*[[Galatea (novel)]], a work of fiction by Philip Pullman <!-- Left red as good chance will exist -->
*''[[Galatea 2.2]]'', a novel by Richard Powers
*[[HMS Galatea|HMS ''Galatea'']], of the British Royal Navy
*[[Mount Galatea]], a peak in the Canadian Rockies
* Galatea (The Bicentennial Man), a female NDR Android
*GTD ''Galatea'', the home carrier in the computer game [[Descent: Freespace]]
*[[Galathea National Park]], a national park in the Nicobar Islands, India.
'''Galatea''' may also refer to:
*A widespread genus of [[squat lobster]]s
*The common name for plants of the genus ''[[Dieffenbachia]]''
{{disambig}}
[[de:Galatea]]
[[es:Galatea]]
[[fr:Galatée]]
[[pl:Galatea]]
[[sl:Galatea]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gulf of Oman</title>
<id>12896</id>
<revision>
<id>41098761</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T01:05:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.39.11.124</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+ Catalan iw</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Gulf of Oman''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: خليج عمان; [[Arabic transliteration|transliterated]]: Khalyj 'Oman) is a [[strait]] that connects the [[Arabian Sea]] with the [[Persian Gulf]]; it is generally included as a branch of the Persian Gulf, not as an arm of the Arabian Sea. On the north coast is [[Iran]] (Persia) On the south coast are [[Oman]] in the east and [[United Arab Emirates]] for a short distance in the west. A beach on the gulf is the setting for a fictional battle in the video game [[Battlefield 2]].
==External links==
*[http://www.gesource.ac.uk/satellite/683.jpg Satellite Image]
*[http://www.oman-oil.com/images/omanmap.jpg Map]
{{Iran-geo-stub}}
{{MEast-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Geography of Iran]]
[[Category:Geography of Oman]]
[[Category:Geography of the United Arab Emirates]]
[[Category:Gulfs|Oman]]
[[Category:Indian Ocean]]
[[ca:Golf d'Oman]]
[[da:Omanbugten]]
[[de:Golf von Oman]]
[[fa:دریای عمان]]
[[is:Ómanflói]]
[[he:מפרץ עומן]]
[[nl:Golf van Oman]]
[[pl:Zatoka Omańska]]
[[pt:Golfo de Omã]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grammatical case</title>
<id>12898</id>
<revision>
<id>15910547</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Declension]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gestapo</title>
<id>12899</id>
<revision>
<id>42102481</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:15:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Husnock</username>
<id>63572</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/198.111.152.212|198.111.152.212]] ([[User talk:198.111.152.212|talk]]) to last version by Husnock</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Totenkopf.jpeg|thumb|right|155px|The Death's Head emblem similar to [[Skull and crossbones]], often used as the insignia of the Gestapo]]
The {{Audio|De-Gestapo.ogg|'''Gestapo'''}} ([[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of '''''Ge'''heime '''Sta'''ats'''po'''lizei''; "secret state police") was the official [[secret police]] of [[Nazi Germany]]. Under the overall administration of the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]], it was administrated by the ''[[Reichssicherheitshauptamt|RSHA]]'' and was considered a dual organization of the ''[[Sicherheitsdienst]]'' and also a suboffice of the ''[[Sicherheitspolizei]]''.
== History ==
The Gestapo was established on [[April 26]], [[1933]] in [[Prussia]], from the existing organization of the [[Prussian Secret Police]]. The Gestapo was first simply a branch of the Prussian Police, known as "Department 1A of the Prussian State Police".
Its first commander was [[Rudolf Diels]] who recruited members from professional [[police]] departments and ran the Gestapo as a federal police agency, comparable to several modern examples such as the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]. The Gestapo's role as a political police force was only established after [[Hermann Göring]] was appointed to succeed Diels as the Gestapo Commander, in 1934. It was Göring who invented the term "Gestapo" (at first called ''Gestapa'') and urged the Nazi government to expand Gestapo power out of Prussia to encompass all of Germany. To this, Göring was mostly successful except in [[Bavaria]], where [[Heinrich Himmler]] (head of the SS), served as the Bavarian Police President and used local SS units as a political police force.
In April of 1934, Göring and Himmler agreed to put aside all differences (due in large part to a combined hatred of the ''[[Sturmabteilung]]'') and Göring handed over full command of the Gestapo to the authority of the SS. At that point, the Gestapo was combined into the ''[[Sicherheitspolizei]]'' and considered a sister organization to the ''[[Sicherheitsdienst]]'' or SD.
The role of the Gestapo was to investigate and combat "all tendencies dangerous to the State." It had the authority to investigate [[treason]], [[espionage]] and [[sabotage]] cases, and cases of criminal attacks on the [[Nazi Party]] and on [[Germany]].
The law had been changed in such a way that the Gestapo's actions were not subject to [[judicial review]]. Nazi jurist Dr. [[Werner Best]] stated, "As long as the [Gestapo] ... carries out the will of the leadership, it is acting legally." The Gestapo was specifically exempted from responsibility to administrative courts, where citizens normally could [[lawsuit|sue]] the state to conform to laws.
The power of the Gestapo most open to misuse was "Schutzhaft" or "protective custody" &mdash; a [[euphemism]] for the power to imprison people without judicial proceedings, typically in [[concentration camp]]s. The person imprisoned even had to sign his or her own ''Schutzhaftbefehl'', the document declaring that the person desired to be imprisoned. Normally this signature was forced by beatings and [[torture |
Arab Emirates|United Arab Emirates]] -
[[History of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] -
[[History of the United States|United States]] -
[[History of Uruguay|Uruguay]] -
[[History of Uzbekistan|Uzbekistan]]
==V==
[[History of Vanuatu|Vanuatu]] -
[[History of the Vatican City|Vatican City]] -
[[History of Venezuela|Venezuela]] -
[[History of Vietnam|Vietnam]] -
[[History of the Virgin Islands|Virgin Islands]]
==W==
[[History of Wake Island|Wake Island]] -
[[History of Wallis and Futuna|Wallis and Futuna]] -
[[History of the West Bank and Gaza Strip|West Bank and Gaza Strip]] -
[[History of Western Sahara|Western Sahara]]
==Y==
[[History of Yemen|Yemen]]
==Z==
[[History of Zambia|Zambia]] -
[[History of Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]]
==See also==
* [[History by continent]]
* [[History by region]]
[[Category:History by country| ]]
[[es:Lista de artículos históricos por país]]
[[hr:Povijest današnjih nacija i država]]
[[zh:当今各国历史]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Humor</title>
<id>13923</id>
<revision>
<id>27475568</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-05T21:47:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zzyzx11</username>
<id>182902</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/67.119.131.122|67.119.131.122]] to last version by Hadal</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Humour]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hani Hanjour</title>
<id>13924</id>
<revision>
<id>41841029</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:16:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>165.123.154.106</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HHanjour0.JPG|right|frame|This photograph of Hani Hanjour was released by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] in the days following the attack.]]
'''Hani Saleh Hanjour,''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: &#1607;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610; &#1589;&#1575;&#1604;&#1581; &#1581;&#1606;&#1580;&#1608;&#1585;) was one of five men named by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] as [[Organizers of the September 11, 2001 attacks|hijackers]] of [[American Airlines flight 77]] in the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]]. The [[FBI]] believes that he piloted the plane and crashed it into [[the Pentagon]]. Since the attack, it has been suggested that Hanjour was among the most observant Muslims in the attacks. <!--Reference "Ghosts in the Sky" by Kee Dewdney, can't figure out how to cite at the moment-->
==History==
Born [[August 13]], [[1972]] Hanjour was the fourth of seven children, born to a food-supply businessman in [[Ta'if]], [[Saudi Arabia]].
During his youth he suggested he may drop out of school to become a [[flight attendant]], although his brother Abulrahman discouraged this route, and tried to help Hanjour focus on his studies.([http://www.whatreallyhappened.com/hanjour_history.html Cape Cod Times])
He was the only hijacker to live in the [[United States]] prior to any intentions for a large-scale attack, and never stayed with the other three pilots in Germany.
===Early 1990s===
[[Image:HaniHanjour-Young.jpg|thumb|left|120px|A young Hanjour]][[FBI]] director [[Robert Mueller]] testified that Hanjour first arrived on [[October 3]], [[1991]], and the [[9/11 Commission]] agreed with that date.[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/senatecommittee092602.html]
However several news sources report him in the country earlier.[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10711FC3C5B0C7A8DDDAF0894DA404482][http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2001/coxnews101501.html]These dates seem to make Hanjour the least likely hijacker however, since it means he had no connection with the European cells the other 18 hijackers came from.
Hanjour's brother Abulrahman arranged an apartment for Hanjour to live in, and helped him apply to an eight-week program to study [[English language|English]] at the [[University of Arizona]]. After completing the program, Hanjour remained in the United States another 4 weeks before he flew back to live with his family in Taif. He spent the next five years there, helping the family manage a [[lemon]] and [[Date Palm|dates]] farm. In 1996, he travelled briefly to [[Afghanistan]] to work with a relief agency.
In 1996, Hanjour decided to return to the United States, and again asked his brother for help. Abulrahman contacted a family he knew living in [[Tucson, Arizona]], and asked if they would be willing to put up Hani as a favour to him. They agreed, although they had since moved to [[Miramir, Florida]], and Hanjour flew back to the US where he lived with Susan and Adnan Khalil for a few months. After the attacks, the Khalils would recall that they had been struck by how unlike Abulrahman he was, devoutly religious, whereas his brother had been fond of parties and drinking.
In April 1996, Hanjour moved in with a host family in [[Oakland, California]] where he enrolled in intensive English studies at [[Holy Names College]], and attended a single class at [[Sierra Academy of Aeronautics]] before withdrawing, citing financial worries about the $35,000 cost.
[[Image:HaniHanjourVisa1997.jpg|thumb|80px|1997 Application]]After moving to [[Phoenix, Arizona]], Hanjour paid $4800 for lessons at ''CRM Flight Cockpit Resource Management'' in [[Scottsdale, Arizona|Scottsdale]]. He received poor marks from instructor Duncan Hastie, and left the school frustrated, compounded with the fact his recent Visa application had been denied.
Hanjour is recorded re-entering the United States on November 16, 1997. He made a brief sidetrip to Florida, before returning to Phoenix where he shared an apartment with [[Bandar al-Hazmi]]. In December, he again attended ''CRM Flight Cockpit Resource Management'', though left after a few weeks training.
===1998===
Hanjour was still living with Bandar in January, and the two of them both took flying lessons at [[Arizona Aviation]], where Hanjour eventually earned his commercial pilot rating.
After moving out of Bandar's place, Hanjour lived in several apartments in [[Tempe]], [[Mesa]] and [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]], and enrolled in [[flight simulator]] classes at the [[Sawyer School of Aviation]] where he made only three or four visits. Interestingly [[Lotfi Raissi]] would begin taking lessons at the same school a month after Hanjour quit, part of what piqued the FBI's interest in Raissi.
In February, financial records showed that Hanjour had taken a trip to [[Las Vegas]].
An FBI informant named [[Aukai Collins]] claims he told the FBI about Hanjour's activities during [[1998]], giving them Hanjour's name and phone number, and warning them that more and more foreign-born Muslims seem to be taking flying lessons. The FBI admits it paid Collins to monitor the Islamic and Arab communities in Phoenix at the time, but denies Collins told them anything about Hanjour.[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/ap052402.html][http://abcnews.go.com/sections/wnt/DailyNews/FBI_informant020523.html][http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/foxnews052402.html]
In August 1998, Hanjour requested to rent a small plane at the [[Freeway Airport]] in [[Bowie, Maryland]]. However, after three practise flights with an overseer, it was decided that he was not capable enough to allow him to rent.
===1999===
Hanjour's bank records indicate that he travelled to [[Ontario, Canada]] in March of 1999 for an unknown reason.
Hanjour gained his [[FAA]] commercial pilot's license in April of 1999, but was unable to get a job as a pilot after he returned to his native [[Saudi Arabia]], and told his family he was heading to the [[United Arab Emirates]] to find work. He took an international flight out of [[New York]] on April 28th, it is not known where he went. Within two weeks however, bank withdrawals are again made from [[Arizona]], indicating he had returned.
===2000===
[[Image:HaniHanour-VisaApplication.jpg|thumb|left|130px|Application Photo]][[Image:HaniHanjourVisa3.jpg|thumb|75px|Page B]][[Image:HaniHanjourVisa1.jpg|thumb|75px|Page A]]In May 2000, a third person accompanied Salem al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar to ''Sorbi's Flying Club'' where he waited on the ground as they took a flight lesson, it has been theorized this may have been Hanjour.
In September Hanjour again sent his $110 registration to [[Holy Names College]] in [[Oakland, California]] to continue his English studies. He also applied for another U.S. Student Visa. Although he was accepted, after the attacks, it would be reported that his Visa application was 'suspicious'. He never turned up for classes, and when the school contacted its Saudi representative, he reported that he could not find Hanjour either.
<!-- To be honest, judging by our article, this is the point where it seems most likely that Hanjour had his identity stolen. Up until this point, he has had no contact with any of the other pilots, each of whom reportedly knew each other for years. Suddenly he fails to show up for classes. As soon as there is a US Visa in his name however, his name is suddenly seen appearing with other hijackers. Rather than living with host families, and friends of his brother, his name from here on is seen living with other hijackers. He never returns to Arizona or California, where he had previously lived, never again studies English (having taken/started 3 courses up till now) never again applies for flight training. Up until this point he has relied on his father for money, suddenly he now opens a new bank account in Dubai, a country he's never been to before -->
On December 5th, Hanjour opened a CitiBank account in [[Deira]], [[Dubai]]. On the 8th Hanjour is recorded flying into [[Cincinnati]] and is thought to be later meeting with Nawaf al-Hazmi in [[San Diego]].
===2001===
[[Image:Image-Hani-FBI |
ted to social progress for homosexual and transgender people, formed the [[Institut für Sexualwissenschaft]] (Institute for Sexology) in 1919. The institute conducted an enormous amount of research, saw thousands of transgender and homosexual clients at consultations, and championed a broad range of sexual reforms including sex education, contraception and women's rights. However, the gains made in Germany would soon be drastically reversed with the rise of [[Nazism]], and the institute and its library were destoyed in [[1933]].
In the United States, several secret or semi-secret groups were formed explicitly to advance the rights of homosexuals as early as the turn of the twentieth century, but little is known about them ([http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/suppress.htm Norton 2005]). A better documented group is Henry Gerber’s Society for Human Rights formed in Chicago in 1924), which was quickly suppressed ([http://hnn.us/articles/11316.html Bullough 2005]).
===1950 - 1968===
Immediately following [[World War II]], a number of homosexual rights groups came into being or were revived across the [[Western world]], in Britain, France, Germany, Holland, the Scandinavian countries and the United States. These groups usually preferred the term [[homophile]] to "homosexual", emphasising love over sex. The [[Homophile Movement|homophile movement]] included such 1950s groups as the [[Mattachine Society]], the [[Daughters of Bilitis]] and [[ONE, Inc.]] in the United States, COC in the Nethlands, the Arcadie circle in France and the [[Homosexual Law Reform Society]] in Britain. ONE Inc. was the first public homosexual organization in the U.S. ([http://williamapercy.com/pub-Comments-PercyGlover.htm Percy & Glover 2005]), and ONE Magazine the first widely circulated gay and lesbian magazine. One Inc. was bankrolled by the extremely wealthy transsexual man [[Reed Erickson]].
The homophile movement was fairly conservative and it lobbied within established political systems for social acceptability. Any demonstrations were orderly and polite ([http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/stonewall_riots.html Matzner 2004]). By 1969, there were dozens of homophile organizations and publications in the U.S. ([http://williamapercy.com/BeforeStonewallReview.htm Percy 2005]), and a national organization had been formed, but they were largely ignored by the media. A 1965 gay march held in front of Independence Hall in Philadelphia, according to some historians, marked the beginning of the modern gay rights movement.
===1969 - 1986===
The [[new social movements]] of the sixties, such as the [[Black Power]] and [[Opposition to the Vietnam War|anti-Vietnam war]] movements in the U.S, the [[May 1968]] insurrection in France, and [[Feminist movement|Women's Liberation]] throughout the Western world, inspired some LGBT activists to become militant,{{ref|Matzner}} and the Gay Liberation Movement emerged towards the end of the decade. The English-speaking world marks the birth of the new gay radicalism at the [[Stonewall riots]] of [[1969]], when a group of transgender, lesbian and gay patrons at a bar in [[New York]] resisted a police raid.{{ref|Bullough}}
Immediately after Stonewall, groups as the [[Gay Liberation Front]] (GLF) and the [[Gay Activists' Alliance]] (GAA) were formed. "Out, loud and proud", they engaged in colorful [[street theater]] ([http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/perfectenemies.htm Gallagher & Bull 1996]). The GLF’s ‘A Gay Manifesto’ set out the aims for the fledgling gay liberation movement, and influential intellectual [[Paul Goodman (writer)|Paul Goodman]] published “The Politics of Being Queer” (1969). Chapters of the GLF were established across the US and in other parts of the Western world. The [[Front Homosexuel d'Action Révolutionnaire]] was formed in 1971 by lesbians who split from the [[Mouvement Homophile de France]] in 1971.
One of the values of the movement was [[gay pride]]. Organized by an early [[Gay Liberation Front|GLF]] leader [[Brenda Howard]], the Stonewall riots were commemorated by annual marches that became known as [[Pride parade|Pride parades]]. Over the years, the anarchistic Gay Liberation Movement of the early 1970s evolved into a more conservative and institutionalized movement that was more commonly referred to as the Gay Rights Movement. During this period, the [[International Lesbian and Gay Association]] (ILGA) was formed (1978), and it continues to campaign for lesbian and gay [[human rights]] with the [[United Nations]] and individual national governments.
[[Lesbian feminism]], which was most influential from the mid 1970s to the mid 1980s, encouraged women to direct their energies toward other women rather than men, and advocated lesbianism as the logical result of feminism. Many women of the Gay Liberation movement felt frustated at the domination of the movement by men and formed separate organisations; some who felt gender differences between men and women could not be resolved developed "[[lesbian separatism]]". Disagreements between different political philosophies were, at times, extremely heated, and became known as the [[lesbian sex wars]]{{ref|sexwars}}, clashing in particular over views on [[sadomasochism]] and [[transsexuality]].
===1987 - present===
Some historians consider that a new epoch of the gay rights movement began in the 1980s with the advent of [[AIDS]], which decimated the leadership and shifted the focus for many.{{ref|PercyGlover}} This era saw a resurgence of militancy with [[direct action]] groups like [[AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power|ACT UP]] (formed in 1987), and its offshoots [[Queer Nation]] (1990) and the [[Lesbian Avengers]] (1992). Some younger activists, seeing "gay and lesbian" as increasingly normative and politically conservative, began using the word [[queer]] as a defiant statement of all [[sexual minority|sexual minorities]] and gender variant people. A less confrontational attempt to reunite the interests of lesbians, gays, bisexuals and transpeople occurred with the term [[LGBT]], which has now ([[as of 2006]]) become a commonplace descriptor of organisations that once described themselves as "gay rights" groups.
In the 1990s, organisations began to spring up in non-western countries, such as [[Progay Philippines]], which was founded in 1993 and organised the first Gay Pride march in Asia on June 26, 1994. In many countries, LGBT organisations remain illegal ([[as of 2006]]) and transgender and homosexual activists face extreme opposition from the state.
The 1990s also saw the emergence of [[transgender rights]] movements across the globe. [[Hijra]] activists campaigned for recognition as a [[third sex]] in India and [[Travesti]]-rights groups began to organise against police brutality across [[Latin America]], while activists in the United States formed militant groups such as [[Transsexual Menace]].
==See also==
* [[Age of consent]]
* [[Biphobia]]
* [[:Category:Bisexual community|Bisexual community]]
* [[Gay agenda]]
* [[Gay rights timeline]]
* [[History of Gays during the Holocaust]]
* [[Homophobia]]
* [[Homosexuality laws of the world]]
* [[Institut für Sexualwissenschaft]]
* [[International Lesbian and Gay Association]]
* [[:Category:LGBT civil rights|LGBT civil rights]]
* [[:Category:LGBT rights opposition|LGBT rights opposition]]
* [[List of gay-rights organizations]]
* [[List of transgender-related topics]]
* [[:Category:Marriage, unions and partnerships by country|Marriage, unions and partnerships by country]]
* [[Queer nationalism]]
* [[:Category:Same-sex marriage|Same-sex marriage]]
* [[Special rights]]
==References==
'''History'''
*{{note|Blasius}}Blasius, Mark and Phelan, Shane (eds.), 1997. "We Are Everywhere: A Historical Sourcebook of Gay and Lesbian Politics", New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415908590
*{{note|Blasius2}}ibid.
*{{note|Blasius3}}ibid.
*{{note|McKenna}}McKenna, Neil (2003), "The Secret Life of Oscar Wilde: An Intimate Biography". (London: Century) ISBN 0712669868
*{{note|Bullough}}[http://hnn.us/articles/11316.html Bullough, Vern, “When did the Gay Right Movement Begin?”], April 18, 2005. Accessed on December 30, 2005.<http://hnn.us/articles/11316.html>
*{{note|Matzner}}[http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/stonewall_riots.html Matzner, Andrew, “Stonewall Riots”], glbtq: An Enclopedia of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, & Queer Culture, Claude J. Summers, ed. 2004. Accessed on December 30, 2005.<http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/stonewall_riots.html>
*{{note|PercyGlover}}[http://williamapercy.com/pub-Comments-PercyGlover.htm Percy, William A. & William Edward Glover, “Before Stonewall by Glover & Percy”], November 5, 2005. Accessed on December 30, 2005. <http://williamapercy.com/pub-Comments-PercyGlover.htm>
*{{note|sexwars}}[http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/lesbian_sex_wars.html Lesbian Sex Wars] article by Elise Chenier from GLBTQ encyclopedia.
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/perfectenemies.htm Gallagher, John & Chris Bull, ''Perfect Enemies: The Religious Right, the Gay Movement, and the Politics of the 1990s''], 1996, Crown, 300 pp. Accessed on December 30, 2005.<http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/perfectenemies.htm>
*[http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/suppress.htm Norton, Rick, “The Suppression of Lesbian and Gay History”], February 12, 2005, updated April 5, 2005. Accessed on December 30, 2005.<http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/suppress.htm>
*[http://williamapercy.com/BeforeStonewallReview.htm Percy, William A., Review of “Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights”,] November 22, 2005. Accessed on December 30, 2005.<http://williamapercy.com/BeforeStonewallReview.htm>
* [http://www.narth.com/docs/schoenewolf2.html Schoenewolf, Gerald, "Gay Rights and Politi |
rne]] || [[Malcolm Fraser]]
|-
| [[1983]] November 23-29 || [[India]] || [[New Delhi]] || [[Indira Gandhi]]
|-
| [[1985]] October 16-22 || [[Bahamas]] || [[Nassau, Bahamas|Nassau]] || [[Lynden Pindling]]
|-
| [[1986]] August 3-5 || [[United Kingdom]] || [[London]] || [[Margaret Thatcher]]
|-
| [[1987]] October 13-17 || [[Canada]] || [[Vancouver]] || [[Brian Mulroney]]
|-
| [[1989]] October 18-24 || [[Malaysia]] || [[Kuala Lumpur]] || [[Mahathir bin Mohamad]]
|-
| [[1991]] October 16-21 || [[Zimbabwe]] || [[Harare]] || [[Robert Mugabe]]
|-
| [[1993]] October 21-25 || [[Cyprus]] || [[Limassol]] || [[George Vasiliou]]
|-
| [[1995]] November 10-13 || [[New Zealand]] || [[Auckland]] || [[Jim Bolger]]
|-
| [[1997]] October 24-27 || [[United Kingdom]] || [[Edinburgh]] || [[Tony Blair]]
|-
| [[1999]] November 12-14 || [[South Africa]] || [[Durban]] || [[Thabo Mbeki]]
|-
| [[2002]] March 2-5 || [[Australia]] || [[Coolum]] || [[John Howard]]
|-
| [[2003]] December 5-8 || [[Nigeria]] || [[Abuja]] || [[Olusegun Obasanjo]]
|-
| [[2005]] November 25-27 || [[Malta]] || [[Valletta]] || [[Lawrence Gonzi]]
|}
==Incidents and actions==
* [[1978]] A bomb went off outside the venue of the 1978 CHOGRM in Sydney, known as the [[Sydney Hilton bombing|Hilton Bombing]].
* [[2001]] CHOGM 2001, slated to be held in Brisbane on October 6-9, was cancelled for security reasons in the aftermath of the [[9/11 attacks]]. The Meeting was adjourned to March 2002, and held in the seaside resort of Coolum, [[Queensland]].
* [[2003]] Amongst other protests, [[Amnesty International]] ran a substantial campaign pressuring CHOGM attendees on issues relating to abuses of [[Human Rights]], especially in [[Nigeria]] and [[Zimbabwe]].
==In popular culture==
CHOGM has been humourously [[backronym|backronymed]] to Chappies Holidaying On Government Money.
== External links ==
* [http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Templates/Internal.asp?NodeID=33250 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting page on the Commonwealth Secretariat web site]
* [http://www.chogm99.org/ ''Durban '99''], CHOGM 1999 Official page
* [http://www.chogm2003.info/ ''Abuja' 2003''], CHOGM 2003 Official page
* [http://www.chogm2005.mt/ ''Valletta 2005''], CHOGM 2005 Official page
[[Category:Commonwealth of Nations]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chinese classic texts</title>
<id>7242</id>
<revision>
<id>29381948</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-27T14:53:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Theo F</username>
<id>189289</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[China]] has a wealth of classical literature, both [[Chinese poetry|poetry]] and prose, dating from the Eastern [[Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC - 256 BC)]] and including the '''Chinese classics texts''', or ''Chinese canonical texts''. Some of them are attributed to [[Confucius]] but he might only be the editor of them. One of the aspects of the [[Culture of China|culture]] that allows its continuity is the importance given to those ancient texts, that shape the [[Chinese philosophy|philosophies]] of the culture.
Sì sh&#363; w&#468; j&#299;ng (&#22235;&#26360;&#20116;&#32147;), the Four Books and the Five Classics, were mandated study of those [[Confucianism|Confucian]] scholars who wished to become government officials. Any political discussion was full of references to this background and one couldn't be one of the [[literati]], or even a military officer, without knowing them perfectly.
Chinese children first studied the [[Chinese characters]] with the ''[[Hundred Family Surnames]]'' (Bai Jia Xing) and the ''[[Three Character Classic]]'' (&#19977;&#23383;&#32147; San Zi Jing). Then, they studied the following Classics, in order to climb the social hierarchy.
==List of Chinese classic texts ==
*The [[Four Books]] (&#22235;&#26360; Sì sh&#363;):
** The ''[[Great Learning]]'', (&#22823;&#23416; Dà Xué), the name of a chapter in the ''[[Classic of Rites]]''.
** The ''[[Doctrine of the Golden Mean]]'' (&#20013;&#24248; Zh&#333;ng Yóng), the name of another chapter in the ''[[Classic of Rites]]''.
** The ''[[Analects of Confucius]]'' (&#35542;&#35486; Lùn Y&#468;), a book of pithy sayings attributed to [[Confucius]] and recorded by his disciples.
** The ''[[Mencius]]'' (&#23391;&#23376; Mèng Z&#464;), a book of conversations between Mencius and some kings of his time.
*The [[Five Classics]] (&#20116;&#32147; W&#468; j&#299;ng):
** The ''[[I Ching]]'' (&#26131;&#32147; Yì J&#299;ng; ''Classic of Changes'' or ''Book of Changes'') is a manual of divination based on the eight [[trigram]]s attributed to the mythical emperor [[Fu Xi]]. (By Confucius' time these eight trigrams had been multiplied to sixty-four [[hexagram]]s.) The ''I Ching'' is still used by adherents of folk religion.
** The ''[[Classic of Poetry]]'' or The Book of Odes (&#35433;&#32147; Sh&#299; J&#299;ng), made up of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs; seventy-four minor festal songs, traditionally sung at court festivities; 31 major festal songs, sung at more solemn court ceremonies; and forty hymns and eulogies, sung at sacrifices to gods and ancestral spirits of the royal house. This book is traditionally credited as a compilation from Confucius.
** The ''[[Classic of Rites]]'' (&#31150;&#35352; L&#464; Jì), social forms and ceremonies (also spelled ''Liki''), a restoration of the original Lijing, lost in the [[3rd century BCE]], describes ancient rites and court ceremonies.
** The ''[[Classic of History]]'' (&#26360;&#32147; Sh&#363; J&#299;ng) is a collection of documents and speeches alleged to have been written by rulers and officials of the early [[Zhou_Dynasty_(1122_BC_-_256_BC)|Zhou]] period and before. It contains examples of early Chinese prose.
** The ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals]]'' (&#26149;&#31179; Ch&#363;n Qi&#363;, also known as &#40607;&#32147; Lín J&#299;ng), a historical record of the [[state of Lu]], Confucius' native state, from [[722 B.C.]] to [[479 B.C.]] written (or edited) by [[Confucius]], with implied condemnation of usurpations, murder, incest, etc.
** The ''[[Classic of Music]]'' (&#27138;&#32147;) (''Yueh Ching'') is sometime referred to as the sixth classic, but is lost by the time of the [[Han dynasty]].
*The classics of [[Taoism]]:
** The ''Classic of The Way and Its Virtue'' or [[Tao Te Ching]] (&#36947;&#24503;&#32147; Dao De Jing), attributed to [[Lao Zi]].
** ''[[Zhuang Zi]]'', attributed to the philosopher of the same name, Zhuang Zi.
** The ''True Classic of Perfect Emptiness'', attributed to [[Lie Zi]].
*The classic of [[Mohism]]:
** ''[[Mozi]]'', attributed to the philosopher of the same name, Mozi.
*The classics of [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]]:
** ''[[Guan Zi]]'', attributed to [[Guan Zhong]].
** ''[[Han Fei Zi]]'', attributed to [[Han Fei]].
** ''[[Shen Zi]]'', attributed to [[Shen Buhai]], is lost.
** ''[[Shen Zi]]'', attributed to [[Shen Dao]], is presumably lost.
** The ''[[Book of Law]]'' or ''[[Fa Jing]]'', attributed to [[Li Kui]].
*Classics of [[military science]]:
** ''[[The Art of War]]'', attributed to [[Sun Tzu]].
** ''[[Thirty-Six Strategies]]'', recently uncovered.
** ''The Three Strategies of Master Yellow Stone'' (黃石公三略, ''Huangshigong sanlüe'')
** ''Li Weigong answering the questions of Tang Taizong'' (唐太宗李衛公問對, ''Tang Taizong Li Weigong Wendui''), attributed to [[Li Jing]]
** ''The Methods of the Minister of War'' (司馬法, ''Sima Fa''), attributed to [[Sima Rangju]] (司馬穰苴)/Tian Rangju (田穰苴)
** ''Wuzi'' (吳子), attributed to [[Wu Qi]] (吳起)
** ''Weiliaozi'' (尉繚子, also pronounced ''Yuliaozi''), attributed to [[Wei Liao]] (尉繚)
*Classics of the [[history of China]]:
** ''[[Twenty-Four Histories]]'', a dynastic format collection of authoritative references of the history of China, including the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' by [[Sima Qian]] and the ''[[Book of Han]]'' by [[Ban Gu]].
** The ''Spring and Autumn Annals of Zuo'', ''Annals of Zuo'' or ''[[Zuo Zhuan]]'', attributed to [[Zuo Qiuming]].
** The ''Discourses of the States'' or ''[[Guoyu]]'', a collection of historical records of numerous states during the [[Spring and Autumn Period]].
** The ''Strategies of the Warring States'' or ''[[Zhan Guo Ce]]'', attributed to [[Liu Xiang]].
** The ''Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yue'' or ''[[Wuyue Chunqiu]]'', a historical record of the states of [[State of Wu|Wu]] and [[State of Yue|Yue]] during the [[Spring and Autumn Period]], attributed to [[Zhao Ye]].
** The ''Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms'' or ''[[Shiliuguo Chunqiu]]'', a historical record of the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]], attributed to [[Cui Hong]], is lost.
** The ''Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government'' or ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'', attributed to [[Sima Guang]].
** The ''Annals of Lü Buwei'' or ''[[Lüshi Chunqiu]]'' (&#21570;&#27663;&#26149;&#31179;), attributed to [[Lü Buwei]].
*Other classics include:
** The ''[[Classic of Filial Piety]]'' or [[Xiao Jing]] (&#23389;&#32147; Xiao Jing)
** The ''[[Thousand Character Classic]]'' (&#12298;&#21315;&#23383;&#25991;&#12299;)
== See also ==
*[[Chinese literature]]
*[[Imperial examination]]
== External links ==
* [http://afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php Wengu text database] (''Classic of Poetry'', ''Analects of Confucius'', ''Tao Te Ching'' and ''I Ching'', in Chinese and translations)
* [http://nothingistic.org/library Chinese Classics] (James Legge's translations of the ''Analects of Confucius'', the ''Great Learning'', the ''Doctrine of the Mean'', the ''Works of Mencius'' and the ''Tao Te Ching'')
* [http://www.chinapage.com/big5/classic/classic.html Chinese classic text online] (in Big5 Chine |
Free Software Foundation''' ('''FSF''') is a non-profit organization founded in [[October]] [[1985]] by [[Richard Stallman]] to support the [[free software]] [[free software movement|movement]] (free as in [[freedom]]), and in particular the [[GNU]] project.
From its founding until the mid-[[1990s]] FSF's funds were mostly used to employ software developers to write free software. Since the mid- to late 1990s there are now many companies and individuals writing free software, so FSF's employees and volunteers mostly work on legal and structural issues for the [[free software movement|free software community]].
==Current work of FSF==
{{wikinews|Free Software Foundation releases first draft of GPLv3}}
; The GNU Project : The original purpose of the FSF was to promote the ideals of free software but the organization was also charged with developing the [[GNU]] operating system.
; GPL Enforcement : FSF has the resources and the will to enforce the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] and other GNU licenses, but only for software for which it owns the copyrights; GPL'd software owned by others must be defended by its owners, since the FSF has no legal standing to enforce the GPL for them. FSF handles around 50 GPL violations per year and tries to bring the other party into compliance without involving the courts.
; GNU Licenses : The [[GNU GPL]] is the most widely used license for Free Software projects. The current version (version 2) was released in [[1991]] but FSF are working on a version 3. FSF have also published the [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] (LGPL), and the [[GNU Free Documentation License]] (GFDL).
; Guardian of copyrights : FSF holds the [[copyright]]s to most GNU software and some non-GNU Free Software. They require copyright assignment papers from each contributor to GNU packages so that they can defend the software in court if a dispute arises, and so that if there is a need to change the license of a work, it can be done without having to contact all contributors that have ever worked on the software.
; GNU Press : The FSF's publishing department, responsible for "publishing affordable books on computer science using freely distributable licenses."
; The [[Free Software Directory]] : This is a listing of software packages which have been verified as free software. Each package entry contains 47 pieces of information such as the project's homepage, developers, programming language, etc. The goals are to provide a search engine for free software, and to provide a cross-reference for users to check if a package has been verified as being free software. FSF has received a small amount of funding from [[UNESCO]] for this project. It is hoped that the directory can be translated in to many languages in the future.
; Maintaining the Free Software Definition : FSF maintain many of the documents that define the Free Software movement
; Legal Education : FSF hold seminars about legal aspects of using the GPL, and offers a consultancy service for lawyers.
; Project Hosting : FSF provide project hosting via their [[GNU Savannah|Savannah]] website.
; Annual awards
"[[Award for the Advancement of Free Software]]" and "[[Free Software Award for Projects of Social Benefit]]"
[[Image:Eben Moglen.jpeg|thumb|[[Eben Moglen]], General Counsel]]
==Structure==
===Membership===
On [[November 25]], [[2002]] the FSF launched the FSF Associate Membership program for individuals. In [[March 2005]] they had over 3400 associate members. On [[March 5]] [[2003]] they launched a Corporate Patron program for commercial entities. As of [[April 2004]], they have 45 corporate patrons.
===Organizational===
====Board of Directors====
* [[Geoffery Knauth]], Senior Software Engineer at SFA, Inc.
* [[Lawrence Lessig]], Professor of Law at Stanford University
* [[Eben Moglen]], Professor of Law and Legal History at Columbia University
* [[Henri Poole]], Founder of CivicActions, a grassroots campaign technology consulting firm.
* [[Richard Stallman]], Founder of FSF and the GNU Project, former maintainer of various GNU software, and coauthor of the GNU GPL, Versions 1 and 2
* [[Gerald Jay Sussman|Gerald Sussman]], Professor of Computer Science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
====Other positions====
* [[Richard Stallman]]: President and founder of the Free Software Foundation [[Image:Richard Matthew Stallman.jpeg|thumb|280px|right|Richard M Stallman]]
* [[Peter T. Brown]]: Executive Director (was GPL Compliance Manager and Controller until February 2005)
* [[Eben Moglen]]: General Counsel
* [[Dan Ravicher]]: Senior Counsel
* [[David "Novalis" Turner]]: GPL Compliance Engineer (and [[User:Novalis|Wikipedia user]])
* [[John Sullivan]], Programs Administrator
* [[Ted Teah]], Free Software Directory maintainer
* [[Joshua Ginsberg]], Senior Systems Administrator
* [[Justin Baugh]], Senior Systems Administrator (and [[User:baughj|Wikipedia user]])
* [[Ward Vandewege]], Senior Systems Administrator (part-time) (and [[User:wardv|Wikipedia user]])
* [[Tony Wieczorek]], Program Assistant
====Former employees====
* [[Jonathan Arcenaux]], GNU hacker, [[GNU Emacs]]
* [[James E. Blair]], Senior Systems Administrator
* [[Bradley M. Kuhn]]: Executive Director until [[February 2005]]
* [[Leslie Proctor]] Public Relations
* [[Robert J. Chassell]]: Founding Director and Treasurer
* [[Tim Ney]] CEO 1998-2001
* [[Thomas Bushnell, BSG]] GNU [[hacker]], [[GNU Hurd]]
* [[Roland McGrath]] GNU hacker, [[GNU Libc]], [[Make]], GNU Hurd
* [[Ian Murdock]] GNU hacker
* [[Leonard Tower]] GNU hacker
* [[Mike Haertel]] GNU hacker, [[diff]], [[grep]]
* [[Pete TerMaat]] GNU hacker, [[GNU Debugger|GDB]]
* [[Phil Nelson]] GNU hacker
* [[Jay Fenlason]] GNU hacker, [[sed]]
* [[Brian Fox]] GNU hacker, [[Bash]]
* [[Noboyuki Hikichi]] GNU hacker
* [[Paul Rubin]] GNU hacker, [[cpp]]
* [[Ariel Rios]] GNU hacker, [[GNU Guile|Guile]]
* [[Randy Smith]] GNU hacker, [[GDB]]
* there was a "Steve"
* [[Jonathan Watterson]], digital-speech project organiser
* [[Lisa "Opus" Goldstein]]: Manager of [[GNU Press]]
* [[Paul Fisher]], Senior Systems Administrator
* [[Peter Salus]], Vice President
* [[Tom Lord]], GNU hacker, [[GNU arch]], [[sed]], [[regular expression]] engine, [[GNU Oleo]] features
* [[Janet Casey]], Free Software Directory maintainer until [[August 2005]]
There are usually around 10 employees in the headquarters in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]. The office is managed by Peter Brown.
===Sister organisations===
In [[2001]], [[Free Software Foundation Europe]] was founded in [[Germany]] to act as a "hub" for the Free Software organisations of Europe. In [[2003]], [[Free Software Foundation India]] was founded in [[Kerala]]. In 2005, it was announced that work is in progress to set up a [[Free Software Foundation Latin America]].
==Recognition==
*[[1999]]: [[Linus Torvalds Award]] for Open Source Computing [http://www.stanfordalumni.org/news/magazine/2002/janfeb/showcase/motionpictures.html]
*[[2005]]: [[Prix Ars Electronica]] Award of Distinction in the category of "Digital Communities" [http://www.aec.at/en/prix/updates/article.asp?iNewsID=715&iTypeID=0] [http://www.fsf.org/news/digital-communities.html]
==External links==
*[http://www.fsf.org The Free Software Foundation web site]
*[http://www.fsf.org/about About the FSF]
*[http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html The Free Software Definition]
*[http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/philosophy.html Documents about the Free Software philosophy]
*[http://member.fsf.org FSF Associate Membership Program]
*[http://patron.fsf.org FSF Corporate Patronage Program]
*[http://www.fsfeurope.org Free Software Foundation Europe web site]
*[http://www.fsf.org.in The Free Software Foundation India web site]
*[http://www.ifso.ie The Irish Free Software Organisation]
*[http://alternativefreedom.blogspot.com/ "Alternative Freedom" Documentary featuring Richard Stallman]
*[http://www.gnupress.org/ The GNU Press web site]
[[category:Free Software Foundation|*]]
[[Category:Non-profit organizations]][[Category:Nonprofit Technology]][[Category:Foundations]]
[[ast:Fundación del Software Llibre]]
[[ca:Free Software Foundation]]
[[cs:Free Software Foundation]]
[[da:Free Software Foundation]]
[[de:Free Software Foundation]]
[[el:Ίδρυμα Ελεύθερου Λογισμικού]]
[[es:Free Software Foundation]]
[[eo:Free Software Foundation]]
[[fa:بنیاد نرمافزارهای آزاد]]
[[fr:Fondation pour le logiciel libre]]
[[gl:Free Software Foundation]]
[[ko:자유 소프트웨어 재단]]
[[id:FSF]]
[[is:Frjálsa hugbúnaðarstofnunin]]
[[it:Free Software Foundation]]
[[he:קרן התוכנה החופשית]]
[[lb:Free Software Foundation]]
[[hu:Free Software Foundation]]
[[nl:Free Software Foundation]]
[[ja:フリーソフトウェア財団]]
[[no:Free Software Foundation]]
[[nn:Free Software Foundation]]
[[pl:Free Software Foundation]]
[[pt:Free Software Foundation]]
[[sk:Free Software Foundation]]
[[fi:Free Software Foundation]]
[[sv:Free Software Foundation]]
[[tl:Free Software Foundation]]
[[tr:Özgür Yazılım Vakfı]]
[[uk:Фонд Вільних Програм]]
[[zh:自由软件基金会]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Falconiformes</title>
<id>10641</id>
<revision>
<id>41352612</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T20:15:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Srleffler</username>
<id>252195</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Rv. Link I kept was a disambiguation page. "Bird of prey" is already linked here.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Falconiformes
| image = Black-shouldered-Kite-232.jpg
| image_caption = [[Black-shouldered Kite]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = '''Falconiformes'''
| ordo_authority = [[Richard Bowdler Sharpe|Sharpe]], 1874
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision =
[[Accipitridae]]<br />
[[Osprey|Pandionidae]]<br />
[[Falcon |
Max Weinreich]] published the expression, "A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot" ("אַ שפראַך איז אַ דיאַלעקט מיט אַן אַרמײ און פֿלאָט", "A language is a dialect with an army and navy"; in ''Yivo-bleter'' 25.1, 1945, p.&nbsp;13), illustrating the fact that languages are created by [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]]. This is perhaps the most widely cited statement of an analogy that has been attributed to other authors. (Weinreich explicitly states that he did not coin it.) It has been suggested that the initial wording was provided by [[Hubert Lyautey]] as, "Une langue, c'est un dialecte qui possède une armée, une marine et une aviation." ("A language is a dialect with an army, a navy and an air force." ). A separate article discusses the origin of the [[Language-dialect aphorism|language-dialect aphorism]] in greater detail.
=== Political factors ===
Depending on political realities and ideologies, the classification of speech varieties as dialects or languages and their relationship to other varieties of speech can be controversial and the verdicts inconsistent. [[English language|English]] and [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]] illustrate the point. English and Serbo-Croatian each have two major variants ([[British English|British]] and [[American English|American]] English, and [[Serbian language|Serbian]] and [[Croatian language|Croatian,]] respectively), along with numerous lesser varieties. For political reasons, analyzing these varieties as "languages" or "dialects" yields inconsistent results: British and American English, spoken by close political and military allies, are almost universally regarded as dialects of a single language, whereas the standard languages of [[Serbia]] and [[Croatia]], which differ from each other to a similar extent as the dialects of English, are being treated by many linguists from the region as distinct languages, largely because the two countries oscillate from being brotherly to being bitter enemies. ''The [[Serbo-Croatian language]] article deals with this topic much more fully.''
Parallel examples abound. [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], although mutually intelligible with [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and often considered to be a Bulgarian dialect, is touted in [[Republic of Macedonia]] as a language in its own right. In [[Lebanon]], the right-wing [[Guardians of the Cedars]], a fiercely nationalistic (mainly Christian) political party which opposes the country's ties to the [[Arab]] world, is agitating for [[Lebanese language|"Lebanese"]] to be recognized as a distinct language from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and not merely a dialect, and has even advocated replacing the [[Arabic alphabet]] with a revival of the ancient [[Phoenician alphabet]].
There have been cases of a variety of speech being deliberately altered to serve political purposes. One example is [[Moldovan language|Moldovan]]. No such language existed before [[1945]], and most non-Moldovan linguists remain sceptical about its classification. After the [[Soviet Union]] annexed the [[Romania|Romanian]] province of [[Bessarabia]] and renamed it [[Moldavia]], [[Romanian language|Romanian,]] a [[Romance language]], the [[Cyrillic alphabet]] was restored and numerous [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] words were imported into the language, in an attempt to weaken any sense of shared national identity with Romania. After Moldavia won its independence in [[1991]] (and changed its name to [[Moldova]]), it reverted to a modified [[Latin alphabet]] as a rejection of the perceived political connotations of the Cyrillic alphabet. In [[1996]], however, the Moldovan parliament, citing fears of "Romanian expansionism," rejected a proposal from [[President of Moldova|President]] [[Mircea Snegur]] to change the name of the language back to Romanian, and in [[2003]] a Romanian-Moldovan [[dictionary]] was published, purporting to show that the two countries speak different languages. Linguists of the [[Romanian Academy]] reacted by declaring that all the Moldovan words were also Romanian words; while in Moldova, the head of the [[Academy of Sciences' Institute of Linguistics (Moldova)|Academy of Sciences' Institute of Linguistics]], [[Ion Bărbuţă]], described the dictionary as a politically motivated "absurdity".
In contrast, [[spoken languages of China|spoken languages]] of [[Han Chinese]] are usually referred as dialects of one Chinese language, to promote national unity. ''The article "[[Chinese_language#Language_or_language_family.3F|Is Chinese a language or a family of languages?]]" has more details''.
The significance of the political factors in any attempt at answering the question "what is a language? is great enough to cast doubt on whether any strictly linguistic definition, without a socio-cultural approach, is possible. This is illustrated by the frequency with which the [[Language-dialect aphorism|army-navy aphorism]] discussed at the end of the preceding section is cited.
=== The historical linguistics point of view ===
Many [[historical linguistics|historical linguists]] view every speech form as a dialect of the older medium of communication from which it developed. This point of view sees the modern [[Romance languages]] as dialects of [[Latin]], modern [[Greek language|Greek]] as a dialect of ancient Greek, and [[Tok Pisin]] as a dialect of English. This paradigm is not entirely problem-free. It sees genetic relationships as paramount; the "dialects" of a "language" (which itself may be a "dialect" of a yet older tongue) may or may not be mutually intelligible. Moreover, a parent language may spawn several "dialects" which themselves subdivide any number of times, with some "branches" of the tree changing more rapidly than others. This can give rise to the situation where two dialects (defined according to this paradigm) with a somewhat distant genetic relationship are mutually more readily comprehensible than more closely related dialects. This pattern is clearly present among the modern Romance tongues, with [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] having a high degree of mutual comprehensibility, which neither language shares with [[French language|French]], despite both languages being ''genetically'' closer to French than to each other: French has undergone more rapid change than have Spanish and Italian.
== Concepts in dialectology ==
Concepts in dialectology include:
===Mutual intelligibility===
Some have attempted to distinguish dialects from languages by saying that dialects are [[mutually intelligible languages|mutually comprehensible]] while languages are not. But this concept may not be as clear-cut as it may at first seem. [[Italian language|Italian]] speakers and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] speakers, for example, may be able to understand a considerable proportion of each other's closely-related Romance languages, whereas [[Lombard]]s and [[Sicily|Sicilians]], speaking what are described as dialects of the same language, may encounter considerable barriers to mutual comprehension.
===Diglossia===
Another problem occurs in the case of [[diglossia]], used to describe a situation where, in a given society, there are two closely-related languages, one of high-prestige, which is generally used by the government and in formal texts, and one of low-prestige, which is usually the spoken [[vernacular]] tongue. An example of this is [[sanskrit]], which was considered the proper way to speak in northern India, but only accessible by the upper class, and [[prakrit]] which was the common (and informal or [[slang]]) speech at the time.
===Dialect continuum===
A [[dialect continuum]] is a network of dialects in which geographically adjacent dialects are mutually comprehensible, but with comprehensibility steadily decreasing as distance between the dialects increases. A well-known example is the [[Afrikaans]]-[[Dutch language|Dutch]]-[[Frisian language|Frisian]]-[[German language|German]] dialect continuum, a vast network of dialects with four recognized literary standards. Although standard Dutch and German are not mutually intelligible, a chain of dialects connects them, with no break in intelligibility between any geographically adjacent dialects along the continuum. A network of dialects similarly exists among the [[Eastern Slavic languages]], among which [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] are recognized as three literary standards. The [[Serbo-Croatian language]] can also be viewed as a network of four major dialects and three literary standards. The Romance languages -- [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], Castilian [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Provençal]], [[French language|French]], [[Occitan]], [[Corsican]], [[Sardinian]], [[Sicilian]], [[Romansh]], [[Friulian]], other [[Italian_Language|Italian]] dialects, [[Romanian language|Romanian]], and others -- form another well-known continuum.
===Diasystem===
A [[diasystem]] refers to a single genetic language which has two or more standard forms. An example is [[Hindi-Urdu]] or [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], which encompasses two main standard varieties, [[Urdu]] and [[Hindi]].
===Pluricentrism===
A [[pluricentric language]] is a language with several standard versions.
=== The Ausbausprache - Abstandsprache - Dachsprache framework ===
One analytical paradigm developed by professional linguists is known as the [[Ausbausprache - Abstandsprache - Dachsprache]] framework. It has proved popular among linguists in Continental Europe, but is not so well known in English-speaking countries, especially among people who are not trained linguists. Although only one of many possible |
mathematics)|function]] by [[trigonometric series]]. Cantor solved this difficult problem in 1869. Between 1870 and 1872, Cantor published more papers on [[trigonometric series]], including one defining [[irrational number]]s as convergent sequences of [[rational number]]s. Dedekind, whom Cantor befriended in 1872, cited this paper later that year, in the paper where he first set out his celebrated definition of real numbers by [[Dedekind cuts]].
Cantor's 1874 paper, "On a Characteristic Property of All Real Algebraic Numbers," marks the birth of set theory. It was published in [[Crelle's Journal]], despite [[Kronecker]]'s opposition, thanks to [[Dedekind]]'s support. Previously, all infinite collections had been (silently) assumed to be of "the same size"; Cantor was the first to show that there was more than one kind of infinity. In doing so, he became the first to invoke the notion of a 1-to-1 correspondence, albeit not calling it such. He then proved that the real numbers were not denumerable, employing a proof more complex than the remarkably elegant and justly celebrated [[diagonal argument]] he first set out in 1891.
The 1874 paper also showed that the [[algebraic number]]s, i.e., the [[root]]s of [[polynomial]] equations with [[integer]] [[coefficient]]s, were denumerable. Real numbers that are not algebraic are [[transcendental number |transcendental]]. [[Liouville]] had established the existence of transcendental numbers in 1851. Since Cantor had just shown that the [[real number]]s were not denumerable and that the union of two denumerable sets must be denumerable, it logically follows from the fact that a real number is either algebraic or transcendental that the transcendentals must be nondenumerable. The transcendentals have the same power as the reals, and "almost all" real numbers must be transcendental. Cantor remarked that he had effectively reproved a theorem, due to [[Liouville]], to the effect that there are infinitely many transcendental numbers in each interval.
In 1874, Cantor began looking for a 1-to-1 correspondence between the points of the unit square and the points of a unit line segment. In an 1877 letter to Dedekind, Cantor proved a far stronger result: there exists a 1-to-1 correspondence between the points on the unit line segment and all of the points in a ''p''-dimensional space. About this discovery Cantor wrote famously (and in French) "I see it, but I don't believe it!" This astonishing result has implications for geometry and the notion of dimension.
In 1878, Cantor submitted another paper to [[Crelle's Journal]], which again displeased Kronecker. Cantor wanted to withdraw the paper, but Dedekind persuaded him not to do so; moreover, [[Weierstrass]] supported its publication. Nevertheless, Cantor never again submitted anything to [[Crelle]].
This paper made precise the notion of a 1-to-1 correspondence, and defined [[countable set|denumerable set]]s as sets which can be put into a 1-to-1 correspondence with the [[natural numbers]]. Cantor introduces the notion of "power" (a term he took from [[Jakob Steiner]]) or "equivalence" of sets; two sets are equivalent (have the same power) if there exists a 1-to-1 correspondence between them. He then proves that the rational numbers have the smallest infinite power, and that '''Rn''' has the same power as '''R'''. Moreover, countably many copies of '''R''' have the same power as '''R'''. While he made free use of [[countable]] as a concept, he did not write the word "countable" until 1883. Cantor also discussed his thinking about [[dimension]], stressing that his [[mapping]] between the unit interval and the unit square was not a continuous one.
Between 1879 and 1884, Cantor published a series of six articles in ''[[Mathematische Annalen]]'' that together formed an introduction to his set theory. By agreeing to publish these articles, the editor displayed courage, because of the growing opposition to Cantor's ideas, led by Kronecker. Kronecker admitted mathematical concepts only if they could be constructed in a [[finitism|finite]] number of steps from the natural numbers, which he took as intuitively given. For Kronecker, Cantor's hierarchy of infinities was inadmissible.
The fifth paper in this series, "Foundations of a General Theory of Aggregates," published in 1883, was the most important of the six and was also published as a separate monograph. It contained Cantor's reply to his critics and showed how the transfinite numbers were a systematic extension of the natural numbers. It begins by defining [[well-order]]ed sets. [[Ordinal numbers]] are then introduced as the order types of [[well-order]]ed sets. Cantor then defines the addition and multiplication of the [[cardinal number|cardinal]] and [[ordinal number]]s. In 1885, Cantor extended his theory of order types so that the ordinal numbers simply became a special case of order types.
Cantor's 1883 paper reveals that he was well aware of the opposition his ideas were encountering: <blockquote>"... I realize that in this undertaking I place myself in a certain opposition to views widely held concerning the mathematical infinite and to opinions frequently defended on the nature of numbers."</blockquote> Hence he devotes much space to justifying his earlier work, asserting that mathematical concepts may be freely introduced as long as they are free of [[contradiction]] and defined in terms of previously accepted concepts. He also cites [[Aristotle]], [[Descartes]], [[Berkeley]], [[Leibniz]], and [[Bolzano]] on infinity.
Cantor was the first to formulate what later came to be known as the [[continuum hypothesis]] or CH: there exists no set whose power is greater than that of the naturals and less than that of the reals (or equivalently, the cardinality of the reals is ''exactly'' aleph-one, rather than just ''at least'' aleph-one). His inability to prove the continuum hypothesis caused Cantor considerable anxiety but, with the benefit of hindsight, is entirely understandable: a 1940 result by [[Godel]] and a 1963 one by [[Paul Cohen]] together imply that the continuum hypothesis can neither be proved nor disproved using standard [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory]] plus the [[axiom of choice]] (the combination referred to as "ZFC").{{ref|CHtoday}}
In 1882, the rich mathematical correspondence between Cantor and Dedekind came to an end. Cantor also began another important correspondence, with [[Mittag-Leffler]] in Sweden, and soon began to publish in Mittag-Leffler's journal ''Acta Mathematica''. But in 1885, [[Mittag-Leffler]] asked Cantor to withdraw a paper from ''Acta'' while it was in proof, writing that it was "... about one hundred years too soon." Cantor complied, but wrote to a third party:<blockquote>"Had Mittag-Leffler had his way, I should have to wait until the year 1984, which to me seemed too great a demand! ... But of course I never want to know anything again about ''Acta Mathematica''."</blockquote> Thus ended his correspondence with Mittag-Leffler, as did Cantor's brilliant development of set theory over the previous 12 years. Mittag-Leffler had meant well, but this incident reveals how even Cantor's most brilliant contemporaries often failed to appreciate his work.
In 1895 and 1897, Cantor published a two-part paper in ''[[Mathematische Annalen]]'' under [[Felix Klein]]'s editorship; these were his last significant papers on set theory. (The English translation is Cantor 1955.) The first paper begins by defining set, [[subset]], etc., in ways that would be largely acceptable now. The [[cardinal number|cardinal]] and [[ordinal number|ordinal]] arithmetic are reviewed. Cantor wanted the second paper to include a proof of the continuum hypothesis, but had to settle for expositing his theory of [[well-ordered set]]s and [[ordinal number]]s. Cantor attempts to prove that if ''A'' and ''B'' are sets with ''A'' equivalent to a subset of ''B'' and ''B'' equivalent to a subset of ''A'', then ''A'' and ''B'' are equivalent. [[Ernst Schroeder]] had stated this theorem a bit earlier, but his proof, as well as Cantor's, was flawed. [[Felix Bernstein]] supplied a correct proof in his 1898 Ph.D. thesis; hence the name [[Cantor-Schroeder-Bernstein theorem]].
Around this time, the set-theoretic [[paradox]]es began to rear their heads. In an 1897 paper on an unrelated topic, [[Cesare Burali-Forti]] set out the first such paradox, the [[Burali-Forti paradox]]: the [[ordinal number]] of the set of all ordinals must be an ordinal and this leads to a contradiction. Cantor discovered this paradox in 1895, and described it in an 1896 letter to [[Hilbert]]. Curiously, Cantor was highly critical of Burali-Forti's paper.
In 1899, Cantor discovered his eponymous [[Cantor's paradox|paradox]]: what is the cardinal number of the set of all sets? Clearly it must be the greatest possible cardinal. Yet for any sets ''A'', the cardinal number of the power set of ''A'' > cardinal number of ''A'' ([[Cantor's theorem]] again). This paradox, together with Burali-Forti's, led Cantor to formulate his concept of [[limitation of size]], <sup>''[[Talk:Georg Cantor#Limitation of size|fact check needed]]''</sup> according to which the collection of all ordinals, or of all sets, was an "inconsistent multiplicity" that was "too large" to be a set. Today they would be called [[proper class]]es.
One common view among mathematicians is that these paradoxes, together with [[Russell's paradox]], demonstrate that it is not possible to take a "[[naive set theory|naive]]", or non-axiomatic, approach to set theory without risking contradiction, and it is certain that they were among the motivations for [[Zermelo]] and others to produce [[axiomatic set theory|axiomatizations]] of set theory. Others note, however, |
er" |30
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
|- style="background:#FFF8DC;"
| align="center" |'''14th'''
| align="center" |'''1998 – 2002'''
| align="center" |669
| align="center" |245
| align="center" |298
| align="center" |43
| align="center" |47
| align="center" |36
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
|- style="background:#FFF8DC;"
| align="center" |'''15th'''
| align="center" |'''2002 – 2005'''
| align="center" |603
| align="center" |248
| align="center" |251
| align="center" |47
| align="center" |55
| align="center" |2
| align="center" |&ndash;
| align="center" |&ndash;
|- style="background:#FFF8DC;"
| align="center" |'''16th'''
| align="center" |'''since 2005'''
| align="center" |614
| align="center" |226
| align="center" |222
| align="center" |61
| align="center" |51
| align="center" |54
| align="center" |&ndash;
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|-
|}
<sup>1</sup>: 1983 to 1990 The Greens, 1990 to 1994 [[Alliance 90]], since 1994 [[Alliance '90/The Greens|Alliance 90/The Greens]]<br>
<sup>2</sup>: 1990 to 2005 [[Partei des Demokratischen Sozialismus|PDS]] (Party of Democratic Socialism), since 2005 [[Left Party (Germany)|The Left Party]]<br>
For detailed information on particular sessions of the Bundestag, please refer to the [[List of German Bundestage]].
==Presidents since 1949==
{|
|-
|[[Erich Köhler]] (CDU)||1949-1950||(resigned for medical reasons)
|-
|[[Hermann Ehlers]] (CDU)||1950-1954||(died in office)
|-
|[[Eugen Gerstenmaier]] (CDU)||1954-1969||(resigned for political reasons)
|-
|[[Kai-Uwe von Hassel]] (CDU)||1969-1972||
|-
|[[Annemarie Renger]] (SPD)||1972-1976||(first woman and social democrat to hold the post)
|-
|[[Karl Carstens]] (CDU)||1976-1979||(resigned when he became Federal President of the FRG)
|-
|[[Richard Stücklen]] (CSU)||1979-1983||
|-
|[[Rainer Barzel]] (CDU)||1983-1984||(resigned for political reasons)
|-
|[[Philipp Jenninger]] (CDU)||1984-1988||(resigned for political reasons)
|-
|[[Rita Süssmuth]] (CDU)||1988-1998||
|-
|[[Wolfgang Thierse]] (SPD)||1998-2005||
|-
|[[Norbert Lammert]] (CDU)||2005-||
|}
==Organization==
The most important organizational structures within the ''Bundestag'' are parliamentary groups (''Fraktionen''; sing. ''Fraktion''), which are formed by political parties represented in the chamber which have gained more than 5% of the total votes; [[Christian Democratic Union|CDU]] and [[Christian Social Union|CSU]] have always formed a single united ''Fraktion''. The size of a party's ''Fraktion'' determines the extent of its representation on legislative committees, the time slots alloted for speaking, the number of committee chairs it can hold, and its representation in executive bodies of the ''Bundestag.'' The ''Fraktionen,'' not the members, receive the bulk of government funding for legislative and administrative activities.
The leadership of each ''Fraktion'' consists of a parliamentary party leader, several deputy leaders, and an executive committee. The leadership's major responsibilities are to represent the ''Fraktion,'' enforce party discipline, and orchestrate the party's parliamentary activities. The members of each ''Fraktion'' are distributed among [[working group]]s focused on specific policy-related topics such as social policy, economics, and foreign policy. The ''Fraktion'' meets once a week to consider legislation before the ''Bundestag'' and formulate the party's position on it.
Parties which do not fulfill the criterion for being a ''Fraktion'' but which have got at least three seats by direct elections (i.e. which have got at least three MPs which represent a certain electoral district) in the Bundestag can be granted the status of a ''group'' of the Bundestag. This applied to the [[Party of Democratic Socialism]] (PDS) from [[1990]]-[[1998]]. This status entails some privileges which are in general less than those of a ''Fraktion''. In the current ''Bundestag'', there are no such groups (the PDS only had two MPs in parliament until 2005 and was thus not even considered a group anymore; the party has now returned to the Bundestag with full ''Fraktion'' status).
The ''Bundestag's'' '''executive bodies''' include the [[Council of Elders of the Bundestag (Germany)|Council of Elders]] and the [[Presidium of the Bundestag (Germany)|Presidium]]. The council consists of the ''Bundestag'' leadership, together with the most senior representatives of each ''Fraktion,'' with the number of these representatives tied to the strength of the party in the chamber. The council is the coordination hub, determining the daily legislative agenda and assigning committee chairpersons based on party representation. The council also serves as an important forum for interparty negotiations on specific legislation and procedural issues. The Presidium is responsible for the routine administration of the ''Bundestag,'' including its clerical and research activities. It consists of the chamber's president (usually elected from the largest ''Fraktion'') and vice presidents (one from each ''Fraktion).''
Most of the legislative work in the ''Bundestag'' is the product of '''standing committees,''' which exist largely unchanged throughout one legislative period. Although this is common practice in the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]], it is uncommon in other parliamentary systems, such as the [[British House of Commons]] and the French [[National Assembly]]. The number of committees approximates the number of federal ministries, and the titles of each are roughly similar (e.g., defense, agriculture, and labor). Between 1987 and 1990, the term of the eleventh ''Bundestag,'' there were twenty-one standing committees. The distribution of committee chairs and the membership of each committee reflect the relative strength of the various parties in the chamber. In the eleventh ''Bundestag,'' the [[Christian-Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]]/[[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]] chaired eleven committees, the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]] eight, the [[Free Democratic Party of Germany|FDP]] one, and the environmentalist party, the [[German Green Party|Greens]] ''(Die Grünen),'' one. Unlike in the United States Congress, where all committees are chaired by members of the majority party, the German system allows members of the opposition party to chair a significant number of standing committees. These committees have either a small staff or no staff at all.
==See also==
* [[Politics of Germany]]
* ''[[Bundesrat (Germany)|Bundesrat]]''
==External links==
* [http://www.bundestag.de/ http://www.bundestag.de] - Official site
* [http://www.btw2002.de/ http://www.btw2002.de] - 2002 elections
[[Category:German Bundestag|*]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[Category:Legislative Branch of the German Government|*]]
[[Category:National legislatures|Germany]]
[[Category:Politics of Germany]]
[[ar:بوندستاغ]]
[[de:Deutscher Bundestag]]
[[es:Bundestag]]
[[fr:Bundestag]]
[[hr:Bundestag]]
[[it:Bundestag]]
[[nl:Bondsdag]]
[[ja:ドイツ連邦議会]]
[[no:Forbundsdagen]]
[[nn:Forbundsdagen]]
[[pl:Bundestag]]
[[pt:Bundestag]]
[[ru:Бундестаг]]
[[fi:Saksan liittopäivät]]
[[sv:Förbundsdagen]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bundesrat</title>
<id>3769</id>
<revision>
<id>30896455</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-11T04:36:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KaiserbBot</username>
<id>624606</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation ([[WP:DPL|you can help!]]): Executive</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Bundesrat,''''' [[German language|German]] for "Federal Council", is a political institution in several countries:
* [[Federal Council of Austria|''Bundesrat'' of Austria]] ([[legislative]])
* [[Bundesrat (Germany)|''Bundesrat'' of Germany]] (legislative)
* [[Swiss Federal Council|''Bundesrat'' of Switzerland: the Swiss Federal Council]] ([[executive (government)|executive]])
{{disambig}}
[[als:Bundesrat]]
[[cs:Spolková rada]]
[[de:Bundesrat]]
[[fr:Bundesrat]]
[[ja:連邦参議院]]
[[pl:Rada Federalna]]
[[ru:Бундесрат]]
[[sv:Förbundsrådet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bundesregierung</title>
<id>3770</id>
<revision>
<id>15902085</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-18T08:45:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>217.99.105.223</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Germany]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bremerhaven</title>
<id>3771</id>
<revision>
<id>41595703</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T11:06:17Z</timestamp>
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<username>FlaBot</username>
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<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: fi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Bremerhaven|
name_local = |
image_coa = bremerhaven.jpg|
image_map = Bremerhaven-Position.png|
state = [[Bremen (state)]]|
regbzk = |
district = [[List of German urban districts|urban district]]|
population = 116,865|
population_as_of = 2005|
population_ref = [http://www.statistik.bremen.de/aktuelle_statistiken/AI1_m.pdf source]|
pop_dens = 1,482|
area = 78.86|
elevation = 2|
lat_deg = 53|
lat_min = 33|
lat_hem = N|
lon_deg = 8|
lon_min = 35|
lon_hem = E|
postal_code = 27501-27580 |
area_code = 0471|
licence = HB|
mayor = Jörg Schulz ([[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]])|
website = [http://www.bremerhaven.de/ bremerhaven.de]|
}}
[[image:Weser watershe |
Robinson that Schwarzenegger was intentionally undermining his own narrative, effectively creating a mildly self-deprecating re-examination of his own obsessions for perfection at any cost. In the end, whether Arnold intentionally fabricated the story for a desired effect is left to the audience.
== False documents in theory ==
* ''[[Boggs]]'' by [[Lawrence Weschler]]
* ''[[Mr. Wilson's Cabinet of Wonder]]'' by [[Lawrence Weschler]]
* ''[[Simulacra and Simulation]]'' by [[Jean Baudrillard]]
== False documents in fiction ==
Several fiction writers use the technique of inventing a piece of literature or non-fiction and referring to this work as if it actually existed, often also quoting from the work.
Blurring the line of reality and fiction is an important component of horror, mystery, [[Detective fiction|detective]] and fantasy narratives because they wish to engender in the reader a sense of wonder, and of danger, both of which need to feel more present than a typical narrative form would allow. For this reason, false documentary techniques have been in use for at least as long as these literary genres have been around. ''[[Frankenstein]]'' draws heavily on a forged document feel, as does ''[[Dracula]]'', ''[[The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]'' and many of the works of [[Jules Verne]] and [[H.G. Wells]]. [[Vladimir Nabokov|Vladimir Nabokov's]] ''[[Pale Fire]]'' is a particularly elaborate variation.
The following is a list of "false document" fictional documents:
* [[Miguel de Cervantes]] claims that all the chapters but the first in [[Don Quixote]] are translated from an Arabic manuscript by ''Cide Hamete Benengeli''. He is parodying a plot device of [[chivalric romance|chivalry book]]s. For instance, [[Joanot Martorell]] in the introductory letter to [[Tirant lo Blanc]] claims to be not the creator of a fiction, but the translator of an English historical manuscript.
* [[Daniel Defoe]]'s ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' was supposedly the [[autobiography]] of the [[title character]], an [[English people|English]] [[castaway]] who spent 28 years on a remote [[island]]. The account was presented as a factual event, in a genre called [[Histories_(history_of_the_novel)|histories]].
* [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'' was originally attributed to "[[Lemuel Gulliver]]", a ship's surgeon, and purported to be a factual account of four of his sea voyages. It even includes a rather irate bogus note from Gulliver to his publisher. It may be debatable whether the book is an example of a False Document, but is included because it initially bore little or no indication that it was a work of fiction.
* [[Bram Stoker]]'s novel [[Dracula]] is told in the form of numerous documents, including journals and newspaper articles. A brief introduction claims that they are all real.
* ''The [[Necronomicon]]'' appearing in the works of [[H. P. Lovecraft]]
* Author [[William Goldman]] claims in his book [[The Princess Bride]] that the story he tells is an abridged version of the Florentian literary masterpiece by the great (and fictional) [[S. Morgenstern]].
* [[Fritz Leiber]]'s novella ''Our Lady of Darkness'' revolves around the secret occult studies of fictional author/occultist Thibaut de Castries and his book ''[[Megapolisomancy]]: A New Science of Cities.''
* ''First Encyclopaedia of Tlön'' appearing in the short story "[[Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius]]" by [[Jorge Luis Borges]], plus several other fictional books invented by the same author, including an entire [[bibliography]] for the fictional author [[Pierre Menard (fictional character)|Pierre Menard]].
* Several works of the fictional author ''Fanshawe'' appearing in [[Paul Auster]]'s ''The Locked Room'' in ''[[The New York Trilogy]]''.
* ''The [[Red Book of Westmarch]]'' and a surviving copy of it called ''The Thain's Book'', portions of which were "translated" by [[J.R.R Tolkien]] into his novels ''[[The Hobbit]]'' and ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''.
* ''Never Whistle While You're Pissing'' is the work of the fictional character Hagbard Celine in the [[Illuminatus! Trilogy]] by [[Robert Shea]] and [[Robert Anton Wilson]].
* [[Michael Crichton]]'s ''[[Eaters of the Dead]]'' is a fabricated recreation of the [[Old English language|Old English]] [[Epic poetry|epic]] ''[[Beowulf]]'' in the form of a scholastic translation of [[Ahmad ibn Fadlan]]'s [[tenth century]] manuscript. Many of his other fictions, such as ''[[The Andromeda Strain]]'' and ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', also incoporated large amounts of fabricated scientific documents in the form of diagrams, [[DNA]] sequences, footnotes and bibliography.
* Dozens of fictional footnotes referencing events, books of magical scholarship, and biographies in ''[[Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell]]'', the debut novel by [[Susanna Clarke]].
* [[Milorad Pavich]]'s ''[[Dictionary of the Khazars]]'' is a work of fiction in the form of three fictional [[encyclopedia]]s, which incorporate viewpoints that provide inconsistent descriptions of the events they describe.
* ''[[A Princess of Mars]]'' by [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]] claims to be the manuscript of [[Barsoom_series#John_Carter|John Carter]] except for the first chapter explaining how the manuscript was received.
* ''[[House of Leaves]]'' by [[Mark Z. Danielewski]] is a work of fiction revolving around the discovery of a manuscript critiquing a documentary called The Navidson Record and its effects on both its author and editor.
* The [[Flashman]] books by [[George Macdonald Fraser]] are supposedly edited versions of the title character's memoirs.
* ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' by [[Douglas Adams]] is named for a fictional galactic encyclopedia that one of the main characters works for. The book also frequently quotes the fictional ''Guide''.
== Hoaxes ==
{{Main|hoax}}
A number of [[hoax]]es have involved false documents:
* "Transgressing the Boundaries: Toward a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity" <br>by Alan Sokal, (Spring/Summer 1996 issue of ''Social Text''). See [[Sokal Affair]]
* "[[Thiotimoline|The endochronic properties of resublimated thiotimoline]]", [[Isaac Asimov]].
* [[Salamander Letter]]
* ''[[Journal of Irreproducible Results]]''
* ''The [[Report From Iron Mountain]]''
* The [[Oera Linda]] book
* The [[Hitler Diaries]]
* The [[Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]
==False documents as a field of study==
False documents were recently the topic of a graduate level seminar in the humanities at the [[University of Michigan]]. The seminar was taught by Professor Eileen Pollack. While the form has existed for at least two hundred years, focused study is fairly recent.
==See also==
* [[A Racial Program for the Twentieth Century]], an anti-Semitic forgery
* [[Conspiracy theory]]
* [[Donation of Constantine]]
* [[Epistolary novel]]
* [[Falsification]]
* [[Fictional guidebook]]
* [[Forgery]]
* [[Frame tale]]
* [[Literary technique]]
* [[Nihilartikel]]
* [[Questioned document examination]]
* [[Urban legend]]
* [[Voynich manuscript]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.awpwriter.org/magazine/writers/epollack.htm False Document Article in the AWP Magazine]
[[Category:Narratology]]
[[Category:False documents|*]]
[[nl:Lijst van vervalsingen die in de geschiedenis een grote rol hebben gespeeld]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Fernando Pessoa</title>
<id>11431</id>
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<id>40498632</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T00:20:55Z</timestamp>
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<ip>84.230.142.193</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pessoasize.jpg|thumb|Fernando Pessoa]]
'''Fernando''' António Nogueira '''Pessoa''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|fɨɾ.'nɐ̃.du pɨ.'so.ɐ}}/) (b. [[June 13]], [[1888]] in [[Lisbon]], [[Portugal]] — d. [[November 30]], [[1935]] in the city of his birth) was a [[poet]] and [[writer]], seen by many as one of the most notable Portuguese authors of all time. Critic [[Harold Bloom]] referred to him in the book ''The Western Canon'' as the most representative poet of the [[20th century]], along with [[Pablo Neruda]]. Pessoa is unique as an author due to the prevalence of [[heteronym (poetry)|heteronym]]s in his writing, with few of his poems being signed by himself.
[[Image:Lisboa-Pessoa-A Brasileira-1.jpg|thumb|Pessoa's statue in front of famous Lisbon café "''A Brasileira''".]]
== Biographical overview ==
When Pessoa was five years old, his father died of [[tuberculosis]]. A year later, his brother also passed away and his widowed mother eventually married the Portuguese consul in [[Durban]], [[South Africa]], moving to the city in [[1896]]. The young Pessoa received his early education in [[Cape Town]] [http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/pessoa.htm], becoming fluent in the [[English language]] and developing an appreciation for English poets such as [[William Shakespeare]] and [[Milton]].
He then went back to Lisbon, at the age of 17, attending there "Curso Superior de Letras" in a Portuguese university. A [[student strike]] soon put an end to his studies, however, and Pessoa chose to study privately for a year at home. His term of study ended and Pessoa found a job working as an assistant for a businessman, where he was charged with writing correspondence and translating documents. In 1914, he and other artists and poets, like
[[Almada Negreiros]] and [[Mário de Sá Carneiro]] made the literary magazine Orpheu that would introduce modern literature in Portugal. Pessoa died of [[cirrhosis]] in 1935, almost unknown to the public and only with one book published: "''Mensagem''" (Message).
== Genesis of heteronyms ==
Pessoa's earliest heteronyms were '''Charles Robert Anon''' and '''Alexander Search'''; these were eventually succeeded by others, most notably: '''Alberto Caeiro''', '''Álvaro de Campos' |
iet Union]] demanded mining rights in [[Petsamo]]. On [[June 27]], Moscow demanded demilitarization of [[Åland]]. After Sweden had signed the [[Transit of German troops through Scandinavia (WWII)|troop transfer agreement]] with Germany on [[July 8]], [[Soviet Union]] demanded similar rights for a Soviet troop transit to [[Hanko]]. The transfer rights were given on [[September 6]], and demilitarization of Åland was agreed on [[October 11]], but negotiations on [[Petsamo]] continued to drag on. The Soviet Union also demanded several changes in the Finnish internal politics, for example forcing the resignation of [[Väinö Tanner]] from the cabinet. All of this reminded the public of how [[Occupation of Baltic Republics|the Baltic Republics had been occupied]] and annexed only a few months earlier.
Unbeknownst to Finland, [[Adolf Hitler]] had started to plan invasion of the [[Soviet Union]] ([[Operation Barbarossa]]). He had not been interested in Finland before the [[Winter War]], but now he saw the value of Finland as an operating base, and perhaps also the military value of the [[Finnish army]]. In the first weeks of August, German fears of a likely immediate Russian attack on Finland caused Hitler to free the arms embargo. Negotiations were intitiated concerning German troop transfer rights in Finland in exchange for arms and other material. For the [[Third Reich]], this was a breach of the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]], as well as being for Finland a breach of the [[Moscow Peace Treaty]]. Soviet negotiators had insisted that the troop transfer agreement (to [[Hanko]]) should not be published making it easy for the Finns to keep [[Transit of German troops through Scandinavia (WWII) |a troop transfer agreement with the Germans]] secret until the first German troops arrived.
=== Road to war ===
The negotiations about [[Petsamo]] [[nickel]] mining rights had dragged on for six months when the Soviet Foreign Ministry announced in January [[1941]] that the negotiations had to be concluded quickly. On the same day, the Soviet Union interrupted grain deliveries to Finland. Soviet ambassador Zotov was recalled home [[January 18]] and Soviet radio broadcasts started attacking Finland. Germans in Northern [[Norway]] reported in [[February 1]] that the [[Soviet Union]] had collected 500 fishing ships in [[Murmansk]], capable of transporting a division. Hitler ordered troops in [[Norway]] to occupy [[Petsamo]] ([[Operation Renntier]]) immediately if the [[Soviet Union]] started attacking Finland.
After the failure of the [[nickel]] negotiations, diplomatic activities were halted for a few months. The period did, however, saw increased German interest in Finland.
German Foreign Ministry sent [[Ludwig Weissauer]] to Finland [[May 5]], this time to clarify that war between Germany and the Soviet Union would not be launched before spring [[1942]]. Finnish leadership believed that at least officially, and forwarded the message to the Swedes and the British. When the war broke out only a couple of weeks later, it was understandable that both Swedish and British governments felt that the Finns had lied to them.
In the spring of [[1941]] joint battle plans were discussed with Germany, as well as communications and securing sea lanes. Finland made significant request for material aid. Finland was willing to join Germany against Soviet union with someprerequisites: a guarantee of Finnish independence, the pre-Winter War borders (or better), continuing grain deliveries, and that Finnish troops would not cross the border before a Soviet incursion. The arrival of German troops participating in [[Operation Barbarossa]] began on [[June 7]] in [[Petsamo]].
[[Finnish parliament]] was informed for the first time on [[June 9]], when first mobilization orders were issued for troops needed to safeguard the following general mobilization phases. On [[June 20]] Finland's government ordered 45,000 people at the Soviet border to be evacuated. On [[June 21]] Finland's chief of the General Staff, [[Erik Heinrichs]], was finally informed by his German counterpart that the attack was to begin.
== Finnish Offensive 1941 ==
[[Image:Finnish advance in Karelia during the Continuation War.png|300px|thumb|The furthest advance of Finnish units in the Continuation War. Borders for both before and after the Winter War are shown.]]
[[Operation Barbarossa]] had already commenced in the northern Baltic by the late hours of [[June 21]], when German minelayers, which had been hiding in the Finnish archipelago, laid two large minefields across the [[Gulf of Finland]]. These minefields ultimately proved sufficient to confine the Soviets' [[Baltic Fleet]] to the easternmost part of the Gulf of Finland. Later the same night, German bombers, flew along the Gulf of Finland to [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]] and mined the harbour and the river [[Neva]]. On the return trip, these bombers refuelled in [[Utti]] airfield. Finland feared that the [[Soviet Union]] would occupy [[Åland]] so [[Operation Kilpapurjehdus]] (Sail Race) was launched in the early hours of [[June 22]] to occupy [[Åland]]. Soviet bombers launched attacks against Finnish ships during the operation but no damage was inflicted.
On the morning of June 22, the German [[Gebirgskorps Norwegen]] started [[Operation Renntier]] and began its move from Northern [[Norway]] to [[Petsamo]]. Finland did not allow direct German attacks from its soil to the Soviet Union, so German forces in Petsamo and Salla had to hold their fire. There were occasional individual and group level small arms shooting between Soviet and Finnish border guards, but otherwise the front was quiet.
After three days, early on the morning of [[June 25]], the Soviet Union unleashed a major air offensive against 18 cities with 460 planes, mainly striking airfields but seriously damaging civilian targets as well. The Soviet Union justified the attack as being directed against German targets in Finland, but even the British embassy had to admit that this was not so. A meeting of parliament was scheduled for [[June 25]] when Prime Minister Rangell had been due to present a notice about Finland's neutrality in the Soviet-German war, but the Soviet bombings led him to instead observe that Finland was once again at war with the Soviet Union. The Continuation War had begun.
Mobilized units started moving towards the border on June 21, and they were arranged into defensive formations as soon as they arrived at the border. Finland was able to mobilize 16 infantry divisions, one cavalry brigade, and two "[[Jäger (military)|Jäger]]" brigades, which were practically normal infantry brigades, except for one battalion in the 1st Jaeger Brigade (1.JPr), which was armoured using captured Soviet equipment. There were also a handful of separate battalions, mainly formed from Border Guard units and used mainly for reconnaissance. Soviet military plans has estimated that the Finns would be able to mobilize only 10 infantry divisions, as they had done in the Winter War, but they failed to take into account material the Finns had purchased between the wars and the training of all available men. In northern Finland there were also two German Mountain Divisions at Petsamo and two German Infantry divisions at Salla. Another German infantry division was en route through Sweden to Ladoga Karelia, although one reinforced regiment was later redirected from it to Salla.
When the war started, the Soviet Union had [[Soviet 23rd Army|23rd Army]] in Karelian Isthmus consisting of [[Soviet 50th Corps|50th]] and [[Soviet 19th Corps|19th Corps]] and [[Soviet 10th Mechanized Corps|10th Mechanized Corps]], together with 5 Infantry, 1 Motorized and 2 Armored divisions. At Ladoga Karelia there was the [[Soviet 7th Army|7th Army]] consisting of 4 Infantry divisions. In Murmansk-Salla region the Soviet Union had [[Soviet 14th Army|14th Army]] with [[Soviet 42nd Corps|42nd Corps]], consisting of 5 Infantry divisions (1 as reserve in [[Archangelsk]]) and 1 Armored division. Also the Soviets had around 40 battalions, separate regiments and fortification units which were not part of their divisional structure. In Leningrad there were 3 Infantry divisions and one Mechanized Corps.
The initial German strike against the Soviet Air Force had not touched air units located near Finland, so the Soviets could field nearly 750 Air Force planes and part of the 700 planes the Soviet Navy had against 300 Finnish planes.
The Soviet war against Germany did not go as well as pre-war Soviet war games had envisioned, and soon Soviet high command had to take units from wherever they could, so although Soviets had started the war against Finland, they could not follow the initial air offensive with a supporting land offensive. They also had to withdraw the 10th Mechanized Corps with two armoured divisions and [[Soviet 237th Infantry division|237th Infantry division]] from Ladoga Karelia thus stripping reserves from defending units.
=== Reconquest of Ladoga Karelia ===
Initially the Finnish army was deployed in a defensive posture, but on [[June 29]] Mannerheim created the [[Army of Karelia]], commanded by Lt. Gen. Heinrichs, and ordered it to prepare to attack Ladoga Karelia. The Army of Karelia consisted of [[Finnish VI Corps (Continuation War)|VI Corps]] ([[Finnish 5th Division (Continuation War)|5th]] and [[Finnish 11th Division (Continuation War)|11th Divisions]]), [[Finnish VII Corps (Continuation War)|VII Corps]] ([[Finnish 7th Division (Continuation War)|7th]] and [[Finnish 9th Division (Continuation War)|9th divisions]]) and [[Group O]] ([[Finnish Cavalry Brigade|Cavalry Brigade]], [[1st Jaeger Brigade]] and [[2nd Jaeger Brigade]]). Also later when 1. division and two regiments of German 163. division arrived in the area, they were given to the Army of Karelia.
Opposing them were the Soviet [[Soviet 7th Army|7th Army]] with [[Soviet 168th Division|168th Division]] near Sorta |
<id>8211</id>
<revision>
<id>41924653</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:34:56Z</timestamp>
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<username>Uriah923</username>
<id>270261</id>
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<comment>add unsourced tag, comment out unsourced statement, rmv vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:democritus_bust.jpg|thumb|Bust of Democritus]] -->
'''Democritus''' was a [[The Presocratics|pre-Socratic]] [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] [[philosopher]] (born at [[Abdera, Thrace|Abdera]] in [[Thrace]] around [[460 BC]]; died in [[370 BC]]). Democritus was a student of [[Leucippus]], and co-originator of the belief that all [[matter]] is made up of various imperishable indivisible [[Classical element#Classical elements in Greece|elements]] which he called "atomos", from which we get the English word [[Atomism|atom]]. It is virtually impossible to tell which of these ideas were unique to Democritus, and which are attributable to Leucippus. <!-- Unsourced: Democritus is sometimes referred to as Democrates and Democ.-->
Much of his work in mathematics was in the area of geometry. He was among the first to observe that a cone or pyramid has one third the volume of a cylinder or prism respectively with the same base.
Democritus was also the first philosopher we know who realized that what we perceive as the [[Milky Way]] is the light of distant stars. Other philosophers, including later [[Aristotle]], argued against this. Democritus was among the first to propose that the universe contains many worlds, some of them inhabited:
: "In some worlds there is no Sun and Moon, in others they are larger than in our world, and in others more numerous. In some parts there are more worlds, in others fewer (...); in some parts they are arising, in others failing. There are some worlds devoid of living creatures or plants or any moisture."
[[Image:DemocritusLaughing.jpeg|left|thumb|[[Hendrick ter Brugghen]], "Democritus Laughing" (1629)]]
Democritus is said to have had a happy disposition, and is sometimes referred to as the "laughing philosopher," as opposed to [[Heraclitus]], who is known as the "weeping philosopher." In [[the Divine Comedy]] Dante sees the shade of Heraclitus in Limbo with those of other classical philosophers.
He was also a pioneer of mathematics and geometry in particular. We only know this through citations of his works (titled ''On Numbers'', ''On Geometrics'', ''On Tangencies'', ''On Mapping'', and ''On Irrationals'') in other writings, since most of Democritus' body of work did not survive the Middle Ages. Aristotle tells us that his theory of matter, commonly called [[atomism]], was a reaction to [[Parmenides]], who denied the existence of motion, change, or the [[void]]. Parmenides argued that the existence of a thing implied that it could not have "come into being", because "[[nothing comes from nothing]]". Moreover, he argued, movement was impossible, because one must move into "the void" and (as he identified "the void" with "nothing") the void does not exist and cannot be "moved into".
[[Image:Democ1.jpg|thumb|Stamp issued by Greece on Sept. 26, 1983 to honor an International Conference on Democritus and his work]]
Democritus agreed that everything which is must be eternal, but denied that "the void" can be equated with nothing. This makes him the first thinker on record to argue for the existence of an entirely empty "void". In order to explain the change around us from basic, unchangeable substance he argued that there are various basic elements which always existed but can be rearranged into many different forms. He argued that atoms only had several properties, particularly size, shape, and mass; all other properties that we attribute to matter, such as color and taste, are but the result of complex interactions between the atoms in our bodies and the atoms of the matter that we are examining. Furthermore, he believed that the real properties of atoms determine the perceived properties of matter--for example, something that tastes sharp is made of small, pointy atoms, while something sweet is made of large, round atoms; the interactions of those atoms with the atoms of the tongue give the impression of taste. Some types of matter are particularly solid because their atoms have hooks to attach to each other; some are oily because they are made of very fine, small atoms which can easily slip past each other. In Democritus' own words, "By convention sweet, by convention bitter, by convention hot, by convention cold, by convention colour: but in reality atoms and void."
== Democritus' philosophy ==
===The world===
What was real to Democritus consists of the atoms and the "nothing". Atoms are indestructible, eternal, and are in constant motion.They are not all the same as they differ in shape and position. When the atoms move they come into contact with other atoms and form bodies. A thing comes into being when the atoms that make it up are appropriately associated and passes away when these parts disperse.
This leaves no room for the intelligent direction of things, either by human or divine intelligence, as all that exists are atoms and the void. Democritus stated, ''"Nothing occurs at random, but everything occurs for a reason and by necessity."''
===The soul===
Although intelligence is not allowed to explain the organization of the world, according to Democritus, he does give place for the existence of a soul, which he contends is composed of exceedingly fine and spherical atoms. He holds that, ''"spherical atoms move because it is their nature never to be still, and that as they move they draw the whole body along with them, and set it in motion."'' In this way, he viewed soul-atoms as being similar to fire-atoms: small, spherical, capable of penetrating solid bodies and good examples of spontaneous motion.
Democritus explained senses along these lines, also. Different tastes are a result of differently shaped atoms in contact with the tongue. Smells and sounds are explained similarly. Vision works by the eye receiving "images" or "effluences" of bodies that are emanated. He stated that, ''"Sweet exists by convention, bitter by convention, color by convention; but in reality atoms and the void alone exist."'' This means that senses do not provide a direct or certain knowledge of the world. In his words, ''"It is necessary to realize that by this principle man is cut off from the real."'' Later philosophers use this to assert that any reliable knowledge can be obtained, but Democritus felt differently:
{{quote_box|quote=There are two forms of knowledge: one legitimate, one bastard. To the bastard sort belong all the following: sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch. The legitimate is quite distinct from this. When the bastard form cannot see more minutely, nor hear nor smell nor taste nor perceive through the touch, then another finer form must be employed.|source=Democritus, Fragment 11, ''[[The Symmetry of Life]]''|}}
This finer form is reasoning, although Democritus does not explain reason in the atomistic view.
===How to live===
{{unsourced}}
The following excerpts are from Democritus' extensive writings on [[ethics]], of which little remain:
*''"Disease occurs in a household, or in a life, just as it does in a body."''
*''"Medicine cures the diseases of the body; wisdom, on the other hand, relieves the soul of its sufferings."''
*''"The needy animal knows how much it needs, but the needy man does not."''
*''"It is hard to fight with desire; but to overcome it is the mark of a rational man."''
*''"Moderation increases enjoyment, and makes pleasure even greater."''
*''"It is childish, not manly, to have immoderate desires."''
*''"The good things of life are produced by learning with hard work; the bad are reaped of their own accord, without hard work."''
*''"The brave man is he who overcomes not only his enemies but his pleasures. There are some men who are masters of cities but slaves to women."''
*''"In cattle excellence is displayed in strength of body; but in men it lies in strength of character."''
*''"I would rather discover a single cause than become king of the Persians."''
*''"There is no poetry without madness."''
*''"Proclus states that Pythagoras and Epicurus agree with Cratylus, but Democritus and Aristotle agree with Hermogenes, the former that names arise by nature, the latter that they arise by chance. Pythagoras thought that the soul gave the names, deriving them like images of reality from the mind. But Democritus thought that the proof of their chance origin was fourfold: (1) the calling of different things by the same name; (2)having several names for the same thing; (3)change of name; (4)lack of name."''
*''"Medicine heals diseases of the body, wisdom frees the soul from passions."''
*''"Nature and instruction are similar; for instruction transforms the man."''
*''"If any man listens to my opinions, here recorded, with intelligence, he will achieve many things worthy of a good man, and avoid doing many unworthy things."''
*''"He who chooses the advantages of the soul chooses things more divine, but he who chooses those of the body, chooses things human."''
*''"It is noble to prevent the criminal; but if one cannot, one should not join him in crime.
*''"One must either be good, or imitate a good man."''
*''"Men find happiness neither by means of the body nor through possessions, but through uprightness and wisdom."''
*''"Refrain from crimes not through fear but through |
ainly for Japanese domestic routes) were also built. The upper deck was now accessed via a straight staircase, rather than the spiral steps that featured in the 100 and 200. The maximum range of a 747-300 is 7,700 miles (12,400 km).
Airlines currently operating a large number of this type are [[JAL]]/[[JALways]], [[Air India]], [[Saudi Arabian Airlines]], [[Pakistan International Airlines]] (PIA), [[Qantas]], and [[Thai Airways]].
===747-400===
[[Image:britaw.b747-400.g-bnlo.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|British Airways Boeing 747-400 landing at [[London Heathrow Airport]].]]{{main|Boeing 747-400}}
The '''747-400''' is the latest completed model of the 747, and also the only series currently in production. It added 6ft(2m) wing tip extensions and 6ft(2m) [[winglet]]s, an all-new [[glass cockpit]] which dispensed with the need for a flight engineer, tail fuel tanks, revised engines, an all-new interior, and newer in-flight entertainment to the basic design of the -300 series. It first entered service in 1989 with [[Northwest Airlines]]. [[China Airlines]] was the first airline to take the new "Signature Interior" with the China Airlines/Boeing livery 747-400, the aircraft entering service in 2005.
The 747-400 is about 25 percent more fuel efficient than the 747-100, and twice as quiet. It is available in all passenger, combi ('''747-400M''') and freighter ('''747-400F''' and '''747-400SF''') variants. Until the Airbus A380 officially enters service, the Japanese domestic variant, the 747-400D, is potentially the highest-capacity passenger aircraft in the world: ANA used to operate a few of its 747-400Ds in an all-economy 594-seat configuration. However, since the two Japanese operators JAL and ANA have fitted the aircraft with bigger [[business class]] areas, the highest number of seats at the moment on a passenger airplane is 587 on 747-400 aircraft operated by the [[France|French]] airline [[Corsair (airline)|Corsair]]. The -400D lacks the wing tip extensions and winglets included on other variants, allowing for increased number of takeoffs and landings by lowering wing stresses. The -400D may be converted to the long range version when needed.
The US military designation for 747-400 is [[Boeing C-33|C-33]], intended to augment the [[C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]] fleet, but the plan was cancelled in favor of purchasing additional C-17 military transports.
The '''747-400ER''' is 400's extended range version: it also comes in an all-freight version, the '''747-400ERF'''.
===747 Large Cargo Freighter===
[[Image:Boeing 747-400LCF 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Large Cargo Freighter]]
Boeing announced in October 2003 that due to the high cost of shipping, air transport will be the primary method of transportation for [[Boeing 787|787]] parts (as opposed to [[marine transport|shipping]]). Passenger 747-400 aircraft are to be converted into an outsize configuration, in order to ferry sub-assemblies to [[Everett, Washington|Everett]], [[Washington]] for final assembly. It has a bulging fuselage like the [[Aero Spacelines Super Guppy|Super Guppy]] or [[Airbus Beluga]] cargo planes used for transporting wings and fuselage sections. The conversion, designed by Boeing, is to be carried out in [[Taiwan]] by a subsidiary of the [[Evergreen Group]]. Boeing has purchased two former [[China Airlines]] aircraft which are currently being modified and a third aircraft, yet to be acquired, will be added later.
Delivery times for the wings &mdash; built in Japan &mdash; will be reduced from around 30 days to one day with the 747 LCF. The Large Cargo Freighter can hold three times the volume of a 747-400F freighter. (See: Boeing news releases [http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2003/q4/nr_031013g.html], [http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2005/q1/nr_050222g.html], [http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2005/q1/nr_050218g.html]). [[Evergreen International Airlines]], which is unrelated to the Evergreen Group, will be the operator of the LCF fleet. [http://www.evergreenairlines.com/p_releases/121505.html]
=== 747-8 ===
{{main|Boeing 747-8}}
[[Image:Boeing 747-8I Large.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Compared to previous 747s, the 747-8 Intercontinental is “stretched” in two bands for a total extension of 11.7 feet.]]
Boeing announced a new 747 model, the '''747-8''' (referred to as the '''747 Advanced''' prior to launch) on [[November 14]] [[2005]], which will use same engine and cockpit technology as the [[Boeing 787|787]] (They decided to call it the 747-8 because of the technology it will share with the 787, also called ''Dreamliner''). Boeing claims that the new design will be quieter, more economical and more environmentally friendly. The passenger version (dubbed '''747-8 Intercontinental''') will be capable of carrying up to 450 passengers in a 3-class configuration and fly over 8,000 nautical miles (14,816 km) at 0.86 [[Mach number|Mach]]. As a derivative of the already common 747-400, the 747-8 has the economic benefit of similar training and interchangeable parts.
According to [http://quote.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=conews&tkr=BA:US Bloomberg], Boeing is staking its position as the dominant maker of the biggest passenger planes on selling [[Pakistan International Airlines]] Corp. and other Asian carriers the first of a longer, more fuel-efficient version of its 747-8 model.
===Government and military===
The current [[President of the United States|U.S. presidential]] aircraft, [[VC-25A]], is among the most famous 747 models. It is popularly known as ''[[Air Force One]]'', although that name technically refers to any [[United States Air Force]] aircraft carrying the President. VC-25A is based on the civilian 747-200, though it contains many of the innovations introduced on the 747-400 (such as an updated flight deck and engines.) Other special 747s include the [[E-4B]] National Emergency Airborne Command Post (referred to colloquially as "Kneecap"), modified 747s to transport the [[Space Shuttle]] ([[Shuttle Carrier Aircraft]]), and [[aerial refueling]] [[Tanker (aircraft)|tanker]]s. A recent addition to the military's 747 arsenal is the experimental [[Airborne Laser]], a component of the [[National Missile Defense]] plan. [[T/Space]] is also planning to use a 747 for its CXV space capsule proposal.
A number of other governments also use the 747 as a VIP transport, including [[Bahrain]], [[Iran]], [[Japan]], [[Oman]], [[Qatar]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Taiwan]], [[United Arab Emirates]], and [[Brunei]].
==Powerplants==
(For the last versions of each series offered)
*'''747-100'''
**four [[Pratt & Whitney JT9D|Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7A]] turbofans
*'''747-200/300'''
**four [[Pratt & Whitney JT9D|Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7R4G2]] turbofans ''or''
**four [[Rolls-Royce RB211|Rolls-Royce RB211-524D4]] turbofans ''or''
**four [[General Electric CF6-50|General Electric CF6-50E2]] turbofans
*'''747-400'''
**four [[Pratt & Whitney PW4000|Pratt & Whitney PW4062]] turbofans ''or''
**four [[Rolls-Royce RB211|Rolls-Royce RB211-524H]] turbofans ''or''
**four [[General Electric CF6|General Electric CF6-80C2B5F]] turbofans
*'''747-8'''
** four [[General Electric GEnx]] turbofans
== Technical data ==
{|
|- bgcolor="#DDDDDD"
!Measurement
!747-100 (initial version)
!747-400ER (current version)
!747-8 Intercontinental[http://www.boeing.com/commercial/747family/747-8_fact_sheet.html]
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
|Length || align="center" | 70.7 m || align="center" | 70.7 m || align="center" | 74.2 m
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
|Span || align="center" | 59.6 m || align="center" | 64.4 m || align="center" | 68.5 m
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
|Height || align="center" | 19.3 m || align="center" | 19.4 m || align="center" | 19.4 m
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
|Wing area || align="center" | 511 m² || align="center" | 541 m² || align="center" | ?
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
|Weight empty || align="center" | 162.4 t || align="center" | 180.8 t || align="center" | ?
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
|Maximum take-off weight || align="center" | 340.2 t || align="center" | 412.8 t || align="center" | 435.4 t
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
|Cruising speed || align="center" | .84 Mach|| align="center" | .855 Mach || align="center" | .855 Mach
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
|Maximum speed || align="center" | .89 Mach || align="center" | .92 Mach || align="center" | .92 Mach
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
|Range fully loaded &nbsp; || align="center" | 9,040 km || align="center" | 14,200 km || align="center" | 14,815 km
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
|Max. fuel capacity &nbsp; || align="center" | 183,380 litres || align="center" | 241,140 litres || align="center" | 227,600 litres
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
|Max. fuel/Range, fully loaded &nbsp; || align="center" | 20.3 litres/km || align="center" | 17.0 litres/km || align="center" | 15.4 litres/km
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
|Cargo capacity &nbsp; || align="center" | 170.6 CBM (5 [[Unit Load Device|pallets]] + 14 LD1s) || align="center" | 158.6 CBM (4 pallets + 14 LD1s) || align="center" | 275.6 CBM (8 [[Unit Load Device|pallets]] + 16 LD1s)
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
|Engines (example) || align="center" | 4 &times; Pratt & Whitney JT9D, 209 kN thrust each|| align="center" | 4 &times; General Electric CF6-80, 274 kN thrust each|| align="center" | 4 &times; General Electric GEnx-2B67, 296 kN thrust each
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
|Cockpit Crew || align="center" | Three || align="center" | Two || al |
) coupled to a [[carrier-protein]].
==Types of antigens==
*'''Immunogen''' - Any substance that provokes the immune response when introduced into the body. An immunogen is always a [[macromolecule]] (protein, polysaccharide). Its ability to stimulate the immune reaction depends on its commoness to the host, molecular size, chemical composition and heterogeneity (e.g. simlar to amino acids in a protein).
*'''Tolerogen''' - An antigen that invokes a specific immune non-responsiveness due to its [[molecular form]]. If its molecular form is changed, a tolerogen can become an immunogen.
*'''Allergen''' - An allergen is a substance that causes the [[allergic reaction]]. It can be ingested, inhaled, injected or comes into contact with skin.
Cells present their antigens to the et via a [[histocompatibility molecule]]. Depending on the antigen presented and the type of the histocompatibility molecule, several types of [[immune cell]]s can become activated.
==Origin of antigens==
We can also classify antigens according to their origin.
===Exogenous antigens===
Exogenous antigens are antigens that have entered the body from the outside, for example by inhalation, ingestion, or injection. By [[endocytosis]] or [[phagocytosis]], these antigens are taken into the [[antigen-presenting cell]]s (APCs) and processed into fragments. APCs then present the fragments to [[T helper cells]] ([[CD4]]<sup>+</sup>) by the use of [[Major histocompatibility complex|class II histocompatibility molecule]]s on their surface. Some T cells are specific for the peptide:MHC complex. They become activated and start to secrete [[cytokine]]s. Cytokines are substances that can activate [[cytotoxic T lymphocytes]] (CTL), antibody-secreting [[B cells]], [[macrophages]] and other cells.
===Endogenous antigens===
Endogenous antigens are antigens that have been generated within the cell, as a result of normal cell [[metabolism]], or because of viral or intracellular bacterial [[infection]]. The fragments are then presented on the cell surface in the complex with [[class I histocompatibility molecule]]s. If activated cytotoxic CD8<sup>+</sup> [[Cytotoxic T cell|T cell]]s recognize them, the T cells begin to secrete different [[toxin]]s that cause the [[lysis]] or [[apoptosis]] of the infected cell. In order to keep the cytotoxic cells from killing cells just for presenting self-proteins, self-reactive T cells are deleted from the repertoire as a result of [[central tolerance]] (also known as [[negative selection]] which occurs in the [[thymus]]). Only those CTL that do not react to self-peptides that are presented in the thymus in the context of [[MHC class I]] molecules are allowed to enter the bloodstream.
There is an exception to the exogenous/endogenous antigen paradigm, called [[cross-presentation]].
===Autoantigens===
An [[autoantigen]] is usually a normal protein or complex of proteins (and sometimes DNA or RNA) that is recognized by the immune system of patients suffering from a specific [[autoimmune disease]]. These antigens should under normal conditions not be the target of the immune system, but due to mainly genetic and enviromental factors the normal [[immunological tolerance]] for such an antigen has been lost in these patients.
==Tumor antigens==
'''Tumor antigens''' are those antigens that are presented by the [[MHC I]] molecules on the surface of [[tumor cell]]s. These antigens can sometimes be presented only by tumor cells and never by the normal ones. In this case, they are called '''tumor-specific antigens''' and typically result from a tumor specific mutation. More common are antigens that are presented by tumor cells and normal cells, and they are called '''tumor-associated antigens'''. [[Cytotoxic T lymphocytes]] that recognized these antigens may be able to destroy the tumor cells before they proliferate or [[metastasize]].
Tumor antigens can also be on the surface of the tumor in the form of, for example, a mutated receptor, in which case they will be recognized by [[B cells]].
==External links==
National Library of Medicine/Medline (National Insititute of Health) website '''http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002224.htm'''
{{immune_system}}
[[Category:Immune system]]
[[Category:Immunology]]
[[bg:Антиген]]
[[cs:Antigen]]
[[da:Antigen]]
[[de:Antigen]]
[[es:Antígeno]]
[[eu:Antigeno]]
[[fr:Antigène]]
[[ko:항원]]
[[it:Antigene]]
[[he:אנטיגן]]
[[nl:Antigeen]]
[[ja:抗原]]
[[no:Antigen]]
[[pl:Antygen]]
[[pt:Antígeno]]
[[ro:Antigen]]
[[fi:Antigeeni]]
[[sv:Antigen]]
[[vi:Kháng nguyên]]
[[uk:Антиген]]
[[zh:抗原]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Autosome</title>
<id>1916</id>
<revision>
<id>40212087</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T00:09:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GrinBot</username>
<id>411872</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: hu</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''autosome''' is a non-sex [[chromosome]]. It is an ordinary paired chromosome that is the same in both [[sex]]es of a [[species (biology)|species]]. For example, in humans, there are 22 pairs of autosomes. The X and Y chromosomes are not autosomal.
Non-autosomal chromosomes are usually referred to as [[sex chromosome]]s or, less frequently, as gonosomes.
===Uses===
An ''autosomal dominant gene'' is one on an autosome that is always expressed, even if a single copy exists. The chance is 1:2 for passing this gene to offspring. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans.
{{chromo}}
[[Category:Chromosomes]]
[[de:Autosom]]
[[et:Autosoom]]
[[es:Autosómico]]
[[fr:Chromosome homologue]]
[[he:אוטוזומי]]
[[hu:Autoszóma]]
[[nl:Autosoom]]
[[pl:Autosom]]
[[sr:Аутозом]]
[[sv:Autosom]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Antwerp (disambiguation)</title>
<id>1919</id>
<revision>
<id>38625655</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T15:54:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Percy Snoodle</username>
<id>163840</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[computer role-playing game]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Antwerp''' (''Antwerpen'' in [[Dutch language|Dutch]]) is the name of a city and a province in [[Flanders]], one of the three regions of [[Belgium]]:
* [[Antwerp]] (city)
* [[Antwerp (province)]]
'''Antwerp''' is also the name of a number of places in the [[United States]]:
* [[Antwerp, Ohio]]
* [[Antwerp Township, Michigan]]
* [[Antwerp (village), New York |Antwerp, New York]] (village)
* [[Antwerp (town), New York |Antwerp, New York]] (town)
An '''antwerp''' is also a monster in the classic [[computer role-playing game]] [[Quest for Glory]] series. It is unclear whether the monster was named after the city in Belgium or if this was a coincidence.
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aquila</title>
<id>1920</id>
<revision>
<id>41753198</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:23:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Colonies Chris</username>
<id>577301</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moved CEV to [[Altair (disambiguation)]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The term '''Aquila''' can refer to several things:
*''Aquila'' is Latin for [[eagle]].
*''Aquila'' is a genus of birds to which some eagles, particularly the [[Golden Eagle]], belong. See [[eagle]].
*[[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]] is the astronomical constellation of The Eagle.
*[[Aquila (Roman)|Aquila]] is the eagle-shaped battle standard of a Roman legion.
'''Places:'''
*[[L'Aquila]], sometimes "Aquila", is a town in [[Italy]].
*[[Aquila, Michoacán]], is a municipality and its main town in the Mexican state of [[Michoacán]].
*[[Aquila, Veracruz]], is a municipality and its main town in the Mexican state of [[Veracruz]].
*[[Aquila, Switzerland]], is a village in the canton of [[Ticino]].
'''People:'''
*[[Aquila (bible)|Aquila]], a Biblical person from the Acts and Paul's letters.
*[[Aquila of Sinope]], 2nd century author of a translation of the Old Testament into Greek
'''Craft:'''
* [[USS Aquila (PHM-4)|USS ''Aquila'']], a hydrofoil formerly operated by the U.S. Navy.
* The [[Italian aircraft carrier Aquila|''Aquila'']], a World War II Italian aircraft carrier.
* [http://i1.tinypic.com/nz3asx.jpg ''Aquila UAV''] was the [[US Army]]'s first [[unmanned aerial vehicle|UAV]] for reconnaissance
'''Organisations:'''
* [[Aquila Airways]], a British flying boat operator (1948&ndash;1958).
* [[Aquila, Inc.]], an electric and gas utility headquartered in Kansas City, Missouri, United States.
* ''Aquila'' is an Italian car manufacturer or brand - see [[List of automobile manufacturers]]
* ''Aquila Cycles'' is a [http://www.aquilacycles.com/ Canadian bicycle manufacturer]
'''Entertainment and literature:'''
* ''Aquila'' is the title of a book by [[Andrew Norriss]]
* [[Aquila (TV Show)|''Aquila'']] was a BBC TV production for children that originally aired in the UK during the late 1990s.
{{disambig}}
[[ca:Aquila]]
[[de:Aquila]]
[[es:Aquila]]
[[fr:Aquila]]
[[it:Aquila]]
[[nl:Aquila]]
[[pl:Orzeł (strona ujednoznaczniająca)]]
[[pt:Aquila (desambiguação)]]
[[tr:Kartal]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Al-Qaeda</title>
<id>1921</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42158957</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:15:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JW1805</username>
<id>104381</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rvt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=al-Qaeda }}
[[Image:Osama-med.jpg|thumb|right|[[Osama bin Laden]], founder of al-Qaeda, in the 1990's.]]
'''al-Qaeda''' ({{lang-ar|القاعدة}}, ''el-Qā‘idah'' or ''al-Qā‘idah''; "the foundation" or "the base") is the name given to an international [[Islamic fundamentalism|Islamic fundamentalist]] campaign compri |
C during World War One====
[[Image:Honneur_à_la_Croix-Rouge-1915.JPG|250px|thumb|French postcard celebrating the role of Red Cross nurses during the First World War, 1915.]]
With the outbreak of [[World War One]], the ICRC found itself confronted with enormous challenges which it could only handle by working closely with the national Red Cross societies. Red Cross nurses from around the world, including the United States and Japan, came to support the medical services of the armed forces of the European countries involved in the war. On [[October 15]], [[1914]], immediately after the start of the war, the ICRC set up its International Prisoners-of-War ([[POW]]) Agency, which had about 1,200 mostly volunteer staff members by the end of 1914. By the end of the war, the Agency had transferred about 20 million letters and messages, 1.9 million parcels, and about 18 million [[Swiss francs]] in monetary donations to POWs of all affected countries. Furthermore, due to the intervention of the Agency, about 200,000 prisoners were exchanged between the warring parties, released from captivity and returned to their home country. The organizational card index of the Agency accumulated about 7 million records from 1914 to 1923, each card representing an individual prisoner or missing person. The card index led to the identification of about 2 million POWs and the ability to contact their families. The complete index is on loan today from the ICRC to the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum]] in Geneva. The right to access the index is still strictly restricted to the ICRC.
During the entire war, the ICRC monitored warring parties’ compliance with the Geneva Conventions of the 1907 revision and forwarded complaints about violations to the respective country. When [[chemical weapons]] were used in this war for the first time in history, the ICRC vigorously protested against this new type of warfare. Even without having a mandate from the Geneva Conventions, the ICRC tried to ameliorate the suffering of civil populations. In territories that were officially designated as "occupied territories," the ICRC could assist the civilian population on the basis of the [[Hague Convention]]'s "Laws and Customs of War on Land" of 1907. This convention was also the legal basis for the ICRC's work for prisoners of war. In addition to the work of the International Prisoner-of-War Agency as described above this included inspection visits to POW camps. A total of 524 camps throughout Europe were visited by 41 delegates from the ICRC until the end of the war.
Between 1916 and 1918, the ICRC published a number of [[postcard]]s with scenes from the POW camps. The pictures showed the prisoners in day-to-day activities such as the distribution of letters from home. The intention of the ICRC was to provide the families of the prisoners with some hope and solace and to alleviate their uncertainties about the fate of their loved ones. After the end of the war, the ICRC organized the return of about 420,000 prisoners to their home countries. In 1920, the task of repatriation was handed over to the newly founded [[League of Nations]], which appointed the Norwegian diplomat and scientist [[Fridtjof Nansen]] as its "High Commissioner for Repatriation of the War Prisoners." His legal mandate was later extended to support and care for war refugees and displaced persons when his office became that of the League of Nations "High Commissioner for Refugees." Nansen, who invented the ''[[Nansen passport]]'' for stateless refugees and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1922, appointed two delegates from the ICRC as his deputies.
A year before the end of the war, the ICRC received the 1917 Nobel Peace Prize for its outstanding wartime work. It was the only Nobel Peace Prize awarded in the period from 1914 to 1918. In 1923, the Committee adopted a change in its policy regarding the selection of new members. Until then, only citizens from the city of Geneva could serve in the Committee. This limitation was expanded to include Swiss citizens. As a direct consequence of World War One, an additional protocol to the Geneva Convention was adopted in 1925 which outlawed the use of suffocating or poisonous gases and biological agents as weapons. Four years later, the 1906 Convention was revised and the second Geneva Convention "relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War" was established. The events of World War One and the respective activities of the ICRC significantly increased the reputation and authority of the Committee among the international community and led to an extension of its competencies.
As early as in 1934, a draft proposal for an additional convention for the protection of the civil population during an armed conflict was adopted by the International Red Cross Conference. Unfortunately, most governments had not enough interests in implementing this convention, preventing it from entering into force before the beginning of [[World War Two]].
====The ICRC and World War Two====
[[Image:HZwLazarecie1940.jpg|250px|thumb|Red Cross message from [[Łódź]], [[Poland]], 1940]]
The legal basis of the work of the ICRC during World War II were the Geneva Conventions in their 1929 revision. The activities of the Committee were similar to those during World War I: visiting and monitoring POW camps, organizing relief assistance for civilian populations, and administering the exchange of messages regarding prisoners and missing persons. By the end of the war, 179 delegates had conducted 12,750 visits to POW camps in 41 countries. The Central Information Agency on Prisoners-of-War (''Zentralauskunftsstelle für Kriegsgefangene'') had a staff of 3,000, the card index tracking prisoners contained 45 million cards, and 120 million messages were exchanged by the Agency. One major obstacle was that the [[Nazi]]-controlled [[German Red Cross]] refused to cooperate with the Geneva statutes including blatant violations such as the deportation of [[Jews]] from Germany and the [[Holocaust|mass murders]] conducted in the [[concentration camps]] run by the German government. Moreover, two other main aggressors, the [[Soviet Union]] and Japan, were not party to the 1929 Geneva Conventions and were not legally required to follow the rules of the conventions. Thus, other countries were not bound to follow the Conventions regarding their prisoners in return.
During the war, the ICRC failed to obtain an agreement with Nazi Germany about the treatment of detainees in concentration camps, and it eventually abandoned applying pressure in order to avoid disrupting its work with POWs. The ICRC also failed to develop a response to reliable information about the extermination camps and the mass killing of European Jews. This is still considered the greatest failure of the ICRC in its history. After November 1943, the ICRC achieved permission to send parcels to concentration camp detainees with known names and locations. Because the notices of receipt for these parcels were often signed by other inmates, the ICRC managed to register the identities of about 105,000 detainees in the concentration camps and delivered about 1.1 million parcels, primarily to the camps [[Dachau]], [[Buchenwald]], [[Ravensbrück]], and [[Sachsenhausen concentration camp|Sachsenhausen]].
[[Image:Marcel_Junod-5.jpg|250px|thumb|left|'''Marcel Junod''', delegate of the ICRC, visiting POWs in Germany<br><small>(© Benoit Junod, Switzerland)</small>]]
On [[March 12]], [[1945]], ICRC president Jacob Burckhardt received a message from SS General [[Ernst Kaltenbrunner]] accepting the ICRC's demand to allow delegates to visit the concentration camps. This agreement was bound by the condition that these delegates would have to stay in the camps until the end of the war. Ten delegates, among them [[Louis Haefliger]] ([[Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp|Camp Mauthausen]]), [[Paul Dunant]] ([[Concentration camp Theresienstadt|Camp Theresienstadt]]) and [[Victor Maurer]] ([[Dachau concentration camp|Camp Dachau]]), accepted the assignment and visited the camps. Louis Haefliger courageously prevented the forceful eviction or blasting of Mauthausen-Gusen by alerting American troops, thereby saving the lives of about 60,000 inmates. His actions were condemned by the ICRC because they were deemed as acting unduly on his own authority and risking the ICRC's neutrality. Only in 1990, his reputation was finally rehabilitated by ICRC president [[Cornelio Sommaruga]].
Another example of great humanitarian spirit was [[Friedrich Born]] (1903-1963), an ICRC delegate in [[Budapest]] who saved the lives of about 11,000 to 15,000 Jewish people in [[Hungary]]. On [[June 5]], [[1987]], he was posthumously granted the title of "[[Righteous Among the Nations]]" by ''[[Yad Vashem]]'', Israel's Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. [[Marcel Junod]] (1904-1961), a physician from Geneva, was another famous delegate during the Second World War. An account of his experiences, which included being one of the first foreigners to visit [[Hiroshima]] after the [[atomic bomb]] was dropped, can be found in the book ''Warrior without Weapons''.
In 1944, the ICRC received its second Nobel Peace Prize. As in World War I, it received the only Peace Prize awarded during the main period of war, 1939 to 1945. At the end of the war, the ICRC worked with national Red Cross societies to organize relief assistance to those countries most severely affected. In 1948, the Committee published a report reviewing its war-era activities from [[September 1]], [[1939]] to [[June 30]], [[1947]]. Since January 1996, the ICRC archive for this period has been open to academic and public research.
====The ICRC after the Second World War====
[[Image:IKRK_Hauptquartier.jpg|250px|thumb|The ICRC Headquarters in Geneva]]
On [[August 12]], [[1949]], further revisions |
for all its horrors, has left me unshaken.|Bertrand Russell|"Reflections on My Eightieth Birthday"}}
==Comments about Russell==
===As a man===
:''"Bertrand Russell would not have wished to be called a saint of any description; but he was a great and good man."''
::&mdash; A.J. Ayer, ''Bertrand Russell'', NY: Viking Press, 1972.
===As a philosopher===
:''"It is difficult to overstate the extent to which Russell's thought dominated twentieth century analytic philosophy: virtually every strand in its development either originated with him or was transformed by being transmitted through him. Analytic philosophy itself owes its existence more to Russell than to any other philosopher."''
::&mdash; Nicholas Griffin, The ''Cambridge Companion to Bertrand Russell'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
===As a writer and his place in history===
:''"Russell's prose has been compared by T.S. Eliot to that of David Hume's. I would rank it higher, for it had more color, juice, and humor. But to be lucid, exciting ''and'' profound in the main body of one's work is a combination of virtues given to few philosophers. Bertrand Russell has achieved immortality by his philosophical writings."''
::&mdash; Sidney Hook, ''Out of Step, An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century'', NY: Carol & Graff, 1988.
:''"Russell's books should be bound in two colours, those dealing with mathematical logic in red&mdash;and all students of philosophy should read them; those dealing with ethics and politics in blue&mdash;and no one should be allowed to read them."''
::&mdash; Rush Rhees, ''Recollections of Wittgenstein'', Oxford Paperbacks, 1984.
===As a mathematician and logician===
:Of the Principia: ''"...its enduring value was simply a deeper understanding of the central concepts of mathematics and their basic laws and interrelationships. Their total translatability into just elementary logic and a simple familiar two-place predicate, membership, is of itself a philosophical sensation."''
::&mdash; W.V. Quine, ''From Stimulus to Science'', Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995.
===As an activist===
:''"Oh, Bertrand Russell! Oh, Hewlett Johnson! Where, oh where, was your flaming conscience at that time?"''
::&mdash; Alexandr I. Solzhenitsyn, ''The Gulag Archipelago'', Harper & Row, 1974.
===As a recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature===
:''In other words, it was specifically ''not'' for his incontestably great contributions to philosophy&mdash;''The Principles of Mathematics'', 'On Denoting' and ''Principia Mathematica''&mdash;that he was being honoured, but for the later work that his fellow philosophers were unanimous in regarding as inferior.''
::&mdash; Ray Monk, ''Bertrand Russell, The Ghost of Madness'', p. 332.
===From a daughter===
:''"He was the most fascinating man I have ever known, the only man I ever loved, the greatest man I shall ever meet, the wittiest, the gayest, the most charming. It was a privilege to know him, and I thank God he was my father."''
::&mdash; Katharine Tait, ''My Father Bertrand Russell'', NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975, p. 202.
==Quotes==
*''War does not determine who is right. Only who is left.''
*''The secret to true happiness is to face the fact that the world is horrible.''
*''The whole problem with the world is that fools and fanatics are always so certain of themselves, but wiser people so full of doubts.''
*"You could tell by his [[Aldous_Huxley|[Aldous Huxley]]] conversation which volume of the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' he'd been reading. One day it would be Alps, Andes and Apennines, and the next it would be the Himalayas and the Hippocratic Oath." (Source: Parris, M., (1996). Scorn:With Added Vitriol, Penguin)
*[http://www.philosophicalsociety.com/Archives/A%20Tale%20Of%20Two%20Moralities.htm "A Tale of Two Moralities"] "I dislike [[Nietzsche]]," Russell wrote, "because he likes the contemplation of pain, because he erects conceit into a duty, because the men whom he most admires are conquerors, whose glory is cleverness in causing men to die."
==Further reading==
===Selected bibliography of Russell's books===
This is a selected bibliography of Russell's books in English sorted by year of first publication.
* 1896, ''German Social Democracy'', London: Longmans, Green.
* 1897, ''An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry'', Cambridge: At the University Press.
* 1900, ''A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz'', Cambridge: At the University Press.
* 1903, [http://fair-use.org/bertrand-russell/the-principles-of-mathematics ''The Principles of Mathematics''], Cambridge: At the University Press.
* 1910, ''Philosophical Essays'', London: Longmans, Green.
* 1910&ndash;1913, ''[[Principia Mathematica]]'' (with [[Alfred North Whitehead]]), 3 vols., Cambridge: At the University Press.
* 1912, ''[[The Problems of Philosophy]]'', London: Williams and Norgate.
* 1914, ''Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for Scientific Method in Philosophy'', Chicago and London: Open Court Publishing.
* 1916, ''Principles of Social Reconstruction'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1916, ''Justice in War-time'', Chicago: Open Court.
* 1917, ''Political Ideals'', New York: The Century Co.
* 1918, ''Mysticism and Logic and Other Essays'', London: Longmans, Green.
* 1918, ''Roads to Freedom: Socialism, Anarchism, and Syndicalism'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1919, ''Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1920, ''The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1921, ''The Analysis of Mind'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1922, ''The Problem of China'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1923, ''The Prospects of Industrial Civilization'' (in collaboration with Dora Russell), London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1923, ''The ABC of Atoms'', London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
* 1924, ''Icarus, or the Future of Science'', London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
* 1925, ''The ABC of Relativity'', London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
* 1925, ''[[What I Believe]]'', London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
* 1926, ''On Education, Especially in Early Childhood'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1927, ''The Analysis of Matter'', London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
* 1927, ''An Outline of Philosophy'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1927, ''[[Why I Am Not a Christian]]'', London: Watts.
* 1927, ''Selected Papers of Bertrand Russell'', New York: Modern Library.
* 1928, ''Sceptical Essays'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1929, ''Marriage and Morals'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1930, ''The Conquest of Happiness'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1931, ''The Scientific Outlook'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1932, ''Education and the Social Order'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1934, ''Freedom and Organization, 1814&ndash;1914'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1935, ''In Praise of Idleness'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1935, ''Religion and Science'', London: Thornton Butterworth.
* 1936, ''Which Way to Peace?'', London: Jonathan Cape.
* 1937, ''The Amberley Papers: The Letters and Diaries of Lord and Lady Amberley'' (with Patricia Russell), 2 vols., London: Leonard & Virginia Woolf at the Hogarth Press.
* 1938, ''Power: A New Social Analysis'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1940, ''An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth'', New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
* 1945, ''[[History of Western Philosophy (Russell)|A History of Western Philosophy and Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day]]'', New York: Simon and Schuster.
* 1948, ''Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Limits'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1949, ''Authority and the Individual'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1950, ''Unpopular Essays'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1951, ''New Hopes for a Changing World'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1952, ''The Impact of Science on Society'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1953, ''Satan in the Suburbs and Other Stories'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1954, ''Human Society in Ethics and Politics'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1954, ''Nightmares of Eminent Persons and Other Stories'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1956, ''Portraits from Memory and Other Essays'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1956, ''Logic and Knowledge: Essays 1901&ndash;1950'' (edited by Robert C. Marsh), London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1957, ''Why I Am Not A Christian and Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects'' (edited by Paul Edwards), London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1958, ''Understanding History and Other Essays'', New York: Philosophical Library.
* 1959, ''Common Sense and Nuclear Warfare'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1959, ''[[My Philosophical Development]]'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1959, ''Wisdom of the West'' ("editor", Paul Foulkes), London: Macdonald.
* 1960, ''Bertrand Russell Speaks His Mind'', Cleveland and New York: World Publishing Company.
* 1961, ''The Basic Writings of Bertrand Russell'' (edited by R.E. Egner and L.E. Denonn), London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1961, ''Fact and Fiction'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1961, ''Has Man a Future?'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1963, ''Essays in Skepticism'', New York: Philosophical Library.
* 1963, ''Unarmed Victory'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1965, ''On the Philosophy of Science'' (edited by Charles A. Fritz, Jr.), Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company.
* 1967, ''Russell's Peace Appeals'' (edited by Tsutomu Makino and Kazuteru Hitaka), Japan: Eichosha's New Current Books.
* 1967, ''War Crimes in Vietnam'', London: George Allen & Unwin.
* 1967&ndash;1 |
_Messina_to_Polermo}}
#{{note|foul_and_rotten}}This was the formal phrase used in all such cases. The senior knights of the Order convened on [[1 December]] [[1608]] and, after verifying that the accused had failed to appear although summoned four times, voted unanimously to expel their ''putridum et foetidum'' ex-brother. Caravaggio was expelled, not for his crime, but for having left Malta without permission (i.e., escaping).
#{{note|bizarre_behavior}}
#{{note|Naples}}
#{{note|empty}}
#{{note|David_to_Borghese}}
#{{note|death_uncertainties}}
#{{note|news.bbc.co.uk.525}} {{news reference | title=BBC News : ARTS : Caravaggio death certificate 'found' | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1723833.stm | urldate=2005-12-22 | org=BBC }}
#{{note|put_the_oscuro_into_chiaroscuro}}
#{{note|models}}
#{{note|himself_as_model}}
#{{note|Longhi}}Roberto Longhi, quoted in Lambert, op. cit., p.15
#{{note|Berenson}}Bernard Berenson, in Lambert, op. cit., p.8
#{{note|Andre_Berne_Joffroy}}Joffroy, loc. cit.
#{{note|earliest_published}}
==References==
=== Primary sources ===
The main primary sources for Caravaggio's life are:
* Giulio Mancini's comments on Caravggio in ''Considerazioni sulla pittura'', c.1617-1621
* Giovanni Baglione's biography in ''Le vite de' pittori'', 1642
* Giovanni Pietro Bellori's biograhy in ''Le Vite de' pittori, scultori et architetti moderni'', 1672
All have been reprinted in Howard Hibbard's "Caravaggio" and in the appendices to Catherine Puglisi's "Caravaggio", while Baglione's biography is available online (see External links sxection).
=== Secondary sources===
* John Gash, ''Caravaggio'' (2003) ISBN 1904449230
* Rosa Giorgi, ''Caravaggio: Master of light and dark - his life in paintings'' (1999) ISBN 0789441381
* Howard Hibbard, ''Caravaggio'' (1983) ISBN 0064333221
* Helen Langdon, ''Caravaggio: A Life'' (1998) ISBN 0374118949
* Gilles Lambert, ''Caravaggio'' (2000) ISBN 382286305X
* Alfred Moir, ''The Italian Followers of Caravaggio'' (1967) (ISBN not available)
* Francine Prose, ''Caravaggio: Painter of Miracles'' (2005) ISBN 0060575603
* Catherine Puglisi, ''Caravaggio'' (1998) ISBN 0714839663
* [[Peter Robb]], ''[[M_(book)|M]]'' (1998) ISBN 0312274742 ISBN 0747548587
* John T. Spike, ''Caravaggio'' (2001) ISBN 0789206390
==External links==
*[http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caravaggio Caravaggio Wikipedia France ]
*[http://www.bergerfoundation.ch/Caravage/F/index.html Caravaggio, The Prince of the Night] (in French)
*[http://agora.qc.ca/mot.nsf/Dossiers/Caravage Caravaggio in "Agora"]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/caravaggio/ Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio WebMuseun, Paris webpage]
*[http://www.fbi.gov/hq/cid/arttheft/europe/italy/italyart.htm FBI Art Theft Notice for Caravaggio's Nativity]
*[http://wnyc.vo.llnwd.net/o1/lopate/lopate100505b.mp3 Leonard Lopate interviews Francine Prose, author of Caravaggio : Painter of Miracles (MP3 Link)]
*[http://www.duffyandsnellgrove.com.au/extracts/m_interview.htm Interview with Peter Robb, author of ''M'']
*[http://www.studio-international.co.uk/archive/Caravaggio_1983_196_998.htm Appreciation of Caravaggio by writer and art critic John Berger]
*[http://caravaggio.com/preview/attach/data01/D000199.htm Caravaggio.com - an on-going website about the artist]
*[http://caravaggio.com/preview/attach/data01/D000001.htm First biography of Caravaggio (Baglione, 1642)]
*[http://cybele.eplt.washington.edu/honorsrome/zbento/Authors/kelih/Caravaggio/pub_zbarticle_view_printable.html Contarelli and Cerasi chapels]
*[http://home.worldonline.dk/lfmat/ Caravaggio CV - life of the artist with beautiful illustrations]
[[Category:1571 births|Caravaggio]]
[[Category:1610 deaths|Caravaggio]]
[[Category:Caravaggio|*Caravaggio]]
[[Category:Baroque painters|Caravaggio]]
[[Category:Italian painters|Caravaggio]]
[[Category:Natives of Lombardy|Caravaggio]]
[[Category:Gay artists|Caravaggio]]
[[Category:Pederastic lovers|Caravaggio]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church art]]
{{Link FA|fr}}
[[ar:كارافاجيو]]
[[bg:Микеланджело да Караваджо]]
[[da:Michelangelo di Caravaggio]]
[[de:Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio]]
[[et:Michelangelo Caravaggio]]
[[es:Caravaggio]]
[[fr:Le Caravage]]
[[hr:Caravaggio]]
[[it:Caravaggio (pittore)]]
[[he:קאראווג'ו]]
[[mt:Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio]]
[[nl:Caravaggio]]
[[ja:ミケランジェロ・メリージ]]
[[no:Caravaggio]]
[[pl:Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio]]
[[pt:Caravaggio]]
[[ro:Caravaggio]]
[[ru:Караваджо, Микеланджело Меризи]]
[[scn:Michelangilu Merisi di Caravaggiu]]
[[sk:Caravaggio]]
[[fi:Caravaggio]]
[[sv:Caravaggio]]
[[uk:Мікеланджело да Караваджо]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin</title>
<id>7019</id>
<revision>
<id>41827450</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:24:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sparkit</username>
<id>194762</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Jean-Baptiste-Siméon_Chardin.jpg|frame|right|Self portrait.]]
'''Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin''' ([[November 2]], [[1699]] &ndash; [[December 6]], [[1779]]) is considered by some to be the greatest of the 18th-century [[France|French]] [[Rococo]] [[List of painters|painters]]. He is known for his beautifully textured still lifes as well as his sensitive and touching [[genre painting|genre paintings]]. He was born, lived and died in [[Paris]]. Simple, even stark, but treasured paintings of common household items (''Still Life with a Smoker's Box'') and an uncanny ability to portray children's innocence in a nonsentimental manner (''Boy with a Top'') makes his paintings universal across time.
He was the son of a cabinetmaker, and though largely self-taught, he was greatly influenced by the realism and subject matter of the 17th-century [[Low Country]] masters. His early support came from patrons in the French [[aristocracy]], including [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]], despite his unconventional portrayal of the then-rising [[bourgeoisie]]. He was admitted to the Royal Academy in 1728. Today his paintings hang in the [[Louvre]] and other major museums. His work became popular with the general public after low-cost engravings of his paintings became available. At the end of his life he began working in pastel crayons.
==External links==
{{commonscat|Jean-Baptiste Siméon Chardin}}
*[http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artMakerDetails?maker=539 Getty Museum: Chardin]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/chardin/ WebMuseum: Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin]
[[Category:1699 births|Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Siméon]]
[[Category:1779 deaths|Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Siméon]]
[[Category:French painters|Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Siméon]]
[[Category:Rococo painters|Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Siméon]]
[[de:Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin]]
[[fr:Jean Siméon Chardin]]
[[ko:시메옹 샤르댕]]
[[ja:ジャン・シメオン・シャルダン]]
[[sv:Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Correggio</title>
<id>7020</id>
<revision>
<id>15905123</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-03T21:49:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rl</username>
<id>10481</id>
</contributor>
<comment>sp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Correggio''' is the name of a town in [[Italy]] and of a famous [[painter]] who was born there.
* [[Antonio da Correggio]]
* [[Correggio, Italy]]
* [[Corregio (play)|Corregio]], a tragedy written by [[Adam Oehlenschläger]] in [[1811]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Crookes radiometer</title>
<id>7021</id>
<revision>
<id>42066644</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:07:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lumos3</username>
<id>23657</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Rv testby 209.189.130.54</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Crookes radiometer''', also known as the '''light mill''' or '''solar engine''', consists of an airtight glass bulb, containing a partial vacuum. Inside are a set of vanes which are mounted on a spindle. The vanes rotate when exposed to light. The reason for the rotation has been the cause of much scientific debate.
It was invented in [[1873]] by the chemist [[Sir William Crookes]] as the by-product of some chemical research. In the course of very accurate quantitative chemical work, he was weighing samples in a partially evacuated chamber to reduce the effect of air currents, and noticed the weighings were disturbed when sunlight shone on the balance. Investigating this effect, he created the device named after him. It is still manufactured and sold to this day as a curiosity item.
[[Image:Crookes_radiometer.jpg|thumbnail|Crookes Radiometer]]
==General description==
The radiometer is made from a glass bulb from which much of the air has been removed to form a partial [[vacuum]]. Inside the bulb, on a low [[friction]] spindle, is a rotor with several (usually four) vertical lightweight metal vanes spaced equally around the axis. The vanes are polished or white on one side, black on the other. When exposed to [[sunlight]], artificial light, or [[infrared]] radiation (even the heat of a hand nearby can be enough), the vanes turn with no apparent motive power, the dark sides retreating from the radiation source and the light sides advancing. Cooling the radiometer causes rotation in the opposite direction.
The effect begins to be seen at partial vacuum pressures of a few millimeters of mercury ([[torr]]) , reaches a peak at around 10<sup>-2</sup> torr and has disappeared by the time the vacuum reaches 10<sup>-6</sup> torr. [see note 1]. At these very high vacuums the effect of photon [[radiation pressure]] on the vanes can be observed in very sensitive apparatus ( see [[Nichols radiometer]]) but this is insufficient to cause rotation.
Although it has the word-element "meter" in its title, a radiometer cannot be u |
l" upon the soul of the baptized. Thus, once baptised, an individual cannot be baptised again. There was an ancient practice in some areas of rebaptising those who had returned to the church from heresy, but that practice has been rejected.
===Baptism by other denominations===
The Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican, Presbyterian and Methodist churches accept baptism performed by other denominations as valid, subject to certain conditions. It is only possible to be baptized once, thus people with valid baptisms from other denominations may not be baptized again upon conversion or transfer. Instead, for these individuals, either the sacrament of confirmation or a reaffirmation of faith is performed. However, in some cases it can be difficult to decide if the original baptism was in fact valid; if there is any doubt, a [[conditional baptism]] is employed, in which the officiant says something of the form of "if you are not yet baptised, I baptise you...". The need for conditional baptisms is motivated not only by factual uncertainties regarding the original baptism, but also by the uncertainty of some of the baptismal theology regarding the precise conditions for the validity of baptism (the Church holds one cannot be certain that opinions offered by pious theologians, but on which the Church has not made an authoritative pronouncement, are in fact correct, and even authoritative pronouncements can have multiple interpretations which the Church has neither definitively endorsed or rejected).
Practice in the Orthodox Church for converts from other communions is not uniform, but the original baptism is not necessarily regarded as valid even when no new baptism is performed. Situations where a new baptism is not done might arise where the form of the original baptism was acceptable, consisting of a triple immersion in the name of the Holy Trinity. Instead, whatever form is used to receive the convert is taken as retroactively filling with grace a correct form that is held to have been graceless. If the original baptism was lacking in form then it is more likely, although not certain, that a new baptism will be required. Otherwise, a convert might be received by [[chrismation]] or [[confession]]. The exact procedure is dependent on local [[canon law|canons]].
Baptism was delineated as necessary for infants by Saint Augustine in the fourth century. Baptism, which is intended to wash away sin, must be administered to the newborn, as they are in fact stained with Original Sin. This, simply put, is the sin of Adam and Eve, who disobeyed God, and disseminated this sin upon all mankind to inherit. A child, though seemingly innocent, is born into such guilt, and is damned should it suddenly die prior to baptism.
===Who may administer a baptism===
In normal circumstances, a licit baptism must be performed by a priest (for the [[Orthodox]]) or by a priest or deacon (for [[Roman Catholics]] and [[Anglicans]]) or by a duly ordained or appointed pastor for [[Methodists]] and many other [[Protestant]] denominations). However, in cases of a genuine emergency, anyone may perform the baptism - if, for example, an unbaptised person, in danger of imminent death, desires baptism, but a priest is not available to perform one, and there is a real danger the person may die before a priest can baptise them. However, if a baptism by a layperson is performed, it will often be followed if possible by a [[conditional baptism]] by a priest, in case there was any deficiency in the performance of the sacrament by the layperson.
The Catholic Church teaches that even when a baptism is illicit, it may be valid if done by the proper form, with intent to baptize, by any person, even a non-Christian. In the Orthodox Church, the baptism must be performed by another Orthodox Christian under the theory that a person cannot convey that which he himself does not possess, in this case membership in the Church.
==Baptist and other Protestant baptism==
[[Baptist]] groups derive their name either from the restrictions that they traditionally place on the mode and subjects of the ordinance of baptism or from a shortening of the term [[Anabaptist]] which means to rebaptize. Anabaptists were labeled such because they rebaptized people who had received infant baptism, sprinkling, or baptism of any sort by another denomination. Immersion of confessing believers is regarded as the only legitimate, biblical baptism by most Baptist churches today; some even go further and assert that the baptism must be administered by a Baptist church.
People of other faiths often assume that baptism is not administered to children, but this is an error. Baptists instead require that a person make a credible confession of saving faith in Christ prior to being baptized, regardless of the confessor's age. Such a person is understood to be [[born again]] (John 3:1-8). Baptists believe that salvation is an actual event both at the cross of Christ in history and in the confessing believer's life.
Those who hold views influenced by the Baptists, may perform the ceremony indoors in a baptismal, a swimming pool, or bathtub, or outdoors in a creek or river: as long as there is water, nothing prevents the performance of Baptism. Protestant groups influenced by these convictions usually emphasize that it memorializes the death, burial and resurrection of [[Jesus]] (Romans 6), which according to the grace of God has become the basis of repentance and new life for those who have professed belief in Him, symbolizing spiritual death with regard to sin and a new life of faith in God. They typically teach that baptism does not accomplish anything in itself, but is an outward sign or testimony, a personal act, indicating the invisible reality that the person's sins have already been washed away by the cross of Christ, and applied to their life according to their profession of faith. It is also understood to be a covenantal act, signifying entrance into the [[New Covenant]] of Christ (Jeremiah 31:31-34; Hebrews 8:8-12, Romans 6).
For Baptists, baptism is a requirement for church membership, rather than a necessary requirement for salvation.
The above description applies not just to those denominations using ''Baptist'' in their title, but also to a wide variety of other Protestant denominations deriving from the Anabaptist tradition, including some [[Mennonite]]s and [[Pentecostal]]s.
==[[Reformed Theology|Reformed]] and [[Covenant Theology]] view==
{{main|Covenant Theology#Baptism}}
[[Infant Baptism|Paedobaptist]] Covenant Theologians see the administration of all the biblical covenants, including the New Covenant, as including a principle of [[family|familial]], corporate inclusion or "generational succession." The biblical covenants between God and man include signs and seals that visibly represent the realities behind the covenants. These visible signs and symbols of God's covenant redemption are administered in a corporate manner (for instance, to households), not in an exclusively individualistic manner.
Baptism is considered by Covenant Theologians as the visible sign of entrance into the New Covenant and therefore may be administered individually to new believers making a public profession of [[faith]]. Paedobaptists further believe this extends corporately to the households of believers which typically would include [[child]]ren, or individually to children or infants of believing parents (see [[Infant baptism]]). In this view, baptism is thus seen as the functional replacement and sacramental equivalent of the Abrahamic rite of [[History of male circumcision#Male Circumcision in the Greco-Roman World|circumcision]] and symbolizes the internal cleansing from [[sin]], among other things.
Baptist Covenant Theologians (such as [[John Gill (theologian)|John Gill]]) hold that baptism is only for those who can understand and profess their faith, and they argue that the [[regulative principle|regulative principle of worship]], which many paedobaptists also advocate and which states that elements of [[worship]] (including baptism) must be based on explicit commands of Scripture, is violated by infant baptism. Furthermore, because the New Covenant is described in [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] [http://bible.gospelcom.net/passage/?search=jer+31:31-34 31:31-34] as a time when all who were members of it would have the [[Mosaic Law|law]] written on their hearts and would know God, Baptist Covenant Theologians believe only those who are [[born again]] are members of the New Covenant.
==Latter Day Saint baptism==
{{Template:LDS}}
In the [[Latter Day Saint movement]] ([[Mormonism]]), baptism is recognized as one of the four basic principles of the gospel, in addition to [[faith]] in [[Jesus]], [[repentance]], and the gift of the [[Holy Spirit]]. As with many other [[Restorationism|Restorationist]] faiths, baptism must be by immersion for the remission of [[sin]]s (meaning that through baptism, past sins are forgiven), and occurs after one has shown faith and repentance.
[[Latter Day Saint]] baptisms also must occur only after an "age of accountability," or the age at which a child begins to know right from wrong, which Mormonism normally defines as the age of eight years. Mormonism strongly rejects [[infant baptism]]. In addition, Mormonism requires that baptism may only be performed with one who has been called and ordained by God with [[priesthood (Mormonism)|priesthood]] authority.
During the actual baptism ceremony, the priest performing the baptism says a prayer before immersing the one being baptized entirely under the water. The reported form of this prayer has varied through time. The earliest instance in the ''[[Book of Mormon]]'', the prayer was as follows:
:"I baptize thee, having authority from the Almighty God, as a testimony that ye have entered into a covenant to serve him until you are dead as to the mortal body; and may the Spiri |
al power station emissions. Some studies claim that coal power plant emissions are responsible for tens of thousands of premature deaths annually in the United States alone. Modern [[power plant]]s utilize a variety of techniques to limit the harmfulness of their waste products and improve the efficiency of burning, though these techniques are not widely implemented in some countries, as they add to the capital cost of the power plant. To eliminate CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from coal plants, [[carbon capture and storage]] has been proposed but is not yet in use.
Coal also contains many trace elements, including [[arsenic]] and [[mercury (element)|mercury]], which are dangerous if released into the environment. Coal also contains low levels of [[uranium]], [[thorium]], and other naturally-occurring [[radioactive isotopes]] whose release into the environment may lead to [[radioactive contamination]].{{ref|www.ornl.gov.755}}{{ref|greenwood.cr.usgs.gov.756}} While these substances are trace impurities, enough coal is burned that significant amounts of these substances are released, paradoxically resulting in more radioactive waste than nuclear power.
==Coal fires==
There are hundreds of coal fires burning around the world.{{ref|www.coalfire.caf.dlr.de.757}} Those burning underground can be difficult to locate and many can not be extinguished. Fires can cause the ground above to subside, combustion gases are dangerous to life, and breaking out to the surface can initiate surface wildfires.
Coal seams can be set on fire by [[spontaneous combustion]] or contact with a mine fire or surface fire. A grass fire in a coal area can set dozens of coal seams on fire.{{ref|resourcescommittee.house.gov.758}} {{ref|www.fire.blm.gov.58}} Coal fires in China burn 120 million tons of coal a year, emitting 360 million metric tons of carbon dioxide. This amounts to 2-3% of the annual worldwide production of CO<sub>2</sub> from fossil fuels, or as much as emitted from all of the cars and light trucks in the United States. {{ref|ehp.niehs.nih.gov.759}} {{ref|www.itc.nl.59}}
In the [[United States]] , a trash fire was lit in the borough landfill located in an abandoned [[Anthracite]] [[strip mine]] pit in the portion of the [[Coal Region]] called [[Centralia, Pennsylvania]] from 1962. It burns underground today, 44 years later.
The reddish siltstone rock that caps many ridges and buttes in the [[Powder River Basin]] ([[Wyoming]]), and in western [[North Dakota]] is called '''[[porcelanite]]''', which also may resemble the coal burning waste "[[clinker]]" or volcanic "[[scoria]]." {{ref|www.state.nd.us.760}} Clinker is rock that has been fused by the natural burning of coal. In the case of the Powder River Basin approximately 27 to 54 billion metric tons of coal burned within the past three million years. {{ref|www.blm.gov.761}} Wild coal fires in the area were reported by the [[Lewis and Clark expedition]] as well as explorers and settlers in the area. {{ref|www.wsgs.uwyo.edu.762}}
The [[Australia]]n [[Burning Mountain]] was originally believed to be a volcano, but the smoke and ash comes from a coal fire which may have been burning for 5,000 years.{{ref|www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au.763}}
==World coal reserves==
It has been estimated that, as of 1996, there is around one [[exa|exagram]] (1 &times; 10<sup>15</sup> kg) of total coal reserves accessible using current mining technology, approximately half of it being hard coal. The energy value of all the world's coal is well over 100,000 quadrillion [[British thermal unit|Btu]] (100 [[zetta|zettajoules]]). There probably is enough coal to last for 300 years. However, this estimate assumes no rise in population, and no increased use of coal to attempt to compensate for the depletion of natural gas and petroleum. A recent (2003) study by scientist [[Gregson Vaux]], which takes those factors into account, estimates that coal could peak in the United States as early as 2046, on average. "Peak" does not mean coal will disappear, but defines the time after which no matter what efforts are expended coal production will begin to decline in quantity and energy content. The disappearance of coal will occur much later, around the year 2267, assuming all other factors do not change, which they naturally will.{{ref|www.fromthewilderness.com.764}} British Petroleum, in its annual report 2005, estimated at 2004 end, there were 909,064 million tons of ''proved'' coal reserves worldwide, or 164 years [[reserve to production ratio]].
[[Image:Us coal regions 1996.png|thumb|right|US coal regions.]]
The [[United States Department of Energy]] uses estimates of coal reserves in the region of 1,081,279 million short tons, which is about 4,786 BBOE (billion [[barrel of oil equivalent|barrels of oil equivalent]]) <!-- (1,081,279*0.907186*4.879) -->{{ref|www.eia.doe.gov.765}}. The amount of coal burned during 2001 was calculated as 2.337 [[GTOE]] (gigatonnes of oil equivalent), which is about 46 MBOED (million barrels of oil equivalent per day) <!-- (2,126*7.9/365) -->{{ref|www.iea.org.766}}. At that rate those reserves will last 285 years<!-- (4,786,000/46/365) -->. As a comparison natural gas provided 51 MBOED, and oil 76 MBD (million barrels per day) during 2001.
== See also ==
* [[Charcoal]]
* [[Clean coal]]
* [[Coal assay]]
* [[Coal dust]]
* [[Coal Measure]] (stratigraphic unit)
* [[Coal mining]] techniques
* [[Coal-tar]]
* [[Energy value of coal]]
* [[Fluidized bed combustion]]
* [[Future energy development]]
* [[Granular material]]
* [[History of coal mining]]
* [[List of environment topics]]
* [[List of rocks]]
* [[Major coal producing regions]]
==External links==
{{Commons|Coal}}
* [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5174391/ MSNBC report on coal pollution health effects in the United States]
* [http://www.uic.com.au/nip83.htm Clean coal technologies]
** [http://www.ucsusa.org/CoalvsWind/brief.coal.html Use of coal gas in fuel cells]
** [http://www.jcoal.or.jp/overview_en/gijutsu.html Advanced methods of using coal] ([[Japanese Coal Energy Center]])
* [http://www.learnaboutcoal.org Learnaboutcoal.org]
==References==
* Dan Rottenberg, ''In the Kingdom of Coal''. A narrative history of the U.S. coal industry. (Routledge, 2003.)
* {{cite journal | author=Robert H. Williams and Eric D. Larson | title=A comparison of direct and indirect liquefaction technologies for making fluid fuels from coal | journal=Energy for Sustainable Development | year=December 2003 | volume=VII | pages=103-129}}, also [http://www.ieiglobal.org/ESDVol7No4/dclversussicl.pdf]
# {{note|www.eia.doe.gov.751}} {{cite web | title=International Energy Outlook | url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/coal.html | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|TSRCoalLiquefaction}} {{Citepaper_publisher | Author=Cleaner Coal Technology Programme | Title=Technology Status Report 010: Coal Liquefaction | Publisher=Department of Trade and Industry (UK) | PublishYear=October 1999 | URL=http://www.dti.gov.uk/energy/coal/cfft/cct/pub/tsr010.pdf}}
# {{note|www.rexresearch.com.752}} {{cite web | title=http://www.rexresearch.com/karrick/karric~1.htm | url=http://www.rexresearch.com/karrick/karric~1.htm | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.findarticles.com.753}} {{cite web | title=Diesel Fuel News: Ultra-clean fuels from coal liquefaction: China about to launch big projects - Brief Article | url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0CYH/is_15_6/ai_89924477 | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.coalpeople.com.754}} {{cite web | title=Welcome to Coal People Magazine | url=http://www.coalpeople.com/old_coalpeople/march03/tiny_tomorrow.htm | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.ornl.gov.755}} {{cite web | title=Coal Combustion | url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|greenwood.cr.usgs.gov.756}} {{cite web | title=Radioactive Elements in Coal and Fly Ash, USGS Factsheet 163-97 | url=http://greenwood.cr.usgs.gov/energy/factshts/163-97/FS-163-97.html | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.coalfire.caf.dlr.de.757}} {{cite web | title=Sino German Coal fire project | url=http://www.coalfire.caf.dlr.de/projectareas/world_wide_distribution_en.html | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|resourcescommittee.house.gov.758}} {{cite web | title=Committee on Resources-Index | url=http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/archives/108/testimony/johnmasterson.htm | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.fire.blm.gov.58}} {{cite web | title=http://www.fire.blm.gov/textdocuments/6-27-03.pdf | url=http://www.fire.blm.gov/textdocuments/6-27-03.pdf | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|ehp.niehs.nih.gov.759}} {{cite web | title=EHP 110-5, 2002: Forum | url=http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2002/110-5/forum.html | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.itc.nl.59}} {{cite web | title=Overview about ITC's activities in China | url=http://www.itc.nl/personal/coalfire/activities/overview.html | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.state.nd.us.760}} {{cite web | title=North Dakota's Clinker | url=http://www.state.nd.us/ndgs/ndnotes/ndn13_h.htm | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.blm.gov.761}} {{cite web | title=BLM-Environmental Education- The High Plains | url=http://www.blm.gov/education/high_plains/article.html | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.wsgs.uwyo.edu.762}} {{cite web | title=http://www.wsgs.uwyo.edu/Coal/CR01-1.pdf | url=http://www.wsgs.uwyo.edu/Coal/CR01-1.pdf | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au.763}} {{cite web | title=Burning Mountain Nature Reserve | url=http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/pa |
t one, is [[subordinate]] to a single other entity. This is the dominant mode of organization among large organizations; most corporations, governments, and organized religions are hierarchical organizations.
[[Hierarchy]] originally meant "rule by priests", and it is from the organization of hierarchical churches such as the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, that the name of this concept arises. In these organizations, the [[pope]] or [[patriarch]] was the highest visible part of the hierarchy, with God as the nominal top of the hierarchy.
The modern sense of the word came about as a result of the hierarchical way in which the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches were organized. It may be useful to visualize a [[pyramid]]al '''power structure''', those nearest the top have more power than those nearest the bottom, and there being fewer people at the top then at the bottom. As a result, superiors in a hierarchy generally have higher status and command greater rewards than their subordinates.
All governments and most companies have similar structures. Traditionally, the [[monarch]] was the pinnacle of the [[state]]. In many countries, [[feudalism]] and [[manorialism]] provided a formal social structure that established hierarchical links at every level of society, with the monarch at the top.
In modern post-feudal states the nominal top of the hierarchy still remains the [[head of state]], which may be a [[president]] or a [[constitutional monarch]], although in many modern states the powers of the head of state are to one degree or another delegated among different bodies; commonly a [[senate]], [[parliament]] or [[congress]], which in turn often delegate the day-to-day running of the country to a [[prime minister]]. In many [[democracies]], the people are considered to be the notional top of the hierarchy, over the head of state; in reality, the people's power is restricted to voting in elections.
In business, the business owner traditionally occupied the pinnacle of the organization. In most modern large companies, there is now no longer a single dominant shareholder, and the collective power of the business owners is for most purposes delegated to a [[board of directors]], which in turn delegates the day-to-day running of the company to a [[managing director]] or [[CEO]]. Again, although the shareholders of the company are the nominal top of the hierarchy, in reality many companies are run at least in part as personal fiefdoms by their management; [[corporate governance]] rules are an attempt to mitigate this tendency.
Members of hierarchical organizational structures chiefly communicate with their immediate superior and with their immediate subordinates. Structuring organizations in this way is useful partly because it can reduce the communication overhead by limiting information flow; this is also its major limitation.
Not all organizations have this structure. The opposite extreme is described as "flat" or "single-level".
== Studies of hierarchical organizations ==
The [[organizational development]] theorist [[Elliott Jacques]] identified a special role for hierarchy in his concept of [[requisite organization]].
The [[iron law of oligarchy]], introduced by [[Robert Michels]], describes the inevitable tendency of hierarchial organizations to become [[oligarchy|oligarchic]] in their decision making.
[[Hierarchiology]] is the term coined by Dr. Laurence J. Peter, originator of the [[Peter principle|Peter Principle]], to refer to the study of hierarchical organizations and the behavior of their members.
==Criticism and alternatives==
In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842-1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926-1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work "Radical Empiricism" that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved. A hesitation to declare success upon the discovery of ambiguities leaves heterarchy at an artificial and subjective disadvantage in the scope of human knowledge. This bias is an artifact of an aesthetic or pedagogical preference for hierarchy, and not necessarily an expression of objective observation.
Hierarchies and hierarchical thinking has been criticized by many people, including [[Susan McClary]] and one branch of political philosophy which is vehemently opposed to hierarchical organisation: the [[libertarian socialism|libertarian socialist]] branch of [[anarchism]] is generally opposed to hierarchical organization in any form of human relations.
== See also ==
* ''[[The Nature of the Firm]]''
* [[Reverse hierarchy]]
* [[Corporate governance]]
* [[Social hierarchy]]
[[Category:Management]]
[[Category:Government]]
[[Category:Corporate governance]]
[[Category:Sociology]]
[[Category:Hierarchy]]
[[fr:Structure du pouvoir]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Harry Secombe</title>
<id>14033</id>
<revision>
<id>41502882</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T20:25:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ian Pitchford</username>
<id>230605</id>
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<comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Sir Harry Donald Secombe [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]]''' ([[8 September]] [[1921]]&ndash;[[11 April]] [[2001]]) was a [[Wales|Welsh]] entertainer, a noted fine [[tenor]] singing voice and a talent for [[comedy]]. Born at [[St.Thomas, Swansea|St. Thomas]], [[Swansea]] {{mn|Swansea|1}}, he was one of the original [[Goons]], appearing in the [[radio]] series as Neddie (Harry) Seagoon, the protagonist of the show's ridiculous plots. He had first met [[Spike Milligan]], the founder of the series, during [[army]] service in [[World War II]] in [[North Africa]]. He shared his birthday, [[8 September]], with the other member of the [[trio]], [[Peter Sellers]].
Secombe appeared in many stage [[Musical theater|musicals]], including ''[[The Pickwick Papers|Pickwick]]'' ([[1963]]) and ''[[The Four Musketeers]]'' ([[1967]]), and had several chart successes, the song most associated with him being "[[If I Ruled the World]]" (from ''[[Pickwick]]''). He also appeared as Mr. Bumble in [[Carol Reed]]'s [[film]] of [[Lionel Bart]]'s ''[[Oliver!]]'' ([[1968]]).
Later in life, Secombe (whose brother was a [[vicar]]) attracted new audiences as a presenter of religious programmes, such as the [[BBC]]'s ''[[Songs of Praise]]'' and [[ITV]]'s ''[[Highway (television programme)|Highway]]''.
He was knighted in [[1981]], and jokingly referred to himself as Sir Cumference (in recognition of his rotund figure).
Secombe suffered a [[stroke]] in [[1997]], from which he made a slow recovery, only to be diagnosed with [[prostate cancer]] the following September. After suffering a second stroke in [[1999]], he was forced to abandon his [[television]] career, but made a documentary about his condition in the hope of giving encouragement to other sufferers.{{mn|stroke|2}}
Secombe and his wife, Myra Atherton, had four children:
*Jennifer Secombe, married to actor [[Alex Giannini]]
*[[Andy Secombe]], an accomplished [[voice actor|voice]] and [[film]] [[actor]], as well as an [[author]]
*David Secombe, a writer and photographer
*Katy Secombe, an actress{{mn|children|3}}
He died at the age of 79, from [[cancer]], at his home in [[England]].
==Singles==
*''[[On with the Motley]]'' ([[1955]]) UK #16
*''[[If I Ruled the World]]'' ([[1963]]) UK #18
*''[[This Is My Song (1967 song)|This Is My Song]]'' ([[1967]]) UK #2 {{mn|singles|4}}
==Albums==
* ''Sacred Songs'' (1962) UK #16
* ''Secombe's Personal Choice'' (1967) UK #6
* ''If I Ruled the World'' (1971) UK #17
* ''20 Songs of Joy'' (1978) UK #8 {{mn|Albums|5}}
== References ==
*{{mnb|Swansea|1}} {{Web reference | title=Sir Harry Secombe - Swansea celebrity | url=http://www.explore-gower.co.uk/swansea/harrysecombe.html | date=2006-02-12 }}
*{{mnb|Stroke|2}} {{Web reference | title=Television Heaven: Harry Secombe | url=http://www.televisionheaven.co.uk/hissecombe.htm | date=2006-01-02 }}
*{{mnb|Children|3}} {{Web reference | title=Sir Harry Secombe - Swansea celebrity | url=http://www.explore-gower.co.uk/swansea/harrysecombe.html | date=2006-02-12 }}
*{{mnb|Singles|4}} ''[[Guinness Book of British Hit Singles]]'' 7th Edition
*{{mnb|Albums|5}} ''Guinness Book of British Hit Albums'' 1st Edition
==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
*{{imdb name|id=0781183|name=Harry Secombe}}
*[http://www.harrysecombe.co.uk/ The Harry Secombe Tribute Site]
*[http://www.smas.me.uk/ The Spike Milligan Appreciation Society]
*[http://www.explore-gower.co.uk/swansea/harrysecombe.html Sir Harry Secombe - Swansea celebrity]
[[Category:1921 births|Secombe, Harry]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Secombe, Harry]]
[[Category:British comedians|Secombe, Harry]]
[[Category:Commanders of the British Empire|Secombe, Harry]]
[[Category:Film actors|Secombe, Harry]]
[[Category:Musical theatre actors|Secombe]]
[[Category:Natives of Swansea|Secombe, Harry]]
[[Category:Radio actors|Secombe, Harry]]
[[Category:Television actors|Secombe, Harry]]
[[Category:Welsh comedians|Secombe, Harry]]
[[Category:Welsh male singers|Secombe, Harry]]
[[cy:Harry Secombe]]
[[de:Harry Secombe]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Heroin</title>
<id>14034</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:38:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sarah Ewart</username>
<id>430123</id>
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<comment>Revert to revision 41885417 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_pop |
ith no english on it through friction. This is sometimes called "collision-induced throw." The direction of the throw depends entirely on the direction the cue ball hits the object ball from. Unlike throw cause by spin, friction from a collision induced throw "pushes" the cue ball in the same direction as the cue ball was traveling before impact. Thus, a cue ball traveling from the left will cause an impacted object ball to be thrown slightly to the left of the natural angle it would otherwise be sent.
Both varieties of throw are highly influenced by speed. Generally, the softer the cue ball is moving at the time of impact, the that more throw will affect the object ball's resultant path of travel.
===The semi-''mass&eacute;'' ("curve" or "swerve") shot===
A cue ball can be made to curve in its path of travel. This is usually employed for the purpose of avoiding an interfering ball or balls. In order to achieve a curve, a player's cue stick must be elevated and the cue ball struck with english. A curve to the left is accomplished by hitting the cue ball with an elevated cue and left-hand english. A curve to the right is accomplished by hitting the cue ball with an elevated cue and right-hand english. The higher the elevation of the cue, the more steep the degree of curve. The more speed a cue ball is hit with the farther it will travel in the direction it was hit before beginning to curve.
Such shots are typically referred to as "curve shots" by North Americans and "swerve shots" by the British.
Very steep curves and even reversal of the cue ball path of direction a few moments after being struck can be accomplished by elevating the cue stick to a high degree of elevation. Such large scale curves and reversals of direction are much more difficult and are referred to as ''mass&eacute;'' shots (see below).
===The ''mass&eacute;'' shot===
''Mass&eacute;'' refers to imparting a high degree of spin along both the vertical and horizontal axes of the cue ball so that it sharply curves or even reverses direction without having to contacting another ball or rail. A ''mass&eacute;'' is performed by hitting the cue ball with a highly elevated cue stick (compare semi-''mass&eacute;''). ''Mass&eacute;s'' are quite difficult and are not allowed in some venues as the table's cloth can be easily damaged by unskilled players.
===Swerve effect ===
Whenever a pool ball is struck with any degree of english, and with a cue that is not perfectly level, a curve results. In the two immediately-preceding sections, ''intentional'' curves of lesser and greater degrees were described. However, because in most billiards shots, the cue is slightly elevated, if english is employed, an ''unintentional'' (and imperceptible to the naked eye) curve results. This is known as "swerve" or "the swerve effect". The farther away an intended target is from the cue ball's original shooting position, the more swerve of the cue ball will affect where the cue ball arrives. For this reason, use of english (and unintentional english) are complicating factors in billiards and swerve must be compensated for. The ''swerve effect'' should not be confused with a ''swerve shot'', previously defined as commonwealth terminology for a curve shot.
===Deflection (squirt)===
Deflection can be described as displacement of the cue ball from the aimed direction in the opposite direction of the side english was applied. Like the swerve effect, deflection is an unwanted complicating factor in pool, present whenever english is employed.
Much ink has been spilled analyzing the physics of deflection. What the player needs to know is that when english is used, the cue ball will always begin its travel in a direction not exactly as aimed; it will "squirt" off of the line parallel with the cue's direction. Deflection increases the faster your cue stick is traveling at impact and the more english attempting to be applied.
Deflection can be decreased by the type of cue used, and at the high levels, players will often select a personal playing cue based on the amount of squirt the cue imparts (the less the better).
Because swerve and deflection (for very different reasons) each cause the cue ball to take a different path than aimed, but each does so in the opposite direction of the other, under the right conditions swerve and deflection can cancel each other out.
===The jump shot===
A jump shot describes any shot where the cue ball is intentionally driven into the air in a legal manner. It is not permissible in some games (e.g. Snooker) and may be frowned upon or even forbidden in some venues as attempts at it by unskilled players may cause damage to a table's cloth. A legal jump shot requires that the cue ball be hit above center, driving it down into the table, such that the ball will leave the table surface on a rebound. All authoritative rule sources deem it illegal to "scoop" under the cue ball with the tip of the cue to fling it into the air (technically because it is illegal to contact the cue ball with the ferrule of the cue, and because the cue ball is struck twice, both of which are classic fouls.
Unintentional small jumps are ubiquitous to billiards. In most billiards shots, a player's cue is slightly elevated. Whenever a ball is struck with an elevated cue, a jump, no matter how slight, occurs. An oft-used way to illustrate this principle is to have a player place a coin face down on the table approximately an inch in front of the cue ball. When shot very softly, the player will audibly hear the coin being struck and see the cue ball's reaction to that collision. When the same shot is performed with any degree of speed no sound or collision is evident, and it is clear that the coin is being jumped.
==Types of games (carom and pocket)==
There are two main varieties of billiard games: carom and pocket. The main carom billiards games are straight billiards, balkline and three cushion billiards. All are played on a pocketless table with three balls; two cue balls and one object ball. In all, players shoot a cue ball so that it makes contact with the opponent's cue ball as well as the object ball.
The most popular of the large variety of pocket games are [[Eight-ball]], [[9-ball]], [[one-pocket]], [[bank pool]] and [[snooker]]. In 8-ball and 9-ball the object is to sink a designated ball to win. In 8-ball, players must pocket a group of balls, either the solids or the stripes, before they can pocket the eight for the win. In both one-pocket and bank pool the players must sink a set number of balls; respectively, all in a particular pocket, and all by banking. In 9-ball, players must shoot the balls in order, from one through nine. In snooker, players score points by alternating shooting red balls and balls of a different colour.
===Straight billiards or straight rail===
In straight billiards, a player scores a point and may continue shooting each time his cue ball makes contact with both other balls.
Although a difficult and subtle game, some of the best players of straight billiards developed the skill to drive both balls into a corner and from that position were able to score a seemingly limitless number of points.
The first straight billiards professional tournament was held in 1879 where [[Jacob Schaefer, Sr.]] scored 690 points in a single turn{{ref|Shamos}} (that is, 690 separate strokes without a miss). With the balls barely moving and repetitively hit, there was little for the fans to watch.
===Balkline===
In light of these phenomenal skill developments in straight rail, the game of balkline soon developed to make it impossible for a player to keep balls in a corner for an interminable period. ''A balkine'' is a line parallel to one end of a billiard table. In the ''games'' of balkline--balkline 18.1 and 18.2--the players have to drive either one ball or two balls (respectively) past a balkine set at 18 inches from the rail after a fixed number of shots.
===Three cushion billiards===
:''Main article: [[Carambole billiards|three cushion billiards]]''
A more elegant solution was three cushion billiards, which requires a player to make contact with the other two balls on the table and contact three rail cushions in the process. This is difficult enough that even the best players can only manage to average one to two points a turn.
=== Eight ball===
{{main|Eight ball}}
In the [[United States]], the most commonly played game is 8-ball played on tables that are 7 feet long. In the [[United Kingdom]] the game is commonly played in pubs and it is competitively played in leagues. It is also played as a world championship tournament run by the [[International Pool Association]]
=== Nine ball===
{{main|Nine ball}}
9-Ball is a rotation game where the 1-9 balls are used. The player at the table must make a legal shot on the lowest numbered ball on the table or forfeit his/her turn. The game is won by legally pocketing the nine ball. 9-Ball is the predominant professional game. There are many local and regional tours and tournaments that are contested with 9-Ball. There is no particular governing body of 9-ball. Most places play with a version of "Texas Express" or WPA (World Pool Association) rules. The largest 9-ball tournaments are the independent US Open and the World 9-Ball Championships for men and women. Male professionals have a rather fragmented schedule of professional 9-Ball tournaments at this time (2005). Female professionals have a steady professional circuit that is governed by the Women's Professional Billiard Association.
=== One pocket===
{{main|One pocket}}
One pocket is a strategic game for two players. Each player is assigned one of the corner pockets on the table. This is the only pocket into which he can legally pocket balls. The first player to pocket the majority of the balls (8) |
umber of notable [[Hollywood]] films have been made about hockey. Notable hockey films include ''[[Slap Shot (movie)|Slap Shot]]'' (1977), ''[[The Mighty Ducks (movies)|The Mighty Ducks]]'' (1992, successful enough to spawn two sequels), and ''[[Miracle (film)|Miracle]]'' (2004). The first two are fictional comedies; the last is a drama based on the true story of the 1980 "Miracle on Ice" USA gold medal team. Other Hollywood hockey films include ''[[Youngblood (1986 movie)|Youngblood]]'' and ''[[Mystery, Alaska]]''. Many other films are less hockey-oriented but nonetheless prominently involve the sport. Both ''[[Happy Gilmore]]'' and ''[[The Cutting Edge]]'' center around failed hockey players using their talents for other sports ([[golf]] and [[figure skating]], respectively).
Hockey also frequently shows up in American television, particularly in shows set in the colder regions of the US such as the Northeast. One of the recurring characters on ''[[Cheers]]'' was [[Eddie LeBec]] (played by [[Jay Thomas]]), a [[French-Canadian]] [[Boston Bruins]] goalie who married cast regular [[Carla Tortelli]]. LeBec later was cut from the NHL and joined a travelling ice show; the character was eventually killed off. One memorable episode of ''[[Seinfeld]]'', "[[The Face Painter]]", involves the antics of Elaine's face-painting boyfriend Putty, a rabid [[New Jersey Devils]] fan, and Jerry's stubborn refusal to thank an acquaintance for [[New York Rangers]] playoff tickets after the game when he had already thanked him numerous times beforehand. In an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'', "[[Lisa on Ice]]", Bart is the star of his peewee hockey team, The Mighty Pigs, coached by [[Chief Wiggum]]. Lisa is eventually forced to become a goaltender on an opposing team, The Kwik-E-Mart Gougers coached by [[Apu]], to avoid a failing grade in gym, and she blossoms from a nervous wreck to an intimidating star. Eventually, the two teams play each other.
Because of hockey's popularity in Canada, it is considered one of the most important elements of Canadian pop culture. It features very prominently in homegrown television and movies. Moreover, some of the actors in American Hollywood hockey movies are Canadian.
==Terminology==
[[Image:The Colts applying pressure at the Battalion net.JPG|right|250px|thumb|The [[Barrie Colts]] applying pressure at the [[Brampton Battalion]] net, while visiting the [[Powerade Centre]].]]
[[Image:Hhof_vault.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The original [[Stanley Cup]], in the [[Hockey Hall of Fame]] vault.]]
[[Image:Icehockeylayout.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Typical layout of an ice hockey rink surface]]
===Statistics===
*[[Goal (ice hockey)|Goal]]
*[[Assist (ice hockey)|Assist]]
*[[Plus/minus|Plus/minus]]
*[[Save percentage]]
*[[Goals Against Average]]
===Personnel===
*[[Alternate captain (hockey)|Alternate captain]]
*[[Captain (ice hockey)|Captain]]
*[[Centre (ice hockey)|Centre]]
*[[Coach (ice hockey)|Coach]]
*[[Defenceman (ice hockey)|Defenceman]]
*[[Forward (ice hockey)|Forward]]
*[[Goal judge]]
*[[Goaltender]]
*[[Official (ice hockey)|Official]]
*[[Power forward (ice hockey)|Power forward]]
*[[Winger (ice hockey)|Winger]]
===Rink===
*[[Crease (hockey)|Crease]]
*[[Blue line (hockey)|Blue line]]
*[[Hash marks]]
*[[Hockey rink|Rink]]
*[[Penalty box]]
*[[Red line (hockey)|Red line]]
*[[Slot (hockey)|Slot]]
===Penalties===
*[[Boarding (hockey)|Boarding]]
*[[Power play]]
*[[Shorthanded (hockey)|Shorthanded]]
*[[Fighting in hockey|Fighting]]
*[[Five on three]]
*[[Penalty (ice hockey)|Penalty]]
*[[Penalty shot (hockey)|Penalty shot]]
===Shot types===
*[[Shot (ice hockey)|Shot]]
*[[Backhand shot (ice hockey)|Backhand shot]]
*[[One timer]]
*[[Slapshot]]
*[[Wrist shot]]
*[[Snap shot (ice hockey)|Snap shot]]
===Game play/random===
*[[Faceoff]]
*[[Checking (ice hockey)|Checking]]
*[[Icing (ice hockey)|Icing]]
*[[Hat trick]]
*[[Gordie Howe hat trick]]
*[[Overtime (ice hockey)|Overtime]]
*[[The point (ice hockey)|The point]]
*[[Neutral zone trap]]
*[[Breakaway (ice hockey)|Breakaway]]
*[[Deke (ice hockey)|Deke]]
*[[Puck bunny]]
===Equipment===
*[[Hockey pants]]/ Breezers
*[[Hockey stick]]
*[[Hockey jersey]]
*[[Shin guard]]s/pads
*[[Goalie mask]]
*[[Hockey puck]]
*[[Helmet (hockey)|Helmet]]s
*[[Visor (hockey)|Visor]]s
*[[Zamboni]]
*[[Ice skate]]s
*[[Jock (hockey)|Jock/Jill]]
*[[Mouthguard]]
*[[Hockey sock]]s
*[[Skatemill]]
==See also==
{{commons|category:Ice hockey|Ice hockey}}
{{Wikinewscat|Ice Hockey}}
*[[International Ice Hockey Federation World Championships]]
*[[Ice Hockey World Championships]]
*[[Ice hockey at the Olympic Games]]
*[[List of ice hockey leagues]]
*[[Shinny]] (an informal type of hockey)
*[[Sports league attendances]]
*[[Ice hockey equipment]]
*[[Triple Gold Club]]
==External links==
*[http://www.iihf.com/ International Ice Hockey Federation]
*[http://www.hhof.com/ Hockey Hall Of Fame]
*[http://www.nhl.com/ National Hockey League]
*[http://youthhockeyforum.com/ Youth Hockey]
*[http://hockeydb.com/ North American Statistics Database]
*[http://www.eurohockey.net/players/ European Player Statistics Database]
*[http://www.chidlovski.com/personal/1954/ Hockey CCCP International] - All games, tournaments, leagues, opponents, players, coaches, top lists for the national Team USSR (1954-1991).
*[http://www.hockeyrefs.com/ HockeyRefs.com]
*[http://www.hockeysfuture.com/ Hockey's Future]
*[http://www.achahockey.org/ American Collegiate Hockey Association]
*[http://www.sports-facts.com/nhl.htm Hockey News and Athletes Biographies]
*[http://www.thesportbar.com/content/section/9/147/ European & North American Hockey Scores and Statistics]
==Notes==
<!-- How to add a footnote:
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# {{note|medals}} {{Web reference | title=Olympic Ice Hockey - The Complete Medal List | url=http://proicehockey.about.com/od/olympichockey/a/olympic_medals.htm | date=February 18 | year=2006}}
#{{Note|Vaughan}} Garth Vaughan, ''The Puck Stops Here: The origin of Canada's great winter game'', Fredericton: Goose Lane Editions, 1996, p. 23.
# {{note|strategis.ic.gc.ca.870}} {{Web reference | title=http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/internet/inimr-ri.nsf/en/gr-72585e.html | url=http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/internet/inimr-ri.nsf/en/gr-72585e.html | date=December 4 | year=2005 }}
<!-- Category Links -->
[[Category:Ice hockey]]
[[Category:Olympic sports]]
[[Category:Hockey]]
[[Category:Winter sports]]
[[Category:Team sports]]
[[Category:Skating]]
<!-- Interlanguage links -->
{{Link FA|pt}}
[[ar:هوكي جليد]]
[[bg:Хокей на лед]]
[[bs:Hokej na ledu]]
[[cs:Lední hokej]]
[[da:Ishockey]]
[[de:Eishockey]]
[[el:Χόκεϋ επί πάγου]]
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[[et:Jäähoki]]
[[es:Hockey sobre hielo]]
[[eo:Glacihokeo]]
[[fr:Hockey sur glace]]
[[it:Hockey su ghiaccio]]
[[he:הוקי קרח]]
[[lv:Hokejs]]
[[lt:Ledo ritulys]]
[[nl:IJshockey]]
[[ja:アイスホッケー]]
[[no:Ishockey]]
[[pl:Hokej na lodzie]]
[[pt:Hóquei no gelo]]
[[ro:Hochei pe gheaţă]]
[[ru:Хоккей с шайбой]]
[[simple:Ice hockey]]
[[sk:Ľadový hokej]]
[[sl:Hokej na ledu]]
[[fi:Jääkiekko]]
[[sv:Ishockey]]
[[zh:冰球]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IEEE 802.3</title>
<id>14791</id>
<revision>
<id>42102776</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:17:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.65.85.49</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Ethernet}}
'''IEEE 802.3''' is a collection of [[IEEE]] standards defining the [[physical layer]] and [[data link layer]] of wired [[Ethernet]]. This is generally a [[Local area network|LAN]] technology with some [[WAN]] applications. Physical connections are made between nodes and/or infrastructure devices ([[Ethernet hub|hub]]s, [[switch]]es, [[router]]s) by various types of copper or [[fiber cable]].
802.3 is a technology that can support the [[IEEE 802.1]] network architecture.
The maximum [[packet]] size is 1518 bytes, although to allow the Q-tag for [[Virtual LAN]] and priority data in [[802.3ac]] it is extended to 1522 bytes. If the upper layer protocol submits a [[protocol data unit|PDU]] (Protocol data unit) less than 64 [[byte|bytes]], 802.3 will pad the data field to achieve the minimum 64 bytes.
Although it is not technically correct, the terms "[[packet]]" and "[[frame (telecommunications)|frame]]" are used interchangeably. The <nowiki>ISO/IEC 8802-3 ANSI/IEEE</nowiki> 802.3 Standards refer to MAC sub-layer frames consisting of the Destination Address, Source Address, Length/Type, data, and [[Frame Check Sequence|FCS]] fields. The Preamble and [[Start Frame Delimiter|SFD]] are (usually) considered a header to the MAC Frame. This header plus the MAC Frame constitute a "Packet".
== Versions of 802.3==
The original Ethernet is called "Experimental Ethernet" today. It was developed by [[Bob Metcalfe]] and was based in part on the wireless Alohanet protocol. It is not in use anywhere, but is thought to be the only Ethernet by some purists. The first "Ethernet" that was generally used outside Xerox was the DIX Ethernet. However, as DIX Ethernet was derived from Experimental Ethernet, and as many standards have been developed that are based on DIX Ethernet, the technical community has accepted the term Et |
quarter-century following independence, Cameroon was one of the most prosperous countries in Africa. The drop in commodity prices for its principal exports —petroleum, cocoa, coffee, and cotton — in the mid-1980s, combined with an overvalued currency and economic mismanagement, led to a decade-long recession. Real per capita GDP fell by more than 60% from 1986 to 1994. The current account and fiscal deficits widened, and foreign debt grew. Yet because of its oil resources and favorable agricultural conditions, Cameroon still has one of the best-endowed primary commodity economies in sub-Saharan Africa.[[Image:Tole-tea-back.jpg|thumb|left|140px|tea bag produced in Cameroon]]
Despite rapid urbanisation, the single largest economic activity in Cameroon is subsistence agriculture, in which virtually all of the rural population is employed.
==Demographics==
[[Image:Centre Province Yaoundé 002.JPG|thumb| [[Yaoundé]], capital of Cameroon (2003)]]
[[Image:Maison obus.jpg|thumb|photo from the north of Cameroon]]
[[Image:Bamun sultan palace.jpg|thumb|The palace of the sultan of the [[Bamun]] people at [[Foumban]], West Province]]
''Main article: [[Demographics of Cameroon]]''
Cameroon's demographic profile is comprised of an estimated 250 distinct ethnic groups, which may be formed into five large regional-cultural divisions:
* western highlanders (Semi-Bantu or grassfielders), including the Bamileke, Bamun (or Bamoun), and many smaller [[Tikar]] groups in the Northwest (est. 38% of total population);
* coastal tropical forest peoples, including the Bassa, Duala (or Douala), and many smaller groups in the Southwest (12%);
* southern tropical forest peoples, including the Beti-Pahuin, Bulu (a subgroup of Beti-Pahuin), Fang (subgroup of Beti-Pahuin), Maka-Njem, and Baka pygmies (18%);
* predominantly Islamic peoples of the northern semi-arid regions (the Sahel) and central highlands, including the Fulani (or Peuhl in French) (14%); and
* the "Kirdi", non-Islamic or recently Islamic peoples of the northern desert and central highlands (18%).
==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Cameroon]]''
The Kirdi and the Matakam of the western mountains produce distinctive types of pottery. The powerful masks of the Bali, which represent elephants' heads, are used in ceremonies for the dead, and the statuettes of the Bamileke are carved in human and animal figures. The Tikar people are famous for beautifully decorated brass pipes, the Ngoutou people for two-faced masks, and the Bamum for smiling masks.
L'Institut Français d'Afrique Noire (French Institute of Black Africa) maintains a library in Douala that specializes in the sociology, ethnology, and history of Africa. Of the several museums, the Diamare and Maroua Museum has anthropological collections relating to the Sudanese peoples, and the <TABLE border="1" align="left" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0">
<CAPTION><font size="+1">'''Holidays'''</font></caption>
<TR><TH style="background:#efefef;">Date</TH><TH style="background:#efefef;">English Name</TH>
<tr><td>[[January 1]]<td>[[New Year's Day]]
<tr><td>[[February 11]]</td><td>National Youth Day</td></tr>
<tr><td>[[May 1]]<td>[[Labor Day]]
<tr><td>[[May 20]]<td>[[National Day]]
<tr><td>[[August 15]]<td>[[Assumption of Mary|Assumption]]
<tr><td>[[December 25]]<td>[[Christmas]]
</TABLE>Cameroon Museum of Douala exhibits objects of prehistory and natural history.
Cultural organizations include the Cameroun Cultural Association, the Cameroun Cultural Society, and the Federal Linguistic and Cultural Centre. There are also numerous women's associations, youth organizations, and sporting associations.
In addition, movable holidays include:
Christian: [[Good Friday]], [[Easter Sunday]], and [[Easter Monday]]
Muslim: [[Eid_ul-Fitr|'Id al-Fitr]] and [[Eid_ul-Adha|'Id al-Adha]]
''See also:'' [[Music of Cameroon]], [[List of African writers (by country)#Cameroon|List of writers from Cameroon]]
==Education==
''Main article: [[Education in Cameroon]]''
Two separate systems of education were used in Cameroon after independence. East Cameroon's system was based on the French model, West Cameroon's on the British model. The two systems were merged by 1976. Christian mission schools have been an important part of the educational system.
Cameroon is known for having one of the best education systems in Africa. Primary school is both free and obligatory. Statistics say that 70% of all children aged between 6-12 years go to school, whilst 79% of the Cameroon population as a whole is literate. In the southern areas of the country almost all children of primary-school age are enrolled in classes. However, in the north, which has always been the most isolated part of Cameroon, registration is low. Most students in Cameroon do not go beyond the primary grades.
The country has institutions for teacher training and technical education. At the top of the educational structure is the University of Yaoundé. There is, however, a growing trend for the wealthiest and best-educated students to leave the country in order to study and live abroad, creating a [[brain drain]].
==Miscellaneous topics==
[[Image:Njem house in Cameroon.jpg|thumb|[[Njem]] house in Cameroon]]
* [[Catholic Church in Cameroon]]
* [[Communications in Cameroon]]
* [[Foreign relations of Cameroon]]
* [[List of Cameroon-related topics]]
* [[List of cities in Cameroon]]
* [[Military of Cameroon]]
* [[Transportation in Cameroon]]
==External links==
[[Image:Maka woman going to fields.jpg|thumb|[[Maka]] woman going to fields]]
[[Image:Tikar family.jpg|thumb|a [[Tikar]] family in the north west]]
{{sisterlinks|Cameroon}}
'''Education'''
*[http://www.vkii.org The Cameroonian Association of Engineers and Computer Scientists]Web site of the Association of Cameroonian Engineers in Germany
'''Government'''
*[http://www.camnet.cm/celcom/homepr.htm Presidency of the Republic of Cameroon] official government site
*[http://www.cm.refer.org/assnat-cm/ National Assembly of Cameroon] official site
'''News'''
*[http://allafrica.com/cameroon/ allAfrica - Cameroon] news headline links
*[http://www.crtv.cm/ CRTV - Cameroon Radio Television] state-run
*[http://www.postnewsline.com/ The Post] - leading newspaper in English, published in Buea
*[http://www.wagne.net/messager/ Le Messager] privately-owned newspaper (in French)
'''Overviews'''
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1042937.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: Cameroon'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cm.html CIA World Factbook - ''Cameroon'']
'''Ethnic Groups'''
* [http://www.pygmies.info/ Baka Pygmies of Cameroon] Culture and music of the first inhabitants of Cameroon
* [http://www.maurocampagnoli.com/ Anthropological researches in Cameroon] Fieldwork among Cameroonian populations
* [http://www.bamileke.com/ The Bamileke people of Cameroon]
*[http://www.bakweri.org/ The Bakweri People of the former British Cameroons]
'''Directories'''
*[http://www.cmclick.com CMCLICK Online! Cameroon Portal - ''Cameroon''] Cameroon Internet Community. Cameroon Business Directory. Cameroon Information. Cameroon Culture.
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us559907 LookSmart - ''Cameroon''] directory category
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Cameroon/ Open Directory Project - ''Cameroon''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/camer.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Cameroon''] directory category
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Cameroon.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Cameroon''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Cameroon/ Yahoo! - ''Cameroon''] directory category
'''Tourism'''
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.kamerun-tourismus.de/index_e.html Cameroon tourism] Information and pictures
*[http://www.cameroonincolour.com Cameroon In Colour] Cameroon pictures. Largest Online picture collection of Cameroon. Images of Cameroon. Cameroon Photos.
{{Africa}}
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Cameroon| ]]
[[Category:Peace and Security Council]]
[[af:Kameroen]]
[[am:ካሜሩን]]
[[ar:كاميرون]]
[[an:Camerún]]
[[bg:Камерун]]
[[bs:Kamerun]]
[[zh-min-nan:Cameroon]]
[[bn:ক্যামেরুন]]
[[ca:Camerun]]
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[[ko:카메룬]]
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[[he:קמרון]]
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[[na:Camerun]]
[[nl:Kameroen]]
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[[ja:カメルーン]]
[[no:Kamerun]]
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[[pl:Kamerun]]
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[[ru:Камерун]]
[[sa:केमेरून]]
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[[zh:喀麦隆]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of Cameroon</title>
<id>5448</id>
<revision>
<id>41099696</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T01:12:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.54.94.115</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Early history */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">==Early history==
The earliest inhabitants of [[Cameroon]] were probably the [[Baka (nomadic Central African people)|Baka]] (Pygmies). They still inhabit the forests of the south and east provinces. [[Bantu]] speakers originating in the Cameroonian highlands were among the first groups to move out before other invaders. The [[Mandara kingdom]] in the [[Mandara Mountains]] was found |
]] [[John Pershing]]. Even after Powell became a four star general, he still kept on his desk a pen set that he won for a drill team competition.
Powell was a professional soldier for 35 years, during which time he held a variety of command and staff positions and rose to the rank of 4-star [[General]]. Powell obtained an [[MBA]] from [[George Washington University]] in 1971 and then served a [[White House fellowship]] under President [[Richard Nixon]]. In his autobiography ''My American Journey'', Powell mentioned several officers he served under that inspired and mentored him.
As a young [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] serving in [[South Korea]], for example, Powell was very close to General [[Henry "Gunfighter" Emerson]]. Powell said he regarded this man as one of the most caring officers he ever served under. Emerson had a somewhat eccentric personality. For example, he insisted his troops train only at night and made them repeatedly watch the television film ''[[Brian's Song]]'' to promote racial harmony. Powell always professed, however, that what set Emerson apart was his great love of his soldiers and concern for their welfare.
Powell is connected with the [[My Lai Massacre]]. He was then a [[United States Army|US Army]] [[Major]], charged with investigating the massacre. Powell wrote: "In direct refutation of this portrayal is the fact that relations between American soldiers and the Vietnamese people are excellent." Later, Powell's refutation would be called an act of "white-washing" the news of the Massacre, and questions would continue to remain undisclosed to the public. On May 4, 2004, [[United States Secretary of State]] Colin L. Powell said to [[Larry King]], "I mean, I was in a unit that was responsible for My Lai. I got there after My Lai happened. So, in war, these sorts of horrible things happen every now and again, but they are still to be deplored." [http://www.state.gov/secretary/former/powell/remarks/32160.htm]. [[Ward Churchill]] is one of those who has accused Powell of being responsible for the 'cover-up'.
In the early 1980s, Powell served at [[Fort Carson, Colorado]]. It was there that he had a major clash with General [[John Hudachek]] his commander. Hudachek said in an efficiency evaluation that Powell was a poor leader who should not be promoted. Many of Powell's supporters have said this was pettiness and spite on Hudachek's part.
===Dates of rank===
* [[Second Lieutenant#United States of America|Second Lieutenant]]: [[9 June]] [[1957]]
* [[First Lieutenant]]: [[30 December]] [[1959]]
* [[Captain#Army and Marines|Captain]]: [[2 June]] [[1962]]
* [[Major (United States)|Major]]: [[24 May]] [[1966]]
* [[Lieutenant Colonel (United States)|Lieutenant Colonel]]: [[9 July]] [[1970]]
* [[Colonel (United States)|Colonel]]: [[1 February]] [[1976]]
* [[Brigadier General#United States|Brigadier General]]: [[1 June]] [[1979]]
* [[Major General#United States|Major General]]: [[1 August]] [[1983]]
* [[Lieutenant General (United States)|Lieutenant General]]: [[1 July]] [[1986]]
* [[General (United States)|General]]: [[4 April]] [[1989]]
===Awards and decorations===
* [[Defense Distinguished Service Medal]] with three [[oak leaf clusters]]
* [[Distinguished Service Medal (Army)|Army Distinguished Service Medal]] with oak leaf cluster
* [[Defense Superior Service Medal]]
* [[Legion of Merit]] with oak leaf cluster
* [[Soldier's Medal]]
* [[Bronze Star Medal]]
* [[Purple Heart]]
* [[Air Medal]]
* [[Joint Service Commendation Medal]]
* [[Army Commendation Medal]] with two oak leaf clusters
* [[National Defense Service Medal]] with one bronze [[service star]]
* [[Vietnam Service Medal]] with one silver service star
* [[Army Overseas Service Ribbon]] with [[award numeral|numeral]] 3
* [[Army Service Ribbon]]
* [[Combat Infantryman Badge]]
* [[Ranger Tab]]
* [[Air Assault Badge]]
* [[Parachutist Badge]]
* [[Presidential Service Badge]]
* [[Office of the Secretary of Defense Identification Badge]]
* [[Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Identification Badge]]
* [[Army Staff Identification Badge]]
* [[Vietnam Campaign Medal]]
* [[Vietnam Gallantry Cross]] Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation with Palm
==Presidential appointments==
===National Security Advisor===
At the age of 49, Powell left the army to become [[Ronald Reagan]]'s last National Security Advisor, from 1987 to 1989.
===Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff===
His last military assignment, from [[October 1]], [[1989]] to [[September 30]], [[1993]], was as the 12th Chairman of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]], the highest military position in the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]. During this time, he oversaw 28 crises, including [[Operation Desert Storm]] in the 1991 [[Gulf War|Persian Gulf War]]. During these events, Powell earned a reputation as being a very dovish military leader. He rarely advocated military intervention as the first solution to an [[international dispute]], and instead usually prescribed [[diplomacy]] and [[containment]].
Powell mentioned in his autobiography that he is haunted by the nightmare of the [[Vietnam War]]. He felt the leadership was very ineffective. Powell served a tour in [[Vietnam]] as a military advisor, and was badly injured when he stepped on a bamboo "[[punji stick]]". The massive infection nearly killed him and it shortened his first tour. It was also during his Vietnam service, his second tour, that Powell was decorated for bravery. He single-handedly rescued several men from a burning helicopter, one of them being Maj. Gen. [[Charles Gettys]], the commander of the [[Americal Division]].
He was opposed to the majority of George H.W. Bush Administration officials who advocated the deployment of troops to the [[Middle East]] to force [[Iraq]]i president [[Saddam Hussein]] to withdraw his armies from neighbouring [[Kuwait]], believing the dictator could instead be contained through [[sanctions]] and a buildup of forces around Kuwait.
As an officer, Powell also valued [[loyalty]] very highly, and as a result, did not usually undermine policies he disagreed with after they were implemented. Thus, while initially opposing the plan that would become Operation Desert Storm, Powell nevertheless supported it once it became official policy, and gave it his full dedication. A strategy he outlined for Operation Desert Storm, the use of "overwhelming force" to achieve a military objective while minimizing U.S. casualties, became known as the "[[Powell doctrine]]".
Powell's successful career within the military has not been entirely free of controversy, however. During the Vietnam War, Powell, as deputy assistant chief of staff at the [[Americal Division|Americal]] (the [[23rd Infantry Division]]) with the rank of Major, was charged with investigating a detailed letter by Tom Glen (a soldier from the [[11th Light Infantry Brigade]]), which backed up rumored allegations of the [[My Lai massacre]]. Powell's response was largely seen as a cover-up; he wrote: "In direct refutation of this portrayal is the fact that relations between American soldiers and the Vietnamese people are excellent."
Another controversial part of his career is that Powell also had an operational role in the illegal [[Iran-Contra affair]], acting as the initial coordinator for selling missiles to [[Iran]] in exchange for American hostages.
==Civilian career==
Following his retirement from the armed services, Powell wrote a best-selling memoir, ''My American Journey''. In addition, he pursued a career as a public speaker, addressing audiences across the country and abroad.
Colin Powell's experience in military matters made him a very popular figure with both American political parties. Many [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] admired his moderate stance on military matters, while many [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] saw him as a great asset associated with the successes of past Republican administrations. Powell eventually declared himself a Republican, and began to campaign for Republican candidates. He was touted as a possible opponent of [[Bill Clinton]] in the [[1996 U.S. Presidential Election]], but Powell declined, it is rumored, at the advice of his wife.
In 1997 Powell founded [[America's Promise]] with the objective of helping children from all socioeconomic sectors. Powell often wears the [[logotype|logo]] of the organization in the form of a red wagon pin on his lapel.
Colin Powell was serving on the board of [[America Online]] when it announced its intention to merge with [[Time Warner]] in January, 2000. Powell's son, [[Michael Powell|Michael]], was a member of the [[Federal Communications Commission]] at the time, and he was the only commissioner who advocated letting the AOL-Time Warner deal go through without scrutiny. Powell's stock in the company reportedly increased in value by US$4 million. The affair caused some controversy as it called into question the Powells' impartiality in the matter.
In the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 U.S. Presidential Election]] Powell campaigned for Texas Governor George W. Bush, serving as a key [[foreign policy]] advisor to the campaign. At the same time, it was often hinted that Powell might be appointed to a position within a Democratic administration, should [[Al Gore]] win. Bush eventually won, and Colin Powell was appointed as the first [[African American]] Secretary of State.
==Secretary of State==
[[Image:RicePowellBushRumsfeld.jpg|thumb|300px|Powell, National Security Advisor [[Condoleezza Rice]] and Secretary of Defense [[Donald Rumsfeld]] listen to President [[George W. Bush]] speak.]]
As [[United States Secretary of State | Secretary of State]] in the Bush administration, Powell was perceived as moderate, his pragmatism serving as a balance to more ideology-driven [[War Hawk|hawks]], such as Secretary of Defense [[Donal |
/revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computable number</title>
<id>6206</id>
<revision>
<id>42074156</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:20:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
<id>477460</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], [[theoretical computer science]] and [[mathematical logic]], the '''computable numbers''', also known as the '''recursive numbers''', are the subset of the [[real numbers]] consisting of the numbers which can be computed by a finite, terminating [[algorithm]]. They can be defined equivalently using the axioms of [[recursive function]]s, [[Turing machines]] or [[lambda-calculus]]. In contrast, the reals require the more powerful axioms of [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory]]. The computable numbers form a [[real closed field]] and can be used in the place of real numbers for many, but by no means all, mathematical purposes.
The computable numbers are countable and the uncountability of the reals implies that most real numbers are not computable. The computable numbers can be counted by assigning a [[Gödel number]] to each Turing machine / lambda expression / recursive function definition. Then we have mapping from the naturals to the computable reals. Note however that while computable numbers are an ordered field it is not possible to computably order them, as this would require us to decide which natural numbers correspond to halting Turing machines, which is an uncomputable problem. Because of this fact, the [[Cantor's diagonal argument|Cantor diagonalization]] argument does not work for the set of countable, computable reals: the diagonal element corresponds to a non-computable number.
==Formal definition==
A [[real number]] ''a'' is said to be '''computable''' if it can be approximated by some [[algorithm]] (or [[Turing machine]]), in the following sense: given any [[integer]] <math>n \ge 1</math>, the algorithm produces an integer ''k'' such that:
:<math>{(k-1)\over n} \leq a \leq {(k+1)\over n}.</math>
Or, equivalently, there exists an algorithm which, given any real error bound <math>\epsilon > 0</math>, produces a [[rational number]] ''r'' such that:
:<math>|r - a| \leq \epsilon.</math>
A [[complex number]] is called computable if its real and imaginary parts are computable.
== Properties ==
The computable complex numbers form an [[algebraically closed]] [[field (mathematics)|field]], and for many purposes is large enough already without requiring the noncomputable construction of the real and complex numbers. It contains all [[algebraic number]]s as well as many known [[Transcendental number|transcendental]] [[mathematical constants]]. There are however many real numbers which are not computable: the [[set]] of all computable numbers is [[countably infinite|countable]] (because the set of algorithms is) while the set of real numbers is not (see [[Cantor's diagonal argument]]).
The arithmetical operations on computable numbers are themselves computable. Take addition as example: there exists an algorithm or Turing machine which on input (''A'',''B'',<math>\epsilon</math>) produces output ''r'', where ''A'' is the description of a Turing machine approximating ''a'' (in the sense of the above definition), ''B'' is the description of a Turing machine approximating ''b'', and ''r'' is an <math>\epsilon</math> approximation of ''a''+''b''.
However, order relations on computable numbers are not computable. There is no Turing machine which on input ''A'' (the description of a Turing machine approximating the number <math>a</math>) outputs "YES" if <math>a > 0</math> and "NO" if <math>a \le 0</math>. The reason: suppose the machine described by ''A'' keeps outputting 0 as <math>\epsilon</math> approximations. It is not clear how long to wait before deciding that the machine will ''never'' output an approximation which forces ''a'' to be positive.
Every computable number is [[Definable number|definable]], but not vice versa. An example of a definable, non-computable real number is [[Chaitin's constant]], <math>\Omega</math>.
== Computing digit strings ==
Turing's original paper defined computable numbers as follows:
:A real number is computable if its digit sequence can be produced by some algorithm or Turing machine. The algorithm takes an integer <math>n \ge 1</math> as input and produces the <math>n</math>-th digit of the real number's decimal expansion as output.
Turing was already aware of the fact that this definition is equivalent to the <math>\epsilon</math>-approximation definition given above. The argument proceeds as follows: if a number is computable in the Turing sense, then it is also computable in the <math>\epsilon</math> sense: if <math>n > log_{10} (1/\epsilon)</math>, then the first ''n'' digits of ''a'' provide an <math>\epsilon</math> approximation of ''a''. For the converse, we pick an <math>\epsilon</math> computable real number ''a'' and distinguish two cases. If ''a'' is rational, then ''a'' is also Turing computable, since the digit expansions of rational numbers are eventually periodic and can therefore be produced by simple algorithms. Now if ''a'' is not rational and you want to compute its ''n''-th digit, keep computing ever more precise <math>\epsilon</math>-approximations until the ''n''-th digit is certain. Eventually this will happen, since ''a'' is not rational and the case of "zeros forever" or "nines forever" is therefore excluded.
There is no algorithm which takes as input the description of a Turing machine which produces <math>\epsilon</math> approximations for the computable number ''a'', and produces as output a Turing machine which enumerates the digits of ''a'' in the sense of Turing's definition. So while the two definitions are equivalent, they are not "computably equivalent".
While the set of computable numbers is countable, it cannot be enumerated by any algorithm, program or Turing machine. Formally: it is ''not'' possible to provide a complete list ''x''<sub>1</sub>, ''x''<sub>2</sub>, ''x''<sub>3</sub>, ... of all computable real numbers and a Turing machine which on input (''m'', ''n'') produces the ''n''-th digit of ''x''<sub>''m''</sub>. This is proved with a slight modification of Cantor's diagonal argument.
The problem with Turing's definition is this: addition is not computable if we use descriptions of digit-enumerating Turing machines as input and require a digit enumeration as output. The reason is similar to the one described earlier, when talking about order relations: if you want to add two numbers and the first machine keeps outputting the digit 9 and the second machine the digit 0, how long do you wait before deciding that no carry-over to the current digit position is needed?
==Uncomputable numbers==
An uncomputable number can be intuitively viewed as a number which is "infinite in size", or containing an "infinite amount of information". In other words, it is an element of the set of reals which cannot be expressed (i.e. distinguished from all other elements of the set) using a finite number of symbols. The uncomputable numbers arise as a consequence of the [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory|Zermelo-Fraenkel]] (ZF) axioms as follows:
:ZF assumes the existence of the [[natural number]]s, '''N''', and the existence of the [[power set]] of every set.
:So the power set of the naturals exists, P('''N''').
:We can encode the reals, '''R''', in [[binary notation]], mapping the ''n''-th digit to the presence or absence of ''n'' from a member ''r'' of P('''N'''). So there is a mapping between P('''N''') and '''R'''.
:Some members of P('''N''') are "infinite in size", so cannot be captured by a finite machine. It is these members that form the uncomputables.
==Can computable numbers be used instead of the reals?==
The computable numbers include all specific real numbers which appear in practice, including all [[algebraic number]]s, ''e'', <math>\pi</math>, et cetera. Indeed they must since, as explained above, no uncomputable element can be expressed using a finite number of symbols. In some sense the computable numbers include all numbers which are individually "within our grasp". So the question naturally arises of whether we can dispose of the reals entirely and use computable numbers for all of mathematics. This idea is appealing from a [[constructivism (mathematics)|constructivist]] point of view since it would allow us to work without uncountable sets. It has been hypothesized that most of [[mathematical analysis|analysis]] could be reconstructed using computable numbers. A great deal of traditional analysis has been done in a [[constructivist analysis|constructive framework]]. Nevertheless, it is necessarily more complicated than classical analysis would be. In any case, most mathematicians see no need to restrict themselves to computable numbers, even if this can be done.
==References==
* [[Alan Turing]], ''On computable numbers, with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem'', Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Series 2, 42 (1936), pp 230-265. [http://www.abelard.org/turpap2/tp2-ie.asp online version]. Computable numbers (and Turing machines) were introduced in this paper.
Computable numbers were defined independently by Turing, Post and Church.
See ''The Undecidable'', ed. Martin Davis, for further original papers.
[[Category:Recursion theory]]
[[Category:Theory of computation]]
[[de:Berechenbare Zahl]]
[[fr:Nombre réel c |
56 || 18.4%
|-
| [[1830]] || 2,328,642 || 18.1%
|-
| [[1840]] || 2,873,648 || 16.8%
|-
| [[1850]] || 3,638,808 || 15.7%
|-
| [[1860]] || 4,441,830 || 14.1%
|-
| [[1870]] || 4,880,009 || 12.7%
|-
| [[1880]] || 6,580,793 || 13.1%
|-
| [[1890]] || 7,488,788 || 11.9%
|-
| [[1900]] || 8,833,994 || 11.6%
|-
| [[1910]] || 9,827,763 || 10.7%
|-
| [[1920]] || 10.5 million || 9.9%
|-
| [[1930]] || 11.9 million || 9.7% (lowest historic percentage)
|-
| [[1940]] || 12.9 million || 9.8%
|-
| [[1950]] || 15.0 million || 10.0%
|-
| [[1960]] || 18.9 million || 10.5%
|-
| [[1970]] || 22.6 million || 11.1%
|-
| [[1980]] || 26.5 million || 11.7%
|-
| [[1990]] || 30.0 million || 12.1%
|-
| [[2000]] || 34.6 million || 12.3% (current percentage)
|}
note: The [[CIA World Factbook]] gives the current [[2005]] figure as 12.9% [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/print/us.html]
==See also==
*[[Black (people)]]
*[[:Category:African Americans]]
*[[African American National Biography Project]]
*[[List of African Americans]]
*[[List of African-American-related topics]]
*[[List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations]]
*[[List of U.S. cities with large African-American populations]]
*[[Race]], [[Hyphenated American]]
*Terminology: [[Blacks]], [[Colored]], [[Creole peoples|Creole]], [[Negro]]
*[[African American history]]
**[[Racial segregation]]
**[[Black nationalism]]
*[[African American literature]]
*[[African American Vernacular English]]
*[[Affirmative action]]
*[[Black Indians]]
===Other groups===
*[[Americo-Liberian]]
*[[Afro-Argentinian]]
*[[Afro-Brazilian]]
*[[Afro-Cuban]]
*[[Afro-Ecuadorian]]
*[[Afro-Latin American]]
*[[Afro-Mexican]]
*[[Afro-Peruvian]]
*[[Afro-Trinidadian]]
*[[African American culture]]
*[[African American music]]
==Further Reading==
*Jack Salzman, ed., ''Encyclopedia of Afro-American culture and history'', New York, NY : Macmillan Library Reference USA, 1996
*''African American Lives'', edited by Henry L. Gates, Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Oxford University Press, 2004 - more then 600 biographies
*''From Slavery to Freedom. A History of African Americans'', by [[John Hope Franklin]], Alfred Moss, McGraw-Hill Education 2001, standard work, first edition in 1947
*''Black Women in America - An Historical Encyclopedia'', Darlene Clark Hine (Editor), Rosalyn Terborg-Penn (Editor), Elsa Barkley Brown (Editor), Paperback Edition, Indiana University Press 2005
==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://www.saxakali.com/caribbean/shamil.htm African Americans in the Caribbean and Latin America]
*[http://www.infoplease.com/spot/bhmcensus1.html African Americans by the numbers]
*[http://www.infoplease.com/spot/bhm1.html Black History Month]
*[http://www.sonofthesouth.net/Slavery_Pictures_.htm Slavery Pictures], Original 1860s
*[http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=38705 Definition of African American] from MedicineNet
*[http://www.slate.com/id/2106753/ Article detailing the problems of defining African American]
*[http://www.radioblack.com/ African American Music] Black American Radio Stations
[[Category:African Americans]]
[[Category:African diaspora]]
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<title>Avogadros Number</title>
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<page>
<title>Angel</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|a religious being}}
[[Image:Annunciation.jpg|right|250px|thumbnail|The Annunciation - the Angel [[Gabriel]] announces to [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]] that she will bear [[Jesus]] ([[El Greco]], [[1575]])]]
An '''angel''' is ethereal being found in many [[religion]]s, whose duties are to assist and serve [[God]]. They typically act as messengers, as believed in the main three monotheistic religions. Some scholars now believe that the introduction to angelology as well as demonology may have been through the [[Iranian]] ([[Persian]]) prophet [[Zoroaster]], via the [[Persian Empire]] who had come in contact with Babylonian [[Jew]]s[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=147&letter=Z&search=zoroaster].
==Etymology==
The [[English language|English]] word originated from [[Latin]], ''angelus'', which is itself derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ἄγγελος, ''ángelos'', meaning "messenger" (double gamma "γγ" is pronounced "ng" in Greek). The closest [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word for angel is מלאך, ''mal'ach'' {{strong|4397}}, also meaning "messenger". "Angel" is also used in the English Version of the [[Bible]] for the following three Hebrew words:
* אביר, ''abbir'' {{strong|47}}, [[Psalms]] 78:25 (lit. "mighty")
* אלהים, ''[[Elohim]]'' {{strong|430}}, Psalms 8:5
* the obscure שנאן, ''shin'an'' {{strong|8136}}, in Psalms 68:17
== Angels in the [[Tanakh]] ==
[[Image:Statue at Metairie Cemetery.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Statue]] of an angel at a [[cemetery]] in [[Metairie, Louisiana|Metairie]], [[Louisiana]].]]
The Biblical name for angel, מלאך ('malakh"), obtained the further signification of "angel" only through the addition of God's name, as "angel of the Lord," or "angel of God" (Zech. xii. 8). Other appellations are "Sons of God", ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] vi. 4; [[Book of Job|Job]], i. 6 [R. V. v. 1]) and "the Holy Ones" (Psalms lxxxix. 6, 8).
According to [[Judaism|Jewish]] interpretation, '''Elohim'' is almost entirely reserved for the one true God; but at times '' '[[Elohim]]'' (powers), ''bnē 'Elohim'', ''bnē Elim'' (sons of gods)(i.e. members of the class of divine beings) were general terms for beings with great power (i.e. judges or alternately, some kind of super powerful human beings). Hence they came to be used collectively of super-human beings, distinct from [[Yahweh]] and, therefore, inferior and ultimately subordinate (e.g. Genesis 6:2; Job 1:6; Psalms 8:5).
''See also:'' [[Names of God in Judaism]]
Angels are referred to as "holy ones" ([[Zechariah]] 14:5) and "watchers" ([[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 4:13). They are spoken of as the "host of [[heaven]]" ([[Deuteronomy]] 17:3) or of "Yahweh" ([[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 5:14). The "hosts," צבאות ''Sebaoth'' in the title ''Yahweh Sebaoth'' (alternatively, ''Adonai Tzivo'ot''), Lord of Hosts, were probably at one time identified with the angels. The identification of the "hosts" with the [[stars]] comes to the same thing; the stars were thought of as being closely connected with angels. However, YHWH is very jealous of the distinction between Himself and angels, and consequently, the Hebrews were forbidden by Moses to worship the "host of heaven". It is probable that the "hosts" were also identified with the armies of Israel, whether this army is human, or angelic. The New Testament often speaks of "spirits," πνεύματα ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 1:4).
Prior to the emergence of [[monotheism]] in [[Israel]] the idea of an angel was the ''Mal'akh Yahweh'', Angel of the Lord, or ''Mal'akh Elohim'', Angel of God. The ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' is an appearance or manifestation of Yahweh in the form of a man, and the term ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' is used interchangeably with Yahweh ([[cf.]] [[Exodus]] 3:2, with 3:4; 13:21 with 14:19). Those who see the ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' say they have seen God (Genesis 32:30; [[Book of Judges|Judges]] 13:22). The ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' (or ''Elohim'') appears to [[Abraham]], [[Hagar]], [[Moses]], [[Gideon (Judges)|Gideon]], &c., and leads the Israelites in the ''Pillar of Cloud'' (Exodus 3:2). The phrase ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' may have been originally a courtly circumlocution for the Divine King; but it readily became a means of avoiding [[anthropomorphism]], and later on, when angels were classified, the ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' meant an angel of distinguished rank. The identification of the ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' with the ''[[Logos]]'', or [[Christology|Second Person]] of the [[Trinity]], is not indicated by the references in the Hebrew scriptures; but the idea of a Being partly identified with God, and yet in some sense distinct from him, illustrates a tendency of Jewish religious thought to distinguish persons within the unity of the deity. Christians think that this foreshadows the doctrine of the Trinity, whereas Kabbalist Jews would show how it developed into [[Kabbalah|kabbalistic]] theological thought and imagery.
In earlier literature the ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' or ''Elohim'' is almost the only angel mentioned. However, there are a few passages which speak of subordinate superhuman beings other than the ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' or ''Elohim''. There are the ''[[Cherub|cherubim]]'' who guard [[Garden of Eden]]. In Genesis 18, 19. (J) the appearance of Yahweh to Abraham and [[Lot |
ed the remaining ''Star Wars'' films primarily outside of the United States, and primarily with non-union crew.
These anti-union allegations, however, have been contradicted by major national unions. The AFL-CIO awarded Lucas with the Top Labor Management Award in 2002.
== Filmography ==
=== Most notable films ===
*''[[THX 1138]]'' ([[1970]]) (director, writer)
*''[[American Graffiti]]'' ([[1973]]) (director, writer)
*''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]'' ([[1977]]) (director, writer)
*''[[Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back]]'' ([[1980]]) (executive producer, co-writer, uncredited co-director)
*''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' ([[1981]]) (co-writer, executive producer)
*''[[Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi]]'' ([[1983]]) (executive producer, co-writer, uncredited co-director)
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom]]'' ([[1984]]) (co-writer, executive producer)
*''[[Willow (movie)|Willow]]'' ([[1988]]) (writer, executive producer)
*''[[Tucker: The Man and His Dream]]'' ([[1988]]) (executive producer)
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade]]'' ([[1989]]) (co-writer, executive producer)
*''[[The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles]]'' ([[1992]] - [[1996]]) (story, executive producer)
*''[[Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace]]'' ([[1999]]) (director, writer, executive producer)
*''[[Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones]]'' ([[2002]]) (director, co-writer, executive producer)
*''[[Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith]]'' ([[2005]]) (director, writer, executive producer)
*''[[Indiana Jones IV]]'' ([[2007]]) (Producer)
*''[[Red Tails]]'' ([[2007]])
=== Student and short films ===
*''[[Look at Life]]'' ([[1965]])
*''[[Herbie (George Lucas Student Film)|Herbie]]'' ([[1966]])
*''[[1:42:08]]'' ([[1966]])
*''[[The Emperor,]]'' ([[1967]])
*''[[Electronic Labyrinth THX 1138:4EB]]'' ([[1967]])
*''[[Anyone Lived in a Pretty How Town]]'' ([[1967]])
*''[[6-18-67]]'' ([[1967]])
*''[[Filmmaker (George Lucas film)|Filmaker]]'' ([[1968]])
=== Other films ===
*''[[The Star Wars Holiday Special]]'' ([[1978]]) (story)
*''[[More American Graffiti]]'' ([[1979]]) (executive producer)
*''[[Kagemusha]]'' also known as ''[[Kagemusha|The Shadow Warrior]]'' ([[1980]]) (Executive Producer of International Edition)
*''[[Body Heat]]'' ([[1981]]) (uncredited executive producer)
*''[[Twice Upon a Time]]'' ([[1982]]) (executive producer)
*''[[Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure]]'' ([[1984]]) (executive producer, story)
*''[[Ewoks: The Battle for Endor]]'' ([[1985]]) (executive producer, story)
*''[[Mishima]]'' ([[1985]]) (executive producer)
*''[[Howard the Duck]]'' ([[1986]]) (executive producer)
*''[[Captain Eo]]'' ([[1986]]) (producer, screenplay)
*''[[Labyrinth (movie)|Labyrinth]]'' ([[1986]]) (executive producer)
*''[[The Land Before Time]]'' ([[1988]]) (executive producer)
*''[[Hook (film)|Hook]]'' ([[1991]]) (cameo as "man kissing on bridge")
*''[[Beverly Hills Cop III]]'' ([[1994]]) (cameo as "Disappointed Man")
*''[[Radioland Murders]]'' ([[1994]]) (story)
== Trivia ==
*Made his first cameo appearance in the Star Wars series in [[Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith]].
*In [[1976]], Lucas published a novelization of ''A New Hope'', which was initially (like the film) titled just ''Star Wars''. Although Lucas was credited as author of the book, it was later revealed that the book was actually [[ghost writer|ghost written]] by [[Alan Dean Foster]], who would also write ''[[Splinter of the Mind's Eye]]'', the first original ''Star Wars'' novel and, in many respects, the first ''Star Wars'' sequel.
*As a tribute to his first film, ''[[THX-1138]]'', it is said that each of his films (most notably the ''Star Wars'' saga) contains the number [[1138 (number)|1138]] hidden as an [[Easter egg (virtual)|Easter egg]], and each of his movies are also made with the sound company, [[THX]]. It is also rumored that while growing up in California, the last seven digits of his home telephone number were 849-1138, where the 849 corresponds with the letters THX on a standard telephone.
*Was an executive producer of the [[box office]] bomb ''[[Howard the Duck]]''. He disowned the film shortly after its release.
*Lucas credits his friend [[John Milius]] with introducing him to the films of Japanese director [[Akira Kurosawa]], whose works (including [[Seven Samurai]]) inspired the ''Star Wars'' films.
*George Lucas was honored by the AFI, and was given a Life Achievement Award for his contribution to the movie entertainment industry.
*Lucas is a member of the [[United Methodist Church]], though conflicting reports describe him as either stating that he doesn't adhere to a specific religion or as a "Buddhist-Methodist"{{fact}}
*In his spare time, Lucas enjoys playing ''Star Wars'' video games with his children. He has also been known to read some of the ''Star Wars'' comic books, including ''[[Dark Empire]]''. At one point, Lucas even said that he liked the story presented in the ''[[Star Wars: Shadows of the Empire]]'' multimedia project so well, that if he had had the story in the 80's, he might have produced a film based on the events in it.
*Has upset some of his long time Star Wars fans by refusing to release the original Star Wars trilogy in its original format on DVD, and has endured some harsh criticism for his handling of the Star Wars prequels, which many found to be flat, wooden and uninspiring. Some even feel that he has destroyed and cheapened the integrity of his own masterpiece.
*Friend [[Steven Spielberg]] called Lucas a pure independent filmmaker, as Lucas is very ensconced in Northern [[California]] in the [[San Francisco]] area.
*He based the character of [[Han Solo]] on his friend [[Francis Ford Coppola]].
*His nickname in high school was Luke. This later became the name of the hero of his original Star Wars trilogy, Luke Skywalker.
*Sold Lucasfilm's Computer Graphics Division to Apple Computer co-founder [[Steve Jobs]], and it later became [[Pixar Animation Studios]].
== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
*{{imdb name|id=0000184|name=George Lucas}}
*[http://www.letterstogeorge.com/ Write George Lucas and read other fan mail to George]
*[http://www.starwars.com/bio/georgelucas.html Star Wars: Bio | George Lucas]
*[http://www.glef.org/ The George Lucas Educational Foundation]
*[http://www.filmmakers.com/artists/lucas/ Resource and Entertainment by FilmMakers Magazine]
*[http://www.insideskywalkerranch.com/ Inside Skywalker Ranch]
*[http://www.thankyougeorge.com/index?c1=ThnkYouGrg&source=wikipedia&kw=none A Tribute for 28 Years of Star Wars, Sign the Letter to George Lucas.]
*[http://www.afi.com/tvevents/laa/laa05.aspx/ AFI Life Achievement 2005]
*[http://www.droidmaker.com/biblio.htm The online bibliography section of "DROIDMAKER: George Lucas and the Digital Revolution"]
*[http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/luc0int-1 Interview with Lucas, including video and full biography at Achievement.org]
*[http://www.edutopia.org/magazine/ed1article.php?id=Art_1160&issue=sept_04 "Life On The Screen":] The filmmaker argues that students must learn a new language of image and sound in order to succeed from [[Edutopia]]
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.05/lucas.html?pg=1&topic=lucas&topic_set= "Life after Darth":] an in-depth look at George Lucas's artistic influences and future aspirations from [[Wired magazine|Wired]]
[[Category:1944 births|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Living people|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Adoptive parents|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:American film directors|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:American film producers|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Associate's degree holders|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Buddhists|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Diabetics|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:English Americans|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Forbes 400|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:German-Americans|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Methodists|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Movie moguls|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:People from California|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Star_Trek_fans|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Star Wars directors|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Star Wars-related people|Lucas, George]]
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[[Category:Worst Director Razzie Nominee|Lucas, George]]
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[[zh:乔治·卢卡斯]]</text>
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<title>Games</title>
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<title>Geologic Timescale</title>
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<username>Dragons flight</username>
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<title>Go</title>
<id>11860</id>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Cont |
ure to refer to this period.
The Camulod Chronicles by [[Jack Whyte]] is a historical fiction series based on Roman Britain and Medieval Britain wrapped around the Arthurian legends.
In the film ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'', Camelot is called a "silly place" by [[Graham Chapman|King Arthur]], and the [[Knights of the Round Table]] decide not to go there.
In the television show, ''[[Third Watch]]'', the precinct is nicknamed by the officers "Camelot" due to its location on the corner of King and Arthur.
The musical ''[[Camelot (musical)|Camelot]]'', by [[Alan Jay Lerner]] and [[Frederick Loewe]], is loosely based on the legend.
==See also==
*[[List of ancient mysteries]]
[[Category:Arthurian legend]]
[[Category:Ancient mysteries]]
[[Category:Lost cities and towns]]
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<title>Contras</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the word or name, see'' [[Contra (disambiguation)]]
The '''Contras''' (from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] term ''La Contra'', short for movement of the ''contrarrevolucionarios'', meaning counter-revolutionaries) were the armed opponents of [[Nicaragua]]'s [[Sandinista National Liberation Front|Sandinista]] [[Junta of National Reconstruction]] following the July [[1979]] overthrow of [[Anastasio Somoza Debayle]] and the ending of the Somoza family's 43-year rule. The label was commonly used by the US press to cover a range of groups opposed to the Sandinistas, with little in the way of ideological unity; thus some references use the uncapitalized form, '''contra''', which means against or counter in [[Spanish language|Spanish]].
The Contras were considered [[terrorism|terrorists]] by the Sandinistas, who alleged their attacks targeted civilians. The Contras, who initially received financial and other forms of support from the Argentine military regime and then U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], mounted raids which targeted northern Nicaragua, particularly coffee plantations and farming cooperatives. They received sympathy and support from Nicaraguan peasants opposed to the Sandinistas' [[nationalization]] of their land, formation of large farming co-ops, and mistreatment of dissenters; however, they were also opposed by Nicaraguans and [[human rights]] groups who viewed their tactics as brutal and indiscriminate. According to human rights group [[Americas Watch]], the Contras engaged in "violent abuses ... so prevalent that these may be said to be their principal means of waging war."
==History==
The earliest were MILPAS, peasant militias led by former Sandinista supporters. These militias were the majority of the first true Contra groups formed in [[1980]]-[[1981]] in [[Honduras]], Nicaragua's northern neighbour, allying in August 1981 as the [[Nicaraguan Democratic Force]] (''Fuerza Democrática Nicaragüense'', FDN) under the command of former [[Guardia Nacional (Nicaragua)|National Guard]] (army) colonel [[Enrique Bermudez|Enrique Bermúdez]] and [[Jaime Irving Steidel]] a [[Honduras|Honduran]]-born Field Commander, later replaced by Oscar Sobalvarro. A joint political directorate was created in February [[1983]] under businessman and anti-Sandinista politician [[Adolfo Calero]].
A second front in the war opened with the creation in [[Costa Rica]] in April [[1982]] of the [[Democratic Revolutionary Alliance]] (ARDE) and its armed wing, the Sandino Revolutionary Front (FRS), by [[Edén Pastora]] (''Comandante Cero''), former Sandinista hero of the August 1978 seizure of Somoza's palace. ARDE was formed by [[Sandinista]] dissidents and veterans of the anti-Somoza campaign who opposed the increased influence of [[Cuba]]n officials in the [[Managua]] regime. Proclaiming his ideological distance from the FDN, Pastora nevertheless styled his force the "southern front" in a common campaign.
A third anti-Sandinista force, [[Misurasata]], appeared among the [[Miskito]], [[Sumu]] and [[Rama]] [[Amerindian]] peoples of Nicaragua's Atlantic coast, who in December 1981 found themselves in conflict with the revolutionary authorities following what the [[Sandinista]] government later called an "ill-judged modernisation drive," and what the Miskitos themselves called [[genocide]]. In [[1983]] the Misurasata movement led by Brooklyn Rivera split, the breakaway [[Misura]] group of Stedman Fagoth allying itself more closely with the FDN.
The Misurasata did not consider the actions of the [[Sandinista]] government as just an "ill-judged modernisation drive", but an attempt to force the tribes to participate in the revolution. The Misurasata had a number of grievances against the [[Sandinista]] government including:
* Unilateral natural resource exploitation policies which denied Indians access to much of their traditional land base and severely restricted their subsistence activities
* The arrest, imprisonment and subsequent execution of the majority of the Misurasata leadership
* The military occupation, bombing, or deliberate destruction of over half of all Miskito and Sumu villages in the region, and the forced conscription of Indian youth into the Nicaraguan military
* Forced removal of at least 10,000 Indians from their traditional lands to relocation and re-education centers in the interior of the country, and subsequent burning of their villages
* Economic embargoes and blockades against native villages not sympathetic to the government
U.S. officials were also active in drawing the various Contra groups together in [[June 1985]] as the United Nicaraguan Opposition under the leadership of Calero, Arturo Cruz and Alfonso Robelo, all former members of the original Sandinista cadre: after its dissolution early in [[1987]], the Nicaraguan Resistance (RN) was organised along similar lines (May 1987). Splits within the rebel movement emerged with Pastora's defection (May 1984) and Misurasata's April 1985 accommodation with the Sandinista government: a subsequent autonomy statute (September 1987) largely defused Miskito resistance.
Mediation by other Central American governments under Costa Rican leadership led finally to the Sapoa ceasefire agreement of [[March 23]], [[1988]], which with additional agreements (February, August 1989) provided for the Contras' disarmament and re-integration into Nicaraguan society and politics, and internationally-monitored elections which were subsequently won ([[February 25]], [[1990]]) by an anti-Sandinista centre-right coalition.
Some Contra elements and disaffected Sandinistas returned briefly to armed opposition in the [[1990s]], sometimes calling themselves ''recontras'' or ''revueltos'', but these groups were subsequently persuaded to disarm again.
== U.S. military & financial assistance ==
''See also the [[Iran-Contra affair]]''
A key role in the development of the Contra alliance was played by the [[United States]] following [[Ronald Reagan]]'s assumption of the presidency in January [[1981]]. Reagan accused the [[Sandinista]]s of importing Cuban-style [[socialism]] and aiding [[FMLN|leftist guerrillas]] in [[El Salvador]]. On [[November 23]] of that year, Reagan signed the [[top secret]] National Security Decision Directive 17 (NSDD-17), giving the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] the authority to recruit and support the Contras with $19 million in military aid. The effort to support the Contras was one component of the so-called [[Reagan Doctrine]], championed by American [[conservative]]s, which called for providing U.S. military support to movements opposing [[Soviet Union|Soviet-supported]], communist-led governments.
In [[1984]] Nicaragua filed a suit in the [[International Court of Justice]] against the United States in [[Nicaragua v. United States]], which in [[1986]] resulted [http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/icases/inus/inus_isummaries/inus_isummary_19860627.htm] in a guilty verdict against the US, calling on it to "cease and to refrain" from the unlawful use of force against Nicaragua through placement of underwater mines by CIA operatives and training, funding and support of the guerrilla forces. The US was "in breach of its obligation under customary international law not to use force against another state" and was ordered to pay reparations (see note 1). The US response to this ruling was to dismiss the jurisdiction of the court, holding that its power did not supersede the Constitution, and escalate the war, besides pointing out that the court did not take in consideration the alleged role Nicaragua played as a [[Cold War]] proxy in a purported Soviet offensive.
After direct military aid was interrupted by the [[Boland Amendment]] (passed by the U.S. Congress in December 1982 and extended in October 1984 to forbid action by not only the Defense Department and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] but all U.S. government agencies), Administration officials sought to arrange funding and military supplies by means of third-parties, culminating in the [[Iran-Contra Affair]] of 1986-1987.
On [[February 3]], [[1988]] the [[United States House of Representatives]] rejected President [[Ronald Reagan]]'s request for $36.25 million to aid the Contras.
Senator [[John Kerry]]'s [[1988]] [[U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations]] report on Contra-drug links concluded that "senior U.S. policy makers were not immune to the idea that drug money was a perfect solution to the Contras' funding problems." [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB113/index.htm] According to the [[National Security Archive]], [[Oliver North]], a mai |
[[anti-Communism]] [[Contras]] fighting against [[Sandinistas]] in [[Nicaragua]].
===Methods of administration===
====Chewed/eaten====
The '''simplest''' way to administer cocaine is to chew on the leaves of the plant. Because of physical restrictions of this modality, only small amounts of cocaine make it into the [[bloodstream]] and the effect is that of a mild stimulant. ''Mate de coca'' or coca-leaf tea is also a traditional method of consumption and is often recommended to treat [[altitude sickness]].
In [[1986]] an article in the ''[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]'' revealed that health food stores were selling coca-leaf tea as “Health Inca Tea”. While the packaging claimed it had been “decocainized”, no such process had taken place—they were selling a controlled substance off the shelves. The article stated that drinking two cups of the tea per day gave a mild [[stimulation]], increased [[heart rate]], and [[Emotional mood|mood]] elevation, and the tea was essentially harmless. Despite this, the [[Drug Enforcement Agency|DEA]] seized several shipments in [[Hawaii]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], and several locations on the [[East Coast of the United States]], and the product was removed from the shelves.
====Insufflation====
[[Insufflation]] (known colloquially as “snorting” or “sniffing”) is the most common method of ingestion of recreational powder cocaine in the Western world. Contrary to widespread belief, cocaine is not actually inhaled using this method; rather the drug coats and is absorbed through the [[mucous membrane]]s lining the [[sinus]]es. When insufflating cocaine, absorption through the nasal membranes is approximately 80%. Any material not directly absorbed through the mucous membranes is collected in [[mucus]] and swallowed (this "drip" is considered pleasant by some and unpleasant by others). Chronic use results in ongoing [[rhinitis]] and [[necrosis]] of the nasal membranes. Cellulose [[granuloma]]s from adulterants have also been found in the lungs of recreational “sniffers”.
Prior to insufflation cocaine powder must be divided into very fine particles. Cocaine of high purity breaks into smallest dust very easily, except when it's moist (not well stored) and forms “chunks”, which reduce the efficiency of nasal absorption.
Rolled up [[currency|banknotes]], hollowed-out [[pen]]s, cut [[drinking straw|straw]]s and specialized [[spoon|spoons]] are often used to insufflate cocaine. Such devices are often referred to as 'tooters' by users. The cocaine typically is poured onto a flat, hard surface (such as a [[mirror]]) and divided into "lines" (usually with a [[razor blade]] or [[credit card]]) which are then insufflated. The amount of cocaine in a line varies widely from person to person and occasion to occasion (the purity of the cocaine is also a factor), but one line is generally considered to be a single dose.
Insufflating can cause coughs and nosebleeds.
====Injected====
The intravenous route of administration provides the highest blood levels of drug in the shortest time. It can get to the brain within 15 seconds. Injection of cocaine produces an exhilarating rush so intense that often the user may vomit uncontrollably, although the euphoria passes quickly as the liver rapidly metabolizes the drug. Aside from the toxic effects of cocaine, there is also danger of circulatory [[embolism|emboli]] from the insoluble substances that may be used to cut the drug. Obviously, there is also a risk of serious infection associated with the use of contaminated needles.
An injected mixture of cocaine and [[heroin]], known as “[[speedball (drug)|speedball]]” or “moonrock”, is a particularly popular and dangerous combination, as the converse effects of the drugs actually complement each other, but may also mask the symptoms of an overdose. It has been responsible for numerous deaths, particularly in and around [[Los Angeles]], including celebrities such as [[John Belushi]], [[Chris Farley]] and [[Layne Staley]]. Experimentally, cocaine injections can be delivered to animals such as fruit flies [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15262059&query_hl=21] to study the mechanisms of cocaine addiction.
====Smoked====
[[Image:Leslie-crack.jpg|thumb|250px|A woman smoking crack from a glass pipe]]
''(see also: [[Cocaine#Crack cocaine|Crack cocaine]] above)''
Smoking freebase or crack cocaine is most often accomplished using a pipe made from a small glass tube about one quarter-inch (about 6&nbsp;mm) in diameter and up to several inches long. These are sometimes called "straight shooters"; readily available in convenience stores or smoke shops. They will sometimes contain a small paper flower and are promoted as a romantic gift. Buyers usually ask for a "rose" or a "flower". An alternate method is to use a small length of a radio antenna or similar metal tube. To avoid burning the user’s fingers and lips on the metal pipe, a small piece of paper or cardboard (such as a piece torn from a matchbook cover) is wrapped around one end of the pipe and held in place with either a rubber band or a piece of adhesive tape.
A small piece of steel or copper scouring pad — often called a [[Brillo Pad|"brillo"]] or [[Chore Boy|"chore"]], from the scouring pads of the same name — is placed into one end of the tube after having the [[soap]]y cleanser coating burned off the metal. It then serves as a crude filter in which the "rock" can melt and boil to vapor. The use of steel wool also acts as a reducing agent, preventing the oxidisation of the cocaine.
The "rock" is placed at the end of the pipe closest to the filter and the other end of the pipe is placed in the mouth. A flame from a cigarette lighter or handheld torch is then held under the rock. As the rock is heated, it melts and burns away to vapor which the user inhales as smoke.
The effects are felt almost immediately after smoking, are very intense, and do not last long &mdash; usually five to fifteen minutes. Most users will want more after this time, especially frequent users. "Crack houses" depend on these cravings by providing users a place to smoke, and a ready supply of small bags for sale.
A heavily used [[crackpipe]] tends to fracture at the end from overheating with the flame used to heat the crack as the user obsessively attempts to inhale every bit of the drug on the metal wool filter. The end is often broken further as the user "pushes" the pipe. "Pushing" is a technique used to partially recover crack which hardens on the inside wall of the pipe as the pipe cools. The user pushes the metal wool filter through the pipe from one end to the other to collect the build-up inside the pipe. The ends of the pipe can be broken by the object used to push the filter, frequently a small screwdriver or stiff piece of wire. The user will often remove the most jagged edges and continue using the pipe until it becomes so short that it burns the lips and fingers. To continue using the pipe, the user will sometimes wrap a small piece of paper or cardboard around one end and hold it in place with a rubber band or adhesive tape. Of course, not all people who smoke crack cocaine will let it get that short, and will get a new or different pipe. The tell-tale signs of a used crack pipe are a glass tube with burn marks at one or both ends and a clump of metal wool inside.
When smoked, cocaine is sometimes combined with other drugs, such as [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]]; often rolled into a joint or [[Blunt (drug culture)|blunt]]. This combination is known as “[[primo]]”, “hype”, B-151er, "a cocoapuff", "a dirty" or a “woo”. Crack smokers who are being drug tested may also make their “primo” with cigarette tobacco instead of cannabis, since a crack smoker can test clean within 2 to 3 days of use, if only urine (and not hair) is being tested.
===Mechanism of action===
Once cocaine is introduced into the bloodstream its acute clinical effects can be observed once the drug crosses the [[blood-brain barrier]]. This process can occur within seconds following administration, but can also last upwards of a half an hour. The delay in the onset of effects is largely determined by the method of administration.
The primary mechanism of cocaine within the central nervous system is the blockage of the [[monoamine transporter|dopamine transporter]] (DAT). DAT is a protein that functions as a "clean-up" mechanism for the [[neurotransmitter]] [[dopamine]] once it is no longer needed for inter-cell signalling. The extra dopamine within the synaptic cleft binds to the DAT and is then carried back to the pre-synaptic neuron for repackaging and re-release at a future date. Because cocaine's chemical structure allows it to bind to the DAT it interferes with this re-uptake process.
The [[ventral tegmental area]] (VTA), the [[nucleus accumbens]] and the prefrontal cortex are regions of the brain that are rich with dopamine receptors and dopamine-releasing neurons. Hence they are often the focus of research into the addictive and rewarding properties of cocaine use.
Cocaine is also a less potent blocker of the [[monoamine transporter|norepinephrine transporter]] (NET) and [[serotonin transporter]] (SERT). Cocaine also blocks [[ion channel|sodium channels]], thereby interfering with the propagation of [[action potential]]s; thus, like [[lidocaine]] and [[novocaine]], it acts as a local anesthetic. The locomotor enhancing properties of cocaine may be attributable to its enhancement of dopaminergic transmission from the [[substantia nigra]]. Recent research points to an important role of circadian mechanisms [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract& |
rmodynamic properties|Thermodynamic data]]
| Phase behaviour<br>Solid, liquid, gas
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Spectral data|Spectral data]]
| [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Related compounds
|-
| Related compounds
| [[Carbon]]<br/>[[Methane]]<br/>[[Carbon dioxide]]
|-
| {{chembox header}} | <small>Except where noted otherwise, data are given for<br> materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25&deg;C, 100 kPa)]]<br/>[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]</small>
|-
|}
'''Carbon monoxide''', chemical formula CO, is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, flammable and highly toxic [[gas]]. It is a major product of the incomplete [[combustion]] of [[carbon]] and carbon-containing compounds. It is less dense than [[Earth's atmosphere|air]] under ordinary conditions, however it accumulates on the ground, meaning that if poisoning causes loss of consciousness the amount of carbon monoxide inhaled increases and so fatality is radically increased. It is very slightly soluble in [[water]] and burns in air with a characteristic blue flame, producing [[carbon dioxide]]; it is a component of producer gas and [[water gas]], which are widely used artificial fuels. It is a reducing agent, removing [[oxygen]] from many compounds and is used in the reduction of metals, e.g., [[iron]] , from their ores. At high pressures and elevated temperatures it reacts with [[hydrogen]] in the presence of a [[catalyst]] to form [[methanol]]. Carbon monoxide is formed by combustion of carbon in oxygen at high temperatures when there is an excess of carbon. It is also formed with a byproduct oxygen by decomposition of carbon dioxide at very high temperatures (above 2,000 °C). It is present in the exhaust of [[internal-combustion engine]]s, often the exhaust of [[automobile]]s, and is generated in coal stoves, furnaces, and gas appliances that do not get enough air. This may be due to insufficient [[ventilation]] or other reasons.
==Polluting effect==
Carbon monoxide from automobile and industrial emissions is a dangerous pollutant that may contribute to the [[greenhouse effect]] and global warming. In urban areas carbon monoxide, along with [[aldehydes]], reacts photochemically to produce [[peroxy radicals]]. Peroxy radicals react with [[nitrogen oxide]] to increase the ratio of NO<sub>2</sub> to NO, which reduces the quantity of NO that is available to react with [[ozone]]. Carbon monoxide is also a constituent of tobacco smoke.
==Toxicity==
{{main|Carbon monoxide poisoning}}
Carbon monoxide is dangerous and life-threatening to [[human]]s and other forms of air-breathing [[life]], as inhaling even relatively small amounts of it can lead to hypoxic injury, neurological damage, and possibly death. A concentration of as little as 0.04% (400 parts per million) carbon monoxide in the air can be fatal. The gas is especially dangerous because it is not easily detected by human senses. Early symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning include drowsiness and headache, followed by unconsciousness, respiratory failure, and death. First aid for a victim of carbon monoxide poisoning requires access to fresh air; administration of artificial respiration and, if available, oxygen; and, as soon as possible, medical attention.
When carbon monoxide is inhaled, it takes the place of oxygen in [[hemoglobin]], the red blood pigment that normally carries oxygen to all parts of the body. Because carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin several hundred times as strongly as does oxygen, its effects are cumulative and long-lasting, causing [[oxygen starvation]] throughout the body. Prolonged exposure to fresh air (or pure oxygen) is required for the CO-tainted hemoglobin ([[carboxyhemoglobin]]) to clear.
The effects of carbon monoxide in parts per million are listed below:
:100 ppm (0.01%) Slight headache in two to three hours
:200 ppm (0.02%) Slight headache within two to three hours
:400 ppm (0.04%) Frontal headache within one to two hours
:800 ppm (0.08%) Dizziness, nausea, and convulsions within 45 minutes. Insensible within two hours.
:1,600 ppm (0.16%) Headache, dizziness, and nausea within 20 minutes. Death in less than two hours.
:3,200 ppm (0.32%) Headache, dizziness and nausea in five to ten minutes. Death within 30 minutes.
:6,400 ppm (0.64%) Headache and dizziness in one to two minutes. Death in less than 20 minutes.
:12,800 ppm (1.28%) Death in less than three minutes.
In addition, a recent report concludes that carbon monoxide exposure can lead to significant loss of [[lifespan]] after exposure due to damage to the [[heart muscle]]. [http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/short/295/4/398]
Carbon monoxide detectors for homes are now readily available and are increasingly being required by municipal building codes.
== History ==
Carbon monoxide was first prepared by the [[France|French]] [[chemist]] de Lassone in [[1776]] by heating [[zinc]] oxide with [[Coke (fuel)|coke]] but thought it to be [[hydrogen]] by mistake as it burned with a [[blue]] [[flame]]. It was identified as a compound containing [[carbon]] and [[oxygen]] by the English chemist [[William Cruikshank]] in the year [[1800]].
The toxic properties of CO were first thoroughly investigated by the French physiologist [[Claude Bernard]] around [[1846]]. He poisoned dogs with the gas, and noticed that their blood was more ''rutilant'' in all the vessels. 'Rutilant' is a French word, but also has an entry in English dictionaries, meaning ruddy, shimmering, or golden. However, it was translated at the time as crimson, scarlet, and now is famously known as 'cherry pink'.
During [[World War Two]], carbon monoxide was used to keep [[motor vehicle]]s running in parts of the world where [[gasoline]] was scarce. External charcoal or wood burners were fitted, and the carbon monoxide produced by [[gasification]] was piped to the [[carburetor]]. The CO in this case is known as "producer gas".
==Chemistry==
The structure of the CO molecule is best described using [[molecular orbital]] theory. The length of the [[chemical bond|bond]] (0.111 [[nanometre|nm]]) indicates that it has a partial triple bond character. The molecule has a small [[dipole moment]] and is often represented by three resonance structures:
:[[image:Carbon_Monoxide.png|300px]]
Note that the [[octet rule]] is violated for the carbon atom in the two structures on the right.
Nitrogen is isoelectronic to carbon monoxide, which means it has the same electron configuration. This leads to some similarities in physical and chemical behavior.
Many other metals may form complexes containing covalently attached carbon monoxide, although many are not made directly from CO. For instance, boiling [[ruthenium]] trichloride with [[triphenyl phosphine]] in methoxyethanol (or DMF) gives [RuHCl(CO)(PPh<SUB>3</SUB>)<SUB>3</SUB>]. [[Nickel carbonyl]] is special as it form by the direct combination of carbon monoxide and [[nickel]] metal at room temperature. [[Nickel carbonyl]] decomposes readily back to Ni and CO upon contact with hot surfaces, and this method was once used for the industrial purification of nickel.
As in nickel carbonyl and other carbonyls, the electron pair on the carbon interacts - or in lab jargon - is donated to the metal. In this case carbon monoxide is regarded as a '''carbonyl''' [[ligand]].
Carbon monoxide and [[methanol]] react in the presence of a homogeneous [[rhodium]] [[catalyst]] and HI to give [[acetic acid]] in the [[Monsanto process]], which is responsible for most of the industrial production of [[acetic acid]].
The [[CAS registry number]] of carbon monoxide is 630-08-0.
== Carbon monoxide in the atmosphere ==
[[Image:Mopitt first year carbon monoxide.jpg|thumb|240px|[[MOPITT]] [[2000]] global [[carbon monoxide]] ]]
Carbon monoxide, though thought of as a pollutant today, has always been present in the atmosphere, chiefly as a product of [[volcano|volcanic activity]]. It occurs dissolved in molten volcanic rock at high [[pressure]]s in the earth's [[mantle (geology)|mantle]]. Carbon monoxide contents of volcanic gases vary from less than 0.01 % to as much as 2 % depending on the volcano. It also occurs naturally in [[bushfire]]s. Because natural sources of carbon monoxide are so variable from year to year, it is extremely difficult to accurately measure natural emissions of the gas.
Carbon monoxide has an indirect radiative forcing effect by elevating concentrations of [[methane]] and [[troposphere|tropospheric]] [[ozone]] through chemical reactions with other atmospheric constituents (e.g., the [[hydroxyl radical]], '''OH''') that would otherwise destroy them. Carbon monoxide is created when carbon-containing fuels are burned incompletely. Through natural processes in the atmosphere, it is eventually oxidized to [[carbon dioxide]]. Carbon monoxide concentrations are both short-lived in the atmosphere and spatially variable.
== See also ==
* [[Carbon monoxide (data page)]]
==External links==
*{{ecb}}
*[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc00/icsc0023.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0023]
*[http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/19.html National Pollutant Inventory - Carbon Monoxide]
*[http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0105.html NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]
*{{PubChemLink|281}}
*[http://www.epa.gov/ebtpages/airairpocarbonmonoxide.html United States Environmental Protection Agency Carbon Monoxide page]
[[Category:Oxides]]
[[Category:Inorganic carbon compounds]]
[[Category:Pollutants]]
[[Category:Smog]]
[[Category:Toxicology]]
[[Category:Gases]]
[[ar:أول أكسيد الكربون]]
[[ca:Monòxid de carboni]]
[[cs:Oxid uhelnatý]]
[[da:Kulmonoxid]]
[[de:Kohlenstoffmonooxid]]
[[es:Monóxido de carbono]]
[[e |
on and members use the suffix RAIA after their name.
==Famous architects==
The architects in the [[List of architects|list of famous architects]] are in chronological order of when they did their most important work (or emerged), and alphabetized within each time period.
==Notable Schools of Architecture==
*[[Architectural Association School of Architecture]], [[London]]
*The Bartlett School of Architecture [http://www.bartlett.ucl.ac.uk/architecture/programmes/bsc.htm], Faculty of the Built Environment (London, UK)
*[[Berlage Institute]] [http://www.berlage-institute.nl/], [[Rotterdam]]
*[[Bauhaus]]: [[Weimar, Germany|Weimar]], [[Dessau]], and [[Berlin]]
*[[Columbia University]] [http://www.columbia.edu/], Grad. School of Architecture Planning and Preservation ([[GSAPP]]) [http://www.arch.columbia.edu/]
*The School of Art, Architecture and Planning [http://www.architecture.cornell.edu/] at [[Cornell University]] in Ithaca, New York
*[[Dalhousie University]] (TUNS) School of Architecture [http://architectureandplanning.dal.ca/architecture/index.shtml] in Halifax, NS, Canada
*[[École Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Versailles]], [[Versailles]], [[France]] [http://www.versailles.archi.fr]
*[http://www.arch.ethz.ch/ ETH Zurich], [[Switzerland]]
*[[Glasgow School of Art]], [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]]
*[[Harvard Graduate School of Design]]
* University Institute of Architecture, [[Venice]], Italy
* The School of Architecture[http://www.mcgill.ca/architecture/] at [[McGill University]]
*[http://www.design.upenn.edu/index.php Penn Design] at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]]
*[[Politecnico di Milano]], [[Milan]], Italy
*[[Rhode Island School of Design]] [http://www.risd.edu/]
*[[Rural Studio]] [http://www.ruralstudio.org], of [[Auburn University]], [[Alabama]]
*[http://arch.rwth-aachen.de/ RWTH Aachen], [[Germany]]
*[[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]] College of Environmental Design
*[[University of Texas at Austin]] School of Architecture
*[[University of Washington]] [[College of Architecture and Urban Planning]]
*[http://www.architecture.uwaterloo.ca/ School of Architecture] at the [[University of Waterloo]], Canada
*[http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/archi/ Welsh School of Architecture], [[Cardiff University]], [[Cardiff]], [[UK]]
*[[Yale University|Yale]] School of Architecture [http://www.architecture.yale.edu/] in New Haven, Connecticut
*[[CCNY]] School of Architecture [http://www1.ccny.cuny.edu/prospective/architecture/] in New York City
==See also==
*[[Architecture]]
*[[Architectural Designer]]
*[[Architectural technologists]]
*[[Building design]]
*[[Civil engineer]]
*[[Civil engineering]]
*[[Clerk of the Works]]
*[[Landscape architect]]
*[[Landscape architecture]]
*[[Naval architect]]
*[[Project manager|Project Manager]] (PM)
*[[Project Architect]] (PA)
*[[Regional planning]]
*[[Structural engineer]]
*[[Structural engineering]]
*[[Urban planning]]
*[[Urban planner]]
*[[Vernacular Architecture]]
==External links==
*[http://www.riba.org/ Royal Institute of British Architects] - Professional association for architects in the United Kingdom
*[http://www.raic.org/ Royal Architectural Institute of Canada] - Professional association for architects in Canada
*[http://www.aia.org/ American Institute of Architects] - Professional association for architects in the United States
*[http://www.ncarb.org/ National Council of Architectural Registration Boards] - Administers professional registration testing in the United States
*[http://www.naab.org/ National Architectural Accrediting Board] - Professional degree programs in architecture schools in the United States
*[http://www.architecture.com.au Royal Australian Institute of Architects] - Professional association for architects in Australia
*[http://architect.architecture.sk/ Famous architects] Biographies of well-known architects, almost all of the Modern Movement.
[[Category:Architects| ]]
[[Category:Architecture and engineering occupations]]
[[Category:Professions|Architect]]
[[Category:Professional certification]]
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[[fr:Architecte]]
[[he:אדריכל]]
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[[it:Architetto]]
[[nl:Architect]]
[[ja:建築家]]
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[[uk:Архітектор]]
[[zh:建筑师]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Abbreviation</title>
<id>1171</id>
<revision>
<id>42059270</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:54:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Manop</username>
<id>292857</id>
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<minor />
<comment>adding th</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Apocopation}}
'''Abbreviation''' (from [[Latin]] ''brevis'' "short") is strictly a shorter form of a word, but more particularly, an ''abbreviation'' is a letter or group of letters, taken from a word or words, and employed to represent them for the sake of brevity. For example, the word "abbreviation" can be abbreviated as "abbr." or "abbrev."
== Types of abbreviations ==
Apart from the common form of shortening one word, there are other types of abbreviations. These include [[acronym and initialism]] (including [[TLA]]),
[[apocopation]] (that is, apocope), [[clipping (phonetics)]], [[elision]], [[syncope]], syllabic abbreviation, [[portmanteau]].
=== Syllabic abbreviation ===
A syllabic abbreviation (SA) is an abbreviation formed from (usually) initial [[syllable]]s of several [[Word (linguistics)|word]]s, such as ''[[Interpol]]'' for '''''Inter'''national '''pol'''ice''.
SAs are usually written in [[lower case]], sometimes starting with a [[capital letter]], and are always [[pronunciation|pronounced]] as words rather than letter by letter.
SAs should be distinguished from [[portmanteau]]x.
==== Use in different languages ====
Syllabic abbreviations are not widely used in [[English language|English]] or [[French language|French]], but are common in [[German language|German]].
They prevailed in [[Nazi Germany|Germany under the Nazis]] and in the [[Soviet Union]] for naming the plethora of new bureaucratic organizations. For example, ''[[Gestapo]]'' stands for '''''Ge'''heime '''Sta'''ats-'''Po'''lizei'', or "secret state police". This has given SAs a negative connotation, even though SAs were used in Germany before the Nazis, e.g., ''[[:de:Schupo|Schupo]]'' for ''Schutzpolizei''. Even now Germans call part of their police ''[[Kripo]]'' for ''Kriminalpolizei''. SAs were also typical of German language used in the [[German Democratic Republic]], e.g. ''[[Stasi]]'' for ''Staatssicherheit'' ("state security", the secret police) or ''Vopo'' for ''Volkspolizist'' ("people's policeman").
[[East Asia]]n languages whose writing uses [[Chinese language|Chinese]]-originated [[ideogram]]s instead of an alphabet form abbreviations similarly by using key [[Chinese character|character]]s from a term or phrase. For example, in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] the term for the [[United Nations]], ''kokusai reng&#333;'' (&#22269;&#38555;&#36899;&#21512;) is often abbreviated to ''kokuren'' (&#22269;&#36899;). Another classic example is ''[[shogun]]''. Such abbreviations are called [[:ja:&#30053;&#35486;|ryakugo]] (&#30053;&#35486;) in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. SAs are frequently used for names of universities: for instance, ''Beida'' (北大, Běidà) for [[Peking University]] ([[Beijing]]) and '''Tōdai'' (東大) for the [[University of Tokyo]].
==== Usage of syllabic abbreviations in organisations ====
Syllabic abbreviations are preferred by the US [[Navy]] as it increases readability amidst the large number of [[initialism]]s that would otherwise have to fit into the same [[acronym]]s. Hence ''[[DESRON]] 6'' is used (in the full capital form) to mean "Destroyer Squadron 6," while ''[[COMNAVFORLANT]]'' would be "Commander, Naval Force (in the) Atlantic."
==Style conventions==
In [[modern English]] there are several conventions for abbreviations and the choice may be confusing. The only rule universally accepted is that one should be ''consistent,'' and to this end publishers express their preferences in a [[style guide]].
Questions which arise include the following:
* Use of upper or lower case letters. If the original word was capitalised, then the first letter of its abbreviation should retain the capital, for example Lev. for Leviticus. When abbreviating words spelled with lower case letters, there is no consistent rule.
* Use of periods (full stops) and spaces, for example when abbreviating United States, should one write "US", "U.S." or "U.&nbsp;S."? Spaces are generally not used between single letter abbreviations of words in the same phrase, so one almost never encounters "U.&nbsp;S.". In [[American English]], the period is usually added if the abbreviation may be interpreted as a word, though some American writers do not use a period here. There is no stop/period between letters of the same word, for example St. and not S.t. for Saint. While users of [[British English]] often abbreviate in the same manner, it is more common in formal writing that abbreviations are written with full stops if the word has been cut at the point of abbreviation (''e.g.,'' "Street" &ndash; "St[reet]" &ndash; becomes "St."), but not otherwise (''e.g.,'' "Saint" &ndash; "S[ain]t" &ndash; becomes "St"); a third standard removes the full stops from all abbreviations (''e.g.,'' both "Saint" and "Street" become "St"). Thus in the [[United Kingdom]], titles such as "Doctor", "Mister" and "Mis'ess" are commonly abbreviated as "Dr", "Mr", a |
s the Coriolis force to be displayed in isolation.
Discs cut from cylinders of [[dry ice]] can be used as pucks, moving around almost frictionlessly over the surface of the parabolic turntable, allowing effects of Coriolis on dynamic phenomena to show themselves. To get a view of the motions as seen from a rotating point of view, a video-camera is attached to the turntable in such a way that the camera is co-rotating with the turntable.
When the fluid is rotating on a flat turntable, the surface of the fluid naturally assumes the correct [[parabola|parabolic]] shape. This fact may be exploited in order to make a parabolic turntable, by using a fluid that sets after several hours, such as a synthetic [[resin]].
== Coriolis in Meteorology ==
Perhaps the most important instance of the Coriolis effect is in the large scale dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere. In meteorology, Coriolis effects tend to dominate centrifugal effects, because the latter is usually balanced by an ambient pressure gradient (exactly analogously to the slope on a parabolic turntable).
=== Flow around a low-pressure area ===
[[image:Coriolis_effect10.png|frame|right|Schematic representation of flow around a low-pressure area in the Northern hemisphere. The pressure gradient force is represented by blue arrows, the Coriolis acceleration (always perpendicular to the velocity) by red arrows]]
If a low pressure area forms in the atmosphere, air will tend to flow in towards it, but will be deflected perpendicular to its velocity by the Coriolis acceleration. A system of equilibrium can then establish itself creating circular movement, or a cyclonic flow.
The force balance is largely between the [[pressure gradient force]] acting towards the low-pressure area and the Coriolis acceleration acting away from the center of the low pressure. Instead of flowing down the gradient, the air tends to flow perpendicular to the air-pressure gradient and forms a cyclonic flow. This is an example of a more general case of [[geostrophic flow]] in which air flows along [[isobar]]s. On a non-rotating planet the air would flow along the straightest possible line, quickly leveling the air pressure. Note that the force balance is thus very different from the case of "inertial circles" (see below) which explains why mid-latitude cycles are larger by an order of magnitude than inertial circle flow would be.
This pattern of deflection, and the direction of movement, is called [[Buys-Ballot's law]]. The pattern of flow is called a [[cyclone]]. In the Northern Hemisphere the direction of movement around a low-pressure area is counterclockwise. In the Southern Hemisphere, the direction of movement is clockwise because the rotational dynamics is a mirror image there. Cyclones cannot form on the equator, and they rarely travel towards the equator, because in the equatorial region the coriolis parameter is small, and exactly zero on the equator.
=== Inertial circles ===
[[Image:Coriolis_effect14.png|frame|right|Schematic representation. Inertial circles of air masses in the absence of other forces, calculated for a wind speed of approximately 50 to 70 m/s.]]
An air or water mass subject moving with speed ''v'' subject only to Coriolis, the force bends the path and constrains the particle to travel in a circular trajectory called an 'inertial circle'. Since the force is directed at right angles to the motion of the particle, it will move with a constant speed, and perform a complete circle with frequency ''f''. The magnitude of the Coriolis force also determines the radius of this circle:
: <math>v/f\,</math>.
On the Earth, a typical mid-latitude value for ''f'' is 10<sup>&minus;4</sup>; hence for a typical atmospheric speed of 10 m/s the radius is 100 km, with a period of about 14 hours. In the ocean, where a typical speed is closer to 10cm/s, the radius of an inertial circle is 1km. These inertial circles are clockwise in the northern hemisphere (where trajectories are bent to the right) and anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
If the rotating system is a parabolic turntable, then <math>f</math> is constant and the trajectories are exact circles. On a rotating planet, <math>f</math> varies with latitude and the paths of particles do not form exact circles. Since the parameter ''f'' varies as <math>\sin(latitude)</math>, the oscillations are smallest at the poles (latitude = <math>\pm 90^\circ</math>), and would increase indefinitely at the equator, except the dynamics ceases to apply close to the equator.
The dynamics of inertial circles are essentially different to mid-latitude [[cyclone]]s. In the latter case, the Coriolis force (directed out) is in an approximate balance with the [[pressure gradient force]] (directed inwards), a situation known as [[geostrophic balance]]. In particular, cyclones rotate in the opposite direction to inertial circles.
=== Draining bathtubs/toilets ===
A popular misconception is that the Coriolis effect determines the direction in which bathtubs or toilets drain, and whether water always drains in one direction in the Northern Hemisphere, and in the other direction in the Southern Hemisphere. The Coriolis effect is a few orders of magnitude smaller than other random influences on drain direction, such as the geometry of the sink, toilet, or tub; whether it is flat or tilted; and the direction in which water was initially added to it. If one takes great care to create a flat circular pool of water with a small, smooth drain; to wait for eddies caused by filling it to die down; and to remove the drain from below (or otherwise remove it without introducing new eddies into the water) &ndash; then it is possible to observe the influence of the Coriolis effect in the direction of the resulting vortex. There is a good deal of misunderstanding on this point, as most people (including many scientists) do not realize how small the Coriolis effect is on small systems.{{fn|1}} This is less of a puzzle once one remembers that the earth revolves once per day but that a bathtub takes only minutes to drain. When the water is being drawn towards the plughole, the radius with which it is spinning around it decreases, so its rate of rotation increases from the low background level to a noticeable spin in order to [[Conservation_of_angular_momentum|conserve its angular momentum]] (the same effect as bringing one's arms in on a swivel chair making it spin faster).
=== Length scales and the [[Rossby number|Rossby Number]] ===
The time, space and velocity scales are important in determining the importance of the Coriolis effect. Whether rotation is important in a system can be determined by its [[Rossby number]], which is the ratio of the velocity of a system to the product of the Coriolis parameter, and the lengthscale of the motion:
:<math>Ro = \frac{U}{fL}</math>.
A small Rossby number signifies a system which is strongly affected by rotation, and a large Rossby number signifies a system in which rotation is unimportant.
An atmospheric system moving at ''U = 10''m/s occupying a spatial distance of ''L=1000''km, has a Rossby number
:<math>Ro = \frac{10}{10^{-4}\times 1000\times10^3} = 0.1</math>
A man playing catch may throw the ball at ''U=30''m/s in a garden of length ''L=50''m. The Rossby number in this case would be
:<math>Ro = \frac{30}{10^{-4}\times 50} = 6000</math>.
Needless to say, one does not worry about which hemisphere one is in when playing catch in the garden. However, an unguided missile obeys exactly the same physics as a baseball, but may travel far enough and be in the air long enough to notice the effect of Coriolis. Long range shells landed close to, but to the right of where they were aimed until this was noted (or left if they were fired in the southern hemisphere, though most were not).
The Rossby number can also tell us about the bathtub. If the lengthscale of the tub is about ''L=1''m, and the water moves towards the drain at about ''60''cm/s, then the Rossby number is
:<math>Ro = \frac{0.6}{10^{-4}\times 1} = 6 000</math>.
Thus, the bathtub is, in terms of scales, much like a game of catch, and rotation is likely to be unimportant.
However, if the experiment is very carefully controlled to remove all other forces from the system, rotation can play a role in bathtub dynamics. An article in the British "Journal of Fluid Mechanics" in the 1930's describes this. The key is to put a few drops of ink into the bathtub water, and observing when the ink stops swirling, meaning the viscosity of the water has dissipated its initial vorticity (or curl; i.e. <math>\nabla \times U = 0</math>) then, if the plug is extracted ever so slowly so as not to introduce any additional vorticity, then the tub will empty with a counterclockwise swirl in England.
=== Terrestrial effects summarized ===
A summary of Coriolis effects on the Earth's surface. Note that some of these assume that we are considering a "2-d" velocity, in the plane tangential to the planets surface (if this restriction is removed, the latitude dependence of the strength of the Coriolis effect disappears).
* the magnitude of the Coriolis effect changes with the latitude and the speed of the air.
* the Coriolis effect is greatest in polar regions where the surface of the Earth is at right angles to the axis of rotation.
* the Coriolis effect decreases nearer the equator because the surface of the Earth is parallel to the axis of rotation.
* the Coriolis effect causes air masses to turn right in the northern hemisphere and causes air masses to turn left in the southern hemisphere.
* the Coriolis effect gives rise to geostrophic winds.
* a geostropic wind is a wind that occurs when the pressure exerted on the air by the pressure gradient is equal to the opposing C |
thin them, responsible for certain kinds of acts. For example, in the United States corporations can be fined for violating pollution laws, but the individuals who actually ordered and directed the polluting activity may not themselves be regarded as having broken any laws, since they act as corporate officers on behalf of the shareholders.
This is generally known as the "[[Piercing the corporate veil|corporate veil]]".
==Cultural views of guilt==
Traditional [[Japanese society]] and [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek society]] are sometimes said to be "[[shame]]-based" rather than "guilt-based" in that the social consequences of "getting caught" are seen as more important than the individual feelings or experiences of the agent. This may lead to more of a focus on [[etiquette]] than [[ethics]] as understood in Western civilization. This leads some to question why then we would adapt the word ''[[ethos]]'' from [[Ancient Greek]] when their norms are so different from ours. ''A [[m:Simple View of Ethics and Morals|meta-wikipedia article]] asks this.''
[[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] inherit most notions of guilt from [[Judaism]], [[Ancient Persia|Persia]]n and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] ideas, mostly as interpreted through [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] who adapted [[Plato]]'s ideas to Christianity. The [[Latin]] word for guilt is '''culpa''', a word sometimes seen in law literature, e.g. in "mea culpa", "I take [[responsibility]]". The Latin word for [[authority]] assumes a high degree of responsibility, the English word "[[province]]" being a close equivalent.
===Guilt in literature===
Guilt was a main theme in [[John Steinbeck]]'s ''[[East of Eden]]'', [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]]'s ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'', Tennessee Williams' ''[[A Streetcar Named Desire]],'' [[William Shakespeare]]'s play [[Macbeth]], and many other works of literature. It is a nearly universal concern of novelists, who explore inner [[life]] and [[secret]]s.
==Dealing with guilt==
Guilt can sometimes be remedied by [[punishment]] (a common action and advised or required in many [[legal code|legal]] and moral codes), by [[forgiveness]] (as in [[transformative justice]]), or by sincere [[remorse]] (as with [[confession]] in [[Catholicism]] or [[restorative justice]]). Law does not usually accept the agent's [[self-punishment]], but some ancient codes did so: in [[Athens]] the [[accused]] was permitted to propose his or her own remedy, which might in fact be a [[reward]], while the [[accuser]] proposed another, and the [[jury]] chose between. This forced the accused to effectively bet on his support in the community - as [[Socrates]] did when he proposed "room and board in the town hall" as his fate. He lost, and drank [[conium|hemlock]], a [[poison]], as advised by his accuser. Some people argue that if you feel remorse, or a desire for remorse, then you are showing you are better than your act.
==People lacking all sense of guilt==
[[Antisocial personality disorder|Psychopaths]] typically exhibit a "lack of remorse or guilt" in the face of wrongdoing. This is part of their deficient moral reasoning and inability to develop emotional bonds with other people.
==See also==
* [[Catholic guilt]]
* [[good faith]]
* [[helpfulness]]
* [[shame]]
* [[survivor guilt]]
* [[Fear]]
* [[Freud]]
* [[Nietzsche]]'s critics of the "bad consciousness"
==External links==
*[http://www.freedomsnest.com/cgi-bin/q.cgi?subject=guilt Quotes on guilt]
*[http://www.kanaan.org/israel1.htm The Guilt of Christianity Towards the Jewish People]
*[http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/guilt.html A Buddhist View on Guilt]
[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]
[[Category:Emotion]]
[[Category:Social psychology]]
[[de:Schuld]]
[[fr:Culpabilité]]
[[io:Kulpozeso]]
[[sv:Skuld (moral)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gold</title>
<id>12240</id>
<revision>
<id>42113579</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:33:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bassace969</username>
<id>969611</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
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{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=3129 | c=2856 | f=5173 }}
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{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 324 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 25.418 }}
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{{Elementbox_oxistates | '''3''', 1<br />([[amphoteric]] oxide) }}
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{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies2 | 890.1 | 1980 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|135]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|174]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|144]] }}
{{Elementbox_vanderwaalsrad_pm | [[1 E-10 m|166]] }}
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{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsatrt | (hard-drawn)<br />2030 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 78 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 27 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 220 }}
{{Elementbox_poissonratio | 0.44 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 2.5 }}
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{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-57-5 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=gold | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=195 | sym=Au
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| dm2=[[beta emission|&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] | de2=0.686 | pn2=196 | ps2=[[mercury (element)|Hg]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=197 | sym=Au | na=100% | n=118 }}
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'''Gold''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Au''' (from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''aurum'') and [[atomic number]] 79. A soft, shiny, yellow, dense, malleable, ductile (trivalent and univalent) [[transition metal]], gold does not react with most chemicals but is attacked by [[chlorine]], [[fluorine]] and [[aqua regia]]. The metal occurs as [[gold nugget|nuggets]] or grains in rocks and in [[alluvial deposit]]s and is one of the [[coinage metal]]s.
For millennia, gold has served as money and is also used in [[jewelry]], [[dentistry]], and in [[electronics]]. Gold forms the basis for a [[Gold standard|monetary standard]] used by the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and the [[Bank for International Settlements]] (BIS). Its [[ISO 4217|ISO currency code]] is '''XAU'''.
==Notable characteristics==
Gold is a metallic element with a characteristic [[yellow]] color, but can also be [[black]] or [[ruby]] when finely divided, while [[colloid]]al solutions are intensely colored and often [[purple]]. These colors are the result of gold's [[plasmon frequency]] lying in the visible range, which causes red and yellow light to be reflected, and blue light to be absorbed. Only silver colloids exhibit the same interactions with light, albeit at a shorter frequency, making silver colloids yellow in color.
It is the most [[malleable]] and [[ductility|ductile]] [[metal]] known; a single [[gram]] can be beaten into a sheet of one [[square metre]], or an [[ounce]] into 300 [[square foot|square feet]]. A soft metal, gold will readily form alloys with many other metals. This can be done to increase its strength, or create several exotic colors, sold for instance in the western [[United States]] to the tourist trade as "[[Black Hills]]" gold. Adding [[copper]] yields a redder metal, [[iron]] blue, Silver produces green, [[aluminium]] purple, [[platinum]] metals white, and natural [[bismuth]] together with silver alloys produce black. Native gold contains usually eight to ten per cent [[silver]], but often much more &mdash; alloys with a silver content over 20% are called [[electrum]]. As the amount of silver increases, the color becomes whiter and the [[Relative density|specific gravity]] reduces.
Gold is a good conductor of [[heat]] and [[electricity]], and i |
reserve">#REDIRECT [[Hydrogen bond]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>HAL 9000</title>
<id>14384</id>
<revision>
<id>42117651</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:03:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pagrashtak</username>
<id>304316</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Trivia */ removed unimportant trivia</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''HAL 9000''' ('''H'''euristically programmed '''AL'''gorithmic computer) is a [[fictional computer]]/[[fictional character|character]] in the ''[[Space Odyssey]]'' series, the first being the novel and film ''[[2001 A Space Odyssey]]'', written by [[Arthur C. Clarke]] in [[1968]]. HAL is an [[artificial intelligence]], the [[sentient]] on-board [[computer]] of the spaceship ''Discovery'' that eventually runs [[Rampancy|rampant]]. HAL is usually represented only as his television camera "eyes" that can be seen throughout the ''Discovery'' spaceship. The voice of HAL 9000 was performed by Canadian actor [[Douglas Rain]]. HAL became operational on [[January 12]], [[1997]] ([[1992]] in the movie) [http://www.palantir.net/2001/meanings/essay11.html] at the H.A.L. Laboratory in [[Urbana, Illinois]], and was created by [[Dr. Chandra]]. In the ''2001'' film, HAL is depicted as being capable not only of [[speech recognition]], [[facial recognition]], and [[natural language processing]], but also [[lip reading]], [[art criticism|art appreciation]], interpreting [[emotion]]s, expressing emotions and [[reasoning]].
[[image:Hal_brain_room2.jpg|thumb|250px|A view of HAL 9000's Brain Room in the ''Discovery''.]]
In other languages than English, HAL might have another name: for instance, in the French version of ''[[2001 A Space Odyssey]]'', his name is stated as being CARL, for ''Cerveau Analytique de Recherche et de Liaison'' ("Analytic Research and Communication Brain"). However, the famous camera plates still read "HAL 9000".
Some versions state that the name HAL was derived by a one letter shift (see [[Caesar cipher]]) from the name [[IBM]], although this has been denied by both Arthur C. Clarke and his fictional character [[Dr. Chandra]], who states that "by now, any idiot should know that HAL stands for ''Heuristic ALgorithmic''" (''2010'').
==HAL's history==
{{spoiler}}
===HAL in ''2001: A Space Odyssey''===
In ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', after HAL appears to be mistaken about a fault in the spacecraft, astronauts [[David Bowman]] and [[Frank Poole]] consider disconnecting his cognitive circuits. They believe that HAL cannot hear them, but are unaware that HAL is capable of lip reading. Faced with the prospect of disconnection, HAL proceeds to kill [[Frank Poole]] while he is repairing the ship as well as the other members of the crew who are in [[suspended animation]]. Realizing what has occurred, astronaut [[David Bowman]] then shuts the machine down. HAL's central core is depicted as a room full of brightly lit computer modules mounted in arrays from which they can be inserted or removed. Bowman shuts down HAL by removing modules from service one by one; as he does so, we witness HAL's consciousness degrading. By the time HAL's logic is completely gone, he begins singing the song "[[Daisy Bell]]," which is perhaps the most recognised scene in the film. HAL 9000 is also well known for a [[Poole - HAL 9000|chess game]] he plays with Frank Poole, whose defeat is seen as an ominous foreshadowing to both the future events of the movie and the increasing dominance of machine over man.
[[Image:HALconsole.jpg|thumb|250px|HAL 9000's characteristic console]]
The book differs from the movie in a number of details. Firstly, the book explains far more explicitly the causes of HAL's behavior. Secondly, in the movie, HAL shuts Bowman out of the craft after Bowman attempts to retrieve Poole's body. In the book, Bowman stays within the ship and is forced to shut down HAL after HAL attempts to kill him by opening the ship's airlocks.
===HAL in ''2010: Odyssey Two''===
In the sequel ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]'', HAL is restarted by his creator, Dr. Chandra, who arrives on the Soviet spaceship ''[[Leonov]]''. Dr. Chandra discovers that HAL's crisis was caused by a programming contradiction: he was constructed for "the accurate processing of information without distortion or concealment", yet his orders required him to keep the discovery of the monolith TMA-1 a secret. This contradiction created a "[[Douglas Hofstadter|Hofstadter]]-[[Moebius loop]]," reducing HAL to [[paranoia]].
The alien intelligences controlling the monoliths have grandiose plans for Jupiter, plans which place the ''Leonov'' in danger. Its human crew devises an escape plan, which unfortunately requires leaving the ''Discovery'' and HAL behind, to be destroyed. Dr. Chandra explains the danger, and HAL sacrifices himself for the ''Leonov''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s crew. In the moment of his destruction, the monolith-makers transform HAL into a non-corporeal being, so that David Bowman's avatar may have a companion.
The details in the book and film are nominally the same, with one important exception&mdash;&mdash;in the film, HAL functions normally after being reactivated. In the book, it is revealed that his voice circuits were destroyed during the shutdown, forcing him to communicate through screen text.
The session of keyboard/screen interaction between HAL and Dr. Chandra has a taste of [[SHRDLU]], which both increases the realism of the scene, and gives an interesting insight of the perception of Artificial Intelligence at the time the book was written.
===HAL in ''2061: Odyssey Three'' and ''3001: The Final Odyssey''===
In ''[[2061: Odyssey Three]]'', Heywood Floyd is surprised to encounter HAL, now stored alongside Dave Bowman in the Europa monolith.
In ''[[3001: The Final Odyssey]]'', we meet the merged forms of [[Dave Bowman]] and HAL. The two have merged into one entity called ''Halman'' after Bowman rescued HAL from the dying [[Discovery One]] spaceship towards the end of ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]''. Halman helps [[Frank Poole]] infect the monolith (which it once served) with a [[computer virus]]; as the primitive life in Jupiter's clouds were sacrificed to make Jupiter into a sun to warm Europa, it is feared that humanity would in turn be sacrificed for the new life on Europa.
==SAL 9000==
HAL 9000 has at least one Earthbound twin, '''SAL 9000'''. SAL (or possibly another "twin niner-triple-zero") was used as a reference system for HAL; when the twin computer fails to predict any communications failure, Bowman and Poole begin to suspect HAL's reliability. SAL is clearly "female", and features similar camera plates like HAL, but the "eye" is blue. Dr. Chandra has a private terminal to SAL's mainframe in his office, and his influence causes her to develop a slightly Indian accent (''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]''). In the film version, SAL is voiced by [[Candice Bergen]], who was credited only under a [[pseudonym]] (as 'Olga Mallsnerd').
Before the Soviet-USA mission to retrieve ''Discovery'', Chandra uses her for a simulation of the possible effects that a prolonged "sleep" might have induced in HAL, code-named ''Project Phoenix''. When Dr. Chandra taunts SAL to guess the reason for the name, her display of culture makes it clear that SAL has access to some form of encyclopedic knowledge database.
In the book ''2010,'' we learn that another ground-based HAL machine undergoes the same [[psychosis]] that HAL does.
==The future of computing==
When the film ''2001'' was first screened in [[1968]], the year [[2001]] was a long way away and a computer like HAL seemed quite plausible at the time. In the mid-[[1960]]s [[computer scientist]]s were generally optimistic that within a [[generation]] or two we would have machines that could do "just about anything humans could do".
Importantly, HAL is shown playing a game of [[chess]] - in 1968, the greatest breakthrough in computer chess playing was 'hexapawn', as detailed in an edition of that year's [[Scientific American]]. A full chess algorithm was still considered science fiction, but within the realms of possiblity, and even then an open ended possiblity. No-one could predict that within as little as 5-10 years computers would be successfully challenging [[International Grandmaster|grand masters]], but at that time for HAL to play chess, and win was seminal in driving the future direction of computer game playing [[AI]].
However, as [[2001]] approached it became clear that ''2001'''s predictions in computer technology were far fetched. Natural language, lip reading, planning and plain common sense in computers were still the stuff of [[science fiction]].
But ''2001'' also failed to predict many of the advances that would take place in computing by [[2001]]. The film's creators felt that as computers got more powerful, they would get bigger and bigger. HAL occupies much of the living area on Discovery. A thin laptop or notepad computer is alluded to in a few scenes where they are used to relay news broadcasts from Earth. Also, the film's portrayal of computer graphics are elegant, though minimalist compared to the graphics and visualization techniques available in [[2001]].
==Trivia==
*HAL's red "eye" was a [[Cinerama]] 160 Fairchild-Curtis wide angle lens. The lens served as both a prop for the eye seen on film as well as the actual camera lens used for filming HAL's point of view shots. Stanley Kubrick chose to use the Fairchild-Curtis lens after attending the 1964 World's Fair and seeing ''[[To the Moon and Beyond]]'', a film produced with the lens and projected onto a [[planetarium]]-like dome.
*HAL was also "featured" in a short commercial by [[Apple Computer]] in the year [[1999]] in whic |
ne of the [[studio system]] in the 50s and 60s and the end of the [[production code]]. It is defined by a greater tendency to dramatize such things as sexuality and violence, and by the rising importance of [[blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbuster]] movies.
'Post-classical cinema' is a term used to describe the changing methods of storytelling in the New Hollywood. It has been argued that new approaches to [[drama]] and characterization played upon audience expectations acquired in the classical/Golden Age period: chronology may be scrambled, storylines may feature "twist endings", and lines between the [[antagonist]] and [[protagonist]] may be blurred. The roots of post-classical storytelling may be seen in ''film noir'', in ''[[Rebel Without a Cause]]'' (1955), and in Hitchcock's storyline-shattering ''[[Psycho]]''.
===Blockbusters===
[[Image:StarWarsMoviePoster1977.jpg|220px|thumb|right|Original 1977 poster for ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]''.]]
The drive to produce spectacle on the movie screen has largely shaped American cinema ever since. Spectacular epics which took advantage of new [[widescreen]] processes were increasingly popular from the [[1950s]] onwards. Since then, American films have become increasingly divided into two categories: [[blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbusters]] and [[independent film]]s. Studios have focused on relying on a handful of extremely expensive releases every year in order to remain profitable. Such blockbusters emphasize spectacle, star power, and high production value, all of which entail an enormous budget. Blockbusters typically rely upon star power and massive [[advertising]] to attract a huge audience. A successful blockbuster will attract an audience large enough to offset production costs and reap considerable profits. Such productions carry a subtantial risk of failure, and most studios release blockbusters that both over- and underperform in a year.
A major change to American filmmaking occurred during the [[1970s]] when a new breed of young directors who had degrees from film schools and who had absorbed the techniques developed in Europe in the [[1960s]] emerged. Directors like [[Francis Ford Coppola]], [[George Lucas]], [[Brian de Palma]], [[Martin Scorsese]], and [[Steven Spielberg]] came to produce fare that paid homage to the history of film, and developed upon existing genres and techniques. Their movies were often both critically acclaimed and successful at the box office. Coppola, Spielberg, and Lucas in particular are credited with shaping the blockbuster model in its current form, with the colossal successes of ''[[The Godfather]]'', ''[[Jaws (film)|Jaws]]'', and ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]'', respectively. These movies, which each set the all-time box office record during their releases, induced studios to focus even more heavily than before on trying to produce humongous hits.
==Independent film==
[[Image:Pulp_Fiction_Vincent_and_Jules.jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[John Travolta]] and [[Samuel L. Jackson]] in ''[[Pulp Fiction]]'' (1994).]]
Studios supplement these movies with independent productions, made with small budgets and often independently of the studio corporation. Movies made in this manner typically emphasize high professional quality in terms of acting, directing, screenwriting, and other elements associated with production, and also upon creativity and innovation. These movies usually rely upon critical praise or niche marketing to garner an audience. Because of an independent film's low budgets, a successful independent film can have a high profit-to-cost ratio, while a failure will incur minimal losses, allowing for studios to sponsor dozens of such productions in addition to their high-stakes releases.
American independent cinema was revitalized in the late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]] when another new generation of moviemakers, including [[Spike Lee]], [[Steven Soderbergh]], and [[Quentin Tarantino]] made movies like, respectively, ''[[Do the Right Thing]]'', ''[[Sex, Lies, and Videotape]]'', and ''[[Pulp Fiction]]''. In terms of directing, screenwriting, editing, and other elements, these movies were innovative and often irreverent, playing with and contradicting the conventions of Hollywood movies. Furthermore, their considerable financial successes and crossover into popular culture reestablished the commercial viability of independent film. Since then, the independent film industry has become more clearly defined and more influential in American cinema. Many of the major studios have capitalised on this by developing subsidiaries to produce similar films; for example [[Fox Searchlight Pictures]].
[[Image:Movie_poster_the_shawshank_redemption.jpg|thumb|right|220px|''[[The Shawshank Redemption]]'' (1994).]]
To a lesser degree in the 2000s, film types that were previously considered to have only a minor presence in the mainstream movie market began to arise as more potent American box office draws. These include foreign-language films such as ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' and ''[[Hero]]'' and [[documentary film]]s such as the films of [[Michael Moore]] (''[[Bowling for Columbine]]'', ''[[Fahrenheit 9/11]]''), ''[[Super Size Me]]'' and ''[[March of the Penguins]]''.
===Rise of the home video market===
The [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] saw another significant development. The full acceptance of [[video]] by studios opened a vast new business to exploit which allowed many acclaimed films which performed poorly in their theatrical to find success in the video market such as ''[[The Secret of NIMH]]'' and ''[[The Shawshank Redemption]]''. It also saw the first generation of film makers with access to video tapes emerge. Directors such as Tarantino and [[P.T. Anderson]] had been able to view thousands of films and produced films with vast numbers of references and connections to previous works. This, along with the explosion of independent film and ever-decreasing costs for filmmaking,</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cinema of the United Kingdom</title>
<id>10793</id>
<revision>
<id>41530331</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T23:45:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SDC</username>
<id>181435</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* British cinema since 1990 */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Get Carter poster.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Michael Caine]] in ''[[Get Carter]]'' (1971)]]
The [[United Kingdom]] has been influential in the [[History of cinema|technological]], commercial, and artistic development of [[Film|cinema]]. Despite a history of [[List of British films|successful productions]], the industry is characterised by an ongoing debate about its identity (including [[Economy of the United Kingdom|economic]] and [[Culture of the United Kingdom|cultural]] issues) and the influences of [[Cinema of the United States|American]] and [[:Category:Cinema by country|European cinema]].
==Overview==
[[Image:UK film production 1912-2001.png|thumb|200px|UK film production from 1912 to 2001]]
Film production in the UK has experienced a number of booms and recessions. Although many factors can be used to measure the success of the industry, the number of UK films produced per year ([http://www.screenonline.org.uk/film/facts/fact2.html]) gives an overview of its development: the industry experienced a boom as it first developed in the [[1910s in film|1910s]], but during the [[1920s in film|1920s]] experienced a
recession caused by superior [[Cinema of the United States|US competition]] and commercial practices. The [[Cinematograph Films Act 1927]] introduced protective measures, leading to recovery and an all-time production high of 192 films in [[1936 in film|1936]]. However, over-expansion caused a major crash, and low production continued throughout [[World War II]].
Film production recovered after the war, with a long period of relative stability and growing American investment. But another recession hit the industry in the mid-[[1970s in film|1970s]], reaching an all-time low of 24 films in [[1981 in film|1981]]. Low production continued throughout the [[1980s in film|1980s]], but it increased again in the [[1990s in film|1990s]] with renewed private and public investment.
Although production levels give an overview, the history of British cinema is complex, with various cultural movements developing independently. Some of the most successful films were made during 'recessions', such as ''[[Chariots of Fire]]'' (1981).
==History==
===Early UK cinema===
{{EuropeanCinema}}
Modern cinema is generally regarded as descending from the work of the [[France|French]] [[Auguste and Louis Lumière|Lumière brothers]] in [[1892]], and their show first came to London in [[1896 in film|1896]]. However, the first moving pictures developed on celluloid film were made in [[Hyde Park, London]] in [[1889 in film|1889]] by [[William Friese Greene]], a British inventor, who patented the process in [[1890 in film|1890]]. The film is the first known instance of a projected moving image.
The first people to build and run a working [[35 mm]] [[camera]] in Britain were [[Robert W. Paul]] and [[Birt Acres]]. They made the first British film ''Incident at Clovelly Cottage'' in February 1895, shortly before falling out over the camera's patent. Soon several British film companies had opened to meet the demand for new films, such as [[Mitchell and Kenyon]] in [[Blackburn]]. From 1898 American producer [[Charles Urban]] expanded the London-based Warwick Trading Company to produce British films, mostly documentary and news. He later formed his own Charles Urban Trading Company, which also produced early colour films.
===The 1930s boom===
By the mid-twenties the British film industry was losing out to heavy competition from [[Hollywood]] films, the latter helped by having a much larger home market. In [[1914 |
t and ought to be.
Rand's views on sex have also led to some controversy. According to her, "For a woman ''qua'' woman, the essence of femininity is hero-worship – the desire to look up to man." (1968) Some in the [[BDSM]] community see her work as relevant and supportive, particularly ''The Fountainhead'' [http://www.mistressmorgana.com/site04/read_rec.html].
Another source of controversy is Rand's view that homosexuality is "immoral" and "disgusting" [http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/homo/atlasphere.htm], as well as her support for the right of businesses to discriminate on the basis of homosexuality, such as in their hiring practices. Specifically, she stated that "there is a psychological immorality at the root of homosexuality" because "it involves psychological flaws, corruptions, errors, or unfortunate premises".
On the topic of non-governmental discrimination, Rand's defenders argue that her support for its legality was motivated by holding property rights above civil or human rights (as she did not believe that human rights were distinct from property rights) so it did not constitute an endorsement of the morality of the prejudice itself. In support of this, they cite Rand's opposition to some prejudices &mdash; though not homophobia &mdash; on moral grounds, in essays like 'Racism' and 'Global Balkanization', while still arguing for the right of individuals and businesses to act on such prejudice without government intervention. [http://forum.objectivismonline.net/lofiversion/index.php/t2277.html].
==Bibliography==
===Fiction===
* ''[[Night of January 16th]]'' (1934)
* ''[[We The Living]]'' (1936)
* ''[[Anthem (novel)|Anthem]]'' (1938)
* ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' (1943)
* ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' (1957)
====Posthumous fiction====
* ''Three Plays'' (2005)
===Nonfiction===
* ''For the New Intellectual'' (1961)
* ''The Virtue of Selfishness'' (with [[Nathaniel Branden]]) ([[1964]])
* ''[[Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal]]'' (with [[Nathaniel Branden]], [[Alan Greenspan]], and [[Robert Hessen]]) ([[1966]])
* ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'' (1967)
* ''[[The Romantic Manifesto]]'' (1969)
* ''The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution'' (1971)
* ''Philosophy: Who Needs It'' (1982)
====Posthumous nonfiction====
* ''[[The Early Ayn Rand]]'' (edited and with commentary by [[Leonard Peikoff]]) ([[1984]])
* ''The Voice of Reason: Essays in Objectivist Thought'' (edited by [[Leonard Peikoff]]; additional essays by [[Leonard Peikoff]] and [[Peter Schwartz]]) ([[1989]])
* ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'' second edition (edited by [[Harry Binswanger]]; additional material by [[Leonard Peikoff]]) ([[1990]])
* ''Letters of Ayn Rand'' (edited by [[Michael S. Berliner]]) ([[1995]])
* ''Journals of Ayn Rand'' (edited by [[David Harriman]]) ([[1997]])
* ''Ayn Rand's Marginalia : Her Critical Comments on the Writings of over Twenty Authors'' (edited by [[Robert Mayhew]]) ([[1998]])
* ''The Ayn Rand Column: Written for the Los Angeles Times'' (edited by [[Peter Schwartz]]) ([[1998]])
* ''Russian Writings on Hollywood'' (edited by [[Michael S. Berliner]]) ([[1999]])
* ''Return of the Primitive: The Anti-Industrial Revolution'' (expanded edition of ''The New Left''; edited and with additional essays by [[Peter Schwartz]]) ([[1999]])
* ''The Art of Fiction'' (edited by [[Tore Boeckmann]]) ([[2000]])
* ''The Art of Nonfiction'' (edited by [[Robert Mayhew]]) ([[2001]])
* ''The Objectivism Research CD-ROM'' (collection of most of Rand's works in CD-ROM format) (2001)
* ''Ayn Rand Answers'' (2005)
==References==
In addition to Rand's own works (listed above), the following references discuss Rand's life and/or literary work. References that discuss her philosophy can be found in the [[bibliography of work on Objectivism]].
<div style="font-size: 90%">
* {{cite book
| last = Baker | first = James T.
| authorlink = James T. Baker
| title = Ayn Rand
| publisher = Twayne
| location = Boston
| year = 1987
| id = ISBN 0-8057-7497-1
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Branden | first = Barbara
| authorlink = Barbara Branden
| title = The Passion of Ayn Rand
| publisher = Doubleday &amp; Company
| location = Garden City, New York
| year = 1986
| id = ISBN 0-385-19171-5
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Branden | first = Nathaniel
| authorlink = Nathaniel Branden
| title = My Years with Ayn Rand
| publisher = Jossey Bass
| location = San Francisco
| year = 1998
| id = ISBN 0-7879-4513-7
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Branden | first = Nathaniel
| authorlink = Nathaniel Branden
| coauthors = [[Barbara Branden]]
| title = Who Is Ayn Rand?
| publisher = Random House
| location = New York
| year = 1962
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Britting | first = Jeff
| authorlink = Jeff Britting
| title = Ayn Rand
| publisher = Overlook Duckworth
| location = New York
| year = 2005
| id = ISBN 1-58567-406-0
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Gladstein | first = Mimi Reisel
| authorlink = Mimi Reisel Gladstein
| title = The New Ayn Rand Companion
| publisher = Greenwood Press
| location = Westport, Connecticut
| year = 1999
| id = ISBN 0-313-30321-5
}}
* {{cite book
| author = [[Mimi Reisel Gladstein|Gladstein, Mimi Reisel]] and [[Chris Matthew Sciabarra|Sciabarra, Chris Matthew]] (editors)
| title = Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand
| publisher = The Pennsylvania State University Press
| location = University Park, Pennsylvania
| year = 1999
| id = ISBN 0-271-01830-5
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Hamel | first = Virginia L.L.
| authorlink = Virginia L.L. Hamel
| title = In Defense of Ayn Rand
| publisher = New Beacon
| location = Brookline, Massachusetts
| year = 1990
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Mayhew | first = Robert
| authorlink = Robert Mayhew
| title = Ayn Rand and Song of Russia
| publisher = Rowman &amp; Littlefield
| location = Lanham, Maryland
| year = 2004
| id = ISBN 0-8108-5276-4
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Mayhew | first = Robert
| authorlink = Robert Mayhew
| title = Essays on Ayn Rand's Anthem
| publisher = Rowman &amp; Littlefield
| location = Lanham, Maryland
| year = 2005
| id = ISBN 0-7391-1031-4
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Mayhew | first = Robert
| authorlink = Robert Mayhew
| title = Essays on Ayn Rand's We the Living
| publisher = Rowman &amp; Littlefield
| location = Lanham, Maryland
| year = 2004
| id = ISBN 0-7391-0698-8
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Paxton | first = Michael
| authorlink = Michael Paxton
| title = Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life (The Companion Book)
| publisher = Gibbs Smith
| location = Layton, Utah
| year = 1998
| id = ISBN 0-87905-845-5
}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Peikoff | first = Leonard
| authorlink = Leonard Peikoff
| title = My Thirty Years with Ayn Rand: An Intellectual Memoir
| journal = The Objectivist Forum
| volume = 8
| issue = 3
| year = 1987
| pages = 1–16
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Rothbard | first = Murray N.
| authorlink = Murray N. Rothbard
| title = The Sociology of the Ayn Rand Cult
| url = http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard23.html
| publisher = Liberty
| location = Port Townsend, Washington
| year = 1987
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Sures | first = Mary Ann
| authorlink = Mary Ann Sures
| coauthors = [[Charles Sures]]
| title = Facets of Ayn Rand
| publisher = Ayn Rand Institute Press
| location = Los Angeles
| year = 2001
| id = ISBN 0-9625336-5-3
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Sciabarra | first = Chris Matthew
| authorlink = Chris Matthew Sciabarra
| title = Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical
| location = University Park, Pennsylvania
| publisher = The Pennsylvania State University Press
| year = 1995
| id = ISBN 0-271-01440-7
}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Sciabarra | first = Chris Matthew
| authorlink = Chris Matthew Sciabarra
| title = The Rand Transcript
| url = http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/randt2.htm
| journal = The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies
| volume = 1
| issue = 1
| year = 1999
| pages = 1–26
}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Shermer | first = Michael
| authorlink = Michael Shermer
| url = http://www.2think.org/02_2_she.shtml
| title = The Unlikeliest Cult In History
| journal = Skeptic
| volume = 2
| issue = 2
| year = 1993
| pages = 74–81
}}
* {{cite book
| author = [[William Thomas|Thomas, William]] (editor)
| title = The Literary Art of Ayn Rand
| location = Poughkeepsie, New York
| publisher = The Objectivist Center
| year = 2005
| id = ISBN 1-577240-70-7
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Tuccile | first = Jerome
| authorlink = Jerome Tuccille
| title = It Usually Begins with Ayn Rand
| location = New York
| publisher = Fox & Wilkes
| year = 1997
| id = ISBN 0930073258
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Valliant | first = James S.
| authorlink = James S. Valliant
| title = The Passion of Ayn Rand's Critics
| location = Dallas
| publisher = Durban House
| year = 2005
| id = ISBN 1-930654-67-1
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Walker | first = Jeff
| authorlink = Jeff Walker
| title = The Ayn Rand Cult
| location = Chicago
| publisher = Open Court
| year = 1999
| id = ISBN 0-8126-9390-6
}}
</div>
==External links==
{{Philosophy portal}}
{{sisterlinks|Ayn Rand}}
'''General information'''
* [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/bio/biofaq.html Ayn Rand FAQ]
* [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=about_ayn_rand_faq_index2 Frequently Asked Questions on Ayn Rand]
* [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/r/rand.htm "Ayn Rand" entry from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
'''Organizations promoting Ayn Rand's philosophy'''
* [http://www.aynrand.org/ The Ayn Rand Institute]
* [http://www.ariwatch.com/ ARI Watch] &mdash; Argues that some positions of the Ayn Rand Institute differ from those of Ayn Rand. <!-- Note that this link is routinely removed as an act of vandalism. It will be routinely rever |
aircraft]]
* [[List of flying wing aircraft]]
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
|see also=
}}
[[Category:Flying wing aircraft]]
[[Category:Stealth aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. bomber aircraft 1980-1989]]
[[ar:ب 2 سبيريت]]
[[de:Northrop B-2]]
[[es:B-2 Spirit]]
[[fi:B-2 Spirit]]
[[fr:Northrop B-2 Spirit]]
[[he:B-2]]
[[ja:B-2 (爆撃機)]]
[[ms:B-2 Spirit]]
[[nl:B-2 Spirit]]
[[no:B-2 Spirit]]
[[pl:Northrop B-2 Spirit]]
[[pt:B-2 Spirit]]
[[zh:B-2幽灵隐形战略轰炸机]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beaver</title>
<id>4399</id>
<revision>
<id>41626037</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T16:45:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aranae</username>
<id>135342</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Beavers
| fossil_range = Late [[Miocene]] - Recent
| image = Beaver.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = [[American Beaver]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Rodent]]ia
| familia = '''Castoridae'''
| familia_authority = [[Wilhelm Friedrich Hemprich|Hemprich]], 1820
| genus = '''''Castor'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision =
''[[American Beaver|C. canadensis]]''<br />
''[[European Beaver|C. fiber]]''
}}
'''Beavers''' are semi-aquatic [[rodent]]s native to [[North America]] and [[Europe]]. They are the only members of the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Castoridae''', which contains a single [[genus]], '''''Castor'''''. [[genetics|Genetic]] [[research]] has shown the European and North American beaver populations to be distinct [[species]] and that [[hybrid]]ization is unlikely.
Beavers are best known for their natural trait of building [[dam]]s in [[river]]s and [[stream]]s, and building [[lodge]]s in the eventual artificial [[pond]]. They are the second largest rodents, after the [[capybara]].
Beavers continue to grow throughout life. Adult [[specimen]]s weighing over 25 [[kilogram|kg]] (55 lb) are not uncommon. Females are as large as, or larger than males of the same age, which is uncommon in most species.
==Species==
The [[European Beaver]] (''Castor fiber'') was hunted almost to [[extinction]] in [[Europe]], both for [[fur]], and for ''[[castoreum]]'', a [[secretion]] of its [[scent gland]] believed to have [[medicine|medicinal]] properties. However, the beaver is now being re-introduced throughout Europe. Several thousands live on the [[Elbe]], the [[Rhone River|Rhone]] and in parts of [[Scandinavia]]. They have been [[reintroduction|reintroduced]] in [[Bavaria]] and [[The Netherlands]] and are tending to spread to new locations. The beaver finally became extinct in [[Great Britain]] in the [[sixteenth century]]: [[Giraldus Cambrensis]] reported in [[1188]] (''Itinerarium'' ii.iii) that it was to be found only in the [[Teifi]] in [[Wales]] and in one river in [[Scotland]], though his observations are clearly [[first hand]].
In [[October]] [[2005]], six European beavers were re-introduced to Britain in Lower Mill Estate in [[Gloucestershire]], and there are plans for re-introductions in [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]].[http://www.msn.co.uk/htx/returnofthebeaver/]
The [[American Beaver]] (''C. canadensis'') is the [[List of national animals|national animal]] of [[Canada]]; in fact, it is depicted on the [[Nickel (Canadian coin)|Canadian five-cent piece]] and was on the first Canadian [[postage stamp]], the Three Penny Beaver. However, in several areas of that country, it is considered a [[pest (animal)|pest]]. The American Beaver is also the state animal of [[Oregon]], the [[List of U.S. state mammals|state mammal]] of [[New York]] (after the historical emblem of [[New Netherland]]) and the mascot of [[Oregon State University]]. It is also a common school emblem for [[engineering]] schools, including the [[California Institute of Technology]] and the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. It is also an emblem for [[London School of Economics]] and the name of its student newspaper - [[The Beaver]].
The extinct North American [[Giant beaver]] (''Castoroides ohioensis'') was one of largest rodents that ever [[evolution|evolved]]. It disappeared, with other large mammals in the [[Holocene extinction event]], about 10,000 years ago.
==Dams==
[[Image:Biber-Brahe.jpg|thumb|Beaver tree]]
The dams are created both as a protection against predators, e.g., coyotes, wolves and bears, and to provide easy access to food during winter. It is both the sound of water in motion and the current that stimulates the beavers to build. If for example a pipe is placed under the dam to drain it the beavers may stuff it with a tree trunk unless the pipe inlet is protected with a large cage-like filter. They may repair any damage to the dam and build it higher as long as the sound is there, however, in times of high water, they often allow spillways in the dam to flow freely. Conversely, beavers will attempt to build dams in response to recordings of water flowing even in the absence of water.
The ponds created by well-maintained dams help isolate the beavers' home, their ''lodge'', also created from severed branches and mud. The lodge has underwater entrances to make entry nearly impossible for any other animal (however, [[musk rat|muskrats]] have been seen living inside beaver lodges with the beavers who made it).
Destroying a beaver dam without removing the beavers takes a lot of effort, especially if the dam is downstream of an active lodge. Beavers can rebuild such primary dams overnight, but may not defend secondary dams as vigorously.
Recent studies involving beaver habitual activities have indicated that beavers may respond to a array of stimuli, not just the sound of running water. In two experiments Wilson (1971) and Richard (1967, 1980) demonstrate that although beavers will pile material close to a loudspeaker emitting sounds of water running, they only do so after a considerable period of time. Additionally the beavers, when faced with a pipe allowing water to pass through their dam, eventually stopped the flow of water by plugging the pipe with mud and sticks. The beavers were observed to do this even when the pipe extended several meters upstream and near the bottom of the stream and thus produced no sound of running water.
Beaver dams can be disruptive; the flooding can cause extensive property damage, and when the flooding occurs next to a railroad roadbed, it can cause derailments by washing-out under the tracks, or when a beaver dam bursts and the resulting flash flood overwhelms a culvert.
Yet dam building activity restores wetlands, the land's most beneficial ecosystem. Such wetland benefits include flood control downstream, biodiversity (by providing habitat for many rare as well as common species), and water cleansing, both by the breakdown of toxins such as pesticides and the retention of silt by beaver dams. The latter also reduces erosion as well as decreasing turbidity that is the limiting factor for aquatic life.
When objectionable beaver flooding occurs, modern water level control devices can be installed for a cost-effective and environmentally sound solution (www.BeaversWW.org).
==Danger signal==
When startled or frightened, a swimming beaver will rapidly dive while forcefully slapping the water with its broad tail. This creates a loud 'slap', audible over large distances above and below water. This noise serves as a warning to other beavers in the area. Once a beaver has made this danger signal, all nearby beavers will dive and may not reemerge for some time.
==Fur trade==
Beaver pelts were used as [[barter]] by [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] in the [[17th century]] to gain [[Europe|European]] goods. They were then shipped back to [[Great Britain]] and [[France]] where they were made into clothing items. Widespread hunting and trapping of beavers lead to their endangerment. Eventually, the [[fur trade]] fell apart due to declining demand in Europe and the take over of trapping grounds to support the growing agriculture sector.
==Popular culture==
Popular western culture typically depicts the animal positively, as a good natured and industrious character such as Mr. and Mrs. Beaver who are important heroic characters in the classic [[fantasy novel]], ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]''. Since the animal is a [[national symbol]] of [[Canada]], the animal is a favourite choice for depicting Canadians as furry characters and was chosen to be the [[mascot]] of [[1976 Summer Olympics ]] held in [[Montreal]] with the name "Amik" ("friend" in [[Algonquin language|Algonquin]]). The beaver's habits, habitat and conservation status (as of 1908) are recurring themes in ''[[The Tent Dwellers]]'', by [[Albert Bigelow Paine]]. Due to their engineering capabilities, they also serve as the mascots of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] and the [[California Institute of Technology]].
==[[1911 encyclopedia]] text==
'''Beaver''', the largest European aquatic representative of the mammalian order RODENTIA, easily recognized by its large trowel-like, scaly tail, which is expanded in the horizontal direction.
The word is descended from the Aryan name of the animal, cf. Sanskrit ''babhru's,'' brown, the great ichneumon, Lat. ''fiber,'' Ger. ''Biber,'' Swed. ''bäver,'' Russ. ''bobr';'' the root ''bhru'' has given "brown," and, through Romanic, "bronze" and "burnish."
The true beaver (''Castor fiber'') is a native of Europe and northern Asia, but it is represented in North America by a closely-allied species (''C. canadensis''), chiefly distinguished by the form of the nasal bones of the skull.
[[Image:Beaver dam in Yellowstone.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Yellowstone National Park]].]]
Beavers are nearly allied to t |
]]: the [[Soviet Union]]'s [[human rights]] record is questionable.''<br>
:''Soviet Union: [[And you are lynching Negroes]].''
====Inconsistency version====
This form of the argument is as follows:
:A makes claim P.
:A has ''also'' made claims which are inconsistent with P.
:Therefore, P is false (or is dismissed).
If the conclusion is that "P is false", then this is a ''logical fallacy'' because the conclusion that P is false does not follow from the premises; even if A has made past claims which are inconsistent with P, it does not necessarily prove that P is either true or false.
Example:
:''"You say [[airplane]]s are able to fly because of the laws of [[physics]], but this is false because twenty years ago you also said airplanes fly because of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]]."''
:''"US Democrats say that we shouldn't participate in war in Iraq, but they supported it after 9/11."''
:''"US Republicans say that CIA intelligence is faulty, but they relied on it when we sent troops to Iraq."''
==Taxonomy==
This form of the ''argumentum ad hominem'' is a [[genetic fallacy]] and [[red herring (fallacy)|red herring]], and is often but not necessarily an [[appeal to emotion]]. Argumentum ad hominem includes [[poisoning the well]].
==See also==
{{wiktionarypar|ad hominem}}
*"[[And you are lynching Negroes]]"
*[[fundamental attribution error]]
*[[validity]]
[[Category:Logical fallacies]]
[[Category:Latin logical phrases]]
[[ca:Ad hominem]]
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[[el:Ad hominem]]
[[es:Argumentum ad hominem]]
[[fr:Ad hominem]]
[[is:Argumentum ad hominem]]
[[he:אד הומינם]]
[[lt:Argumentas prieš žmogų]]
[[hu:Argumentum ad hominem]]
[[nl:Ad hominem]]
[[no:Ad hominem-argument]]
[[pt:Argumentum ad hominem]]
[[simple:Ad hominem]]
[[sv:Ad hominem-argument]]
[[tl:Ad hominem]]
[[tr:Ad hominem]]
[[uk:Argumentum ad Hominem]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>A fortiori</title>
<id>2227</id>
<revision>
<id>33378113</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-31T14:30:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Silence</username>
<id>84942</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[List of Latin phrases (A–E)#A]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Argumentum ad hominum</title>
<id>2228</id>
<revision>
<id>15900660</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ad hominem]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Analysis of algorithms</title>
<id>2230</id>
<revision>
<id>39883147</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T15:18:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kku</username>
<id>5846</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Computational complexity theory</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">To '''analyze an [[algorithm]]''' is to determine the amount of resources (such as time and storage) necessary to execute it. Most algorithms are designed to work with inputs of arbitrary length. Usually the '''efficiency''' or '''[[Computational complexity theory|complexity]]''' of an algorithm is stated as a function relating the [[problem size|input length]] to the number of steps ('''time complexity''') or storage locations ('''space or memory complexity''') required to execute the algorithm.
Algorithm analysis is an important part of a broader [[computational complexity theory]], which provides theoretical estimates for the resources needed by any algorithm which solves a given computational problem. These estimates provide an insight into reasonable directions of search of efficient algorithms.
In theoretical analysis of algorithms it is common to estimate their complexity in '''asymptotic sense''', i.e., to estimate the complexity function for reasonably large length of input. [[Big O notation]], [[Big O notation|omega]] notation and [[Big O notation|theta]] notation are used to this end. For instance, [[binary search]] is said to run an amount of steps proportional to a logarithm, or in O(log(n)), colloquially "in logarithmic time". Usually asymptotic estimates are used because different [[implementation]]s of the same algorithm may differ in efficiency. However the efficiencies of any two "reasonable" implementations of a given algorithm are related by a constant multiplicative factor called '''hidden constant'''.
Exact (not asymptotic) measures of efficiency can sometimes be computed but they usually require certain assumptions concerning the particular implementation of the algorithm, called [[model of computation]]. A model of computation may be defined in terms of an [[abstract machine|abstract computer]], e.g., [[Turing machine]], and/or by postulating that certain operations are executed in unit time.
For example, if the sorted set to which we apply [[binary search]] has n elements, and we can guarantee that a single binary lookup can be done in unit time, then at most log<sub>2</sub> N + 1 time units are needed to return an answer.
Exact measures of efficiency are useful to the people who actually implement and use algorithms, because they are more precise and thus enable them to know how much time they can expect to spend in execution. To some people (e.g. game programmers), a hidden constant can make all the difference between success and failure.
Time efficiency estimates depend on what we define to be a step. For the analysis to make sense, the time required to perform a step must be guaranteed to be bounded above by a constant. One must be careful here; for instance, some analyses count an addition of two numbers as a step. This assumption may not be warranted in certain contexts. For example, if the numbers involved in a computation may be arbitrarily large, addition no longer can be assumed to require constant time (compare the time you need to add two 2-digit integers and two 1000-digit integers using a pen and paper).
==See also==
* [[Donald Knuth]]
==References==
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Chapter 1: Foundations, pp.3&ndash;122.
[[Category:Computational complexity theory]]
[[Category:Algorithms]]
[[fa:تحلیل الگوریتمها]]
[[pt:Análise de algoritmos]]
[[ru:Теория алгоритмов]]
[[sl:Časovna zahtevnost]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aum Supreme Truth</title>
<id>2232</id>
<revision>
<id>15900664</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-09T04:54:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nat Krause</username>
<id>40885</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Aum Shinrikyo]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aum Shinrikyo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aelle of Sussex</title>
<id>2233</id>
<revision>
<id>37771763</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T01:37:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Silsor</username>
<id>26195</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>typos</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{POV}}
'''Ælle ''' was king of the [[Kingdom of Sussex|South Saxons]] from [[477]] to perhaps as late as [[514]], and was named [[Bretwalda]] by [[Bede]], who adds that he was overlord of the [[English people|English]] south of the [[Humber]] river.
Our source for the events of Ælle's life (besides the short mention in Bede's ''Ecclesiastical History'') is the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]], compiled in 891. It states that he landed in Britain in [[477]] with three ships and his three sons Cymen, Wlencing, and [[Cissa of Sussex|Cissa]] at Cymenes ora, where "they killed many of the Welsh, and drove the rest into the wood that is called Anredsleage." For the year [[485]], the Chronicle records that he again fought the "Welsh" at the stream of Mearcread. Then in [[491]], Ælle with the help of Cissa successfully besieged [[Anderida]] (also identified as Pevensey), and slew all of the inhabitants. And with that last entry, the Chronicle contains no more records of this warchief; we have neither a record of the time that he died, nor the means, nor the events in the kingdom of the South Saxons that succeeded his death until the baptism of its king Æthelwalh around [[675]].
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle at this point begins narrating the events of the founding of the West Saxon kingdom, or [[Wessex]], so it is possible that the scribe assembling this chronicle forgot to return to the events of Ælle's life. Alaistar Campbell, in examining the chronology of this part of the Chronicle, notes that at several places events are duplicated at 28 year intervals, suggesting that the sources from which the composing scribe assembled the Chronicle were based on 28-year [[Easter]] Tables, and that the annal that mentioned the later events of Ælle's life were mislaid.
Ælle’s career may be largely fictional. He is said to have arrived in three ships, with three sons, and fought three battles. The three ships motif occurs in other myths: "According to their own legend, reported by the mid-6th-century Gothic historian Jordanes, the Goths originated in southern Scandinavia and crossed in three ships under their king Berig to the southern shore of the Baltic Sea, where they settled…" [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037486].
The story of Ælle is a heroic Old English legend which explains the acquisition of Sussex. An entirely different and equally implausible British (Welsh) story was preserved by Nennius. He stated that Hengist treacherously seized the British king Vortigern and demanded the cession of Ess |
game.com]] (1997) - First touch screen, first internet support (with use of sold-separately [[modem]])
* Nintendo [[Game Boy Color]] (1998)
* [[Cybiko]] (Around 1998)
* SNK [[Neo Geo Pocket Color]] (1999)
* Bandai [[WonderSwan]] (1999) - Developed by [[Gumpei Yokoi]] after leaving Nintendo
* Bandai [[WonderSwan Color]] (2000)
* Game Park [[GP32]] (2001)
* Nintendo [[Game Boy Advance]] (2001)
* Bandai [[Swan Crystal]] (2002) - Minor redesign of WonderSwan Color
* [[Nokia]] [[N-Gage]] (2003) - Game system and [[GSM]] [[cell phone]] (first combination of the two); first included [[mp3 player]] and [[FM radio]]; used [[Bluetooth]] (first wireless multiplayer); first use of [[GPRS]] for online play
* Nintendo [[Game Boy Advance SP]] (2003) - Redesign of GBA: slimmer, clamshell form factor; frontlit screen
* Timetop [[Gameking]] (2003)
* [[Tapwave Zodiac]] (2004) - First PDA/game handheld hybrid; [[Palm OS]] [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]] with game-focused form factor and features
* [[Nokia]] [[N-Gage QD]] (2004) - Redesign of N-Gage, removed [[mp3]] playback and radio
* [[Nintendo DS]] (2004) - First inclusion of dual screens, built-in microphone, and [[Wi-Fi]] for wireless multiplayer; touchscreen
* [[Sony PSP]] (2004/2005) - First use of optical media; uses [[Memory Stick]]s for saved data; plays movies and music and views [[JPEG]] pictures.
* Tiger [[Gizmondo]] (2005) - Uses [[GPRS]] network; first inclusion of [[GPS]] for location-based games, first built-in camera
* [[Game Boy Micro]] (2005) - Redesign of GBA; smallest Game Boy form factor to date, first [[Liquid crystal display#Transmissive and reflective displays|transflective LCD screen]] in a handheld.
* Game Park [[XGP]] (2005) and Game Park Holdings [[GP2X]] (2005) - Successor units to the GP32 handheld, each being developed by the two companies that split off from Game Park.
* [[V-Smile Pocket]] (2005) - handheld version of the [[V-Smile]] console. Specifically designed for education purposes.
==References==
#{{note|gbsales}} {{Web reference
| author =
| publishyear = May 11, 2004
| url = http://www.nintendo.com/newsarticle?articleid=a934e541-975a-46f7-b44d-b0fdaa69fac6&page=newsmain
| title = Game Boy Advance Evolves Again
| publisher = Nintendo.com
| date = February 12
| year = 2006
}}
#{{note|dssales}} {{Web reference
| author = Jenkins, David
| publishyear = January 5, 2006
| url = http://www.gamasutra.com/php-bin/news_index.php?story=7688
| title = Nintendo Reveals 13 Million DS Sales, Gets Stock Upgrade
| publisher = GamaSutra
| date = February 12
| year = 2006
}}
== See also ==
{{dedicated video game handheld consoles}}
* [[Video game console]]
* [[Console emulator]]
* [[Handheld electronic game]]
* [[Handheld video game]]
* [[Calculator gaming]]
* [[PDA]] - a similar concept
[[Category:Embedded systems]]
[[Category:Handheld game consoles| ]]
[[de:Handheld-Konsole]]
[[it:Consolle portatile]]
[[ja:携帯型ゲーム]]
[[nl:draagbare spelcomputer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heinrich Abeken</title>
<id>14200</id>
<revision>
<id>26378462</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-24T20:42:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>YurikBot</username>
<id>271058</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: nl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Heinrich Abeken''' ([[August 19]] [[1809]] &ndash; [[August 8]] [[1872]]), [[Germany|German]] theologian and [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]]n Privy Legation Councillor in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in [[Berlin]], was born and raised in the city of [[Osnabrück]] as a son of a merchant, he was incited to a higher education by the example of his uncle [[Bernhard Rudolf Abeken]]. After finishing the college in Osnabrück, he moved in [[1827]] to visit the University of Berlin to study [[theology]]. He soon combined philosophical and philological studies and was interested in art and modern literature.
In [[1831]], Abeken acquired a [[licenciate]] of theology. At the end of the year he visited [[Rome]], and was welcomed in the house of [[Christian Karl Josias Freiherr von Bunsen]]. Abeken participated in Bunsen's works, namely an evangelic prayer and hymn-book. In [[1834]] became chaplain to the Prussian embassy in [[Rome]]. He married his first wife, who unfortunately died soon thereafter.
Bunsen left Rome in [[1838]] and Abeken followed soon thereafter to Germany. In [[1841]], he was sent to [[England]] to help founding an German-English evangelic [[episcopacy]] in [[Jerusalem]]. In the same year, he was sent by [[Frederick IV]] to [[Egypt]] and [[Ethiopia]], where he joined an expedition led by professor [[Karl Richard Lepsius]]. In [[1845]] and [[1846]] he returned via Jerusalem and Rome to Germany. He became Legation Councillor in Berlin, later Council Referee at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
In [[1848]] he received an appointment in the Prussian ministry for foreign affairs, and in [[1853]] was promoted to be privy councillor of legation (''Geheimer Legationsrath''). Abeken remained in charge for more than twenty years of Prussian politics, assisting [[Otto Theodor Freiherr von Manteuffel]] and [[Bismarck]]. The latter was so much pleased with Abeken's work that people started to call Abeken ''the feather of Bismarck''. Abeken married in [[1866]] [[Hedwig von Olfers]], daughter of the general director of the royal museums, Privy Council von Olfers.
He was much employed by [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]] in the writing of official despatches, and stood high in the favour of King William, whom he often accompanied on his journeys as representative of the foreign office. He was present with the king during the campaigns of [[1866]] and [[1870]]-71. In [[1851]] he published anonymously ''Babylon und Jerusalem,'' a slashing criticism of the views of the Countess von Hahn-Hahn.
During the war against Austria in [[1866]] as well as in the wars against France in [[1870]] and [[1871]], Abeken stayed in the Prussian headquarters. A major part of the dispatches of the time have been written by him. Unfortunately his health was damaged by the endeavours of these travels, and he died after an illness of several months. Emperor [[Wilhelm I of Germany]] described Abeken in a condolence letter to his widow: ''One of my most reliable advisors, standing on my side in the most decisive moments; His loss is irreplaceable to me; In him his fatherland has lost one of the most noble and most loyal men and officials.''
Despite his engagement in politics, Abeken never lost his interest in theology and continued to publish and speak in this sector during all of his life. He was interested in art and archeology, and was sponsor of the Archeological Institute of Rome and member of the Archeological Society of Rome. He founded a Circle of Friends of the Greek Literature in Berlin and was member of the prize commission for the royal Schiller-Prize.
See ''Heinrich Abeken, ein schlichtes Leben in bewegter Zeit'' ([[Berlin]], [[1898]]), by his widow. This is valuable by reason of the letters written from the Prussian headquarters.
==Publications==
* ''A letter to the Reverend E. B. Pusey in reference to certain charges against the German Church'', (1842)
* ''Babylon und Jerusalem'' (1851), letter to Countess Ida Hahn-Hahn
* ''Der Gottesdienst der alten Kirche'' (1853)
* ''Das religiöse Leben des Islam'' (1854)
* biography of Bunsen in the ''Jahrbuch zum Conversationslexikon (Leipzig, [[Brockhaus]]), Unsere Zeit'' (1861)
==Sources==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abeken, Heinrich}}
* ''Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie'' - [[s:de:ADB:Abeken, Heinrich|online version]] at [[Wikisource]]
{{1911}}
[[Category:1809 births|Abeken, Heinrich]]
[[Category:1872 deaths|Abeken, Heinrich]]
[[de:Heinrich Abeken]]
[[nl:Heinrich Abeken]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henry Bruce, 1st Baron Aberdare</title>
<id>14201</id>
<revision>
<id>39355971</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T16:45:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>George Burgess</username>
<id>205776</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Renfrewshire constituency link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron Aberdare''' [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]], [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] ([[April 16]][[1815]] &ndash; [[February 25]][[1895]])
was a [[United Kingdom|British]] statesman who served in government during the late [[19th century]], most notably as [[Secretary of State for the Home Department|Home Secretary]] and as [[Lord President of the Council]].
He was born at [[Duffryn]], [[Aberdare]], [[Glamorganshire]], the son of John Bruce, a Glamorganshire landowner. John Bruce's original family name was Knight, but on coming of age in [[1805]] he assumed the name of Bruce: his mother, through whom he inherited the Duffryn estate, was the daughter of William Bruce, high sheriff of Glamorganshire. Henry was educated at [[Swansea Grammar School]], and in [[1837]] was called to the [[barrister|bar]].
Shortly after he had begun to practise, the discovery of [[coal]] beneath the Duffryn and other Aberdare Valley [[estate (house)|estates]] brought the family great wealth. From [[1847]] to [[1854]] he was stipendiary magistrate for [[Merthyr Tydfil]] and Aberdare, resigning the position in the latter year, when he entered parliament as [[The Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] member for Merthyr Tydfil. During this time, he became involved in the management of the [[GKN plc|Dowlais Iron Company]]. In [[1862]] he became [[Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department]], and in [[1869]], after losing his seat at Merthyr Tydfil, but being re-elected for [[Renfrewshire (UK Parliament constituency)|Renfrewshire]], he was made Home Secretary by [[William Ewart Gladstone]].
His tenure of this office was conspicuous for a reform of the [[licensing |
win]] ([[Joshua Cox]])
* [[Lord Refa]] ([[William Forward]])
* [[Lorien (Babylon 5)|Lorien]] ([[Wayne Alexander]])
* [[Neroon]] ([[John Vickery]])
* [[Ta'Lon]] ([[Marshall Teague (actor)|Marshall Teague]])
* [[Emperor Cartagia]] ([[Wortham Krimmer]])
* [[Centauri Minister/Regent]] ([[Damian London]])
* [[Kosh]] (voiced by [[Ardwight Chamberlain]])
* [[Zathras]] ([[Tim Choate]])
There was also a group of actors who each played numerous bit parts, known informally as "The Babylon 5 Players". For example, each of the actors who played a Drazi ambassador during the series also appeared as another minor character elsewhere in the Babylon 5 saga.
{{see also|List of people involved with Babylon 5}}
===Babylon stations===
[[Image:Babylon5_01.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Another shot of the ''Babylon 5'' station]]
Babylon 5 is the fifth, and last, of the Babylon space stations. Its predecessors, the original Babylon station, Babylon 2 and Babylon 3 were all sabotaged and destroyed before their completion. Twenty-four hours after it became fully operational [[Babylon 4]] disappeared without a trace. The episode "[[Babylon Squared]]" and the two-part episode "[[War Without End]]" deal with the disappearance of Babylon 4. Babylon 5 is substantially smaller than the previous stations because so much money was spent on the prior stations. For example, Babylon 4 had its own propulsion system, while Babylon 5 has none.
Straczynski has said that he has detailed notes on the inauguration of the Babylon station program, and that one man was at the heart of the effort to get the first one built.
The three Babylon stations seen on screen were each a different color: Babylon 1 was red, Babylon 4 green, and Babylon 5 blue. (A persistent [[Fanon (fiction)|fanon]] rumor is that all five Babylon stations are colored in rainbow order - thus Babylon 2 would be orange, and Babylon 3 yellow. However, neither of those stations ever actually appeared onscreen.)
[[Bruce Boxleitner]] described the space station Babylon 5 as "... A free port for diplomats, travelers and businessmen. A combination of building the [[United Nations]] and [[Times Square]] on an intergalactic scale...", in the introduction of "The Guide to Babylon 5".
=== Ethnicity and language of characters ===
Most humans appear to mirror the ethnic composition of the [[United States]]. All speak American English, with the exception of Marcus Cole, who speaks with a distinct English accent. There is no account for possible evolutions of the language 250 years from now. Of the main characters, no one is from [[South America]], [[Africa]], or [[Asia]]. The latter two were represented in [[Babylon 5: The Gathering|the pilot episode]], but the characters of [[Benjamin Kyle]] and [[Laurel Takashima]] did not appear in the series.
Susan Ivanova, born in [[Russia]], speaks with an American accent, but has some posters with writings in the [[cyrillic alphabet]] in her room, possibly indicating she knows the language. When Ivanova tries to learn the Minbari language, she obtains comical results, such as the inability of even giving simple commands: given her mastery of English, it could be inferred she was raised with English as a mother tongue. Her name is consistently accented I'''va'''nova instead of Iva'''no'''va, which would be correct in [[Russian language|Russian]]; however, this might fall in the boundaries of the evolution of Russian over a 250-year span.
Michael Garibaldi, with an [[Italian language|Italian]] last name and an [[English language|English]] first name, also speaks with an American accent, and at no time is shown to know Italian. In one episode he mentions that his grandmother was a [[Boston]] police officer. However, he retains a heritage in that he orders Italian foodstuffs such as [[mozzarella]] by mail. He is also able to learn to read written Narn in a very short time, indicating exceptional linguistic skills, when reading the [[Book of G'Quan]] that G'Kar had loaned him. His name is also consistently mispronounced as "gah-ree-'''bohl'''-dee" instead of "gah-ree-'''bahl'''-dee". Garibaldi is a fairly uncommon surname in [[Italy]], but it is the surname of national hero [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]].
=== Usage of English ===
Most aliens are able to speak human sounds, and speak English correctly; Londo Mollari is one of the few with a noticeable accent; however, most other Centauri do not have the accent. This accent was developed independently by actor Peter Jurasik and was most closely imitated by the actor playing Lord Refa. Of other aliens, G'Kar has a particular gift for speech and writing in both Narn and English.
Of all aliens, only Minbari are shown to speak a [[Minbari#Language|different language]], heard only when humans are present to stress that they cannot understand what is being said. When Minbari are shown talking to each other, speeches are always in English; the same is true for Narn, Centauri and other races. English is therefore used to avoid long sequences with subtitles.
English, however, is mentioned explicitly as the "Earth language of commerce". No human speaking a language different than English is shown, but Marcus Cole makes a joke about the [[France|French]] when some of the [[First Ones]] refuse to speak English even if he understood it, suggesting that there are still French speakers who are hostile to the English language.
Various human characters appear who speak English with recognizable regional accents. Among them are British English (the telepath [[Byron (Babylon 5)|Byron]], the character who introduces the Night Watch, and also [[Knight One]] in "[[And the Sky Full of Stars]]"), New Zealand (woman hiring the monks in "[[Passing Through Gethsemane]]"), a Nigerian accent used by a character called David Endawi in "Matters of Honour"), Australian (Ivanova's ex-boyfriend in "[[The War Prayer (Babylon 5)|The War Prayer]]") and a Hispanic dock worker in "[[By Any Means Necessary (Babylon 5)|By Any Means Necessary]]", to mention but a few. Most of these are the native accents of the actor playing the role. The actor playing "Captain Jack" in "[[Racing Mars]]" spoke with a strange combination of Australian, American and Cockney accents all at once.
==Civilizations==
{{main|Civilizations in Babylon 5}}
[[Image:B5_aliens.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[G'Kar]] (left) of the [[Narn Regime]] and [[Londo Mollari]] of the [[Centauri Republic]].]]
One of the show's many themes is the cultural and social interaction between civilizations: the station is, after all, a diplomatic meeting-place. The show is as much political thriller as science fiction.
Five dominant civilizations are represented on Babylon 5, and more than a dozen less powerful ones.
==Themes==
Through its ongoing story arc, Babylon 5 found ways to portray [[theme (literary)|theme]]s relevant to modern social issues.
===Authoritarianism vs. chaos; light vs. dark vs. gray===
The central theme in Babylon 5 is the conflict between order and chaos, and the people caught in between.
The Vorlons and the Earth Alliance Government (as it had been under [[President Clark]]) both represent oppressive, [[authoritarian]] philosophies: you will do what we tell you to, because we tell you to do it. ''Who are you?'' Are you willing to sacrifice yourself for a greater cause, or are you merely serving your own petty interests?
The Shadows represent chaos. Their belief is that by creating conflict, a stronger generation is born &mdash; pure "survival of the fittest". To accomplish this, the Shadows encourage conflict between other groups, who choose to serve their own glory or profit. ''What do you want?'' Money, territory, fame, power?
The Rangers, composed mainly of Minbari and Humans with a scattering of other races, represent a third way; their unwavering commitment to compassion and self-sacrifice, epitomised by the character of [[Marcus Cole]], opposes both the emotionless war of the Vorlons and the chaotic brutality of the Shadows.
Ultimately, the main characters try to strike a balance: sometimes selfish, sometimes self-sacrificing, and making many mistakes along the way. Sometimes they impress us, and sometimes they horrify us. ''Do you have anything worth living for?'' Do you love? Do you have a true calling? What is the purpose of your life? "Why are you here?"
Straczynski occasionally hinted that there was a "fourth question." One possibility is [[Lorien (Babylon 5)|Lorien]]'s final question to Sheridan: "Where are you going?"
It is (intentionally) ironic that the Earth Alliance government, an incarnation of Vorlon-style order, informally allied itself with the Shadows during the course of the series.
=== War and peace ===
The ''Babylon 5'' timeline includes numerous major armed conflicts:
* World War III, erupting in the year 2076 AD, ultimately ending in 2084 with the loss of countless human lives. The [[Earth Alliance (Babylon 5)|Earth Alliance]] is founded out of the ashes of this conflict.
* The first war between the [[Narn]] and [[Centauri (Babylon 5)|Centauri]], which ends four decades before the series.
* The war between the [[Dilgar]] and the League of Non-Aligned Worlds (aided by the [[Earth Alliance (Babylon 5)|Earth Alliance]]), which takes place three decades before the series.
* The war between the [[Humans]] and the [[Minbari]] (the Earth-Minbari War), which takes place ten years before the series starts.
* The second war between the [[Narn]] and [[Centauri (Babylon 5)|Centauri]], which takes place during the series.
* The aeons-old conflict between the [[Vorlons]] and the [[Shadow (Babylon 5)|Shadows]], which breaks out again during the series after a thousand-year lull.
* The civil war between the Minbari religious and warrior castes.
* The civil war between [ |
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<page>
<title>Impact crater</title>
<id>6416</id>
<revision>
<id>41513965</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:46:12Z</timestamp>
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<username>Wetman</username>
<id>21492</id>
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<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:mooncrater.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Tycho (crater)|Tycho crater]] on [[Planet Earth|Earth's]] [[moon]]. ''[[NASA]]&nbsp;photo.'']]
An '''impact crater''' ('''impact basin''' or sometimes '''crater''') is a circular [[depression (geology)|depression]] on a surface, usually referring to a [[planet]], [[natural satellite|moon]], [[asteroid]], or other celestial body, caused by a collision of a smaller body ([[meteor]]) with the surface.
Ancient craters whose relief has disappeared leaving only a "ghost" of a crater are known as [[palimpsest]]s. Although it might be assumed that a major impact on the Earth would leave behind absolutely unmistakable evidence, in fact the gradual processes that change the surface of the Earth tend to cover the effects of impacts. [[Erosion]] by wind and water, deposits of wind-blown sand and water-carried [[sediment]], and lava flows in due time tend to obscure or bury the craters left by impacts. Simple slumping of weak crustal material can also play a role, especially on outer solar system bodies such as [[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]] which are covered in a crust of ice.
However, some evidence remains, and over 150 major craters have been identified on the Earth. Studies of these craters have allowed [[Geology |geologists]] to find the remaining traces of other craters that have mostly been obliterated. Impact craters are found on nearly all solid surface planets and satellites. As the
number of impact craters increases on a surface, the appearance of the surfaces changes; this can be used to establish the age of extraterrestrial terrain. After a period of time, however, an equilibrium is reached in which old craters are destroyed as quickly as new craters form.
==History==
[[Image:MeteorCraterPanorama.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Meteor Crater in Arizona]]
[[Daniel Barringer]] (1860-1929) was one of the first to identify a geological structure as an impact crater, the Barringer [[Meteorite]] Crater (or the "[[Barringer Crater|Meteor Crater]]") in [[Arizona]], but at the time his ideas were not widely accepted, and when they were, there was no recognition of the fact that Earth impacts are common in geological terms.
In the 1920s, the American geologist [[Walter H. Bucher]] studied a number of craters in the US. He concluded they had been created by some great explosive event, but believed they were the result of some massive volcanic eruption. However, in 1936, the geologists [[John D. Boon]] and [[Claude C. Albritton Jr.]] revisited Bucher's studies and concluded the craters he studied were probably formed by impacts.
The issue remained more or less speculative until the 1960s. A number of researchers, most notably [[Eugene M. Shoemaker]], conducted detailed studies of the craters that provided clear evidence that they had been created by impacts, identifying the shock-metamorphic effects uniquely associated with impacts, of which the most familiar is [[Shocked quartz]].
Armed with the knowledge of shock-metamorphic features, [[Carlyle S. Beals]] and colleagues at the [[Dominion Observatory]], ([[Victoria, British Columbia]], [[Canada]]), and [[Wolf von Engelhardt]] of the [[University of Tübingen]] in [[Germany]] began a methodical search for "impact structures". By 1970, they had tentatively identified more than 50.
Their work remained controversial, but the American [[Apollo program|Apollo]] Moon landings, which were in progress at the time, provided evidence of the rate of impact cratering on the [[Moon]]. Processes of erosion on the Moon are minimal and so craters persist almost indefinitely. Since the Earth could be expected to have roughly the same cratering rate as the Moon, it became clear that the Earth had suffered far more impacts than could be seen by counting evident craters.
The age of known impact craters on the Earth ranges from about a thousand (e.g. the [[Haviland crater]] in Kansas) to almost two billion years, though few older than 200 million years have been found, as geological processes tend to obliterate older ones. They are also selectively found in the [[craton|stable interior regions of continents]]. Few underwater craters have been discovered because of the difficulty of surveying the sea floor; the rapid rate of change of the ocean bottom; and the [[subduction zone|subduction of the ocean floor]] into the Earth's interior by processes of [[plate tectonics]].
Current estimates of the rate of cratering on the Earth suggest that from one to three craters with a width greater than 20 kilometers are created every million years. This indicates that there are far more relatively young craters on the planet than have been discovered so far.
== Formation and structure ==
An object falling from open space hits the Earth with a minimum velocity of 11.6 km/s (7 mi/s). Since the energy from motion grows as the square of the velocity, this gives moving rock more energy per kilogram than ordinary chemical explosives. Massive objects can easily cause kiloton explosions that resemble nuclear explosions. Seismographs record about one multikiloton impact somewhere on the Earth each year, usually in mid-ocean.
If the object weighs more than 1,000 tonnes, an atmosphere does not slow it down much, though smaller bodies can be substantially slowed by atmospheric drag, as they have a higher ratio of surface area to mass. In any case, the temperatures and pressures on the object are extremely high. These temperature and pressure extremes can destroy [[chondrite|chondritic]] or [[carbonaceous chondrite|carbonaceous chondritic]] bodies before they ever reach ground, but metallic iron-nickel meteorites have more structural integrity and can strike the surface of the Earth in a violent explosion.
When the object hits, it compresses a column of air, water and rock into an extremely hot [[Plasma physics|plasma]]. This plasma expands violently, and cools rapidly (i.e. it explodes). The plasma and other ejecta splashes at orbital or near-orbital speeds. It can be thrown off into space, or can travel several times around the planet before re-entering as secondary meteors. Airless planets usually preserve stains of the ejecta around impact craters as a pattern of "rays". Other non-impact theories for crater-ray formation have been suggested, in the scientific literature.
[[Image:Valhalla_crater_on_Callisto.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Multi-ringed crater Valhalla on Jupiter's moon Callisto]]
Very energetic chemistry occurs in the plasma. In an Earth impact, powerful acids can be formed from saltwater and air. The vaporized rock of the plasma condenses into characteristic cone-shaped droplets of glass called [[tektite]]s, and these are widely distributed by the high speeds. Tektites are found in isolated strewnfields on Earth. Note: Several researchers reject the popular impact-origin theory of tektites based on comparisons to bonafide impactite glasses. Curiously, the largest and youngest (700,000 years ago) tektite strewnfield, known as the Australasian field, has no known crater associated with it; this fact strongly suggests that, at least in this case, the tektites are not linked to an impact. A giant "fresh" impact site, less than a million years old, should be visible on land or in the sea. No such Asian impact crater has ever been found..
Oceanic impacts can be considerably more damaging than those on land. Large objects will invariably penetrate or displace the water to impact the seabed, causing huge [[tsunami]]s over a large area. The impact at [[Chicxulub, Yucatán]] is believed to have produced tsunamis 50 to 100 metres (150-300 feet) high which deposited debris many miles inland.
The result of an impact on land or at sea is a crater. There are two forms, "simple" and "complex". The [[Barringer crater]] in [[Arizona]] is a perfect example of a simple crater, a straightforward bowl in the ground. Simple craters are generally less than four kilometers across.
Complex craters are larger, and have uplifted centers that are surrounded by a trough, plus broken rims. The uplifted center is due to the "rebound" of the earth after the impact. It is something like the ripple pattern created by a drop of water into a pool, frozen into the Earth when the melted rock cooled and solidified.
[[Image:Mimas_moon.jpg|frame|right|Giant impact crater on Saturn's moon Mimas]]
In either case, the size of the crater depends on the size of the impactor and the material in the impact regions. Relatively soft materials yield smaller craters than brittle materials. The size of craters invariably changes over time; in the short term, craters shrink as a result of slumping, and over the longer term [[erosion]] and other geological processes quickly hide impact craters on the Earth. The Barringer Crater is one of the best-preserved on the planet, but it is only about 50,000 years old. There are almost no signs of the 65 million yea |
ized when they opened for [[Bill Haley and his Comets]] at a local rock show organized by Eddie Crandall, who was also the manager for [[Marty Robbins]]. As a result of this performance, Holley was offered a contract with [[Decca Records]] to work alone. However, early success as a solo artist eluded him.
Back in Lubbock, Holley formed his own band, "[[The Crickets]]", and began making records at [[Norman Petty]]'s studios in [[Clovis, New Mexico]]. Among the songs they recorded was "[[That'll Be the Day]]", which took its title from a phrase which [[John Wayne]]'s character said repeatedly in the 1956 film, ''[[The Searchers (movie)|The Searchers]]''. Norman had music industry contacts, and believing that "That'll Be the Day" would be a hit single, he contacted publishers and labels. Coral Records, a subsidiary of Decca, signed Buddy Holly and The Crickets. This put Buddy in the unusual position of having two record contracts at the same time. Before "That'll Be The Day" had its nationwide release and became a smash hit, Holley played lead guitar on the hit-single "Starlight", recorded in April 1957, featuring [[Jack Huddle]]. The Crickets actually created two versions of the song, the initial unsuccessful version played more slowly and about half an octave higher than the hit version.
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Buddyhollycrickets.jpg|thumb|left|"The Crickets": Jerry Allison, Buddy Holly and Joe Mauldin]] -->
Holly's music was sophisticated for its day, including the use of [[musical instrument|instruments]] considered novel for rock and roll, such as the [[celesta]] (heard on "Everyday"). Holly was an influential lead and rhythm [[guitarist]], notably on songs such as "[[Peggy Sue]]" and "[[Not Fade Away (song)|Not Fade Away]]". While Holly could pump out boy-loves-girl songs with the best of his contemporaries, other songs featured more sophisticated lyrics and more complex harmonies and melodies than had been previously shown in the genre.
Many of his songs feature a unique vocal "hiccup" technique, a clipped "uh" sound used to emphasize certain words in any given song, especially the rockers. Other singers have used a similar technique, though less obviously and consistently. Example, the start of the raucous number "Rave On": "Weh-UH-eh-UH-ell, the little things you say and do, make me want to be with you-UH-ou...". Or this, from "That'll Be the Day": "Well, you give me all your lovin' and your UH-turtle dovin'..."
Holly also managed to bridge some of the racial divide that punctuated rock, notably winning over an all-black audience when accidentally booked for New York's [[Apollo Theater]] (though, unlike the fictional portrayal in his movie biography, it took several performances for audiences to be convinced of his talents).
After the release of several highly successful songs, in March [[1958]], he and the Crickets toured the [[United Kingdom]]. In the audience were teenagers named [[John Lennon]] and [[Paul McCartney]], who later cited Holly as a primary influence (the band's name, [[The Beatles]], was later chosen partly in homage to Holly's Crickets). The Beatles did a [[cover version]] of "Words of Love" that was an almost perfect reproduction of Holly's version. [[The Rolling Stones]] did a cover of "[[Not Fade Away]]." The group, [[The Hollies]] were named in homage.
Holly's personal style, more controlled and cerebral than [[Elvis Presley|Elvis]]'s and more youthful and innovative than the [[country and western]] stars of his day, would have an influence on [[youth culture]] on both sides of the Atlantic for decades to come, reflected particularly in the [[New Wave music|New Wave]] movement in artists such as [[Elvis Costello]] and [[Marshall Crenshaw]], and earlier in [[folk rock]] bands like [[The Byrds]] and [[The Turtles]].
He married [[Maria Elena Holly|Maria Elena Santiago]] on [[August 15]] [[1958]].
In [[1959]], Holly split with the Crickets and began a solo tour with other notable performers including [[Ritchie Valens]] and [[The Big Bopper|J.P. Richardson]], "The Big Bopper". One audience member at the tour stop in [[Duluth, Minnesota]] was a young Bobby Zimmerman who would later be known as [[Bob Dylan]].
[[Image:HollyStatue.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Buddy Holly statue in Lubbock]]
Following the [[February 2]] performance at the [[Surf Ballroom]] in [[Clear Lake, Iowa|Clear Lake]], [[Iowa]], Buddy Holly chartered a [[Beechcraft Bonanza]] to take him and his new Crickets band ([[Tommy Allsup]] and [[Waylon Jennings]]) to [[Fargo, North Dakota]]. Richardson came down with the [[influenza|flu]] and didn't feel comfortable on the bus, so Jennings gave his plane seat to him. Valens had never flown on a small plane and requested Allsup's seat. They flipped a coin, and Valens called heads and won the toss. The four-passenger Beechcraft Bonanza took off into a blinding snow storm and crashed into Albert Juhl's corn field several miles after takeoff at 1:05 A.M. The crash killed Holly, Valens, Richardson, and pilot Roger Peterson, leaving Holly's pregnant bride, [[Maria Elena Holly]], a widow (she would miscarry soon after).
Although the crash received a good deal of local coverage, it was displaced in the national news by a crash that occurred the same day in [[New York City]], when an [[American Airlines]] Lockheed Electra crashed during an instrument landing approach at [[LaGuardia Airport]]. In that crash, 65 died and 7 survived.
[[Image:HollyGrave850909.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Buddy Holly's gravestone]]
Holly's funeral services were held at the Tabernacle Baptist Church in [[Lubbock, Texas|Lubbock]], [[Texas]], and his body was interred in the City of Lubbock Cemetery.
Holly's headstone carries the correct spelling of his name, Buddy Holley. It also features a carving of his [[Fender Stratocaster]] guitar. Downtown Lubbock has a "walk of fame" with plaques to various area artists such as [[Mac Davis]] and [[Waylon Jennings]], with a life-size statue of Buddy, playing his Fender guitar, as its centerpiece.
The tragic plane crash inspired [[Mike Berry]] & [[The Outlaws (UK band)|The Outlaws]]' single ''Tribute To Buddy Holly'' ([[1961]]), and singer [[Don McLean]]'s popular [[1971]] [[ballad]] "[[American Pie (song)|American Pie]]", and immortalized [[February 3]] as "[[The Day the Music Died]]". Contrary to popular myth, "American Pie" was ''not'' the name of the ill-fated 'plane.
The [[Surf Ballroom]], a popular and old-fashioned dance hall that dates to the height of [[Big Band Era]], continues to put on shows, notably an annual Buddy Holly tribute on the anniversary of his last performances.
== Tributes ==
[[Image:HollyMonument.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Monument at Crash Site, <br>[[September 16]] [[2003]].]]
In [[1988]], Ken Paquette, a Wisconsin fan of the 1950s, erected a stainless steel monument depicting a steel guitar and a set of three records bearing the names of each of the three performers. It is located on private farmland, about one quarter mile west of the intersection of 315th Street and Gull Avenue, approximately five miles north of Clear Lake. He also created a similar stainless steel monument to the three musicians near the Riverside Ballroom in [[Green Bay, Wisconsin|Green Bay]], [[Wisconsin]]. That memorial was unveiled on [[July 17]] [[2003]].
The dramatic arc of Holly's life story inspired a Hollywood biography ''[[The Buddy Holly Story]]'', for which actor [[Gary Busey]] received a nomination for [[Academy Award for Best Actor]] for his portrayal of Holly, as well as successful [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] and [[West End theatre|West End]] musicals documenting his career. The West End musical, ''Buddy'', ran for seven years. The movie, while entertaining received wide criticism from the rock community for its wild inaccuracies. This led Paul McCartney to produce and host his own tribute to Holly, entitled "The Real Buddy Holly Story." This authoritative video includes interviews with Keith Richards, Phil and Don Everly, Sonny Curtis, Jerry Allison, Holly's family, and McCartney himself, among others.
Buddy Holly is considered one of the founding fathers of rock 'n roll and one of its most influential. Although his career was cut short, his body of work is considered some of the best in rock music history and his music would influence not only many of his recording contemporaries, but also the future direction music would take. As one of the capstones of rock 'n' roll, Buddy influenced groups for decades.
The [[science fiction]] novel ''Buddy Holly Is Alive and Well on Ganymede'', by [[Bradley Denton]] (ISBN 0688108229 and ISBN 0380718766), begins when television sets throughout the world suddenly begin broadcasting a concert by an apparently living Buddy Holly, who says he is on [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]].
[[Terry Pratchett]]'s novel ''[[Soul Music]]'' features a protagonist whose name translates to "Bud Y Holly".
"Oil", an episode of ''[[The Young Ones (TV series)|The Young Ones]]'' features Mike ([[Christopher Ryan]]) discovering Buddy Holly, alive and well and tangled in parachutes, in the attic of a house in London. Holly comments that he loves "your British beetles", as he has been eating them since the plane crash. Mike asks Holly if he has come up with any new material, and Holly plays a brief song about eating crickets...then his parachute strap suddenly breaks, slamming him into the floor and killing him. Mike later hands off a duffle bag containing Holly's corpse to two minor characters, asking them to "take care of my Buddy."
The 1998 film "Six-String Samurai," a surreal romp through an alternate-timeline p |
e interest in the VFL led to a more national competition; two more non-Victorian clubs, the [[West Coast Eagles]] and the [[Brisbane Bears Football Club|Brisbane Bears]] began playing in 1987.
The league changed its name to the [[Australian Football League]] (AFL) following the 1989 season. In 1991, it gained its first South Australian team, [[Adelaide Crows|Adelaide]]. West Coast's [[local derby]] rival [[Fremantle Football Club|Fremantle]] was admitted in 1995. Fitzroy merged with Brisbane after 1996 due to financial difficulties to form the [[Brisbane Lions]] and the proud old SANFL club, [[Port Adelaide Football Club|Port Adelaide]] joined in 1997, immediately becoming fierce local rivals to Adelaide. The AFL, currently with 16 member clubs, is the sport's elite competition.
===Today's state leagues===
For much of the [[20th century]] the SANFL and the WAFL were considered peers of the VFL. Although the VFL was generally accepted as the strongest league, clubs from all three leagues frequently played each other on an even footing in challenge matches and occasional nationwide club competitions.
With the introduction of the AFL, the SANFL, WAFL and other state leagues rapidly declined to a secondary status. Apart from these there are many semi-professional and amateur leagues around Australia, where they play a very important role in the community, and particularly so in rural areas.
The VFA, still in existence a century after the original schism, merged with the former VFL reserves competition in 1998. The new entity adopted the VFL name.
:''See also:'' [http://www.sanfl.com.au/ Official SANFL site], [http://www.wafl.com.au/ Official WAFL site], [http://www.vafa.asn.au/ Official Victorian Amateur Football Association (VAFA) site]
===Traditions of the game===
====Gameday Traditions====
[[Image:Footybanner.jpg|thumb|250px|A banner for [[Essendon Football Club]]]]
At the elite level, the game still retains some links to its suburban roots. At the start of each game, AFL players run on to the field through a [[paper | crêpe paper]] banner depicting some message (for instance, congratulating players on a milestone number of games) constructed by volunteer supporter groups.
Games begin by [[tossing a coin]], for the winning captain to select the end of the field of their goal for the first quarter. Unlike other forms of football, Australian football begins similarly to [[basketball]]. After the first [[siren]], the [[umpire]] bounces the ball on the ground, and the two [[ruckman|ruckmen]] (typically the tallest man from the each team), battle for the ball in the air on its way back down.
All AFL clubs also have a [[fight song|club song]], most of which were composed during the early [[20th century]], or mimic the musical styles of that era (exceptions being the newer teams of West Coast, Fremantle, Port Adelaide and the former [[Brisbane Bears]] each with non-traditional songs). Some teams use club songs set to the tunes of well-known [[United States|American]] marches. Both teams songs are played as they enter the ground, and the winners song is sung at the end of the game.
The goal umpire signals a goal with 2 hands raised at elbow height, or one for a behind, and then confirms the signal with the other goal umpire by waving flags above his head.
Some traditions change, however, and the goal umpire no longer wears a white coat and broad brimmed hat.
====Supporter Traditions====
''See also [[List of nicknames used in Australian rules]].''
Australian rules is often referred to as the ''people's game'' [http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/09/26/1064083189800.html?from=storyrhs] due to its ability to transcend class and racial boundaries, unify supporters and attract crowds.
Aussie rules fans ''barrack'' for their team rather than support or ''root for'' (in Australia, 'root' is slang for [[sexual intercourse]]). The term ''barrack'' is believed to have from early matches between soldiers stationed in army barracks near the MCG. One of the first things many Melburnians will ask when meeting someone new is which team they barrack for.
Typical supporter wear includes the team [[scarf]] and sometimes [[beanie]] (mostly in the cooler states) in the colours of the team. These traditions originated from Melbourne where winters are colder than in most other parts of Australia. Team flags are sometimes flown by supporters, and official club cheersquads behind the goals will sometimes wave enormous coloured [[pompon]]s konwn as ''floggers'' after the umpire has signalled a goal.
[[Meat pie]]s and [[beer]] are the popular consumables for supporters at Australian rules matches. Mobile vendors walk around the ground selling such items (except for beer, as liquor licensing laws would not allow this), yelling out the well known call of "hot pies, cold drinks!"
At the end of the match, it is traditional for a ''[[pitch invasion]]'' where supporters run onto the field to celebrate the game and play games of kick-to-kick with their families. In recent years, this has been more strictly controlled with [[security guards]] to ensure that players and officials can safely leave the ground. Sometimes a mid-game ''pitch invasion'' is expected for various landmark achievements, such as a player kicking a record number of goals and players are protected by bodyguards.
==Popularity==
Australian rules football has attracted more overall interest among Australians than any other winter sport for at least several years.[http://www.sweeneyresearch.com.au/PDF/Interest.pdf][http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/05/22/1053196670542.html]
A recent survey has suggested that the sport recently took over from [[swimming]] as the most popular sport in Australia [http://www.thesundaymail.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5936,17792967%255E23211,00.html].
It is popular in two countries which are former Australian territories: [[Papua New Guinea]] and [[Nauru]].
[[Cricket]] is the most common summer spectator sport in Australia, and is usually played on the same grounds as Australian football. In the past, many elite-level footballers also played representative cricket, but the increasingly professional nature of the game made this impossible by the [[1980s]].
Australian rules is the most popular form of football in the [[Northern Territory]] (NT), [[South Australia]] (SA), [[Tasmania]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and [[Western Australia]] (WA). In [[New South Wales]] (NSW) and [[Queensland]] overall, [[rugby league]] is the predominant winter sport. In the [[Australian Capital Territory]] (ACT) [[rugby union]] is arguably more popular. However, in both the ACT and south-western NSW, Australian football has rivalled the two varieties of rugby in popularity over many decades. In addition, ongoing net migration from Victoria, SA and Tasmania to Queensland and NSW, the winning of AFL premierships by teams in those states and the consequent growth of amateur football, means that the [[demography|demographics]] of Australian football are changing.
In recent years, Australian rules has become increasingly popular in Brisbane, undoubtedly due to the recent success of the [[Brisbane Lions]], who won three premierships in a row (2001-2003) and finished runner-up in 2004. Popularity in Sydney has increased since the [[Sydney Swans]] made their first Grand Final appearance in 1996. In 2005, the team won their first premiership since relocating to Sydney in 1982, and the club's first since 1933 (as the [[South Melbourne Swans]]). The increasing marketshare in these states has boosted the national popularity of the code.
===Audience===
====Attendance====
Australian football is the most highly attended spectator sport in Australia: government figures show that more than 2.5 million people (16.8% of the population) attended games in 1999 [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/e298cee24565c911ca256def007248ff?OpenDocument]. In 2005, 6,283,788 people attended [[Australian Football League]] (AFL) premiership matches [http://www.smh.com.au/news/Sport/Aussie-Rules-sets-attendance-record/2005/08/28/1125167544791.html], a record for the competition. A further 307,181 attended [[NAB Cup]] pre-season matches and 117,552 attended Regional Challenge pre-season practice matches around the country [http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:QSxF-7E66dcJ:afl.com.au/default.asp%3Fpg%3Dwizardcup%26spg%3Ddisplay%26articleid%3D190187].
As well as the AFL attendances, strong state competitions also drew crowds. Although crowds for local leagues have suffered since the national competition, they continue to draw support, particularly for finals matches. The South Australian [[South Australian National Football League|SANFL]] drew an attendance of 303,354 in 2005, the Western Australian [[West Australian Football League|WAFL]] drew an official attendance of 202,797 in 2004 and the Victorian [[Victorian Football League|VFL]] (including a Tasmanian side, the [[Tasmanian Devils|Devils]]) also drew strong crowds (but with no available attendance figures).
As of 2005 the AFL is one of only five professional sports leagues in the world with an average [[Sports attendance|attendance]] above thirty thousand (the others are [[NFL]] and [[Major League Baseball]] in the United States, and the top division soccer leagues in [[Bundesliga (football)|Germany]], and [[FA Premier League|England]]).
:''See also: [[Sports attendances]]''
====Attendance records====
{{main|Australian rules football attendance records}}
The record attendance for a single game was 121,696 at the 1970 VFL Grand Final, between Carlton and Collingwood, at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]]. The record for a game outside Victoria was the 72,393 who attended a game between Sydney and Collingwood at [[Telstra Stadium]], [[Sydney]] in 2003. The record attendance for a non AFL/VFL match is 66,897 at the 1976 [[SANFL]] Grand Final, played between Sturt and Port Adelaide at [[Footba |
d Rumsfeld]] and his colleagues [[Paul Wolfowitz]] and [[Richard Perle]]. Powell's great asset was his tremendous popularity among the American people. However, over the course of his tenure he traveled less than any other U.S. Secretary of State in 30 years, which may have contributed to the declining image of the United States abroad.
After [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11]], Powell's job became of critical importance in managing America's relationships with foreign countries in order to secure a stable coalition in the [[War on Terrorism]]. However, some of his actions during the War on Terrorism have been controversial, prompting heavy criticism from some parties.
In April 2002, he visited the site of the [[Jenin Massacre]] in the occupied [[West Bank]] and later said while testifying to Congress, "I've seen no evidence that would suggest a massacre took place." Recalling the My Lai episode, critics condemned Powell as a "company man" unwilling to confront uncomfortable realities or rock the boat. These critical comments came at a time when details of the events at Jenin were still unclear. Later investigations by human rights organizations and the United Nations confirmed the Israeli estimate for the number of Palestinians, including militants, dead in the fighting, placing the figure at 52.
[[Image:shalom_powell.jpg|thumb|left|295px|Colin Powell with [[Silvan Shalom]].]]
More recently, Powell has come under fire for his role in building the case for the [[2003 Invasion of Iraq]]. In a press statement on [[February 24]], [[2001]] he had said that sanctions against Iraq had prevented the development of any weapons of mass destruction by [[Saddam Hussein]]. As was the case in the days leading up to the Persian Gulf War, Powell was initially opposed to a forcible overthrow of Hussein, preferring to continue a policy of containment. However, Powell eventually agreed to go along with the Bush administration's determination to remove Hussein. He had often clashed with the hawks in the administration, who were reportedly planning an Iraq invasion even before the September 11 attacks—an insight supported by testimony by former terrorism czar [[Richard A. Clarke|Richard Clarke]] in front of the [[9/11 Commission]]. The main concession Powell wanted before he would offer his full support for the Iraq War was the involvement of the international community in the invasion, as opposed to the unilateral approach some of the hawks were advocating. He was also successful in persuading Bush to take the case of Iraq to the United Nations, and in moderating other initiatives. Powell was placed at the forefront of this diplomatic campaign.
[[Image:IraqMobileProductionFacilities.jpg|thumb|305px|Computer-generated image of an alleged mobile production facility for biological weapons, presented by Colin Powell at the UN [[The UN Security Council and the Iraq war|Security Council]]. Absence of more substantial proofs undermined the credibility of the speech on the international scene. Russian experts have always questioned the existence of such mobile facilities, which would be extremely dangerous and difficult to manage.]]
Powell's chief role was to [[The UN Security Council and the Iraq war|garner international support]] for a multi-national [[coalition]] to mount the invasion. To this end, Powell addressed a plenary session of the [[United Nations Security Council]] on [[February 5]], [[2003]] to argue in favor of military action. Citing "numerous" anonymous Iraqi defectors, Powell asserted that "there can be no doubt that Saddam Hussein has biological weapons and the capability to rapidly produce more, many more." [http://www.state.gov/secretary/former/powell/remarks/2003/17300.htm] Powell also stated that there was "no doubt in my mind" that Saddam was working to obtain key components to produce nuclear weapons.
While Powell's oratorical skills and personal conviction were acknowledged, there was an overall rejection of the evidence Powell offered that the regime of Saddam Hussein possessed [[weapons of mass destruction]] (WMDs). A Senate report on intelligence failures would later detail the intense debate that went on behind the scenes on what to include in Powell's speech. State Department analysts had found dozens of factual problems in drafts of the speech. Some of the claims were taken out, but others were left in, such as claims based on the [[yellowcake forgery]]. [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines04/0715-05.htm] The administration is currently under fire for having acted on faulty intelligence. Reports have indicated that Powell himself was skeptical of the evidence presented to him. <!-- anyone have a link? --> In September 2005, Powell was asked about the speech during an interview with [[Barbara Walters]] and responded that it was a "blot" on his record. He went on to say, "it will always be a part of my record. It was painful. It's painful now." [http://abcnews.go.com/2020/Politics/story?id=1105979&page=1][http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/politics/wire/sns-ap-powell-iraq,1,1466470.story?coll=sns-ap-politics-headlines]
Because Powell is seen as more moderate than most figures in the administration, he has been spared many of the attacks that have been leveled at more controversial advocates of the invasion, such as Donald Rumsfeld and Paul Wolfowitz. At times, infighting between the Powell-led State Department, the Rumsfeld-led Defense Department, and Vice President [[Dick Cheney]]'s office had the effect of paralyzing the administration on crucial issues, such as what actions to take regarding Iran and North Korea.
[[Image:Jaap de Hoop Scheffer.jpg|thumb|left|Secretary Powell with NATO Secretary General [[Jaap de Hoop Scheffer]].]]
After Saddam Hussein had been deposed, Powell's new role was to once again establish a working international coalition, this time to assist in the rebuilding of post-war Iraq. On [[September 13]], [[2004]], Powell testified before the Senate Governmental Affairs Committee, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A18890-2004Sep13.html] acknowledging that the sources who provided much of the information in his February 2003 UN presentation were "wrong" and that it was "unlikely" that any stockpiles of WMDs would be found. Claiming that he was unaware that some intelligence officials questioned the information prior to his presentation, Powell pushed for reform in the intelligence community, including the creation of a national intelligence director who would assure that "what one person knew, everyone else knew".
Colin Powell announced his resignation on Monday, [[November 15]], [[2004]]. He announced that he would stay on until his replacement's confirmation by Congress. The following day, George W. Bush nominated National Security Advisor [[Condoleezza Rice]], as Powell's successor. News of his resignation spurred mixed reactions from politicians around the world—some upset at the loss of a statesman seen as a moderating factor within the Bush administration, but others hoping for Powell's successor to wield more influence within the cabinet, and thus be a more credible negotiator.
In mid-November, Colin Powell stated that he had information indicating that [[Iran]] was adapting missiles for a nuclear delivery system. ''[[The New York Times]]'' indicated that the accusation was founded on a single, unreliable source. The accusation came at the same time as the settlement of an agreement between the [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]], the [[European Union]] and [[Iran]].
On [[December 31]], [[2004]], Powell rang in the New Year by throwing the ball in [[Times Square]] with New York City Mayor [[Michael Bloomberg]], ushering in the year 2005. He appeared on the networks that were broadcasting New Year's Eve specials and talked about this honor, as well as being a native of New York City, [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]], [[CNN]], [http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0412/31/se.01.html] and [[Fox News Channel]].
==Life after politics==
After retiring from the role of Secretary of State, Powell returned to private life, but in April 2005 he [http://www.guardian.co.uk/usa/story/0,12271,1468438,00.html telephoned] Republican senators [[Lincoln Chafee]] and [[Chuck Hagel]] to express his opposition to the nomination of [[John R. Bolton]] as ambassador to the [[United Nations]] (Powell had clashed with him during Bush's first term). The decision was viewed as potentially dealing significant damage to Bolton's chances of confirmation.
On [[28 April]] ''[[The Guardian]]'' reported that Powell was in fact "conducting a campaign" against Bolton because of the acrimonious battles they had had whilst working together, which among other things had resulted in Powell cutting Bolton out of talks with Iran and Libya after complaints about Bolton's involvement from the British. It added that "The foreign relations committee has discovered that Bolton made a highly unusual request and gained access to 10 intercepts by the [[National Security Agency]]... Staff members on the committee believe that Bolton was probably spying on Powell, his senior advisers and other officials reporting to him on diplomatic initiatives that Bolton opposed." [http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,3604,1471879,00.html]
In July 2005, Powell joined [[Kleiner, Perkins, Caufield & Byers]], a well-known [[Silicon Valley]] [[venture capital]] firm, with the title of "strategic limited partner."
In September 2005, Powell criticized response to [[Hurricane Katrina]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4229238.stm]
On [[January 5]] [[2006]], he participated in a meeting at the [[White House]] of former Secretaries of Defense and State to discuss United States foreign policy with Bush administration officials.
He is |
Companion'', pp. 156.
#{{Note|Dziemianowicz-44}}Dziemianowicz, "Divers Hands", ''Crypt of Cthulhu #80'', pp. 44.
#{{Note|Shreffler-156b}}Shreffler, pp. 156&ndash;7.
#{{Note|Shreffler-157}}Nodens, the Lord of the Abyss, holds a singular place in Lovecraft's writings because he is the only god to intervene on behalf of human beings. (Shreffler, pp. 158.) Examples of this are found in ''[[The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath]]'' (1926) and "The Strange High House in the Mist" (1931).
#{{Note|Mosig-24}}This view of the "Elder Gods" conflicts with those held by Dirk W. Mosig. In his essay "H. P. Lovecraft: Myth-Maker", Mosig asserts that Lovecraft never intended the "Elder Gods" to be benign, protective deities; instead, they are actually ineffectual beings synonymous with Lovecraft's "weak gods of the earth". (Mosig, "H.P. Lovecraft: Myth-Maker", ''Mosig at Last'', pp. 24&ndash;5.)
#{{Note|Shreffler-158}}Shreffler, pp. 158&ndash;162.
#{{Note|Price1991-247T}}Price, "Lovecraft's 'Artificial Mythology'", pp. 247.
<!--Lovecraft's gods&devils-->
#{{Note|Price1991-248}}Price, "Lovecraft's 'Artificial Mythology'", pp. 248&ndash;50.
<!--Arcane literature-->
#{{Note|Lauterbach-96ff}}Edward Lauterbach, "Some Notes on Cthulhuian Pseudobiblia", ''H. P. Lovecraft: Four Decades of Criticism'', pp. 96ff.
#{{Note|Lauterbach-96}}Ibid, pp. 96&ndash;97.
#{{Note|Price1985-11}}Although Derleth claimed to have invented ''Cultes Des Goules'', Lovecraft refuted this and attributed the fictional tome to Robert Bloch&mdash;a fact confirmed many years later by Bloch himself. (Price, "H. P. Lovecraft and the Cthulhu Mythos", ''Crypt of Cthulhu #35'', pp. 11, footnote #11.)
<!--The reader's response to the mythos-->
#{{Note|SL3-166}}Lovecraft, ''Selected Letters III'', pp. 166.
#{{Note|Price1991Mariconda1995}}Price, "Lovecraft's 'Artificial Mythology'", pp. 251, 253; Mariconda, "Toward a Reader-Response Approach to the Lovecraft Mythos", pp. 33&ndash;4.
<!--Structure of the mythos-->
#{{Note|Harms-viii-b}}Harms, "A Brief History of the Cthulhu Mythos", pp. viii.
#{{Note|Lovecraft-tcoc}}Lovecraft, "The Call of Cthulhu" (1928).
#{{Note|Mosig-25}}Mosig argues that Cthulhu "is perhaps one of the weakest and least important of the main entities [in the mythos]&mdash;save for his immediacy". He also notes that in the Necronomicon passage in Lovecraft's "The Dunwich Horror" (1929), Cthulhu is demoted to "their cousin". (Mosig, "H.P. Lovecraft: Myth-Maker", ''Mosig at Last'', pp. 25.)
<!--Derleth's involvement-->
#{{Note|Bloch-9}}Bloch, "Heritage of Horror", pp. 9.
#{{Note|Derleth-vii}}Derleth, "The Cthulhu Mythos", ''Tales of the Cthulhu Mythos'', pp. vii.
<!-- -->
#{{Note|Joshi-II}}Joshi, ''The Scriptorium'', "H. P. Lovecraft", section II.
#{{Note|Derleth-unknown}}This quote lacks a reference. You can improve this article by providing one.
# {{Note|Turner-x}}Turner, "Iä! Iä! Cthulhu Fhtagn!", ''Tales of the Cthulhu Mythos'', pp. viii. Turner writes: "Lovecraft's imaginary [[wikt:cosmogony|cosmogony]] was never a static system but rather a sort of [[wikt:aesthetic|aesthetic]] construct that remained ever adaptable to its creator's developing personality and altering interests... [T]here was never a rigid system that might be posthumously appropriated by the [[wikt:pasticheur|pasticheur]]... [T]he essence of the mythos lies not in a pantheon of imaginary deities nor in a cobwebby collection of forgotten tomes, but rather in a certain convincing cosmic attitude."
<!-- -->
#{{Note|Tremlett-tbq}}Tremlett, 'The Big Question', "A Color Out of Space, A Shadow Out of Time: H.P. Lovecraft & His Works".
<!--Elemental theory-->
#{{Note|Schultz-27}}Derleth created Cthugha when a fan, Francis T. Laney, pointed out that he had neglected to include a fire elemental in his schema. Laney, the editor of ''The Acolyte'', had categorized the mythos in an essay that first appeared in the Winter 1942 issue of the magazine. Impressed by the glossary, Derleth asked Laney to rewrite it for publication in the Arkham House collection ''Beyond the Wall of Sleep''. (Robert M. Price, "Editorial Shards", ''Crypt of Cthulhu #32'', pp. 2.) Laney's essay ("The Cthulhu Mythos") was later republished in ''Crypt of Cthulhu #32'' (1985).
#{{Note|Harms-101}}Harms, "Elemental Theory", pp. 101.
<!--conclusion-->
#{{Note|Bloch-8}}Bloch, "Heritage of Horror", pp. 8.
#{{Note|Joshi-I}}Joshi, ''The Scriptorium'', "H. P. Lovecraft", section I.
==External links==
* [http://www.chaosium.com/ Chaosium homepage], publisher of the ''[[Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game)|Call of Cthulhu]]'' role-playing game
* [http://www.clare.ltd.new.net/cryptofcthulhu/ Crypt of Cthulhu], online version of the [[magazine]]
* [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/C/cthulhic.html cthulhic], entry in the Jargon File
* [http://www.cthuugle.com/ Cthuugle], the H.P. Lovecraft search engine
* [http://www.hplovecraft.com/ The H.P. Lovecraft Archive]
* [http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/9879/lurker.htm The Lurker at the Threshold of Interpretation: Necronomicon Hoaxes and Paratextual Noise]
* [http://members.fortunecity.com/johnsilence/issue.htm Mythos Online], short stories relating to the Cthulhu mythos
* [http://www.necfiles.org/mythos.htm The Official Cthulhu Mythos FAQ], by Daniel Harms
* [http://www.epberglund.com/RGttCM/contents.htm Reader's Guide to the Cthulhu Mythos], maintained by E.P. Berglund
* [http://members.shaw.ca/csstrowbridge/Tulzscha/MainPage.htm Servants of Tulzscha], information about the gods and creatures of the Cthulhu mythos
* [http://www.shoggoth.net/ Shoggoth.net], a Cthulhu mythos [[blog]]
* [http://www.templeofdagon.com/ The Temple of Dagon], general Lovecraftian information and repository for Cthulhu mythos stories by modern writers
* [http://lovecraft.cjb.net The ULTIMATE Cthulhu Mythos Book List], listing of all mythos novels, anthologies, collections, comic books, and more
* [http://www.macguff.fr/goomi/unspeakable/home.html Unspeakable Vault (of Doom)], WebComic drawn by French artist Francois Launet
* [http://yog-sothoth.com Yog-Sothoth.com], a discussion site about the Call of Cthulhu role-playing game
==Further reading==
* {{cite book
| last = Carter
| first = Lin
| authorlink = Lin Carter
| title = Lovecraft: A Look Behind the Cthulhu Mythos
| location = New York, NY
| publisher = Ballantine Books
| date = 1972
| id = ISBN 0-345-25295-0-150
}}
[[Category:Cthulhu mythos| ]]
[[de:Cthulhu-Mythos]]
[[es:Mitos de Cthulhu]]
[[fi:Cthulhu-mytologia]]
[[fr:Mythe de Cthulhu]]
[[ja:クトゥルフ神話]]
[[ko:크툴후 신화]]
[[pt:Cthulhu Mythos]]
[[sv:Cthulhu-mytologin]]
[[zh:克蘇魯神話]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Crane shot</title>
<id>5726</id>
<revision>
<id>31871580</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-18T18:59:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eric Burns</username>
<id>130050</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Added SCTV "crane shot" references and humor</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[motion picture terminology]], a '''crane shot''' is a shot taken by a camera on a crane. The most obvious uses are to view the actors from above or to move up and away from them, a common way of ending a movie. But some filmmakers like to have the camera on a boom arm just to make it easier to move around between ordinary set-ups. Most cranes accommodate both the camera and an operator, but some can be operated by remote control--there are some spectacular shots using remote cranes in the car-chase sequence of ''[[To Live and Die in L.A.]]''.
The [[Western (genre)|Western]] ''[[High Noon (1952 film)|High Noon]]'' had a famous crane shot. The shot backs up and raises, and we see Marshal Will Kane totally alone and isolated on the street.
The television comedy [[Second City Television| SCTV]] uses the very concept of the crane shot as comedic material. After using a crane shot in one of the first NBC produced episodes, the network complained about the exorbitant cost of renting the crane. SCTV writers responded by making the "crane shot" a ubiquitous symbol of production excess while also lampooning network executives who care nothing about artistic vision and everything for the bottom line. At the end of the second season, an inebriated [[Johnny LaRue]] is given his very own crane by Santa Claus, implying he would be able to have a crane shot whenever he wanted it.
{{filming-stub}}
[[Category: Film techniques]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Caryophyllales</title>
<id>5727</id>
<revision>
<id>37288656</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T01:03:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Caryophyllales
| image = White campion close 700.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''Silene latifolia'' - family Caryophyllaceae
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Caryophyllales'''
| ordo_authority = Perleb
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision =
See text.
}}
The '''Caryophyllales''' are an order of [[flowering plant]]s. APG includes a number of families, most of which belong to two distinct subgroups. The core Caryophyllales comprise the following:
* Family [[Caryophyllaceae]] ([[carnation]] family)
* Family [[Amaranthaceae]] ([[amaranth]] family)
* Family [[Achatocarpaceae]]
* Fami |
the motion picture [[Erin Brockovich (film)|Erin Brockovich]].
[[World Health Organization]] recommended [[maximum allowable concentration]] in drinking water for chromium (VI) is 0.05 [[milligram]]s per [[liter]].
As chromium compounds were used in [[dye]]s and [[paint]]s and the [[tanning]] of [[leather]], these compounds are often found in soil and [[groundwater]] at abandoned industrial site, now needing [[environmental cleanup]] and [[remediation]] per the treatment of [[brownfield land]]. [[Primer (paint)|Primer paint]] containing hexavalent chromium is still widely used for [[aerospace]] and [[automobile]] refinishing applications.
== References ==
===Notes===
<references/>
===General references===
* [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/24.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Chromium]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Chromium}}
* [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HEC/CSEM/chromium/ Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Chromium Toxicity]
* [http://www-cie.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/vol49/chromium.html IARC Monograph "Chromium and Chromium compounds"]
* [http://www.chromium-asoc.com/ International Chromium Development Association]
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele024.html It's Elemental &ndash; The Element Chromium]
* [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/24.html National Pollutant Inventory - Chromium (III) compounds fact sheet]
* [http://www.merck.com/pubs/mmanual/section1/chapter4/4f.htm The Merck Manual &ndash; Mineral Deficiency and Toxicity]
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Cr/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Chromium]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]
[[af:Chroom]]
[[ca:Crom]]
[[cs:Chróm]]
[[da:Krom]]
[[de:Chrom]]
[[et:Kroom]]
[[es:Cromo]]
[[eo:Kromo]]
[[fa:کروم]]
[[fr:Chrome]]
[[ko:크로뮴]]
[[io:Kromio]]
[[is:Króm]]
[[it:Cromo]]
[[he:כרום]]
[[ku:Krom]]
[[lv:Hroms]]
[[lt:Chromas]]
[[hu:Króm]]
[[mi:Konukita]]
[[nl:Chroom]]
[[ja:クロム]]
[[no:Krom]]
[[nn:Krom]]
[[oc:Cròm]]
[[pl:Chrom]]
[[pt:Cromo]]
[[ru:Хром]]
[[sk:Chróm]]
[[sl:Krom]]
[[sr:Хром]]
[[fi:Kromi]]
[[sv:Krom]]
[[th:โครเมียม]]
[[uk:Хром]]
[[zh:铬]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cobalt</title>
<id>5670</id>
<revision>
<id>41884533</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T10:07:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chiu frederick</username>
<id>59129</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>compounds</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Elementbox_header | number=27 | symbol=Co | name=cobalt | left=[[iron]] | right=[[nickel]] | above=- | below=[[rhodium|Rh]] | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[transition metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=9 | period=4 | block=d }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Co,27| metallic with gray tinge }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-26 kg|58.933195]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(5)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &#91;[[argon|Ar]]&#93; 3d<sup>7</sup> 4s<sup>2</sup> }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 15, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 8.90 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 7.75 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1768 | c=1495 | f=2723 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=3200 | c=2927 | f=5301 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 16.06 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 377 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 24.81 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1790 | 1960 | 2165 | 2423 | 2755 | 3198 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | hexagonal }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | '''2''', 3<br />([[amphoteric]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.88 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 760.4 | 1648 | 3232 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|135]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|152]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|126]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 62.4 n}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 100 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 13.0 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 4720 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 209 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 75 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 180 }}
{{Elementbox_poissonratio | 0.31 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 5.0 }}
{{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa | 1043 }}
{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 700 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-48-4 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=cobalt | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=56 | sym=Co | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E6 s|77.27 d]] | dm=[[electron capture|&epsilon;]] | de=4.566 | pn=56 | ps=[[iron|Fe]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=57 | sym=Co | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E7 s|271.79 d]] | dm=&epsilon; | de=0.836 | pn=57 | ps=[[iron|Fe]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=58 | sym=Co | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=70.86 [[day|d]] | dm=&epsilon; | de=2.307 | pn=58 | ps=[[iron|Fe]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=59 | sym=Co | na=100% | n=32 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=60 | sym=Co | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E8 s|5.2714 years]] | dm=[[beta emission|&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] | de=2.824 | pn=60 | ps=[[nickel|Ni]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
'''Cobalt''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Co''' and [[atomic number]] 27.
== Notable characteristics ==
Cobalt is a hard [[ferromagnetic]] silver-white element. The [[Curie temperature]] is of 1388 K with 1.6~1.7 [[Bohr magneton]]s per [[atom]]. It is frequently associated with [[nickel]], and both are characteristic ingredients of [[meteoric iron]]. [[Mammals]] require small amounts of cobalt [[salt]]s. [[Cobalt-60 (isotope)|Cobalt-60]], an artificially produced [[radioactive isotope]] of cobalt, is an important radioactive tracer and [[cancer]]-treatment agent. Cobalt has a [[Permeability (electromagnetism)|relative permeability]] two thirds that of iron.
[[Metallic]] cobalt commonly presents a mixture of two [[crystallographic structure]]s [[hcp]] and [[Face-centered cubic|fcc]] with a [[transition]] temperature hcp&rarr;fcc of 722 K.
Common [[oxidation states]] of cobalt include +2, and +3, though +1 is also seen.
== Applications ==
* [[Alloy]]s, such as:
** [[Superalloy]]s, for parts in gas [[turbine]] [[aircraft]] [[engine]]s.
** [[Corrosion]]- and wear-resistant alloys.
** High-speed [[steel]]s.
** Cemented [[carbide]]s (also called hard metals) and [[diamond]] tools.
* [[Magnet]]s and magnetic [[recording media]].
** [[Alnico]] magnets.
* [[Catalyst]]s for the [[petroleum]] and chemical industries.
* [[electroplating]] because of its appearance, hardness, and resistance to oxidation.
* Drying agents for [[paint]]s, varnishes, and inks.
* Ground coats for [[porcelain]] [[vitreous enamel|enamel]]s.
* Pigments (cobalt blue and cobalt green).
* [[Battery (electricity)|Battery]] electrodes.
* Steel-belted radial [[tire]]s.
* [[Cobalt-60 (isotope)|Cobalt-60]] has multiple uses as a [[gamma ray]] source:
** It is used in [[Radiation therapy|radiotherapy]].
** It is used in radiation treatment of [[Food irradiation|foods for sterilization]] (cold [[pasteurization]]).
** It is used in industrial [[radiography]] to detect structural flaws in metal parts.
Co-60 is useful as a gamma ray source partially because it can be produced - in known quantity, and very large amounts - by simply exposing natural cobalt to [[neutron]]s in a reactor for a given time.
=== Use in medicine ===
[[Cobalt-60 (isotope)|Cobalt-60 (Co-60 or <sup>60</sup>Co)]] is a [[radioactive]] metal that is used in [[Radiation therapy|radiotherapy]]. It produces two gamma rays with energies of 1.17 [[MeV]] and 1.33 MeV. The <sup>60</sup>Co source is about 2 [[centimetre|cm]] in diameter and as a result produces a [[geometric]] [[penumbra]], making the edge of the radiation field fuzzy. The metal has the unfortunate habit of producing a fine dust, causing problems with radiation protection. The <sup>60</sup>Co source is useful for about 5 years but even after this point is still very radioactive, and so cobalt machines have fallen from favor in the Western world where [[linacs]] are common. The first <sup>60</sup>Co therapy machine (the "''cobalt bomb''") was built and first used in [[Canada]]. In fact the first machine is on display in the [[Saskatoon, Saskatchewan|Saskatoon]] Cancer Centre &ndash; look up when entering the lobby. The second machine is out beside the walkway into the Centre.
== History ==
{{wiktionarypar|cobalt}}
Cobalt was known in ancient times through its compounds, which would color [[glass]] a rich blue.
[[George Brandt]] (1694-1768) is credited with the discovery of cobalt. The date of discovery varies depending on the source, but is between [[1730]] and [[1737]]. He was able to show that cobalt was the source of the blue color in glasses, which previously had been attributed to the [[bismuth]] found with cobalt.
During the [[19th century]], cobalt blue was produced at the Norwegian [[Blaafarveværket]] (70-80 % of world production), led by the [[Prussia]]n industrialist [[Benjamin Wegner]].
In 1938, [[John Livingood]] and [[Glenn Seaborg]] discovered [[Cobalt-60 (isotope)|cobalt-60]].
The word cobalt comes from the German ''kobalt'' or ''[[kobold]]'', meaning evil spirit, the metal being so called by miners, because it was poisonous and troublesome (it [[pollution|polluted]] and degraded the other mined elements, like [[nickel]]). Other sources cite the origin as stemming from silver miners' belief that cobalt had been placed by kobolds who had s |
rd Dawkins Award]]
==External links==
* A [http://ffrf.org/fttoday/1998/jan_feb98/druyan.html Speech] given by Ann Druyan at the 1997 annual convention of the [[Freedom From Religion Foundation]].
* [http://www.csicop.org/si/2003-11/ann-druyan.html Ann Druyan Talks About Science, Religion, Wonder, Awe . . . and Carl Sagan]
* [http://www.carlsagan.com/revamp/carlsagan/charter.html Cosmos Studios Charter]
[[Category:1949 births|Druyan, Ann]]
[[Category:Atheists|Druyan, Ann]]
[[Category:Living people|Druyan, Ann]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Analcite</title>
<id>3014</id>
<revision>
<id>38740713</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T08:30:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jaraalbe</username>
<id>261435</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Zeolite cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=0 width=250 valign=top style="margin-left:1em"
|----- align=center bgcolor="#9966FF"
!colspan=2 align=center|Analcite
|----- align=center
!colspan=2|Picture needed
|----- align=center bgcolor="#9966FF"
!colspan=2|General
|-----
|Category||[[Mineral]]
|-----
|[[Chemical formula]]||NaAlSi<sub>2</sub>O<sub>6</sub>·H<sub>2</sub>O
|----- align="center" bgcolor="#9966FF"
!colspan=2|Identification
|-----
| Color || Colorless to white
|-----
| [[Crystal habit]] || Typically in crystals, usually trpezohedrons, also massive to granular.
|-----
| [[Crystal structure|Crystal system]] || [[Cubic (crystal system)|Isometric]]; 4/m bar 3 2/m
|-----
| [[Cleavage (crystal)|Cleavage]]||Absent
|-----
| [[Fracture]]||Uneven
|-----
| [[Mohs Scale]] hardness || 5 - 5.5
|-----
| Luster||Vitreous
|-----
| [[Refractive index]]||n&#945;=1.479 - 1.493 n&#947;=1.480 - 1.494
|-----
| [[Pleochroism]]|| .
|-----
| [[Streak]]||white
|-----
| [[Specific gravity]]|| 2.27
|-----
| [[Fusibility]]||3.5
|-----
| [[Solubility]]||.
|-----
| Other Characteristics||.
|-----
|}
'''Analcite''' or '''analcime''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''analkimos'' - "weak") is a white, grey, or colourless [[Silicate minerals|tectosilicate]] [[mineral]]. Analcite consists of hydrated [[sodium]] [[aluminium]] [[silicate]] in cubic [[crystal]]line form. Its [[chemical formula]] is NaAlSi<sub>2</sub>O<sub>6</sub>·[[water (molecule)|H<sub>2</sub>O]]. Minor potassium and calcium substitute for sodium. A [[silver]] bearing synthetic variety also exists (Ag-analcite).
Analcite is usually classified as a [[zeolite]] mineral, but structurally and chemically it is more similar to the [[feldspathoid]]s. Analcite occurs as a primary mineral in analcme [[basalt]] and other alkaline [[igneous rocks]]. Also occurs as cavity and vesicle fillings associated with [[prehnite]], [[calcite]], and zeolites.
Locations include the [[Cyclopean Islands]] and near Trentino, [[Italy]]; [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] in [[Australia]]; [[Kerguelen Island]] in the [[Indian Ocean]]; in the [[Lake Superior]] copper district of [[Michigan]], Bergen Hill, [[New Jersey]], [[Golden, Colorado]] in the [[United States]]; and at Cape Blomidon, [[Nova Scotia]] and [[Mont St. Hilaire]], [[Quebec]] in [[Canada]]; and in [[Iceland]].
==See also==
* [[List of minerals]]
== References and external links ==
* Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis, 1985, Manual of Mineralogy, 20th ed., ISBN 0471805807
* [http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/analcime/analcime.htm Mineral Galleries]
* [http://www.mindat.org/min-210.html Mindat.org]
* [http://webmineral.com/data/Analcime.shtml Webmineral.com]
[[Category:Sodium minerals]]
[[Category:Aluminium minerals]]
[[Category:Silicate minerals]]
[[Category:Zeolites]]
[[pl:Analcym]]
[[sk:Analcím]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Analcime</title>
<id>3015</id>
<revision>
<id>15901389</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Analcite]].
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexey Pazhitnov</title>
<id>3017</id>
<revision>
<id>40624510</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T22:28:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alex Bakharev</username>
<id>294809</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pazhitnov alexey.jpg|right|thumb|160px|Alexey Pazhitnov]]
'''Alexey Pazhitnov''' (Алексей Пажитнов, born [[1956]], [[Russia]]), whose last name is sometimes transliterated Pajitnov, is a [[Russia|Russian]] [[computer]] engineer, who developed the popular [[game]] ''[[Tetris]]'' while working for the Computer Centre of the [[Soviet Academy of Sciences]], a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] government-founded [[R&D]] centre.
==Biography==
Pazhitnov created Tetris with the help of [[Dmitry Pavlovsky]] and [[Vadim Gerasimov]] in 1985. The game, first available in the Soviet Union, appeared in [[Western world|the West]] in 1986.
Pazhitnov also created the lesser known sequel to Tetris, entitled [[Welltris]], which has the same principle but in a [[3D computer graphics|three dimensional]] environment were you see the "board" from above. Screen shots are available [http://www.mds.mdh.se/~frv95pen/game/tetris/welltris/ here]
The Soviet [[bureaucracy]] licensed and managed Tetris, and advertised it with the slogan ''"From Russia with Love"''. Because he was employed by the Soviet government, Pazhitnov did not receive royalties. Pazhitnov moved to [[United States|USA]] in 1991 and founded the [[Tetris Company]] with [[Henk Rogers]].
He helped design the puzzles in the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super NES]] versions of [[Yoshi's Cookie]] and designed the game [[Pandora's Box (game)|Pandora's Box]], which incorporates more traditional [[jigsaw puzzle|jigsaw-style puzzles]].
He began working for [[Microsoft]] in [[October]] [[1996]]. He worked for the [[Microsoft Entertainment Pack|Microsoft Entertainment Collection Puzzle Pack]] and [[MSN Mind Aerobics]]. [[As of 2004]], he is part of the [http://zone.msn.com/en/root/default.htm Microsoft's Zone Group], which creates games for [[MSN]].
On [[August 18]] [[2005]] WildSnake Software announced[http://www.wildsnake.com/newsletter/2005-08-18/] Pajitnov will be collaborating with them and releasing a new line up of puzzle games.
Most recently, Pazhitnov's new, enhanced version of Hexic, "[[Hexic HD]]," was included with every new [[Xbox 360]] Premium package.
==Works==
{|border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; text-align: center;"
! Game Name !! First Released !! System Name(s) !! Pazhitnov's Role(s)
|-
! [[Tetris]]
|| 1985 || <small>[[Arcade game|Arcade]], [[Amiga]], [[Atari ST]], [[Commodore 64]], [[DOS]], [[Game Boy]], [[Sega Mega Drive/Sega Genesis|Genesis]], [[Apple_Macintosh|Macintosh]], [[MSX]], [[NES]] & [[ZX Spectrum]]</small> || <small>Original Concept <br>(with Vadim Gerasimov & Dmitry Pavlovsky)</br></small>
|-
! Welltris
|| 1989 || <small>Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, DOS, Macintosh & ZX Spectrum</small> || <small>Designer <br>(with Andrei Sgenov)<br/></small>
|-
! Faces
|| 1990 || <small>DOS, Macintosh</small> || <small>Original Concept <br>(with Vladimir Pokhilko)<br/></small>
|-
! Hatris
|| 1990 || <small>PC, Arcade, Game Boy & NES</small> || <small>Original Concept</small>
|-
! [[El-Fish]]
|| 1993 || <small>DOS</small> || <small>Original Concept <br>(with Vladimir Pokhilko)</br></small>
|-
! Breakthru!
|| 1994 || <small>DOS, [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]] & [[Windows 3.x]]</small> || <small>Designer</small>
|-
! Knight Moves
|| 1995 || <small>[[Microsoft Windows]]</small> || <small>Idealist</small>
|-
! Pandora's Box
|| 1999 || <small>Windows</small> || <small>Designer</small>
|-
! Microsoft Puzzle Collection Entertainment Pack
|| 2000 || <small>Windows & [[Game Boy Color]]</small> || <small>Designer</small>
|-
! [[Hexic#Hexic HD|Hexic HD]]
|| 2005 || <small>[[Xbox 360]] <br>(Pre-loaded on every Xbox 360 hard drive)</small> || <small>Designer<br/></small>
|-
|}
==References==
* Angela Gunn (December 9&ndash;15, 1999). "[http://www.seattleweekly.com/features/9949/tech-gunn2.shtml Game boy]". ''[[Seattle Weekly]]''.
==External links==
* [http://www.tetris-today.com/story/original-tetris0.shtml Alexey Pazhitnov - The Father of Tetris]
[[Category:1956 births|Pajitnov, Alexey]]
[[Category:Living people|Pajitnov, Alexey]]
[[Category:Russian scientists|Pajitnov, Alexey]]
[[Category:Computer and video game designers|Pajitnov, Alexey]]
[[Category:Russian people in the United States|Pajitnov, Alexey]]
[[Category:Microsoft employees|Pazhitnov, Alexey]]
[[he:אלקסיי פז'יטנוב]]
[[bg:Алексей Пажитнов]]
[[de:Alexey Pajitnov]]
[[fr:Alexey Pajitnov]]
[[ru:Пажитнов, Алексей Леонидович]]
[[sl:Aleksej Pažitnov]]
[[sv:Aleksej Pajitnov]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alternative hip hop</title>
<id>3018</id>
<revision>
<id>42109412</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:02:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>129.64.153.38</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{totallydisputed}}
'''Alternative hip hop''' or '''Underground rap''' is a [[musi |
sas (song)|Arkansas]]'' by [[Eva Ware Barnett]]
*State Beverage:[[ Milk]]
*State Bird: [[Mockingbird]]
*State Flower: [[Apple]] Blossom
*State Folk Dance: [[Square Dance]]
*State Fruit: South Arkansas Vine Ripe Pink [[Tomato]]
*State Gem: [[Diamond]]
*State Historical Song: ''The [[Arkansas Traveler]]'' (folk song)
*State Historic Cooking Vessel: [[Dutch oven]]
*State Insect: [[Honeybee]]
*State Mammal: [[White-tailed Deer]]
*State Mineral: [[Quartz]] Crystal
*State Motto: ''[[Regnat Populus]]'' (The People Rule)
*State Musical Instrument: the [[Fiddle]]
*State Rock: [[Bauxite]]
*State Soil: [[Stuttgart Soil Series]]
*State Songs: "Arkansas (You Run Deep in Me)" by Wayland Holyfield and "Oh, Arkansas" by Terry Rose and Gary Klass
*State Tree: Pine
*State Vegetable: South Arkansas Vine Ripe Pink Tomato
== Famous Arkansans ==
*[[John Harold Johnson]], [[Johnson Publishing Company]]. Born in [[Arkansas City, Arkansas]], January 19, 1918.
*[[Johnny Cash]], [[Country Music]] [[legend]]. Born in [[Kingsland, Arkansas]], February 26th 1932.
*[[Buddy Jewell]], [[Country Music]] [[star]]. Born in [[Osceola, Arkansas]].
*[[Bill Clinton]], former [[President of the United States]]. Born August 19th 1946, in [[Hope, Arkansas]].
*[[Matt Jones]], [[NFL]] [[football]] [[star]] and 2005 1st round [[NFL draft]] pick to the [[Jacksonville Jaguars]]. Born April 22nd 1983 in [[Fort Smith, Arkansas]].
*[[Paul "Bear" Bryant]], [[legendary]] [[University of Alabama]] [[football]] [[coach]]. Born in [[Moro Bottom, Arkansas]] on September 11, 1913.
*[[Jody Evans]], rising [[Country Music]] [[star]]. Born November 15th, 1976, in [[Arkadelphia, Arkansas]].
*[[Derek Fisher]], [[NBA]] [[basketball]] [[star]]. Born August 9th, 1974 in [[Little Rock, Arkansas]].
*[[Billy Bob Thornton]], [[Hollywood]] [[film star]] and famous personality. August 4th 1955, in [[Hot Springs, Arkansas]].
*[[Jimmy Driftwood]], famous [[Folk Music]] and [[Country Music]] personality. Born June 20th 1907, in [[Mountain View, Arkansas]].
*[[Sam Walton]], creator of [[Wal Mart]] stores, and one of the worlds wealthiest men. Born in [[Oklahoma]], but created [[Wal Mart]] in 1962, in [[Rogers, Arkansas]].
*[[Alan Ladd]], [[Hollywood]] [[actor]] most famous for his leading role in ''[[Shane]]''. Born September 3rd 1913 in [[Hot Springs, Arkansas]].
*[[Mary Steenburgen]], [[Academy Award]]-winning [[Hollywood]] [[actress]] for her 1981 supporting role in ''Melvin and Howard'', and a co-star on the canceled [[CBS]] [[television program|television series]] ''[[Joan of Arcadia]]''. Born February 8th 1953 in [[Newport, Arkansas]].
*[[Glen Campbell]], [[Country Music]] [[star]] most famous for his songs "[[Rhinestone Cowboy]]" and "[[Wichita Lineman]]". Born in [[Delight, Arkansas]] in 1936.
*[[Floyd Cramer]], famous [[musician]] most known for his [[piano]] [[instrumental]] "Last Date". Born in [[Shreveport, Louisiana]] and raised in [[Huttig, Arkansas]] in 1933.
*[[Gail Davis]], [[Hollywood]] film actress, best know as [[Annie Oakley]] from the 1950's [[television series]]. Born in [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] on October 5th 1925 and raised in [[McGehee, Arkansas]].
*[[Tracy Lawrence]], [[Country Music]] [[star]]. Born in [[Atlanta, Texas]] in 1968, raised in [[Foreman, Arkansas]].
*[[Freeman Owens]], former [[World War I]] [[combat camera]] operator, who later perfected the art of putting sound on [[film]] as a [[pioneer]] in [[cinematography]]. Born in [[Pine Bluff, Arkansas]] in 1890.
*[[Dick Powell]], [[Hollywood]] [[actor]], [[producer]] and [[Film director|director]], best know for 1930's films such as ''[[42nd Street]]'' and ''[[A Midsummer Nights Dream]]''. Born in [[Mountain View, Arkansas]] in 1904.
*[[Collin Raye]], [[Country Music]] star best known for his songs "Little Rock", and "Love Me". Born in [[De Queen, Arkansas]] in 1960.
*[[Conway Twitty]], [[Country Music]] [[legend]] with number 1 music hits such as "It's Only Make Believe", "Hello Darlin' " and "Tight Fitting Jeans". Born in [[Friars Point, Mississippi]] in 1933, he was raised in [[Helena, Arkansas]]. Born with the name [[Harold Jenkins]], he took his [[stage name]] from the towns of [[Conway, Arkansas]] and [[Twitty, Texas]].
*[[John Grisham]], [[author]] and [[attorney]], best known for his books that were later transformed into popular [[movies]], such as ''[[The Pelican Brief]]'', ''[[A Time To Kill]]'', ''[[The Client]]'', ''[[The Rainmaker]]'', ''[[The Firm (book)|The Firm]]'' and ''[[The Chamber]]''. Born in [[Jonesboro, Arkansas]] in 1955.
*[[Lou Brock]], former [[Major League Baseball]] player, thought to be the greatest [[base]] stealer of his era. Started his professional [[baseball]] career with the [[Chicago Cubs]] in 1961. Born in [[El Dorado, Arkansas]] in 1939.
*[[William Carr]], 1932 [[Olympic Gold Medalist]]. Born in [[Pine Bluff, Arkansas]] in 1909.
*[[John Daly]], [[PGA]] [[golf]] [[champion]]. Born in [[California]] in 1966, raised from age 5 in [[Dardanelle, Arkansas]].
*[[Dizzy Dean|Jay Hanna "Dizzy" Dean]], member of the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame]]. Born in [[Lucas, Arkansas]].
*[[Jerry Jones]], owner of the [[NFL]] team [[Dallas Cowboys]]. Born in 1942 in [[North Little Rock, Arkansas]], specifically hailing from [[Rose City, Arkansas|Rose City]].
*[[George Kell]], member of the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame]]. Born in 1942 in [[Swifton, Arkansas]].
*[[Mark Martin]], [[NASCAR]] [[race car]] driver. Born in 1956 in [[Batesville, Arkansas]].
*[[Sidney Moncrief]], retired [[NBA]] [[star]] who played for the [[Milwaukee Bucks]] and who set several college records with the [[University of Arkansas]]. Born in 1957 in [[Little Rock, Arkansas]].
*[[Scottie Pippen]], former [[NBA]] [[legend]] who played for the [[Chicago Bulls]] championship teams, and arguably one of the most talented players ever to play the game. Born in 1965 in [[Hamburg, Arkansas]]; attended the [[University of Central Arkansas]].
*[[Brooks Robinson]], member of the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame]]. Born in 1937 in [[Little Rock, Arkansas]].
*[[Barry Switzer]], former head [[coach]] of the [[NFL]] team [[Dallas Cowboys]]. Born in [[Crossett, Arkansas]] in 1937.
*[[John Hanks Alexander]], the first [[African American]] to hold a regular command position in the [[US Armed Forces]] and the second [[African American]] to graduate from [[West Point]]. Born in [[Helena, Arkansas]] on January 6th 1864.
*Corliss Williamson, former NBA 6th Man of the Year and member of the 2004 NBA Champion [http://www.nba.com/pistons Detroit Pistons]. Lead the Arkansas Razorbacks to the 1994 NCAA title. Now a member of the [http://www.nba.com/kings Sacramento Kings]. Born and raised in Russellville, Arkansas.
==Geography==
{{ussm|arkansas.PNG|ar}}
''See: [[List of Arkansas counties]], [[List of cities in Arkansas]], [[List of Arkansas townships]], [[List of Arkansas native plants]].''
The capital of Arkansas is [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]]. Arkansas is the only state in the US where [[Diamond|diamonds]] are found naturally (near [[Murfreesboro, Arkansas]]).
The eastern border for most of Arkansas is the [[Mississippi River]] except in Clay and Greene counties where the St. Francis River forms the western boundary of the [[Missouri Bootheel]]. Arkansas shares its southern border with [[Louisiana]], its northern border with [[Missouri]], its eastern border with [[Tennessee]] and [[Mississippi]], and its western border with [[Texas]] and [[Oklahoma]]. Arkansas is a beautiful land of mountains and valleys, thick forests and fertile plains. Northwest Arkansas is part of the [[Ozark Plateau]] including the [[Boston Mountains]], to the south are the [[Ouachita Mountains]] and these regions are divided by the Arkansas River; the southern and eastern parts of Arkansas are called the Lowlands.
The so called Lowlands are better known as the [[Mississippi embayment|Delta]] and the Grand Prairie. The land along the Mississippi river is referred to as the "Delta" of Arkansas. It gets this name from the formation of its rich alluvial soils formed from the flooding of the mighty Mississippi. The Grand Prairie is slightly away from the Mississippi river in the southeast portion of the state and consists of a more undulating landscape. Both are fertile agricultural areas and home to much of the crop agriculture in the state.
[[Image:PetitJean.jpg|right|thumb|260px|''Petit Jean State Park'', one of many attractions that give the state's nickname ''The Natural State''.]]
Arkansas is home to many [[List of caves in Arkansas|cave]]s, such as [[Blanchard Springs Caverns]]. [[Hot Springs National Park]] and the [[Buffalo National River]] can also be found within its borders.
===[[Interstate highway]]s===
*[[Interstate 30]]
*[[Interstate 40]]
*[[Interstate 55]]
*[[Interstate 430]]
*[[Interstate 440 (Arkansas)|Interstate 440]]
*[[Interstate 530]]
*[[Interstate 540 (Arkansas)|Interstate 540]]
*[[Interstate 630]]
===[[United States highway]]s===
{|
|-
| align=center | ''North-south routes''
| align=center | ''East-west routes''
|-
| valign=top |
*[[U.S. Highway 425]]
*[[U.S. Highway 49]]
*[[U.S. Highway 59]]
*[[U.S. Highway 61]]
*[[U.S. Highway 63]]
*[[U.S. Highway 65]]
*[[U.S. Highway 165]]
*[[U.S. Highway 67]]
*[[U.S. Highway 167]]
*[[U.S. Highway 71]]
*[[U.S. Highway 371]]
*[[U.S. Highway 79]]
| valign=top |
*[[U.S. Highway 412]]
*[[U.S. Highway 62]]
*[[U.S. Highway 64]]
*[[U.S. Highway 70]]
*[[U.S. Highway 270]]
*[[U.S. Highway 278]]
*[[U.S. Highway 82]]
|}
===Major Arkansas highways===
{|
|-
| align=center | ''North-south routes''
| align=center | ''East-west routes''
|-
| valign=top |
*[[Arkansas State Highway 1]]
*[[Arkansas State Highway 5]]
*[[Arkansas State Highway 7]]
| valign=top |
*[[Arkansas State Highway 4]]
*[[Arkansas State Highway |
rence, Italy..jpg|thumb|Statue of Dante in Florence]]
Boniface quickly sent away the other representatives and asked Dante alone to remain in Rome. At the same time ([[November 1]], [[1301]]) Charles de Valois was entering Florence with Black Guelfs, who in the next six days destroyed everything and killed most of their enemies. A new government was installed of Black Guelfs, and Messer Cante dei [[Gabrielli]] di [[Gubbio]] was appointed ''Podestà'' (mayor) of Florence. Dante was condemned to exile for two years, and to pay a huge amount of money. The poet was still in Rome, where the Pope had "suggested" he stay, and was therefore considered an absconder. He could not pay his fine and was finally condemned to perpetual exile. If he were ever caught by Florentine soldiers, he would have been summarily executed.
The poet took part in several attempts by the White Guelfs to regain the power they had lost, but these failed due to treachery. Dante, bitter at the treatment he had received at the hands of his enemies, also grew disgusted with the infighting and ineffectiveness of his erstwhile allies, and vowed to become a party of one. At this point he began sketching the foundations for the [[Divine Comedy]], a work in 100 cantos, divided into three books of thirty-three cantos each, with a single introductory canto. Thirty-three cantos were because three was a [[lucky number]] due to the Holy [[Trinity]] and reflect popular numerology then current in medieval thought. Certainly his literary work reflects his weary contempt for the banality of most men.
He went to [[Verona, Italy|Verona]] as a guest of Bartolomeo Della Scala, then moved to [[Sarzana]] ([[Liguria]]), and after this he is supposed to have lived for some time in [[Lucca]] with Madame Gentucca, who made his stay comfortable (and was later gratefully mentioned in Purgatorio XXIV,37). Some speculative sources say that he was in [[Paris]], too, between 1308 and 1310. Other sources, even less trustworthy, take him to [[Oxford]].
In 1310 [[Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VII]] of [[Luxembourg]], [[King of the Romans]] (Germany), was invading Italy; Dante saw in him the chance of revenge, so he wrote to him (and to other Italian princes) several public letters violently inciting them to destroy the Black Guelfs. Mixing religion and private concerns, he invoked the worst anger of God against his town, suggesting several particular targets that coincided with his personal enemies.
In Florence Baldo d'Aguglione pardoned most of the White Guelfs in exile and allowed them to come back; however, Dante had gone beyond the pale in his violent letters to ''Arrigo'' (Henry VII), and he was not recalled.
In 1312, Arrigo assaulted Florence and defeated the Black Guelfs, but there is no evidence that Dante was involved. Some say he refused to participate in the assault on his city by a foreigner; others suggest that his name had become unpleasant for White Guelfs too and that any trace of his passage had carefully been removed. In 1313 Arrigo died, and with him any residual hope for Dante to see Florence again. He returned to Verona, where [[Cangrande I della Scala]] allowed him to live in a certain security and, presumably, in a fair amount of prosperity. Cangrande was admitted to Dante's Paradise (Paradiso XVII, 76).
In 1315, Florence was forced by Uguccione della Faggiuola (the military officer controlling the town) to grant an amnesty to people in exile. Dante too was in the list of citizens to be pardoned. But Florence required that, apart from paying a sum of money, these citizens agreed to be treated as public offenders in a religious ceremony. Dante refused this outrageous formula, and preferred to remain in exile.
When Uguccione finally defeated Florence, Dante's death sentence was converted into confinement, at the sole condition that he go to Florence to swear that he would never enter the town again. Dante didn't go. His condemnation to death was confirmed and extended to his sons.
Dante still hoped late in life that he might be invited back to Florence on honourable terms. For Dante, exile was nearly a form of death, stripping him of much of his identity. Dante addresses the pain of exile in Canto XVII (55-60) of Paradiso, where Cacciaguida, his great-great-grandfather, warns him what to expect:
[[Image:Dante.deathmask.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[death mask]] of Dante Alighieri (in Palazzo Vecchio, Florence)]]
:''. . . Tu lascerai ogne cosa diletta''
:'' più caramente; e questo è quello strale''
:'' che l'arco de lo essilio pria saetta.''
:''Tu proverai sì come sa di sale''
:'' lo pane altrui, e come è duro calle''
:'' lo scendere e 'l salir per l'altrui scale . . .''
:". . . You shall leave everything you love most:
:this is the arrow that the bow of exile
:shoots first. You are to know the bitter taste
:of others' bread, how salt it is, and know
:how hard a path it is for one who goes
:ascending and descending others' stairs . . ."
As for the hope of returning to Florence, he describes it wistfully, as if he had already accepted its impossibility, in Canto XXV of Paradiso (1-9):
:''Se mai continga che 'l poema sacro''
:'' al quale ha posto mano e cielo e terra,''
:'' sì che m'ha fatto per molti anni macro,''
:''vinca la crudeltà che fuor mi serra''
:'' del bello ovile ov'io dormi' agnello,''
:'' nimico ai lupi che li danno guerra;''
:''con altra voce omai, con altro vello''
:'' ritornerò poeta, e in sul fonte''
:'' del mio battesmo prenderò 'l cappello . . .''
:If it ever come to pass that the sacred poem
:to which both heaven and earth have set their hand
:so as to have made me lean for many years
:should overcome the cruelty that bars me
:from the fair sheepfold where I slept as a lamb,
:an enemy to the wolves that make war on it,
:with another voice now and other fleece
:I shall return a poet and at the font
:of my baptism take the laurel crown...
Of course it never happened. Prince Guido Novello da Polenta invited him to [[Ravenna]] in 1318, and he accepted, finishing ''Paradise'' and finally died in 1321 (at the age of 56) while on the way back to Ravenna from a diplomatic mission in Venice, perhaps of [[malaria]]. Dante was buried in the Church of San Pier Maggiore (later called San Francesco). Bernardo Bembo, praetor of [[Venice]], in 1483 took care of his remains by organizing a better tomb.
On the grave, some verses of Bernardo Canaccio, a friend of Dante, dedicated to Florence:
:''parvi Florentia mater amoris''
:"Florence, mother of little love"
Eventually, Florence came to regret Dante's exile. In 1829, a tomb was built for him in Florence in the basilica of [[Basilica di Santa Croce di Firenze|Santa Croce]]. That tomb has been empty ever since, with Dante's body still remaining in its tomb in Ravenna, far from the land he loved so dearly.
== Works ==
<!-- This part of the article needs to be expanded -->
[[Image:DanteDetail.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Dante, poised between the mountain of Purgatorio and the city of Florence, displays the famous incipit ''Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita'' in a detail of Domenico di Michelino's painting, Florence 1465.]]
''[[The Divine Comedy]]'' describes Dante's journey through [[Divine Comedy#Inferno|Hell]] (''Inferno''), [[Divine Comedy#Purgatorio|Purgatory]] (''Purgatorio''), and [[Divine Comedy#Paradiso|Paradise]] (''Paradiso''), guided first by the Roman epic poet [[Virgil]] and then by his beloved [[Beatrice Portinari|Beatrice]]. While the vision of Hell, the ''Inferno'', is vivid for modern readers, the theological niceties presented in the other books require a certain amount of patience and scholarship to understand. ''Purgatorio'', the most lyrical and human of the three, also has the most poets in it; ''Paradiso'', the most heavily theological, has the most beautiful and ecstatic mystic passages, in which Dante tries to describe what he confesses he is unable to convey.
Dante wrote the ''Comedy'' in his regional dialect. By creating a poem of epic structure and philosophic purpose, he established that the [[Italian language]] was suitable for the highest sort of expression, and simultaneously established the Tuscan dialect as the standard for Italian. In French, Italian is nicknamed ''la langue de Dante.'' It often confuses readers that such a serious work would be called a "Comedy". In Dante's time, all serious scholarly works were written in Latin (a tradition that would persist for many hundreds of years more, until the waning years of the Enlightenment,) and works written in any other language were assumed to be comidic in nature.
<!--This last sentence would benefit from a detailed check as to exactly when Latin was phased out-->
Other works include ''[[Convivio]]'' ("The Banquet"), a collection of poems and interpretive commentary; ''Monarchia'', which sets out Dante's ideas on global political organization; ''[[De vulgari eloquentia]]'' ("On the Eloquence of Vernacular"), on vernacular literature; and ''[[La Vita Nuova]]'' ("The New Life"), the story of his love for Beatrice Portinari, who also served as the ultimate symbol of salvation in the ''Comedy''. The book contains love poems in Tuscan, not a new thing; the vernacular had been used for lyric works before. But it also contains Dante's learned comments on his own work, and these too are in the vernacular, instead of the Latin that was almost universally used.
Note: References to ''La divina commedia'' are in the format (book, canto, verse), i.e. (Inferno, XV, 76).
==See also==
* [[2999 Dante|Asteroid 2999 Dante]], named after the poet
*''[[Devil May Cry]]'', a video game loosely based on the book with characters that allude to ''The Divine Comedy'', and [[Dante (Devil May Cry)|Dante]], the game's protagonist.
*''[[Devil May Cry 3: Dante's Awakening]]'', part three of the series, with more allusi |
ine]
*[http://www.kena.org/hirams/ Hiram's Oasis]
*[http://internetloge.de/masmon/masmon.htm Webb's Freemason's Monitor &mdash; including the first three degrees]
*[http://www.harunyahya.com/globalfreemasonry01.php Harun Yahya: Global Freemasonry]
*[http://internetloge.de/masmanu/masmanu.htm Robert Macoy: The Masonic Manual &mdash; A pocket Companion for the Initiated]
*[http://internetloge.de/massym/massym.htm Albert G. Mackey, M. D.: Symbolism of Freemasonry]
*[http://www.internetloge.de/kunst/kunstabe.htm Masonic Art]
*[http://altreligion.about.com/od/masonicclipartgraphics/ Masonic art & clip art ]
*[http://users.marshall.edu/~will2/freemasonry.html The Real Secret of Freemasonry]
*[http://www.masonicinfo.com Discussion of Anti-Masonry]
*[http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/bernheim3.html The Blue Forget Me Not, Another Side of the Story by W.Bro. Alain Bernheim 33rd]
*[http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/bernheim12.html German Freemasonry and it's Attitudes towards the Nazi Regime, by W. Bro. Alain Bernheim 33rd Degree]
*[http://www.grandelogenationalefrancaise.com/ The Grande Loge Nationale Francaise GLNF]
*[http://www.bessel.org/forgnot.htm ''The Forget Me Not and Freemasonry'']
*[http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/25/ ''The Constitutions of the Free-Masons''] written by James Anderson and published "For the Use of the Lodges" in 1723 in [[London]], and in 1734 by [[Benjamin Franklin]] in [[Philadelphia]]. Contains a mythical-biblical-historical account of the order, as well as "charges" and general regulations for members and lodges.
[[Category:Freemasonry|*]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Secret societies|Freemasonry]]
[[Category:Sociology]]
[[ar:ماسونية]]
[[bg:Масони]]
[[cs:Svobodné zednářství]]
[[da:Frimureri]]
[[de:Freimaurerei]]
[[eo:Framasonismo]]
[[es:Francmasonería]]
[[et:Vabamüürlus]]
[[fa:فراماسونری]]
[[fi:Vapaamuurarit]]
[[fr:Franc-maçonnerie]]
[[he:הבונים החופשיים]]
[[hu:Szabadkőművesség]]
[[id:Freemasonry]]
[[it:Massoneria]]
[[ja:フリーメイソン]]
[[ko:프리메이슨]]
[[nl:Vrijmetselarij]]
[[no:Frimureri]]
[[pl:Masoneria]]
[[pt:Maçonaria]]
[[ro:Francmasonerie]]
[[ru:Масоны]]
[[sl:Prostozidarstvo]]
[[sr:Слободно зидарство]]
[[sv:Frimurarorden]]
[[zh:共济会]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fulham F.C.</title>
<id>11228</id>
<revision>
<id>41595148</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T10:57:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tasc</username>
<id>853739</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.198.250.79|82.198.250.79]] to last version by 195.92.40.49</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
clubname = Fulham |
image = [[Image:Fulham_crest.png|100px|Fulham crest]] |
fullname = Fulham Football Club |
nickname = The Cottagers, The Whites |
founded = [[1879]] |
ground = [[Craven Cottage]], [[Fulham]], [[London]] |
capacity = 22,230 |
chairman = [[Image:Egypt_flag_large.png|20px|Egyptian]] [[Mohamed Al-Fayed]] |
manager = [[Image:Flag of Wales 2.svg|20px|Welsh]] [[Chris Coleman (footballer)|Chris Coleman]] |
league = [[FA Premier League]] |
season = [[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004-05]] |
position = Premier League, 13th |
shirtsupplier= [[PUMA AG|PUMA]] |
shirtsponsors= [[PIPEX]] |
pattern_la1=_redshoulders|pattern_b1=_oneredshoulderonwhite|pattern_ra1=_shouldersonwhite|
leftarm1=FFFFFF|body1=000000|rightarm1=000000|shorts1=000000|socks1=FFFFFF|
pattern_la2=_whiteshoulders|pattern_b2=_whiteshoulders|pattern_ra2=_whiteshoulders|
leftarm2=FF0000|body2=FF0000|rightarm2=FF0000|shorts2=FF0000|socks2=FF0000|
}}
'''Fulham Football Club''' (FFC) is a [[football (soccer)|football]] team based in [[Fulham]], [[London]]. Founded in 1879, they celebrated their 125th anniversary in 2004, and they are playing in the top tier of English football, the [[FA Premier League|FA Premiership]]. Fulham FC are in fact the oldest professional football club from the London area, a record that might surprise a few fans of some of the bigger clubs in the City.
They spent much time in the Old First Division (Premiership) through the 60s, but are yet to gain any major honors, their only [[FA Cup]] final appearance being in [[1975]]. They are currently playing at [[Craven Cottage]], a beautiful riverside ground in Fulham, having spent two years at [[Loftus Road]], with a still uncertain future. See more on this topic in the '''''[[Fulham F.C.#Grounds|Grounds]]''''' subsection of this article. They are currently looking for no more than a respectable finish in their 20-team league, although [[relegation]] is at the back of their mind.
Fulham also has a ladies team, [[Fulham L.F.C.]]. Both the men's and women's team train at the club's ground near [[Motspur Park]] - where the [[Fulham Academy|Academy]] is situated.
==History==
===Foundation & The Amateur Years===
Fulham Football Club started its existence as Fulham St Andrew's Church Sunday School FC in [[1879]]. They won the West London Amateur Cup in 1887 and, having changed the name to 'Fulham' in [[1888]], the West London League in [[1893]] at the first attempt. They gained [[Professional sport|professional]] status on [[December 12]] [[1898]].
They played in colors more akin to [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] in this era.
===Pre-1945===
After turning professional, it was a number of years before Fulham gained admission to the professional league, which they did by winning the Southern League Championship in the 1906/07 season. Fulham's first ever match as a league side saw them losing 1-0 at home to [[Hull City A.F.C.|Hull City]] in September 1907. The first win came four days later against [[Derby County F.C.|Derby County]], and when they eventually found their feet in the division they impressed, ending up only three points short of promotion.
They didn't come any closer to the [[Football League First Division|First Division]] for a while, finishing consistently in the mediocracy up until the outbreak of [[World War II]]. They won one minor cup, in 1910, the London Challenge Cup.
===Post-1945===
Post-war, Fulham were promoted to the First Division in 1959, and had crowds regularly exceeding 30,000. They never pushed higher than mid-table though, and were eventually relegated in 1968. They later saw stars like [[Bobby Moore]] and [[George Best]] play for the club, and reached the [[FA Cup]] Final in [[1975]], losing to [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]]. In the build up to this, Tony Rees and The Cottagers released a single, "[[Viva el Fulham]]" which is still played and sometimes chanted at Fulham games. Despite a [[Malcolm Macdonald]] team in the 1980s which looked to be the start of a new revolution, Fulham hit the football league basement in [[1994]], in being relegated to the [[Football League Third Division|Third Division]].
==Recent History==
===Before Al Fayed===
After the side's relegation, Ian Branfoot was installed as manager. His first season in charge yielded a seventh place finish, which would have given them a place in the play-offs if not for a restructuring of the league. Branfoot's second season was a disaster, with the side languishing near the foot of the table and only seeming safe due to Torquay United being hopelessly adrift at bottom position. The situation came to a head when Fulham played Torquay at their Plainmoor ground and lost, meaning that they had only won two from their previous twenty league games. Fulham followed the match with three draws which hardly improved the situation, and Branfoot was fired two weeks after the Torquay match (though retained in other capacities for a while afterwards)
Micky Adams was appointed as manager and oversaw an upturn in form that lifted the side out of what little relegation danger was present. The next season he engineered a complete turnaround in form and his side, captained by [[Simon Morgan]] finished second, only missing out on first due to the league dropping the old "goal difference" system in favor of a "goals scored" tally. While Fulham's goal difference was one better than that of champions Wigan Athletic, they scored twelve less goals. This was subtly ironic, as the club's then Chairman [[Jimmy Hill]], had successfully argued that goals scored should decide places of teams tied on points while sitting on an [[FA]] panel.
===Al Fayed's Era===
Millionaire [[Mohamed Al-Fayed]] purchased the club that summer and fired Adams in the aftermath of a poor start. In Adams' place he installed a managerial 'dream team' of [[Ray Wilkins]] and [[Kevin Keegan]], pledging that the club would reach the Premiership with five years.
After an argument over team selection, Wilkins left the club, having nearly secured promotion to the First Division. Keegan steered Fulham to a spectacular promotion the next season, winning 101 points of a possible 138, captained by now manager [[Chris Coleman (footballer)|Chris Coleman]]. He then left to become manager of the [[English national football team]], and veteran player [[Paul Bracewell]] was put in charge.
Fulham's first season in the 1st Division was deemed a failure, despite a respectable 9th place finish. Bracewell was fired in March after their early promotion charge faded into a mid-table position. Karlheinz Riedle was named caretaker manager, though the majority of the remaining matches were overseen by Roy Evans after Riedle was hospitalized due to a collapsed lung.
[[Jean Tigana]] was put in charge, and having signed a number of young stars, including [[Louis Saha]], he guided Fulham to their third promotion in five seasons, again in emphatic style, giving Fulham top flight status for the first time since 1968. During this season club captain and subsequent manager, Chris Coleman, was involved in a car crash which 18 months down the line finished his career. Fulham were widely tipped to t |
nstitutions require the agreement of a [[supermajority]] of the elected representatives, or require a judge and jury to agree that evidentiary and procedural standards have been fulfilled by the state, or two different votes by the representatives separated by an election, or, sometimes, a [[referendum]]. These requirements are often combined. The [[separation of powers]] into [[legislative branch]], [[executive branch]], [[judicial branch]] also makes it more difficult for a small majority to impose their will. This means a majority can still legitimately coerce a minority (which is still ethically questionable), but such a minority would be very small and, as a practical matter, it is harder to get a larger proportion of the people to agree to such actions.
Another argument is that majorities and minorities can take a markedly different shape on different issues. People often agree with the majority view on some issues and agree with a minority view on other issues. One's view may also change. Thus, the members of a majority may limit oppression of a minority since they may well in the future themselves be in a minority.
A third common argument is that, despite the risks, majority rule is preferable to other systems, and the tyranny of the majority is in any case an improvement on a tyranny of a minority. Proponents of democracy argue that empirical statistical evidence strongly shows that more democracy leads to less internal violence and [[democide]]. This is sometimes formulated as [[Rummel's Law]], which states that the less democratic freedom a people have, the more likely their rulers are to murder them.
===Political stability===
One argument for democracy is that by creating a system where the public can remove administrations, without changing the legal basis for government, democracy aims at reducing political uncertainty and instability, and assuring citizens that however much they may disagree with present policies, they will be given a regular chance to change those who are in power, or change policies with which they disagree. This is preferable to a system where political change takes place through violence.
Some think that political stability may be considered as excessive when the group in power remains the same for an extended period of time. On the other hand, this is more common in nondemocracies.
===Effective response in wartime===
A pluralist democracy, by definition, implies that power is not concentrated. One criticism is that this could be a disadvantage for a state in [[war]]time, when a fast and unified response is necessary. The legislature usually must give consent before the start of an offensive military operation, although sometimes the executive can do this on its own while keeping the legislature informed. If the democracy is attacked, no consent is usually required for defensive operations. The people may vote against a [[conscription]] army. Monarchies and dictatorships can in theory, act immediately and forcefully.
However, actual research shows that democracies are more likely to win wars than non-democracies. One explanation is attributes this primarily to "the transparency of the polities, and the stability of their preferences, once determined" by which "democracies are better able to cooperate with their partners in the conduct of wars". Other research attributes this to superior mobilisation of resources, or selection of wars with a high chance of winning.<ref>Ajin Choi, (2004). "Democratic Synergy and Victory in War, 1816–1992". ''International Studies Quarterly'', Volume 48, Number 3, September 2004, pp. 663-682(20). {{doi|10.1111/j.0020-8833.2004.00319.x}} </ref>
===Corruption===
Research by the [[World Bank]] suggests that political institutions are extremely important in determining the prevalence of [[corruption]]: democracy, parliamentary systems, political stability, and freedom of the press are all associated with lower corruption <ref>
Daniel Lederman, Normal Loaza, Rodrigo Res Soares, (November 2001). [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=632777 "Accountability and Corruption: Political Institutions Matter"]. ''World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 2708''. SSRN 632777. Accessed [[February 19]], [[2006]].</ref>.
===Poverty and famine===
{{npov-section}}
Statistically more democracy correlates with a higher [[GDP]] per capita, a higher score on the [[human development index]] and a lower score on the human poverty index.
However, there is disagreement regarding how much credit the democratic system can take for this. Various theories have been put forth, all of them controversial. One observation is that democracy became widespread only after the [[industrial revolution]] and the introduction of [[capitalism]]. Evidence in [[peer review]]ed statistical studies support the theory that more capitalism, measured for example with one the several [[Index of Economic Freedom|Indices of Economic Freedom]] which has been used in hundreds of studies by independent researchers <ref>Free the World. [http://www.freetheworld.com/papers.html Published Work Using Economic Freedom of the World Research], accessed [[February 19]], [[2006]].</ref>, increases [[economic growth]] and that this in turn increases general prosperity, reduces poverty, and causes [[democratization]]. This is a statistical tendency, and there are individual exceptions like [[India]], which is democratic but arguably not prosperous, or [[Brunei]], which has a high GDP but has never been democratic. There are also other studies suggesting that more democracy increases economic freedom although a few find no or even a small negative effect. <ref>Nicclas Bergren, (2002). [http://www.ratioinstitutet.nu/pdf/wp/nb_efi.pdf "The Benefits of Economic Freedom: A Survey"] . Accessed [[February 19]], [[2006]]. </ref> <ref>John W. Dawson, (1998). [http://www.eh.net/bookreviews/library/0102.shtml "Review of Robert J. Barro, Determinants of Economic Growth: A Cross-Country Empirical Study"]. ''Economic History Services''. Accessed [[February 19]], [[2006]].</ref> <ref>W. Ken Farr, Richard A. Lord, J. Larry Wolfenbarger, (1998). [http://catoinstitute.org/pubs/journal/cj18n2/cj18n2-5.pdf "Economic Freedom, Political Freedom, and Economic Well-Being: A Causality Analysis"]. ''Cato Journal'', Vol 18, No 2.</ref><ref>Wenbo Wu, Otto A. Davis, (2003). [http://www.spp.nus.edu.sg/docs/wp/wp48.pdf "Economic Freedom and Political Freedom".] ''Encyclopedia of Public Choice''. [[Carnegie Mellon University]], [[National University of Singapore]]. </ref><ref>Ian Vásquez, (2001). [http://www.cato.org/research/articles/vas-0109.html "Ending Mass Poverty"]. [[Cato Institute]]. Accessed [[February 19]], [[2006]].</ref> <ref>Susanna Lundström, (April 2002). [http://smye2002.univ-paris1.fr/program/paper/b5_lun.pdf "The Effects of Democracy on Different Categories of Economic Freedom"]. Accessed [[February 19]], [[2006]].</ref> One objection might be that nations like [[Sweden]] and [[Canada]] today score just below nations like [[Chile]] and [[Estonia]] on economic freedom but that Sweden and Canada today have a higher GDP per capita. However, this is a misunderstanding, the studies indicate effect on economic growth and thus that future GDP per capita will be higher with higher economic freedom. It should also be noted that Sweden and Canada are among the world's most capitalist nations according to the index, due to factors such as strong [[rule of law]], strong [[property rights]], and few restrictions against [[free trade]]. Critics might argue that the Index of Economic Freedom and other methods used does not measure the degree of capitalism, preferring some other definition.
It should be noted that [[Correlation implies causation (logical fallacy)|correlation is not causation]] - in other words, if two events happen at the same time, for example democracy and lack of famine, that does not mean that one must cause the other. However, such a causation has been established in some studies of the Index of Economic Freedom and democracy, as noted above.
Even if economic growth has caused democratization in the past, it may not do so in the future. Some evidence suggests that savvy autocrats may have learned how to cut the cord between growth and freedom, enjoying the benefits of the former without the risks of the latter. <ref>Bruce Bueno de Mesquita, George W. Downs, (2005). [http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20050901faessay84507/bruce-bueno-de-mesquita-george-w-downs/development-and-democracy.html "Development and Democracy"]. ''Foreign Affairs'', September/October 2005.</ref> <ref>Joseph T. Single, Michael M. Weinstein, Morton H. Halperin, (2004). [http://www.nytimes.com/cfr/international/20040901facomment_v83n4_siegle-weinstein-halperin.html "Why Democracies Excel"]. ''Foreign Affairs'', September/October 2004.</ref>
A prominent economist, [[Amartya Sen]], has noted that no functioning democracy has ever suffered a large scale [[famine]] <ref>[[Amartya Sen]], (1999). [http://muse.jhu.edu/demo/jod/10.3sen.html "Democracy as a Universal Value"]. ''Journal of Democracy'', 10.3, 3-17. Johns Hopkins University Press.</ref> This includes democracies that have not been very prosperous historically, like [[India]], which had its last great famine in [[1943]] and many other large scale famines before that in the late nineteenth century, all under British rule. However, some others ascribe the [[Bengal famine of 1943]] to the effects of [[World War II]]. The government of India had been becoming progressively more democratic for years. Provincial government had been entirely so since the [[Government of India Act 1935|Government of India Act |
e ([[Beijing]] never actually recognized any of the 19th century treaties over Hong Kong).
She was famously threatened during a meeting with then Chinese leader [[Deng Xiaoping]] with comments such as "China is no Argentina," and "We can order troops into Hong Kong this afternoon." Formal discussions of British withdrawal from the territory started after this Beijing visit and Hong Kong was [[Transfer of the sovereignty of Hong Kong|returned to China]] on [[July 1]] [[1997]].
However, on the day of the handover of Hong Kong, former British Foreign Secretary [[Douglas Hurd]] remarked to Argentine Foreign Minister [[Guido di Tella]]; "I know what you're thinking, but you will never see this happen in Port Stanley."
On the other hand, the Argentine military government was ousted after mounting protests by human rights and war veterans groups. Galtieri was forced to resign, paving the way for the restoration of democracy. Elections were held on [[October 30]], [[1983]] and [[Raúl Alfonsín]], the [[Radical Civic Union]] (UCR) party candidate, took office on [[December 10]], 1983. Alfonsín defeated [[Italo Luder]], the candidate for the [[Justicialist Party]] ([[Peronist]] movement).
===Weapon export controls===
The [[Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls]] (COCOM) failed to anticipate a conflict between Argentina and the UK when approving weapon export to Argentina.
===Medical===
During the operations, several wounded British soldiers had to spend hours in the cold before receiving medical aid; famously, no British soldiers evacuated to medical aid stations died. Many recovered beyond what medicine of the time thought possible, and subsequent theories have suggested that this was due to the extreme cold (similar anecdotal tales had originated during the bitter winter fighting of the [[Korean War]]).
==Impact in Argentina==
The Argentine loss of the War led to ever-larger protests against the military regime and is credited with giving the final push to drive out the [[Proceso de Reorganización Nacional|military government]] that had overthrown [[Isabel Perón]] in [[1976]] and participated in the crimes of the [[Dirty War]]. Democracy returned to Argentina in [[1983]].
The famous writer [[Jorge Luis Borges]], himself partly of British descent and bilingual from birth in Spanish and English, wrote in [[1985 in literature|1985]] a short poem ([http://www.uoregon.edu/~caguirre/juanlopez.html ''Juan López y John Ward'']) about two fictional soldiers (one of each side) that died in the Falklands, which he refers to as "islands that were too famous".
Among the latest Argentine productions about the war is the [[2005 in film|2005 film]] ''[[Iluminados por el Fuego]]'' ("Enlightened by Fire") [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0288569/], directed by [[Tristán Bauer]] and starred by [[Gastón Pauls]], which received a [[Donostia-San Sebastian International Film Festival|San Sebastián Festival]] special award. The film tells about a veteran's memories, re-awakened after he learns of the suicide of a former soldier comrade.
==Cultural impact in the UK==
The war provided a wealth of material for writers, and many dozens of books came from it; in the UK the definitive account became [[Max Hastings]] and [[Simon Jenkins]]' ''[[The Battle for the Falklands]]''. Other titles focused on the [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harrier]] (Sharkey Ward's ''[[Sea Harrier over the Falklands]]''), the land battles leading up to the Argentine surrender (Christian Jennings and Adrian Weale's ''[[Green Eyed Boys]]''), and the general experience of battle ([[Ken Lukowiak]]'s ''[[A Soldier's Song]]''). [[Jack Higgins]]' thriller ''[[Exocet]]'' dealt with one of the war's most famous "buzz-words"; for many years afterwards, "Exocet" became synonymous with "rocket" in the UK ("[[Yomp]]" and "[[Task force|Task Force]]" also entered the language).
Very few films emerged from the conflict, one such being the [[1989]] BBC drama ''[[Tumbledown]]'', which starred [[Colin Firth]] in an early role. It told the tale of a soldier in the [[Scots Guards]], brain-damaged by a sniper's bullet, adjusting to disabled life after the war. In 1992 the BBC produced ''[[An Ungentlemanly Act]]'', relating the story of the initial defence of the Islands during the Argentine Invasion, with [[Bob Peck]] as Mike Norman and [[Ian Richardson]] as Rex Hunt. [[Ian Curteis]]' ''[[The Falklands Play]]'' was commissioned by the BBC in 1986, but was not filmed until [[2004]]; the BBC claimed that it would have been broadcast too close to the 1987 General Election. Curteis maintained that the generally sympathetic portrayal of [[Margaret Thatcher]] refuted a perceived BBC anti-government bias. On a lighter note, the character of [[Grant Mitchell (EastEnders)|Grant Mitchell]] from the popular, gritty [[soap opera]] ''[[EastEnders]]'' was written as a traumatised Falklands veteran, although this characterisation was swiftly abandoned.
[[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur's]] popular Argentine midfielder [[Ossie Ardiles]] had helped beat [[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]] one day after the invasion, to no ill effect, although he subsequently left the UK for a year of his own volition. The war also created heightened passions between [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] and [[English national football team|England]] in the [[Football World Cup 1986|1986]], [[Football World Cup 1998|1998]], and [[Football World Cup 2002|2002]] FIFA World Cups, featuring memorable, and sometimes infamous, performances by [[Diego Maradona]], [[Peter Shilton]], and [[David Beckham]]. (See [[Argentina and England football rivalry]]).
Although the war did not have a direct impact on British civilians, it nonetheless had impacts on British pop culture. Popular music referencing the war included [[Elvis Costello]]'s song "[[Shipbuilding]]", [[New Order]]'s song "Blue Monday", [[Iron Maiden]]'s song "Como Estais Amigos", [[Pink Floyd]]'s songs "Get Your Filthy Hands Off My Desert", "The Fletcher Memorial Home", and "Not Now John" from the album ''[[The Final Cut (album)|The Final Cut]]'', [[Billy Bragg]]'s song "Island of No Return" and [[The Bluebells]]' song "South Atlantic Way". [[Joe Jackson (musician)|Joe Jackson]]'s 1986 song "Tango Atlantico" deals with a description of the end of the war and the aftermath. Much material produced around this time by the [[anarchist]] [[punk rock|punk]] band [[Crass]] was extremely critical of the war, in particular the album ''[[Yes Sir, I Will]]'' and the singles "Sheep Farming in the Falklands" and "How Does it Feel to be the Mother of 1000 Dead?" The latter, intended as a statement directed at Mrs Thatcher, led to questions in parliament and a request for prosecution for [[Obscene Publications Act|obscenity]] from Conservative MP for [[Enfield]] North [[Timothy Eggar]] [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/09422b.html]. Crass were also responsible for [[Thatchergate]], a [[hoax]] tape, originally attributed to the [[Soviet]] [[KGB]], on which the spliced voice of Margaret Thatcher appears to imply that the HMS ''Sheffield'' was deliberately sacrificed in order to escalate the conflict.
The popular computer games ''[[Harrier Attack]]'' and ''[[Yomp (computer game)|Yomp]]'' presented unofficial portraits of the fighting.
The aforementioned [[Simon Weston]], a [[Welsh Guards|Welsh Guardsman]] who had suffered serious burns during the conflict, became a popular figure due to British media coverage. A series of television documentaries followed his progress and eventual recovery from his injuries (''[[Simon's War]]'' being the first).
The film version of ''[[Whoops Apocalypse]]'' features a conflict very similar to the Falklands War between Great Britain and a fictional country Maguadora over the fictional Santa Maya.
==Falklands War Veterans afflictions==
The British Ministry of Defence was accused several times of a systematic failure to prepare service personnel for the horrors of war and provide adequate care for them afterwards.
There are strong allegations that the Ministry of Defence has tried to ignore the issue of [[Post-traumatic stress disorder|Post Traumatic Stress Disorder]] (PTSD), which left many sufferers emotionally scarred and unable to work, inmersed in social dislocation, alcoholism, and depression. Most veterans have suffered prolonged personality disorders, flashbacks and anxiety levels sometimes reaching pathological levels.
It was revealed that more veterans have committed suicide since the Falklands conflict ended than the number of servicemen killed in action [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/witness/april/24/newsid_2947000/2947639.stm].
SAMA - the South Atlantic Medal Association, which represents and helps Falklands veterans - believe some 264 veterans have now taken their own lives, a number that contrasts with the 255 who died on active service.
A similar situation afflicts the veterans on the Argentine side, many of whom have similarly suffered from psychiatric disorders, drug and alcohol abuse, and social turmoil with the current number of suicide deaths at 320.
== Artistic treatments ==
=== Computer games ===
*[http://www.harpoonhq.com/harpoon3/scenarios/plot-falklands.html Falklands War - 1982] &mdash; This scenario collection, created with the Harpoon3 naval / aerial warfare simulator, is intended to accurately recreate the real-life war from 1982.
==See also==
{{commons|Falklands war}}
* [[Operation Algeciras]] - A failed plan conceived by the Argentine military to send some [[Montoneros]] to sabotage the British military facilities in [[Gibraltar]].
* [[1833 invasion of the Falkland Islands]]
==References==
{{Wikiquote}}
* Freedman, Sir L. ''Official History of the Falkland |
o gained the ability to strafe ground targets. The lack of cannon was definitively addressed with F-4E.
The Phantom was used by both [[Thunderbirds (squadron)|Thunderbirds]] (F-4E) and [[Blue Angels]] (F-4J) demonstration teams.
===Phantom in foreign service===
The F-4E and other variants have served with the air forces of many countries, including [[Australia]], [[Egypt]], [[Greece]], [[Iran]], [[Israel]], [[Japan]], [[Spain]], [[South Korea]], [[Turkey]], and [[West Germany]].
[[Israel Air Force]] Phantoms saw extensive combat during [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]s with 116 claimed victories to 55 losses, including ground fire. Nicknamed '''Kurnass''' (Sledgehammer), Israeli Phantoms undewent an extensive modification program to adapt them for local weapons and avionics. In 1980s, Israel began the '''Kurnass 2000''' modernization program which significantly updated avionics and added capability for [[AGM-142 Popeye]] missiles. Kurnass 2000 aircraft can be recognized by small strakes above air intakes and a "probe-and-drogue" boom plumbed into the boom receptacle on the spine of the aircraft. Israel also created a [[Pratt & Whitney PW1120]]-engined version which first flew on [[30 July]] [[1986]]. The aircraft was capable of [[supercruise]], had 17% better thrust-to-weight ratio, 15% better sustained turn rate, 36% greater climb rate, and 27% better acceleration, all with improved fuel efficiency. The aircraft was demonstrated at the 1987 [[Paris Air Show]] but the project was deemed too expensive for the aging airframes.
A similar upgrade called '''Terminator 2020''' which is optimised for ground attack and unable to fire the AIM-120 AMRAAM, has also been implemented by IAI on Turkish Air Force Phantoms. It includes an advanced ELTA SPS-100 [[fire-control system]]/[[radar]], adopted from the abortive [[IAI Lavi]] technology demonstrator of the early 1990s.
The German [[Luftwaffe]] originally received the lightened and simplified F-4F with a smaller radar and no mid-air refueling or AIM-7 Sparrow capability. In [[1983 in aviation|1983]], Germany initiated the '''ICE''' (Improved Combat Efficiency) program which outfitted F-4Fs with the same [[AN/APG-65]] radar as in F/A-18, the ability to carry [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]] missiles, and smokeless engines.
The [[Hellenic Air Force]] upgraded its F-4 following the steps of the "ICE" program. The upgrade program includes an [[AN/APG-65]]GY radar, [[Honeywell]] H-764G navigation system which is a combination of laser [[inertial navigation system]] (LINS), [[global positioning system]] (GPS), and [[Elbit Systems]] Modular Multi-Role Computer (MMRC), the [[LITENING targeting pod]], and the ability to carry [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]] missiles and the [[AGM-130]] stand-off weapon.
The [[United Kingdom]] bought the F-4 for use with the [[Royal Air Force]] and [[Fleet Air Arm]] in the wake of the cancellation of home-grown projects such as the [[BAC TSR-2]]. British versions were based on the USN F-4J and were given the designation F-4K and F-4M respectively. They would enter service as the FG.1 and FGR.2. replacing the [[Hawker Hunter]] and [[de Havilland Sea Vixen]]. They were fitted with the larger and more powerful [[Rolls-Royce Spey]] [[turbofan]] engines for improved take-off performance. The larger engine required much more air than on other F-4 variants, which improved performance at low-level but compromised it in thinner air at high altitudes, and the airframe development needed to accomodate these changes was plagued by problems. The Fleet Air Arm Phantoms were fitted with a double-telescoping front landing gear strut which could extend 40 in (102 cm), the increased [[angle of attack]] being necessary for catapult launches from the smaller British carrier [[HMS Ark Royal (R09)|HMS ''Ark Royal'']]. Some elements of the airframe and equipment were built in the UK. The Fleet Air Arm order was cut down with the cutting back of the [[Royal Navy]] carrier force, the majority of the 160 UK Phantoms that would be built operating with the RAF in ground attack and long range interception. In the late [[1970s]] RAF Phantoms were replaced by the [[SEPECAT Jaguar]] for ground attack roles and the FAA Phantoms disbanded and given over to the RAF. In addition to these, in [[1984]], the RAF purchased a total of 15 F-4J aircraft second-hand from the [[US Navy]] to increase its interceptor force following the [[Falklands War]] (a Phantom squadron was posted to the islands after the hostilities). The Phantom was replaced in British service by the [[Panavia Tornado]] [[RAF Tornado F3|F3]] air defence variant. The [[United Kingdom|UK]] retired its last Phantoms in [[1993 in aviation|1993]] as a result of the [[Options for Change]] spending cuts (Donald 2002).
===Phantom nicknames===
[[image:F-4 parts distribution.jpg|thumb|A German F-4F at an airshow labeled "World's Largest Distributor of MiG Parts."]]
Either devoutly loved or passionately hated by those who flew it and worked on it, the Phantom gathered a number of nicknames during its illustrious career. It was the "Rhino" because of the long nose and tough [[titanium]] construction, the "Double Ugly" and "DUFF" in reference to its [[dihedral]] wings and [[anhedral]] tail as well as its two crew members, the "World's Leading Distributor of MiG Parts" in tribute to its record of downing 277 [[MiG]] aircraft in US service and additional 116 with Israel, the "Flying Anvil", the "Big Iron Sled", and the "Louisville Slugger." German Luftwaffe crews called their F-4s the "Eisensau" (Iron sow), "Fliegender Ziegelstein" (Flying brick), and "Luftverteidigungsdiesel" (Air defence diesel). Imitating the spelling of the aircraft's name, fans of the F-4 ("Phantom Phanatics") call it the "Phabulous Phantom." Ground crews who worked on the aircraft are known as "Phantom Phixers."
===The Spook===
[[image:Spook_1000.jpg|frame|A patch depicting the Spook]]
As famous as the aircraft itself is its emblem, a whimsical cartoon ghost called '''The Spook'''. It was created by a McDonnell Douglas technical artist Anthony "Tony" Wong for shoulder patches. The name was coined by the crews of either [[12th Tactical Fighter Wing]] or [[4453rd Combat Crew Training Wing]] at [[MacDill AFB]]. The figure is ubiquitous, appearing on every imaginable item associated with the F-4. Spook has followed the Phantom around the world adopting local fashions. For example, the British Spook sometimes wears a bowler hat and carries a pipe.
==Operators==
{{main|List of units using the F-4 Phantom}}
The [[United States Navy]], [[United States Marine Corps]], and [[United States Air Force]] all flew various models of the Phantom. Some of the dozens of other users included the United Kingdom's [[Royal Air Force]] and [[Fleet Air Arm]], [[Luftwaffe]], [[Hellenic Air Force]] and the [[Israeli Air Force]].
==Variants==
{{main|F-4 Phantom II variants}}
==Specifications (F-4E)==
[[Image:F-4 3-view.jpg|right|300px|F-4B Phantom II]]
{{Airtemp|
|jet or prop?=jet
|plane or copter?=plane
|include 'armament' field?=yes
|include 'capacity' field?=no
|switch order of units?=no
<!-- please include units. if something doesn't apply, leave it blank. -->
|crew=2
|capacity=
|length main=63 ft 0 in
|length alt=19.2 m
|span main=38 ft 7 in
|span alt=11.7 m
|height main=16 ft 5 in
|height alt=5.0 m
|area main=530.0 ft&sup2;
|area alt=49.2 m&sup2;
|empty weight main=30,300 lb
|empty weight alt=13,770 kg
|loaded weight main=41,500 lb
|loaded weight alt=18,865 kg
|useful load main=
|useful load alt=
|max takeoff weight main=61,795 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=28,090 kg
|engine (jet)=[[General Electric J79]]-GE-17A
|type of jet=[[axial compressor]] [[turbojet]]
|number of jets=2
|thrust main=17,845 lbf
|thrust alt=79.6 kN
|engine (prop)=
|type of prop=
|number of props=
|power main= hp
|power alt= kW
|max speed main=1,430 mph at 36,000 ft (Mach 2.2)
|max speed alt=2,300 km/h at 11,000 m
|cruise speed main=585 mph
|cruise speed alt=940 km/h
|range main=600 mi
|range alt=965 km
|ceiling main=60,000 ft
|ceiling alt=18,300 m
|climb rate main=49,850 ft/min
|climb rate alt=253 m/s
|loading main=78 lb/ft&sup2;
|loading alt=383 kg/m&sup2;
|thrust/weight=0.86
|power/mass main=
|power/mass alt=
|armament=
* 1x 20 mm [[M61 Vulcan]] gatling cannon, 639 rounds
* Up to 18,650 lb (8,480 kg) of weapons on nine external hardpoints, including general purpose bombs ([[Mark 82 bomb|Mk 82]]/[[Mark 83 bomb|Mk 83]]/[[Mark 84 bomb|Mk 84]]), cluster bombs ([[CBU-52]]/[[CBU-59]]/[[CBU-71]]/[[CBU-87]]/[[CBU-89]], [[BL755]]), rocket pods ([[LAU-10]], [[LAU-3]], [[LAU-68]]), air-to-ground missiles ([[AGM-45 Shrike]], [[AGM-65 Maverick]], [[AGM-78 Standard]], [[AGM-88 HARM]], [[AGM-142 Popeye]]), TV-guided bombs ([[GBU-15]]), laser-guided bombs ([[GBU-10]]/[[GBU-12]]/[[GBU-16]]/[[GBU-24]]), anti-runway weapons ([[BLU-107 Durandal]]), anti-ship missiles (ASM-1/2 and [[Gabriel missile|Gabriel IIIAS]]), targeting pods (AN/AVQ-23 [[Pave Spike]], AN/AVQ-26 [[Pave Tack]], [[LITENING targeting pod|LITENING]]), recce pods, and nuclear weapons ([[B43 nuclear bomb|B43]]/[[B57 nuclear bomb|B57]]/[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61]]). MXU-648 baggage pods may also be carried as well as external fuel tanks of 370 US gal (1,420 l) for the outer wing hardpoints and either a 600 or 610 US gal (2,310 or 2,345 l) fuel tank for the centerline station.
* 4x [[AIM-7 Sparrow]] in fuselage recesses plus 4x [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]]s on wing pylons; upgraded Hellenic F-4E and German F-4F ICE carry [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]], Japanese F-4EJ Kai carry [[AAM-3]], Hellenic F-4E will carry [[IRIS-T]] in future. Iranian F-4's potentially carry Russian and Chinese missiles.
}}
==F-4s in fiction==
In the comic strip ''[[Calvin and Hobbes]]'', there is a Sunday strip where Calvin experiences |
abolished between 1800 and 1845, and 1816 and 1852 respectively).
===The Triskelion===
[[Image:ManxCarRegistrationPlate.jpg|thumb|left|[[license plate|Car registration plate]], with the triskelion]]
For centuries, the Island's symbol has been the ancient [[Triskelion]]: three bent legs, each with a spur, joined at the thigh. The Triskelion does not appear to have an official definition &mdash; Government publications, currency, flags, the tourist authority and others all use different variants. Most, but not all, preserve rotational symmetry. Some run clockwise, others anticlockwise. Some have the uppermost thigh at 12:00, others at 11:30 or 10:00, etc. Some have the knee bent at 90°, some at 60°, some at closer to 120°. Also the degree of ornamentation of the leg wear and spur vary considerably.
The three legs relate directly to the island's motto &mdash; ''Quocunque Jeceris Stabit'', which translates to ''Whithersoever you throw it, it will stand.'' Interpretations of the motto often stress stability and robustness in the Manx character. Many schools on the island have adapted the motto to promote perseverance and hard work.
[[Image:Skancke-skjold.JPG|thumb|right|100px|Skancke coat of arms]]
Variations on the Triskelion are still in use on the coats of arms belonging to the different branches of the ancient Norwegian noble family that ruled Mann up until the 13th century. This particular version belongs to the [[Skancke]] branch of the [[Skanke]] family. The name stems from ''skank'', the Norwegian version of the word [[shank]]. The kinsmen of [[Magnus III of Norway|Magnus III]] and [[Godfred Magnuson]] emigrated to Norway after the failure of the 1275 uprising against the Scots and became [[knight]]s, [[landlord]]s, and [[clergy]] under the Norwegian Crown.
==Sports==
===Motorcycle racing===
The Isle of Man is famous for its [[Isle of Man TT|TT Motorbike racing event]], which began in 1904 as a motorcar race. From 1905, the TT was held as a closed roads motorcycle racing event and the original course was extended in the 1920s. This is now a series of annual motorcycle road races over 37.25 miles held from late May to early June. TT stands for Tourist Trophy. Excellent aerial view maps and full details of all racing can be seen at [http://www.iomguide.com/races/tt/tt-maps.php IOMGuide.com] and message board discussions run all year at [http://www.iomtt.com IOMTT.com]
The 4.25 mile Billown Course [http://www.southern100.com/ Southern 100] course near [[Castletown]] has been the scene of further events in May, June and July since 1955.
Further racing takes place on the TT course each August-September in the form of the [http://www.iommgp.com/ Manx Grand Prix]. The idea of motor cycle racing for amateurs and private entrants on the famous TT course gave rise to the birth of the MGP back in 1921.
Linked to all this motor cycle racing are the Supporters Clubs, Riders Assns and, of course, the [http://www.iomttma.com/ TT Marshals Association] and the [http://www.iommgp.com/marshals/ MGP Marshals Association] as, without marshals, no racing would be possible.
===Cammag===
Cammag is similar to the [[Scotland|Scottish]] game of [[shinty]], [[England|English]] [[hockey]] and [[Ireland|Irish]] [[hurling]]. It used to be the most widespread sport on the Isle of Man but it ceased to be played after the introduction of [[football]], until very recently when it has been somewhat revived. It involves a [[hockey stick|stick]] (cammag) and a [[ball]] (crick) with anything between four and hundreds of players! Sometimes whole towns and villages took part, or even played each other. The cammag can be any stick with a bent end and the crick can be made from cork or wood. Old accounts tell us that it was occasionally covered in a rag to make it less painful to hit. Cammag season started on Hunt the Wren day (26th [[December]]) and was only played by men (of all ages) during the winter. Realistically it ceased to be played about 1900, however today an annual match of cammag is played in [[St. John's, Isle of Man|St. John's]] (Balley Keill Eoin). As there are no rules to cammag a trip to the local [inn]] is advised to ease any feelings of cowardice beforehand!
===Football===
[[Football (soccer)|Football]] is also popular, with the [[Isle of Man Football Association]] running an [[Isle of Man Football League|football league]] of 27 clubs in two divisions, as well as an [[Isle of Man Football Combination|football combination]] for the reserve teams of the league clubs. There is also an [[Isle of Man national football team|national football team]], although it does not participate in [[UEFA]] or [[FIFA]] tournaments.
An article on football can be found at [[Isle of Man national football team]]
===Rugby===
There are a number of [[Rugby Union]] clubs that participate in the English rugby scene, such as [[Douglas R.U.F.C.]]; [[Castletown R.U.F.C.]]; [[Southern Nomads R.U.F.C.]]; and [[Vagabonds R.U.F.C.]]. It would be possible to enter an Isle of Man Sevens rugby team in the Commonwealth Games.
===Basketball===
[[Basketball]] is also played in the Isle of Man.
===Hockey===
There are many Manx [[Field hockey|hockey]] teams, with mixed, mens' and ladies' leagues. See [http://www.manxhockey.com Manx hockey website].
===Cricket===
The [[Isle of Man Cricket Association]] broke their affiliation with the Lancashire Cricket Board in 2004 to become affiliate members of the [[International Cricket Council]] and compete as a national team in their own right.
===Gymnastics===
The Isle of Man hosts very successful Men's and Women's [[gymnastics]] teams, which consist of gymnasts solely from [http://www.manxgymnastics.co.uk Manx Gymnastics]. Recent accomplishments include 2001, 2003 and 2005 [[Island Games]], the latest of which the gymnastics team came away with 29 medals, including 15 golds out of the total of 34 that the Isle of Man team [http://www.islandgames.net/content/members/iom.html] won. Manx Gymnastics sent a number of gymnasts to the [[2004 Junior Commonwealth Games]] in [[Melbourne]], and plan to send more to the [[2006 Commonwealth Games]].
===Chess===
[[Monarch Assurance]] international [[chess]] tournament is held in [[Port Erin]] every September-October.
==Famous residents==
Despite the wet and cool climate, the low income tax regime and zero tax on personal investments attract a small number of famous people to live on the island. The British racing driver [[Nigel Mansell]] lived on the Isle of Man together with his family until moving to the [[USA]]. Sir [[Norman Wisdom]], comedian and actor, is a long term resident. The [[Bee Gees]] were born on the Island. [http://beta.manxradio.com/presenters/berniequayle/beegees-index.shtml] [[Jeremy Clarkson]] has a home at [[Langness]], near [[Castletown]]. [[Rick Wakeman]] has lived on the island for a number of years.
==See also==
* [[Communications on the Isle of Man]]
* [[Transport on the Isle of Man]]
* [[List of Kings of the Isle of Man]]
* [[Calf of Man]] & Chicken Rock &mdash; island and rocks housing a lighthouse.
* [[St Mary's Isle (Conister Rocks or Tower of Refuge)]] &mdash; Douglas bay islet.
* [[Fort Island|St Michael's Isle (Fort Island)]] &mdash; connected to Langness by causeway.
* [[St Patrick's Isle]] ([[Peel Castle]]) &mdash; one of the smallest islets in the Irish Sea but probably the most historic. Now connected to the mainland by causeway.
* [[Manx Loaghtan|Loaghtan sheep]]
* [[Manx (cat)|Manx cat]]
* [[Towns in the Isle of Man]]
* [[Tynwald Day]]
* [[Isle of Man coins]]
* [[The Cremaster Cycle|Cremaster 4]] a film by [[Mathew Barney]] filmed on the isle.
* [[List of not fully sovereign nations]]
* [[Ubuntu Linux|Ubuntu]] - a Linux distribution that is distributed by [[Canonical Ltd]], headquartered in the Isle of Man.
==References==
* [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Isle of Man}}
* [http://www.pubs.intheiom.com/ Isle of Man Pub Guide ] Exhaustive guide to Manx pubs
* [http://www.iomguide.com/ Isle of Man Guide ] Large website about the island
* [http://travel.holidays.com/iomci Isle of Man Worldwide Travel Links] with [http://www.freewebs.com/travelreports travel reports], [http://travel.holidays.com/tips tips], [http://www.freewebs.com/airnews AirNews]
* [http://www.manxies.net/forums Manxies.net forums ] The Talk of the Island.
* [http://s2.forumforfree.com/index.php?mforum=cybermanx World Manx Forum ] Forum for the Isle of Man
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=54.201050,-4.550400&spn=0.522537,0.764923&t=k&hl=en Google Maps Satellite Photo]
* [http://www.isle-of-man.com/places.shtml Information on places in the Isle of Man]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/IsleofMan/ IsleofMan Email group ]with Photographs, Files and Links to information about the Isle of Man
* [http://www.gov.im Manx Government Website] A comprehensive site covering many aspects of Manx life from fishing to financial regulation
* [http://www.tynwald.org.im Tynwald.org] Hansards, Order Papers and Background to the Manx Government.
* [http://www.manxradio.com/ Manx Radio] The Government/commercial funded radio station for the Isle of Man
* [http://www.corpun.com/manx.htm Birching in the Isle of Man 1945-1976] Article about the use of the birch as a judicial punishment in the Isle of Man.
* [http://www.manxscenes.com/ Manx Scenes.com] Extensive photographic library.
* [http://www.isle-of-man.com/manxnotebook/ Manx Notebook] Manx History Archive.
* [http://www.isleofmanaccommodation.com/ Isle of Man Accommodation]
* [http://www.manxradio.com/webcammap.aspx Isle of Man Webcams] Via Manx Radio Website.
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/im.html The World Factbook listing for the Isle of Man]
{{Europe}}
[[Category:European dependencies]]
[[Category:Isle of Man| ]]
[[Category:Islands of Isle of Man]]
[[Category:Special territories]]
[[Category:Former Norwegian colonies]]
{{Briti |
and Malcolm's eldest son by Margaret [[Edmund I of Scotland|Edmund I]] succeeded him to rule Scotland jointly. However, [[William II of England]] backed Malcolm's son by his first marriage, Duncan, as a pretender to the throne. With the English behind him Duncan briefly seized power as [[Duncan II of Scotland|Duncan II]]. His murder within a few months saw Donald and Edmund restored to joint rule. The two ruled Scotland until two of Edmund's younger brothers returned from exile in England with English military backing. Victorious, the two younger brothers imprisoned Donald III and Edmund I for life, and the older of the two became [[Edgar I of Scotland|King Edgar]] in [[1097]]. Shortly afterwards King [[Magnus III of Norway|Magnus Bare Leg]] of Norway forced King Edgar into ceding the Hebrides and Kintyre to Norway, creating the conditions for the independence of the [[Lord of the Isles|Lords of the Isles]] from the Scottish Crown.
[[Image:Fm cambuskenneth abbey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Cambuskenneth Abbey]], built around 1140, derived much of its importance from its proximity to sometime-capital [[Stirling]].]]
When Edgar died in [[1107]], Margaret's third son [[Alexander I of Scotland|Alexander]] became king, and when he in turn passed away in [[1124]], the crown passed to her fourth son [[David I of Scotland|David I]]. During David's reign [[Scots language|Lowland Scots]] (known as ''Inglis'' then) began to grow in south east Scotland, although [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]] would continue to be spoken in many parts of what would become the Lowlands for centuries more.
The governmental and cultural innovations introduced by the [[Normans|Norman]] conquerors of England impressed David greatly, and he arranged for several notables to come north and take up places within the Scottish aristocracy. The Normans effectively militarised large sections of Scotland, building strong stone castles, and imposing the [[feudal system]] upon the peasantry; they came into frequent conflict with the native nobility, especially in the north east and south west of the country. Like his successors, he planted a number of towns or "[[burgh|burghs]]", which were colonised by Normans, [[Fleming|Flemish]] merchants and Englishmen.
In a mirror of the invitation of the Normans northwards, David received lands south of the border in [[fee]] from the English kings. This meant that the Kings of Scotland also functioned as Earls of Huntingdon, and that the Earls paid ceremonial homage to the English kings for the lands received. This homage proved problematic, however, as Malcolm Canmore ''as the King of Scotland'' had paid homage to the new Norman Kings of England twice after defeats during his various campaigns against the Normans in support of his Anglo-Saxon brother-in-law [[Edgar Atheling]]'s claim to the English throne. The English maintained that this meant Scotland had become subordinate to England.
David himself during his reign fended off this claim, but [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] defeated David's grandson, [[William I of Scotland|William the Lion]] and hauled him off to the English holdings in [[Normandy]]. There William had to swear fealty in [[1174]], not as Earl but as King. For the first time, Scotland became nominally unified with England. The [[vow]] was nullified in [[1189]] when [[Richard I of England|Richard I]] accepted a payment from William, needed for Richard's [[crusade]] to the [[Middle East]], but the submission hung over the Scottish kings for some time afterwards.
In [[1263]] Scotland and [[Norway]] fought the [[Battle of Largs]] for control over the Western Isles. The battle proved a success for the Scots, and in [[1266]] the Norwegian king [[Magnus VI of Norway]] signed the [[Treaty of Perth]], which acknowledged Scottish suzerainty over the islands. Despite the treaty the practical independence of the [[Lord of the Isles]] continued.
A series of deaths in the line of succession in the [[1280s]], followed by King [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]]'s death in [[1286]] left the Scottish crown in disarray. His grand-daughter [[Margaret I of Scotland|Margaret, the "Maid of Norway"]], a four-year old girl, became Queen of Scots.
[[Edward I of England]], as Margaret's great-uncle, suggested that his son (also a child) and Margaret should marry, stabilising the Scottish line of succession. In [[1290]] Margaret's guardians agreed to this, but Margaret herself died in [[Orkney]] on her voyage from Norway to Scotland before either her coronation or her marriage could take place.
==War with England==
Margaret's death ([[1290]]) now left the Scottish throne with no clear successor, and Edward became the arbitrator between the various claimants to the crown. He immediately stated that any claimant to the throne would have to acknowledge him as overlord. With a large number of claimants, it was not difficult to find a plausible one who would accept this condition: Edward selected him, and [[John I of Scotland|John Balliol]] became king ([[17 November]] [[1292]]).
Balliol soon tried to back out of the arrangement, largely because Edward put considerable ingenuity into ways of emphasising his alleged position as the Scottish king's formal overlord. In [[1295]] John renounced his allegiance and entered into an alliance with France. This renewed the [[Auld Alliance]] first arranged by William the Lion.
Edward invaded Scotland in [[1296]] and swiftly brought Balliol to heel, moving to establish full English control over Scotland. In this environment [[William Wallace]] and [[Andrew de Moray]] raised southern and northern Scotland into rebellion and were elected as Guardians of Scotland by the nobility in Balliol's absence. Under their joint leadership the English army was defeated at the [[Battle of Stirling Bridge]]. Moray died of his wounds two months later. For a short time Wallace ruled Scotland in the name of John Balliol.
Edward retaliated and defeated Wallace at the [[Battle of Falkirk (1298)]]. Wallace escaped but resigned as Guardian of Scotland. [[John Comyn]] and [[Robert I of Scotland|Robert the Bruce]] were appointed in his place, the latter the grandson of a failed claimant to the throne during Edward's arbitration in [[1292]]. In [[1304]], English troops forced all Scottish notables into giving homage to Edward but secret pacts were made by Bruce and others to continue the struggle once conditions were ripe. Wallace was betrayed and fell into the hands of the English, who executed him in [[1305]] for treason despite the fact that he owed no allegiance to England.
From this low point, the Scots regained and reinforced their independence from England during the first two decades of the [[14th century]]. Robert the Bruce believed that John Comyn had betrayed a secret pact between them and participated in his murder during a private meeting in a church in Dumfries in [[1306]]. Bruce subsequently was crowned as King in [[1307]], but Edward's forces again soon overran the country after defeating Bruce's small army at the [[Battle of Methven]]. Despite the excommunication of Bruce and his followers by [[Pope Clement V]], support for Bruce slowly strengthened and by 1314 with the help of leading nobles such as [[James Douglas (the Black)|Sir James Douglas]] and the [[Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray|Earl of Moray]] only the castles at Bothwell and Stirling remained under English control. Edward I had died in [[1307]], and his heir [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] moved an army north to break the siege of [[Stirling Castle]] and reassert control. Robert defeated that army at the [[Battle of Bannockburn]] in [[1314]], securing ''de facto'' independence. In [[1320]] a remonstrance to the Pope from the nobles of Scotland (the [[Declaration of Arbroath]]) finally convinced [[Pope John XXII]] to overturn the earlier excommunication and nullify the various acts of submission by Scottish kings to English ones so that Scotland's sovereignty could be recognised by the major European dynasties.
In [[1326]], the first full [[Parliament of Scotland]] met. The parliament had evolved from an earlier council of nobility and clergy, the ''colloquium'', constituted around [[1235]], but in [[1326]] representatives of the [[burgh]]s &mdash; the burgh commissioners &mdash; joined them to form the [[Three Estates]].
In [[1328]], [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] signed the [[Treaty of Northampton]] acknowledging [[Scottish independence]] under the rule of Robert the Bruce. After Robert's death in [[1329]], however, England once more invaded on the pretext of restoring the "Rightful King" &mdash; [[Edward Balliol]], son of John Balliol &mdash; to the Scottish throne, thus starting the Second War of Independence. In the absence of a leader with the military competence of Wallace or of The Bruce, Scotland remained under English control, directly or indirectly, for over thirty years, and only fully regained its independence under [[David II of Scotland|David II]] after Balliol's death, mainly because Edward III's attention had by then turned to France and to the [[Hundred Years War]].
See Also: [[Wars of Scottish Independence]]
== Late Mediaeval events ==
After David's death, [[Robert II of Scotland|Robert II]], the first of the Stewart (later Stuart) kings, came to the throne in 1371. There followed in [[1390]] his ailing son John, who, due to the hatred inspired by the previous King John (Balliol), took the [[regnal name]] [[Robert III of Scotland|Robert III]]. During Robert III's reign (1390 &ndash; 1406), actual power rested largely in the hands of his brother, also named Robert, the [[Duke of Albany]]. In [[1396]] during this king's reign, the last [[trial by combat]] in Europe, the ''Battle of the Clans'' took place before the King in [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]].
However problems with England continued. After the suspicious d |
onal Chemistry Wiki]
*[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/96/8/4396 Prebiotic cytosine synthesis: A critical analysis and implications for the origin of life]
{{Nucleic acids}}
[[Category:Pyrimidines]]
[[ca:Citosina]]
[[de:Cytosin]]
[[es:Citosina]]
[[eo:Citozino]]
[[fr:Cytosine]]
[[it:Citosina]]
[[he:ציטוזין]]
[[lt:Citozinas]]
[[nl:Cytosine]]
[[ja:シトシン]]
[[pl:Cytozyna]]
[[pt:Citosina]]
[[sl:Citozin]]
[[sr:Цитозин]]
[[fi:Sytosiini]]
[[sv:Cytosin]]
[[vi:Cytosine]]
[[tr:Sitozin]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cruise Missile</title>
<id>6017</id>
<revision>
<id>15904182</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cruise missile]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Call Of Cthulhu</title>
<id>6018</id>
<revision>
<id>15904183</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-10T00:56:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
<id>13051</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Call of Cthulhu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computational chemistry</title>
<id>6019</id>
<revision>
<id>41803838</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:30:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bduke</username>
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<comment>/* Software packages */ VAMP to VASP as DFT article calls it VASP and fic link.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}}
'''Computational chemistry''' is a branch of [[theoretical chemistry]] whose major goals are to create efficient mathematical [[approximation]]s and [[computer program]]s that calculate the properties of [[molecule]]s (such as total energy, [[dipole]] and[[quadrupole | quadrupole moment]], [[vibrational spectroscopy | vibrational frequencies]], [[reactivity]] and other diverse [[spectroscopy | spectroscopic quantitities]] and [[cross section (physics) | cross section]]s for [[scattering theory | collision]] of molecules with diverse atomic or subatomic projectiles) and to apply these programs to concrete chemical objects. The term is also sometimes used to cover the areas of overlap between [[computer science]] and [[chemistry]].
== Introduction ==
The term ''theoretical chemistry'' may be defined as a mathematical description of chemistry, whereas ''computational chemistry'' is usually used when a mathematical method is sufficiently well developed that it can be automated for implementation on a computer. Note that the words ''exact'' and ''perfect'' do not appear here, as very few aspects of chemistry can be computed exactly. Almost every aspect of chemistry, however, can be and has been described in a qualitative or approximate quantitative computational scheme.
It is, in principle, possible to use one very accurate method and apply it to all molecules. Although such methods are well-known and available in many programs, the computational cost of their use grows [[factorial|factorially]] (even faster than [[exponential growth|exponentially]]) with the number of electrons. Therefore, a great number of approximate methods strive to achieve the best trade-off between accuracy and computational cost. Present computational chemistry can routinely and very accurately calculate the properties of molecules that contain no more than 10-40 electrons. The treatment of molecules that contain a few dozen electrons is computationally tractable by approximate methods such as [[density functional theory|DFT]]. There is some dispute within the field whether the latter methods are sufficient to describe complex chemical reactions, such as those in biochemistry.
In theoretical chemistry, chemists and physicists together develop [[algorithm]]s and computer programs to predict atomic and molecular properties and reaction paths for [[chemical reaction]]s. Computational chemists, in contrast, may simply apply existing computer programs and methodologies to specific chemical questions. There are two different approaches in doing this:
* Computational studies can be carried out in order to find a starting point for a laboratory synthesis
* Computational studies can be used to explore reaction mechanisms and explain observations of laboratory reactions
Several major areas may be distinguished within computational chemistry:
* The computational representation of atoms and molecules
* Storing and searching for data on chemical entities (see [[chemical database]]s)
* Identifying [[correlation]]s between [[chemical structure]]s and properties (see [[QSPR]] and [[QSAR]])
* Theoretical elucidation of structures based on the simulation of forces
* Computational approaches to help in the efficient synthesis of compounds
* Computational approaches to design molecules that interact in specific ways with other molecules (e.g. [[drug design]])
== Ab initio methods ==
The programs used in computational chemistry are based on many different [[quantum chemistry|quantum-chemical]] methods that solve the molecular [[Schrödinger equation]] associated with the [[molecular Hamiltonian]]. Methods that do not include empirical or semi-empirical parameters in their equations - are derived directly from theoretical principles, with no inclusion of experimental data - are generally called ''[[ab initio]]'' methods. Most of the time this is referring to approximate quantum mechanical calculations. The approximations made in these cases, however, are usually mathematical in nature, such as using a simpler functional form or getting an approximate solution for a complicated differential equation.
Most ''ab initio'' methods use the [[Born-Oppenheimer approximation |Born-Oppenheimer representation]], allowing the separation of electronic and nuclear motion, and simplifying the Schrödinger equation. A notable exception are certain approaches called ''[[direct quantum chemistry]]'', which treat electons and nuclei on a common footing. The calculation usually proceeds in two steps:
* determination of the '''electronic structure''',
* determination of the '''chemical dynamics'''.
===Electronic structure===
The electronic structure is determined by solving the time-independent [[Schrödinger equation]] associated with the [[electronic molecular Hamiltonian]]. The molecular geometry is considered as an [[adiabatic process (quantum mechanics) | adiabatic]] parameter. Usually the [[basis set (chemistry) | basis set]] (which is usually built from the [[linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method | LCAO ]] [[ansatz]]) used to solve the Schrödinger equation is not complete and does not span the [[Hilbert space]] associated with [[ionization]] and [[scattering]] processes (see [[continuous spectrum]] for more details). This approximation allows one to treat the [[Schrödinger equation | Schrödinger equation]] as a "simple" [[eigenvalue]] equation of the [[electronic molecular Hamiltonian]] with a [[discrete spectrum | discrete]] set of solutions.
The obtained [[eigenvalue]]s are functions of the [[molecular geometry]] which are called [[potential energy surface]]s.
The most common type of ''[[ab initio]]'' electronic structure calculation is called a [[Hartree-Fock]] (HF) calculation, in which the Coulombic electron-electron repulsion is not specifically taken into account. Only its average effect is included in the calculation. This is a [[variational method|variational]] calculation, therefore the obtained approximate energies, expressed in terms of the system's [[wave function]], are always equal to or greater than the exact energy, and tend to a limiting value called the Hartree-Fock limit. [[post Hartree-Fock | Many types of calculations]] begin with a HF calculation and subsequently correct for electron-electron repulsion, referred to also as [[electronic correlation]]. [[Møller-Plesset perturbation theory]] (MP) and [[Coupled cluster]] (CC) are examples of such methods.
A method that avoids making the variational overestimation of HF in the first place is [[Quantum Monte Carlo]] (QMC), in its variational, diffusion, and Green's functions flavors. These methods work with an explicitly correlated wave function and evaluate integrals numerically using a [[Monte Carlo]] integration. Such calculations can be very time consuming, but they are probably the most accurate methods known today.
[[Density Functional Theory]] (DFT) methods are often considered to be ''[[ab initio]]'' methods for determining the molecular electronic structure, even many of the most common [[functional]]s usually use parameters derived from empirical data, or more complex calculations. In DFT, the total energy is expressed in terms of the total [[electronic density | electron density]], rather than the wave function. In this type of calculation, there is an approximate [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]] and an approximate expression for the total electron density.
''[[Ab initio]]'' electronic structure methods have the advantage that they can be made to converge to the exact solution, when all approximations are sufficiently small in magnitude. The convergence, however, is usually not [[monotonic function|monotonic]], and sometimes the smallest calculation gives the best result for some properties. The bad side of ''[[ab initio]]'' methods is their cost. They often take enormous amounts of computer time, memory, and disk space. The HF method scales as ''N<sup>4</sup>'' (''N'' being the number of basis functions) &ndash; a calculation twice as big takes 16 times as long to complete &ndash; and correlated calculations often scale much less favorably (correlated DFT calculations being the most efficient of this lot).
Computational chemical methods can also be applied |
use in Formula One racing. In many ways, the Monaco course is an anachronism unsuitable for the race category because the narrow streets make it near-impossible to overtake on the track. However, its history and the spectacle of the event are likely to guarantee the event's future for many years to come, as it is widely considered the jewel of the maximum category.
==Winners of the Monaco Grands Prix==
=== Repeat Winners ===
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%;"
|-
! Number of Wins
! Driver
! Achieved
|-
! 6
| {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ayrton Senna]]
! 1993
|-
! 5
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[Graham Hill]]
! 1969
|-
! 5
| {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Michael Schumacher]]
! 2001
|-
! 4
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Alain Prost]]
! 1988
|-
! 3
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[Stirling Moss]]
! 1961
|-
! 3
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[Jackie Stewart]]
! 1973
|-
! 2
| {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Juan Manuel Fangio]]
! 1957
|-
! 2
| {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Niki Lauda]]
! 1976
|-
! 2
| {{flagicon|South Africa}} [[Jody Scheckter]]
! 1979
|-
! 2
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[David Coulthard]]
! 2002
|}
=== By Year ===
''A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.''
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%;"
|-
! Year
! Driver
! Constructor
! Location
! Report
<!-- (please remove the comment marks when filling in the race winner and his team)
|-
! [[2006 Formula One season|2006]]
| [[Driver's name]]
| [[Constructor's article|Constructor's short name]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[2006 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] -->
|-
! [[2005 Formula One season|2005]]
| {{flagicon|Finland}} [[Kimi Räikkönen]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Mercedes-Benz|Mercedes]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[2005 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[2004 Formula One season|2004]]
| {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Jarno Trulli]]
| [[Renault F1|Renault]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[2004 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[2003 Formula One season|2003]]
| {{flagicon|Colombia}} [[Juan Pablo Montoya]]
| [[WilliamsF1|Williams]]-[[BMW]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[2003 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[2002 Formula One season|2002]]
| {{flagicon|Scotland}} [[David Coulthard]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Mercedes-Benz|Mercedes]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[2002 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[2001 Formula One season|2001]]
| {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Michael Schumacher]]
| [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[2001 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[2000 Formula One season|2000]]
| {{flagicon|Scotland}} [[David Coulthard]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Mercedes-Benz|Mercedes]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[2000 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1999 Formula One season|1999]]
| {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Michael Schumacher]]
| [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1999 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1998 Formula One season|1998]]
| {{flagicon|Finland}} [[Mika Häkkinen]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Mercedes-Benz|Mercedes]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1998 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1997 Formula One season|1997]]
| {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Michael Schumacher]]
| [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1997 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1996 Formula One season|1996]]
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Olivier Panis]]
| [[Ligier]]-[[Honda]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1996 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1995 Formula One season|1995]]
| {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Michael Schumacher]]
| [[Benetton Formula|Benetton]]-[[Renault]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1995 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1994 Formula One season|1994]]
| {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Michael Schumacher]]
| [[Benetton Formula|Benetton]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1994 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1993 Formula One season|1993]]
| {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ayrton Senna]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1993 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1992 Formula One season|1992]]
| {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ayrton Senna]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Honda]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1992 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1991 Formula One season|1991]]
| {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ayrton Senna]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Honda]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1991 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1990 Formula One season|1990]]
| {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ayrton Senna]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Honda]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1990 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1989 Formula One season|1989]]
| {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ayrton Senna]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Honda]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1989 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1988 Formula One season|1988]]
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Alain Prost]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Honda]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1988 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1987 Formula One season|1987]]
| {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ayrton Senna]]
| [[Team Lotus|Lotus]]-[[Honda]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1987 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1986 Formula One season|1986]]
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Alain Prost]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Techniques d'Avant Garde|TAG]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1986 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1985 Formula One season|1985]]
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Alain Prost]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Techniques d'Avant Garde|TAG]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1985 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1984 Formula One season|1984]]
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Alain Prost]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Techniques d'Avant Garde|TAG]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1984 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1983 Formula One season|1983]]
| {{flagicon|Finland}} [[Keke Rosberg]]
| [[WilliamsF1|Williams]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1983 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1982 Formula One season|1982]]
| {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Riccardo Patrese]]
| [[Brabham Racing Organisation|Brabham]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1982 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1981 Formula One season|1981]]
| {{flagicon|Canada}} [[Gilles Villeneuve]]
| [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1981 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1980 Formula One season|1980]]
| {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Carlos Reutemann]]
| [[WilliamsF1|Williams]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1980 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1979 Formula One season|1979]]
| {{flagicon|South Africa}} [[Jody Scheckter]]
| [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1979 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1978 Formula One season|1978]]
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Patrick Depailler]]
| [[Tyrrell Racing|Tyrrell]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1978 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1977 Formula One season|1977]]
| {{flagicon|South Africa}} [[Jody Scheckter]]
| [[Walter Wolf Racing|Wolf]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1977 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1976 Formula One season|1976]]
| {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Niki Lauda]]
| [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1976 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1975 Formula One season|1975]]
| {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Niki Lauda]]
| [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1975 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1974 Formula One season|1974]]
| {{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Ronnie Peterson]]
| [[Team Lotus|Lotus]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1974 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1973 Formula One season|1973]]
| {{flagicon|Scotland}} [[Jackie Stewart]]
| [[Tyrrell Racing|Tyrrell]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1973 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1972 Formula One season|1972]]
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Jean-Pierre Beltoise]]
| [[British Racing Motors]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1972 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1971 Formula One season|1971]]
| {{flagicon|Scotland}} [[Jackie Stewart]]
| [[Tyrrell Racing|Tyrrell]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1971 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1970 Formula One season|1970]]
| {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Jochen Rindt]]
| [[Team Lotus|Lotus]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1970 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1969 Formula One season|1969]]
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[Graham Hill]]
| [[Team Lotus|Lotus]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1969 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1968 Formula One season|1968]]
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[Graham Hill]]
| [[Team Lotus|Lotus]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1968 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1967 Formula One season|1967]]
| {{flagicon|New Zealand}} [[Denny Hulme]]
| [[Brabham Racing Organisation|Brabham]]-[[Repco]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1967 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1966 Formula One season|1966]]
| {{flagicon|Scotland}} [[Jackie Stewart]]
| [[British Racing Motors]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1966 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1965 Formula One season|1965]]
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[Graham Hill]]
| [[British Racing Motors]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1965 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1964 Formula One season|1964]]
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[Graham Hill]]
| [[British Racing Motors]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1964 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1963 Formula One season|1963]]
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[Graham Hill]]
| [[British Racing Motors]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1963 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1962 Formula One season|1962]]
| {{flagicon|New Zealand}} [[Bruce McLaren]]
| [[Cooper Car Company|Cooper]]-[[Climax (engine)|Climax]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1962 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1961 Formula One season|1961]]
| |
"'erub ḥaẓerot" ('Er. 69a; "Yad," 'Erubin, ii. 16; Oraḥ Ḥayyim, 385, 3; see 'Erub), nor could he write a bill of divorce (Shulḥan 'Aruk, Eben ha-'Ezer, 123, 2). One who would not permit himself to be circumcised could not perform the ceremony on another (Yoreh De'ah, 264, 1, Isserles' gloss). While the court could not compel the mumar to divorce his wife, even though she demanded it, it compelled him to support her and her children and to pay her an allowance until he agreed to a divorce (Eben ha-'Ezer, 154, 1, and "Pitḥe Teshubah," ad loc.). At his death those who are present need not tear their garments (Yoreh De'ah, 340, 5, and "Pitḥe Teshubah," ad loc.). The mumar who repented and desired readmittance into the community was obliged to take a ritual bath, the same as the proselyte (Yoreh De'ah, 268, 12, Isserles' gloss, and "Pitḥe Teshubah," ad loc.; comp. "Sefer Ḥasidim," ed. Wistinetzki, §§ 200-209). If he claimed to be a good Jew, although he was alleged to have worshiped idols in another town, he was believed when no benefit could have accrued to him from such a course.
===Heresy in Islam===
The two main bodies of [[Islam]] are the [[Sunni Islam|Sunnis]] and the [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'as]]. These main denominations view each other as heretical. Groups like the [[Sufi]]s, the [[Harufi]] and the [[Bektashi]] are sometimes regarded as heretical. Although Sufism is often accepted as valid by Sunnis, [[Islamic fundamentalism|fundamentalist]] Sunni movements like [[Wahhabism]] view it as heretical.
Both the [[Ahmadiyya]] and the [[Nation of Islam]] are regarded by mainstream Muslims as non-Muslim. Muslims who convert to those faiths tend to be viewed as [[apostasy|apostates]], rather than heretics.
Those deemed heretics tend to be tolerated by Islamic courts, scholars and power structures, in contrast to those who are deemed to be [[apostasy|apostates]], such as the Ahmadis who were [[excommunicated]] by the [[Pakistan]]i state in 1974, yet in [[Iran]] the same are considered as Muslim.
==Contemporary heresy==
Today, ''heresy'' can be without a religious context as the holding of ideas that are in fundamental disagreement with the status quo in any practice and branch of knowledge. Religion is not a necessary component of the term's definition. [http://www.cogsci.princeton.edu/cgi-bin/webwn2.0?stage=1&word=heresy] For example, [[Charles Darwin]] of [[natural selection]] fame was considered a heretic of his day. Other people considered heretics were [[Isaac Newton]], [[Albert Einstein]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Copernicus]], and many others. The revisionist [[paleontologist]] [[Robert T. Bakker]], who published his findings as ''The Dinosaur Heresies'', jokingly treated the mainstream view of dinosaurs as the [[dogma]] of a religion.
The term ''heresy'' is also used as an ideological [[Pigeonholing|pigeonhole]] for contemporary writers because by definition heresy depends on contrasts with an established [[orthodoxy]]. For example, the tongue-in-cheek contemporary usage of heresy, such as to categorize a "Wall Street heresy" or a "Republican heresy", are [[metaphor]]s which invariably retain a subtext that links orthodoxies in geology or biology or any other field to the dogmas of religion (although religion may not necessarily appear as an explicit component). Heresy, in these expanded metaphoric senses, is intended to allude to both the ''difference'' between the person's views and the mainstream, and the ''boldness'' of such a person in propounding these views, despite their unpopularity or even forceful opposition.
In modern American history, the term heresy has been applied in the United States to the position of those Catholic politicians and voters who publicly and obstinately profess the civil right to choose abortion. In July 2004, the group De Fide achieved wide notoriety when it coined the expression "Right-to-Murder Heresy" in reference to abortion. It and 3,000 other Catholics filed the first "class-action" denunciation for heresy against Senator John F. Kerry, soon followed by more denunciations against four other well-known Republican and Democrat senators also pro-choice.
Following those events, in February 2006, Bishop Robert F. Vasa of the Diocese of Baker, Oregon widened the national debate by becoming the first sitting Roman Catholic Ordinary to publicly raise the question of heresy in reference to those who support or vote in favor of abortion.
==See also==
* [[Apostacy]]
* [[Bida]]
* [[Binitarianism]]
* [[Brethren of the Free Spirit]]
* [[Christian anarchism]]
* [[Christian theological controversy]]
* [[Criticisms of Pentecostal and Charismatic belief]]
* [[Heterodoxy]]
* [[History of Christianity]]
* [[Orthodoxy]]
* [[Sabbath Breaking]]
* [[:Category:Heretics|List of heretics (category)]]
* [[List of people burned as heretics]]
* [[Status quo]]
==External links==
* Some quotes and information in this article came from the [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07256b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia].
*[http://www.spirithome.com/definic.html#heresy One Christian definition of 'heresy']
*[http://www.defide.com De Fide], a non-profit association which uses Canon Law to defend the Faith and Church from Heresy, through lawsuits in Ecclesiastical Court.
*[http://www.languedoc-france.info/12_cathars.htm The Cathar Heresy] information on what mainstream churches regard as the first great medieval European heresy.
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[[Category:Heresy|*]]
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[[bs:Hereza]]
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[[zh:異端]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Huey</title>
<id>14344</id>
<revision>
<id>32102963</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-20T14:28:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sjorford</username>
<id>24741</id>
</contributor>
<comment>cleanup, add one</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Huey''' may refer to:
'''Places:'''
* [[Huey, Illinois]], a village in Clinton County
'''People:'''
* [[Hugh Morgan]] of the [[Fun Lovin' Criminals]], known as Huey
* [[Huey Lewis]], rock musician, noted for his band [[Huey Lewis & the News]]
* [[Huey Long]] (1893-1935), US democratic party politician, known as "The Kingfish"
* [[Huey P. Newton]] (1942-1989), co-founder of the [[Black Panther Party]]
'''Other:'''
* [[UH-1 Iroquois]], [[United States Army]] utility helicopter nicknamed the "Huey"
* [[Huey II]], modified version of the [[UH-1 Iroquois]]
* [[AH-1 Huey Cobra]], attack helicopter predating the [[AH-64 Apache]]
* [[Huey, Dewey and Louie]], [[Walt Disney]] characters
* ''Hamster Huey and the Gooey Kablooie'' is an [[apocryphal]] [[children's literature|children's book]] in the comic strip [[Calvin and Hobbes]].
* In colloquial use in [[Australia]], "Send it down Huey" means "bring on the rain".
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Human being</title>
<id>14345</id>
<revision>
<id>23293206</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-15T17:31:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Encephalon</username>
<id>368662</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/81.129.16.199|81.129.16.199]] to last version by Raul654</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Human]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Huey helicopter</title>
<id>14346</id>
<revision>
<id>15911908</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-28T06:52:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>correcting redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[UH-1 Iroquois]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Homininae</title>
<id>14347</id>
<revision>
<id>38598881</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T10:41:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chlewbot</username>
<id>620581</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Homininae
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primate]]s
| superfamilia = [[Hominoidea]]
| familia = [[Hominidae]]
| subfamilia = '''Homininae'''
| subfamilia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], [[1825]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Tribe (biology)|Tribes]]
| subdivision =
''[[Gorillini]]'' ([[gorilla]]s)<br/>
''[[Hominini]]'' ([[human]]s and [[chimpanzee]]s)
}}
'''Homininae''' is a subfamily of [[Hominidae]], including ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' and some extinct relatives, as well as the [[gorilla]]s and the [[chimpanzee]]s. It comprises all those [[hominid|hominids]], such as [[Australopithecus]], that arose after the split from the other [[great ape]]s (of which [[orangutan]]s are the only surviving group).
As of 1980, the family Hominidae contained only [[human]]s, with the [[great ape]]s in the family Pongidae. Discoveries led to a revision of classification, with the great apes (now [[Ponginae]]) and humans (Homininae) united in Hominidae. But further discoveries indicated that [[gorilla]]s and [[chimpanzee]]s are more closely related to humans than they are to orangutans, hence their current placement in Homininae. [[Ape#History of hominoid taxonomy|Hominoid taxonomy]] has had several changes in the classification of apes in re |
and the [[United States]] (including [[Alaska]]). The national territory extends 4,395 [[kilometer]]s from north to south (5°16'20" N to 33°44'32" S latitude) and 4,319 kilometers from east to west (34°47'30" E to 73°59'32" W longitude). It spans four [[time zone]]s, the westernmost of which, in [[Acre State]], is the same as Eastern Standard Time in the United States. The time zone of the capital ([[Brasília]]) and of the most populated part of Brazil along the east coast is two hours ahead of [[Eastern Standard Time]], except when it is on its own daylight savings time, from October to February. The Atlantic islands are in the easternmost time zone.
Brazil possesses the archipelago of [[Fernando de Noronha]], located 350 kilometers northeast of its "horn," and several small islands and atolls in the Atlantic--[[Abrolhos]], [[Atol das Rocas]], Penedos de São Pedro e São Paulo, [[Trindade]], and [[Martim Vaz]]. In the early 1970s, Brazil claimed a territorial sea extending 362 kilometers from the country's shores, including those of the islands.
On Brazil's east coast, the Atlantic coastline extends 7,367 kilometers. In the west, in clockwise order from the south, Brazil has 15,719 kilometers of borders with [[Uruguay]], [[Argentina]], [[Paraguay]], [[Bolivia]], [[Peru]], [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], [[Guyana]], [[Suriname]], and [[French Guiana]]. The only South American countries with which Brazil does not share borders are [[Chile]] and [[Ecuador]]. A few short sections are in question, but there are no major boundary controversies with any of the neighboring countries.
==Geology, Geomorphology, and Drainage==
[[Image:Brazil_topo.jpg|thumb|250px|Topograpic map of Brazil]]
In contrast to the [[Andes]], which rose to elevations of nearly 7,000 meters in a relatively recent epoch and inverted the Amazon's direction of flow from westward to eastward, Brazil's geological formation is very old. [[Precambrian]] [[crystalline shield]]s cover 36% of the territory, especially its central area. The principal mountain ranges average elevations just under 2,000 meters. The [[Serra do Mar]] Range hugs the Atlantic coast, and the [[Serra do Espinhaço]] Range, the largest in area, extends through the south-central part of the country. The highest mountains are in the [[Tumucumaque]], [[Pacaraima]], and [[Imeri]] ranges, among others, which traverse the northern border with the Guianas and Venezuela.
In addition to mountain ranges (about 0.5% of the country is above 1,200 meters), Brazil's Central Highlands include a vast central plateau ([[Planalto Central]]). The plateau's uneven terrain has an average elevation of 1,000 meters. The rest of the territory is made up primarily of sedimentary basins, the largest of which is drained by the [[Amazon (river)|Amazon]] and its tributaries. Of the total territory, 41% averages less than 200 meters in elevation. The coastal zone is noted for thousands of kilometers of tropical beaches interspersed with [[mangrove]]s, [[lagoon]]s, and [[dune]]s, as well as numerous [[coral reef]]s.
Brazil has one of the world's most extensive [[river system]]s, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Two of these basins--the [[Amazon basin|Amazon]] and [[Tocantins-Araguaia basin|Tocantins-Araguaia]]--account for more than half the total drainage area. The largest river system in Brazil is the Amazon, which originates in the Andes and receives tributaries from a basin that covers 45.7% of the country, principally the north and west. The main Amazon river system is the Amazonas-Solimões-Ucayali axis (the 6,762 kilometer-long Ucayali is a Peruvian tributary), flowing from west to east. Through the Amazon Basin flows one-fifth of the world's fresh water. A total of 3,615 kilometers of the Amazon are in Brazilian territory. Over this distance, the waters decline only about 100 meters. The major tributaries on the southern side are, from west to east, the Javari, Juruá, Purus (all three of which flow into the western section of the Amazon called the [[Solimões]]), [[Madeira]], [[Tapajós]], [[Xingu]], and [[Tocantins]]. On the northern side, the largest tributaries are the [[Branco]], [[Japurá]], [[Jari]], and [[Negro]]. The above-mentioned tributaries carry more water than the Mississippi (its discharge is less than one-tenth that of the Amazon). The Amazon and some of its tributaries, called "white" rivers, bear rich sediments and hydrobiological elements. The black-white and clear rivers--such as the Negro, Tapajós, and Xingu--have clear (greenish) or dark water with few nutrients and little sediment.
The major river system in the Northeast is the [[São Francisco River|Rio São Francisco]], which flows 1,609 kilometers northeast from the south-central region. Its basin covers 7.6% of the national territory. Only 277 kilometers of the lower river are navigable for oceangoing ships. The [[Paraná river|Paraná]] system covers 14.5% of the country. The Paraná flows south into the [[Río de la Plata Basin]], reaching the Atlantic between Argentina and Uruguay. The headwaters of the Paraguai, the Paraná's major eastern tributary, constitute the [[Pantanal]], the largest contiguous wetlands in the world, covering as much as 230,000 square kilometers.
Below their descent from the highlands, many of the tributaries of the Amazon are navigable. Upstream, they generally have [[rapid]]s or [[waterfall]]s, and boats and barges also must face sandbars, trees, and other obstacles. Nevertheless, the Amazon is navigable by oceangoing vessels as far as 3,885 kilometers upstream, reaching [[Iquitos]] in [[Peru]]. The Amazon river system was the principal means of access until new roads became more important in the 1970s. The São Francisco was also used for transportation in the past. Dams and locks in the Paraná system have made it an important artery for interstate and international trade in the 1990s.
The various river systems descending from the shields have endowed Brazil with vast [[hydroelectric]] potential, estimated at 129,046 megawatts (MW), of which 30,065 MW were in operation or under construction in 1991. The largest hydroelectric projects are [[Itaipu]], in [[Paraná]], with 12,600 MW; [[Tucuruí]], in [[Pará]], with 7,746 MW; and [[Paulo Afonso]], in [[Bahia]], with 3,986 MW.
==Soils and Vegetation==
[[Image:Brazil_veg_1977.jpg|thumb|250px|Natural vegetation map of Brazil, 1977]]
Brazil's tropical soils produce 70 million tons of [[grain crop]]s per year, but this output is attributed more to their extension than their fertility. Despite the earliest [[Portuguese explorers]]' reports that the land was exceptionally fertile and that anything planted grew well, the record in terms of sustained [[agriculture|agricultural]] productivity has been generally disappointing. High initial fertility after clearing and burning usually is depleted rapidly, and acidity and aluminum content are often high. Together with the rapid growth of [[weed]]s and pests in cultivated areas, as a result of high temperatures and humidity, this loss of fertility explains the westward movement of the agricultural frontier and [[slash-and-burn agriculture]]; it takes less investment in work or money to clear new land than to continue cultivating the same land. Burning also is used traditionally to remove tall, dry, and nutrient-poor grass from pasture at the end of the dry season. Until mechanization and the use of chemical and genetic inputs increased during the agricultural intensification period of the 1970s and 1980s, [[coffee]] planting and farming in general moved constantly onward to new lands in the west and north. This pattern of horizontal or extensive expansion maintained low levels of technology and productivity and placed emphasis on quantity rather than quality of agricultural production.
[[Image:Amazon.A2002182.1405.1km.jpg|thumb|250px|The Amazon Rainforest]]
The largest areas of fertile soils, called [[terra roxa]] (red earth), are found in the states of [[Paraná]] and [[São Paulo]]. The least fertile areas are in the Amazon, where the dense [[rain forest]] is. Soils in the [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeast]] are often fertile, but they lack water, unless they are [[irrigation|irrigated]] artificially.
In the 1980s, investments made possible the use of irrigation, especially in the Northeast Region and in [[Rio Grande do Sul]] State, which had shifted from grazing to [[soy]] and [[rice]] production in the 1970s. [[Savanna]] soils also were made usable for soybean farming through [[acidity correction]], [[fertilization]], [[plant breeding]], and in some cases [[spray irrigation]]. As agriculture underwent modernization in the 1970s and 1980s, soil fertility became less important for agricultural production than factors related to capital investment, such as infrastructure, mechanization, use of chemical inputs, breeding, and proximity to markets. Consequently, the vigor of frontier expansion weakened.
The variety of climates, soils, and drainage conditions in Brazil is reflected in the range of its vegetation types. The Amazon Basin and the areas of heavy rainfall along the Atlantic coast have tropical rain forest composed of [[broadleaf]] evergreen trees. The rain forest may contain as many as 3,000 [[specie]]s of [[flora (plants)|flora]] and [[fauna (animals)|fauna]] within a 2.6-square-kilometer area. The [[Atlantic Forest]] is reputed to have even greater biological diversity than the Amazon rain forest, which, despite apparent homogeneity, contains many types of vegetation, from [[high canopy forest]] to [[bamboo grove]]s.
In the [[semiarid]] Northeast, [[caatinga]] , a dry, thick, thorny vegetation, predominates. Most of central Brazil is covered with a woodland savanna, known as the [[cerrado]] (sparse scrub trees and drought-resistant grasses), which became an area of agricultural development after the mid-1970s. In the |
ord now held by [[Corey Dillon]] with 8061 yards.
*[[Boomer Esiason]] (1984-1992, 1997) - Bengals' [[quarterback]] who became renown early on in his career for his ability to execute the [[play action pass]]. His 14 year [[NFL]] career ended after completing 57% of his passes for 247 touchdowns and 37,920 passing yards. He holds the Bengals single season record for passing yards (3959) and single game records for passing yards (490) and touchdown passes (5). Esiason led the Bengals to two [[AFC Central]] division titles and one [[AFC Championship]]. The season before his last, as [[quarterback]] for the [[Arizona Cardinals]], Boomer had thrown for over 1500 yards in just a three week span,, leading the Cardinals to victories over the [[Washington Redskins]], [[Philadelphia Eagles]] and [[New York Giants]]. He was the [[NFL]] [[MVP]] in 1988. Boomer currently does national broadcasting for [[Monday Night Football]] [[Westwood One]] radio and the [[NFL]] on [[CBS]].
*[[Ickey Woods]] (1988-1991) - Fullback who balanced well with his halfback counterpart, [[James Brooks (American Football Player)|James Brooks]], to provide balance in the high potency offense. Ickey was famous for his “Ickey Shuffle” dance after he would score a [[touchdown]]. He rushed for 1066 yards, caught 21 passes for 199 yards, and scored an NFL rookie record 15 touchdowns in his first season, but two [[knee]] surgeries cut his promising career short.
====1980s Games of Note====
*[[December 20]], [[1981]] - The Bengals defeated the [[Atlanta Falcons]] 30-28 in the final regular season game. With their 12-4 record, the Bengals won the [[AFC Central]] division title. [[Quarterback]] [[Ken Anderson]] won his third [[NFL]] passing title.
*[[January 3]], [[1982]] - [[Cincinnati]] hosted its first [[NFL]] playoff game as the Bengals defeated the [[Buffalo Bills]] 28-21 in [[Riverfront Stadium]]. It was the first post season win in franchise history.
*[[January 10]], [[1982]] - The Bengals defeated the [[San Diego Chargers]] in the [[AFC Championship Game]], 27-7, the coldest game ever played in NFL history. The [[wind chill]] factor brought the game-time temperature down to −56 degrees Fahrenheit (−45 °C). The Bengals' offensive linemen were on the field with their standard sleeveless jerseys in an effort to intimidate a Charger team more accustomed to the warmer California weather. The game became known as the [[Freezer Bowl]].
*'''[[Super Bowl XVI]]''', [[January 24]], [[1982]] - Cincinnati appeared in [[Super Bowl XVI]] facing the [[San Fransisco 49ers]]. Played in [[Detroit]]'s [[Silverdome]], It was the first [[Super Bowl]] north of the [[Mason Dixon line]]. it was also the first Super Bowl since [[Super Bowl III]] to feature two teams who had never appeared in one. ([[Super Bowl XX]] is the only game since with this feature.) The Bengals hurt themselves in the game. After recovering a fumble from the 49ers on the opening kickoff, the Bengals gave the ball right back to San Fransisco by throwing an interception, leading to a 49ers touchdown on their ensuing possession. Later, a [[fumble]] cost the Bengals a sure score, and another gave the [[San Francisco 49ers|49ers]] a [[field goal]]. By halftime, the 49ers had built up a 20-0 lead, the largest in Super Bowl history at the time. The Bengals made a valiant comeback attempt in the second half, and managed to outscore San Fransisco by 15 points, but committed more costly turnovers; another interception and a turnover on downs when the 49ers stuffed an attempted fourth down conversion attempt on their own one yard line. Cincinnati ended up losing the game 26-21 despite outgaining the 49ers in totall yards 356 to 274 and setting 3 Super Bowl records: most receptions by one player (11 by Dan Ross), most completions ( 25 by Ken Anderson), and highest completion percentage (73.5).
*[[December 20]], [[1982]] - On a [[Monday Night Football]] stage, Bengals' [[quarterback]] Ken Anderson set a single game team record by completing 40 passes in a 50-34 loss to the [[San Diego Chargers]].
*[[January 2]], [[1983]] - In the regular season's final game, the Bengals beat the [[Houston Oilers]] 35-27. Cincinnati once again won the [[AFC Central]] division crown. [[Ken Anderson]] set an [[NFL]] record by completed 20 consecutive passes in the game and finished the season winning his second consecutive passing title. It was the second time in his career he had won the title in back-to-back seasons. Anderson finished the season completing 70.55% of his passes, an [[NFL]] single season record.
*[[January 9]], [[1983]] - The [[New York Jets]] travel to [[Cincinnati]] and blast the Bengals 44-17 in the first round of the [[NFL playoffs]].
*[[December 17]], [[1983]] - Bengals [[cornerback]] Ken Riley played his last game in a 20-14 loss to the [[Minnesota Vikings]].
*[[October 28]], [[1984]] - Bengals' bruising [[full back]] Larry Kinnebrew scored four touchdowns setting a team single game scoring record as the Bengals drilled the [[Houston Oilers]] 31-13.
*[[September 28]], [[1986]] - In one of the worst losses in franchise history, the defending [[Super Bowl]] champion [[Chicago Bears]] went into [[Cincinnati]] and trucked the Bengals 44-7.
*[[December 21]], [[1986]] - In the final game of the 1986 season, Bengals' [[quarterback]] [[Boomer Esiason]] set a team record by throwing five [[touchdown]] passes as Cincinnati shot down the [[New York Jets]] 52-21. It was also the last game for Bengals' [[quarterback]] [[Ken Anderson]].
*[[October 16]], [[1988]] - After leading Cincinnati to six straight wins to begin the season, [[Boomer Esiason]] set a single game team record throwing 5 interceptions in a 27-21 loss to the [[New England Patriots]].
*[[November 6]], [[1988]] - Bengals' [[wide receiver]] Eddie Brown set a single game team record by amassing 216 receiving yards as the Bengals abused the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] 42-7 in [[Cincinnati]]'s [[Riverfront Stadium]].
*[[December 17]], [[1988]] - In the regular season's final game, Bengals [[place kicker]] [[Jim Breech]] kicked a short [[field goal]] in overtime to edge the [[Washington Redskins]] 20-17. The win brought the team to 12-4 and locked up the organization's fifth [[AFC Central]] division title. [[Quarterback]] [[Boomer Esiason]] finishes the season as the [[NFL]]'s top passer.
*[[December 31]], [[1988]] - [[Cincinnati]] hosted its third [[NFL]] playoff game. A sellout crowd at [[Riverfront Stadium]] watched the [[Bengals]] beat the [[Seattle Seahawks]] 21-13.
*[[January 8]], [[1989]] - The Cincinnati Bengals shut down the [[Buffalo Bills]] 21-10 to win the organization's second [[AFC Championship]]
*'''[[Super Bowl XXIII]]''', [[January 22]], [[1989]] - The Bengals earned a rematch with the 49ers in [[Super Bowl XXIII]], but lost 20-16 in [[Miami]]'s [[Dolphins Stadium|Joe Robbie Stadium]]. The Bengals boasted the highest-scoring offense in 1988, and rebounded from a 4-12 record in 1987. But a few unfortunate events prevented the team from capturing the [[world championship]]. The night before the game, Bengals [[full back]] Stanley Wilson suffered a cocaine relapse, and did not participate in the game. Head coach [[Sam Wyche]] was forced to alter the game plan only hours before the opening kickoff. Also, Bengals [[all-pro]] [[nose tackle]] [[Tim Krumrie]] broke his leg in three places while tackling [[Roger Craig]] early in the first quarter of the game. At the start of the fourth quarter, Bengals [[cornerback]] Lewis Billups dropped a sure [[interception]] in the [[end zone]]. The 49ers [[Jerry Rice]] scored on the next play. Despite all the adversity, the game remained close and the Bengals led the 49ers in the waning minutes of the game until the memorable drive late in the game, capped by a touchdown pass from [[Joe Montana]] to [[John Taylor (American football player)|John Taylor]] with only 34 seconds left in the contest, erased a Bengal lead and put the 49ers ahead for good.
*[[October 29]], [[1989]] - [[Boomer Esiason]] tied his own record for [[touchdown]] passes in a game as the Bengals trucked the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]] 56-23. The Bengals tied a team record with eight touchdowns in a game.
*[[December 3]], [[1989]] - The Bengals were on the winning end of the only shutout in the [[Battle of Ohio]], flushing the [[Cleveland Browns]] 21-0.
*[[December 17]], [[1989]] - Head coach Sam Wyche was known as an emotional, quotable and outspoken leader. A rivalry developed with the head coach of the Houston Oilers, Jerry Glanville. In an extremely unusual move for an NFL coach, Wyche grossly inflated the final score on Glanville's Oilers. Up 45-0 in the final period, Wyche called for a fourth down conversion attempt (which was successful), and an [[onside kick]] (also successful). The final score was 61-7. After the game Wyche said his only regret was that Bengal kicker Lee Johnson missed an [[extra point]]. Sam also observed that that Glanville's Oilers were the dumbest, most undiciplined team he had ever seen.
*[[October 7]], [[1990]] - Bengals' [[quarterback]] [[Boomer Esiason]] threw for 490 yards (a single game team passing record) in a 34-31 victory over the [[Los Angeles Rams]].
*[[December 30]], [[1990]] - The Bengals won the [[Battle of Ohio]], beating the [[Cleveland Browns]] 21-14. The victory made the team once again [[AFC Central]] division champs.
*[[January 6]], [[1991]] - In the organization's fifth home playoff game, [[Sam Wyche]] and the Bengals again drill [[Jerry Glanville]] and the [[Houston Oilers]] 41-14.
*[[January 13]], [[1991]] - A week after the victory over the Oilers, the [[Los Angeles Raiders]] knock the Bengals out of the playoffs by a 20-10 score. During the game, [[all-pro]] [[running back]] [[Bo Jackson]] suffered a career ending hip injury on a routine tackle by linebacker Kevin Walker.
===The 1990s===
[[Image:CincinnatiBengals_100.png|right|framed|Bengals' alternate logo |
based on the goal-directed [[model elimination]] calculus. It is developed in the automated reasoning group of [[Technical University of Munich]]. E and SETHEO have been combined (with other systems) in the composite theorem prover E-SETHEO.
* [[Vampire theorem prover|Vampire]] is developed and implemented at [http://www.manchester.ac.uk/ Manchester University] by [http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/~voronkov/ Andrei Voronkov], formerly together with [http://www.freewebs.com/riazanov/ Alexandre Riazanov]. It has won the "world cup for theorem provers" (the [http://www.cs.miami.edu/~tptp/CASC/J2/ CADE ATP (Automated theorem prover) System Competition]) in the most prestigious MIX division for six years (1999, 2001 - 2005).
* [[Waldmeister]] is a specialized system for unit-equational first-order logic. It has won the [http://www.cs.miami.edu/~tptp/CASC/ CASC] UEQ division for the last nine years (1997-2005).
== Popular techniques ==
*[[First-order resolution]] with [[unification]]
*[[Lean theorem prover|Lean theorem proving]]
*[[Model elimination]]
*[[Method of analytic tableaux]]
*[[Superposition calculus|Superposition]] and [[term rewriting]]
*[[Model checking]]
*[[Mathematical induction]]
*[[Binary decision diagram]]s
*[[DPLL algorithm|DPLL]]
*[[Higher-order unification]]
== Available implementations ==
* [[ACL2 theorem prover|ACL2]]
* [[Carine theorem prover|Carine]]
* [[Coq]]
* [[CVC Lite theorem prover|CVC Lite]]
* [[E equational theorem prover|E]]
* [[Isabelle theorem prover|Isabelle]]
* [[Gandalf theorem prover|Gandalf]]
* [[HOL theorem prover|HOL]]
* [[LCF theorem prover|LCF]]
* [http://www.irit.fr/ACTIVITES/LILaC/Lotrec/ LoTREC]
* [http://metaprl.org/ MetaPRL]
* [[Mizar system|Mizar]]
* [[NuPRL]]
* [[Otter theorem prover|Otter]]
* [[Paradox theorem prover|Paradox]]
* [[PhoX]]
* [[Prototype Verification System|PVS]]
* [[Simplify theorem prover|Simplify]]
* [[SPARK programming language]]
* [[SPASS theorem prover|SPASS]]
* [[Tau_theorem_prover | Tau]]
* [[Twelf]]
* [[Vampire theorem prover|Vampire]]
* [[Waldmeister theorem prover|Waldmeister]]
You can find information on some of these theorem provers
and others at http://www.tptp.org/CASC/J2/SystemDescriptions.html, or the [http://www.qpq.org QPQ website].
The TPTP library of test problems, suitable for testing first-order theorem provers, is available
at http://www.tptp.org, and solutions from many of these provers for TPTP problems are
in the TSTP solution library, available at http://www.tptp.org/TSTP .
== Important people ==
<!-- Note that this list is alphabetic by last name -->
* [[Leo Bachmair]] Co-developer of the [[superposition calculus]].
* [[Woody Bledsoe]] [[Artificial Intelligence]] pioneer.
* [[Robert Stephen Boyer]] Co-Author of the Boyer-Moore theorem prover, co-recipient of the [[Herbrand Award]] [[1999]].
* [http://www-unix.mcs.anl.gov/~mccune/ William McCune] Argonne National Laboratory. Author of Otter, the first high-performance theorem prover. Many important papers, recipient of the Herbrand Award 2000.
* [[Robert Constable]] Cornell University. Important contributions to type theory, NuPRL.
* [http://www.cs.nyu.edu/cs/faculty/davism/ Martin Davis] Author of the "Handbook of Artificial Reasoning", co-inventor of the [[DPLL algorithm]], recipient of the Herbrand Award 2005.
* [http://www.fitelson.org/ Branden Fitelson] University of California at Berkeley. Work in shortest axiomatic bases for logic systems.
* [[Harald Ganzinger]] Co-developer of the superposition calculus, head of the MPI Saarbrücken, recipient of the [[Herbrand Award]] [[2004]] (posthumous).
* [[Michael Genesereth]]
* [[Michael J. C. Gordon]] Led the development of the HOL theorem prover.
* [http://www.cs.duke.edu/~dwl/ Donald W. Loveland] Duke University. Author, co-developer of the DPLL-procedure, developer of [[model elimination]], recipient of the [[Herbrand Award]] [[2001]].
* [[Sergei Maslov]]
* Norm Megill, maintainer of [http://www.metamath.org metamath.org], an online database of automatically verified proofs.
* [[J Strother Moore]] Co-Author of the Boyer-Moore theorem prover, co-recipient of the Herbrand Award 1999.
* [[Robert Nieuwenhuis]] University of Barcelona. Co-developer of the superposition calculus.
* [[Tobias Nipkow]] [[Technical University of Munich]], contributions to (higher-order) rewriting, co-developer of the [[Isabelle theorem prover|Isabelle]] proof assistant
* [[Ross Overbeek]] Argonne National Laboratory. Founder of [http://theseed.uchicago.edu/FIG/Html/FIG.html The Fellowship for Interpretation of Genomes]
* [[Lawrence C. Paulson]] [[University of Cambridge]], work on higher-order logic system, co-developer of the Isabelle proof assistant
* [[David A. Plaisted]] [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]]. Complexity results, contributions to [[rewriting]] and [[Knuth-Bendix completion algorithm|completion]], instance-based theorem proving.
* [http://www.csl.sri.com/users/rushby/ John Rushby] Program Director - [[SRI International]]
* [[John Alan Robinson (Computer Scientist)|J. Alan Robinson]] Syracuse University. Developed original resolution and unification based first order theorem proving, co-editor of the "Handbook of Automated Reasoning", recipient of the Herbrand Award 1996
* [[Natarajan Shankar]] [[SRI International]], work on decision procedures, ''little engines of proof'', co-developer of [[Prototype Verification System|PVS]].
* [[Mark Stickel]] [[SRI]]. Recipient of the Herbrand Award 2002.
* [http://www.cs.miami.edu/~geoff/ Geoff Sutcliffe] University of Miami. Maintainer of the TPTP collection, an organizer of the CADE annual contest.
* [http://www.cs.unm.edu/~veroff/ Robert Veroff] University of New Mexico. Many important papers.
* [http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/~voronkov/ Andrei Voronkov] Co-Editor of the "Handbook of Automated Reasoning"
* [http://www-unix.mcs.anl.gov/~wos/ Larry Wos] Argonne National Laboratory. (Otter) Many important papers.
== References (books) ==
* ''Symbolic Logic and Mechanical Theorem Proving''. Chin-Liang Chang and Richard Char-Tung Lee. [[Academic Press]] ([[1973]])
* ''Automated Theorem Proving: A Logical Basis''. ''Fundamental Studies in Computer Science Volume 6''. Donald W. Loveland. [[North-Holland Publishing]] ([[1978]])
* ''Logic for Computer Science: Foundations of Automatic Theorem Proving''. Jean H. Gallier. [[Harper & Row Publishers]] ([[1986]]) [http://www.cis.upenn.edu/~jean/gbooks/logic.html Download]
* ''Principles of Automated Theorem Proving''. David A. Duffy. [[John Wiley & Sons]] ([[1991]])
* ''Automated Reasoning: Introduction and Applications (2nd edition)''. Larry Wos, Ross Overbeek, Ewing Lusk, and Jim Boyle. [[McGraw-Hill]] ([[1992]])
* ''Handbook of Automated Reasoning Volume I & II''. Alan Robinson and Andrei Voronkov (eds.) [[Elsevier]] and [[MIT Press]] ([[2001]])
== See also ==
* [[Computer-aided proof]]
* [[Proof complexity]]
[[Category:Formal methods]]
[[Category:Proofs]]
[[Category:Theorem provers]]
[[pl:Automatyczne dowodzenie twierdze&#324;]][[de:Computerbeweis]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Agent Orange</title>
<id>2547</id>
<revision>
<id>42112781</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:27:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.139.195.162</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otherUses|an herbicide and defoliant}}
[[Image:Agent Orange Cropdusting.jpg|thumb|right|250px|U.S. Military planes cropdusting in Vietnam during [[Operation Ranch Hand]]]]'''Agent Orange''' is the code name for a powerful [[herbicide]] and [[defoliant]] used by the [[United States armed forces|U.S. military]] in its [[Herbicidal Warfare]] program during the [[Vietnam War]]. Agent Orange was used from 1961 to 1971, and was by far the most used of the so-called "rainbow herbicides" used during the program. Agent Orange (as well as [[Agent Purple|Agents Purple]], [[Agent Pink|Pink]], [[Agent Blue|Blue]] and [[Agent Green|Green]]) contained [[dioxin]]s which caused serious harm to the health of exposed Vietnamese, South Koreans, Australians, New Zealanders, Canadians and Americans, as well as their children and grandchildren. Dioxins are recognized as strong [[carcinogen]]s and [[Teratogenesis|teratogen]]s (literally, ''monster-making'') - which are persistent in the environment and in the human body. Since the [[1980s]], several lawsuits have been filed against the companies who produced Agent Orange, among them being [[Dow Chemical Company|Dow Chemical]] and [[Monsanto]]. U.S. veterans obtained $180 million in compensation in 1984, while Australian, Canadian and New Zealand veterans also obtained compensation in an out-of-court settlement the same year. In 1999, 20,000 South Koreans filed a lawsuit in Korea; in January 2006, the Korean Appeal Court ordered Monsanto and Dow to pay $62 million in compensation to about 6,800 people. However, the Vietnamese victims, by far the most affected, haven't yet obtained compensation, and a U.S. Appeal Court is due to examine their appeal in March 2006.
== Description ==
Agent Orange is a roughly 1:1 mixture of two [[phenoxy herbicide]]s in [[ester]] form, [[2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid]] (2,4-D) and [[2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid]] (2,4,5-T). These herbicides were developed during the 1940s by independent teams in [[England]] and the [[United States]] for use in controlling broad-leaf plants. Phenoxy agents work by mimicking a plant [[growth hormone]], [[indoleacetic acid]] (IAA). When sprayed on broad-leaf plants they induce rapid, uncontrolled growth, eventually killing them. When sprayed on crops such as [[wheat]] or [[maize|corn]], it selectively kills just the broad-leaf plants in the field - the weeds - leaving the crop relatively unaffected. First introduced in 1946, these herbicides were in widespread use in [[agriculture]] by the middle of the 1950s.
It was later learned that a |
unty, Illinois|Kane]]
* [[Kankakee County, Illinois|Kankakee]]
* [[Kendall County, Illinois|Kendall]]
* [[Knox County, Illinois|Knox]]
* [[Lake County, Illinois|Lake]]
* [[La Salle County, Illinois|La Salle]]
* [[Lawrence County, Illinois|Lawrence]]
* [[Lee County, Illinois|Lee]]
* [[Livingston County, Illinois|Livingston]]
* [[Logan County, Illinois|Logan]]
* [[McDonough County, Illinois|McDonough]]
* [[McHenry County, Illinois|McHenry]]
* [[McLean County, Illinois|McLean]]
* [[Macon County, Illinois|Macon]]
* [[Macoupin County, Illinois|Macoupin]]
* [[Madison County, Illinois|Madison]]
* [[Marion County, Illinois|Marion]]
* [[Marshall County, Illinois|Marshall]]
|valign="top"|
* [[Mason County, Illinois|Mason]]
* [[Massac County, Illinois|Massac]]
* [[Menard County, Illinois|Menard]]
* [[Mercer County, Illinois|Mercer]]
* [[Monroe County, Illinois|Monroe]]
* [[Montgomery County, Illinois|Montgomery]]
* [[Morgan County, Illinois|Morgan]]
* [[Moultrie County, Illinois|Moultrie]]
* [[Ogle County, Illinois|Ogle]]
* [[Peoria County, Illinois|Peoria]]
* [[Perry County, Illinois|Perry]]
* [[Piatt County, Illinois|Piatt]]
* [[Pike County, Illinois|Pike]]
* [[Pope County, Illinois|Pope]]
* [[Pulaski County, Illinois|Pulaski]]
* [[Putnam County, Illinois|Putnam]]
* [[Randolph County, Illinois|Randolph]]
* [[Richland County, Illinois|Richland]]
* [[Rock Island County, Illinois|Rock Island]]
* [[St. Clair County, Illinois|St. Clair]]
|valign="top"|
* [[Saline County, Illinois|Saline]]
* [[Sangamon County, Illinois|Sangamon]]
* [[Schuyler County, Illinois|Schuyler]]
* [[Scott County, Illinois|Scott]]
* [[Shelby County, Illinois|Shelby]]
* [[Stark County, Illinois|Stark]]
* [[Stephenson County, Illinois|Stephenson]]
* [[Tazewell County, Illinois|Tazewell]]
* [[Union County, Illinois|Union]]
* [[Vermilion County, Illinois|Vermilion]]
* [[Wabash County, Illinois|Wabash]]
* [[Warren County, Illinois|Warren]]
* [[Washington County, Illinois|Washington]]
* [[Wayne County, Illinois|Wayne]]
* [[White County, Illinois|White]]
* [[Whiteside County, Illinois|Whiteside]]
* [[Will County, Illinois|Will]]
* [[Williamson County, Illinois|Williamson]]
* [[Winnebago County, Illinois|Winnebago]]
* [[Woodford County, Illinois|Woodford]]
|}
Name origins can be found at [[List of Illinois county name etymologies]].
== Education ==
===Illinois State Board of Education===
The Illinois State Board of Education or ISBE, autonomous of the governor and the state legislature, administers [[public education]] in the state. Local municipalities and their respective [[school district]]s operate individual public schools but the ISBE audits performance of public schools with an [[Illinois School Report Card|annual school report card]]. The ISBE also makes recommendations to state leaders concerning education spending and policies.
There is current debate as to the role of the ISBE and whether or not its autonomous relationship with the governor and the state legislature is appropriate. In 2002, the Office of the Governor proposed the creation of a monolithic statewide department of education to replace the ISBE. However, direct control of the new department would fall under the state governor's jurisdiction. The structure would mimic the system employed by the [[Hawaii State Department of Education]], which has no local school districts. Opponents to the proposal argue that local communities would lose control over what their children would learn in public schools and the means by which those public schools operate.
===Primary and secondary schools===
{{see also|List of school districts in Illinois|List of high schools in Illinois}}
Education is compulsory from [[kindergarten]] through the twelfth grade in Illinois, commonly but not exclusively divided into three tiers of [[primary education|primary]] and [[secondary education]]: [[elementary school]], [[middle school]] or [[junior high school]] and [[high school]]. District territories are often complex in structure. In some cases, elementary, middle and junior high schools of a single district feed into high schools in another district.
===Colleges and universities===
While many students enter the military or join the workforce directly from high school, students have the option of applying to [[college]]s and [[university|universities]] in Illinois. Notable Illinois institutions of [[higher education]] include [[Northwestern University]], [[University of Chicago]] and the several branches of the [[University of Illinois]]. Illinois is also home to 49 colleges in the [[Illinois community college system]].
====List of colleges and universities====
{| border="0"
|valign="top"|
*[[Augustana College]]
*[[Aurora University]]
*[[Barat College]]
*[[Benedictine University]]
*[[Blackburn College]]
*[[Bradley University]]
*[[The Chicago School of Professional Psychology]]
*[[Chicago State University]]
*[[City Colleges of Chicago]]
**[[Richard J. Daley College]]
**[[Harold Washington College]]
**[[Kennedy-King College]]
**[[Malcolm X College]]
**[[Olive-Harvey College]]
**[[Harry S Truman College]]
**[[Wilbur Wright College]]
*[[College of DuPage]]
*[[Columbia College Chicago]]
*[[Concordia University, River Forest]]
*[[DePaul University]]
*[[DeVry University, DuPage]]
*[[Dominican University]]
*[[East-West University]]
*[[Eastern Illinois University]]
*[[Elgin Community College]]
*[[Elmhurst College]]
*[[Erikson Institute]]
*[[Eureka College]]
*[[Governors State University]]
*[[Greenville College]]
*[[Illinois College]]
*[[Illinois Institute of Technology]]
*[[Illinois State University]]
*[[Illinois Wesleyan University]]
*[[John Wood Community College]]
*[[Joliet Junior College]]
*[[Judson College]]
*[[Kendall College]]
*[[Knox College]]
*[[Lake Forest College]]
*[[Lakeview College of Nursing]]
*[[Lake Land College]]
*[[Lewis University]]
*[[Lincoln Christian College and Seminary]]
*[[Lincoln College, Illinois|Lincoln College]]
*[[Loyola University Chicago]]
*[[Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago]]
|valign="top"|
*[[McKendree College]]
*[[MacMurray College]]
*[[Midwestern University]]
*[[Millikin University]]
*[[Monmouth College]]
*[[Moody Bible Institute]]
*[[National University of Health Sciences]]
*[[National-Louis University]]
*[[North Central College]]
*[[North Park College and Theological Seminary]]
*[[Northeastern Illinois University]]
*[[Northern Illinois University]]
*[[Northwestern University]]
*[[Olivet Nazarene University]]
*[[Principia College]]
*[[Quincy University]]
*[[Rend Lake College]]
*[[Robert Morris College]]
*[[Rockford College]]
*[[Roosevelt University]]
*[[Rush University]]
*[[Saint Anthony College of Nursing]]
*[[St. Xavier University]]
*[[School of the Art Institute of Chicago]]
*[[Shimer College]]
*[[Southern Illinois University System]]
**[[Southern Illinois University Carbondale]]
**[[Southern Illinois University Edwardsville]]
*[[South Suburban College of Cook County]]
*[[Spertus Institute of Jewish Studies]]
*[[Trinity Christian College]]
*[[Trinity International University]]
*[[Triton College]]
*[[University of Chicago]]
*[[University of Illinois System]]
**[[University of Illinois at Chicago]]
**[[University of Illinois at Springfield]]
**[[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]]
*[[University of Saint Francis (Illinois)|University of Saint Francis]]
*[[Waubonsee Community College]]
*[[Western Illinois University]]
*[[Wheaton College, Illinois|Wheaton College]]
*[[William Rainey Harper College]]
|}
== Professional sports teams ==
{| border="0"
|valign="top"|
*[[Major League Baseball]]:
**[[Chicago Cubs]]
**[[Chicago White Sox]]
*[[minor league baseball|Minor League baseball]]:
**[[Peoria Chiefs]]
**[[Kane County Cougars]]
**[[Gateway Grizzlies]]
**[[Rockford RiverHawks]]
**[[Schaumburg Flyers]]
**[[Windy City ThunderBolts]]
|valign="top"|
*[[Arena Football League]]
**[[Chicago Rush]]
*[[Major League Soccer]]
**[[Chicago Fire (soccer)|Chicago Fire]]
*[[National Basketball Association]]
**[[Chicago Bulls]]
*[[National Football League]]
**[[Chicago Bears]]
*[[National Hockey League]]
**[[Chicago Blackhawks]]
*[[Women's National Basketball Association]]
**[[Chicago Sky]]
|}
==Famous Residents==
[[Image:wiki_illinois.jpg|thumb|350px|Greetings from Illinois]]
*[[John Belushi]], early member of [[The Second City]]; raised in [[Wheaton, Illinois]]
*[[Ray Bradbury]], science-fiction and fantasy author; born in [[Waukegan, Illinois]]
*[[Miles Davis]], pioneering jazz artist; born in [[Alton, Illinois]] and raised in [[East Saint Louis, Illinois]]
*[[Harrison Ford]], famous actor; born in Chicago and raised in [[Park Ridge, Illinois]]
*[[Hillary Rodham Clinton]], former First Lady and current US senator from NY; born and raised in [[Park Ridge, Illinois]]
*[[Donald Rumsfeld]], current U.S. Secretary of Defense; born and raised in [[Evanston, Illinois]]
*[[Mike Krzyzewski]], coach of the [[Duke University]] men's [[basketball]] team; born in [[Chicago]]
*[[Charlton Heston]], famous actor and [[NRA]] spokesman; born, raised, and attended college in the suburbs of Chicago
*[[Abraham Lincoln]], the 16th President, is buried in [[Springfield, Illinois]]
*[[Makataimeshekiakiak]], or "Black Hawk", the [[Sac]] chief who defended Illinois natives against European incursion in the [[Black Hawk War]]
*[[John Malkovich]], actor, producer, and director; born in [[Christopher, Illinois]], attended [[Illinois State University]]
*[[Bill Murray]], influential member of [[The Second City]]; born and raised in Chicago
*[[Dick Durbin]], the state's senior senator and [[United States Senate Minority Whip]]
*[[Barack Obama]], the state's junior member in the [[United States Senate]]
*[[Richard Pryor]], pioneering comedian; born and raised in a [[brothel]] in [[Peoria, Illinois]]
*[[Ronald Reagan]], the 40th President; born in [[Tampico, Illinois]]
*[[Jennifer Rhodes]], theatre, televis |
n either simultaneously play two songs of different original tempos without their [[beat (music)|beat]]s clashing or "galloping" or can more smoothly transition between two songs. The tempo of the recording can be changed through the use of specialized playback mechanisms. In the case of [[vinyl record]]s, for example, the turntable would have a separate control for determining the relative speed (typically listed in percent increments) faster or slower the record can be played back. Similar specialized playback devices exist for most recorded [[medium|media]]. Changing the speed of the record that is playing is called pitching or [[Audio timescale-pitch modification|pitch shifting]].
==Basic beatmatching technique==
For a DJ wishing to beatmatch using vinyl turntables, the general procedure involved is relatively simple to explain, but difficult to master. Beat matching actually involves two separate processes; matching tempos and aligning measures. For two songs to sound good together they need to have the same tempo (usually measured in [[Beats per minute]] or BPM) and they need to both hit on the same beat.
The following equipment is necessary for beat matching:
* Two turntables (T1 and T2) with pitch controls and slipmats
* At least two records (R1 and R2)
* One mixer or crossfader, capable of:
** Variably blending the outputs of T1 and T2
** Cueing the music playing on either turntable without outputting the sound to the audience
* Headphones
* A Public Address System (PA) or other form of amplification and speakers
The following skills are necessary for beat matching:
===Selecting appropriate songs===
Although experienced DJs often show off by beat matching songs that do not follow these rules, while learning it is best to select songs that with similar BPMs. You also generally want to choose a record on T1 with an instrumental outro or a record on T2 with an instrumental intro, to avoid a sound that is too cluttered during the time in which both records are playing. These instrumental parts do not need to be at the beginning or end of the song, and many DJs like to make smooth transitions at unexpected places.
===Counting===
In order to recognize the tempo of music, you must be able to count beats. Most music designed for dancing has a strong, apparent beat, and is in the 4/4 [[time signature]], which makes beat matching easier. To properly beat match you need to be able to recognize the first beat of the measure or bar, or the 1 in a count of 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 . . . If you were to continue this count past 4, one minute later you will have arrived at the BPM. A quicker way to calculate the BPM is to use the same method as counting to one minute, but count to 15 seconds instead then multiply by 4.
When counting, it is also useful to think in broad terms about the sections of the song, which will usually have a length equal to some multiple of 4 bars. Most commonly, if you count the bars in a section of a song, they will be 4, 8, 16, 32, or 64 bars in length. This information helps the DJ decide at which point during T1 he must start T2 in order for the sounds of one track to fade as the other builds, or whatever effect is desired.
===Slip-cueing===
{{main|Slip-cueing}}
While one record is played over the main speakers, you must be able to find the appropriate place to come in on the other over your headphones. This is done by physically moving the record back and forth with your hand. The beat that you select should generally be a "hit" on the bass drum near the beginning of the song. This also should be the first beat of the measure. DJs will often use a sticker in center of their record to mark where the first main beat of the record takes place, to make it easier to find. Once found, you need to physically hold the record still and prevent it from spinning, thus pausing the sound. To start it again, simply release the record. You will need to physically rewind the record and start it several times, until you are confident that you have found the first beat and can start it at the exact moment that you desire.
===Matching tempos===
When two records are playing simulataneously, you listen to both and note which beat is running ahead or lagging behind, and adjust the pitch control accordingly. At least initially, it is best to make all adjustments on T2, so that the tempo of the music playing to the crowd is not erratic. Another technique, if you already know the BPMs for both records (because you have measured them yourself or looked them up in a reference guide or the internet), is to "cheat" and figure out how you need to adjust the pitch control mathematically. Many DJs use a combination of both, using measured BPMs to approximately match tempos and then fine tuning their adjustment by ear.
==Step by step process of beatmatching==
Assuming that you are already playing a record on T1,
# Select desired song to mix in on R2.
# Cue R2 on T2 to first main beat and pause it, using the headphones so that this process is not audible to the audience.
# Count beats on the R1, and find the first beat of the measure.
# Start R2 to correspond with the first beat of R1. At this point you will need to listen to both records, which can be accomplished two ways. Some mixers allow you to fade between both inputs in your headphones, but if you do not have this ability you can simply adjust your headphones to only cover one ear and listen to R1 over the main speakers.
# Match tempos using the pitch adjust on T2. You will usually need to repeat Steps 4 and 5 a number of times before the tempos are actually locked together. You will know that you have succeeded when even after listening to R2 for a (relatively) long time, it will stay perfectly synched with R1.
# Note the total percentage of the variation in speed needed and divide it by two. If you were to leave T1 at neutral and adjust T2 all the way to +6%, it would make pitch increase drastically on T2, so that your [[Barry White]] records would sound more like the [[Bee Gees]]). Instead, gradually slow down T1 to -3% (slowly enough that the crowd does not notice) and bring T2 to a more reasonable +3%. Then check you tempos one more time and repeat Steps 4 and 5 if necessary.
# Pause R2, as in Step 2.
# Set the mixer to play both records over the main speakers (usually done by setting the cross-fader in the middle position). So long as R2 is paused, the crowd will still hear only R1. Any movement on R2, however, will be audible to the crowd. This movement can be done intentionally as [[scratching]].
# Count beats on R1 and until you have reached an appropriate place to merge the two records. Often this will be the first beat not only of a measure but of a 4, 8, or 16 beat section.
# Allow R2 to start in synch with R1.
# Listen closely and make small adjustments to tempo and volume until the desired effect is achieved.
# Remember to fade out R1 entirely when ready.
Once mastered, this skill allows you to layer one record over another and create smooth transitions between different songs. After you have matched beats, you can also fade in and out smoothly between songs, and cue back either song to the beginning, thus extending both songs indefinitely. The same technique can also be used to isolate [[Break (music)|breaks]], using two copies of the same record to extend a short "break-down" section as long as is desired.
==See also==
*[[Segue]]
*[[Cutting (music)|Cutting]]
{{hiphop}}
[[Category:DJing]]
[[Category:Disco]]
[[de:Beatmatching]]
[[fr:Calage tempo]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brighton University</title>
<id>4303</id>
<revision>
<id>15902582</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-08T19:00:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mintguy</username>
<id>3295</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[University of Brighton]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Baptism for the dead</title>
<id>4305</id>
<revision>
<id>40330920</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T21:38:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Storm Rider</username>
<id>117293</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Deleted statement that needs references to be included.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Baptism for the dead''' by [[Wiktionary:proxy|proxy]] (or "vicarious baptism", "temple baptism") is an ordinance practiced by members of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (and [[schism]] churches), the [[Mandaeanism|Mandaeans]] of [[Iraq]] and [[Iran]], some of the Neo-Apostolic congregations of [[Europe]], and some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] religions. Although all the mentioned religious groups practice baptism for the dead to some extent, the term "baptism for the dead" is used almost exclusively in reference to the ordinance practiced by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, a living person, acting as proxy, is baptized by immersion in typical Latter-day Saint fashion. The ordinance is performed only in buildings recognized as temples. The [[prayer]] accompanying the baptism differs from typical wording in that it states that the [[baptism]] is being performed for and in behalf of a deceased person whose name has been submitted for that ordinance. Any member of the Church who is at least 12 years old may be baptized for the dead. Young men must hold the priesthood.
==Overview==
The Latter-day Saints' view of Baptism for the Dead is based upon their view of baptism for the living. In John 3:5 ([[King James Version of the Bible|KJV]]), Jesus states, "Except that a man be born of water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God." As such, Latter-Day Saints believe that bapt |
in continuity, Batman was "outed" in [[War Games]], a story that stretched across all Batman titles, when his live image was broadcast over the news as he made a brief daytime appearance in front of a violence-overtaken high school in Gotham.
===Dual identities===
Like Superman, the prominent persona of Bruce Wayne's dual identities has varied with time. Present comics seem to favor portraying the decadent playboy aspect of his character (earlier versions of Bruce Wayne depicted him as a more mature, refined gentleman) as the facade, while the masked and particularly dark, grim vigilante is marked as the "true" man.
Wayne guards his secret identity well, as only a handful of individuals know of his superhero alter-ego, including Alfred, [[Barbara Gordon|Oracle]], the [[Robin (comics)|Robins]], the members of the [[Justice League]], [[Catwoman]], [[Leslie Thompkins]], and a few others. Several villains have also discovered his true identity over the years, most notably eco-terrorist [[Ra's Al Ghul]], as well as [[Hugo Strange]], the [[Riddler]], [[Bane (comics)|Bane]], and [[Hush (comics)|Hush]]. Batman often acts dim-witted and self-absorbed as Bruce Wayne, the better to convince people there is no connection. Batman has made it clear that he considers keeping his secret identity his top priority; he has on various occasions come near to death rather than use his skills in public as Bruce Wayne.
===Matches Malone===
{{main|Matches Malone}}
Batman also occasionally goes undercover to infiltrate the criminal element of Gotham. Matches Malone was a small time thug who once acted as Batman's snitch; when Matches was killed, Batman assumed his identity. In the recent [[War Games]] storyline, it was revealed that Batman had a plan which would make Matches Malone the crime boss of Gotham, in effect giving Batman direct control over the criminals he stalks as Batman.
==Gotham City==
{{main|Gotham City}}
A fictional city modeled primarily after [[New York City]], it is Bruce Wayne's home and Batman's base of operation. In early ''Batman'' comics, he was located in [[New York City]]; "Gotham" is in fact a nickname for New York. Gotham is generally thought to be located on the northeast coast, and is located in [[New Jersey]] in several sources. Its architecture is tall and [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]], but it suffers from urban blight. It is generally portrayed as dirty, crime-ridden, and corrupt, in stark contrast to the bright, clean, futuristic feel of Superman's [[Metropolis (Superman)|Metropolis]]. Thomas and Martha Wayne were gunned down in Crime Alley, formerly Gotham's ritzy Park Row but now a slum.
===Bat-Signal===
One of the best-known elements of the Batman mythos is the Bat-Signal. When Batman is needed, the Gotham City police activate a [[searchlight]] with a bat-shaped insignia over the lens that shines into the night sky, creating a bat-symbol on a passing cloud which can be seen from any point in Gotham. The idea of a [Whatever]-Signal has penetrated deeply into pop culture, and can be seen in hundreds of different places, both in images and speech.
In various incarnations, most notably the 1960s Batman TV show, Commissioner Gordon also has a phone line which connects directly to the Batcave.
===Batcave===
{{main|Batcave}}
The Batcave is Batman's secret headquarters, consisting of a series of subterranean caves beneath his residence, [[Wayne Manor]]. It serves as his command centre for both local and global surveillance, as well as housing his vehicles and equipment for the war on crime. It also is a storeroom for Batman's memorabilia. The Batcave is considered one of the most advanced centers of intelligence and technology in the world.
==Powers and abilities==
Unlike [[Superman]] and most other costumed heroes, Batman is a human being who does not possess any [[superhuman]] abilities. However, he has elevated himself to near-superhuman status through years of rigorous training. Physically he is at the peak of human ability in dozens of areas, most notably [[martial arts]], [[acrobatics]], strength, and escape artistry. Intellectually he is just as peerless, being at once one of the world's greatest scientists, criminologists, and tacticians, as well as a master of disguise. Given his lack of superpowers, he often uses cunning and planning to outwit his foes, rather than simply out-fighting them.
===Weaknesses===
Being human, Batman doesn't have any unusual weaknesses (like Superman's vulnerability to [[kryptonite]]) but has character flaws that can be exploited by enemies. In modern comics, Batman is shown as being vastly paranoid by nature and tends to not trust other heroes, even those he has known for years, like [[Superman]]. Some enemies have used this to isolate Batman and play games with him. Batman has also been portrayed as arrogant, treating many of his allies with various degrees of disrespect. He also sometimes overestimates his own abilities and allows foes to take advantage of that. These traits have developed over the last few decades, and older portrayals of Batman usually tend to show him as more willing to work with others. Additionally, his childhood trauma makes him emotionally distant from even those allies closest to him, and a common theme among the younger heroes he often works with (Robin, Nightwing, Oracle, etc.) is how hard it is to gain his approval.
===Equipment===
[[Image:USD205998.png|thumb|right|200px|The 1966 television Batmobile was built by [[George Barris (auto customizer)|George Barris]] from a [[Lincoln Futura]] [[concept car]].]]
Bruce designs the costumes, equipment, and vehicles he uses as Batman, which are produced by a division of Wayne Industries. Over the years, he has accumulated a large arsenal of specialized [[gadget]]s (compare with the later [[James Bond]]). The designs of most of Batman's equipment share a common theme of dark coloration with a bat motif. A prime example is Batman's car, the ''[[Batmobile]]'', often depicted as an imposing black car with large tail fins that suggest a bat's wings; another is his chief throwing weapon, the ''[[batarang]]'', a bat-shaped [[boomerang]]. In proper practice, the &quot;bat" prefix (as in batmobile or batarang) is rarely used by Batman himself when referring to his equipment, especially as this has been stretched to [[Camp (style)|camp]] in some portrayals (namely the 1960s ''Batman'' [[Batman (1960s TV series)|live-action television show]] and the ''[[Super Friends]]'' [[animated series]]). The 1960s live-action television show arsenal included such ridiculous, satirical "bat-" names as a bat-[[computer]], bat-rope, bat-scanner, bat-[[radar]], bat-handcuffs, bat-phone, bat-pontoons, bat-drinking water dispenser, bat-[[camera]] with polarized bat-filter, [[shark]] repellent bat-spray, bat-funnel, alphabet soup bat-container, and emergency bat-turn lever. In one episode, Batman and Robin stop by an outdoor hamburger stand which sells "bat-burgers", beef sandwiches supposedly named in his honor.
Batman keeps most of his field equipment in a signature piece of apparel, a yellow [[Batman's utility belt|utility belt]]. Over the years it has contained a virtually limitless variety of crimefighting tools, such as plastic explosives, nerve toxins, batarangs, smoke bombs, a [[fingerprint]] kit, a laser cutting tool, a [[grappling hook]] gun, and a "re-breather" breathing device. Underneath the buckle is a ring made of [[kryptonite]], entrusted to Batman by [[Superman]] himself. Different versions of the belt have these items stored in either pouches or hard cylinders attached evenly around it.
In some of his early appearances, Batman used [[sidearm]]s (see especially ''Detective Comics'' #32, September 1939), but since that time, he has eschewed their use because his parents were murdered by a gunman. Some stories have relaxed this rule to allow Batman to arm his vehicles for purposes of disabling other vehicles or removing inanimate obstacles. In the 1989 movie version, however, firearms figured more prominently in the Dark Knight's arsenal; machine guns and grenades were mounted on the Batmobile and missiles and machine cannons on the Batwing. Burton's Batman was not afraid to cause collateral damage and was willing to kill.
===Costume===
{{main|Batsuit}}
[[Image:Batman-JimLee2.jpg|175px|thumb|Batman's current costume. Art by [[Jim Lee]].]]
The details of the Batman costume have changed repeatedly through the character's evolution, but the most distinctive elements have remained consistent: a black scallop-hem cape; a cowl covering most of the face and featuring a pair of batlike ears; and a stylized bat emblem on the chest. His gloves also typically feature three scallops that protrude from the sides. In Christopher Nolan's ''Batman Begins'', these fins are made of metal and can be used as weapons or as grappling tools. The most significant costume variations over the year involve the chest emblem&ndash;a yellow ellipse was added in 1964, and has come and gone since then&ndash;and the color scheme, which are variously lighter colors (medium blue and light gray) or darker (black and dark gray). The length of the cowl's ears and of the cape vary greatly based on the artist.
The costume went through many changes as it evolved into its more or less standard style. The first gloves were ordinary looking, lacked any sort of scalloped fins or other stylings, and only came to the wrists. The second Batman adventure featured the character wearing no gloves at all. A few issues later the gloves became longer, and by 1940 the familiar fins were added to the gloves. Another early curiosity was the cape, which at times seemed to attach to Batman's arms, giving it a more wing-like look. The costume was also occasionally seen with a holster, as Batman sometimes carried a pistol in those days.
Batman keeps varia |
arawa (Andaman Islands)|Jarawas]].
==Indigenous Andamanese==
[[Image:Andaman tribal & linguistic map.jpg|thumb|300px|Ethnolinguistic map of the precolonial Andaman Islands]]
The various [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] [[Andamanese]] peoples [[list of subsistence techniques|subsisted]] mostly as [[hunter-gatherer]] communities, supplemented by [[fishing]] and limited [[agriculture|agricultural]] practices. The Sentinelese, Önge, and Jarawa peoples continue in this way of life in the southern part of the archipelago.
The indigenous Andamanese are slightly built, dark-skinned, with tightly-curled hair, and physically resemble the [[Semang]] of the [[Malay Peninsula]] and the [[Aeta]] of the [[Philippines]]. The Andamanese, Semang, and Aeta are probably descendants of a people who were more widespread in [[Southeast Asia]] before they were displaced or assimilated by the ancestors of today's [[Austronesian]]-speakers.
Their antiquity is attested by the remains found in their kitchen-[[midden]]s. These are of great age, and rise sometimes to a height exceeding 5 metres. The fossil shells, pottery and primitive stone implements, found alike at the base and at the surface of these middens, show that the habits of the islanders have varied little since the remote past, and lead to the belief that the Andamans were settled by their present inhabitants some time during the [[Pleistocene]] period, and certainly no later than the [[Neolithic]] age. The oldest [[archaeological]] evidence for occupation yet obtained is dated to [[3rd century BC|2,200 years ago]]; however, the investigations which have been made are not extensive, and it is most likely that much earlier dates will be attested.
The Andamans may have been linked to Myanmar by a land bridge during the [[ice age]]s, and it is possible that the ancestors of the Andamanese reached the islands without crossing the sea. Whether an original sea-crossing was required or not, linguistic and genetic studies indicate that the Andamanese peoples have lived in almost complete isolation for 30,000 to 70,000 years. For example, a report in the journal "Science" [Vol 308, Issue 5724, 996, [[13 May]] [[2005]]] by Thangaraj et al. identifies M31 and M32 [[mitochondrial DNA|mtDNA]] types among indigenous Andamanese, which show that these populations became genetically isolated about 50,000 to 70,000 years ago, apparently after their initial migration from Africa.
The indigenous Andamanese spoke several related languages, the [[Andamanese languages]], a distinct [[language family]] unrelated to languages found outside the islands. Of the 13 languages spoken at the beginning of the century, nine are now extinct. The extinct languages were spoken on Great Andaman, and the Great Andamanese now mostly speak [[Hindi]]. The [[Jarawa (Andaman Islands)|Jarawa]], [[Onge|Önge]], and [[Sentinelese]] mostly speak their own languages, and limit their contact with outsiders.
The earliest European notice of the Andamanese is in a remarkable collection of early [[Arab]] notes on India and China from the year [[851]] which influenced the view of this people until modern times. The traditional charge of [[cannibalism]] has been very persistent; but it is entirely denied by the islanders themselves, and is now and probably always has been untrue. Of their massacres of shipwrecked crews, there is no doubt, but that the policy of conciliation has secured a friendly reception for shipwrecked crews at any port of the islands.
The historic population of the islands is difficult to estimate, but it has probably always been small. The estimated total at a census taken in [[1901]] was only 2,000. Though all descended from one stock, there are twelve distinct [[Tribes of India|tribes]] of the Andamanese, each with its own clearly-defined locality, its own distinct variety of the one fundamental language and to a certain extent its own separate habits. Every tribe is divided into fairly well defined septs. The tribal feeling may be expressed as friendly within the tribe, courteous to other Andamanese if known, hostile to every stranger, Andamanese or other.
The Andaman languages are extremely interesting from the philological standpoint. They are [[agglutinative]] in nature, show hardly any signs of syntactical growth though every indication of long etymological growth, give expression to only the most direct and the simplest thought, and are purely colloquial and wanting in the modifications always necessary for communication by writing. The sense is largely eked out by manner and action. Mincopie is the first word in Colebrooke's vocabulary for "Andaman Island, or native country", and the term - though probably a mishearing on Colebrooke's part for Mongebe ("I am an Onge", i.e. a member of the Onge tribe) - has thus become a persistent book-name for the people.
Another division of the natives is into [[Aryauto]] or long-shore-men, and the [[Eremtaga]] or jungle-dwellers. The habits and capacities of these two differ, owing to surroundings, irrespectively of tribe. Yet again the Andamanese can be grouped according to certain salient characteristics: the forms of the bows and arrows, of the canoes, of ornaments and utensils, of [[tattoo]]ing and of language.
The average height of males is 149 cm; of females, 137 cm. The only artificial deformity is a depression of the skull, chiefly among one of the southern tribes, caused by the pressure of a strap used for carrying loads.
The women's heads are shaved entirely and the men's into fantastic patterns. Yellow and [[red ochre]] mixed with grease are coarsely smeared over the bodies, grey in coarse patterns and white in fine patterns resembling tattoo marks. Tattooing is of two distinct varieties. In the south the body is slightly cut by women with small flakes of glass or quartz in zigzag or lineal patterns downwards. In the north it is deeply cut by men with pig-arrows in lines across the body.
The male is said to reach adulthood when about fifteen years of age, typically marries when about twenty-six, and lives onto sixty or sixty-five if he reaches old age. Except as to the marrying age, these figures fairly apply to women. Before marriage, free intercourse between the sexes is the rule, though certain conventional precautions are taken to prevent it. Marriages rarely produce more than three children and often none at all. Divorce is rare, unfaithfulness after marriage uncommon and incest virtually unknown.
By preference the Andamanese are exogamous as regards sept and endogamous as regards tribe.
There is no idea of government, but in each sept there is a head, who has attained that position by degrees on account of some tacitly admitted superiority and commands a limited respect and some obedience. The young are deferential to their elders. Offences are punished by the aggrieved party. Property is communal and theft is only recognized as to things of absolute necessity, such as arrows, pork and fire. Fire is the one thing they are really careful about, not knowing how to renew it. A very rude barter exists between tribes of the same group in regard to articles not locally obtainable.
The religion consists of beliefs in spirits of the wood, the sea, disease and ancestors, and of avoidance of acts traditionally displeasing to them. There is neither worship nor propitiation. An anthropomorphic deity, [[Puluga]], is the cause of all things, but it is not necessary to propitiate him. There is an idea that the "soul" will go somewhere after death, but there is no heaven nor hell, nor idea of a corporeal resurrection. There is much faith in dreams, and in the utterances of certain "wise men", who practise an embryonic magic and witchcraft.
The great amusement of the Andamanese is a formal night dance, but they are also fond of games. The bows differ altogether with each group, but the same two kinds of arrows are in general use: (1) long and ordinary for fishing and other purposes; (2) short with a detachable head fastened to the shaft by a thong, which quickly brings pigs up short when shot in the thick jungle. Bark provides material for string, while baskets and mats are neatly and stoutly made from canes and buckets out of bamboo and wood.
None of the tribes ever ventures out of sight of land, and they have no idea of steering by sun or stars. Their canoes are simply hollowed out of trunks with the adze and in no other way, and it is the smaller ones that are outrigged; they do not last long and are not good sea-boats. The story of raids on Car Nicobar, out of sight across a stormy and sea-rippled channel, must be discredited.
Honour is shown to an adult when he dies by wrapping him in a cloth and placing him on a platform in a tree instead of burying him. At such a time the encampment is deserted for three months.
==Reference==
*{{1911}}
==External links==
*[http://andaman-islands.tripod.com/ Photos from Andaman Islands] 100 photos taken by an Andaman's lover
*[http://community.webshots.com/user/mp5ingh Snaps of Andaman and Nicobar Islands] Snaps of Andaman Islands taken by Mahendra Pratap Singh, S/o Shri R.P.Singh
*[http://www.andaman.org/ The Andaman Association, Lonely Islands: The Andamanese]
[[Category:Ecoregions of India]]
[[Category:Archipelagoes]]
[[Category:Regions of India]]
[[Category:Islands of India]]
[[Category:Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]
[[Category:Indomalaya]]
[[Category:Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]]
[[da:Andamanerne]]
[[de:Andamanen]]
[[et:Andamani saared]]
[[es:Islas Andamán]]
[[eo:Andamanoj]]
[[fr:Îles Andaman]]
[[id:Andaman]]
[[nl:Andamanen]]
[[no:Andamanene]]
[[pl:Andamany]]
[[pt:Ilhas Andaman]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander Anderson (mathematician)</title>
<id>1751</id>
<revision>
<id>35872567</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-19T22:56:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
< |
cy]], [[economics]], [[conquest]], or [[transcendence (philosophy)|transcendence]].
===The Datalinks===
A crucial part of the game is the Datalinks, an information system that contains any and all information that you may need. It is similar to Civilization's Civilopedia. Most important is the tech tree, which shows a complete system of all technologies available in the game, along with prerequisite technologies and all benefits the technology gives (new chassis, weapon, armor, reactor, or special ability types, along with new former abilities, base facilities and secret projects, bonuses to xenofungus squares, social engineering choices, etc.) In all technology trades the game allows you to consult the Datalinks to find exactly what is being offered (or demanded).
In addition, the Datalinks store the quotes involved with all technologies, base facilities, and secret projects. Many Alpha Centauri fans enjoy the quotes in particular and the thought behind them. The game's creators did an excellent job of developing the personality and ideology of all the faction leaders through these quotes, as well as thoughts on human psychology. For instance, the Virtual World secret project is accompanied by Chairman Yang's view that reality is only what you perceive it to be, while Provost Zakarov denounces the general simplistic views on genetics when such technologies are discovered.
===Terrain===
The game is represented on a three-dimensional map of the planet surface, upon which bases are built and units deployed. Local features of the terrain influence the amount of resources a base harvests from any particular square. For example, rocky squares yield minerals but no food unless cleared, while river squares produce extra energy. The altitude of terrain influences how much energy can be harvested there, can create rainfall shadows downwind, etc. Terrain can be enhanced and altered (including raising and lowering altitude!) by units equipped with a [[terraforming|terraformer]] module. The terrain also affects combat. For example, defending units receive a +50% bonus in rocky squares, while artillery units receive bonuses when attacking from higher elevation.
===Units and combat===
A unit is made up from different parts such as chassis, weapon, armor, reactor, and special ability slots. As new technologies become available, old designs may be brought up to date and existing units upgraded.
Generally, only friendly units (your own or those of an ally) can occupy the same square. Enemy units must be eliminated in order to move into their square. Combat usually initiates when a unit from one faction attempts to enter a square occupied by units from another hostile faction. Many factors affect the outcome of combat, including:
*The attacking unit's weapon rating;
*The defending unit's armor rating;
*The [[hit point]]s of both units, determined by the type of reactor used;
*The morale status of both units;
*Any attack or defense bonuses brought about by base facilities and Secret Projects.
Researching certain new technologies unlocks progressively better equipment (weapons, armor and reactors.) Morale upgrades are gained through various means: possessing certain support infrastructure such as Command Centers as well as creating units with certain special abilities allows units to begin with higher morale, gaining access to the mysterious alien monoliths that dot the planet, or defeating enough enemies to gain experience will upgrade an existing units morale.
===Native Life===
Adding to the trouble of the human [[political faction|factions]] is an indigenous semi-sentient [[fungus]] (called ''xenofungus'') that spans the planet. Concentrations of xenofungus can spawn more aggressive native life forms known as ''mind worms''. Xenofungus acts as the planet's [[immune system]], and will react against heavy industrial pollution by growing over terraformed sites and concentrating multiple hostile mind worm units against offending cities. In accordance with its semi-sentience, the fungus can grow and reclaim land when the player, either through [[terraforming]] or industry, is seen as adversely affecting Planet's [[ecosystem]].
Moreover, mind worms can be captured by factions with a deep understanding of Planet's fragile ecology and used as instruments of war and police.
In the course of the storyline, it is discovered that Planet's ecosystem is an increasingly sentient [[hive mind]], which communicates with faction leaders in cut-scenes from time to time. However, contrary to the concept of a benevolent [[Mother Earth]], the planetary mind is suspicious of humans and abhors their technological intrusion on its ecological balance, often using violence to try to destroy colonists that it perceives as a threat. Quotes by faction leaders scattered throughout the game reveal that all of them with the notable exception of Lady Dierdre consider the planetary mind to be distrustworthy, dangerous or even [[evil]], although the Transcendence victory condition allows the player to unite human consciousness with Planet's mind, thus 'civilizing' it, achieving the next step in human evolution, and granting vast [[psionic]] powers to Transcended humans.
===Bases===
[[Image:AlphaCentauriGameCD.jpg|thumb|right|The Alpha Centauri game CD ([[Microsoft Windows]] version), depicting the surface of the planet Chiron and the system's two stars]]
Bases, like cities in the earlier ''Civilization'' games, are the center of the game. A base is essentially a self-contained city that can be built and captured, as well as destroyed (either intentionally through war casualties, [[starvation]], abandonment by constructing a colonizer at base size 1, or [[weapons of mass destruction]], or unintentionally through ecological disruptions or being overrun by native mind worms). A base collects resources from the surrounding environment, using the manpower of the local population, or mechanically through resource crawler units. [[Mineral]] resources are used in building units and maintaining their upkeep, or can be converted to energy credits. Nutrient resources feed the local citizens, with more nutrients harvested leading to a higher rate of population growth. Energy collected from [[borehole]]s or [[solar collector]]s are piped into three priorities: PSYCH, ECONOMY and LABS. PSYCH represents how much energy is being used in improving the living standard of the inhabitants. ECONOMY represents how much energy is diverted into energy credits. LABS represents how much energy is being diverted into powering research. The output of all three can be enhanced by facilities or by special inhabitants called specialists. Energy credits created by the economy are the currency of the game. It can be used in hurrying production orders, commencing secret projects, or as an object of barter in diplomatic encounters. Some covert missions or prototype construction also require energy credits. Depending on a faction's social policies and the individual base's distance from the capital, a portion of collected energy can be lost to inefficiency.
Citizens are the inhabitants of a base. One citizen represents 10,000 inhabitants. It takes one citizen to harvest the resources of one square. New citizens are produced when a base has accumulated a set quantity of excess nutrients. The amount of nutrients needed to create growth becomes higher as the population multiplies. [[Social engineering (political science)|Social engineering]] choices or facilities can help reduce this required amount during each stage of growth.
Bases build all of the faction's units, and by extension, new bases. A new base is created when a previous base builds a unit equipped with a colony pod module and the unit is deployed at the desired location. Building new units require a set amount of minerals, depending on how complex or advanced the unit is. Each turn, minerals processed by citizens are added to the current task until it is completed. This process can be hurried by spending energy credits. New technologies are also researched in a manner. LABS output from every base is accumulated each turn until it fulfils the required cost to research the technology. All of these aspects can be enhanced by facilities and other factors.
A base can also build facilities and secret projects. Facilities, which are analogous to the buildings of the original [[Civilization (computer game)|Civilization]] games, creates or alters some function of the base it is located in. Similarly, Secret Projects are comparable to the [[Seven Wonders of the World|Great Wonders]] of the original [[Civilization (computer game)|Civilization]]. They are expensive and can only be built once, but usually have dramatic benefits ranging from free facilities to social engineering effects and special unit abilities.
===Diplomacy===
When two factions have established contact, they can engage in a variety of diplomatic actions. New technology, energy credits and bases can be bargained for or demanded with the threat of force. Factions can sign treaties and pacts, declare [[war]] or ask for a temporary cessation of hostilities. Treaties lead to [[commerce]] between faction bases and an increase in income for both factions. Pacts allow units to enter allied held territory and bases, and doubles the commerce modifier between the two factions. Computer controlled factions will remember past dealings, betrayals and atrocities, and will base their reactions to the player's diplomatic overtures accordingly.
Once one human faction has made contact with all other human factions, it can choose to convene the ''Planetary Council'' and elect a ''Planetary Governor''. Thereafter, factions can periodically convene the council (at most once every 20 years for each faction; the Planetary Governor only has to wait 10 years) to make proposals such as electing a new governor, salvaging the ''Unity'' fusion reactor core, or creating a global trade pact. W |
avid's ''Pietà'' in the [[National Gallery, London]], and the ''Descent from the Cross'' in the Cavallo collection [[Paris]] (Guildhall, 1906), were painted under this influence and are remarkable for their sense of dramatic movement. But the works on which David's fame has rested most securely are the great [[altarpiece]]s he painted before his visit to Antwerp: the ''Marriage of St Catherine'', at the National Gallery; the triptych of the ''Madonna Enthroned and Saints'' of the Brignole-Sale collection in [[Genoa]]; the ''Annunciation'' of the Sigmaringen collection; and above all, the ''Madonna with Angels and Saints'', which he painted without asking a fee from the [[Carmelite]] Nuns of [[Sion]] at Bruges, and which is now in the [[Rouen]] museum.
Only a few of his works have remained in Bruges: ''The Judgment of Cambyses'', ''The Flaying of Sisamnes'' and the ''Baptism of Christ'' in the town museum, and the ''Transfiguration'' in the Church of Our Lady. The rest were scattered around the world, and to this may be due the oblivion into which his very name had fallen; this, and the fact that, for all the beauty and the soulfulness of his work, he had nothing innovative to add to the history of art. Even in his best work he had only given newer variations of the art of his predecessors and contemporaries. His rank among the masters was renewed, however, when a considerable number of his paintings were assembled at Bruges for a [[1902]] exhibition of the early Flemish painters.
At the time of David's death, the glory of Bruges and its painters was on the wane: Antwerp had become the leader in art as well as in political and commercial importance. Of David's pupils in Bruges, only [[Adriaen Isenbrandt|Isenbrandt]], [[A. Cornelis]] and [[Ambrosius Benson]] achieved importance. Among other Flemish painters, [[Joachim Patinir]] and [[Jan Mabuse]] were to some degree influenced by him.
Eberhard Freiherr von Bodenhausen published in 1905 a very comprehensive [[monograph]] on Gerard David and his School (Munich, F. Bruckmann), together with a ''[[catalogue raisonné]]'' of his works, which, after careful analysis, are reduced to a total of forty-three.
==External links==
{{commonscat|Gerard David}}
*[http://www.abcgallery.com/D/gerardavid/geradavid.html Gallery]
*[http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/d/david/index.html Web Gallery of Art: Gerard David]
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1455 births|David, Gerard]]
[[Category:1523 deaths|David, Gerard]]
[[Category:Dutch painters|David, Gerard]]
[[Category:Renaissance painters|David, Gerard]]
[[de:Gerard David]]
[[fr:Gérard David]]
[[nl:Gerard David]]
[[pl:Gerard David]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Global System for Mobile Communications</title>
<id>12808</id>
<revision>
<id>42150301</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:45:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Admrboltz</username>
<id>168201</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Redirect bypass from [[EDGE]] to [[Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Mobile phone standards}}
The '''Global System for Mobile Communications''' ('''GSM''') is the most popular standard for [[mobile phone]]s in the world. GSM service is used by over 1.5 billion people across more than 210 countries and territories <small>[http://www.gsmworld.com/about/index.shtml]</small>. The ubiquity of the GSM standard makes international [[roaming]] very common between [[mobile phone operator]]s, enabling subscribers to use their phones in many parts of the world. GSM differs significantly from its predecessors in that both signaling and speech channels are [[digital]], which means that it is considered a ''second generation'' ([[2G]]) mobile phone system. This fact has also meant that data communication was built into the system from very early on. GSM is an [[open standard]] which is currently developed by the [[3GPP]].
From the point of view of the consumer, the key advantage of GSM systems has been higher digital voice quality and low cost alternatives to making calls such as [[text messaging]]. The advantage for network operators has been the ability to deploy equipment from different vendors because the open standard allows easy inter-operability. Also, the standards have allowed network operators to offer [[roaming]] services which mean subscribers can use their phone all over the world.
GSM retained backward-compatibility with the original GSM phones as the GSM standard continued to develop, for example packet data capabilities were added in the [[Release '97]] version of the standard, by means of [[GPRS]]. Higher speed data transmission have also been introduced with [[Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution|EDGE]] in the Release '99 version of the standard.
== History ==
Throughout the [[History of mobile phones|evolution of cellular telecommunications]], various systems were developed without the benefit of standardized specifications. This presented many problems directly related to compatibility, especially with the development of digital radio technology. In [[1982]], The GSM group (''"Groupe Spécial Mobile"'' ([[French language|French]]) 1, 2, 3 and 4) was formed to address these problems. The name of the system comes from the name of this group, though later the decision was made to keep the initials but to change what they stood for. Originally the group was hosted by [[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations|CEPT]].
From 1982 to 1985 discussions were held to decide between building an analog or digital system. After multiple field tests, a digital system was adopted for GSM. The next task was to decide between a narrow or broadband solution. In May 1987, the narrowband [[time division multiple access]] (TDMA) solution was chosen.
The technical fundamentals of the GSM system were defined in [[1987]]. In [[1989]], [[ETSI]] took over control and by [[1990]] the first GSM specification was completed, amounting to over 6,000 pages of text. Commercial operation began in [[1991]] with [[Radiolinja]] in [[Finland]].
In 1998, the [[3rd Generation Partnership Project]] (3GPP) was formed. Originally it was intended only to produce the specifications of the next (third, [[3G]]) generation of mobile networks. However, 3GPP also took over the maintenance and development of the GSM specification. ETSI is a partner in 3GPP.
GSM provides recommendations, not requirements. The GSM specifications define the functions and interface requirements in detail but do not address the hardware. The reason for this is to not limit the designers yet still make it possible for the operators to buy equipment from different suppliers.
==Market situation==
[[Image:Gsm-bts-walbrzych.jpg|thumb|GSM base station in [[Walbrzych]], [[Poland]]]]
More than 1.6 billion people use GSM phones as of [[2005]], making GSM the dominant mobile phone system worldwide with about 70% of the world's market. The countries of the [[European Union]] passed legislation mandating the use of the European-originated GSM (and its 3G successors) as the single mobile phone system in their countries in order to maximize interoperability. This gave the system a solid base for expansion to other countries, as users in other countries who wish to roam in Europe have to use GSM. GSM dominates across Europe, Russia, [[Africa]], and the [[Middle East]], and has a presence in nearly every country. GSM's main competitor, [[cdmaOne]], is used primarily in [[North America]], [[South America]], and [[Asia]]. [http://www.eurotechnology.com/3G/] [http://www.cdg.org/]. cdmaOne also benefited from increased radio [http://www.techno-preneur.net/new-timeis/News-section/news-2005/cdma_gsm.html spectrum efficiencies] as compared to the more common GSM networks.
[[Roaming|Roaming]] with GSM phones is a major advantage over the competing technology as roaming across CDMA networks from different operators can be difficult or impossible, if the operators lack a roaming agreement or work on different frequency bands.
Another major reason for the growth in GSM usage, particularly between 1998 to 2002, was the availability of [[prepaid telephone calls|prepaid calling]] from [[mobile phone operator]]s. This allows people who are either unable or unwilling to enter into a contract with an operator to have mobile phones. For example, students and teenagers can get a prepaid account which they can manage themselves without needing a parent to manage and sign for a contracted account. It also allows some operators to offer solutions for low-frequency users who are likely to choose prepaid accounts rather than the cheapest non-prepaid accounts since the latter still costs more. Prepaid also enabled the rapid expansion of GSM in many developing countries where large sections of the population do not have access to banks or bank accounts and countries where there are no effective [[credit rating|credit rating agencies]]. (In many developed countries, starting a non-prepaid contract with a cellular phone operator is almost always subject to credit verification through personal information provided by credit rating agencies).
GSM was also the first to have [[Short message service|SMS]] text messaging which proved extremely popular with the teenage market.
The largest North American [[mobile phone operator|GSM carrier]] is [[Cingular Wireless]], which acquired [[AT&T Wireless]] in the fall of 2004. Other North American GSM carriers include [[T-Mobile USA]] and [[Cincinnati Bell Wireless]].
==Radio interface==
GSM is a [[cellular network]], which means that [[mobile phone]]s connect to it by searching for cells in the immediate vicinity. GSM networks operate at various different [[GSM frequency ranges|radio frequencies]]. Most GSM networks operate at 900 MHz o |
nd the Grey Havens: Lord of the Rings Fanatics Library]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=Bearer of the [[Great Ring]] | years= 3001 [[Third Age]] &ndash; 3019 TA| before=[[Bilbo Baggins]]| after=[[Sam Gamgee]]}}
{{succession box | title=Bearer of the [[Great Ring]] | years= 3019 TA| before=[[Sam Gamgee]] | after=[[Smeagol]]}}
{{end box}}
{{Fellowship}}
[[Category:Middle-earth Hobbits|Baggins, Frodo]]
[[bg:Фродо Бегинс]]
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[[eo:Frodo BAGGINS]]
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[[he:פרודו בגינס]]
[[nl:Frodo Balings]]
[[ja:フロド・バギンズ]]
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[[th:โฟรโด แบ๊กกิ้นส์]]
[[zh:佛罗多·巴金斯]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Flagellate</title>
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<username>Gdr</username>
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<comment>add Haeckel picture</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Haeckel Flagellata.jpg|thumb|"Flagellata" from [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s ''Artforms of Nature'', 1904]]
[[Image:Giardia lamblia.jpg|thumb|Parasitic [[excavate]] (''Giardia lamblia'')]]
[[Image:Chlamydomonas (10000x).jpg|thumb|[[Green alga]] (''Chlamydomonas'')]]
'''Flagellates''' are [[cell (biology)|cell]]s with one or more whip-like organelles called [[flagellum|flagella]]. Some cells in [[animal]]s may be flagellate, for instance the [[sperm cell]]s of most phyla. Higher [[plant]]s and [[fungus|fungi]] do not produce flagellate cells, but the closely related [[green alga]]e and [[chytrid]]s do. Many [[protist]]s take the form of single-celled flagellates. They are found in most lines of [[eukaryote]]s, and it is likely that all surviving eukaryotes evolved from them.
== Form and behavior ==
Eukaryotic flagella are supported by [[microtubule]]s in a characteristic arrangement, with nine fused pairs surrounding two central singlets. These arise from a basal body or kinetosome, with microtubule roots that are an important part of the cell's structure. In some, for instance, they support a [[cytostome]] or mouth, where food is ingested. The flagella often support hairs, called mastigonemes, or contain rods. Their ultrastructure plays an important role in classifying eukaryotes.
In protists and microscopic animals, flagella are generally used for propulsion. They may also be used to create a current that brings in food. In most eukaryotes, one or more flagella are located at or near the anterior of the cell. Often there is one directed forwards and one trailing behind. Among animals, fungi, and Choanozoa, which make up a group called the [[opisthokont]]s, there is a single posterior flagellum.
== Groups of flagellates ==
Originally the flagellate protozoa were treated as a single class of phylum, the Mastigophora. This was divided into the Phytomastigina or phytoflagellates, which have [[chloroplast]]s or are closely related to such forms, and the Zoomastigina or zooflagellates, which do not. Most phytoflagellates were given a separate classification by botanists, treating them in several divisions of algae.
This scheme has generally been abandoned or is retained only for convenience. However, the relationships among the flagellates are still mostly unknown, and their higher classification is confused. Some argue that the Linnaean ranks are not appropriate for such a diverse set of organisms.
Phytoflagellates are found in most groups of [[alga]]e. Both the [[green alga]]e and [[heterokont]]s include a variety of flagellates in addition to non-motile and multicellular forms. The [[dinoflagellate]]s, [[cryptomonad]]s, [[haptophyte]]s, and [[euglenid]]s are almost entirely single-celled flagellates.
Many of the other flagellates make up what are called the [[excavate]] taxa. These include the euglenids and a number of important parasites, such as [[trypanosome]]s and ''[[Giardia]]''. The excavates generally show similarities in the structure of their flagella and typically have a cytostome. However, they may be a [[paraphyletic]] group, and in particular may have been ancestral to most or all other eukaryotes.
Other notable groups including flagellates are the [[Opisthokont|Choanozoa]], [[Cercozoa]], [[alveolate]]s (including dinoflagellates), [[ebriid]]s, and [[Apusozoa]].
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<page>
<title>Feature requests</title>
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<username>Eskimbot</username>
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<comment>Robot: Fixing double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Bug report]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Film Techniques</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of film techniques]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Function</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
The word '''function''' may mean:
*In common parlance, a [[role]] of a component in an assembly, or of an element in a systemic aggregate (such as a person within a group).
*In [[mathematics]] and most [[science|scientific]] and [[technology|technical]] fields, an abstract entity that associates every element (input, argument) of a certain set of numbers or other objects to a corresponding element (output, result) in some other set: see '''[[function (mathematics)]]'''.
*In [[computer science]], depending on the context and [[programming language]]:
**A mathematical function, as above.
**Any [[subroutine]] or procedure.
**A [[subroutine]] that returns a value.
**A [[subroutine]] which has no [[side-effect (computer science)|side-effects]]; see '''[[functional programming]]'''.
**A '''[[function object]]''', a concept of [[object-oriented programming]].
*In some scientific or technical contexts, a [[determinism|deterministic]] relation between two quantities or phenomena, e.g. by definition, by design, or by a natural [[causality|cause-and-effect connection]].
*In [[language]] studies, the '''[[grammatical function]]''' of a word or phrase in a sentence.
*In [[sociology]], the focus of '''[[functionalism (sociology)|functionalism]]''': see '''[[social function]]'''.
*In [[philosophy]], a [[norm (philosophy)|normative]] relation of [[object (philosophy)|object]]s to their use or [[causality|consequences]]; see '''[[function (philosophy)]]'''.
*In music, the role ([[tonic (music)|tonic]], [[dominant (music)|dominant]], etc.) of a [[note]] in a [[chord (music)|chord]]: see '''[[diatonic functionality]]'''.
==See also==
* [[Functionary]], someone who carries out a particular role within an organisation; a close synonym for official
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[[zh:函数 (消歧义)]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Federal Republic of Germany</title>
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<timestamp>2005-05-28T20:49:09Z</timestamp>
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<username>Ahoerstemeier</username>
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<comment>rv to redirect - the territorital extend change in 1990, but it is still the same political entity</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Germany]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Flavor</title>
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<username>Daniellanceway</username>
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<comment>added link to flavorist</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about flavor, the [[Sense|sensory]] impression. There is another article on [[Flavour (particle physics)]] for the particle property.''
'''Flavor''' ([[American English|AmE]]) or '''flavour''' ([[Commonwealth English|CwE]]) is the sensory impression of a [[food]] or other [[substance]]. It is determined by the three chemical senses of [[taste]], [[olfaction]] (smell), and the so-called [[Trigeminal nerve|trigeminal senses]], which detect chemical [[Irritation|irritants]] in the [[mouth]] and [[throat]]. The [[taste]] of many foods is often altered with flavorings.
Flavorings can be either [[natural]] or artificial, and they are added to many foods made in a [[factory]]. There are also so-called ''nature-identical'' flavorings, which are the [[chemical compound|chemical]] equivalent of natural flavors, only chemically synthesised rather than being extracted from the original source.
To begin producing artificial flavors, manufacturers must first find out the molecular structure of the compound that produces the desired flavor. To do this, the volatile substance that produces the natural flavor must first be extracted from the source substance. The methods of extraction can involve boiling, leeching, or using force to squeeze it out. This concentrated extract is then passed through a [[Chromatography|chromatog |
were not matters that could be judged as being true or false and that it was thus meaningless to discuss them. Unsurprisingly, this made him unpopular with several other philosophy departments in this country and his name is still reviled by many British professors to this day.
In "The Concept of a Person and Other Essays" (1963), Ayer made several striking criticisms of [[Wittgenstein]]'s private language theory.
Ayer's sense-data theory in ''Foundations of Empirical Knowledge'' was famously criticised by fellow Oxonian [[J. L. Austin]] in ''[[Sense and sensibilia]]'', a landmark 1950's work of common language philosophy. Ayer responded to this in the essay "Has Austin refuted the sense-date theory?", which can be found in his ''Metaphysics and Common Sense'' (1969).
==See also==
*[[a priori]] knowledge
==References==
*Rogers, B. ''A.J. Ayer: A Life'', Grove Press, 1999, ISBN 0802116736 [http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/r/rogers-ayer.html]
==Further reading==
*[[Ted Honderich]], [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctytho/AyerbyTH.html Ayer's Philosophy and its Greatness].
*[[Anthony Quinton]], [http://www.proc.britac.ac.uk/cgi-bin/somsid.cgi?page=94p255&session=090265A&type=header Alfred Jules Ayer]. ''Proceedings of the British Academy'', '''94''' (1996), pp. 255-282.
*Graham Macdonald, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ayer/ Alfred Jules Ayer], ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'', May 7, 2005.
==Publications==
* 1936, [[Language, Truth, and Logic]], London: Gollancz. (2nd. Edition, 1946.)
* 1940, The Foundations of Empirical Knowledge, London: Macmillan.
* 1954, Philosophical Essays, London: Macmillan. (Essays on freedom, phenomenalism, basic propositions, utilitarianism, other minds, the past, ontology.)
* 1957, “The conception of probability as a logical relation”, in S. Korner, ed., Observation and Interpretation in the Philosophy of Physics, New York, N.Y.: Dover Publications.
* 1956, The Problem of Knowledge, London: Macmillan.
* 1963, The Concept of a Person and other Essays, London: Macmillan. (Essays on truth, privacy and private languages, laws of nature, the concept of a person, probability.)
* 1967, “Has Austin Refuted the Sense-Data Theory?” Synthese vol. Xviii, pp. 117-40. (Reprinted in Ayer 1969).
* 1968, The Origins of Pragmatism, London: Macmillan.
* 1969, Metaphysics and Common Sense, London: Macmillan. (Essays on knowledge, man as a subject for science, chance, philosophy and politics, existentialism, metaphysics, and a reply to Austin on sense-data theory.)
* 1971, Russell and Moore: The Analytical Heritage, London: Macmillan.
* 1972a, Probability and Evidence, London: Macmillan.
* 1972b, Bertrand Russell, London: Fontana.
* 1973, The Central Questions of Philosophy, London: Weidenfeld.
* 1979, “Replies”, in G. Macdonald, ed., Perception and Identity, London: Macmillan.
* 1980, Hume, Oxford: Oxford University Press
* 1982, Philosophy in the Twentieth Century, London: Weidenfeld.
* 1984, Freedom and Morality and Other Essays, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
* 1986, Ludwig Wittgenstein, London: Penguin.
* 1977, Part of My Life, London: Collins.
* 1984, More of My Life, London: Collins.
[[Category:1910 births|Ayer, Alfred]]
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<page>
<title>André Weil</title>
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<username>Avraham</username>
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<comment>[[Category:Jewish mathematicians|</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''André Weil''' ([[May 6]], [[1906]] - [[August 6]], [[1998]]) was one of the great [[mathematician]]s of the [[20th century]], whether measured by his research work, its influence on future work, exposition or breadth. He is known for his foundational work in [[number theory]] and [[algebraic geometry]]. He was a founding member, and ''de facto'' the early leader, of the influential [[Bourbaki group]]. The [[philosopher]] [[Simone Weil]] was his sister.
==Life==
Born in [[Paris]] to Alsatian parents who fled the annexation of [[Alsace-Lorraine]] to [[Germany]], he studied in Paris, [[Rome]] and [[Göttingen]] and received his [[Doctor of Philosophy|doctorate]] in [[1928]]. He spent two academic years at [[Aligarh Muslim University]] from 1930. [[Sanskrit literature]] was a life-long interest of his. He had a one-year position in [[Marseilles]], and then spent six years in [[Strasbourg]]. He married Eveline in 1937.
A [[conscientious objector]] by conviction, and a [[Jew]], Weil was in [[Finland]] when [[World War II]] broke out; he had been travelling in Scandinavia since April 1939. Eveline returned to France, but he did not. A famous anecdote was confirmed in his [[autobiography]]: after having been arrested under suspicion of [[espionage]] in Finland, when the USSR attacked on [[30 November]] [[1939]], he was saved from being shot only by the intervention of [[Rolf Nevanlinna]]. He returned to France via Sweden and the United Kingdom, and was detained at [[Le Havre]] in January 1940. He was charged with failure to report for duty, and was imprisoned in Le Havre and then [[Rouen]]. It was there in the military prison in Bonne-Nouvelle, a district of Rouen, from February to May, that he did the work that made his reputation. He was sent to trial on [[May 3]] [[1940]]. Sentenced to five years, he asked to be sent to a military unit instead, and joined a regiment in [[Cherbourg]]. After the [[fall of France]], he met up with his family in Marseilles, where he arrived by sea. He then went to [[Clermont-Ferrand]], where he managed to join Eveline, who had been in the German-occupied region. In January 1941 they left by sea from Marseilles, and sailed to New York.
During the war, Weil went to the United States where he was supported by the [[Rockefeller Foundation]] and [[Guggenheim Foundation]]. He was at the [[Universidade de São Paulo]] for two years from 1945, where he spent much time with [[Oscar Zariski]]. He taught at the [[University of Chicago]] from 1947 to 1958 before settling at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in [[Princeton Township, New Jersey|Princeton]].
==Work==
He made substantial contributions in many areas, the most important being profound connections between [[algebraic geometry]] and [[number theory]]. This began in his doctoral work leading to the [[Mordell-Weil theorem]] (1928, and shortly applied in [[Siegel's theorem on integral points]]). [[Mordell's theorem]] had an ''ad hoc'' proof; Weil began the separation of the [[infinite descent]] argument into two types of structural approach, by means of [[height function]]s for sizing rational points, and by means of [[Galois cohomology]], not to be named as that for two more decades. Both aspects have steadily developed into substantial theories.
Among his major accomplishments were the 1940 proof, while in prison, of the [[Riemann hypothesis]] for [[local zeta-function]]s, and his subsequent laying of proper foundations for algebraic geometry to support that result (from 1942 to 1946, most intensively). By modern standards his claim to have a proof had a very easy ride, but wartime conditions were one factor, and the fact that the German experts made little or no comment another. The so-called [[Weil conjecture]]s were hugely influential from around 1950; they were later proved by [[Bernard Dwork]], [[Alexander Grothendieck]], [[Michael Artin]], and [[Pierre Deligne]], who completed the most difficult step in 1973.
He had introduced the [[adele ring]] in the late 1930s, following [[Claude Chevalley]]'s lead with the [[idele]]s, and given a proof of the [[Riemann-Roch theorem]] with them (a version appeared in his ''Basic Number Theory'' in 1967). His 'matrix divisor' ([[vector bundle]] ''avant le jour'') Riemann-Roch theorem from 1938 was a very early anticipation of later ideas such as moduli spaces of bundles. The [[Weil conjecture on Tamagawa numbers]] proved resistant for many years. Eventually the adelic approach became basic in [[automorphic representation]] theory. He picked up another credited ''Weil conjecture'', around 1970, which later under pressure from [[Serge Lang]] became known as the [[Shimura-Taniyama conjecture]] based on the presentation of the basic ideas at the 1955 Nikko conference. His attitude towards conjectures struck many in the field as oblique; he wrote that one should not dignify a guess as a conjecture lightly, and in the Shimura-Taniyama case the evidence was only there after extensive computational work.
Other significant results were on [[Pontryagin duality]] and [[differential geometry]]. He introduced the concept of [[uniform space]] in [[general topology]]. His work on [[sheaf theory]] hardly appears in his published papers, but correspondence with [[Henri Cartan]] in the late 1940s proved most influential.
His discovery that the so-called [[Weil representation]], previously introduced in [[quantum mechanics]] by [[Irving Segal]] and Shale, gave a proper framework for understanding the classical theory of [[quadratic form]]s, and was also a beginning of a substantial development connecting [[representation theory]] and [[theta-function]]s.
His books, unusually for mathematics, had an important influence on research. (In one major case possibly negative: [[Alexander Grothendieck]] is supposed to have |
me Acres. They ignore the warning and are promptly ran over. Beaver and Bighead laugh at their misfortune before once again joining the [[roadkill]] by the same bus. Beaver and Bighead are voiced by [[Rob Paulsen]] and [[Jeff Glen Bennett]], respectively.
* ''Life With Jon '' Season 2 episode 45 Bill Thompson's character Tim & Luther Reing's character Allen watch an episode of Beavis & Butthead and get in trouble when [[Jon Heder]]'s character Jon finds them watching it.
*In an episode of [[Arthur (TV series)]] there was a shot of two peanuts that looked similar to Beavis & Butthead laughing like them, on a comic book,& on a video game. Another was on the episode "The Contest" where Arthur & Buster act like Beavis & Butthead.
They see Muffy dressed retro style, Buster says "Hey look' it's the fifth Teletubbie."
==Spinoffs==
A spinoff show based on their classmate [[Daria Morgendorffer]], ''[[Daria]]'', was also created. Mike Judge was not credited as a producer of this series and said he was not only not involved with it at all except to give permission for the use of the character, but has never seen more than three minutes of the show. The Daria character had been created for ''Beavis and Butt-Head'' by [[Glenn Eichler]], who became a producer for ''Daria''. In the first episode of ''Daria'', Daria and her family move from Beavis and Butt-Head's hometown of Highland to Lawndale. None of the other characters from ''Beavis and Butt-Head'' ever appear on ''Daria''.
[[King of the Hill]] was created by [[Mike Judge]] and at least owes its start to the success of ''Beavis and Butt-Head''. Lending credence to its status as a spinoff the main character, Hank Hill, sounds just like and looks rather similar to Mr. Anderson. Indeed, the show was preceded by rumors, before ''Beavis and Butt-Head'' stopped airing, which Judge was going to do a spin-off show about Mr. Anderson.
==Video and DVD==
All VHS collections of episodes are out of print. They were compiled into two sets of three multi-episode Time-Life DVD releases called "The Best of Beavis and Butt-Head", which are also no longer available. A set of three DVDs from Time-Life containing the same content as the first 3 VHS editions was released in December 2002. The remaining 3 VHS programs were also released on DVD soon afterwards but were not equally advertised (if at all) and are subsequently rarer.
A two-disc DVD set titled ''The History of Beavis and Butt-Head'' was scheduled for release in September 2002, but was cancelled at the last moment. Many copies were mistakenly put on store shelves on the scheduled release date, only to be immediately recalled. The set started selling on [[eBay]] at very high prices, sometimes over $300 USD. According to creator Mike Judge, the ''History'' set was made up of episodes that Judge had previously rejected for home video release and was prepared without his knowledge or consent. Judge said in an interview, "it was basically all the worst episodes, with some exceptions." Judge owns approval rights for video releases of the series, and the ''History'' DVD set was recalled at his demand.
''On [[November 8th]], 2005, MTV and Paramount Home Video released the three-disc "Beavis and Butt-Head Volume One: The Mike Judge Collection''. The DVD set includes approximately eleven music video segments from the original shows. All prior VHS and DVD releases have lacked these segments except for the VHS release of ''Beavis and Butt-Head Do Christmas'', and the last disc of the second and last Time-Life set, presumably due to the difficulty involved in acquiring [[Music licensing|music rights]] for the videos. This last disc, entitled "Hard Cash", appeared to have made room for four music videos since it contained half the episodes (one VHS worth) of most of the other volumes (typically the combination of content formerly occupying two VHS tapes). Many fans were disappointed by the release because it was heavily edited - scenes like when the duo are "horny" for the [[The Brady Bunch|Brady girls]] are missing. A second Mike Judge Collection is planned for 2006, although an exact date has yet to be announced.''
On [[January 26th]], [[2006]], MTV and [[Apple Computer]] released Beavis and Butt-Head, Vol. 1 on [[iTunes Music Store]].
==Books==
"Beavis and Butt-Head This Book Sucks".<BR>
"Beavis and Butt-Head Ensucklopedia". Published December 1994. <BR>
"Beavis and Butt-Head Huh Huh for Hollywood". Published November 1996. <BR>
"Beavis and Butt-Head The Butt-Files: Beavis and Butt-Head's Guide To Sci-Fi And The Unknown". Published August 1997. <BR>
"Beavis and Butt-Head Chicken Soup for the Butt". Published November 1998. <BR>
"Beavis and Butt-Head Reading Sucks: The Collected Works of Beavis and Butt-Head". Published December 2005. This collection is a bundle of the four books listed above which are no longer in print separately. <BR>
==Social influence==
The show became the focus of criticism from social conservatives, such as [[Michael Medved]], who depicted it as "the epitome of mindless and amoral entertainment," while others, such as [[David Letterman]], and the conservative magazine ''[[National Review]]'', defended it as a cleverly subversive vehicle for social criticism and a particularly creative and intelligent comedy.
[[ESPN Classic]]'s series ''[[Cheap Seats]]'' updated the B&B formula in [[2003]] with a [[sports]] theme, with two misfit characters wisecracking on [[campy]] old sports broadcasts from the vantage point of their battered sofa.
==See also==
* [[List of Beavis and Butt-head episodes]]
* [[List of characters in Beavis and Butt-head]]
* [[List of musicians appearing on Beavis and Butt-head]]
* ''[[King of the Hill (TV series)|King of the Hill]]'', the next animated television series created by Mike Judge.
* ''[[Office Space]]'', a cult film by Judge.
==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0105950|title=Beavis and Butt-Head}}
*{{imdb title|id=0115641|title=Beavis and Butt-Head Do America}}
* [http://www.episodeworld.com/show/Beavis_and_Butt-head Beavis & Butt-head] at [[EPisodeWorld.com]]
*''[http://www.bcdb.com/cartoons/Other_Studios/M/MTV_Productions/Beavis_and_Butt-head/index.html Beavis and Butt-head]'' at the [[Big Cartoon DataBase]]
*[http://avclub.com/content/node/23060 Onion A.V. Club] interview with Mike Judge in which the ''History of Beavis and Butt-Head'' DVD recall is discussed
*[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/B000B5XOWU/superstorelin-20?creative=327641&camp=14573&link_code=as1/ Beavis & Butt-Head, Vol. 1]
*[http://www.the-underdogs.org/game.php?id=1404 Beavis and Butt-head in Virtual Stupidity] at home of the underdogs
*[http://hotextra.com/ Beavis and Butt-head Central]
*[http://www.val-axs.net/ Beavis and Butt-head Do Web]
==Videos==
*[http://www.youtube.com/w/Beavis-and-Butthead---Pregnant-Pause?v=Xc1qaHAwMC4& "Pregnant Pause"], Beavis belives he's pregnant (episode #118, June 8, 1995)
*[http://www.youtube.com/w/Beavis-and-Butthead---Rabies-Scare?v=APmKCpfxuQI& "Rabies Scare"], Beavis gets attacked by a dog (episode #61, March 18, 1994)
*[http://www.youtube.com/w/Beavis-and-Butt-head---Oil-Change?v=8MaH6Y--Uho& "Oil Change"], Beavis and Butt-head change the deep fryer oil at Burger World with crude oil (episode #123, July 12, 1995)
*[http://www.youtube.com/w/Beavis-%26-Butthead---1-900-BEAVIS?v=lUZhwinbYBk& "1-900-BEAVIS"], Beavis and Butt-head get their own 900 number after they call a phone sex number (episode #66, April 4, 1994)
*[http://www.youtube.com/w/Beavis-and-Butthead---Spare-Me?v=l9tFX0DDCJw& "Spare Me"], Beavis and Butt-head change a flat tire (episode #132, September 12, 1995)
[[Category:Television spin-offs]]
[[Category:Fictional pairs]]
[[Category:MTV television series]]
[[Category:Comedy television series]]
[[Category:Animated television series]]
[[Category:1990s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:Duos]]
[[de:Beavis and Butt-Head]]
[[es:Beavis and Butthead]]
[[fr:Beavis et Butt-Head]]
[[he:?????? ??????]]
[[sv:Beavis och Butt-head]]
[[zh:??????]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bromeliales</title>
<id>3428</id>
<revision>
<id>41149628</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T10:10:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vuong Ngan Ha</username>
<id>225920</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Bromeliales''''' is the [[botanical name]] of an [[Order (biology)|order]] of [[flowering plants]]. In [[list of systems of plant taxonomy|traditional systems]], such as the [[Engler system]] and the [[Cronquist system]] it consists only of the family ''[[Bromeliaceae]]'', the bromeliad or [[pineapple]] family. The [[Thorne system]] includes ''[[Rapateaceae]]'', accepting it as an order of two families.
The order is not recognized in the [[APG II system]], which assigns both these families to order ''[[Poales]]''.
:''Reference'' :
:: {{cite journal|author = Gilmartin, A. J., and G. K. Brown| year = 1987| title = Bromeliales, related monocots, and resolution of relationships among Bromeliaceae subfamilies| journal = Syst. Bot.|volume = 12|pages = 493-500}}
[[Category: plant taxonomy]]
[[es:Bromeliales]]
[[fr:Bromeliales]]
[[pl:Bromeliowce]]
[[vi:Bộ Dứa]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Brassicales</title>
<id>3429</id>
<revision>
<id>37288407</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T01:01:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = |
as [[crystallite]] &mdash; related to the obsolete term "corn" as in [[corned beef]].
* In '''[[photography]]''', the fineness of [[image resolution]] for [[photographic film]] (i.e., ''graininess'' of a picture), originally related to the (crystallographic) grain size of [[silver iodide]].
===Others===
* In '''[[wood]]''', grain describes the alignment and texture of the wood fibres. This is often important in its effect on [[woodworking]] techniques (e.g. ''[[plane (tool)|going against the grain]]'').
* In '''[[golf]]''', the direction in which individual blades of [[grass]] lie, usually in reference to a [[putting green]].
* In '''[[textile]]s''', grain refers to the direction of woven fabric's [[warp]] (lengthwise) and [[weft]] (crosswise) threads.
* In '''[[rocket science]]''', grain refers to the solid propellant of a [[rocket]] (either [[solid rocket|solid fuelled]] or [[hybrid rocket|hybrid]]), more or less a hollow cylinder, sometimes textured inside, and possibly very large.
* In '''[[computer science]]''', grain refers to the size of code executed by a thread or process before it is interrupted in a multiprocess system (its [[granularity]]). Thus we have fine-grained and coarse grained parallelism.
* In '''[[physics]]''', a [[fine-grained]] description is one which contains a lot of small-scale detail. Reducing the amount of detail gives a [[coarse-grained]] description.
* Grain may refer to the place '''[[Isle of Grain]]''' in [[Kent]], [[England]], on which lies the village of [[Grain, Kent]].
* Grain is one of the stocks in the game [[Stock Ticker]].
* In [[music]], see [[granular synthesis]].
{{disambig}}
[[Category:Grains]]
[[es:Grano (unidad de masa)]]
[[io:Grano]]
[[pt:Grão]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grass (disambiguation)</title>
<id>12435</id>
<revision>
<id>34238382</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-07T13:42:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.230.49.121</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">*In popular language '''[[grass]]''' means a short, green, ground covering or [[lawn]], usually, but not necessarily made of a "true grass" or grasses. ''See also'' [[pasture]], [[grassland]].
*In [[botany]], '''grass''' refers to [[plants]] of the Family [[Poaceae]]. These are the ''true grasses''.
* [[Günter Grass]] is a [[Nobel Prize]]-winning [[Germany|German]] author.
* [[Cut Grass]] was an army commander in the [[Red Alert]] game universe.
* [[Angelika Grass]] was a Nazi concentration camp overseer.
* '''Grass''' is [[slang]] for [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] (marijuana) or for a [[Informant|criminal who informs]] on his accomplices.
* '''''Grass''''' is the name of a [[1989]] [[science fiction]] novel by [[Sheri S. Tepper|Sheri Tepper]].
* '''''Grass''''' is the name of a [[2003]] television series featuring [[Simon Day]].
* '''''[[Grass (film)|Grass]]''''' is a movie title from 1925
* '''[[GRASS programming language|GRASS]]''' for "GRAphics Symbiosis System" is a computer programming language
* '''[[GRASS GIS]]''' (Geographic Resources Analysis Support System) is an [[Open source]] [[geographic information system]].
* '''[[GRAS]]''' (Generally Recognized as Safe) is an [[FDA]] designation that a chemical or substance added to food is considered safe
{{disambig}}
[[cs:Tráva]]
[[de:Gras]]
[[eo:Herbo]]
[[fr:Gazon]]
[[sv:Gräs]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Grape</title>
<id>12436</id>
<revision>
<id>41968035</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:08:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Me12|Me12]] ([[User talk:Me12|talk]]) to last version by 71.116.25.29</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|September 2005}}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Grape
| image = Close up grapes.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Wine Grapes
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Vitales]]
| familia = [[Vitaceae]]
| genus = '''''Vitis'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''[[Vitis acerifolia]]''<br />
''[[Vitis aestivalis]]''<br />
''[[Vitis amurensis]]''<br />
''[[Vitis arizonica]]''<br />
''[[Vitis x bourquina]]''<br />
''[[Vitis californica]]''<br />
''[[Vitis x champinii]]''<br />
''[[Vitis cinerea]]''<br />
''[[Vitis x doaniana]]''<br />
''[[Vitis girdiana]]''<br />
''[[Vitis labrusca]]''<br />
''[[Vitis x labruscana]]''<br />
''[[Vitis monticola]]''<br />
''[[Vitis mustangensis]]''<br />
''[[Vitis x novae-angliae]]''<br />
''[[Vitis palmata]]''<br />
''[[Vitis riparia]]''<br />
''[[Vitis rotundifolia]]''<br />
''[[Vitis rupestris]]''<br />
''[[Vitis shuttleworthii]]''<br />
''[[Vitis tiliifolia]]''<br />
''[[Vitis vinifera]]''<br />
''[[Vitis vulpina]]''
}}
{{wiktionarypar|grape}}
'''Grapes''' are the [[fruit]] that grow on a woody grape [[vine]]. The grapevine belongs to the family [[Vitaceae]]. Grapes grow in clusters of 6 to 300, and can be black, blue, golden, green, purple-red and white. They can be eaten raw or used for making [[grape juice]], [[jelly]], [[wine]], and [[grape seed oil]]. [[Raisin]]s are the dried fruit of the grapevine, and the name actually comes from the French word for "grape". Wild grapevines are often considered a nuisance weed, as they cover other plants with their usually rather aggressive growth.
== Trivia ==
When heated in a microwave oven, grapes create sparks and, potentally, plasma known as [[ball lightning]].
== Grapevines ==
Grapevines are used as food plants by the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera]] species - see [[list of Lepidoptera which feed on grapevines]]''.
Many species of grapevines exist and these include:
*''[[Vitis vinifera]]'', the European [[how to make wine|winemaking]] grapevine. Native to virtually all of mainland Europe.
*''[[Vitis labrusca]]'', the North American table and grape juice grapevines, sometimes used for wine. Native to [[Canada]] and the [[Eastern U.S.]]
*''[[Vitis riparia]]'', a wild vine of [[North America]], sometimes used for winemaking and for jam. Native to the entire [[Eastern U.S.]] north to [[Quebec]].
*''[[Vitis rotundifolia]]'', the [[muscadine]]s, used for jams and wine. Native to the [[Southeastern U.S.]] from [[Delaware]] to the [[Gulf of Mexico]].
*''[[Vitis aestivalis]]'', the variety Norton (AKA Cynthiana) is used for winemaking
*''[[Vitis lincecumii]]'' (also called ''Vitis aestivalis'' or ''Vitis lincecumii''), ''[[Vitis berlandieri]]'' (also called ''Vitis cinerea'' var. helleri), ''[[Vitis cinerea]]'', ''[[Vitis rupestris]]'' are used for making hybrid grapevines and for pest-resistant [[rootstock]]s.
**''[[Vitis arizonica]]'' A desert grapevine found in the southwestern US that is hardy against extremes of temperature. Can be used for wines.
*''[[Vitis californica]]'' A grapevine important to the California wine industry for its rootstock which is able to withstand pests and cooler weather. Native to [[California]] and [[Oregon]].
*''[[Vitis vulpina]]'' Frost Grape. Native to the [[Midwest]] east to the coast up through [[New York]].
There are many [[List of grape varieties|varieties]] of grapevines; most are cultivars of ''V. vinifera''.
[[Hybrid]]s also exist, and these are primarily crosses between ''[[Vitis vinifera|V. vinifera]]'' and one or more varieties of ''[[Vitis labrusca|V. labrusca]]'', ''[[Vitis riparia|V. riparia]]'' or ''[[Vitis aestivalis|V. aestivalis]]''. Hybrids tend to be less susceptible to frost and disease (notably [[phylloxera]]), but wine from some hybrids may have a little of the characteristic "foxy" odor of ''[[Vitis labrusca|labrusca]]''.
The [[sea grape]] ''[[Coccoloba uvifera]]'' is actually a member of the Buckwheat family ''[[Polygonaceae]]'' and is native to the lands of the [[Caribbean Sea]].
According to the "Food and Agriculture Organization"(FAO), 75866 square kilometres of the world is dedicated to grapes. Approximately 71% of world grape production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit and 2% as dried fruit. A portion of grape production goes to producing grape juice to be used as a sweetener for fruits canned "with no added sugar" and "100% natural". The area dedicated to vineyards is increasing by about 2% per year.
The following list of top wine-producers shows the corresponding areas dedicated to grapes for wine making:
*Spain 11,750 km²
*France 8,640 km²
*Italy 8,270 km²
*Turkey 8,120 km²
*United States 4,150 km²
*Iran 2,860 km²
*Romania 2,480 km²
*Portugal 2,160 km²
*Argentina 2,080 km²
*China 1,780 km²
Sources: FAO, [http://news.reseau-concept.net/images/oiv_uk/Client/Stat_2002_def2_EN.pdf Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin (pdf)].
Researchers,such as Marty Mayo, comparing diets in western countries have discovered that although the French tend to eat higher levels of animal fat, surprisingly the incidence of [[heart disease]] remains low in France. They named this phenomenon the [[French Paradox]]. Many scientists now believe the reason is the greater consumption of red wine in France. Something in the grape helps to lower cholesterol levels in the body and thus slows the build up of deposits in the arteries. Compounds such as [[resveratrol]] (a member of the polyphenol family) have been discovered in grapes and these have been positively linked to fighting cancer, [[heart disease]], degenerative [[nerve]] disease and other ailments. Doctors do not recomend excessive consumption of red wine, but three or four glasses a week is beneficial and encouraged.
Although many people incorrectly assume that red |
tact with mail fighting the Gauls in norther Italy, then known as Gallia Cisalpina (literally Gaul this side of the Alps). The Roman army adopted the technology for their troops in the form of the [[lorica hamata]] which was used as a primary form of armour, through the Imperial period where it was used alongside the [[lorica segmentata]].
The use of mail was prominent throughout the [[Middle Ages|High Middle Ages]], and reached its apex in the [[13th century]], when full body suits of mail armour were developed.
In the [[14th century]], [[plate armour]] began to supplement mail. It could still be seen after this point being worn by those who could not afford plate, however, and it was also common to wear a shirt of mail beneath plate armour to protect the [[joint]]s and the [[groin]].
There is quite a bit of extant mail around, but it is something that museums do not often display in any appreciable quantity.
==Etymology==
The word ''chainmail'' is a [[pleonasm]] and a [[neologism]]: in the [[Middle Ages]] and [[Renaissance]], "mail", "mayle" or ''chain'' was the [[English language|English]] name for it, while ''maille'' was the common [[French language|French]] name for it. This&mdash;and the alternative spellings "maile" and "maille"&mdash;derive through the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''maglia'', from the [[Latin]] ''macula'', meaning "net".
==Manufacture==
Several patterns of linking the rings together have been known since ancient times, with the most common being the 1-to-4 pattern (where each ring is linked with four others). In [[Europe]], the 1-to-4 pattern was completely dominant. In [[East Asia]] (primarily [[Japan]]), mail was also common, but here several more patterns were utilized and an entire nomenclature developed around them.
Historically, in Europe, from the pre-Roman period on, the rings composing a piece of mail would be riveted shut, to reduce the chance of the rings splitting open when subjected to a thrusting attack or a hit by an arrow. Up until the 14th century mail was made of alternating rows of both riveted rings and solid rings. Both would have been made using wrought iron. The solid links would have been made by punching from a sheet. Forge welding was also used to create solid links, but the only know example from Europe is that of the 7th century Coppergate mail drape. Outside of Europe this practice was more common such as the well known "theta" links from India.
In modern re-enactment (such as that of the [[Society for Creative Anachronism]]) and [[live action role-playing game]]s (LARPs), suits of mail and mail jewelry are hand-made from rings of wire. They may or may not be welded or soldered but are rarely riveted. They may also be made of split sprung steel washers. Usually two pairs of pliers are used to bend the washers open and closed while "knitting" the mail. The resulting mail is usually heavier than traditional wire-wound mail, but very durable. When not used for combat, aluminum is sometimes used to reduce the garment's weight by as much two thirds, with a proportional decrease in strength.
==Modern uses==
[[Image:Woman wearing chainmail.jpg|right|thumb|]] During [[World War I]], mail was evaluated as a material for [[bullet proof vest]]s, but results were unsatisfactory as the rings would fragment and further aggravate the damage. A mail fringe, designed by [[Captain Cruise]] of the British Infantry, was added to helmets to protect the face but this proved unpopular with soldiers, in spite of being proven to defend against a three-ounce [[shrapnel]] round fired at a distance of one hundred yards (92.3m).
Today, there are machines which knit metal wires to produce protective mail, usually with rings welded together, for use in protective clothing for butchers (against meat-packing equipment) and scuba divers (against shark teeth). There is also [http://www.mailleartisans.org/articles/articledisplay.cgi?key=9612 anecdotal evidence] to suggest that mail is superior to heavy leather for protecting motorcyclists from injury should they be thrown from their motorcycles.
The [[British police]] use mail gloves for dealing with knife-armed aggressors.
Mail also has applications in sculpture and jewelry, especially when made out of precious metals or colorful [[anodising|anodized]] metals. Recent trends in mail artwork include headdresses, Christmas ornaments, chess sets, and all manner of jewelry. For these non-traditional applications, hundreds of new weaves or patterns have been invented.
Mail suits are also used as protection from high voltages - they form a [[faraday cage]] around the wearer.
==In film==
In many [[film]]s, knitted cloth spray-painted with a metallic paint is used instead of actual chainmail to cut down on cost. Films more dedicated to [[costume]] accuracy often use [[Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene|ABS plastic]] rings, for the lower cost and weight. Thousands of such ABS mail coats were made for the film of ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''. In ''[[Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome]]'', [[Tina Turner]] wore a real metal mail shirt that weighed over 40 pounds (18 kg).
==External links==
*[http://www.armatura.connectfree.co.uk/arma/mail.htm Excavated lorica hamata]
*[http://www.wallacecollection.org/i_s/publications/mail_construction.htm The Construction and Metallurgy of Mail Armour in the Wallace Collection] by David Edge
* [http://www.armourresearchsociety.org/ Armour Research Society]
* [http://mailleartisans.org/ The Maille Artisans International League (MAIL)]
* http://artofchainmail.com/history.html
*Construction tips
** [http://realbeer.com/jjpalmer/HowtoChain.html The Apprentice Armorer's Illustrated Handbook For Making Mail]
** [http://www.chainmailstore.com/cgi-bin/forum/ultimatebb.cgi The Ring Lord Chainmail Discussion Forum]
** [http://derakon.chainmailstore.com/inst.html Derakon's Chainmaille Instructions]
[[Category:Personal armor]]
[[Category:Viking Age]]
[[de:Kettenrüstung]]
[[es:Cota de malla]]
[[fi:Rengashaarniska]]
[[fr:Cotte de mailles]]
[[he:שריון שרשראות]]
[[nl:Maliënkolder]]
[[no:Ringbrynje]]
[[pl:Kolczuga]]
[[ru:Кольчуга]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cerberus</title>
<id>6697</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42091540</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:47:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Boredzo</username>
<id>109221</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Theories of origin */ Rewording first paragraph slightly, to fix grammar.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the [[Mythology|myth]]ical three-headed guard dog. For other uses, see [[Cerberus (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Cerberus-Blake.jpeg|right|thumbnail|250px|Cerberus - Watercolor by [[William Blake]]]]
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Cerberus''' or '''Cerberos''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] &#922;&#8051;&#961;&#946;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#962;, ''Kerberos'', ''[[demon]] of the pit''), was the [[hound]] of [[Hades]]&mdash;a monstrous [[Multi-headed animal|three-headed]] [[dog]] (sometimes said to have 50 or 100 heads) with a [[snake]] for a [[tail]] and innumerable snake heads on his [[back]].
He guarded the gate to Hades (the Greek underworld) and ensured that the dead could not leave and the living could not enter. His brother was [[Orthrus]]. He is the offspring of [[Echidna (mythology)|Echidna]] and [[Typhon]].
He was overcome several times:
*[[Heracles]]' final labour was to capture Cerberus, which he did by treating it with the first kindness it had ever received.
*[[Orpheus]] used his musical skills to lull Cerberus to sleep.
*[[Hermes]] puts him to sleep with water from the river [[Lethe]].
*In [[Roman mythology]], [[Aeneas]] lulled Cerberus to sleep with drugged honeycakes.
*In a later Roman tale, [[Psyche]] also lulled Cerberus to sleep with drugged honeycakes.
He can be found also in [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]'s [[Divine Comedy]], in Canto VI of ''Inferno'' (third circle).
{{Greek myth (Hades)}}
== Heracles' capturing of Cerberus ==
[[Heracles]]' final labour was to capture Cerberus. After having been set the task, Heracles went to [[Eleusis]] to be initiated into the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] so that he could learn how to enter and exit the underworld alive, and in passing absolve himself for killing [[centaur]]s. He found the entrance to the underworld at [[Tanaerum]], and [[Athena]] and [[Hermes]] helped him to traverse the entrance in each direction. He passed [[Charon (mythology)|Charon]] thanks to Hermes' insistence, and his own heavy and fierce frowning.
Whilst in the underworld, Heracles freed [[Theseus]] but the earth shook when he attempted to liberate [[Pirithous]], so he had to leave him behind. They had been imprisoned by Hades, by magic binding them to a bench, because they had attempted to kidnap [[Persephone]]. The magic was so strong that when Heracles pulled Theseus free, part of Theseus' thighs remained on the bench, explaining why his descendants had notably lean thighs.
In some versions, Heracles merely asks [[Hades]] for permission to take Cerberus, to which Hades agrees as long as Heracles does not harm the hound, though in other versions Heracles shot Hades with an arrow. In some versions, Heracles drags the dog out of Hades, passing through the cavern [[Acherusia]], but in other versions, Heracles treats the vicious dog with the first kindness it has seen, and easily walks out with it.
== Theories of origin ==
The constellation of [[Pisces]] was not always associated with two fish. The original sky fish was [[Piscis Austrinus]]. It was considered also to be two people, tied together; in some stories they became fish, and so they evolved into just being fish (without having ever been people). They are above the ecliptic (the sun's transit), but they are tied together under the e |
/>
<comment>wfy</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Amalric''' (French '''Amaury''') '''of Bena''' (d.c. [[1204]]-[[1207]]) was a [[France|French]] [[theology|theologian]]. He was born in the latter part of the [[12th century]] at Bena, a village in the diocese of [[Chartres]].
He taught philosophy and theology at the university of Paris and enjoyed
a great reputation as a subtle [[dialectic]]ian; his lectures developing the [[philosophy of Aristotle]] attracted a large circle of hearers.
In [[1204]] his doctrines were condemned by the university, and, on a personal appeal to [[Pope Innocent III]], the sentence was ratified, Amalric being ordered to return to Paris and recant his errors.
His death was caused, it is said, by grief at the humiliation to which he had been subjected.
In [[1209]] ten of his followers were burnt before the gates of Paris, and Amalric's own body was exhumed and burnt and the ashes given to the winds.
The doctrines of his followers, known as the [[Amalrician]]s, were formally condemned by the [[Fourth Council of the Lateran|fourth Lateran Council]] in 1215.
==Propositions==
Amalric appears to have derived his philosophical system from [[Johannes Scotus Erigena|Erigena]], whose principles he developed in a one-sided and strongly [[pantheist]]ic form.
Three propositions only can with certainty be attributed to him:
#that God is all;
#that every Christian is bound to believe that he is a member of the body of Christ, and that this belief is necessary for salvation;
#that he who remains in love of God can commit no sin.
These three propositions were further developed by his followers, who maintained that God revealed Himself in a threefold revelation, the first in Abraham, marking the epoch of the Father; the second in Christ, who began the epoch of the Son; and the third in Amalric and his disciples, who inaugurated the era of the [[Holy Ghost]].
Under the pretext that a true believer could commit no sin, the Amalricians indulged in every excess, and the sect does not appear to have long survived the death of its founder.
See [[W. Preger]], ''Geschichte der deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter'' (Leipzig, 1874, i. 167-173); [[Haureau]], ''Hist. de la phil. scol.'' (Paris, 1872); [[C. Schmidt]], ''Hist. de l'Eglise d'Occident itendant le moyen age'' (Paris, 1885); [[Hefele]], ''Conciliengesch.'' (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1886).
==See also==
*[[Brethren of the Free Spirit]]
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Heretics]]
[[Category:Pantheism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Afonso I of Portugal</title>
<id>1657</id>
<revision>
<id>42026529</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:13:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.55.255.157</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"><table border=1 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style=margin-left:1em>
<caption><font size="+1">'''Afonso I''' </font></caption>
<tr valign=top><td style=background:#efefef; colspan=2 align=center>[[Image:AfonsoI-P.jpg]]
<tr valign=top><td>'''Reign'''<td>[[July 26]], [[1139]] - [[December 6]], [[1185]]
<tr valign=top><td>'''Queen'''<td>[[Maud of Savoy]] ([[1125]]-[[1157]])
<tr valign=top><td>'''Royal House'''<td>[[House of Burgundy]]
<tr valign=top><td>'''Father'''<td>[[Henry, Count of Portugal]] ([[1066]]-[[1093]])
<tr valign=top><td>'''Mother'''<td>[[Teresa of Leon]] ([[1080]]-[[1130]])
<tr valign=top><td>'''Issue'''<td>[[Urraca of Portugal]] ([[1151]]-[[1188]])<br>[[Sancho I of Portugal]] ([[1154]]-[[1212]])<br>[[Teresa of Portugal (1157-1218)|Teresa of Portugal]] ([[1157]]-[[1218]])<br>[[Mafalda of Portugal (1148-1160)|Mafalda of Portugal]] (d. young)<br>Henrique (d. young)<br>João (d. young)<br>Sancha (d. young)<br>[[Urraca Afonso of Aveiro|Urraca Afonso]] (natural daughter)<br>[[Fernando Afonso, Constable of Portugal|Fernando Afonso]] (natural son)<br>[[Pedro Afonso, Grand-Master of the Order of Aviz|Pedro Afonso]] (natural son)<br>[[Afonso of Portugal, Master of the Order of Saint John of Rhodes|Afonso of Portugal]] (natural son)<br>[[Teresa Afonso]] (natural daughter)<tr valign=top><td>'''Date of Birth'''<td>[[July 25]], [[1109]]
<tr valign=top><td>'''Place of Birth'''<td>[[Guimarães]]
<tr valign=top><td>'''Date of Death'''<td>[[December 6]], [[1185]]
<tr valign=top><td>'''Place of Death'''<td>[[Coimbra]]</td></tr>
<tr valign=top><td>'''Place of Burial'''<td>[[Santa Cruz Monastery]] (Coimbra)
</table>
'''Afonso I of Portugal''' ([[English language|English]] ''Alphonzo'' or ''Alphonse''), more commonly known as '''Afonso Henriques''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su e&#771;.'ʁi.kɨʃ}}/), or also ''Affonso'' (Archaic Portuguese), ''Alfonso'' or ''Alphonso'' ([[Portuguese-Galician languages|Portuguese-Galician]]) or ''Alphonsus'' ([[Latin language|Latin]] version), ([[Guimarães]], [[1109]]?, traditionally [[July 25]] &ndash; [[Coimbra]], [[1185]], [[December 6]]), also known as ''the Conqueror'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Conquistador''), was the first [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]], declaring his independence from [[Kingdom of León|León]].
==Life==
Afonso I was the son of [[Henry, Count of Portugal|Henry of Burgundy, Count of Portugal]] and [[Teresa of León]], the illegitimate daughter of King [[Alfonso VI of Castile|Alfonso VI of Castile and León]]. He was proclaimed King on [[July 26]] [[1139]], immediately after the [[Battle of Ourique]], and died on [[December 6]] [[1185]] in [[Coimbra]].
At the end of the [[11th century]], the [[Iberian Peninsula]] [[Politics|political]] agenda was mostly concerned with the ''[[Reconquista]]'', the driving out of the [[Muslim]] successor-states to the [[Caliph]]ate of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] after its collapse. With European [[military]] [[Aristocracy|aristocracies]] focused on the [[Crusades]], Alfonso VI called for the help of the [[France|French]] [[nobility]] to deal with the [[Moors]]. In exchange, he was to give the hands of his daughters in wedlock to the leaders of the expedition and bestow royal privileges to the others. Thus, the royal heiress [[Urraca of Castile]] wedded [[Raymond of Burgundy]], younger son of the [[County of Burgundy|Count of Burgundy]], and her half-sister, princess [[Teresa of León]], wedded his cousin, another French crusader, [[Henry of Burgundy]], younger brother of the [[Duchy of Burgundy|Duke of Burgundy]], whose mother was daughter of the [[Count of Barcelona]]. Henry was made Count of Portugal, a burdensome [[earldom]] south of [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], where Moorish incursions and attacks were to be expected. With his wife Teresa as co-ruler of Portugal, Henry withstood the ordeal and held the lands for his father-in-law.
From this wedlock several sons were born, but only one, '''Afonso Henriques''' (meaning "Afonso son of Henry") thrived. The boy followed his father as '''Count of Portugal''' in [[1112]], under the tutelage of his mother. The relations between Teresa and her son Afonso proved difficult. Only eleven years old, Afonso already had his own political ideas, greatly different from his mother's. In [[1120]], the young [[prince]] took the side of the [[archbishop]] of [[Braga]], a political foe of Teresa, and both were exiled by her orders. Afonso spent the next years away from his own [[county]], under the watch of the bishop. In [[1122]] Afonso became fourteen, the adult age in the [[12th century]]. He made himself a [[knight]] on his own account in the [[Cathedral]] of [[Zamora]], raised an [[army]], and proceeded to take control of his lands. Near [[Guimarães]], at the [[Battle of São Mamede]] ([[1128]]) he overcame the troops under his mother's lover and ally Count [[Fernando Peres de Trava]] of [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], making her his [[prison]]er and exiling her forever to a [[monastery]] in [[León, León|León]]. Thus the possibility of incorporating Portugal into a Kingdom of Galicia was eliminated and Afonso become sole ruler ('''Dux of Portugal''') after demands for independence from the county's people, church and nobles. He also vanquished [[Alfonso VII of Castile|Alfonso VII of Castile and León]], another of his mother's allies, and thus freed the county from political dependence on the crown of [[Kingdom of León|León]] and [[Castile]]. On [[April 6]], [[1129]], Afonso Henriques dictated the writ in which he proclaimed himself '''Prince of Portugal'''.
{{House of Burgundy}}
Afonso then turned his arms against the everlasting problem of the [[Moors]] in the south. His campaigns were successful and, on [[July 26]] [[1139]], he obtained an overwhelming victory in the [[Battle of Ourique]], and straight after was unanimously proclaimed '''King of Portugal''' by his [[soldier]]s. This meant that Portugal was no longer a vassal county of León-Castile, but an independent kingdom in its own right. Next, he assembled the first assembly of the estates-general at [[Lamego]], where he was given the [[Crown (headgear)|crown]] from the archbishop of [[Braga]], to confirm the independence.
Independence, however, was not a thing a land could choose on its own. Portugal still had to be acknowledged by the neighbouring lands and, most importantly, by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Pope]]. Afonso wedded [[Maud of Savoy|Mafalda of Savoy]], daughter of Count [[Amadeo III of Savoy]], and sent [[Ambassador|ambassador]]s to [[Rome]] to negotiate with the [[Pope]]. In Portugal, he built several monasteries and [[convent]]s and bestowed important privileges to [[religious order]]s. In [[1143]], he wrote to [[Pop |
e European Union]] of [[1 May]] [[2004]], the term ''Central Europe'' is sometimes incorrectly used in a way that means "the new members of EU"&mdash; from [[Estonia]] to [[Malta]]&mdash; perhaps in particular by writers who want to avoid the term coined by [[Donald Rumsfeld]], ''[[New Europe]]'', which may be perceived to carry too much American ignorance of European matters. [[Malta]] and [[Cyprus]], as well as [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]], are sometimes now also included, but as these new members of the EU are clearly more differentiated from most of the western EU members economically it is arguably an inaccurate construction in its own right. It can be also questioned what there is that unites the nations of a region so constructed apart from a less advanced economy. A usage that closer adheres to the common cultural traits, and also the shared experience of post-war [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] rule, may be less prone to cause confusion.
== Remnants of the Holy Roman Empire ==
The [[German language|German]] term ''[[Mitteleuropa]]'' (or alternatively its literal translation into English, ''Middle Europe'') is sometimes used in English to refer to an area somewhat larger than most conceptions of 'Central Europe'; it refers to territories under German(ic) cultural hegemony until [[World War I]] (encompassing Austria and Germany in their [[interbellum]] formations but usually excluding the [[Baltic countries]] north of [[East Prussia]]).
{{Region}}
[[Category:Central Europe| ]]
[[ar:أوروبا الوسطى]]
[[bg:Централна Европа]]
[[cs:Střední Evropa]]
[[da:Centraleuropa]]
[[de:Mitteleuropa]]
[[eo:Mez-Eŭropo]]
[[fr:Europe centrale]]
[[ko:중앙유럽]]
[[hr:Srednja Europa]]
[[is:Mið-Evrópa]]
[[ka:ცენტრალური ევროპა]]
[[hu:Közép-Európa]]
[[nl:Centraal-Europa]]
[[ja:中央ヨーロッパ]]
[[pl:Europa Środkowa]]
[[pt:Europa central]]
[[ro:Europa Centrală]]
[[ru:Центральная Европа]]
[[scn:Europa cintrali]]
[[sl:Srednja Evropa]]
[[sv:Centraleuropa]]
[[zh:中欧]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Canada/self-image</title>
<id>5190</id>
<revision>
<id>15903417</id>
<timestamp>2004-03-05T02:22:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RedWolf</username>
<id>27822</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>-> Canadian identity</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Canadian identity]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Canada/History</title>
<id>5191</id>
<revision>
<id>15903418</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-19T11:29:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[History of Canada]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[History of Canada]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Canada</title>
<id>5192</id>
<revision>
<id>41874156</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T07:35:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>E Pluribus Anthony</username>
<id>266462</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv: this makes it unclear: in total area ... Russia, Canada, US, China; in land area: Russia, China, US, Canada</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big><big>'''Canada'''</big></big>
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" |
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
|-
| align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Map_Canada_political+geo.jpg|300px|center|Map Of Canada]]
|}
|-
| '''[[Continent]]''' || [[North America]]
|-
| '''[[Geographic coordinates]]''' || {{coor dm|60|00|N|95|00|W|type:country}}
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''<br>&nbsp;- Total <br>&nbsp;- Water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 2nd]]<br>[[1 E12 m²|9,984,670 km²]]<br> 891,163 km² (8.92%)
|-
| '''Coastline''' || 202,080 km (125,567&nbsp;[[mile|mi]])
|-
| '''Highest point''' || [[Mount Logan]], 5,959 m&nbsp;/&nbsp;19,550 ft
|-
| '''Lowest point''' || [[Atlantic Ocean]], 0 m
|-
| '''Longest river''' || [[Mackenzie River]], 4,241 km (2,635&nbsp;[[mile|mi]])
|-
| '''Largest inland body of water''' || [[Great Bear Lake]] 31,153 km² (12,021&nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]])
|-
| '''Land Use'''<br>&nbsp;- Arable land<br>&nbsp;- Permanent<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;crops<br>&nbsp;- Permanent<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;pastures<br>&nbsp;- Forests and<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;woodlands<br>&nbsp;- Other ||<br>5 %<br><br>0 %<br><br>3 %<br><br>54 %<br>38 % (1993 est.)
|-
| '''[[Climate]]''': || [[Temperate]] to [[arctic]]
|-
| '''Natural resources''' || [[iron]] ore, [[nickel]], [[zinc]], [[copper]], [[gold]], [[lead]], [[molybdenum]], [[potash]], [[silver]], fish, timber, wildlife, [[coal]], [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[hydropower]]
|-
| '''Environmental issues''' || [[air pollution|air]] and [[water pollution]], [[acid rains]]
|}
The '''[[geography]] of [[Canada]]''' is vast and diverse. Occupying most of the northern portion (precisely 41%) of the [[continent]] of [[North America]], Canada is the [[list of countries by area|world's second largest country]] in total area after [[Russia]].
Canada spans an immense territory between the [[Pacific Ocean]] to the west and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the east (hence the [[List of state mottos|country's motto]]), with the [[United States]] to the south ([[contiguous United States]]) and northwest ([[Alaska]]), and the [[Arctic Ocean]] to the north; [[Greenland]] is to the northeast. Off the southern coast of [[Newfoundland]] lies [[Saint-Pierre and Miquelon]], an [[Collectivité d'outre-mer| overseas community]] of [[France]]. Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the [[Arctic]] between 60°W and 141°W [[longitude]] to the [[North Pole]]; however, [http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/maps/historical/territorialevolution/1927/1 this claim] is not universally recognized.
Covering [[1 E12 m²|9,984,670]] [[square kilometre|km²]] or 3,855,103 [[square mile]]s (Land:&nbsp;9,093,507&nbsp;km² or 3,511,023&nbsp;mi²; Water: [[1 E11 m²|891,163 km²]]&nbsp;or&nbsp;344,080&nbsp;mi²), Canada is slightly less than three-fifths as large as Russia, less than 1.3 times larger than [[Australia]] though slightly smaller than [[Europe]], and more than 40.9 times larger than the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. In total [[area]], Canada is slightly larger than the [[United States|US]] and (both in turn) [[People's Republic of China|China]]; however, Canada is somewhat ''smaller'' than both in land area (China is 9,596,960 km² / 3,705,407&nbsp;mi² and the US is 9,161,923 km² / 3,537,438&nbsp;mi²), ranking fourth.
The northernmost settlement in Canada (and in the world) is [[CFS Alert|Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert]] (just north of [[Alert, Nunavut]]) on the northern tip of [[Ellesmere Island]] – [[latitude]] 82.5°N – just 834 kilometres (518&nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) from the North Pole.
The [[magnetic north|magnetic North Pole]] lies within Canadian boundaries; however, recent measurements indicate it is moving towards [[Siberia]].
==Physical geography==
[[image:Canada-satellite.jpg|thumb|300px|left|A satellite composite image of Canada from space. [[Boreal]] forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northerly [[Arctic]] regions and through the [[Rocky Mountains]], and the relatively flat [[Prairies]] facilitate productive agriculture. The [[Great Lakes]] feed the [[St. Lawrence River]] (in the southeast) where lowlands host much of Canada's population.]]The [[physical geography]] of Canada is widely varied. Encompassed by the [[Geography of Canada#Extreme points|extreme points of Canada]], it covers 9,984,670 [[square kilometre|km²]] (3,855,103&nbsp;sq.&nbsp;mi) and a panoply of various geoclimatic regions. Canada also encompasses vast maritime territories, with the world's longest coastline of 202,080 [[kilometre]]s (125,567&nbsp;[[mile|mi]])
===Appalachian Mountains===
:''Main articles: [[Appalachian Mountains]]''
The Appalachian [[mountain range]] extends from [[Alabama]] in the southern United States through the [[Gaspé Peninsula]] and the [[Atlantic Provinces]], creating rolling hills indented by river valleys. It also runs through parts of southern [[Quebec]]. <!-- how is next sentence relevant? --> [[Prince Edward Island]], in contrast to its neighbouring provinces, is comprised entirely of sedimentary sandstone.
The Appalachian mountains (more specifically the [[Notre-Dame Mountains|Notre-Dame]] and [[Long Range Mountains]]) are an old and eroded range of mountains, approximately 380 million years in age. Notable mountains in the Appalachians include [[Mount Jacques-Cartier]] (Quebec, 1,268&nbsp;m&nbsp;/&nbsp;4,160&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) and [[Mount Carleton]] (New Brunswick, 817&nbsp;m&nbsp;/&nbsp;2,680&nbsp;ft). Parts of the Appalachians are home to a rich [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] flora and fauna, and are considered to have been [[nunatak]]s during the last [[glaciation]] era.
===Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Basin===
[[image:Great Lakes from space.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Great Lakes from space]]
:''Main articles: [[Great Lakes]] and [[St. Lawrence River]]''
The southern parts of Quebec and Ontario, in the section of the [[Great Lakes]] and [[St. Lawrence River|St. Lawrence]] basin often called [[St. Lawrence Lowlands]], is another particularly rich sedimentary plain. Prior to its [[colonization]] and heavy [[ur |
sh Consulates in Los Angeles, New York City, Houston, etc.
The term "embassy" is often used to refer to the building or compound housing an ambassador's offices and staff. Technically, "embassy" refers to the diplomatic delegation itself, while the office building in which they work is known as a '''chancery''', but this distinction is rarely used in practice. Ambassadors reside in [[ambassadorial residence]]s, which enjoy the same rights as missions.
==Role==
The role of such a mission is to protect in the receiving State the interests of the sending State and of its nationals, within the limits permitted by international law; negotiating with the Government of the receiving State as directed by the sending State; ascertaining by lawful means conditions and developments in the receiving State, and reporting thereon to the Government of the sending State; promoting friendly relations between the sending State and the receiving State, and developing their economic, cultural and scientific relations.
Between members of the Commonwealth of Nations embassies sometimes have an additional role. It is generally expected that an embassy of a Commonwealth country in a non-Commonwealth country will do its best to provide diplomatic services to citizens from other Commonwealth countries if the citizen's country does not have an embassy in that country. (eg. If a South African citizen found him/herself in need of the services of an embassy in Thailand, it is generally understood that he/she could go to the Canadian Embassy and be provided with some help in obtaining the necessary services.) The same kind of procedure is also followed multilaterally by the memberstates of [[European Union]]. European citizens in need of consular help in a country without diplomatic or consular representation of their own country may turn to any consular or diplomatic mission of another EU memberstate.
The rights and immunities (such as [[diplomatic immunity]]) of diplomatic missions are codified in the [[Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations]].
==Non-recognized states==
Nations that are [[Non-recognized nations|not recognized]] have legations overseas but these are not recognized as having official diplomatic status as defined by the Vienna Convention. These ''de facto embassies'' are usually referred to as '''Representative Offices'''. Some examples of these types of missions: the [[TRNC Representative Office to the United States|Representative Office]] of the [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] in Washington, D.C.; [[Somaliland]]'s representatives in [[London]], [[Addis Ababa]], [[Rome]], and Washington, D.C.; the [[Nagorno-Karabakh|Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh]] has a representative office in Washington, D.C.; the [[Taipei Economic and Cultural Office]] in Washington, D.C. (representing the [[Republic of China]]); and the [[American Institute in Taiwan]] (representing the United States in the Republic of China). Under United States law, such offices are regarded by the [[State Department]] officially as 'information centers' and the persons working in them do not have diplomatic visas, nor are [[Letter of Credence|credentials]] from their chiefs of mission accepted.
==See also==
* [[Diplomacy]]
* [[:Category:Embassies|List of embassies and high commissions]]
==External links==
* [http://www.embassypages.com/ embassypages.com - Embassies and Consulates Around the World]
* [http://www.ediplomat.com/dc/diplomatic_missions.htm eDiplomat.com: Diplomatic Missions]
* [http://www.flickr.com/groups/embassies/ Flickr group ''Embassies worldwide''] with photos of embassies from all over the world
* [http://www.embassyworld.com/ Embassy World]
* [http://www.emb.com/ Embassy network]
[[Category:Diplomacy]]
[[bg:Дипломатическа мисия]]
[[da:Ambassade]]
[[de:Diplomatische Vertretung]]
[[es:Embajada]]
[[fr:Ambassade]]
[[he:שגרירות]]
[[nl:Ambassade]]
[[ja:在外公館]]
[[pl:Misja dyplomatyczna]]
[[simple:High Commision]]
[[fi:Suurlähetystö]]
[[sv:Ambassad]]
[[zh:外交代表機構]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DEC Alpha</title>
<id>8971</id>
<revision>
<id>34894748</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-12T15:26:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>193.77.154.33</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DEC Alpha 21-35023-13 J40793-28 top.jpg|thumb|DEC Alpha AXP 21064 Microprocessor]]The '''DEC Alpha''', also known as the '''Alpha AXP''', is a 64-bit [[RISC]] [[microprocessor]] originally developed and [[Fab (semiconductors)|fab]]ricated by [[Digital Equipment Corporation|Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC)]], which used it in its own line of workstations and servers. Designed as a successor to the [[VAX]] line of computers, it supported the [[OpenVMS|VMS]] operating system, as well as [[Digital UNIX]]. Later [[open source]] operating systems also ran on the Alpha, notably [[Linux]] and [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] UNIX flavours. [[Microsoft]] supported the processor until [[Windows NT|Windows NT 4.0]] SP6 but did not extend Alpha support beyond release candidate 2 of [[Windows 2000]].
==History==
Alpha was born out of an earlier RISC project named [[DEC PRISM|PRISM]], itself the final product of several earlier projects. DEC had been marketing the [[DECstation]] line of workstations based on the [[MIPS architecture]], and unsurprisingly PRISM shared many features with MIPS. Among the differences between PRISM and MIPS, however, was that PRISM supported a user-programmable [[microcode]] known as ''Epicode''. PRISM had been designed with the intent of releasing a new [[operating system]] along with it, known as '''Emerald''', which would allow it to run "native" programs at full speed while also supporting Digital's existing [[OpenVMS|VMS]] programs from the [[VAX]] after minor conversion. DEC management doubted the need to produce a new computer architecture to replace their existing VAX and DECstation lines, and eventually killed the PRISM project in 1988.
By the time of cancellation, however, second generation RISC chips (such as the newer [[SPARC]] architecture), were offering much better [[price/performance ratio]]s than the [[VAX]] lineup. It was clear a third generation would completely outperform the VAX in all ways, not just on cost. Another study was started to see if a new RISC architecture could be defined that could directly support the [[OpenVMS|VMS]] operating system. The new design used most of the basic PRISM concepts, but was re-tuned to allow VMS and VMS programs to run at reasonable speed with no conversion at all. The decision was also made to upgrade the design to a full [[64-bit]] implementation from PRISM's 32-bit, a conversion all of the major RISC vendors were undertaking. Eventually that new architecture became Alpha. The Alpha instruction set architects were Dick Sites and Rich Witek.
The main contribution of Alpha to the microprocessor industry, and the main reason for its excellent performance, was not so much the architecture but rather superb implementation. At that time (as it is now), the microchip industry was dominated by automated design and layout tools. The chip designers at Digital continued pursuing sophisticated manual circuit design in order to deal with the overly complex [[VAX]] architecture. The Alpha chips showed that manual circuit design applied to a simpler, cleaner architecture allowed for much higher operating frequencies than those that were possible with the more automated design systems. These chips caused a renaissance of custom circuit design within the microprocessor design community.
The first few generations of the Alpha chips were some of the most innovative of their time. The first version, '''21064''' or '''EV4''', was the first [[CMOS]] microprocessor whose operating frequency rivalled higher-powered [[Emitter coupled logic|ECL]] minicomputers and mainframes. The second, '''21164''' or '''EV5''', was the first microprocessor to place a large secondary cache on chip. The third, '''21264''' or '''EV6''', was the first microprocessor to combine both high operating frequency and the more complicated [[out-of-order execution]] microarchitecture.
A persistent report attributed to DEC insiders suggests the choice of the '''AXP''' tag for the processor was made by DEC's legal department, which was still smarting from the [[VAX#The_name|VAX trademark]] fiasco. After a lengthy search the tag "AXP" was found to be entirely unencumbered. Within the computer industry, a joke got started that the acronym '''AXP''' meant "Almost Exactly PRISM".
==Versions==
The first version, the '''Alpha 21064''' was introduced in [[1992]] running at 192MHz, a slight shrink of the die (21064) ran at 200Mhz a few months later. The 64-bit processor was a [[superpipelined]] and [[superscalar]] design, like other RISC designs, but nevertheless outperformed them all and DEC touted it as the world's fastest processor. Careful attention to circuit design, a hallmark of the Hudson design team, like a huge centralized clock circuitry, allowed them to run the CPU at higher speeds, even though the micro-architecture was fairly similar to other RISC chips. In comparison, the less expensive [[Intel Pentium]] ran at 66MHz when it was launched the following spring.
The '''Alpha 21164''' became available in 1995 at a processor frequency of 333MHz. In July [[1996]] the line was speed bumped to 500MHz, in March [[1998]] to 666MHz, and in May 2000 the '''21264''' was released at 731MHz. 1GHz and faster pieces were announced in [[2001]] (the 21364 or EV7), and have been available since [[2003]] at 1.1GHz+. Around 500,000 Alpha based systems were sold to end-[[2000]].
The production of Alpha chips was licensed to [[Samsung]] Electronics Company. Following the purchase of Digital by [[Compaq]] the majority of the Alpha products were placed with API NetWorks, Inc |
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