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type|phenotypic]] difference could be caused in [[bacteria]] by providing them with a particular DNA molecule.
[[Image:Myoglobindiffraction.png|thumb|left|An X-ray diffraction image for the protein myoglobin.]]
However, other evidence was interpreted as suggesting that DNA was structurally uninteresting and possibly just a molecular scaffold for the apparently more interesting protein molecules. Crick was in the right place, in the right frame of mind, at the right time (1949) to join [[Max Perutz|Max Perutz’s]] project at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]], and he began to work on the [[X-ray crystallography]] of proteins. X-ray crystallography theoretically offered the opportunity to reveal the molecular structure of large molecules like proteins and DNA, but there were serious technical problems then preventing X-ray crystallography from being applicable to such large molecules.
=== X-ray crystallography 1949-1950 ===
Crick taught himself the mathematical theory of X-ray crystallography. During the time when Crick was learning about X-ray diffraction, researchers in the Cambridge lab were attempting to determine the most stable helical conformation of amino acid chains in proteins (the α helix). Pauling was the first to identify the 3.6 amino acids/turn ratio of the α helix. Crick was witness to the kinds of errors that his co-workers made in their failed attempts to make a correct molecular model of the α helix; these turned out to be important lessons that could be applied to the helical structure of DNA. For example, he learned the importance of the structural rigidity that [[Double bond#Rigidity|double bonds]] confer on molecular structures which is relevant both to [[peptide bond]]s in proteins and the structure of [[nucleotide]]s in DNA.
[[Image:FirstSketchOfDNADoubleHelix.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Francis Crick]]'s first sketch of the [[deoxyribonucleic acid]] double-helix pattern]]
=== The Double Helix 1951-1953 ===
In 1951, together with W. Cochran and V. Vand, Crick helped to work out a mathematical theory of X-ray diffraction by a helical molecule. This theoretical result matched well with X-ray data obtained for proteins that contain sequences of [[amino acid]]s in the [[Alpha helix]] conformation (published in [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] in 1952){{ref|crickpubs}}. Helical diffraction theory turned out to also be useful for understanding the structure of DNA.
Late in [[1951]], Crick started working with [[James D. Watson]] at [[Cavendish Laboratory]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] in England. Building on the [[X-ray crystallography|X-ray diffraction]] results of [[Maurice Wilkins]], [[Raymond Gosling]] and [[Rosalind Franklin]] of King's College London, Watson and Crick together developed a model for a helical structure of DNA, which they published in [[1953]]{{ref|helix}}, and for which they were awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in [[1962]], jointly with [[Maurice Wilkins]]{{ref|nobel}}.
When [[James D. Watson]] came to Cambridge, Crick was a 35 year old graduate student and Watson was only 23, but he already had a Ph.D. They shared an interest in the fundamental problem of learning how genetic information might be stored in molecular form. Watson and Crick talked endlessly about DNA and the idea that it might be possible to guess a good molecular model of its structure. A key piece of experimentally-derived information came from X-ray diffraction images that had been obtained by Maurice Wilkins and his student, [[Raymond Gosling]]. In November 1951 Wilkins came to Cambridge and shared his data with Watson and Crick. Alexander Stokes (another expert in helical diffraction theory) and Wilkins (both at King's College) had reached the conclusion that X-ray diffraction data for DNA indicated that the molecule had a helical structure. Stimulated by Wilkins and a talk given by [[Rosalind Franklin]] about her work on DNA, Crick and Watson produced and showed off an erroneous first model of DNA. Watson, in particular thought they were competing against Pauling and feared that as for the protein α helix, that Pauling might win the race to determine the structure of DNA.
''Many have speculated about what might have happened had Pauling been able to travel to Britain as planned in 1952. He might have seen some of the Wilkins/Gosling/Franklin X-ray diffraction data and it may have led him to a double helix model. As it was, his political activities caused his travel to be restricted by the U. S. government and he did not visit the UK.'' Watson and Crick were not officially working on DNA. Crick was writing his Ph.D. thesis. Watson also had other work such as trying to obtain crystals of [[myoglobin]] for X-ray diffraction experiments. In 1952 Watson did X-ray diffraction on [[tobacco mosaic virus]] and found results indicating that it had helical structure. Having failed once, Watson and Crick were now somewhat reluctant to try again and for a while they were ''forbidden'' to make further efforts to find a molecular model of DNA.
{{Template:Single strand DNA discovery2}}
Of great importance to the model building effort of Watson and Crick was Rosalind Franklin's understanding of basic chemistry which indicated that the [[hydrophilic]] phosphate backbones of the [[nucleotide]] chains of DNA should be positioned so as to interact with water molecules on the outside of the molecule while the [[hydrophobic]] bases should be packed into the core. Franklin shared this chemical knowledge with Watson and Crick when she pointed out to them that their first model (1951, with the phosphates inside) was obviously wrong.
Crick described the failure of Maurice Wilkins and [[Rosalind Franklin]] to cooperate and work towards finding a molecular model of DNA as a major reason why he and Watson eventually made a second attempt to make a molecular model of DNA. They asked for and received permission to do so from both Bragg and Wilkins. In order to construct their model of DNA Watson and Crick made use of information from unpublished X-ray diffraction images (shown at meetings and shared by Wilkins) and preliminary accounts of Franklin's detailed analysis of the X-ray images that were included in a written progress report for the King's College laboratory of John Randall from late 1952.
It is a matter of debate if Watson and Crick should have had access to Franklin's results before she had a chance to formally publish the results of her detailed analysis of her X-ray diffraction data that were included in the progress report. In an effort to clarify this issue, Perutz later published{{ref|PerutzandWatson}} what had been in the progress report, and suggested that nothing was in the report that Franklin herself had not said in her talk (attended by Watson) in late 1951. Further, Perutz explained that the report was to a Medical Research Council committee that had been created in order to "establish contact between the different groups of working for the Council". Randall's and Perutz's labs were both MRC funded
laboratories.
It is also not clear how important Franklin's unpublished results that were in the progress report actually were for the model building done by Watson and Crick. After the first crude X-ray diffraction images of DNA were collected in the 1930s, [[William Astbury]] had talked about stacks of nucleotides spaced at 3.4 angstrom (0.34 nanometre) intervals in DNA. A citation to Astbury's earlier X-ray diffraction work was one of only 8 references in Franklin's first paper on DNA{{ref|franklin}}. Analysis of Astbury's published DNA diffraction data and the better X-ray diffraction images collected by Wilkins, Gosling and Franklin revealed the helical nature of DNA. It was possible to predict the number of bases stacked within a single turn of the DNA helix (10 per turn; a full turn of the helix is 27 angstroms [2.7 nm] in the compact A form, 34 angstroms [3.4 nm] in the wetter B form). Wilkins shared this information about the B form of DNA with Crick and Watson.
One of the few references cited by Watson and Crick when they published their model of DNA was to a published article that included Sven Furberg’s DNA model that had the bases on the inside. Thus, the Watson and Crick model was not the first "bases in" model to be published. Furberg's results had also provided the correct orientation of the DNA sugars with respect to the bases. During their model building, Crick and Watson learned that an antiparallel orientation of the two nucleotide chain backbones worked best to orient the base pairs in the centre of a double helix. Crick's access to Franklin's progress report of late 1952 is what made Crick confident that DNA was a double helix with anti-parallel chains, but there were other chains of reasoning and sources of information that also led to these conclusions.
''When it became clear to Wilkins and the supervisors of Watson and Crick that Franklin was abandoning her work on DNA for a new job and that Pauling was working on the structure of DNA, they were willing to share Franklin's data with Watson and Crick in the hope that they could find a good model of DNA before Pauling.'' Franklin's X-ray diffraction data for DNA and her systematic analysis of DNA's structural features was useful to Watson and Crick in guiding them towards a correct molecular model. The key problem for Watson and Crick, that could not be resolved by the data from King's College, was to guess how the nucleotide bases pack into the core of the DNA double helix.
[[Image:DNA labels.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Diagramatic representation of some key structural features of DNA. The similar structures of guanine:cytosine and adenine:thymine base pairs is illustrated. The base pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds. The phosphate backbones are anti-parallel.]]
Another key to finding the correct structure of DNA was the so-called [[Chargaff's rules|Chargaff ratios]], experim |
ances Field was in effect an anti-Labor Senator and that Bjelke-Petersen had broken the convention.
Field was granted leave from the Senate when High Court cases were filed challenging his eligibility to sit. But the change to the composition of the Senate was in any case decisive, because with Milliner's vote gone, the Opposition could pass Senate motions 30 votes to 29. Rather than blocking supply, they moved to delay consideration of the budget. Whitlam was determined to face the Opposition down, and proposed to borrow money from the banks to keep the government running. He was confident that some of the more moderate Liberal Senators would back down when the situation worsened as appropriations ran out during November and December.
Fraser also knew that the Senators were wavering, and he urged the Governor-General [[John Kerr|Sir John Kerr]], to act. Kerr had been a Whitlam appointment, but he had developed a grudge against the Prime Minister, who he felt had ignored him and snubbed his wife. Kerr was also concerned about the legality of Whitlam's proposals for borrowing money, as were the banks. Kerr contacted the Chief Justice of the [[High Court of Australia]], the former Liberal Attorney-General [[Sir Garfield Barwick]], who gave Kerr private advice that it was his duty to dismiss Whitlam. Kerr was also advised, by New South Wales Governor [[Roden Cutler|Sir Roden Cutler]] that he must warn Whitlam of the possibility of his dismissal.
So on [[11 November]] [[1975]], without giving Whitlam more than a moment's warning, Kerr revoked Whitlam's commission and installed Fraser as caretaker Prime Minister until a federal election could be held. He then immediately accepted Fraser's advice to call a double dissolution election, in an ironic twist using as triggers the same bills that the Coalition had rejected in the Senate.
On hearing the proclamation dissolving Parliament, which ended with the traditional 'God Save the Queen', Whitlam delivered his famous impromptu address to the crowd that had gathered in front of the steps of [[Old Parliament House, Canberra|Parliament House]]. During the speech he famously labelled Fraser as "Kerr's cur" and told the crowd: "Ladies and gentlemen, well may we say 'God Save the Queen', because nothing will save the Governor-General."
Although there were a number of public protests against Fraser during the campaign, the media (especially the [[Rupert Murdoch|Murdoch]] press, which had supported the ALP in 1972) had long since lost confidence in Whitlam, reporting a string of ministerial failures. This had a major influence on public opinion, signalled some months previously in the Bass by-election and the election resulted in a landslide win to the Coalition.
==The Whitlam government assessed==
During its three years in power, the Whitlam government was responsible for a long list of legislative reforms, most of which still stand today. It replaced Australia's adversarial divorce laws with a new, no-fault system; acted to improve the position of the Aboriginal minority; introduced the [[Trade Practices Act 1974|Trade Practices Act]]; slashed tariff barriers; ended [[conscription]]; introduced a universal national health insurance scheme [[Medibank]], now known as Medicare; sponsored free university education; introduced needs-based federal funding for private schools; established the long-awaited "third tier" in Australian radio by legislating for the establishment of community-based [[FM radio]]; and established diplomatic and trade relations with the [[People's Republic of China]].
Despite its many concrete achievements, Whitlam's critics point to substantial failings in his administration. The economy declined, with balance of payments problems, high unemployment and (by Australian standards) very high inflation. External factors contributed heavily to this, in particular the [[1973 oil crisis]] and resulting higher world oil prices, and falling prices for Australian farm produce. But the Whitlam government's own economic policies—such as its controversial 1973 decision to reduce tariffs across the board by 25%—were also partly responsible.
The autocratic Whitlam's "crash through or crash" style made many political enemies, and the various scandals afflicting the government cost it valuable time and momentum, and heavily damaged its credibility with the electorate. Many Australians regarded his dismissal by the unelected Governor-General as an outrage, but most Australians voted to replace the Whitlam government even so, and the Labor Party would not be a serious candidate for government again until Whitlam had been replaced as leader.
==Out of office==
[[Image:goughandmark.jpg|thumb|300px|Gough Whitlam (right) at 88, with his then protégé, the former leader of the Australian Labor Party, [[Mark Latham]], at an election fundraising event in Melbourne, September 2004]]
Whitlam stayed on to fight the 1977 election, but there was never much chance that the Australian electorate would have him back. Labor was defeated nearly as heavily as it had been in 1975, and Whitlam resigned from Parliament in 1978. After a few years as a travelling lecturer, he was appointed Australian Ambassador to [[UNESCO]] by the next Labor Prime Minister, [[Bob Hawke]]. Although Whitlam knew this was partly a ploy by Hawke to get him out of the country, he hugely enjoyed the [[Paris]] posting and made a great impression on other UNESCO delegates. He has published several volumes of memoirs.
Even in old age, Whitlam is a larger-than-life figure in Australian politics, with a ferocious intellect, a razor-sharp and often disparaging wit, and a towering ego that he never troubled to camouflage. The Labor historian [[Bob Ellis]] has described him as "the self-appointed deity of the Labor Party". He remains a revered figure in the Labor Party, and reviled (far more, for example, than [[Bob Hawke]]) by the conservative side of politics. The sole issue over which he has received sustained criticism from the left is his failure to oppose [[Indonesia]]'s plans to annex [[East Timor]], then [[Portuguese Timor]].
Whitlam turned 80 in 1996, but still made regular public appearances and continued to comment on some issues, notably [[republicanism in Australia|republicanism]]: in the 1999 [[referendum]], he campaigned together on this issue with his old enemy Fraser. He felt the Hawke government had wasted its opportunities to continue the great Whitlam reform programme, but was more enthusiastic about [[Paul Keating]]'s government. After 1996 he was scathingly critical of [[John Howard]], but also of [[Kim Beazley]], who was Labor leader from 1996 to 2001 - this feud apparently went back to Whitlam's dislike of Beazley's father ([[Kim Beazley, senior]]), who had been a minister in Whitlam's government.
Whitlam was delighted when his former research assistant and then MP representing his old seat of Werriwa, [[Mark Latham]], was elected Labor leader on [[2 December]] [[2003]], exactly 31 years after Whitlam's own election as Prime Minister. By that time Whitlam, 87, was increasingly frail and usually appeared in public with a walking stick, but his ability and willingness to make outspoken comments had not diminished, and he spoke frequently in praise of Latham.
Latham's diaries, however, were published in September [[2005]], and included a claim that Whitlam had dismissively remarked to Labor MP [[Joel Fitzgibbon]] that he thought Latham - who had by then resigned as leader - should quit politics altogether. When Latham learned of the remark, he cut off all contact with his former mentor and described Whitlam's comment as "the cruellest cut of all". Whitlam subsequently claimed that he simply told Fitzgibbon he thought it was "unsustainable" for Latham to stay on as an MP because of his ill-health.
In April [[2004]] Whitlam spoke at a function marking the centenary of the [[Chris Watson|Watson Labor government]]. Later in the year he appeared at Labor events during the unsuccessful [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 federal election]] campaign, and appeared to be in good health. By late [[2005]], however, he was reported to be in declining health.
In November [[2005]] he donated his letter of dismissal and his copy of the "It's time" campaign speech to the University of Western Sydney. A member of the [[Australian Fabian Society]], Whitlam was its President in [[2002]].
==Honours==
Whitlam was appointed [[Queen's Counsel]] in 1962 and a Companion of the [[Order of Australia]] in 1978.
Whitlam is a Fellow of the [[Australian Academy of Humanities]].
He has been awarded [[honorary doctorates]] by the [[University of Sydney]], the [[University of Wollongong]], [[La Trobe University]] and the [[University of Technology, Sydney]].
==See also==
*[[First Whitlam Ministry]]
*[[Second Whitlam Ministry]]
*[[Third Whitlam Ministry]]
*[[The Whitlams]]
==Further reading== [[Image:truthofthematter.jpg|thumb|right|170px|The Truth of the Matter (MUP Edition)]]
*Gough Whitlam, ''On Australia's Constitution'', Widescope, 1977
*Gough Whitlam, ''The Truth of the Matter'', Penguin, 1979 (Reprint, Melbourne University Press, 2005)
*Gough Whitlam, ''The Whitlam Government'', Penguin, 1985
*Gough Whitlam and others, ''The Whitlam Phenomenon'', Penguin, 1986
*Gough Whitlam, ''Abiding Interests'', University of Queensland Press, 1997
*Barry Cohen, ''Life With Gough'', Allen and Unwin, 1996
*Hugh Emy and others, ''Whitlam Revisited'', Pluto Press, 1993
*Gareth Evans and others, ''Labor and the Constitution 1972-1975'', Heinemann, 1977
*Paul Kelly, ''Crash Through or Crash,'' Angus and Robertson, 1976
*Paul Kelly, ''November 1975'', Allen and Unwin, 1995
*John Kerr, ''Matters for Judgment'', Macmillan, 1978
*Graham Freudenberg, ''A Certain Grandeur'', Macmillan, 1977
*Alan Reid, ''The Whitlam Venture'', |
urch Ball'' ([[2006]])
*''Postal'' ([[2007]])
==Television work==
*''[[Diff'rent Strokes]]'' ([[1978]]–[[1986]])
*''[[The Kid from Left Field]]'' ([[1979]])
*''[[Scout's Honor]]'' ([[1980]])
*''[[The Kid with the Broken Halo]]'' ([[1982]])
*''[[The Gary Coleman Show]]'' (1982) (canceled after a few months) (voice)
*''[[The Kid with the 200 I.Q.]]'' ([[1983]])
*''[[The Fantastic World of D.C. Collins]]'' ([[1984]])
*''[[Playing with Fire]]'' ([[1985]])
*''[[Like Father, Like Santa]]'' ([[1998]])
*''[[A Carol Christmas]]'' ([[2003]])
== External links ==
*[http://www.cnn.com/2003/ALLPOLITICS/08/06/candidate.coleman/ CNN's take on Coleman's 2003 candidacy for the governorship of California]
*{{imdb name | id=0171041 | name=Gary Coleman}}
*[http://www.february-7.com/warehouse/knightrider&arnoldjackson.jpg Another popular internet Meme; a photograph of Gary Coleman and David Hasselhoff]
*[http://www.rotten.com/library/bio/entertainers/child-stars/gary-coleman/ Rotten.com bio]
*[http://www.lucasarts.com/products/monkey/default.htm official monkey island website]
[[Category:1968 births|Coleman, Gary]]
[[Category:African-American actors|Coleman, Gary]]
[[Category:American television actors|Coleman, Gary]]
[[Category:American child actors|Coleman, Gary]]
[[Category:Worst Actor Razzie Nominee|Coleman, Gary]]
[[Category:Living people|Coleman, Gary]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Garth Brooks</title>
<id>12231</id>
<revision>
<id>41984471</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:16:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zsinj</username>
<id>597658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Rumkneebeard the Pyrate|Rumkneebeard the Pyrate]] to last version by 203.109.113.132</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:'''''Garth''' redirects here. For the [[Dana Carvey]] fictional character, see [[Wayne's World]].''
'''Troyal Garth Brooks''' (born [[February 7]], [[1962]] in [[Tulsa, Oklahoma|Tulsa]], [[Oklahoma]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[country music]] [[singer-songwriter]], [[actor]], and [[charity]] director.
Brooks was a phenomenal musical force in the [[1990s]]. He appeared in [[1989]] and was an immediate commercial success, apparently from nowhere, without the tall and lanky physical appearance typical of some male country stars, integrating [[pop music|pop]] and [[rock music|rock]] elements into his recordings and live performances. He soon began to dominate the country singles and the country albums charts and quickly crossed over into the mainstream pop arena, selling records like no one else in country music ever had and exposing country music to a larger audience than previously thought possible.
Brooks enjoyed one of the most successful careers in popular music history, with over 70 hit singles and 15 charted albums to his credit and over 100 million albums sold in the US alone. Brooks broke records for both sales and concert attendance throughout the 1990s. Possibly dissatisfied and looking to expand his career boundaries, he then attempted an artistically ambitious (but uncompleted) multimedia project involving a fictitious [[alter ego]].
Troubled by the conflicts between career and family, the year after the decade ended Garth Brooks announced his retirement from recording and performing, thereby disappearing from the music world as suddenly as he had come.
== Early life and career ==
Garth Brooks grew in [[Yukon, Oklahoma]]. His father Ray Brooks worked as a [[draughtsman]] for an oil company, while his mother [[Colleen Carroll]] was a country music singer on the [[Capitol Records]] label in the [[1950s]] and also a regular on the [[Red Foley|Red Foley Show]].
Garth grew up with an interest in music and sang in casual family settings, but his biggest interest was in athletics. He played [[American football|football]], [[baseball]], and ran [[athletics|track]] in high school.
Brooks attended [[Oklahoma State University - Stillwater|Oklahoma State University]] in [[Stillwater, Oklahoma|Stillwater]] on a [[athletics|track]] scholarship as a [[javelin throw]]er. However he dropped track while at the school and graduated in [[1984]] with a degree in [[advertising]].
Brooks began his professional singing career in that same year. He became very successful as a local artist, playing to packed clubs and bars in Oklahoma, Tumbleweeds in Stillwater in particular. However, a [[1985]] trip to [[Nashville]] to gain a [[record contract]] was a miserable failure. Brooks returned to Oklahoma and in [[1986]] married Sandy Mahl of [[Owasso, Oklahoma]], whom he had met while working as a [[Doorman|bouncer]] at Tumbleweed's.
In [[1987]], the couple moved to Nashville, and Brooks was gradually able to wend his way into the music industry. By [[1988]], he was signed to [[Capitol Records]].
== The success begins ==
Garth Brooks' [[Garth Brooks (album)|eponymous first album]] was released in [[1989 in music|1989]] and was both a critical and chart success. It peaked at #2 in the US country album chart and reached #13 on the [[Billboard 200]] pop album chart. Most of the album was traditionalist country, influenced in part by [[George Strait]]. The first single ahead of it was "Much Too Young To Feel This Damn Old", a country top 10 success. It was followed by his first well-known song, "If Tomorrow Never Comes", which was his first country #1 and is still considered one of his best-crafted efforts. "Not Counting You" reached #2, and then "[[The Dance (Garth Brooks)|The Dance]]" put him at #1 again; this song's theme of people dying in the course of doing something they believe in resonated strongly and together with a popular [[music video]] gave Brooks his first push towards a broader audience.
[[Image:Garth Brooks-No Fences (album cover).jpg|thumb|left|Garth Brooks, from his ''[[No Fences]]'' album]]
The album ''[[No Fences]]'' followed in [[1990]]. It reached #1 on the Billboard country music chart (staying there for 23 weeks) and #3 on the pop chart, and would go on to become Brooks' biggest-selling album, with global sales of over 20 million copies. It contained what would become Brooks' [[signature song]], the [[blue collar]] anthem "[[Friends in Low Places]]", which was a favorite of American troops serving in the 1991 [[Gulf War]]. The album contained two other Brooks classics, the dramatic and controversial "Thunder Rolls" and the philosophically ironic "Unanswered Prayers". Also a hit was the affectionate "Two of a Kind, Workin’ on a Full House"; all four of these songs hit #1 on the country chart.
While Brooks' music was definitely in the country idiom, he had also absorbed a sensibility from the 1970s [[singer songwriter]] movement, especially [[James Taylor]] (whom he idolized and named his first child after) and [[Dan Fogelberg]]. Similarly, Brooks was influenced by the operatic rock of the 1970s-era [[Billy Joel]] and [[Bruce Springsteen]]. In his highly successful live shows, Brooks used a wireless headset microphone to free himself to run about the stage, adding energy and [[arena rock]] theatrics to spice up the normally staid country music approach to concerts.
== Dominance ==
When Garth Brooks' third album, ''[[Ropin' the Wind]]'', was released in September [[1991]], it had advance orders of 4 million copies and entered the pop album charts at #1, a first for a country act. It also further propelled the sales of his first two albums, such that he sometimes occupied the top two spots in the pop album chart. Nashville had never imagined that a country artist could become the biggest artist in popular music, but when both record sales and concert attendance were looked at, Garth Brooks was doing just that. ''Ropin' the Wind'''s music was a melange of pop country and [[honky-tonk]]; hits included Billy Joel's "Shameless", "What She's Doing Now", and "The River". In the end it became his second-best selling album after ''No Fences''.
Brooks was in [[Los Angeles]] when the [[1992 Los Angeles riots|1992 riots]] broke out there. To then express his desire for tolerance of all kinds, he co-wrote the gospel-country-rock hybrid "We Shall Be Free", which was the first single off his fourth album ''[[The Chase (album)|The Chase]]''. [http://www.planetgarth.com/news/article.php?cid=00229] However the song [[#Support for gay rights|met with resistance]] from country radio stations and from the culturally conservative country audience, and only made it to #12 on the country chart, his worst showing to date. Nevertheless, the song often received [[standing ovation]]s when performed in concert.
''The Chase'', which Brooks would later describe as his album that gave the closest look into his mind, would go on to become a huge success, with its next two singles both making it back to #1. But it would not quite match the sales of his previous albums, and the tension between what Brooks wanted to do and what at least parts of his core audience were willing to accept would seem to stay with him for the balance of his career. In any case, Brooks's most loyal fans greatly admired his pushing of boundaries and personal vision.
Brooks won his first [[Grammy Award for Best Male Country Vocal Performance]] in [[1992]] for the album ''Ropin' the Wind''. He was awarded the [[Academy of Country Music]] award for ''Entertainer of the Year'' for 1990, 1991, 1992 and 1993, and the award for ''Top Male Vocalist'' for 1990 and 1991. As a performer and artist he has been compared to fellow country and pop/rock legends, such as the likes of [[Elvis Presley]], [[The Beatles]], [[Jackson Browne]], [[Kenny Rogers]], [[George Strait]], [[George Jones]], and [[Eagles]].
During this period Garth and Sandy Brooks had three children: Taylor Mayne |
ldera]] ([[Wyoming]], US)
**Other
***[[Masaya]], [[Nicaragua]]
*Europe
**[[Askja]] ([[Iceland]])
**[[Campi Flegrei]] ([[Italy]])
**[[Lake Bracciano]] ([[Italy]])
**[[Parque Nacional de la Caldera de Taburiente|Caldera de Taburiente]] ([[La Palma]], [[Canary Islands]], [[Spain]])
**[[Santorini]] ([[Greece]])
**'''Las Cañadas''' on [[Teide]] ([[Tenerife]], [[Canary Islands]], [[Spain]])
*Oceania
**[[Lake Taupo]] ([[New Zealand]])
**[[Mount Warning]] ([[Australia]])
*Mars
**[[Olympus Mons]] Caldera
*Venus
**[[Maat Mons]] Caldera
==See also==
* [[Supervolcano]]
* [[Volcanic Explosivity Index]]
==External links==
{{commons|Caldera}}
* [http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/Pglossary/caldera.html USGS page on calderas]
* [http://www.bigvolcano.com.au/natural/wollum.htm The Caldera of the Tweed Volcano - Australia]
* [http://host.uniroma3.it/progetti/cev/Web%20CEV%20folder/lagarita.html Largest Explosive Eruptions: New results for the 27.8 Ma Fish Canyon Tuff and the La Garita caldera, San Juan volcanic field, Colorado]
==References==
* Peter Lipman (1999). "Caldera". ''In'' Haraldur Sigurdsson, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Volcanoes''. Academic Press. ISBN 012643140X
[[Category:Volcanology]]
[[Category:Landforms]]
[[Category:Craters]]
[[Category:Volcanic calderas]]
[[Category:Igneous rocks]]
[[cs:Kaldera]]
[[de:Caldera (Krater)]]
[[et:Kaldeera]]
[[fr:Caldeira]]
[[is:Sigketill]]
[[it:Caldera vulcanica]]
[[lt:Kaldera]]
[[lb:Caldera (Krater)]]
[[nl:Caldera]]
[[ja:カルデラ]]
[[pl:Kaldera]]
[[fi:Kaldera]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Calculator</title>
<id>7593</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>41487880</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T18:21:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Monkeyman</username>
<id>79245</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rv to Wernher. Spam.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Calculator.kodabar.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A modern basic arithmetic calculator]]
{{otheruses}}
A '''calculator''' is a device for performing numerical [[calculation]]s. The type is considered distinct from both a [[calculating machine]] and a [[computer]] in that the calculator is a special-purpose device that may not qualify as a [[Turing machine]].
Although modern calculators often incorporate a general purpose computer, the device as a whole is designed for ease of use to perform specific operations, rather than for flexibility. Also, modern calculators are far more portable than other devices called computers.
==Overview==
In the near past, mechanical and clerical aids such as [[abacus|abacuses]], [[comptometer]]s, [[Napier's bones]], books of [[mathematical table]]s, [[slide rule]]s, [[adding machine]]s, were used for serious numeric work, and the word "calculator" denoted a person (most often male) who did such work for a living using such aids as well as pen and [[paper]]. This semi-manual process of calculation was tedious and error-prone.
Modern calculators are electrically powered and are made by numerous manufacturers, in countless shapes and sizes varying from cheap, give-away, credit-card sized models to more sturdy adding machine-like models with built-in printers.
== Electronic calculators==
In the past, some calculators were as large as today's [[computers]]. The first [[mechanical calculator]]s were mechanical desktop devices, which were soon replaced by electromechanical desktop calculators, and then by electronic devices using first [[thermionic valve]]s, then [[transistor]]s, then hard-wired [[integrated circuit]] logic. Today, most calculators are handheld microelectronic devices.
===A basic calculator===
The complexity of calculators varies with the intended purpose. A simple modern calculator,
suitable for everyday activities such as shopping or checking a bill, might consist of the following parts:
* A power source, such as a [[battery (electricity)|battery]] or a [[solar panel]]
* A display, usually made from [[LED]] lights or [[LCD|liquid crystal (LCD)]], capable of showing a number of digits (typically 8 or 10)
* Electronic circuitry
* A [[keypad]] containing:
**The ten digits, 0 through 9
**The [[decimal point]]
**The [[equals sign]], to prompt for the answer
**The four arithmetic functions (namely, [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[multiplication]] and [[Division (mathematics)|division]])
**A Cancel button, to clear the current calculation
**On and off buttons
**Other basic functions, such as [[square root]] and [[percentage]] (%).
* More advanced models may have a single-number [[Computer storage|memory]], which can be recalled where necessary.
Since the late-[[1980s]], it has become common to incorporate simple calculators in other small devices, such as [[mobile phone|mobile phones]], [[pager|pagers]] or [[wrist watch|wrist watches]].
===Advanced electronic calculators===
[[Image:CRAZY copy.gif|right|thumb|A screenshot of a 3D [[wire frame model|wire frame graph]] on a [[TI-89 series|TI-89]] calculator.]]
More complex ''scientific calculators'' support [[trigonometric function|trigonometric]], [[statistics|statistical]] and other [[list of functions|mathematical functions]]. The most advanced modern calculators can display graphics, and include features of [[computer algebra system]]s. They are also programmable; calculator applications include algebraic equation solvers, financial models and even games.
Only a few companies develop and make modern professional engineering and finance calculators: The most well-known are [[Casio]], [[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]], [[Hewlett-Packard|Hewlett-Packard]] (HP) and [[Texas Instruments|Texas Instruments]] (TI). Such calculators are good examples of [[embedded system]]s.
== Use in education ==
In most developed countries, [[student|students]] use calculators for schoolwork. There was some initial resistance to the idea out of fear that [[Elementary arithmetic|basic arithmetic skills]] would suffer. There remains disagreement about the importance of the ability to perform calculations by hand or "in the head", with some curricula restricting calculator use until a certain level of proficiency has been obtained, while others concentrate more on teaching [[estimation]] techniques and problem-solving.
There are other concerns - for example, that a pupil could use the calculator in the wrong fashion but believe the answer because that was the result given by the calculator. Teachers try to combat this by encouraging the student to make an estimate of the result manually and ensuring it roughly agrees with the calculated result. Also, it is possible for a child to type in -1 x -1 and obtain the correct answer '1' without truly realising the principle involved. In this sense, the calculator becomes a crutch rather than a learning tool, and it can slow down students in exam conditions as they check even the smallest result on a calculator.
== Other concerns on usage ==
Errors are not restricted to school pupils. Any user could carelessly rely on the calculator's output without double-checking the [[orders of magnitude|magnitude]] of the result - i.e. where the [[decimal separator|decimal point]] is positioned. This problem was all but nonexistent in the era of [[slide rule]]s and pencil-and-paper calculations, when the task of establishing the magnitudes of results had to be done by the sufficiently meticulous user.
Most everyday calculators are not completely accurate. There is a level of detail beyond which they truncate the number in memory, a symptom called [[arithmetic underflow]]. This essentially reduces the accuracy of the calculation, and this error can accumulate (for example, if the number is multiplied by itself, the error doubles). It is therefore possible for the calculator to show '''51.999999''' on the display when the accurate result is, in fact, '''52'''. Also, most everyday calculators do not follow the proper [[order of operations]] in math; therefore, if someone were to type (on an average calculator) "2+4×2", they may get 12 (i.e., the answer to "(2+4)×2"), instead of 10, the correct answer (i.e., the answer to "2+(4×2)").
Some fractions such as 2/3 are awkward to display on a calculator display as they are usually rounded to 0.66666667. Also, some fractions such as 0.14285714... can be difficult to recognise in decimal form - in fact, this number is 1/7. Some of the more advanced scientific calculators are able to work in [[vulgar fraction]]s, although the operation in practice is somewhat awkward.
== Calculators vs. computing ==
A fundamental difference between a calculator and most computers is that calculators typically operate in [[Binary-coded decimal]] rather than binary as do computers. Also, the market for calculators is extremely price-sensitive; typically the user cares primarily about what is the least expensive model having a specific feature set, but does not care much about speed (since speed is primarily constrained by how fast the user can press the buttons). Thus designers of calculators strive to minimize the number of logic elements on the chip, not the number of clock cycles needed to do a computation.
For instance, instead of a hardware multiplier, a calculator might implement floating point math with code in ROM, and compute trigonometric functions with the [[CORDIC]] algorithm because CORDIC does not require floating-point. For similar reasons, bit-serial logic designs are more common in calculators whereas bit-parallel designs dominate general-purpose computers: a bit-serial design minimizes the chip complexity but takes many more clock cycles.
[[Personal computer]]s and [[personal digital assistant]]s can perform general calculations in a variety of ways:
*computers often have a separate calculator program, varying from one that just emulates a simple calculator, such as [[Microsoft Calculator]], to advan |
hr-Einstein debates]] on foundational aspects of quantum mechanics happened during the [[Solvay Conference|Solvay conferences]].
Einstein was not rejecting probabilistic theories ''per se''. Einstein himself was a great statistician, using statistical analysis in his works on Brownian motion and photoelectricity and in papers published before the miraculous year 1905; Einstein had even discovered [[Gibbs ensemble]]s. He believed, however, that at the core reality behaved [[scientific determinism|deterministically]]. Many physicists argue that experimental evidence contradicting this belief was found much later with the discovery of [[Bell's Theorem]] and [[Bell's inequality]]. Nonetheless, there is still space for lively discussions about the [[interpretation of quantum mechanics]].
====Bose-Einstein statistics====
In 1924, Einstein received a short paper from a young [[India]]n physicist named [[Satyendra Nath Bose]] describing light as a gas of photons and asking for Einstein's assistance in publication. Einstein realized that the same statistics could be applied to atoms, and published an article in [[German language|German]] (then the [[lingua franca]] of physics) which described Bose's model and explained its implications. [[Bose-Einstein statistics]] now describe any assembly of these [[identical particles|indistinguishable particles]] known as [[boson]]s. The [[Bose-Einstein condensate]] phenomenon was predicted in the 1920s by Bose and Einstein, based on Bose's work on the statistical mechanics of photons, which was then formalized and generalized by Einstein. The first such condensate was produced by [[Eric Cornell]] and [[Carl Wieman]] in 1995 at the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]]. Einstein's original sketches on this theory were recovered in August 2005 in the library of [[Leiden University]].{{rf|10|www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl.378}}
Einstein also assisted [[Erwin Schrödinger]] in the development of the [[quantum Boltzmann distribution]], a mixed classical and quantum mechanical gas model although he realized that this was less significant than the Bose-Einstein model and declined to have his name included on the paper.
====The Einstein refrigerator====
[[Image:Einstein Refrigerator.png|thumb|right|222px|Einstein and [[Leó Szilárd|Szilárd]]'s refrigerator patent diagram.]]
Einstein and former student [[Leó Szilárd]] co-invented a unique type of [[refrigeration|refrigerator]] (usually called the [[Einstein refrigerator]]) in 1926.{{rf|11|gtalumni.org.379}} On [[November 11]], [[1930]], {{US patent|1,781,541}} was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd. The patent covered a thermodynamic refrigeration cycle providing cooling with no moving parts, at a constant [[pressure]], with only [[heat]] as an input. The refrigeration cycle used [[ammonia]], [[butane]], and [[water (molecule)|water]].
====World War II====
When [[Adolf Hitler]] came to power in January 1933, Einstein was a guest professor at [[Princeton University]], a position which he took in December 1932, after a invitation from the American educator, [[Abraham Flexner]]. In 1933, the [[Nazi]]s passed "The Law of the Restoration of the Civil Service" which forced all Jewish university professors out of their jobs, and throughout the 1930s a campaign to label Einstein's work as "Jewish physics"&mdash;in contrast with "German" or "Aryan physics"&mdash;was led by Nobel laureates [[Philipp Lenard]] and [[Johannes Stark]]. With the assistance of the [[SS]], the ''[[Deutsche Physik]]'' supporters worked to publish pamplets and textbooks denigrating Einstein's theories and attempted to politically [[blacklist]] German physicists who taught them, notably [[Werner Heisenberg]]. Einstein renounced his German citizenship and stayed in the [[United States]], where he was given permanent residency. He accepted a position at the newly founded [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in [[Princeton Township, New Jersey|Princeton Township]], [[New Jersey]]. He became an American citizen in 1940, though he still retained Swiss citizenship.
In 1939, under the encouragement of Szilárd, Einstein [[Einstein-Szilárd letter|sent a letter]] to President [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] urging the study of [[nuclear fission]] for military purposes, under fears that the Nazi government would be first to develop [[atomic weapon]]s.
Roosevelt started a small investigation into the matter which eventually became the massive [[Manhattan Project]]. Einstein himself did not work on the bomb project, however.
The [[International Rescue Committee]] was founded 1933 at the request of Albert Einstein to assist opponents of Adolf Hitler.
For more information, see the section below on Einstein's [[#Political views|political views]].
====Institute for Advanced Study====
His work at the Institute for Advanced Study focused on the unification of the [[physical law|laws of physics]], which he referred to as the ''Unified Field Theory''. He attempted to construct a model which would describe all of the [[fundamental forces]] as different manifestations of a single force. This took the form of an attempt to unify the gravitational and electrodynamic forces. His attempt was hindered because the [[strong interaction|strong]] and [[weak nuclear force]]s were not understood independently until around 1970, fifteen years after Einstein's death. Einstein's goal of unifying the laws of physics under a single model survives in the current drive for [[Grand unification theory|unification of the forces]], embodied most notably by [[string theory]].
====Generalized theory====
Einstein began to form a [[generalized theory of gravitation]] with the Universal Law of Gravitation and the electromagnetic force in his first attempt to demonstrate the unification and simplification of the fundamental forces. In 1950 he described his work in a ''[[Scientific American]]'' article. Einstein was guided by a belief in a single statistical measure of variance for the entire set of physical laws.
Einstein's Generalized Theory of Gravitation is a universal mathematical approach to field theory. He investigated reducing the different phenomena by the process of logic to something already known or evident. Einstein tried to unify gravity and electromagnetism in a way that also led to a new subtle understanding of quantum mechanics.
Einstein postulated a four-dimensional space-time continuum expressed in axioms represented by five component vectors. Particles appear in his research as a limited region in space in which the field strength or the energy density are particularly high. Einstein treated subatomic particles as objects embedded in the unified field, influencing it and existing as an essential constituent of the unified field but not of it. Einstein also investigated a natural generalization of symmetrical tensor fields, treating the combination of two parts of the field as being a natural procedure of the total field and not the symmetrical and antisymmetrical parts separately. He researched a way to delineate the equations and systems to be derived from a [[variational principle]].
Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research on a generalised theory of gravitation and was ultimately unsuccessful in his attempts. In particular, his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces ignored work in the physics community at large, most notably the discovery of the [[strong nuclear force]] and [[weak nuclear force]].
[[Image:Einstein house in Princeton.jpg|thumb|left|222px|Einstein's two-story house, white frame with front porch in [[Greek revival]] style, in [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]] (112 Mercer Street).]]
===Final years===
In 1948, Einstein served on the original committee which resulted in the founding of [[Brandeis University]]. A portrait of Einstein was taken by [[Yousuf Karsh]] on [[February 11]] of that same year. In 1952, the [[Israel]]i government proposed to Einstein that he take the post of second president. He declined the offer, and remains the only United States citizen ever to be offered a position as a foreign head of state. On [[March 30]], [[1953]], Einstein released a revised unified [[Field (physics)|field theory]].
He died at 1:15 AM[http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/ein.html] in Princeton hospital[http://www.princetonhistory.org/museum_alberteinstein.cfm] in [[Princeton, New Jersey]], on [[April 18]], [[1955]] at the age of 76 from internal bleeding, which was caused by the rupture of an [[aortic aneurism]], leaving the Generalized Theory of Gravitation unsolved. The only person present at his deathbed, a hospital nurse, said that just before his death he mumbled several words in [[German language|German]] that she did not understand. He was [[cremation|cremated]] without ceremony on the same day he died at [[Trenton, New Jersey]], in accordance with his wishes. His ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.
An autopsy was performed on Einstein by Dr. [[Thomas Stoltz Harvey]], who removed and preserved [[Albert Einstein's brain|his brain]]. Harvey found nothing unusual with his brain, but in 1999 further analysis by a team at [[McMaster University]] revealed that his parietal [[Operculum (brain)|operculum]] region was missing and, to compensate, his inferior [[parietal lobe]] was 15% wider than normal.{{rf|12|news.bbc.co.uk.381}} The inferior parietal region is responsible for mathematical thought, visuospatial cognition, and imagery of movement. Einstein's brain also contained 73% more [[glial cells]] than the average brain.
==Personality==
Albert Einstein was much respected for his kind and friendly demeanor rooted in his [[pacifism]]. He was modest about his abilities, and had distinctive attitudes and fashions—for example, he minimized his wardrobe so that he would not need to waste time in deciding on what to wear. He was captivatingly simple, wearing mothy sweaters and sweats |
algebraic closure of a field ''K'' is unique [[up to]] an [[isomorphism]] that [[fixed point (mathematics)|fixes]] every member of ''K''. Because of this essential uniqueness, we often speak of ''the'' algebraic closure of ''K'', rather than ''an'' algebraic closure of ''K''.
The algebraic closure of a field ''K'' can be thought of as the largest algebraic extension of ''K''.
To see this, note that if ''L'' is any algebraic extension of ''K'', then the algebraic closure of ''L'' is also an algebraic closure of ''K'', and so ''L'' is contained within the algebraic closure of ''K''.
The algebraic closure of ''K'' is also the smallest algebraically closed field containing ''K'',
because if ''M'' is any algebraically closed field containing ''K'', then the elements of ''M'' which are algebraic over ''K'' form an algebraic closure of ''K''.
The algebraic closure of a field ''K'' has the same [[cardinal number|cardinality]] as ''K'' if ''K'' is infinite, and is [[countably infinite]] if ''K'' is finite.
==Examples==
*The [[fundamental theorem of algebra]] states that the algebraic closure of the field of [[real number|real numbers]] is the field of [[complex number|complex numbers]].
*The algebraic closure of the field of [[rational number|rational numbers]] is the field of [[algebraic number|algebraic numbers]].
*There are many countable algebraically closed fields within the complex numbers, and strictly containing the field of algebraic numbers; these are the algebraic closures of transcendental extensions of the rational numbers, e.g. the algebraic closure of '''Q'''(&pi;).
*For a [[finite field]] of [[prime number|prime]] order ''p'', the algebraic closure is a [[countably infinite]] field which contains a copy of the field of order ''p''<sup>''n''</sup> for each positive [[integer]] ''n'' (and is in fact the union of these copies).
*See also [[Puiseux expansion]].
==Separable closure==
An algebraic closure of ''K'' contains a subfield ''K''<sup>''s''</sup>, which contains all the finite [[separable extension]]s of ''K'' within it. For ''K'' a [[perfect field]], the algebraic and separable closures are the same. In other cases the separable closure must be used to define the [[absolute Galois group]] of ''K''.
[[Category:Field theory]]
[[de:Algebraischer Abschluss]]
[[es:Clausura algebraica]]
[[fr:Clôture algébrique]]
[[he:סגור אלגברי]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Advanced Power Management</title>
<id>3130</id>
<revision>
<id>30674988</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-09T04:04:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Minghong</username>
<id>110454</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Advanced Power Management''' ('''APM''') is an [[application programming interface|API]] developed by [[Intel]] and [[Microsoft]] which allows a [[BIOS]] to
perform [[power management]], such as reducing the CPU speed, turning off the hard disk or turning off power to the display after a preset period of inactivity in order to conserve electrical power, especially for [[laptop]] computers.
[[Computer monitor|Monitors]] supporting such APIs are usually referred to as "green monitors", meaning environmentally friendly.
This is not to be confused with a [[screensaver]] which is software that causes the display to go black (by setting every pixel to black) to prevent burn-in.
[[Advanced Configuration and Power Interface|ACPI]] is the successor of APM.
{{FOLDOC}}
[[Category:Display technology]]
[[de:Advanced Power Management]]
[[es:APM]]
[[ja:Advanced Power Management]]
[[pl:Advanced Power Management]]
[[pt:APM]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adolphe Sax</title>
<id>3132</id>
<revision>
<id>41991502</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:11:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.33.228.114</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Adolphe sax statue.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Life-size statue of Adolphe Sax outside his birthplace in [[Dinant]], [[Belgium]].]]
'''Antoine-Joseph''' (known as '''Adolphe''') '''Sax''' ([[November 6]], [[1814]] &ndash; [[February 4]], [[1894]]) was a [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[musical instrument]] designer, best known for inventing the [[saxophone]].
Adolphe Sax was born in [[Dinant]] in [[Wallonia]], Belgium. His father, [[Charles-Joseph Sax]], was an instrument designer himself, who made several changes to the design of the [[horn (instrument)|horn]]. Adolphe began to make his own instruments at an early age, entering two of his [[flute]]s and a [[clarinet]] into a competition at the age of fifteen. He subsequently studied those two instruments at the Royal School of Singing in [[Brussels]].
Having left the school, Sax began to experiment with new instrument designs, while his father continued to produce conventional instruments to bring money into the household. Adolphe's first important invention was an improvement of the [[bass clarinet]] design which he patented at the age of 20.
In [[1841]], Sax relocated permanently to [[Paris]] and began work on a new set of instruments which were exhibited there in [[1844]]. They were keyed [[Bugle (instrument)|bugle]]s, and although he had not invented the instrument itself, his examples were so superior to those of his rivals that they became known as [[saxhorn|saxhorns]]. They range in approximately 7 different sizes, looking somewhat similar to the euphonium and also paved the path to the creation of the flugelhorn. Today, they are widely used in military bands and sometimes in orchestras. The saxhorn also laid the groundwork for the modern [[euphonium]]. He also developed the [[saxtromba]] in [[1845]], though this survived only briefly.
The 1840s also saw Sax inventing the instrument for which he is now best known, the [[saxophone]], though is new invention was actually patented in 1838. The saxophone was invented for use in military bands. However, because of the raspy sound that is made synonomous with the saxophone as compared to the traditional brass and reed-absent instruments in traditional miitary bands, the saxophone is not used in military bands very often anymore. The instrument is made of brass with a conical bore and a flared "bell" like other brass made instruments. It is part of the woodwind family and uses a single reed and mouthpiece much like the clarinet. The [[composer]] [[Hector Berlioz]] wrote approvingly of the new instrument in [[1842]], but the instrument was not patented until [[1846]], after he had designed and exhibited a full range of saxophones (from soprano to bass). These instruments made his reputation, and secured him a job teaching at the [[Paris Conservatoire]] from [[1867]].
Sax continued to make instruments later in life, as well as presiding over a new saxophone class at the Paris Conservatoire. However, rival instrument-makers attacked the legitimacy of his patents and mounted a lengthy campaign of litigation against Sax and his company, driving him into bankruptcy twice (in [[1856]] and [[1873]]). The prolonged legal struggle may also have undermined his own health; he suffered from lip cancer between [[1853]] and [[1858]] but made a full recovery.
He died in [[1894]] in Paris and was interred in the [[Cimetière de Montmartre]].
==External links==
*[http://www.saxgourmet.com/adolph-sax.html Adolphe Sax page] from Saxgourmet site
[[Category:1814 births|Sax, Adolphe]]
[[Category:1894 deaths|Sax, Adolphe]]
[[Category:Belgian inventors|Sax, Adolphe]]
[[bg:Адолф Сакс]]
[[de:Adolphe Sax]]
[[fr:Adolphe Sax]]
[[gl:Adolphe Sax]]
[[ko:아돌프 삭스]]
[[it:Adolphe Sax]]
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[[ja:アドルフ・サックス]]
[[no:Adolphe Sax]]
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[[sv:Adolphe Sax]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Affricate</title>
<id>3133</id>
<revision>
<id>15901497</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-01T01:25:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Perique des Palottes</username>
<id>2630</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Affricate consonant]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aspiration (phonetics)</title>
<id>3134</id>
<revision>
<id>40495389</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T23:55:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BostonMA</username>
<id>668039</id>
</contributor>
<comment>wikify</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[phonetics]], '''aspiration''' is the strong burst of [[Earth's atmosphere|air]] that accompanies the release of some [[obstruent]]s. To feel or see the difference between aspirated and unaspirated sounds, one can put a hand or a lit candle in front of his or her mouth, and say ''tore'' and then ''store''. One should either feel a puff of air or see a flicker of the candle flame with ''tore'' that one does not get with ''store''. In English, the ''t'' should be aspirated in ''tore'' and unaspirated in ''store''.
The diacritic for aspiration in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] is a superscript "h", {{IPA|[ʰ]}}. Unaspirated consonants are not normally marked explicitly, but there is a diacritic for non-aspiration in the [[International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Extended_IPA_diacritics|Extended IPA]], the superscript equal sign, {{IPA|[⁼]}}.
[[Voiceless]] consonants are produced with the [[vocal cords]] open. (Voicing involves bringing the vocal cords close together.) Voiceless aspiration occurs when the vocal cords remain open after a consonant is released. An easy way to measure this is by noting the consonant's [[voice onset time]], as the voicing of a following vowel cannot begin until the vocal cords close. However, aspirated consonants are not always followed by vowels or other voiced sounds; indeed, in Eastern [[Armenian language|Armenian]], aspiratio |
on ''X'' is properly discontinuous as well as being free. Every free, properly discontinuous action of a group ''G'' on a [[connected]], [[path connected]], topological space ''X'' arises in this manner: the quotient map <math>X \mapsto X/G</math> is a regular covering map, and the deck transformation group is the given action of ''G'' on ''X''.
An action of a group ''G'' on a locally compact space ''X'' is '''cocompact''' if there exists a compact subset ''A'' of ''X'' such that ''GA''=''X''. For a properly discontinuous action, cocompactness is equivalent to compactness of the quotient space ''X/G''.
=== Strongly continuous group action and smooth vector ===
If <math>\alpha:V\times A\to A</math> is an action of a topological vector space <math>V</math> on an another topological vector space <math>A</math>, one says that it is '''strongly continuous''' if for all <math>a\in A</math>, the map <math>v\to\alpha_v(a)</math> is continuous with respect to the respective topologies.
Such an action induce an action on the space of continuous function on <math>A</math> by <math>(\alpha_vf)(x)=f(\alpha_v^{-1}x)</math>.
The space of '''smooth vector''' for the action <math>\alpha</math> is the subspace of <math>A</math> of elements <math>a</math> such that <math>x\to\alpha_x(a)</math> is smooth, i.e. it is continuous and all derivatives are continuous.
== Generalizations ==
One can also consider actions of [[monoid|monoids]] on sets, by using the same two axioms as above. This does not define bijective maps and equivalence relations however.
Instead of actions on sets, one can define actions of groups and monoids on objects of an arbitrary [[category theory|category]]: start with an object ''X'' of some category, and then define an action on ''X'' as a monoid homomorphism into the monoid of endomorphisms of ''X''. If ''X'' has an underlying set, then all definitions and facts stated above can be carried over. For example, if we take the category of [[vector space|vector spaces]], we obtain [[group representation|group representations]] in this fashion.
One can view a group ''G'' as a category with a single object in which every [[morphism]] is invertible. A group action is then nothing but a [[functor]] from ''G'' to the [[category of sets]], and a group representation is a functor from ''G'' to the [[category of vector spaces]]. In analogy, an action of a [[groupoid]] is a functor from the groupoid to the category of sets or to some other category.
Without using the language of categories, one can extend the notion of a group action on a set ''X'' by studying as well its induced action on the [[power set]] of ''X''. This is useful, for instance, in studying the action of the large [[Mathieu group]] on a 24-set and in studying symmetry in certain models of [[finite geometry|finite geometries]]. See [http://log24.com/theory/patt.html pattern groups].
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Algebra]]
[[Category:Group theory]]
[[Category:Permutation groups]]
[[de:Gruppenoperation]]
[[fr:Action de groupe]]
[[he:פעולת חבורה]]
[[ru:Действие группы]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gzip</title>
<id>12783</id>
<revision>
<id>41180659</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T16:18:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karnesky</username>
<id>160332</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>recat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=gzip}}
'''gzip''' is short for '''[[GNU]] zip''', a GNU [[free software]] [[file compression]] [[program]]. It was created by Jean-loup Gailly and Mark Adler. Version 0.1 was first publicly released on [[October 31]], [[1992]]. Version 1.0 followed in February [[1993]].
gzip is based on the [[DEFLATE (algorithm)|DEFLATE algorithm]], which is a combination of [[LZ77]] and [[Huffman coding]]. DEFLATE was intended as a replacement for [[LZW]] and other [[patent]]-encumbered [[data compression]] [[algorithm]]s which, at the time, limited the usability of <tt>[[compress]]</tt> and other popular archivers.
The gzip format consists of a 10 byte header, a body and a 8 byte footer. The body is the data compressed using the deflate algorithm. Except for the header and footer, there is no difference between gzip and deflate.
gzip is a popular way to compress HTTP 1.1 streams from a web server to the browser and most popular browsers can decompress a stream that has been compressed with gzip.
The gzip file format holds a single compressed file. On [[Unix]] systems, compressed archives are typically created by rolling collections of files into a [[tar (file format)|tar]] archive, and then compressing that archive with gzip. The final <tt>.tar.gz</tt> or <tt>.tgz</tt> file is usually called a "compressed tarball."
gzip is not to be confused with the [[ZIP (file format)|ZIP]] archive format, which also uses DEFLATE. The ZIP format is more portable and can hold collections of files without resorting to an external archiver, but is less compact than compressed tarballs holding the same data because it compresses files individually and cannot take advantage of redundancy between files ([[solid compression]]).
[[zlib]] is an abstraction of the DEFLATE algorithm in library form which includes support both for the gzip file format and a lightweight stream format in its API. The zlib stream format, DEFLATE and the gzip file format were standardized respectively as RFC 1950, RFC 1951 and RFC 1952.
Since the late 1990s, [[bzip2]], a file compression utility based on a block-sorting algorithm, has gained some popularity as a gzip replacement. It produces considerably smaller files (especially for source code and other structured text), but at the cost of memory and processing time (up to a factor of 4). bzip2-compressed tarballs are conventionally named <tt>.tar.bz2</tt>.
[[AdvanceCOMP]] has a DEFLATE implementation which produces gzip-compatible files with better compression ratios than gzip itself.
==See also==
*[[List of archive formats]]
*[[List of file archivers]]
*[[Comparison of file archivers]]
==External links==
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/gzip/gzip.html gzip Home Page] and http://www.gzip.org/
*[http://www.zlib.org/ Zlib Home Page]
*[http://www.compression-links.info/Gzip List of GZIP related resources, tutorials, sources]
*[http://www.urbanophile.com/arenn/coding/gzrt/gzrt.html The gzip Recovery Toolkit]
*[http://blog.usweb.com/archives/the-value-online-marketing-benefits-of-gzip The Online Marketing Benefits of gzip]
[[Category:Free data compression software]]
[[Category:GNU project software]]
[[Category:Archive formats]]
[[de:Gzip]]
[[es:Gzip]]
[[eo:Gzip]]
[[fr:Gzip]]
[[nl:Gzip]]
[[ja:Gzip]]
[[pl:Gzip]]
[[pt:Gzip]]
[[sv:Gzip]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Goons</title>
<id>12784</id>
<revision>
<id>15910441</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-11T04:03:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DJ Clayworth</username>
<id>16175</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Goon Show]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gamma characteristic</title>
<id>12785</id>
<revision>
<id>15910442</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-18T08:52:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Uriyan</username>
<id>64</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gamma correction]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>General anaesthetic</title>
<id>12786</id>
<revision>
<id>40307087</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T18:26:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Stone</username>
<id>13976</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''general anaesthetic''' drug is an anaesthetic (or anesthetic [[American English |AE]]) drug that brings about a reversible loss of [[consciousness]]. These drugs are generally administered by an [[anaesthetist]] ([[Commonwealth English |CE]]) (or [[anesthesiologist]] [[American English|AE]]) in order to induce or maintain [[general anaesthesia]] to facilitate [[surgery]].
Drugs given to induce or maintain general [[anaesthesia]] are either given as:
* Gases or vapors ([[inhalation anaesthetics]])
* Injections ([[intravenous anaesthetics]]).
Most commonly these two forms are combined, with an injection given to induce anaesthesia and a gas used to maintain it, although it is possible to deliver anaesthesia solely by inhalation or injection.
Inhalational anaesthetic substances are either [[volatile]] [[liquid]]s or [[gas]]es and are usually delivered using an [[anaesthesia machine]]. An anaesthesia machine allows composing a mixture of oxygen, anaesthetics and ambient air, delivering it to the patient and monitoring patient and machine parameters. Liquid anaesthetics are vaporized in the machine.
Many compounds have been used for inhalation anaesthesia, but only a few are still in widespread use. [[Desflurane]] and [[sevoflurane]] are the most widely used [[volatile anaesthetic]]s today. They are often combined with [[nitrous oxide]]. Older, less popular, volatile anesthetics, include [[isoflurane]] (used commonly in veterinary medicine), [[halothane]], [[enflurane]], and [[methoxyflurane]]. Researchers are also actively exploring the use of [[xenon]] as an anaesthetic.
Injection anaesthetics are used for induction and maintenance of a state of unconsciousness. Anaesthetists prefer to use [[intravenous injection]]s as they are faster, generally less painful and more reliable than [[intramuscular injection | intramuscular]] or [[subcutaneous injection]]s. Among the most widely used drugs are:
* [[Propofol]]
* [[Etomidate]]
* [[Barbiturate]]s |
== Pipelines ==
crude oil 2,505 km; petroleum products 456 km; natural gas 1,703 km (1989)
== Airports ==
446 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
<br>''total:''
127
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
4
<br>''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
12
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
39
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
41
<br>''under 914 m:''
31 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
<br>''total:''
319
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
5
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
33
<br>''under 914 m:''
281 (1999 est.)
* [[List of airports in Indonesia]]
<P>'''National airline:'''
*[[Garuda Indonesia]]
== See also ==
* [[Indonesia]]
[[Category:Transportation in Indonesia|*]]
[[id:Transportasi di Indonesia]]
[[lt:Indonezijos transportas]]
[[ms:Pengangkutan di Indonesia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Indonesia</title>
<id>14650</id>
<revision>
<id>41729163</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T09:35:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Draconins</username>
<id>792344</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 class="toccolours" style="float: right; width: 300px; clear: both; margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; border-style: solid; border: 1px solid #7f7f7f; border-right-width: 2px; border-bottom-width: 2px; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|- style="border-bottom: 2px solid gray"
! colspan=2 style="background: #efefef;" | '''Tentara Nasional Indonesia'''
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | '''Military manpower'''
|-
| Military age
| 18 years of age
|-
| Availability
| males age 18-49: 60,543,028 (2005 est.)
|-
| Fit for military service
| males age 18-49: 48,687,234 (2005 est.)
|-
| Reaching military age annually
| males: 2,201,047 (2005 est.)
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | '''Military expenditures'''
|-
| Dollar figure
| $1.3 billion (2004)
|-
| Percent of GDP
| 3% (2004)
|}
[[Image:img_index3.jpg|200px|thumb|left|]][[Indonesia]]'s [[armed force]]s ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]: ''Tentara Nasional Indonesia'', abbreviated as TNI, formerly ''Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia'', abbreviated as ABRI) total about 250,000 members, including the [[Indonesian Army|Army]], [[Indonesian Navy|Navy]], [[Indonesian Marine Corps|marines]], and [[Indonesian Air Force|air force]]. The army is by far the largest, with about 196,000 active-duty personnel. Defence spending in the national budget is only 3% of GDP but is supplemented by revenue from many military-run businesses and foundations.
The Indonesian National Police were for many years a branch of the armed forces. The police were formally separated from the military in April [[1999]], a process which was formally completed in July [[2000]]. With 150,000 personnel, the police form a much smaller portion of the population than in most nations. The total number of national and local police in [[2002]] was approximately 270,000.
==Political role of the military==
During the [[Suharto]] era, the military was sometimes said to have a "dual function" (''dwifungsi'') in Indonesia; first, it would preserve the internal and external security of the country, preserving it as a ''unified nation'', and second, it would insure that government policy followed a path that the military leadership felt was wise.
This justified substantial military interference in politics. Long-time president Suharto was an army general, and was strongly supported by most of the military establishment. Traditionally a significant number of cabinet members had military backgrounds, while active duty and retired military personnel occupied a large number of seats in the parliament. Commanders of the various territorial commands played influential roles in the affairs of their respective regions.
Indonesia has not had a substantial conflict with its neighbours since the 1963-1965 [[Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation|confrontation]] with [[Malaysia]], although competing [[South China Sea]] claims, where Indonesia has large natural gas reserves, concern the Indonesian government. Without a credible external threat in the region, the military's primary role in practice has been to assure internal security. Military leaders now say they wish to transform the military to a professional, external security force but acknowledge that the armed forces will continue to play an internal security role for some time.
In the post-Suharto period since 1998, civilian and military leaders have advocated removing the military from politics (for example, the military's representatives in parliament have been much reduced), but the military's political influence remains extensive. The TNI has been notorious since the alleged massacre of pro-communist ethnic Chinese in 1965-6 and the East Timor Crisis, which in both events, the TNI allegedly neglected and killed hundreds and thousands of people.
==Military equipment==
[[Image:img_index4.jpg|200px|thumb|left|]]The Indonesian Navy purchased a number of ships of the former [[East Germany|East German]] navy in the 1990s.
In [[2005]] the Indonesian Air Force experienced a logistics crisis, especially in regard to the [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]]s and [[A-4 Skyhawk]]s that account for almost 80% of the total number of Indonesian combat aircraft. The supply of spare parts for these aircraft from the [[United States]] was stopped due to an embargo imposed on Indonesia following a number of violations against civil and human rights in [[East Timor]]. This led to the grounding of most of the Western-made fighters.
In response to this embargo, in [[2003]] the Indonesian Air Force bought two Sukhoi Aerospace [[Sukhoi_Su-27|Su-27]] Flankers and two Sukhoi Aerospace Su-30 Flanker-Ds. Along with the fighters came the armament, the AA-10 Alamo air-to-air missile. Also, by cooperating with local military equipment manufacturers such as [[PT_Pindad|Pindad]] and [[PT_Hoverindo_Nusa_Persada|Hoverindo Nusa Persada]], the Indonesian military is now capable of manufacturing its own military equipment, ranging from sub-machine guns to armored cavalry vehicles, reconnaissance aircraft, helicopter-carrying corvettes, submarines and even hovercraft, types of which are now under research.
Following the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|2004 tsunami in Aceh]] the American government suspended the spare parts embargo for non-lethal equipment and military vehicles to support the humanitarian effort in the tsunami-devastated Indonesian regions of [[Aceh]] and [[Nias]].
On [[22 November]] [[2005]], the U.S. announced that military ties with Indonesia would be restored. The decision would end the six-year U.S. ban on arms sales. [http://today.reuters.co.uk/news/newsArticleSearch.aspx?storyID=277361]
==References==
*Bresnan, John. 1993. ''Managing Indonesia: the modern political economy''. New York: Columbia University Press.
**Many topics, including the political role of the military at the height of Suharto's New Order.
*Crouch, Harold. 1988. ''The army and politics in Indonesia''. Ithaca:Cornell University Press.
**First published 1978. Now somewhat dated, but provides an influential overview of the role of the military in consolidating Suharto's power
*Kingsbury, Damien. 2003. ''Power politics and the Indonesian military''. London: RoutledgeCurzon.
==External links==
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/indonesia/abri.htm GlobalSecurity.org : Indonesia]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/rock/hotburrito/tni/tni.html TNI - Indonesian army]&mdash;Links to news articles, mostly critical of the military
* [http://www.scramble.nl/mil/6/tniau/main.htm Indonesian Air Force]
* [http://www.defence.gov.au/army/lwsc/Publications/journal/AAJ_Autumn05_henry_16.pdf Indonesian Civil-Military Relations] - Civil-Military Relations in Post-Suharto Indonesia and the Implications for Democracy Today: A Preliminary Analysis
[[Category:Military of Indonesia| ]]
[[Category:Militaries|Indonesia]]
[[id:Tentara Nasional Indonesia]]
[[lt:Indonezijos karinės pajėgos]]
[[nl:Tentara Nasional Indonesia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Indonesia</title>
<id>14651</id>
<revision>
<id>41805273</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T21:41:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Electionworld</username>
<id>201260</id>
</contributor>
<comment>template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{POV}}
{{Politics of Indonesia}}
Since independence, [[Indonesia]] has espoused a "free and active" foreign policy, seeking to play a role in regional affairs commensurate with its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts among major powers. Indonesian foreign policy under the "New Order" government of President [[Suharto]] moved away from the stridently anti-Western, anti-American posturing that characterized the latter part of the [[Sukarno]] era. Following Suharto's ouster in [[1998]], both Presidents [[Jusuf Habibie]] and [[Abdurrahman Wahid]] have preserved the broad outlines of Suharto's independent, moderate foreign policy. Preoccupation with domestic problems has not prevented President Wahid from frequently traveling abroad and continuing to participate vigorously, though peripatetically, in many international fora. The traumatic separation of [[East Timor]] from Indonesia after an August 1999 East Timor referendum, and subsequent events in East and West Timor, strained Indonesia's relations with the international community.
A cornerstone of Indonesia's contemporary foreign policy is its participation in the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN), of which it was a founding member in 1967 with [[Thailand]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], and the [[Philippines]]. Since then, [[Brunei]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], [[Burma]], and [[Cambodia]] also have joined ASEAN. While organized to promote commo |
es, {{IPA|ʘ}}, {{IPA|ǀ}}, {{IPA|ǂ}}, {{IPA|ǃ}}, {{IPA|ǁ}} || ‡Hõã, Nǀu, ǀXam, !Xóõ
|-
| 5 releases, {{IPA|ǀ}}, {{IPA|ǂ}}, {{IPA|ǃ}}, {{IPA|ǁ̺}}, {{IPA|ǁ̪}} || !Kung (Mangetti Dune)
|-
| 5 releases, {{IPA|ʘ}}, {{IPA|ʘ↑}}, {{IPA|ǀ}}, {{IPA|ǃ}}, {{IPA|ǃ˞}} || Damin
|}
===Names found in the literature===
The oldest terms for the click releases, such as in Bleek 1911, are closer to modern terminology than much of what was published in between. Here are the terms used in some of the main references.
{|
| '''Click release''' || '''Bantu letters''' || '''Also known as:''' ||
|-
| {{IPA|ǀ}} dental || ''c'' || dental affricative/affricated/with friction; alveolar affricated; denti-alveolar; apico-lamino-dental
|-
| {{IPA|ǂ}} palatal || || palato-alveolar; alveolar; alveolar instantaneous; denti-alveolar implosive
|-
| {{IPA|ǃ}} alveolar || ''q'' || cerebral; alveolar implosive; palato-alveolar; palato-alveolar instantaneous; palatal; palatal retroflex; apico-palatal
|-
| {{IPA|ǁ}} lateral || ''x'' || lateral affricative/with friction; alveolar lateral affricated; post-alveolar lateral; lateral apico-alveo-palatal
|}
==Click loss==
We do not know how clicks first arose, and the development of clicks from other consonants has never been observed, but it seems likely that they arose from consonant clusters of some type.
However, several still vibrant languages demonstrate click loss. For example, the [[List_of_Khoisan_languages#East_Tshu-Khwe|East Tshu-Khwe languages]] have lost a large percentage of their clicks, presumably due to [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] influence. Generally a click is replaced by a consonant that retains the [[manner of articulation]] of the accompaniment. Alveolar click releases {{IPA|ǃ}} tend to simply drop out, leaving a velar stop or affricate such as {{IPA|k, ɡ, ŋ, k͡x}}, while palatal clicks {{IPA|ǂ}} leave behind a palatal stop such as {{IPA|c, ɟ, ɲ, c’}}, or a post-alveolar affricate {{IPA|ʧ, ʤ}}, and dental clicks {{IPA|ǀ}} tend to leave an alveolar affricate {{IPA|ʦ}} behind. That is, in the latter cases the resulting consonant retains the manner of the accompaniment but the [[place of articulation|place]] of the release.
''(to be completed)''
==References==
*Ladefoged, Peter and Ian Maddieson. ''The Sounds of the World's Languages''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1996.
*Anthony Traill & Rainer Vossen, ''Sound change in the Khoisan languages: new data on click loss and click replacement''. JALL 18 (1997), 21-56.
==See also==
*[[List of phonetics topics]]
[[Category:Consonants]]
[[de:Klick (Phonetik)]]
[[fr:Clic]]
[[he:עיצורים מצוצים]]
[[ko:&#55137;&#52265;&#51020;]]
[[ja:&#21560;&#30528;&#38899;]]
[[fi:Maiskausäänne]]
[[sv:Klickljud]]
[[zh:&#25645;&#22068;&#38899;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>The Cider House Rules</title>
<id>7817</id>
<revision>
<id>41288929</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T08:26:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.208.189.232</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Controversy */ wording, "pro-choice stance on abortion" more neutral than "woman's right to an abortion"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:cider house rulezzz.jpg|thumb|200px|The Cider House Rules book cover]]
This article relates to the novel, [[The Cider House Rules]] by [[John Irving]]. [[The Cider House Rules (film)]] is also a [[1999]] [[film]] starring [[Tobey Maguire]] and [[Michael Caine]], directed by [[Lasse Hallström]].
==Plot of The Cider House Rules==
{{spoiler}}
Homer Wells, an un-adopted [[orphan]], is the book's central protagonist; Homer grew up in an orphanage directed by Dr. Wilbur Larch. Dr. Larch is also secretly an [[abortion]]ist, and believes that he is doing the world a service because "one way the [[poor]] can help themselves would to be in control of the size of their families." Dr. Larch also refers to abortion as "The Lord's Work" and trains Homer in the realm of gynecology/abortions in a paternal way. The novel continues as Homer decides to leave the orphanage with Candy Kendall and her boyfriend Wally Worthington, a young couple who work at the Worthington family apple orchard. Wally leaves to fight in [[World War Two]], but his plane is shot down over [[Burma]]. Believing Wally to be dead, Homer and Candy have an affair and Candy subsequently becomes [[pregnant]]. Candy secretly gives birth to a boy named Angel at the orphanage (the first child to go home with its mother). Wally is found alive, so Candy and Homer return home, lying to the family about Angel's parentage (they claim that Homer decided to adopt him). Wally and Candy [[marry]] shortly afterwards. Many years later, when Angel is a teenager, he makes friends with Rose Rose, the daughter of Mr. Rose, a migrant worker. Rose Rose becomes pregnant with her father's child, and Homer performs an abortion on her. Homer decides to return to the orphanage after the [[death]] of Dr. Larch, and works as the new director. Homer and Candy eventually tell Angel that they are his biological parents.
The novel also follows a sub-plot of Melony, Homer's fellow orphan, and her [[lesbian]]-lover, Lorna.
==Controversy==
The novel clearly takes a pro-choice stance on abortion. Dr. Larch, the novel's primary abortion-advocate, feels strongly towards the "[[left]]" on the subject because he believes an infant who is unwanted is too emotionally painful for the mother and the child. Homer is initially reluctant with the subject, but understands Dr. Larch's perception when he must perform an abortion on Rose Rose. The novel also introduces [[adoption]] as an alternative.
Many [[pro-life]] groups contend that the uncommon scenario of a father-daughter [[rape]] is not a strong argument for the legalization of all abortions. The novel also takes on many other cases of an abortion being a necessary option for a woman, including the extremely poor, [[prostitutes]] who are incapable of raising a child, and in one instance a young woman who had a botched abortion and died after her "abortionist" left the [[crochet]] needle in her uterus. Irving uses her as an example for people who are going to perform their own "back alley" abortions and need medical assistance for their own safety. Pro-life organizations state that the novel is [[pro-choice]] propaganda, and the assumption that Homer will grow up to be a [[moral]] man if he performs abortions is a poor image.
==See also==
*[[The Cider House Rules (film)]]
*[[John Irving]]
*[[Pro-Choice]]
*[[Pro-Life]]
==External links==
http://thebookhaven.homestead.com/Z_Cider_House_Rules.html
[[de:Gottes Werk und Teufels Beitrag (Buch)]]
[[fr:L'Œuvre de Dieu, la Part du Diable]]
{{uncat}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Consumer</title>
<id>7818</id>
<revision>
<id>40218415</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T01:01:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>72.224.91.190</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about consumers in [[economics]]. For the article about consumers in [[biology]], see '''[[Heterotroph]]'''.''
'''Consumers''' are [[individual]]s or [[household]]s that consume [[Good (economics)|goods and services]] generated within the [[economic system|economy]]. Since this includes just about everyone, the [[term]] is a political term as much as an economic term when it is used in everyday speech. Typically when businesspeople and economists talk of ''consumers'' they are talking about ''person as consumer'', an aggregated [[commodity]] item with little [[individuality]] other than that expressed in the buy not buy [[decision]]. However there is a [[trend]] in [[marketing]] to individualize the concept. Instead of generating broad [[demographic profile]] and [[psychographic profile]]s of [[market segment|market segments]], marketers are engaging in [[personalized marketing]], [[permission marketing]], and [[mass customization]].
A consumer is assumed to have a [[budget]] which can be spent on a [[range]] of [[Product (business)|goods and services]] available on the [[market]]. Under the assumption of [[rationality]], the budget allocation is chosen according to the [[preference]] of the consumer, i.e. to maximize his or her [[utility]] function.
In 'time series' [[model (abstract)|models]] of consumer behaviour, the consumer may also [[investment|invest]] a [[proportion]] of their budget in order to gain a greater budget in [[future]] [[period]]s. This [[investment]] [[choice]] may include either [[fixed rate]] [[interest]] or risk-bearing [[security|securities]].
In the [[context]] of [[mental health]], consumer is also a term applied to describe a [[person]] living with [[mental illness]].
Concern over the best interests of consumers has spawned much activism, as well as incorporation of consumer [[education]] into the [[school]] [[curriculum]]. There are many non-profit publications available to assist in consumer education such as [[Consumer Reports]] or [[Choice Magazine]].
Within many [[sales|selling]] [[company (law)|companies]] as well as debt-management consultants consumer has come to be a derogatory term which means an unintelligent buyer of poorly made clothing and plastic or metallic items. Consumer could also be seen as an offensive term, implying that both an adult and a child's only function is to buy (consume) a product and discard it after only a short period of time.
==See also==
*[[Consumer debt]]
*[[Consumerism]]
*[[Consumption]]
*[[Obsessive-compulsive disorder]]
[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Marketing]]
[[de:Verbraucher]]
[[es:Consumidor]]
[[fr:Consommateur]]
[[hi:उपभोक्ता]]
[[it:Consumatore]]
[[nl:Consument]]
[[ja:消費者]]
[[pl:Konsument (ekonomia)]]
[[sv:Konsument]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cactus</title>
<id>7819</id>
<revision>
<id> |
r young people might influence their sexuality. Opponents would argue that the underlying theory behind the words suggests a false understanding of the nature of human sexuality with their usage designed to promote fear of homosexuals and their supposed influence on children among non-homosexuals, so leading to hatred of, and discrimination against, homosexuals.
He could offer the defense that he doesn't hate lesbians and didn't intend to hurt anyone's feelings, but was expressing his genuinely held beliefs based on religious convictions. In such circumstances, the consequences of his comment could lead to his facing disciplinary action. Some would judge such actions as an unfair restriction on his beliefs and freedom of expression. Others would see it as upholding the principle of attacking discrimination and hatred.
==See also==
*[[Anti-gay slogan]]
*[[Anti-cult movement]]
*[[Anti-Semitism]]
*[[Cisgender]]
*[[Cult]]
*[[Diversity]]
*[[Fighting words]]
*[[Freedom of speech]]
*[[Foundation for Individual Rights in Education]]
*[[Gay-bashing]]
*[[Hate crime]]
*[[Hate group]]
*[[Hate mail]]
*[[Historical revisionism (political)|Historical revisionism]]
*[[Holocaust denial]]
*[[Homophobia]]
*[[Homophobic hate speech]]
*[[Homosexuality and morality]]
*[[International Freedom of Expression Exchange]]
*[[Islamophobia]]
*[[Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy]]
*[[Limitations clause]]
*[[Misandry]]
*[[Misogyny]]
*[[Nazism]]
*[[Non-sexist language]]
*[[Political correctness]]
*[[Profanity]]
*[[Race baiting]]
*[[Race card]]
*[[Race war]]
*[[Racism]]
*[[Taboo]]
*[[Thoughtcrime]]
==References==
* {{note|Butler}} Butler, Judith (1997). ''Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative''. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415915880.
==External links==
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1993/drug.htm Reconciling Rights and Responsibilities of Colleges and Students: Offensive Speech, Assembly, Drug Testing and Safety]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1998-1/conduct.htm From Discipline to Development: Rethinking Student Conduct in Higher Education]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/sexual.htm Sexual Minorities on Community College Campuses]
* [http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/C-46/165505.html#rid-165543 Canadian Hate Propaganda Laws]
* [http://www.amirbutler.com/archives/2005/08/16/46 Warning from Australia: don’t legislate against hate]
* [http://www.thefire.org The Foundation for Individual Rights in Education]
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/rcip//sbh.html Survivor bashing - bias motivated hate crimes]
[[Category:Human rights abuses]]
[[Category:Prejudice and discrimination]]
[[Category:Sexual orientation and society]]
[[Category:Philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]
[[de:Hassprediger]]
[[nl:Hatespeech]]
[[ja:ヘイトスピーチ]]
[[pl:Hate speech]]
[[fi:Kiihotus kansanryhmää vastaan]]
[[sv:Hets mot folkgrupp]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hypercard</title>
<id>14235</id>
<revision>
<id>15911803</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[HyperCard]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Henrik Ibsen</title>
<id>14236</id>
<revision>
<id>41618363</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:33:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Doctor]] to [[Physician]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Henrik Johan Ibsen''' ([[March 20]], [[1828]] &ndash; [[May 23]], [[1906]]) was an extremely influential [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[playwright]] who was largely responsible for the rise of the modern [[realism (arts)|realistic]] [[drama]] (dubbed "the father of modern drama"). It is said that Ibsen is the most frequently performed dramatist in the world after [[Shakespeare]]. Despite spending much time in exile, living in [[Germany]] and [[Italy]], Ibsen is held to be the greatest Norwegian author of all times, being celebrated as a national symbol by Norwegians, and as one of the most important playwrights in world history.
[[Image:Henrik Ibsen.jpg|thumb|250|right|Photo of Henrik Ibsen in his older days]]
His plays were considered scandalous to many of his era, when [[Victorian morality|Victorian values]] of family life and propriety largely held sway in Europe and any challenge to them was considered immoral and outrageous. Ibsen's work examined the realities that lay behind many façades, possessing a revelatory nature that was disquieting to many contemporaries.
Ibsen largely founded the modern stage by introducing a critical eye and free inquiry into the conditions of life and issues of morality. Victorian-era plays were expected to be [[Morality play|moral dramas]] with noble protagonists pitted against darker forces. Every drama was expected to result in a morally appropriate conclusion, meaning that goodness was to bring happiness, and immorality only pain. Ibsen challenged this notion and the beliefs of his times and shattered the illusions of his audiences.
==Family and youth==
He was born to Knud Ibsen and Marichen Altenburg, a relatively well-to-do merchant family, in the small port town of [[Skien]], [[Norway]], which was primarily noted for shipping timber. He was a descendant of some of the oldest and most distinguished families of Norway, like the Paus family. Shortly after his birth, however, his family's fortunes took a significant turn for the worse. His mother turned to religion for solace, while his father declined into a severe [[clinical depression|depression]]. The characters in his plays often mirror his parents, and his themes often deal with issues of financial difficulty as well as moral conflicts stemming from dark private secrets hidden from society.
At fifteen, Ibsen left home. He moved to the small town [[Grimstad]] to become an apprentice [[pharmacist]] and began writing plays. In [[1846]], he fathered an illegitimate child with a [[Domestic worker|servant]] maid whom he rejected. Ibsen came to [[Oslo|Christiania]] intending to attend university, but cast off the idea, preferring to commit to writing. His first play, the tragedy ''[[Catiline (play)|Catilina]]'' ([[1850]]), was published under the [[pseudonym]] '''Brynjolf Bjarme''', when he was only 22, but it was not performed. His first play to see production was ''[[The Burial Mound]]'' ([[1850]]), however, it did not receive much attention. Still, Ibsen was determined to be a [[playwright]], although he was not to write again for some years.
==Life and writings==
He spent the next several years employed at the [[Bergen norske Theater|Norwegian Theater]] in [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]], where he was involved in the production of more than 145 plays as a writer, director, and producer. During this period he did not publish any new plays of his own. Despite Ibsen's failure to achieve success as a playwright, he gained a great deal of practical experience at the Norwegian Theater, experience that was to prove valuable when he continued writing.
Ibsen returned to Oslo in [[1858]] to become the creative director of Oslo's National Theater. He married Suzannah Thoresen the same year and they gave birth to their only child, [[Sigurd Ibsen|Sigurd]]. The couple lived in very poor financial circumstances and Ibsen became very disenchanted with life in Norway. In [[1864]] he left Oslo and went to [[Italy]] in self-imposed exile. He was not to return to his native land for the next 27 years, and when he returned it was to be as a noted playwright, however controversial.
His next play, ''[[Brand (play)|Brand]]'' ([[1865]]), was to bring him the critical acclaim he sought, along with a measure of financial success, as was his next play, ''[[Peer Gynt]]'' ([[1867]]), to which [[Edvard Grieg]] famously composed the [[incidental music]].
With success, he became more confident and began to introduce more and more his own beliefs and judgments into the drama, exploring what he termed the "drama of ideas". His next series of plays are often considered his Golden Age, when he entered the height of his power and influence, becoming the center of dramatic controversy across Europe.
Ibsen moved from Italy to [[Dresden]], [[Germany]] in [[1868]]. Here he spent years writing the play he himself regarded as his main work, ''[[Emperor and Galilean]]'' ([[1873]]), dramatizing the life and times of the Roman emperor [[Julian the Apostate]]. But although Ibsen himself always looked back on this play as the cornerstone of his entire works, very few shared his opinion. And his next works would be much more acclaimed.
[[Image:Ibsen-Dresden.jpg|left|thumb|170px|Portrait from around 1870]]
Ibsen moved to [[Munich]] in [[1875]] and published ''[[A Doll's House]]'' in [[1879]]. The play is a scathing criticism of the traditional roles of men and women in Victorian marriage.
Ibsen followed ''A Doll's House'' with ''[[Ghosts (play)|Ghosts]]'' ([[1881]]), another scathing commentary on Victorian morality, in which a widow reveals to her pastor that she has hidden the evils of her marriage for its duration. The pastor had advised her to marry her then fiancé despite his philandering, and she did so in the belief that her love would reform him. But she was not to receive the result she was promised. Her husband's philandering continued right up until his death, and the result is that her son is syphilitic. Even the mention of [[venereal disease]] was scandalous, but to show that even a person who followed society's ideals of morality had no protection against it, that was beyond scandalous. Hers was not the noble life which Victorians believed would result from fulfilling one's duty rather than following one's desires. Those idealized |
nine and that early [[marriageable age|marriages]] were common in most cultures until fairly recent times.
However, other Muslim scholars point to other traditions that conflict with those attributed to Aisha in this matter. If the other traditions are right, this would imply that Aisha was either confused in her dating, was exaggerating her youth at marriage, or that her stories (which were not written down until more than 100 years after her death) had been garbled in transmission. If we believe traditions that say she was post-pubescent when married, then these other traditions, from [[Ibn Ishaq]] and [[Tabari]] and others, seem much more convincing.
From the viewpoint of the Islamic clergy, the [[ulema]], this explanation, while relieving them of one difficulty, poses another. The "late marriage" argument values the biographical and historical literature, the [[sira]], over the canonical [[hadith]], or oral traditions accepted by the ulema. However, anything that threatens the value of the hadith, and especially hadith narrated by Aisha, threatens the whole elaborate structure of Islamic law, or [[sharia]]. The [[Shi'a]] version of shari'a is less at risk in this one instance, as the Shi'a deprecate anything sourced to Aisha.
Liberal Muslims do not see any problem with saving Muhammad's character at the expense of shari'a. Conservative Muslims, and the ulema, tend to embrace the "early puberty" theories.
=== Evidence that Aisha was nine when the marriage was consummated ===
These traditions are from the hadith collections of [[Bukhari]] (d. [[870]]) and [[Muslim b. al-Hajjaj]] (d. [[875]]). These two collections are in general regarded as the most authentic by [[Sunni]] Muslims.
* Sahih Muslim Book 008, Number 3310: 'Aisha (Allah be pleased with her) reported: Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) married me when I was six years old, and I was admitted to his house when I was nine years old.
* Sahih Bukhari Volume 7, Book 62, Number 88 Narrated 'Urwa: The Prophet wrote the (marriage contract) with 'Aisha while she was six years old and consummated his marriage with her while she was nine years old and she remained with him for nine years (i.e. till his death).
* Sahih Bukhari Volume 7, Book 62, Number 64 Narrated 'Aisha: that the Prophet married her when she was six years old and he consummated his marriage when she was nine years old, and then she remained with him for nine years (i.e., till his death).
* Sahih Bukhari 8:151, Narrated 'Aisha: "I used to play with the dolls in the presence of the Prophet , and my girl friends also used to play with me. When Allah's Apostle used to enter (my dwelling place) they used to hide themselves, but the Prophet would call them to join and play with me. (The playing with the dolls and similar images is forbidden, but it was allowed for 'Aisha at that time, as she was a little girl, not yet reached the age of puberty.) (Fateh-al-Bari page 143, Vol.13)
* Sahih Bukhari vol. 5, Book 58, Number 234 Narrated 'Aisha: The prophet engaged me when I was a girl of six. We went to Medina and stayed at the home of Harith Kharzraj. Then I got ill and my hair fell down. Later on my hair grew (again) and my mother, Um Ruman, came to me while I was playing in a swing with some of my girl friends. She called me, and I went to her, not knowing what she wanted to do to me. She caught me by the hand and made me stand at the door of the house. I was breathless then, and when my breathing became all right, she took some water and rubbed my face and head with it. Then she took me into the house. There in the house I saw some Ansari women who said, "Best wishes and Allah's blessing and a good luck." Then she entrusted me to them and they prepared me (for the marriage).
Other hadith in Bukhari repeat this information.
History from [[Tabari]], volume 9, page 131
* "Then the men and women got up and left. The Messenger of God consummated his marriage with me in my house when I was nine years old. Neither a camel nor a sheep was slaughtered on behalf of me"......(The Prophet) married her three years before the Emigration, when she was seven years old and consummated the marriage when she was nine years old, after he had emigrated to Medina in Shawwal. She was eighteen years old when he died.
=== Evidence that Aisha was older than nine ===
* According to [[Ibn Hisham]]'s recension of [[Ibn Ishaq]]'s (d. [[768]]) biography of Prophet Muhammad, the ''Sirat Rashul Allah'', the earliest surviving biography of Muhammad, Aisha accepted Islam before [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]]. If true, then Aisha accepted Islam during the first few years of Islam. She could not have been less than 14 years in 1 AH - the time she got married (Al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, Ibn Hisham, Vol 1, Pg 227 - 234, Arabic, Maktabah al-Riyadh al-hadithah, Al-Riyadh).
* [[Tabari]] reports that when Abu Bakr planned on migrating to [[Ethiopia]] (8 years before [[Hijrah]]), he went to Mut`am - with whose son Aisha was engaged at that time - and asked him to take Aisha as his son's wife. Mut`am refused because Abu Bakr had converted to Islam. If Aisha was only six years old at the time of her betrothal to Muhammad, she could not have been born at the time Abu Bakr decided on migrating to [[Ethiopia]]. ''Tehqiq e umar e Siddiqah e Ka'inat, Habib ur Rahman Kandhalwi'', p. 38.
* Tabari in his treatise on Islamic history reports that Abu Bakr had four children and all four were born during the [[Jahiliyyah]] - the pre Islamic period. If Aisha was born in the period of jahiliyyah, she could not have been less than 14 years in 1 AH. ''Tarikh al-umam wa al-mamloo'k'', Al-Tabari, Vol. 4, p. 50.
* According to Ibn Hajar, [[Fatima Zahra|Fatima]] was five years older than Aisha. Fatima is reported to have been born when Muhammad was 35 years old. Muhammad migrated to Medina when he was 52, making Aisha 14 years old in 1 AH. ''Tamyeez al-Sahaabah'', Ibn Hajar al-Asqalaniy'', Vol. 4, p. 377.
* According to Abd ar Rahman ibn Abi Zannad, Aisha was 10 years younger than her sister Asma. (Siyar a´lâm an-nubalâ', adh-Dhahabî, Vol. 2, p. 289, Mu'assat ar-Risâla, Beirut, 1992). That is also confirmed by Ibn Kathir (al-Bidâya wa-n-nihâya, Ibn Kathîr, Bd. 8, S. 371, Dâr al-Fikr al-´Arabî, al-Dschîza, 1933). Virtually all other historical reports also agree in this matter. Ibn Kathir also reports that Asma was present when her son died in 73 AH and she herself died 5 days thereafter (other reports differ slightly, giving between 5 and 100 days between the deaths of the two). At the time of her death she was 100 years old (al-Bidâya wa-n-nihâya, Ibn Kathîr, Vol. 8, p. 372, Dâr al-Fikr al-´Arabî, al-Dschîza, 1933). This is also confirmed by Ibn Hadschar al-´Asqalânî who reports that she died in 73 or 74 AH at the age of 100 years. (Taqrîb at-tahdhîb, Ibn Hadschar al-´Asqalânî, p. 654, Bâb fi-n-nisâ', harfu l-alif, Lucknow). But this means, of course, that Asma was 27 or 28 years old at 1 AH and the 10 years youger Aisha already 17 or 18, so when Muhammad and Aisha started to live together she was already 19 or 20.
* Aisha has become known for having at the side of Muhammad in the battle of Badr (see for example hadiths by Muslim) as well as in the battle of Uhud (see e.g. hadiths by Bukhari). Bukhari also reports (Kitâb al-maghâzî, Bâb Ghazawat al-Khandaq wa-hiya l-Ahzâb) that the Prophet did not allow 14 year olds to participate but allowed them to join on their 15th birthday. This implies that Aisha was older at that time of these battles. However, it's also possible that the age restriction was not applied to Aisha as a wife of Muhammad.
* In a hadith of Bukhari, Aisha says: "I was a young girl (dschâriya) when Surah al-Qamar was revealed (Sahîh al-Bukhârî, Kitâb at-tafsîr, Bâb qaulihî Ta´âlâ "Bali-s-sâ´atu mau´iduhum wa-s-sâ´atu ad-hâ wa-amarr"). That Surah was revealed 8 years before Hijra and at that time Aisha would have been at most a baby (sabiyya) had she been only 9 years old at the age of her marriage. The word dschariya is most fitting for a 6-13 year old which would mean her age of marriage would be anywhere between 14 and 21. However, the exact dates of when al-Qamar was revealed is disputed. Thus, making this a weak argument.
* Most Muslims generally agree that Aisha had reached the age of puberty at her marriage. This would be unlikely for a 9 year old. In addition, Aisha was already termed 'bikr', meaning virgin adult woman even when the marriage was discussed, i.e. 3 years before the actual marriage. (Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Vol. 6, p. 210, Dâr Ihyâ' at-Turâth al-´Arabî, Beirut).
* Some Muslim scholars{{fact}} say that the hadith collectors Bukhari and Muslim applied less stringent standards to hadith relating to history than they did to hadith relating directly to prayer and family law. Hence a historical tradition included in Bukhari or Muslim cannot be presumed to be "strong".
== Sunni and Shia views of Aisha ==
[[Sunni]] historians praise Aisha as a Mother of Believers and a learned woman, who tirelessly recounted stories from the life of Muhammad and explained Muslim history and traditions. She is considered to be one of the foremost scholars of Islam's early age and is revered as a role model by millions of women.
[[Shi'a]] historians take a much dimmer view of Aisha. They believe that Ali should have been the first caliph, and that the other three caliphs were usurpers. Aisha not only supported [[Umar]], [[Uthman]] and her father [[Abu Bakr]], she also raised an army and fought against [[Ali]], her step-son-in-law. The Shia believe that in opposing Ali, the divinely appointed successor of Muhammad, she committed a grievous sin.
==See also==
* [[Muhammad]]
* [[Muhammad's marriages]]
* [[Family tree of Aisha]]
==External links==
Sunni view of Aisha:
* [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/history/biographies/sahaabah/bio.AISHAH_BINT_A |
([[1913]]&ndash;[[1916|16]])
* [[James McGowen]] ([[1910]]&ndash;[[1913|13]], first Labor premier of New South Wales)
'''Victoria'''
* [[Joan Kirner]] ([[1990]]&ndash;[[1992|92]], first female Premier of Victoria)
* [[John Cain]] ([[1982]]&ndash;[[1990|90]])
* [[John Cain (senior)]] ([[1943]], [[1945]]&ndash;[[1947|47]], [[1952]]&ndash;[[1955|55]])
* [[Edmond Hogan]] ([[1927]]&ndash;[[1928|28]], [[1929]]&ndash;[[1932|32]])
* [[George Prendergast]] ([[1924]])
* [[George Elmslie (Australian politician)|George Elmslie]] ([[1913]])
'''Queensland'''
* [[Wayne Goss]] ([[1989]]&ndash;[[1996|96]])
*[[Vince Gair]] ([[1952]]-[[1957|57]])
*[[Ned Hanlon]] ([[1946]]-[[1952|52]])
*[[Frank Cooper]] ([[1942]]-[[1946|46]])
*[[William Forgan Smith]] ([[1932]]-[[1942|42]])
*[[William McCormack]] ([[1925]]-[[1929|29]])
*[[William Gillies]] ([[1925]])
* [[Ted Theodore]] ([[1919]]&ndash;[[1925|25]])
* [[Thomas Joseph Ryan|Tom Ryan]] ([[1915]]&ndash;[[1919|19]])
* [[Anderson Dawson]] ([[1899]], world's first leader of a parliamentary socialist government)
'''Western Australia'''
* [[Geoff Gallop|Dr Geoff Gallop]] ([[2001]]-[[2005]])
* [[Carmen Lawrence|Dr Carmen Lawrence]] ([[1990]]&ndash;[[1993|93]], first female Premier of an Australian state)
* [[Peter Dowding]] ([[1988]]&ndash;[[1990|90]])
* [[Brian Burke]] ([[1983]]&ndash;[[1988|88]])
* [[John Tonkin]] ([[1971]]&ndash;[[1974|74]])
* [[Albert Hawke]] ([[1953]]&ndash;[[1959|59]])
* [[Frank Wise]] ([[1945]]&ndash;[[1947|47]])
* [[John Willcock]] ([[1936]]&ndash;[[1945|45]])
* [[Phillip Collier]] ([[1924]]&ndash;[[1930|30]], [[1933]]&ndash;[[1936|36]])
* [[John Scaddan]] ([[1911]]&ndash;[[1916|16]])
* [[Henry Daglish]] ([[1904]]&ndash;[[1905|05]], first Labor premier of Western Australia)
'''South Australia'''
* [[Lynn Arnold]] ([[1992]]&ndash;[[1993|93]])
* [[John Bannon]] ([[1982]]&ndash;[[1992|92]])
* [[Des Corcoran]] ([[1979]])
* [[Don Dunstan]] ([[1967]]&ndash;[[1968|68]], [[1970]]&ndash;[[1979|79]])
* [[Frank Walsh]] ([[1965]]&ndash;[[1967|67]])
* [[Robert Richards]] ([[1933]])
* [[Lionel Hill]] ([[1926]]&ndash;[[1927|27]], [[1930]]&ndash;[[1933|33]])
* [[John Gunn (Australian politician)|John Gunn]] ([[1924]]&ndash;[[1926|26]])
* [[Crawford Vaughan]] ([[1915]]&ndash;[[1917|17]])
* [[John Verran]] ([[1910]]&ndash;[[1912|12]])
* [[Thomas Price]] ([[1905]]&ndash;[[1909|09]], first Labor premier of South Australia)
'''Tasmania'''
* [[Jim Bacon]] ([[1998]]&ndash;[[2004]])
* [[Michael Field (Australian politician)|Michael Field]] ([[1989]]&ndash;[[1992|92]])
* [[Harry Holgate]] ([[1981]]&ndash;[[1982|82]])
* [[Bill Neilson]] ([[1975]]&ndash;[[1977|77]])
* [[Eric Reece]] ([[1958]]&ndash;[[1969|69]], [[1972]]&ndash;[[1975|75]])
* [[Edward Brooker]] ([[1947]]&ndash;[[1948|48]])
* [[Robert Cosgrove]] ([[1939]]&ndash;[[1947|47]], [[1948]]&ndash;[[1958|58]])
* [[Edmund Dwyer-Gray]] ([[1939]])
* [[Albert Ogilvie]] ([[1934]]&ndash;[[1939|39]])
* [[Joseph Lyons]] ([[1923]]&ndash;[[1928|28]])
* [[John Earle (Australian politician)|John Earle]] ([[1909]], [[1914]]&ndash;[[1916|16]])
'''Australian Capital Territory'''
* [[Rosemary Follett]] ([[1989]], [[1991]]&ndash;[[1995|95]], first female head of an Australian state or territory)
==Other past Labor politicians==
* [[Lance Barnard]]
* [[John Beasley]]
* [[Kim Beazley, senior]]
* [[Lionel Bowen]]
* [[Clyde Cameron]]
* [[Jim Cairns]]
* [[Rex Connor]]
* [[Frank Crean]]
* [[Fred Daly]]
* [[Al Grassby]]
* [[Ted Holloway]]
* [[Brian Howe]]
* [[Lionel Murphy]]
* [[Graham Richardson]]
* [[Ted Theodore]]
* [[Eddie Ward]]
* [[Ralph Willis]]
* [[John Button]]
For current ALP federal politicians, see:
* [[List of members of the Australian House of Representatives]]
* [[List of members of the Australian Senate]]
== See also ==
* [[Politics of Australia]]
* [[Premiers of the Australian states]]
* [[List of political parties in Australia]]
* [[Emma Miller]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.alp.org.au/ Australian Labor Party]
* [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/03/21/1079823242925.html Labor coast to coast? Bloody hell!] (critical commentary)
* [http://nla.gov.au/nla.aus-vn2599036 Australian Labor Party (ALP) ephemera] digitised and held by the National Library of Australia
* [http://www.democracy4sale.org/ Critics of political donations]
{{Australian political parties}}
[[Category:Australian labour movement]]
[[Category:Labour parties]]
[[Category:Political parties in Australia]]
[[Category:Social democratic parties]]
[[Category:Socialist International]]
[[de:Australian Labor Party]]
[[eo:Aŭstralia Labora Partio]]
[[es:Partido Laborista (Australia)]]
[[fr:Parti travailliste australien]]
[[lt:Australijos darbininkų partija]]
[[pl:Australian Labor Party]]
[[ru:Австралийская лейбористская партия]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 18</title>
<id>1496</id>
<revision>
<id>41777493</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T17:58:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Births */ added reason</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=18}}
|}
'''[[August 18]]''' is the 230th day of the year (231st in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 135 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1201]] - The [[city]] of [[Riga]] is founded.
*[[1541]] - A [[Portugal|Portuguese]] ship drifts ashore in the ancient [[Japan|Japanese]] province of [[Higo Province|Higo]] (modern day [[Kumamoto Prefecture]]). (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: [[July 27]], 1541)
*[[1572]] - [[Wedding]] in [[Paris]] of the [[Huguenot]] King [[Henry IV of France|Henry III]] of [[Navarre]] with [[Marguerite de Valois]], in a supposed attempt to reconcile [[Protestantism|Protestants]] and [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]].
*[[1587]] - [[Virginia Dare]], granddaughter of Gov. [[John White (surveyor)|John White]] of the [[Colony of Roanoke]], becomes the first [[England|English]] child born in the [[Americas]].
*[[1590]] - [[John White]], the governor of the [[Colony of Roanoke]], returns from a supply-trip to [[England]] and finds his settlement deserted.
*[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Weldon Railroad]] - [[United States|Union]] forces try to cut a vital [[Confederate States of America | Confederate]] supply-line into [[Petersburg, Virginia]], by attacking the [[Weldon Railroad]].
*[[1868]] - [[France|French]] [[astronomy|astronomer]] [[Pierre Jules César Janssen]] [[Discoveries of the chemical elements|discovers]] [[helium]].
*[[1877]] - [[Asaph Hall]] discovers [[Mars (planet)|Martian]] moon [[Phobos (moon)|Phobos]].
*[[1903]] - [[Germany|German]] [[engineer]] [[Karl Jatho]] allegedly flies his self-made, motored gliding [[airplane]] four months before the first flight of the [[Wright Brothers]].
*[[1904]] - [[Chris Watson]] resigns as [[Prime Minister of Australia]] and is succeded by [[George Reid (Australian politician)|George Reid]].
*[[1909]] - [[Tokyo]] mayor [[Yukio Ozaki]] presents [[Washington, D.C.]] with 2,000 cherry trees, which [[William Howard Taft|President Taft]] decides to plant near the [[Potomac River]].
*[[1920]] - [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|19th Amendment to US constitution]] passes, guaranteeing women's [[suffrage]].
*[[1938]] - The [[Thousand Islands Bridge]], connecting [[New York State]], [[United States]] with [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] over the [[St. Lawrence River]], is dedicated by [[U.S. President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]].
*[[1941]] - [[Adolf Hitler]] orders a temporary halt to [[Nazi Germany|Nazi Germany's]] systematic [[euthanasia]] of [[mental illness|mentally ill]] and [[handicapped]] due to protests.
*[[1950]] - [[Julien Lahaut]], the chairman of the [[Communist Party of Belgium]] is assassinated by far-right elements.
*[[1958]] - [[Vladimir Nabokov]]'s controversial novel ''[[Lolita]]'' is published in the United States.
*[[1963]] - [[American civil rights movement]]: [[James Meredith]] becomes the first black person to graduate from the [[University of Mississippi]].
*[[1965]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Operation Starlite]] begins - [[United States Marines]] destroy a [[Viet Cong]] stronghold on the [[Van Tuong]] peninsula in the first major American ground battle of the war.
*[[1966]] - [[Vietnam War]]: The [[Battle of Long Tan]] occurs, when a patrol of [[Royal Australian Regiment]] encounter the [[Viet Cong]].
*[[1969]] - [[Jimi Hendrix]] plays the unofficial last day of [[Woodstock]].
*[[1971]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] decide to withdraw their troops from [[Vietnam]].
*[[1976]] - In [[North Korea]] at Panmunjom, two [[United States|US]] soldiers are killed while trying to chop down part of a tree in the DMZ which had obscured their view.
*[[1982]] - [[Japan|Japanese]] election law is amended to allow for [[proportional representation]].
*[[1983]] - [[Hurricane Alicia]] hits the [[Texas]] coast, killing 22 people and causing over [[USD]] $1 billion in damage (1983 dollars).
*[[1989]] - Leading presidential hopeful [[Luis Carlos Galán]] is assassinated near [[Bogotá]] in [[Colombia]].
*[[1991]] - [[Collapse of the Soviet Union]]: [[President of the Soviet Union | Soviet President]] [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] is put under [[house arrest]] while on holiday in the [[Crimea]].
*[[1992]] - [[Wang Laboratories]] files for bankruptcy.
*1992 - NBA [[basketball]] player [[Larry Bird]] announces his retirement after winning an [[Olympics|Olympic]] gold medal as a member of the U.S. ''[[Dream Team (basketball)|Dream Team]]''.
*[[2004]] - In [[Dublin]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] the [[Dublin Port Tunnel]] excavation works are completed.
*[[2 |
gn states. These civilizations are delineated along cultural lines, e.g. Western, [[Islam|Islamic]], Sinic, [[Hindu]] etc. In this way, cultures that have long been dominated by the West are reasserting themselves and looking to challenge the status quo. Thus, [[culture]] has replaced the state as the locus of war. This kind of civilizational war, in our time as in times long past, occurs where these cultures buffet up against one another. Some high-profile examples are the Pakistan/India conflict or the battles in the Sudan. This sort of war has defined the field since World War II.
These cultural forces will not contend with state-based armies in the traditional way. When faced with battalions of tanks, jets, and missiles, the cultural opponent dissolves away into the population. They benefit from the territorially constrained states, being able to move freely from one country to the next, while states must negotiate with other sovereign states. The state's spy networks are also severely limited by cultural factors.
==External links==
* {{cite web
| year = 2004
| url = http://www.cia.gov/nic/NIC_2020_2004_05_25_intro.html
| title = Changing Nature of Warfare
| work = National Intelligence Council
| publisher =
| accessdate = January 30
| accessyear = 2006
}}
* {{cite web
| author = Stathis Kalyvas
| year = 2003
| url = http://www.armedgroups.org/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=26
| title = The Sociology of Civil Wars: Warfare and Armed Groups
| work = Armed Groups Project
| accessdate = January 30
| accessyear = 2006
}}
[[Category:Warfare]]
[[nl:Conventionele oorlogvoering]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chauvinism</title>
<id>7312</id>
<revision>
<id>39652338</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T23:14:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.19.46.17</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chauvinism''' is extreme and unreasoning partisanship on behalf of a group to which one belongs, especially when the partisanship includes malice and hatred towards a rival group. The term is derived from [[Nicolas Chauvin]], a soldier under [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], due to his fanatical zeal for his [[Emperor]]. [[Nicolas Chauvin]] was wounded 17 times in the [[Napoleonic Wars]] but nevertheless he continued to fight for France.
The origin and early usage indicate that it was coined to describe excessive [[nationalism]] or [[patriotism]]. An equivalent English term is [[jingoism]]. The term entered public use due to a [[satire|satirical]] treatment of Chauvin in the [[France|French]] [[ play]] ''La Cocarde Tricolore'' (The Three-colored [[Cockade]]).
== Chauvinism as nationalism ==
In "[[Imperialism, Nationalism, Chauvinism]]", ''[[The Review of Politics]]'', p. 457, [[Hannah Arendt]] describes the concept:
:Chauvinism is an almost natural product of the national concept insofar as it springs directly from the old idea of the "national mission." ... (A) nation's mission might be interpreted precisely as bringing its light to other, less fortunate peoples that, for whatever reason, have miraculously been left by history without a national mission. As long as this concept did not develop into the ideology of chauvinism and remained in the rather vague realm of national or even nationalistic pride, it frequently resulted in a high sense of responsibility for the welfare of backward peoples.
(See, for example, [[white man's burden]].)
The word does not require a judgment that the chauvinist is right or wrong in his opinion, only that he is blind and unreasoning in coming to it, ignoring any facts which might temper his fervor. In modern use, however, it is often used pejoratively to imply that the chauvinist is both unreasoning and wrong.
==See also==
{{wiktionary}}
* [[Female chauvinism]]
* [[Female dominance]]
* [[Han chauvinism]]
* [[Internationalism (politics)]]
* [[Male chauvinism]]
* [[Male dominance]]
* [[Misandry]]
* [[Misogyny]]
* [[Sexism]]
[[Category:Nationalism]]
[[Category:Prejudices]]
[[bg:&#1064;&#1086;&#1074;&#1080;&#1085;&#1080;&#1079;&#1098;&#1084;]]
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[[he:שוביניזם]]
[[it:Sciovinismo]]
[[nl:Chauvinisme]]
[[pl:Szowinizm]]
[[ru:Шовинизм]]
[[sr:&#1064;&#1086;&#1074;&#1080;&#1085;&#1080;&#1079;&#1072;&#1084;]]
[[sv:Chauvinism]]
[[zh:&#27801;&#25991;&#20027;&#20041;]]</text>
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<title>Alternative biochemistry</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:26:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
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<comment>references</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alternative biochemistry''' collectively refers to an assortment of [[astrobiology]] theories and hypotheses in which [[life]] can be based on [[biochemistry|biochemical]] systems other than systems based upon [[organic chemistry]], which is used by currently known forms of life. Proponents of such theories sometimes use the expression ''carbon chauvinism'' to disparage the assumption that [[organic compound]]s based on [[carbon]], which form the basis of organic chemistry, are necessarily the basis for all life. Up to this point, however, no non-[[carbon based life-form]] has been discovered.
== Silicon biochemistry ==
The most common other proposed basis for an alternative biochemical system is the [[silicon]] [[atom]], since silicon has many similar [[chemical property|chemical properties]] to carbon and is in the same [[periodic table group]]. Silicon has a number of handicaps as a carbon analogue, however. Because silicon atoms are much bigger, having a larger [[mass]] and [[atomic radius]], they have difficulty forming double or triple [[covalent bond]]s, which are important for a biochemical system. [[Silane]]s, which are [[compound]]s of [[hydrogen]] and silicon that are analogous to the [[alkane]] [[hydrocarbon|hydrocarbons]], are highly reactive with [[water (molecule)|water]], and long-chain silanes spontaneously decompose. Molecules incorporating [[polymer]]s of alternating silicon and [[oxygen]] atoms instead of direct bonds betwen silicon, known collectively as [[silicone]]s, are much more stable; ordinary sand is one such example. However, [[silicon dioxide]], the analogue of [[carbon dioxide]], is a non-[[soluble]] solid at the temperature range where water is liquid, making it difficult for silicon to be introduced into water-based biochemical systems even if the necessary range of biochemical molecules could be constructed out of it.
In general, complex long-chain silicone molecules are still more unstable than their carbon counterparts.
Finally, of the varieties of molecules identified in [[interstellar medium|interstellar space]] as of [[1998]], 84 are based on carbon and 8 are based on silicon. Moreover, of the eight Si-based compounds, four also include carbon within them. This suggests a greater variety of complex carbon compounds throughout the cosmos, providing less of a foundation upon which to build silicon-based biologies. The cosmic abundance of carbon to silicon is roughly 10 to 1.
The [[Earth]], as well as other [[terrestrial planets]] is exceptionally silicon-rich and carbon-poor. However, terrestrial life is carbon based. Rare carbon proved to be much more successful as a life base than abundant silicon.
It is possible, however, that silicon compounds may be biologically useful under certain exotic environmental conditions, either in conjunction with or in a role less directly analogous to carbon. A simple real-world example is the silicate skeletal structure of [[diatom]]s.
== Nitrogen and phosphorus biochemistry ==
[[Nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]] also offer possibilities as the basis for biochemical molecules. Phosphorus can form long chain molecules on its own like carbon, and so potentially could be built up into complex [[macromolecule]]s, but phosphorus is fairly reactive. In combination with nitrogen, however, it can form much more stable covalent bonds between phosphorus and nitrogen; compounds containing these can form a wide range of molecules, including rings.
Earth's atmosphere is approximately 80% nitrogen, but this would probably not be much use to a P-N lifeform since molecular nitrogen (N<sub>2</sub>) is nearly inert and energetically expensive to "[[nitrogen fixation|fix]]" due to its triple bond. Certain Earth [[plant]]s such as [[legume]]s can fix nitrogen using [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] [[anaerobe|anaerobic]] [[bacterium|bacteria]] contained within their root nodules. A [[nitrogen dioxide]] (NO<sub>2</sub>) or [[ammonia]] (NH<sub>3</sub>) atmosphere would be more useful. Nitrogen also forms a number of oxides, such as [[nitrogen monoxide]], [[dinitrogen oxide]], and dinitrogen tetraoxide, and all would be present in a nitrogen dioxide-rich atmosphere.
In a nitrogen dioxide atmosphere, phosphorus-nitrogen based plant analog |
l'' (sometimes ''trysexual'') is either an extension of, or a pun on ''bisexual''. In its more serious usage, it indicates an interest in transgender persons in addition to [[cissexual]] men and women. In its more humorous usage, it refers to someone who will ''try'' any ''sexual'' experience.
*''[[Biphobia]]'' describes a fear or condemnation of bisexuality, usually based in a belief that only heterosexuality and homosexuality are genuine orientations and appropriate lifestyles. Bisexual persons may also be the target of [[homophobia]] from those who consider only heterosexuality appropriate. The reverse can also apply in that bisexual persons may be targets of [[heterophobia]] or discrimination by some gays/homosexuals.
*''[[Passively-bi]], aka [[open-minded]]'' is a non-gender specific term that describes a straight or bi-curious person who is ''open to'' incidental or direct contact (typically in a [[Group sex]] scenario) from a [[MOTSS]], usually without reciprocation.
*''[[Actively-bi]]'' is a non-gender specific term that describes a bi-curious/bisexual person who ''initiates'' direct contact with a [[MOTSS]].
==Bisexuality in modern Western entertainment==
Comparatively positive and notable portrayals of bisexuality can be found in mainstream movies such as: ''[[Goldfish Memory]]''; ''[[The Rocky Horror Picture Show]]''; and ''[[Henry and June]]''. In [[popular music]], many of the songs of [[The Smiths]] are commonly cited as classic examples. In notable [[graphic novel]]s, ''[[Love & Rockets]]'' subtly portrays bisexuality. ''[[Krazy Kat]]'' is an early comic-strip character whose loves are not limited by gender. Notable novels containing significant bisexual characters are: Sean David Wright's ''Two For One--a novel about having choices''; [[Anne Rice]]'s ''Cry To Heaven''; [[Rosamond Lehmann]]'s ''Dusty Answer''; [[Mary Renault]]'s ''The Last of the Wine'' and ''The Persian Boy''; [[Colette]]'s ''Claudine'' novels; [[David Leavitt]]'s ''The Lost Language of Cranes'' and ''While England Sleeps''; [[Jeanette Winterson]]'s ''The Passion''; [[Marge Piercy]]'s ''Woman on the Edge of Time''; [[Alice Walker]]'s ' 'The Color Purple' '; [[Jane Rule]]'s ''Young in One Another's Arms''; and [[Sylvia Brownrigg]]'s ''The Metaphysical Touch''. Non-fiction scholarship, such as [[Marjorie Garber]]'s ''Vice Versa: Bisexuality and the Eroticism of Everyday Life'' (1995), [[Camille Paglia]]'s ''Sexual Personae'' (1990) and Louis Crompton's ''Byron and Greek Love'' (1985), has uncovered previously hidden histories of bisexuality. On the TV show [[Will & Grace]], the character of Karen is described as "omnisexual" and although is married to a man, often kisses Grace and appears to have had many female lovers throughout her life. The blatantly ambisexual character [[Jack Harkness]] of ''[[Doctor Who]]'' and ''[[Torchwood]]'' is often described as "omnisexual" by his fans. [[Rebecca Romijn-Stamos]] portrayed a bisexual con artist in the film [[Femme Fatale]]. On the HBO drama Oz, [[Christopher Meloni]] played [[Chris Keller]], a bisexual sociopath who tortured, raped, and had numerous sexual encounters with various men and women whom he met.
There are also negative media portrayals, reflecting prejudices and stereotypes. For instance, the television show ''[[Friends]]'' sported a short song about the topic that expresses a common prejudice on the subject:
<div>
:''Sometimes men love women,''
:''Sometimes men love men,''
:''Then there are bisexuals''
:''Though some people say they're kidding themselves''
</div>
And a ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' joke ran thus:
:''"A bisexual is a person who reaches down the front of somebody's pants and is satisfied with whatever they find."'' -- [[Dana Carvey]] as the church lady, ''Saturday Night Live''.
Prejudice is also expressed in the storylines of movies in which the bisexual characters conceal murderous neuroses (''[[Basic Instinct]]'', ''Black Widow'', ''[[Blue Velvet]],'' ''Cruising,'' ''Girl Interrupted'').
== Bisexuality in animals ==
:''See: [[Non-human animal sexuality]]''
Many non-human animal species also exhibit bisexual behavior. This is particularly common in [[hermaphroditic]] animals, but is also known in many other species such as the [[bonobo]] Chimpanzee. Bisexuality has been observed in over 500 species .
==See also==
*[[Biphobia]]
*[[Critiques of sexual behavior]]
*[[List of bisexuals]]
*[[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people]]
*[[List of LGBT-related organizations]]
*[[Pansexuality]]
*[[Bisexual chic]]
==References==
;General
*[[Louis Crompton]]. ''Homosexuality and Civilization,'' Cambridge, Mass. and London, 2003. ISBN 067401197X
*[[Garrett Jones]]. ''Coming Clean about Bisexuality'', UK, 2000. Online book freely downloadable from author's website.
*[[Michel Larivière]]. ''Homosexuels et bisexuels célèbres,'' Delétraz Editions, 1997. ISBN 2911110196
*[[Kenji Yoshino]]. "[http://www.kenjiyoshino.com/articles/epistemiccontract.pdf The Epistemic Contract of Bisexual Erasure]". ''[[Stanford Law Review]]'', 52 (2), 2000.
;Ancient Greece
*[[Kenneth J. Dover]]. ''Greek Homosexuality,'' New York; Vintage Books, 1978. ISBN 0394742249
*[[Thomas K. Hubbard]]. ''Homosexuality in Greece and Rome,'' U. of California Press, 2003. [http://www.utexas.edu/courses/cc348hubbard/] ISBN 0520234308
*Herald Patzer. ''Die Griechische Knabenliebe [Greek Pederasty],'' Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1982. In: Sitzungsberichte der Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft an der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main, Vol. 19 No. 1.
*W. A. Percy III.'' Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece,'' University of Illinois Press, 1996. ISBN 0252022092
;Muslim Lands
*[[Stephen O. Murray]] and [[Will Roscoe]], et al. ''Islamic Homosexualities: Culture, History, and Literature,'' New York: New York University Press, 1997. ISBN 0814774687
*J. Wright & Everett Rowson. ''Homoeroticism in Classical Arabic Literature''. 1998.
*'Homosexuality' & other articles in the ''[http://www.iranica.com/ Encyclopædia Iranica]''
See also: [[Abu Nuwas]], [[Hafez]].
;Japan
*[[Gary Leupp]]. ''Male Colors: The Construction of Homosexuality in Tokugawa Japan,'' Berkeley, University of California Press, 1995. ISBN 0520209001
*[[Tsuneo Watanabe]] & [[Jun'ichi Iwata]]. ''The Love of the Samurai. A Thousand Years of Japanese Homosexuality,'' London: GMP Publishers, 1987. ISBN 0854491155
;Film
* Bryant, Wayne M.. ''Bisexual Characters in Film: From Anais to Zee''. Haworth Gay & Lesbian Studies, 1997. ISBN: 1560238941
==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{wiktionarypar|bisexuality}}
* [http://www.biresource.org/ Bisexual Resource Center (international)]
* [http://www.bitribune.com/ Bi Tribune Magazine (US)]
* [http://www.bisexual.org/ The Bi Foundation]
* [http://www.bimagazine.org/ Bi Magazine (US)]
* [http://www.bisquish.com/ BiSquish daily news & events (international)]
* [http://www.binetusa.org/ BiNet USA]
* [http://www.biflag.com Bi Flag].
* [http://serf.org/~jon/soc.bi/faq/a.html <code>soc.bi</code> newsgroup FAQ] Bi newsgroup.
* [http://www.bitheway.org/ BiTheWay.org] Bi community online resource (international)
* [http://www.bi.org/ Bi.org] Serving the World Bisexual Community (international)
* [http://www.bicommunitynews.co.uk/ ''BCN'' magazine]. The long-running UK bi cultural/political magazine.
*[http://www.beyondbarriers.org.uk/docs/Bisexual_Participatory_Appraisal_Research.pdf Exploring Biphobia]. (144 KB [[PDF]]). Report on the problems caused by stereotyping of bisexuals.
* [http://www.shybi-girls.com/ Bi / Bi-curious Women's Forum]
* [http://www.bimarried.com/ Bi Married Men's Support Group]
* [http://www.bimen.org/ Bi Men's Support Group]
* [http://www.bisexualplayground.com/ Bisexual Playground] Bisexual Online Community
* [http://www.bicafe.com/ Bi Cafe] International Bisexual forum
* [http://www.androphile.org The Androphile Project] Extensive resource of gay and bisexual history.
* [http://www.nyabn.org/ New York Area Bisexual Network (US)]
* [http://www.afterellen.com/TV/karenwalker.html AfterEllen.com] News, Reviews and Commentary on Lesbian and Bisexual Women in Entertainment and the Media.
* [http://www.afterellen.com/TV/coupling.html AfterEllen.com] News, Reviews and Commentary on Lesbian and Bisexual Women in Entertainment and the Media.
[[Category:LGBT]]
[[Category:Sexual orientation]]
[[Category:Sexual orientation and identity]]
[[Category:bisexual community]]
[[ar:مغايرة]]
[[bg:Бисексуалност]]
[[de:Bisexualität]]
[[et:Biseksuaalsus]]
[[es:Bisexualidad]]
[[eo:Ambaŭseksamo]]
[[fr:Bisexualité]]
[[gd:Dà-mhiannachd]]
[[id:Biseksualitas]]
[[he:ביסקסואליות]]
[[it:Bisessualità]]
[[ja:両性愛]]
[[nl:Biseksualiteit]]
[[pl:Heteroseksualizm]]
[[pt:Bissexualidade]]
[[ro:Bisexualitate]]
[[ru:Бисексуальность]]
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[[sr:Бисексуалност]]
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<title>BATMAN</title>
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<page>
<title>Brigitte Bardot</title>
<id>3845</id>
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<comment>/* Career */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brigettebardot.jpg|right|thumb|Brigitte Bardot]]'''Brigitte Bardot''' (born [[September 28]], [[1934]]) is a [[France|French]] [[Actor|actress]] and [[model (person)|model]], daughter of an industrialist. Also known simply as '''BB''' ("Bri-Br |
oduces primarily [[grain]]s, [[rice]], [[maize|corn]], [[sugarbeet]]s, [[soybean]]s, [[meat]], and [[dairy product]]s, while the south specializes in producing [[fruit]]s, [[vegetable]]s, [[olive oil]], [[wine]], and [[durum wheat]].
Even though much of its [[mountain]]ous [[terrain]] is unsuitable for [[farming]], Italy has a large work force (1.4 million) employed in farming. Most farms are small, with the average farm only 7 [[hectare]]s. In other words, there is not a lot of farming because of the region.
==Italian exports==
Italy's main exports are in the fields of [[food]], [[clothing]], and [[luxury]] [[cars]]. Famous Italian foods have been brought to the rest of the world through Italian [[emigration]], especially to the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]] and [[Australia]]. Italian foods include a multitude of [[pasta]] dishes (originating in [[1500]]s Italy), [[pizza]] (born in [[1800]]s [[Naples]]), [[ice cream]], [[parma ham]], [[rice]], [[parmesan cheese]] and wine. The most famous Italian wines are probably the [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] [[Chianti]] and [[Piedmont]]ese [[Pinot Grigio]].
Quality goods in which Italy specialises are often [[Denominazione di Origine Controllata|DOC]] or 'of controlled origin'. This DOC [[certificate]], which is attributed by the [[European Union]], ensures that the origins and work that goes into a product are recognised. This certification is considered important by producers and consumers alike, in order to avoid confusion with low-quality mass-produced [[ersatz]] products, such as [[Cambozola]], a [[Germany|German]] copy of [[Gorgonzola]].
Italy is known also for its fashion houses; [[Versace]], [[Valentino]], [[Fendi]], [[Gucci]], [[Prada]], [[Cavalli]], [[Sergio Rossi]], [[Dolce & Gabbana]], [[Benetton]], [[Armani]] and others.
[[Ferrari]], [[Maserati]] and [[Lamborghini]] are all associated with top-of-the-line carmaking, but the main Italian car producer, [[FIAT]], has a mediocre reputation in Italy and abroad.
==See also==
*[http://www.oecd.org/italy/ OECD's Italy country Web site] and [http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/italy/ OECD Economic Survey of Italy]
*[[Economy of Europe]]
*[[Commemorative coins of Italy]]
==External links==
*[http://www.bancaditalia.it/rootcollection;internal&action=_setlanguage.action?LANGUAGE=en Banca D'Italia (Italy's Central Bank)]
*[http://www.istat.it/ National Institute of Statistic (ISTAT)] (in Italian)
*[http://www.icstat.org/ International Cooperation Center for Statistics (ICSTAT)]
* Sebastian Cresswell-Turner, ''[[The New Statesman]]'', [[20 September]] 2004, [http://www.newstatesman.com/People/200409200022 "House prices? In Italy, too, people talk of little else"]
* [http://www.oecd.org/document/0/0,2340,en_2649_201185_35010880_1_1_1_1,00.html Report about economic survey of Italy by OECD (May 2005)]
* [http://www.info-brevetti.org The Italian portal about patents and intellectual property]
{{EU countries}}
{{OECD}}
{{WTO}}
[[Category:Economy of Italy| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Italy]]
[[Category:European Union member economies]]
[[es:Economía de Italia]]
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[[pt:Economia da Itália]]</text>
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<title>Communications in Italy</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
25 million (1999)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
20.5 million (1999)
'''Telephone system:'''
modern, well-developed, fast; fully automated telephone, telex, and data services
<br>''domestic:''
high-capacity cable and microwave radio relay trunks
<br>''international:''
satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (with a total of 5 antennas - 3 for Atlantic Ocean and 2 for Indian Ocean), 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region), and NA Eutelsat; 21 submarine cables
'''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:'''
AM about 100, FM about 4,600, shortwave 9 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
50.5 million (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
358 (plus 4,728 repeaters) (1995)
'''Televisions:'''
30.5 million (1997)
'''[[Internet]] Service Providers ([[Internet Service Provider|ISP]]s):'''
93 (Italy and Holy See) (2000)
'''Internet users:'''
19.25 million (2001)
'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' IT
[[Category:Communications by country|Italy]]
[[Category:Communications in Italy| ]]</text>
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<title>Transportation in Italy</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Transport]] in [[Italy]]'''
== [[Railways]] ==
*''total:'' [[1 E7 m|19,394 km]], also on [[Sardinia]] and [[Sicily]].
*''standard gauge:'' 18,071 km 1.435-m gauge; Italian Railways (FS) operates 16,014 km of the total standard gauge routes (11,322 km electrified)
*''narrow gauge:'' 112 km 1.000-m gauge (112 km electrified); 1,211 km 0.950-m gauge (153 km electrified) (1998)
[[Trenitalia]] SpA is the passenger and freight transport company of [[Ferrovie dello Stato]].
[http://members.aol.com/Zacarious1/his.italy.html Italian Railroad Stations (history)]
High Speed Trains:
(Lines)
*Turin-Milan (under construction, 2006)
*Milan-Verona-Venice (under development)
*Milan-Bologna-Florence-Rome-Naples (under construction and operating, 2006)
*Napoli-Sicily Bridge-Palermo (under development)
*Milan-Genoa (under development)
*Milan-Lyon(France) (Alps tunnel under development, 2012)
see www.tav.it
Cities with [[subway]] railway systems:
* [[Rome]] 2 lines + 1 under construction
* [[Naples]] 6 lines + 1 under construction
* [[Milan]] 3 lines + 2 under construction
* [[Genoa]] 1 line
* [[Palermo]] 1 line
* [[Catania]] 1 line
* [[Bari]] 3 lines under construction (light metro)
* [[Bergamo]] 2 lines under construction (light metro)
* [[Turin]] 1 line under construction
* [[Brescia]] 1 line under construction
* [[Bologna]] 1 line under construction
* [[Perugia]] 1 line under construction (light metro)
* [[Salerno]] 1 line under construction (light metro)
* [[Cagliari]] 1 line under construction (light metro)
=== Rail links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in France|France]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Switzerland|Switzerland]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Austria|Austria]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Slovenia|Slovenia]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Tunisia|Tunisia]] - (2005) possible undersea rail tunnel from [[Sicily]]! ([[Today's Railways]] #113).
===Stations===
Big Stations program (Station renovations), €400 million program, from ending 2005
*Milan Stazione Centrale
*Florence SMN
*Bologna Centrale
*Naples Centrale
*Turin Porta Nuova
*Rome [[Termini Station (Rome)|Termini Station]]
== [[Highway]]s ==
*''total:'' 654,676 km (including 6,957 km of expressways) (1998 est.)
All highways in Italy are paved.
*A1 Milan - Naples (Autostrada del Sole, SUN Highway)
*A1dir Nord Rome - Fiano Romano
*A1dir Sud Rome - San Cesareo
*A2 Rome - Naples (old terminology)
*A3 Napoli - Reggio Calabria
*A4 Torino - Trieste (Serenissima)
*A5 Torino - Aosta - Monte Bianco
*A6 Torino - Savona
*A7 Milan - Genova
*A8 Varese - Milan (Autostrada dei laghi)
*A9 Lainate - Como - Chiasso (Autostrada dei laghi)
*A10 Genova - Ventimiglia (Autostrada dei Fiori)
*A11 Firenze - Pisa nord (Firenze-Mare)
*A11/A12 bretella Lucca - Viareggio
*A12 Genova - Rosignano / Civitavecchia - Roma (Autostrada Azzurra)
*A13 Padova - Bologna
*A14 Bologna - Taranto (Adriatica)
*A14dir Solarolo - Ravenna
*A15 Parma - La Spezia (Autostrada della Cisa)
*A16 Napoli - Canosa (Autostrada dei Due Mari)
*A17 Napoli - Canosa
*A18 Messina - Catania (under renovation)
*A19 Palermo - Catania (under renovation)
*A20 Messina - Palermo (under renovation)
*A21 Torino - Piacenza - Brescia (Autostrada dei Vini)
*A22 Brennero - Modena (Autobrennero)
*A23 Palmanova - Tarvisio (Autostrada Alpe-Adria)
*A24 Roma - L'Aquila - Teramo (Autostrada dei Parchi)
*A25 Pescara - Torano
*A26 Voltri - Gravellona Toce (Autostrada dei Trafori)
*A27 Mestre - Belluno (Autostrada di Alemagna)
*A28 Conegliano - Portogruaro
*A29 Palermo - Mazara del Vallo
*A29dir Alcamo - Trapani - Birgi Aeroporto
*A30 Caserta - Salerno
*A31 Piovene Rocchette - Vicenza (in esecuzione il prolungamento da Vicenza a Rovigo) (Autostrada della Val d'Astico)
*A32 Torino - Bardonecchia (Autostrada del Frejus)
*New Salerno - Reggio Calabria (under profound renovation)
*New Milan-Brescia-Bergamo (under development)
*New Pedemontana Lombarda (North Milan, under development)
*New Boffalora-Malpensa INT Airport (under construction)
*New Venice node (under construction)
*New Florence "Variante di Valico" node (under construction)
*New Sicily-Italy bridge (under development, see www.strettodimessina.it)
And "tangenziali" system:
*A50 Viboldone - Trezzano sul Naviglio - Rho - Arese (Tangenziale Ovest Milano)
*A51 San Donato Milanese - Usmate (Tangenziale Est Milano)
*A52 Sesto San Giovanni - Paderno Dugnano (Tangenziale Nord Milano)
*A53 Pavia - Bereguardo (A7)
*A54 Villalunga - Pavia - Madonna (PV) (Tangenziale di Pavia)
*A55 Falchera - Rivoli - Nichelino - Trofarello (Tangenziale Nord Torino/Tangenziale Sud Torino)
*A56 Napoli - Pozzuoli (Tangenziale di Napoli)
*A90 - A-GRA Rome GRA big ring
*A91 Roma - Fiumicino Aeroporto
== [[Waterway]]s ==
* 2,400 km for various types of commercial traffic, although of limited overall value
City with almost all transport by boat: [[Venice]] ([[public transport]] by waterbus)
== Pipelines ==
* crude oil |
ay be applied to objects or performances, current or historical, and its prestige extends to those who made, found, exhibit, or own them. Other than originality, there are no widely agreed-upon criteria for what is or isn't considered "art", and there are many divergent definitions of ''art'' to seek more specific requirements.
==Etymology==
The word ''art'' derives from the [[Latin]] ''ars'', which roughly translates to "skill" or "craft", and derives in turn from an [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European root]] meaning "arrangement" or "to arrange". This is the only near-universal definition of art: that whatever is described as such has undergone a deliberate process of arrangement by an agent. A few examples where this meaning proves very broad include [[artifact]], artificial, artifice, [[artillery]], [[Medicine|medical]] arts, and [[military]] arts. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its [[etymology|etymological]] roots.
==Art forms==
There are a variety of arts, including visual arts and design, [[decorative art]]s, [[plastic arts]], and the [[performing arts]]. Artistic expression takes many forms: [[painting]], [[drawing]], [[printmaking]], [[sculpture]], [[music]], [[literature]], and [[architecture]] are the most widely recognised forms. However, since the advent of [[modernism]] and the technological revolution, new forms have emerged. These include [[photography]], [[film]], [[video art]], [[installation art]], [[conceptual art]], [[performance art]], [[community arts]], [[land art]], [[fashion]], [[comics]], [[computer art]], [[anime]], and, most recently, [[video game theory|video games]].
Within each form, a wide range of [[genre]]s may exist. For instance, a painting may be a [[still life]], a [[portrait]], or a [[Landscape art|landscape]] and may deal with [[History painting|historical]] or domestic subjects. In addition, a [[work (fine arts)|work of art]] may be representational or abstract.
Most forms of art fit under two main categories: [[fine arts]] and [[applied art]]s, though there is no clear dividing line. In the visual arts, the term ''fine arts'' most often refers to painting and sculpture, arts which have little or no practical function and are valued in terms of the visual pleasure they provide or their success in communicating ideas or feelings. Other visual arts typically designated as fine arts include printmaking, drawing, photography, film, and video, though the tools used to realize these media are often used to make applied or commercial art as well. Architecture typically confounds the distinctions between fine and applied art, since the form involves designing structures that strive to be both attractive and functional. The term ''applied arts'' is most often used to describe the design or decoration of functional objects to make them visually pleasing. Artists who create applied arts or crafts are usually referred to as [[design]]ers, [[artisan]]s, or craftspeople.
==Defining art==
There is often confusion about the meaning of the term ''art'' because multiple meanings of the word are used interchangeably. Individuals use the word ''art'' to identify painting, as well as singing.
===Characteristics of art===
There follow some generally accepted characteristics of art; after this there is some lengthier discussion of several of those facets perceived as universal or central to art:
* encourages an intuitive understanding rather than a rational understanding, as, for example, with an article in a scientific journal;
* was created with the intention of evoking such an understanding, or an attempt at such an understanding, in the audience;
* was created with no other purpose or function other than to be itself (a radical, "pure art" definition);
* elusive, in that the work may communicate on many different levels of appreciation; one may take the example of [[Gericault]]'s ''[[Raft of the Medusa]]'', in the case of which special knowledge concerning the shipwreck the painting depicts is not a prerequisite to appreciating it, but allows the appreciation of Gericault's political intentions in the piece;
* in relation to the above, the piece may offer itself to many different interpretations, or, though it superficially depicts a mundane event or object, invites reflection upon elevated themes;
* demonstrates a high level of ability or fluency within a medium; this characteristic might be considered a point of contention, since many modern artists (most notably, conceptual artists) do not themselves create the works they conceive, or do not even create the work in a conventional, demonstrative sense (one might think of [[Tracey Emin]]'s controversial ''My Bed'');
* the conferral of a particularly appealing or aesthetically satisfying structure or form upon an original set of unrelated, passive constituents.
===Skill===
Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a [[Recording medium|medium]]. An example of this is the contemporary young master Josignacio, creator of [[Plastic Paint Medium]]. It can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a [[language]] so as to convey meaning, with immediacy and or depth.
A common view is that the epithet 'art' (particular in its elevated sense) requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability (such as one might find in many works of the [[Rennaissance]] or in the plays of [[Shakespeare]]) or an originality in stylistic approach, or a combination of these two.
For example, a common contemporary criticism of some [[modern art|modern]] painting occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object. One might take [[Tracey Emin|Tracey Emin]]'s ''My Bed'' or [[Damien Hirst|Hirst]]'s ''The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living'', as examples of pieces wherein the artist exercised little to no traditionally recognised sets of skills. In the first case, Emin simply slept (and engaged in other activities) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery. She has, however, been insistent that there is a high degree of selection and arrangement in this work, which includes objects such as underwear and bottles around the bed. In the second case, Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork. Although he physically particpated in the creation of this piece, he has left the eventual creation of many other works to employed artisans. These approaches are exemplary of a particular kind of contemporary art: [[conceptual art]].
The exclusionary view that art requires a certain skill level to produce is often described as a [[lay critique]]. It derives from the fact that in [[Western culture]] at least, art has traditionally been pushed in the direction of [[representation (arts)|representationalism]], the literal presentation of reality through literal images. On the other hand, criticism has often been brought to bear on modern artists for having no creative involvement whatsoever in their creations: one might take Hirst's work again as emblematic of this approach. It may be further noted that certain forms of art outside a Western tradition, such as [[Islamic]] geometric designs and [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]], [[Buddhist]] or [[Hindu]] [[mandalas]] and [[Celtic knotwork]], though they are non-representational, still require a measure of skill and certain creative involvement in their execution.
===Judgments of value===
Somewhat in relation to the above, the word ''art'' is also used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions as "that meal was a work of art" (the cook is an artist), or "the art of deception," (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity.
Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism: at the simplest level, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered ''art'', whether it is perceived to be attractive or repellent. Though perception is always colored by experience, and thus a reaction to art on these grounds is necessarily subjective, it is commonly taken that that which is not aesthetically satisfying in some fashion cannot be art. However, "good" art is not always, or even regularly, aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. In other words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic, and art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons; for example, [[Francisco Goya]]'s painting depicting the Spanish shootings of [[3rd of May]] [[1808]] is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians, yet at the same time, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution, and his fitting social and political outrage. Thus the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define 'art'.
The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of that which is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the reverse is often true, that in the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium in orde |
lso have influenced part of the ideas behind Disaster Area.
===Procol Harum===
Douglas Adams was a good friend with [[Gary Brooker]], the lead singer, pianist and songwriter of the [[progressive rock]] band [[Procol Harum]]. Adams is known to have invited Brooker to one of the many parties that Adams held at his house. On one such occasion Gary Brooker performed the full (4 verse) version of his hit song ''[[A Whiter Shade of Pale]]''. Brooker also performed at Adams's Memorial Service.
Adams also appeared on stage with Brooker to perform ''In Held Twas in I'' at Redhill when the band's lyricist [[Keith Reid]] was not available. On several other occasions he had been known to introduce Procol Harum at their gigs.
Adams also let it be known that while writing he would listen to music, and this would occasionally influence his work. On one occasion the title track from the Procol Harum album ''[[Grand Hotel (album)|Grand Hotel]]'' was playing when ''"suddenly in the middle of the song there was this huge orchestral climax that came out of nowhere and didn't seem to be about anything. I kept wondering what was this huge thing happening in the background? And I eventually thought ... it sounds as if there ought to be some sort of floorshow going on. Something huge and extraordinary, like, well, like the end of the universe. And so that was where the idea for The Restaurant at the End of the Universe came from."'' {{ref|ProcolHarum}}
===Other musical links===
Adams made a number of links to music of the time in his books. For example, a [[mouse]] proposes that the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe and Everything is "How many roads must a man walk down?", a line from [[Bob Dylan]]'s song ''[[Blowin' in the Wind]]''.
In ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'', as the Heart of Gold approaches [[Magrathea]] and the ship's computer is otherwise occupied, Eddie, the ship's computer personality, sings ''[[You'll Never Walk Alone (song)|You'll Never Walk Alone]]'' in the background, a [[Rodgers and Hammerstein]] hit from the musical [[Carousel (musical)|Carousel]].
''The Restaurant at the End of the Universe'' is dedicated to the 1980 Paul Simon soundtrack album [[One Trick Pony]]. Adams says he played it "incessantly" while writing the book.
In ''So Long, and Thanks For All the Fish'', Arthur Dent listens to a [[Dire Straits]] LP and Adams goes on to pay tribute to their lead guitarist, [[Mark Knopfler]]. Adams later revealed that the particular song to which he refers in the book&mdash;although never by name&mdash;is ''Tunnel of Love'', from the ''Making Movies'' album.
In ''Mostly Harmless'', [[Elvis Presley|Elvis]] is discovered playing in a diner attended by [[Ford Prefect]] and [[Arthur Dent]], where he is simply known as "The King".
Besides modern rock music, Douglas Adams was a great admirer of the work of [[JS Bach]], which provides a minor plot element in ''Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency''.
Adams was also a major fan of [[The Beatles]]. He makes a reference to [[Paul McCartney]] in ''Life, The Universe, and Everything'' and quotes lyrics and titles from songs by The Beatles in ''Mostly Harmless'' and ''Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency''.
Adams also does this at least once in ''The Salmon of Doubt''. In Chapter 3 there is a conversation between Kate and Dirk, which includes the following exchange:
:"So?"<br>
:"I looked around and I noticed there wasn't a chair."
Taken together, these two lines form a quotation from "Norwegian Wood" on the ''[[Rubber Soul]]'' album.
==Computer games and projects==
[[Image:Starship Titanic box art.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Front cover of the box from the original U.S. Windows 95 CD-ROM release of ''[[Starship Titanic]]'', by Simon & Schuster Interactive.]]
Douglas Adams created an [[interactive fiction]] version of ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (computer game)|HHGG]]'' together with [[Steve Meretzky]] from [[Infocom]] in 1984. In 1986 he participated in a weeklong brainstorming session with the [[Lucasfilm Games]] team for the game, ''[[Labyrinth (game)|Labyrinth]]''. Later he was also involved in creating ''[[Bureaucracy (computer game)|Bureaucracy]]'' (also by Infocom, but not based on any book). Adams was also responsible for the computer game ''[[Starship Titanic]]'', which was published in 1999 by [[Simon and Schuster]]. Terry Jones wrote the accompanying book, entitled ''Douglas Adams’s Starship Titanic'', since Adams was too busy with the computer game to do both. In April 1999, Adams initiated the [[H2G2|h2g2]] [[collaborative writing]] project which was the most prominent attempt at making The Hitchikers Guide to the Galaxy a reality.
In 1990, Adams wrote and presented a [[television documentary]] programme ''[[Hyperland]]'' {{ref|Hyperland_IMDb}} also featuring [[Tom Baker]] as a "software agent" (similar to the "Assistants" used in several versions of [[Microsoft Office]], derived from their failed "Bob" program), and interviews with [[Ted Nelson]], which was essentially about the use of [[hypertext]]. Although Adams didn't ''invent'' hypertext, he was an [[early adopter]] and advocate of it, and his influence should not be underestimated. This was the same year that [[Tim Berners-Lee]] used the idea of hypertext in his [[HTML]].
==Dirk Gently==
[[Image:Dirk Gently UK front cover.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Front cover of the original UK hardcover edition of ''[[Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency]]''.]]
In between Adams's first trip to Madagascar with [[Mark Carwardine]] in 1985, and their series of travels that formed the basis for the radio series and non-fiction book ''[[Last Chance to See]]'', Adams wrote two other novels with a new cast of characters. ''[[Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency]]'' was first published in 1987, and was described by its author as "a kind of ghost-horror-detective-time-travel-romantic-comedy-epic, mainly concerned with mud, music and quantum mechanics." {{ref|Gaiman2003_169}} It received many rave reviews from American newspapers upon its publication in the USA. Adams borrowed a few ideas from two ''[[Doctor Who]]'' stories he had worked on: ''[[City of Death]]'' and ''[[Shada]]''.
A sequel novel, ''[[The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul]]'' was published a year later. This was an entirely original work, Adams's first since ''So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish.'' Reviewers, however, were not as generous with praise with the second volume as they had been with the first. After the obligatory book tours, Adams was off on his round-the-world excursion which supplied him with the material for ''Last Chance to See''.
==Personal beliefs==
===Religion===
Adams was a self-declared "radical [[atheist]]", though he used the term for emphasis, so that he would not be asked if he in fact meant [[agnostic]]. He stated in an interview with American Atheists {{ref|AmAtheists}} that this was easier and conveyed the fact that he really meant it, had thought about it a great deal, and that it was an opinion he held seriously. He was convinced that there is no [[God]], having never seen one shred of [[evidence]] to convince him otherwise, and devoted himself instead to secular causes like [[environmentalism]].
===Environmentalism and Animal Rights===
Adams was also an [[environmental activist]] who campaigned on behalf of a number of [[endangered species]]. This activism included the production of the non-fiction radio series ''[[Last Chance to See]]'', in which he and [[naturalist]] [[Mark Carwardine]] visited rare species such as the [[kakapo]], and the publication of a tie-in book of the same name. In [[1992]], this was made into a CD-ROM combination of [[audio book]], [[eBook]] and picture slide show a decade before such things became fashionable. His environmental activism is also recounted in the book ''[[The Salmon of Doubt]]'' in a short account of a hike he once made across the plains of [[Africa]] while wearing a rhino suit.
Since 2003, the British charity organization ''[[Save the Rhino]]'' (one of several similar charities supported by Adams) have held an annual Douglas Adams Memorial Lecture around the time of his birthday to raise money for environmental campaigns{{ref|DNAML}}. The lectures in the series are:
* [[2003]] [[Richard Dawkins]] — ''Queerer than we can suppose: the strangeness of science''
* [[2004]] [[Robert Swan]] — on walking across [[Antarctica]] and his environmental work there
* [[2005]] [[Mark Carwardine]] — ''Last Chance to See… Just a bit more''
* [[2006]] [[Robert Winston]] — ''Is the Human an Endangered Species?''
Adams and Mark Carwardine contributed the 'Meeting a Gorilla' passage from ''[[Last Chance to See]]'' to the book ''[[Great Ape Project|The Great Ape Project]]''. {{ref|TGAP}} This book, edited by [[Paola Cavalieri]] and [[Peter Singer]] launched a wider-scale project in 1993, which calls for the extension of moral equality to include all great apes, human or nonhuman.
===Technology===
Adams was a serious fan of technology. Though he did not buy his first [[word processor]] until 1982, he had considered one as early as 1979. He was quoted as saying that until 1982, he had difficulties with "the impenetrable barrier of jargon. Words were flying backwards and forwards without concepts riding on their backs." In 1982, his first purchase was a 'Nexus'. In 1983, when he and Jane Belson went out to Los Angeles, he bought a [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[Rainbow-100|Rainbow]]. Upon their return to England, Adams bought an [[Apricot Computers|Apricot]], then a [[BBC Micro]] and a [[Tandy Corporation|Tandy]] 100. {{ref|Simpson2003_184-5}} In ''[[Last Chance to See]]'' Adams mentions his [[Cambridge Z88]], which he had taken to [[Zaire]] on a quest to find the Northern White Rhinoceros. {{ref|LCtC_59}}
A |
le and annoying because of the game relying primarily on its fast paced and trick-filled gameplay.
One of the few versions having game mechanics and gameplay very close to the arcade is the [[Sega Master System]] version, despite its introduction of extra gameplay elements. Moreover, the version included in ''Taito Legends'' for the Xbox, PS2, and PC should be a near-perfect copy of the original arcade version, as it supposedly features the original ROM running under [[Emulator|emulation]].
===Screenshots of different ports===
<gallery>
Image:Bb_spec.jpg|[[Spectrum]] port
Image:Bb_c64.gif|[[Commodore 64]] port
Image:Bb_nes.gif|[[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]] port
Image:Bb_sega.gif|[[MSX|Master System]] port
Image:Bb_st.gif|[[Atari ST]] port
Image:Bb_amiga.jpg|[[Amiga]] port
Image:Bb_psp.jpg|[[PSP]] port
Image:Bb_arcade.gif|[[Arcade]]
</gallery>
==Legacy==
''Bubble Bobble'' inspired many sequels, including:
[[Image:Bossrainbow.gif|thumb|right|Rainbow Islands Insect Island boss.]]
*''[[Rainbow Islands|Rainbow Islands - The Story of Bubble Bobble 2]]'' (1987)
*''[[Rainbow Islands Extra Version]]'' (1988)
*''[[Final Bubble Bobble]]'' (1988 Sega Master System)
*''[[Parasol Stars]]'' (1991 originally released for NEC PC-Engine, converted for Amiga, Atari ST, Game Boy and [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] (Europe))
*''[[Bubble Bobble Part 2]]'' (1993 Nintendo Famicom, Nintendo Entertainment System, Game Boy)
*''[[Bubble Bobble II]]'' (World) / ''[[Bubble Symphony]]'' (Europe, Japan, U.S.) (1994 Arcade, [[Sega Saturn]] (Japan only))
*''[[Bubble Memories|Bubble Memories - The Story of Bubble Bobble III]]'' (1995 Arcade)
*''[[Rainbow Islands - Putty's Party]]'' (2000 Bandai Wonderswan)
There are a couple of previous Taito games which sort of anticipated the Bubble Bobble legacy because of their inclusion of characteristic common elements or even monsters (e.g. the ''Mighta'' and ''Monsta'' both appeared first in the game ''[[Chack'n Pop]]'', and in fact level 29 of Bubble Bobble is a direct copy of level 1 of Chack'n Pop) :
*''[[Chack'n Pop]]'' (1983)
*''[[Fairyland Story]]'' (1984)
Bub and Bob also appeared in ''[[Puzzle Bobble]]'', otherwise known as ''[[Bust a Move]]'' in the [[United States]]. ''Bust a Move'' was followed by many sequels, for many consoles, including [[PlayStation]], [[Nintendo 64]], [[Game Boy]], [[Game Boy Color]], [[Game Boy Advance]], [[Nintendo GameCube]], [[PlayStation 2]], [[Xbox]] and even the [[N-Gage]], along with computer and arcade versions. It became more popular than the original ''Bubble Bobble'' game itself.
== Similar games, spinoffs, and clones ==
''Bubble Bobble'''s successful gameplay has inspired not only many official sequels and spinoffs by Taito, but also a number of games with very similar gameplay elements. The most important of them include:
*The non-scrolling platformer action.
*Dividing the game into many levels (typically above 30).
*Defeating enemies by trapping them somehow instead of killing them right away.
*Collecting bonuses and finding secret ways of increasing their value.
*Collecting letters to gain an extra life.
Some examples of successful non-Taito video games resembling Bubble Bobble in some or even all of the above aspects are:
*''[[Rodland]]'' by [[Jaleco]] (1989).
*''[[Snow Brothers]]'' and its sequels by [[Toaplan]] (1991).
*''[[Tumblepop]]'' and ''[[Diet Go Go]]'' by [[Data East]].
[[Image:UltraBalloon.png|thumb|right|A screenshot of ''Ultra Balloon'' by SunA, a game obviously inspired by ''Bubble Memories''.]]
===Clones===
''[[Ultra Balloon]]'' (1996), by [[SunA Corporation]] (also manufacturer of [[Hard Head]] series), is an evident ''[[Bubble Memories]]'' copy and the only ''Bubble Bobble''-inspired arcade game to actually copy the bubble-blowing and popping system.
''Bubble Bobble'' also inspired a few software publishers to publish derivatives of the game for the PC and [[Apple Macintosh|Mac]]. Such titles include ''Bubble Bobble World'', ''Bubble Bobble Quest'', ''Bubble Bobble Nostalgie'', ''Bub & Bob'', and ''The Bub's Brothers''. Such games are marketed online.
==External links==
* [http://www.tjasink.com/games/bb/items2.html Explanation of how to get special items]
* [http://www.klov.com/game_detail.php?letter=B&game_id=7222 The KLOV entry on ''Bubble Bobble'']
*{{moby game|id=/bubble-bobble|name=''Bubble Bobble''}}
* [http://home.ptd.net/~glisman/bubble/bbfaqv1.txt Bubble Bobble FAQ]
* [http://taito.overclocked.org/ Bubble Bobble HQ]
* [http://www.bubandbob.com/ Unofficial homepage of Bub and Bob]
* {{dmoz|Games/Video_Games/Platform/Bubble_Bobble_Series/|''Bubble Bobble'' Series}}
* [http://www.world-of-video-games.com/nes/manuals/bubble_bobble.shtml BUBBLE BOBBLE by Taito] Instruction manual.
* [http://bub-n-bros.sourceforge.net/ Bub & Bob Brothers] A clone made in [[Python programming language|Python]].
{{Bubble Bobble series}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Blackwood</title>
<id>4966</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:19:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mtz1031</username>
<id>527629</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Blackwood''' can refer to:
*[[Acacia melanoxylon]] and its wood
As a place:
*[[Blackwood, New Jersey]] in the [[United States]]
*[[Blackwood, Wales|Blackwood]] (traditionally in [[Monmouthshire]]) in [[Wales]], [[United Kingdom]]
*[[Blackwood, Dumfries and Galloway]] in [[Scotland]], [[United Kingdom]]
*[[Blackwood, South Lanarkshire]] in [[Scotland]], [[United Kingdom]]
*[[Blackwood, South Australia]] is a suburb of [[Adelaide]] in [[Australia]]
As a surname:
*Captain [[Henry Blackwood]] of the [[Royal Navy]].
*[[Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava|Frederick Temple Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava]]
*[[Algernon Blackwood]], a British writer of ghost stories.
*[[Easley Blackwood Jr.]], composer, professor of music and author of books on [[music theory]].
*[[Easley Blackwood Sr.]], his father, Bridge player and originator of the [[Blackwood convention]].
*[[James Blackwood]], an American gospel singer
*[[The Blackwood Brothers]], American gospel singers
*[[William Blackwood]], Scottish publisher of ''[[Blackwood's Magazine]]''
*[[Blackwood]], Sept (sub-family) of the ''[[Clan Douglas]]'' of Scotland.
Maritime:
*A Royal Navy warship, [[HMS Blackwood|HMS ''Blackwood'']], named after Captain Henry Blackwood.
*A class of ship in the Royal Navy, the [[Blackwood class frigate|Type 14 ''Blackwood''-class frigate]], also named after the captain.
Other:
*[[Lincoln Blackwood|Blackwood]] is a luxury [[pickup truck]] from Lincoln .
*The [[Blackwood convention]] in [[Contract Bridge]]
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<page>
<title>Blackwood convention</title>
<id>4967</id>
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<id>40997081</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T10:38:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Duja</username>
<id>80797</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Roman Blackwood */ - fix link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Bridgenote}}
The '''Blackwood convention''' is a popular [[convention (bridge)|bidding convention]] in [[contract bridge]] that was developed by [[Easley Blackwood Sr.]]. It is intended to be used in cases where the combined hands of a partnership are so strong that a slam is a possibility. It allows one partner to gain information on the number of aces, and possibly the number of kings, in the other partner's hand.
When this convention is in force, a bid of 4NT (No Trump) asks the partner to provide information on the number of aces in his or her hand. With no aces or four aces partner replies 5<font size=4>&clubs;</font>; with one ace, 5<font color=red><font size=4>&diams;</font></font>; with two aces, 5<font color=red><font size=4>&hearts;</font></font> and with three aces, 5<font size=4>&spades;</font>. The asking bidder usually has one or two aces, so it is easy to discover the partnership's combined assets. A continuing bid of 5NT asks for Kings with the replies following the same pattern.
This system is not without problems, however. With hands that have a void, a player is not able to tell whether partner's ace is in the void suit (where it would not be of great help) or in a side suit (where it would be very useful.) For this reason cue bidding to show aces is a superior method with hands that contain a void. In fact, most beginner-level players misuse this convention; they ask for aces when they really need other information from partner.
Beginners&mdash;and even more advanced players&mdash;often fail to comprehend the fundamental purpose of the Blackwood convention. They believe&mdash;incorrectly&mdash;that the convention is designed for the purpose of ascertaining if the partnership holds '''all four''' aces. In fact, the purpose of Blackwood is fundamentally to determine if the partnership is missing two (or more!) aces. If the partnership is missing only one ace, then 12 tricks are still attainable, assuming |
ory'''</td></tr>
<tr><td>In fact he thought the initial source of infection was a disease of horses, called "the grease", and that this was transferred to cows by farmworkers, transformed, and then manifested as cowpox. From that point on he was correct, the complication probably arose from coincidence.
</table>
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Noting the common observation that milkmaids did not generally get smallpox, Jenner theorized that the pus in the blisters which milkmaids received from [[cowpox]] (a disease similar to smallpox, but much less virulent) protected the milkmaids from smallpox. He may have had the advantage of hearing stories of [[Benjamin Jesty]] and perhaps others deliberately arranging cowpox infection of their families and of a reduced risk in those families.
In May [[1796]], Jenner tested his theory by innoculating James Phipps, a young boy, with material from the cowpox blisters of the hand of Sarah Nelmes, a milkmaid who had caught cowpox from a cow called Blossom. Phipps was the 17th case described in Jenners first paper on vaccination.
Jenner innoculated Phipps with cowpox pus in both arms on one day. This produced a fever and some uneasiness but no great illness. Later, he injected Phipps with [[variolation|variolous material]], which would have been the routine attempt to produce immunity at that time. No disease followed. Jenner reported that later the boy was again challenged with variolacious material and again showed no sign of infection.
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Known: that Smallpox was more dangerous than Variolation and Cowpox less dangerous than Variolation.
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<td>The hypothesis tested: That infection with Cowpox would give immunity to Smallpox.
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The test: If Variolation failed to produce an infection, Phipps was shown to be immune to Smallpox.
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The consequence: Immunity to Smallpox could be induced much more safely.
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He continued his research and reported it to the Royal Society who did not publish the initial report. After improvement and further work he published a report of 23 cases. Some of his conclusions were correct, and some erroneous - modern microbiological and microscopic methods would make this easier to repeat. The medical establishment, then as now, considered his findings for some time before accepting them. Eventually vaccination was accepted and in [[1840]] the British government banned variolation and provided vaccination free of charge. (See [[Vaccination/Vaccination acts|Vaccination acts]])
Jenner did not patent his vaccine but was granted £10 000 by Parliament with the support of his colleagues and the King for his work on vaccination which prevented his continuing his ordinary medical practice. Later in 1806 he was granted another £20 000.
In 1803 in London he became involved with the Jennerian Institution, a society concerned with promoting vaccination to eradicate smallpox. In 1808, with government aid, this society became the National Vaccine Establishment.
Jenner became a member of the Medical and Chirurgical Society on its foundation in 1805, and subsequently presented to them a number of papers. This is now the [[Royal Society of Medicine]].
Returning to London in 1811 he observed a significant number of cases of smallpox after vaccination occurring. He found that in these cases the severity of the illness was notably diminished by the previous vaccination.
In 1813 the [[University of Oxford]] awarded him the degree of MD.
In 1821 he was appointed Physician Extraordinary to [[King George IV]], a considerable national honour, and was made Mayor of Berkeley and Justice of the Peace.
He continued his interests in natural history and 1823 he presented "Observations on the Migration of Birds" to the Royal Society.
[[Image:Jenner-statue-by-lachlan-mvc-006f.jpg|thumb|right|Bronze in Kensington Gardens]]
He died of his second stroke on [[26 January]] [[1823]], having fully recovered from the first, and was survived by one son and one daughter, the eldest son having died of tuberculosis aged 21.
In [[1980]], the [[World Health Organisation]] declared smallpox an eradicated disease. This was the result of coordinated public health efforts by many people, but vaccination was an essential component.
== Monuments ==
Jenner's house is now a small museum housing among other things the horns of the cow Blossom. The word vaccination comes from the [[Latin]] '''vaccinia''', cowpox, from '''vacca''', cow. Jenner was buried in the chancel of the parish church of Berkeley and statues erected in the nave of Gloucester Cathedral and one in [[Trafalgar Square]] later moved to [[Kensington Gardens]].[http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=7135&inst_id=8]
== References ==
* 1. Papers at the Royal College of Physicians summarised at http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=7135&inst_id=8
* Baron, John M.D. F.R.S., "The Life of Edward Jenner MD LLD FRS", Henry Colburn, London, 1827.
* Edward Jenner, the man and his work. BMJ 1949 E Ashworth Underwood
==Publications==
*[[1798]] ''An Inquiry Into the Causes and Effects of the Variolæ Vaccinæ''
* [[1799]] ''Further Observations on the Variolœ Vaccinœ''
*[[1800]] ''A Continuation of Facts and Observations relative to the Variolœ Vaccinœ'' 40pgs
*[[1801]] ''The Origin of the Vaccine Inoculation'' 12pgs
==See also==
{{commons|Edward Jenner}}
* [[Vaccine]]
* [[Vaccination]]
* [[History of science]]
==External links==
*[http://85.1911encyclopedia.org/J/JE/JENNER_EDWARD.htm "EDWARD JENNER." ''LoveToKnow 1911 Online Encyclopedia''. © 2003, 2004 LoveToKnow.]
* Jenner's papers on vaccination: http://www.bartleby.com/38/4/
* The Jenner Museum: http://www.dursley-cotswolds-uk.com/Jenner%20museum.html
* The Jenner Museum: http://www.jennermuseum.com
* [ftp://ftp.mirrorservice.org/sites/ftp.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext98/teomm10.txt The Evolution of Modern Medicine. Osler, W]
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EncycBrit1913.jpg|thumb|300px|[[1913]] [[advertisement]] for the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica|11th]] edition, with the slogan "When in doubt &mdash; 'look it up' in the Encyclopædia Britannica"]]
The '''''Encyclopædia Britannica''''' (properly spelt with [[æ]], the ae-[[Ligature (typography)|ligature]]) was first published in [[1768]]&ndash;[[1771]] as ''Encyclopædia Britannica, or, A dictionary of arts and sciences, compiled upon a new plan.'' The ''Britannica'' was an important early [[English language|English-language]] general [[encyclopedia]], and is still published today.
From the late [[18th century]] to the early [[20th century]], the ''Britannica'''s articles were often judged by many as the foremost authority on a topic, and sometimes included new research or theory intended for a scholarly audience. During this era, the ''Britannica'' gained its reputation and had a unique position in English-speaking culture. However, the role of the [[encyclopedia]] changed substantially in the early 20th century, and this is reflected in the editions of the Britannica from the eleventh edition onward. Encyclopedias have become a general reference used by a wide audience, with shorter, more readable articles. They no longer serve as the authoritative reference on a topic; in the modern era, a wide range of academic journals, textbooks, specialized publications and electronic resources have displaced the encyclopedia.
Today the ''Britannica'' has evolved primarily into electronic versions available on [[CD-ROM]] and via the [[World Wide Web]]. It has survived fierce competition from |
n Sicily he saw the gravestone of [[Archimedes of Syracuse]], on which was carved Archimedes' favorite discovery in [[geometry]], that the [[ratio]] of the volume of a [[sphere]] to that of the smallest right circular [[cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]] in which it fits is 2:3. He built an extremely successful, and first attained prominence for his successful prosecution in August [[70 BC]] of [[Verres|Gaius Verres]], the former governor of [[Sicily]]. Despite his great successes as an advocate, Cicero suffered from his lack of reputable ancestry; as no Tullius had been [[consul]] before him, he was neither [[nobility|noble]] nor [[patrician]], and his family was considered unimportant. He was further hindered by the fact that the last man to have been elected to the consulate without consular ancestors (i.e., the last "New Man", or ''Novus Homo'') had been the political radical and militarily innovative Marius.
===Consul===
In [[63 BC]], Cicero became the first ''[[novus homo]]'' in more than thirty years by being elected consul. His only significant historical accomplishment during his year in office was the suppression of the [[Catiline|Catiline conspiracy]], a plot to overthrow the [[Roman Republic]] led by [[Lucius Sergius Catilina]], a disaffected patrician. Cicero procured a ''[[senatus consultum ultimum|senatus consultum de re publica defendenda]]'' (a declaration of [[martial law]], also called the ''senatus consultum ultimum'') and drove Catiline out of the city by four vehement speeches in which he described the debauchery of Catiline and his followers, describing them as a company of dissolute senators and other assorted roués who were deep in debt and latched onto Catiline as a last hope. At the end of the first speech, Catiline burst from the Temple of Jupiter Stator, where the Senate had been convened, and made his way to Etruria. The other three speeches were therefore not directly addressed at him (as the first one was -- the main theme was something on the order of "leave Rome, and take your mob with you!") but at the people or Senate, depending on the particular speech, to steel them for action in case the worst happened, as well as exposing more evidence against Cataline.
Catiline fled but left behind his 'deputies' who would start the revolution from within whilst Catiline assaulted it from without with an army recruited among [[Sulla]]'s veterans in [[Etruria]]. Cicero managed to have these 'deputies' of Catiline confess their crime in front of the entire [[Roman Senate|Senate]], after ambushing an embassy they had sent to a [[Gallic]] tribe. The tribe, the [[Allobroges]], had been in contact with Catiline's faction, but were of conflicted loyalties: The tribe was a client of [[Quintus Fabius Sanga]], who was loyal to Rome, but some in the tribe wanted to join with Catiline. In the end, the affair seems to have ended up as something of a "sting," with the emissaries knowing beforehand about the Roman ambush, and planning to hand the conspirators and their messages to Cicero.
The Senate then deliberated upon the punishment to be given to the conspirators. As it was a [[legislative]] rather than a [[judicial]] body, there were limits on its power to do so; however, martial law was in effect, and it was feared that simple house arrest or exile - the standard options - would not remove the threat to the State. At first most in the Senate spoke for the 'extreme penalty'; many were then swayed by [[Julius Caesar]] who spoke decrying the precedent it would set and argued in favor of the punishment being confined to a mode of banishment. [[Cato the Younger|Cato]] then rose in defense of the [[death penalty]] and all the Senate finally agreed on the matter. Cicero had the conspirators taken to the [[Tullianum]], the notorious Roman prison, where they were hanged. Cicero himself accompanied the former consul [[Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura]], one of the conspirators, to the [[Tullianum]]. After the executions had been carried out, Cicero announced the deaths by the formulaic expression "They have lived," meant to ward off ill fortune by avoiding the direct mention of death. He received the honorific "''[[Pater Patriae]]''" for his actions in suppressing the conspiracy, but thereafter lived in fear of trial or exile for having put Roman citizens to death without trial. He also received the first public thanksgiving for a civic accomplishment; heretofore it had been a purely military honor.
Cicero's [[Pro Flacco]] oration provides a uniquely early and clear example of anti-Semitism; in this speech, Cicero plays upon several stereotypical themes which have been echoed throughout the last two millennia. The case involved the defense of [[Lucius Valerius Flaccus]], a Roman aristocrat, who was accused of (among other things) unlawfully confiscating Jewish funds which had been collected for the maintenance of the [[Second_Temple|Temple at Jerusalem]]. In defense of Flaccus, Cicero made arguments regarding the public site which had been selected for the open-air tribunal: "Now let us take a look at the Jews and their mania for gold. You chose this site, [chief prosecutor] Laelius, and the crowd which frequents it, with an eye to this particular accusation, knowing very well that Jews with their large numbers and tendency to act as a clique are valuable supporters to have at any kind of public meeting."
===Exile and return===
In [[58 BC]], the [[populist]] [[Publius Clodius Pulcher]] introduced a law exiling any man who had put Roman citizens to death without trial. Although Cicero maintained that the sweeping ''[[senatus consultum ultimum]]'' granted him in 63 BC had indemnified him against legal penalty, he nevertheless appeared ragged in public and began to beg for support from the people. Seeing that he could not go out in public without being lambasted by Clodius's heavies, he dedicated a statue to [[Minerva]] in the [[Roman Forum|Forum]] and left [[Italy]] for a year and spent his quasi-exile setting his speeches to paper. In letters to his friend [[Titus Pomponius Atticus|Atticus]], Cicero maintained that the Senate was jealous of his accomplishments which was why they did not save him from exile.
Cicero returned after over a dozen months from his exile to a cheering crowd, much in the manner of [[Demosthenes]], which the historian [[Appian]] pointed out. During the 50s, Cicero supported the populist [[Titus Annius Milo|Milo]] to use as a spear head against Clodius, who continued to use his popular support to establish terror in the streets. During the mid-50s, Clodius was killed by Milo's [[gladiator]]s on the [[Via Appia]]. Cicero defended Milo on counts of murder from the relatives of Clodius, yet failed. Despite this failure, Cicero's ''Pro Milone'' was considered by some as his ultimate masterpiece. Cicero argued that Milo had no reason to kill Clodius and had all to gain from his living, pointing out that Milo had no idea that he would encounter Clodius on the Via Appia. The prosecution, however, pointed out that Milo had freed his slaves who were with him during the bout with Clodius so that they could not testify against him in court on charges that he had ordered the killing of Clodius. Cicero rejected this, saying that Milo's slaves had defended him honorably and deserved to be free, seeing as how they had saved their master ''from an attack by Clodius.'' Milo fled into exile and continued to live in [[Marseille|Massilia]] until he returned to stir up further trouble during the [[Roman Civil War|Civil War]].
As the struggle between [[Pompey]] and [[Julius Caesar]] grew more intense in [[50 BC]], Cicero favored Pompey but tried to avoid turning Caesar into a permanent enemy. When Caesar invaded Italy in [[49 BC]], Cicero fled Rome. Caesar attempted vainly to convince him to return, and in June of that year Cicero slipped out of Italy and traveled to Dyrrachium ([[Epidamnos]]) {{ref|Everitt}}.In [[48 BC]], Cicero was with the Pompeians at the camp of [[Pharsalus]] and quarreled with many of the Republican commanders, including a son of Pompey. They in turn disgusted him by their bloody attitudes. He returned to Rome, however, after Caesar's victory at Pharsalus.
In a letter to [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]] on [[April 20]] [[46 BC]], Cicero indicated what he saw as his role under the dictatorship of Caesar: "I advise you to do what I am advising myself &#8211; avoid being seen, even if we cannot avoid being talked about... If our voices are no longer heard in the Senate and in the Forum, let us follow the example of the ancient sages and serve our country through our writings, concentrating on questions of [[ethics]] and [[constitutional law]]."
In February [[45 BC]], Cicero's daughter Tullia died. He never entirely recovered from this shock.
===Opposition to Mark Antony, and death===
Cicero was taken completely by surprise when the ''[[Liberatores]]'' assassinated Caesar on the [[Ides of March]] [[44 BC]]. In a letter to the [[conspirator]] [[Trebonius]], Cicero expressed a wish of having been "...invited to that superb banquet" Cicero became a popular leader during the instability and was disgusted with [[Mark Antony]], Caesar's former Master of the Horse who was hoping to take revenge upon the murderers of Caesar by first having him not outlawed a tyrant so that the Caesarians could have lawful support, in exchange for amnesty for the assassins which the Senate agreed to.
Cicero and Antony, Caesar's subordinate, became the leading men in Rome; Cicero as spokesman for the Senate, and Antony as consul and as executor of Caesar's will. But the two men had never been on friendly terms, and their relationship worsened after Cicero made it clear he felt Antony to be taking unfair liberties in interpreting Caesar's wishes and intentions. When [[Augustus Caesar|Octavian]], Caesar's heir, arrived |
ecause the judgment in the first trial has been invalidated. In both of these cases, however, the previous trials do not entirely vanish. Testimony from them may be used in later retrials, such as to impeach contradictory testimony given at any subsequent proceeding.
There are two exceptions to the general rule that the prosecution cannot appeal from an acquittal. If the earlier trial is proven to be a fraud or sham, double jeopardy will not prohibit a new trial. In ''[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=7th&navby=case&no=972479 Harry Aleman v. Judges of the Criminal Division, Circuit Court of Cook County, Illinois, et al.]'', [[Case citation|183 F.3d 302]] ([[1998]]), an appeals court ruled that a man who bribed his trial [[judge]] and was acquitted of murder was allowed to be tried again, because his bribe prevented his first trial from actually putting him in jeopardy. The other exception is that prosecutors may appeal when a trial judge sets aside a jury verdict for conviction with a ''judgment notwithstanding the verdict'' for the defendant. A successful appeal by the prosecution would simply reinstate the jury verdict, and so would not place the defendant at risk of another trial.
The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] has also upheld laws allowing the government to appeal criminal sentences in limited circumstances (such as 18 U.S.C. 3742(b)). The Court ruled that sentences were not accorded the same constitutional finality as jury verdicts under the double jeopardy clause, and giving this right of appeal also did not put the defendant at risk of a succession of prosecutions.
Double jeopardy is also not implicated for separate offenses or in separate jurisdictions arising from the same act. For example, in ''[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=503&invol=378 United States v. Felix]'' ([[1992]]), the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruled: "a[n]...[[crime|offense]] and a [[conspiracy (criminal)|conspiracy]] to commit that offense are not the same offense for double jeopardy purposes."
As another example, a state might try a defendant for [[murder]], after which the federal government might try the same defendant for a federal crime (perhaps a [[civil rights]] violation or [[kidnapping]]) related to the same act. For example, the [[Los Angeles Police Department]] officers who beat up black motorist [[Rodney King]] in [[1991]] were acquitted by a [[county]] court of the accusation of [[assault]]; some were later convicted and sentenced in federal court for violating his civil rights. Similar techniques were used for prosecuting racially-motivated crimes in the [[U.S._Southern_States|Southern United States]] in the [[1960s]] during the time of the [[Civil Rights Movement]], when those crimes had not been actively prosecuted, or had resulted in acquittals by juries thought to be racist or sympathetic to the accused, in local courts.
The "separate sovereigns" exception to double jeopardy arises from the unique nature of the American federal system, in which states are considered to be sovereigns with plenary power that have relinquished a number of enumerated powers to the federal government. Double jeopardy attaches only to prosecutions for the same criminal act by the same sovereign, but as separate sovereigns, both the federal and state governments can bring separate prosecutions for the same act. For example, [[Timothy McVeigh]] was executed by the federal government for murdering eight federal [[employee]]s with a [[bomb]], but could also have been tried in state court for murdering numerous other persons in the same explosion.
Double jeopardy also does not attach if the later charge is civil rather than criminal in nature, which involves a different legal standard. Acquittal in a criminal case does not prevent the defendant from being the defendant in a civil suit relating to the same incident (though ''[[res judicata]]'' operates within the [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] system.) For example, [[O.J. Simpson]] was acquitted of double homicide in a [[California]] criminal prosecution, but lost a wrongful death civil claim brought over the same victims. If the defendant happened to be on [[parole]] from an earlier offense at the time, the act for which he was acquitted may also be the subject of a parole violation hearing, which is not considered a criminal trial and is also subject to a lower standard of proof.
==See also==
*Dutch and German law: [[Ne bis in idem]]
==External links==
* [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/data/constitution/amendment05/ FindLaw Annotation]
[[Category:Rights of the accused]]
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Disbarment''' is a penalty for [[lawyer]]s. It consists of no longer being allowed to practice [[law]] or argue [[case]]s. For most lawyers, this can essentially mean no longer having a livelihood.
Generally disbarment is imposed as a sanction for conduct indicating that an attorney is not fit to practice law, such as being convicted of a [[felony]], willfully disregarding the interests of a client, or engaging in fraud which impedes the administration of justice.
In the [[United States]] legal system, disbarment is specific to regions; one can be disbarred from some courts, while still being a member of the bar in another jurisdiction. However, under the [[American Bar Association]]'s [[American Bar Association Model Rules of Professional Conduct|Model Rules of Professional Conduct]], which have been adopted in most states, disbarment in one state or court is grounds for disbarment in a jurisdiction which has adopted the Model Rules.
Disbarment is quite rare. Instead, lawyers are usually sanctioned by their own clients through civil malpractice proceedings, or via fine, censure, suspension, fines, or other punishments from the disciplinary boards.
[[Category:Legal ethics]]</text>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dance music''' is [[music]] composed, played, or both, specifically to accompany social [[dance|dancing]]. It can be either the whole musical piece or part of a larger musical arrangement.
Dance music includes a huge variety of music, including traditional dance music such as [[Irish traditional music]], [[waltz]]es, [[rock and roll]], [[country music]] and [[Tango music|tango]]s. An example of traditional dance music in the United States is the [[old-time music]] played at [[square dance]]s and [[contra dance]]s.
In the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] period, the major dance styles were [[noble court]] dances, which were often derived from folk dances. Examples include the [[allemande]], [[courante]], [[sarabande]], and [[gigue]].
In the [[Classical music era]], the [[minuet]] gained dominance, usually as a third [[movement (music)|movement]] in four-movement non-vocal works such as [[sonata (music)|sonatas]], [[string quartet]]s, and [[symphony|symphonies]]. The [[waltz]] also arose later in the Classical era, as the minuet evolved into the [[scherzo]] (literally, "joke"; a faster-paced minuet). Both remained part of the [[Romantic music]] period, which also saw the rise of various other dance forms like the [[barcarolle]], [[mazurka]], and [[polonaise]].
The [[20th century]] saw the rise of more dance forms, often [[jazz]]-based or -related, such as the [[ragtime]]. As 20th century classical music headed toward more dissonant and non-traditional directions with [[tonality]], popular genres began to take up the need for dance music, and produced numerous duple and quadruple dance forms.
From the late [[1970s]], the term ''dance music'' has come to also refer (in the context of [[nightclub]]s) more specifically to [[electronic music]] offshoots of [[rock and roll]], such as [[disco]], [[house music|house]], [[techno music|techno]] and [[trance music|trance]]. Generally, the difference between a disco, or any dance song, and a rock or general popular song is that in dance music the bass hits "[[four to the floor]]" at least once a beat (which in 4/4 time is 4 beats per measure), while in rock the bass hits on one and three and lets the snare take the lead on two and four (Michaels, 1990).
==Genres==
Dance music works usually bear the name of the corresponding dance, e.g. [[waltz|waltzes]], the [[Tango music|tango]], the [[bolero]], the [[can-can]], [[minuet|minuets]], [[salsa (music)|salsa]], various kinds of [[jig|jigs]] and the [[breakdown (music)|breakdown]]. Other dance forms include [[contradance]], the [[merengue (music)|merengue]], the [[cha-cha-cha]]. Often it is difficult to know whether the name of the music came first or the name of the dance. See [[:category:Musical genres]] for more.
==See also==
*[[Dance (music)|Dance as form of musical composition]]
*[[List of ballroom and social dance albums]]
*[[List of dance party |
lly rolling down the potential, quantum fluctuations occasionally bring it back up the potential. These regions expand much faster than regions in which the inflaton has a lower potential energy. Thus, while inflation ends in some regions, the regions in which it continues are growing exponentially, and thus continue to dominate. This equilibrium, which was first described by [[Andrei Linde]],{{ref|eternal}} in which inflation ends in some regions while quantum mechanical fluctuations keep it going in the majority of the universe, is called "eternal inflation". Inflation, however, cannot be eternal in the ''past'', and so does not solve the problem of initial conditions for the universe.{{ref|past}}
{{unsolved|physics|Is the theory of cosmic inflation correct, and if so, what are the details of this epoch? What is the hypothetical [[inflaton]] field giving rise to inflation?}}
One theoretical challenge for inflation arises from the need to [[fine tuning|fine tune]] the [[potential energy|potentials]] for the fields which may give rise to inflation: while the inflaton must have a large [[vacuum energy]] it must have a low [[mass]] (and a large [[Compton wavelength]]). In addition, inflation causes rapid cooling of the universe and so it must be followed by a period of '''reheating''' before the hot big bang can begin. It is not known how reheating occurs, although several models have been proposed. Several different models have been proposed, including brane inflation and hybrid inflation, but on the whole inflation is believed to be difficult to derive naturally from [[string theory]]. One popular idea that has been suggested in the context of [[string theory]] and [[quantum gravity]] is that the universe actually contains many more dimensions of space than the three we experience, but that the universe only inflated along the three normal dimensions of space. This theory, called string gas cosmology, was proposed by [[Robert Brandenberger]] and [[Cumrun Vafa]]. It suggested that we have three large dimensions because of certain topological properties of colliding strings. However, considerable doubt has been cast on the practicability of these ideas.
The [[ekpyrotic]], [[cyclic model]]s and [[variable speed of light]] cosmology are considered competitors to inflation.
==Observations==
Observationally, it is hoped that improved measurements of the [[cosmic microwave background]] will tell us more about inflation. In particular, high precision measurements of the [[polarization]] of the background radiation will tell us if the energy scale of inflation predicted by the simplest models is correct, and measurements of the spectrum of primordial fluctuations will tell us if our naive models of inflation can produce the correct primordial fluctuations. A ''perfectly'' scale invariant spectrum is generally considered incompatible with the simplest models of inflation as is a ''running'' spectral index (a spectrum with [[curvature]]). These sorts of measurements are expected to be performed by the [[Planck (satellite)|Planck satellite]], [[CLOVER array]] and other ground-based cosmic microwave background experiments.
As of [[2005]], it is unclear what relationship if any the period of cosmic inflation has to do with observations of [[dark energy]] in the universe. Dark energy, particularly [[quintessence (physics)|quintessence]] is broadly similar to inflation, but occurs at a much lower energy, 10<sup>-12</sup>GeV, at least 27 [[orders of magnitude]] less than the scale of inflation.
== References ==
#{{note|guth}} A. H. Guth, "The Inflationary Universe: A Possible Solution to the Horizon and Flatness Problems", ''Phys. Rev. D'' '''23''', 347 (1981).
#{{note|linde}} A. Linde, "A New Inflationary Universe Scenario: A Possible Solution Of The Horizon, Flatness, Homogeneity, Isotropy And Primordial Monopole Problems", ''Phys. Lett. B'' '''108''', 389 (1982).
#{{note|albrechtsteinhardt}} A. Albrecht and P. J. Steinhardt, "Cosmology For Grand Unified Theories With Radiatively Induced Symmetry Breaking," ''Phys. Rev. Lett.'' '''48''', 1220 (1982).
#{{note|bardeen}} J. M. Bardeen, P. J. Steinhardt and M. S. Turner, "Spontaneous Creation Of Almost Scale-Free Density Perturbations In An Inflationary Universe," ''Phys. Rev. D'' '''28''', 679 (1983).
#{{note|eternal}} {{cite journal | author = A. Linde |title = Eternal chaotic inflation | journal = Mod. Phys. Lett. |volume = A1 | Page=81 |year =1986}} {{cite journal | author = A. Linde |title = Eternally existing self-reproducing chaotic inflationary universe | journal = Phys. Lett. |volume = B175 | Page=395&ndash;400 |year =1986}}
#{{note|past}} {{cite journal |author = A. Borde, A. Guth and A. Vilenkin |title = Inflationary space-times are incomplete in past directions|journal = Phys. Rev. Lett.|volume=90|Page=151301|year=2003}} {{cite journal |author = A. Borde |title = Open and closed universes, initial singularities and inflation|journal = Phys. Rev. |volume=D50|Page=3692&ndash;702|year=1994}} {{cite journal |author = A. Borde and A. Vilenkin |title = Eternal inflation and the initial singularity|journal = Phys. Rev. Lett.|volume=72|Page=3305&ndash;9|year=1994}}
== Further reading ==
*A. Linde, [http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0503203 ''Particle Physics and Inflationary Cosmology''] (Harwood, Chur, Switzerland, 1990).
*A. Linde, "''[http://de.arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0205259 chaotic inflation]''"
*See also the [[physical cosmology#Textbooks|list of cosmology textbooks]]
== External links ==
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Guth/Guth_contents.html Was Cosmic Inflation The 'Bang' Of The Big Bang?], by Alan Guth, 1997
* [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9901124 An Introduction to Cosmological Inflation] by Andrew Liddle, 1999
* [http://www2.iap.fr/Conferences/Colloque/col2004/Docs/20040628_liddle.pdf update 2004] by Andrew Liddle
* [http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0309238 hep-ph/0309238 Laura Covi: Status of observational cosmology and inflation]
* [http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0311040 hep-th/0311040 David H. Lyth: Which is the best inflation model?]
* [http://www.symmetrymag.org/cms/?pid=1000045 The Growth of Inflation] ''Symmetry'', December 2004
* [http://www.symmetrymag.org/cms/?pid=1000037 Guth's logbook showing the original idea]
[[Category:Cosmology]]
[[ca:Univers inflacionari]]
[[de:Inflationäres Universum]]
[[fr:Inflation cosmique]]
[[ko:급팽창 이론]]
[[it:Inflazione (cosmologia)]]
[[he:היקום האינפלציוני]]
[[nl:Kosmische inflatie]]
[[ja:宇宙のインフレーション]]
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[[ru:Инфляционная модель Вселенной]]
[[sv:Inflation (kosmologi)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Censorship</title>
<id>5384</id>
<revision>
<id>42096393</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:25:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bota47</username>
<id>341052</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: cs</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{copyedit}}
{{Globalize}}
{{Otheruses3|Censor}}
'''Censorship''' is the control of [[speech]] and other forms of human [[expression]], often by (but not limited to) government intervention. The ostensible motive of censorship is to stabilize or improve the [[society]] over which the government would have control. It is most commonly applied to acts that occur in [[public]] circumstances, and most formally involves '''suppression''' of ideas (by [[Suppression of dissent|criminalizing or regulating expression]]). Furthermore, discussion of censorship often includes less formal means of controlling perceptions by excluding various ideas from mass communication. What is censored may range from specific [[word]]s to entire [[concept]]s and it may be influenced by [[value systems]].
'''Sanitization''' (removal) and '''whitewashing''' (from [[whitewash]]) are almost interchangeable terms that refer to a particular form of censorship via omission, which seeks to "clean up" the portrayal of particular issues and facts that are already known, but which may [[conflict]] with the official point of view.
Some consider [[political correctness]] to be related, as a socially-imposed (rather than governmentally imposed) type of restriction, which, if taken to extremes, may qualify as self-censorship.
== Terms ==
"Censorship" comes from the [[Latin]] word "[[censor]]". In [[Rome]], the censor had two duties, to count the citizens and to supervise their morals. The term "census" is also derived from this word.
An early published reference to the term "whitewash" dates back to [[1762]] in a Boston ''Evening Post'' article. In [[1800]] the word was used publicly in a political context, when a Philadelphia ''Aurora'' editorial said that "if you do not whitewash [[John Adams|President Adams]] speedily, the [[United States Democratic-Republican Party|Democrats]], like swarms of flies, will bespatter him all over, and make you both as speckled as a dirty wall, and as black as the [[devil]]."
The word "sanitization" is a [[euphemism]] commonly used in the political context of [[propaganda]] to refer to the doctoring of information that might otherwise be perceived as incriminating, self-contradictory, controversial, or damaging. Censorship, as compared to acts or policies of sanitization, more often refers to a publicly set standard, not a privately set standard. However, censorship is often alleged when an essentially private entity, such as a corporation, regulates access to information in a communication forum that serves a significant share of the public. Official censorship might occur at any jurisdictional level within a state or nation that otherwise represents itself as opposed to formal censorship.
== Censorship Types ==
In England, censorship began with the introduction of copyright laws, which gave the Crown the |
hmark (computing)|benchmark]]s which are used to measure performance leadership. In particular, industry insiders point out that some tests have been deliberately skewed in Intel's favour—notably the BAPCo tests, which were written by Intel's own engineers. Other insiders accused AMD's model numbers of no longer being internally consistent, and also accused them of basing their processor ratings on applications which were no longer widely used.
Most observers considered the Athlon no longer the fastest x86 processor in the world, believing that Intel's Pentium 4 overtook the Athlon XP early in 2002 and held its lead until February 2003, with the 3.06 GHz P4 benchmarking slightly faster than the Athlon 2700+. At the time, the question was moot: AMD had yet to deliver the 2700+ and 2800+ in commercial quantities; they did not begin to ship in volume until well into the first quarter of 2003. However, as the initially troublesome transition to the 0.13 micrometre process neared completion, AMD began producing large numbers of 0.13 micrometre parts in the 1700+ to 2400+ speed grades (usually a sign that faster grades are not far away). In mid February 2003, they announced the Athlon XP 3000+ to ship in volume in early March of 2003. Pending an Intel reply, the 3000+ had according to AMD reclaimed the "fastest x86 in the world" title for the Athlon once again. However, reviewers' opinions on this were split, and most still believed the top Intel part to be faster. A month later, Intel introduced a new series of Pentium 4s which had a faster 800 MT/s, or 200 MHz quad-pumped bus (previously it was 533 MT/s, or 133 MHz quad-pumped. The new bus was indicated by the "C" appendage at the end of the model number) and support for [[Hyper-Threading]]. In response, AMD released the Athlon XP 3000+ and 3200+ featuring a 400 MT/s bus. Unfortunately, the bus speed increase did not offer a large performance gain. The 3200+ failed to convincingly outperform the new 3.0 GHz Pentium 4 "C", much less the subsequent 3.2 GHz version. Many reviewers concluded that the C-series Pentium 4 was a bridge too far for the Athlon XP, and that Intel had gained a decisive performance lead which the Athlon XP could not overcome. However, AMD did not try to do so; their focus was now on the soon-to-be released K8, the [[Athlon 64]].
===Mobile Athlon XP===
[[Image:Athlon_XPM_2400l.jpg|thumb|225px|right|Athlon XP 2400+ Mobile]]
Mobile Athlon XPs (''Athlon XP-M'') are identical to normal Athlon XPs, apart from running at lower voltages and not being multiplier-locked. The lower vcore ratings allow the CPU to run with less power consumption (ideal for battery-powered laptops) and produce less heat. They are also capable of having their multipliers dynamically adjusted by software to supply faster speeds at higher frequencies when demanded, but throttle back to lower speeds and voltages when CPU demand is lower.
The Athlon XP-M replaced the older Mobile Athlon 4. The Mobile Athlon 4 used the older ''Palomino'' core, while the Athlon XP-M uses the newer ''Thoroughbred'' and ''Barton'' cores.
It also features '''Power Now!''' where the CPU's clock speed is automatically decreased when the computer is under a low load, to save battery power and reduce heat. Similar to Intel's [[SpeedStep]] technology.
Some specialized low-power Athlon XP-Ms utilise the microPGA [[socket 563]] rather than the standard Socket A.
Athlon XP-Ms on desktop computers became very popular with [[overclocking|overclockers]], as well as [[underclocking|underclockers]], by early 2004, in part because their multipliers are unlocked. Athlon XP-Ms are structurally identical to Desktop Athlon cousins but are singled out for their ability to operate at voltages well below normal. Since they are so efficient with voltage, they respond extremely well to increased voltages and overclock extremely well. Athlon XP-Ms overclock demonstrably better than multiplier unlocked Desktop Athlon XPs with the same "Barton" core. Some ''Barton'' core Athlon XP-Ms have been successfully overclocked to as high as 3.1 GHz.
Mobile Athlon XPs are also attractive CPUs for use in [[HTPC|home theater]] systems due to their high performance and ability to underclock and undervolt for quiet operation needed in the living room.
== Models ==
===Athlon===
==== Athlon Classic====
*-> '''K7''' "Argon" (250 nm)
*-> '''K75''' "Pluto/Orion" (180 nm)
* L1-Cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions)
* L2-Cache: 512 KB, external chips on CPU module with 50, 40 or 33% of CPU-speed
* [[MMX]], [[3DNow!]]
* [[Slot A]] (EV6)
* [[Front side bus]]: 200 MT/s (100 MHz double-pumped)
* VCore: 1.6 V (K7), 1.6 - 1.8 V (K75)
* First release: June 23, 1999 (K7), November 29, 1999 (K75)
* Clockrate: 500 - 700 MHz (K7), 550 - 1000 MHz (K75)
====Thunderbird (180 nm) ====
* L1-Cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions)
* L2-Cache: 256 KB, fullspeed
* [[MMX]], [[3DNow!]]
* [[Slot A]] & [[Socket A]] (EV6)
* [[Front side bus]]: 200 MT/s (Slot-A, B-models), 266 MT/s (C-models) (133, 166 MHz double-pumped)
* VCore: 1.7 V - 1.75 V
* First release: June 5, 2000
* Clockrate:
** [[Slot A]]: 650 - 1000 MHz
** [[Socket A]], 200 MT/s FSB (B-models): 650 - 1400 MHz
** [[Socket A]], 266 MT/s FSB (C-models): 1000 - 1400 MHz
===Athlon XP===
==== Palomino (180 nm) ====
* L1-Cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions)
* L2-Cache: 256 KB, fullspeed
* [[MMX]], [[3DNow!]], [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]]
* [[Socket A]] (EV6)
* [[Front side bus]]: 266 MT/s (133 MHz double-pumped)
* VCore: 1.75 V
* First release: October 9, 2001
* Clockrate: 1333 - 1733 MHz (1500+ to 2100+)
====Thoroughbred A/B (130 nm) ====
* L1-Cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions)
* L2-Cache: 256 KB, fullspeed
* [[MMX]], [[3DNow!]], [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]]
* [[Socket A]] (EV6)
* [[Front side bus]]: 266/333 MT/s (133/166 MHz double-pumped)
* VCore: 1.5 V - 1.65 V
* First release: June 10, 2002 (A), August 21, 2002 (B)
* Clockrate:
** T-Bred "A": 1400 - 1800 MHz (1600+ to 2200+)
** T-Bred "B": 1400 - 2250 MHz (1600+ to 2800+)
** 266 MT/s FSB: 1400 - 2133 MHz (1600+ to 2600+)
** 333 MT/s FSB: 2083 - 2250 MHz (2600+ to 2800+)
==== Thorton (130 nm) ====
* L1-Cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions)
* L2-Cache: 256 KB, fullspeed
* [[MMX]], [[3DNow!]], [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]]
* [[Socket A]] (EV6)
* [[Front side bus]]: 266/333/400 MT/s (133/166/200 MHz double-pumped)
* VCore: 1.6 V - 1.65 V
* First release: September 2003
* Clockrate: 1667 - 2200 MHz (2000+ to 3100+)
====Barton (130 nm) ====
* L1-Cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions)
* L2-Cache: 512 KB, fullspeed
* [[MMX]], [[3DNow!]], [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]]
* [[Socket A]] (EV6)
* [[Front side bus]]: 333/400 MT/s (166/200 MHz double-pumped)
* VCore: 1.65 V
* First release: February 10, 2003
* Clockrate: 1833 - 2333 MHz (2500+ to 3200+)
** 333 MT/s FSB: 1833 - 2333 MHz (2500+ to 3200+)
** 400 MT/s FSB: 2100, 2200 MHz (3000+, 3200+)
==See also==
* [[List of AMD Athlon microprocessors]]
* [[List of AMD Athlon XP microprocessors]]
* [[List of AMD Athlon 64 microprocessors]]
==External links==
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?tn=0&l0=co&l1=AMD&l2=Athlon cpu-collection.de] AMD Athlon processor images and descriptions
* [http://www.amdboard.com/amdid.html amdboard.com] AMD Athlon/Duron/Sempron CPU identification and OPN breakdown
* [http://www.amd.com/gb-uk/assets/content_type/DownloadableAssets/K7_Electrical_Specification_Rev_ENG.pdf AMD's Technical Specifications] for 7th generation CPUs (.pdf)
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AMD_Athlon_XP_microprocessors#Athlon_XP_.22Thorton.22_.28Model_10.2C_130_nm.29] Reference on rare OEM 3100+ Thorton Core
== References ==
{{FOLDOC}}
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[[Category:AMD products|AMD 786]]
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[[Category:x86 microprocessors|AMD 786]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abner Duck</title>
<id>3062</id>
<revision>
<id>36020940</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T23:27:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>96T</username>
<id>97147</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abner Duck''' (nicknamed '''Whitewater''') is a [[fictional character]], one of [[Walt Disney]]'s [[comic book]] characters. He was created by [[Carl Barks]] and used only in his story "Log Jockey", published in ''[[Walt Disney's Comics and Stories]]'' #268 on [[December]], [[1962]].
On [[Don Rosa]]'s Duck Family Tree he is shown as a son of [[Eider Duck]] and [[Lulubelle Loon]] and the brother of [[Fethry Duck]]. He might even be the father of [[Dugan Duck]].
He works as a lumberjack in the woods.
[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Duck, Abner]]
[[it:Abner Duck]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aspergers disorder</title>
<id>3063</id>
<revision>
<id>25436477</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-13T15:07:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Asperger syndrome]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amnon</title>
<id>3065</id>
<revision>
<id>39566349</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-14T09:12:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chlewbot</username>
<id>620581</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: yi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Amnon''' was [[David|David's]] eldest son. He raped [[Tamar (biblical figure)|Tamar]] and was murdered by [[A |
lt;/math>
where
:<math>\hbar</math> (hbar, &#8463;) is the [[reduced Planck constant]],
:<math>c</math> is the [[speed of light]],
:<math>a</math> is the [[distance]] between the two plates.
The force is negative, indicating that the force is attractive: by moving the two plates closer together, the energy is lowered. The presence of <math>\hbar</math> shows that the Casimir force per unit area <math>F_c / A</math> is very small, and that furthermore, the force is inherently of quantum-mechanical origin.
==Measurement==
One of the first experimental tests was conducted by Marcus Spaarnay at Philips in Eindhoven, in 1958, in a delicate and difficult experiment, with results in general agreement with theory.
The Casimir effect was measured in [[1997]] by [[Steve K. Lamoreaux]] of [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]] and by [[Umar Mohideen]] of the [[University of California at Riverside]] and his colleague [[Anushree Roy]]. In practice, rather than using two parallel plates, which would require phenomenally accurate alignment to ensure they were parallel, the experiments use one plate that is flat and another plate that is a part of a [[sphere]] with a large [[radius of curvature]].
Further research has shown that, with materials of certain [[permittivity]] and [[permeability]], or with a certain configuration, the Casimir effect can be repulsive instead of attractive.
==Regularization==
In order to be able to perform calculations in the general case, it is convenient to introduce a [[regularization (physics)|regulator]] in the summations. This is an artificial device, used to make the sums finite so that they can be more easily manipulated, followed by the taking of a limit so as to remove the regulator.
The [[heat kernel]] or [[exponential|exponentially]] regulated sum is
:<math>\langle E(t) \rangle = \frac{1}{2} \sum_n \hbar |\omega_n|
\exp (-t|\omega_n|)</math>
where the limit <math>t\to 0^+</math> is taken in the end. The divergence of the sum is typically manifested as
:<math>\langle E(t) \rangle = \frac{C}{t^3} + finite\,</math>
for three-dimensional cavities. The infinite part of the sum is associated with the bulk constant ''C'' which ''does not'' depend on the shape of the cavity. The interesting part of the sum is the finite part, which is shape-dependent. The [[Gaussian function|Gaussian]] regulator
:<math>\langle E(t) \rangle = \frac{1}{2} \sum_n \hbar |\omega_n|
\exp (-t^2|\omega_n|^2)</math>
is better suited to numerical calculations because of its superior convergence properties, however, it is more difficult to use in theoretical calculations. Other, suitably smooth, regulators may be used as well. The [[zeta function regulator]]
:<math>\langle E(s) \rangle = \frac{1}{2} \sum_n \hbar |\omega_n| |\omega_n|^{-s}</math>
is completely unsuited for numerical calculations, but is quite useful in theoretical calculations. In particular, divergences show up as poles in the [[complex plane|complex ''s'' plane]], with the bulk divergence at ''s''=4. This sum may be [[analytic continuation|analytically continued]] past this pole, to obtain a finite part at ''s''=0.
Not every cavity configuration necessarily leads to a finite part (the lack of a pole at ''s''=0) or shape-independent infinite parts. In this case, it should be understood that additional physics has to be taken into account. In particular, at extremely large frequencies (above the [[plasma frequency]]), metals become transparent to [[photon]]s (such as [[x-ray]]s), and dielectrics show a frequency-dependent cutoff as well. This frequency dependence acts as a natural regulator. There are a variety of bulk effects in [[solid state physics]], mathematically very similar to the Casimir effect, where the [[cutoff frequency]] comes into explicit play to keep expressions finite. (These are discussed in greater detail in ''Landau and Lifshitz'', "Theory of Continuous Media".)
==Generalities==
The Casimir effect can also be computed using the mathematical mechanisms of [[functional integral]]s of quantum field theory, although such calculations are considerably more abstract, and thus difficult to comprehend. In addition, they can be carried out only for the simplest of geometries. However, the formalism of quantum field theory makes it clear that the vacuum expectation value summations are in a certain sense summations over so-called "[[virtual particle]]s".
More interesting is the understanding that the sums over the energies of standing waves should be formally understood as sums over the [[eigenvalue]]s of a [[Hamiltonian]]. This allows atomic and molecular effects, such as the [[van der Waals force]], to be understood as a variation on the theme of the Casimir effect. Thus one considers the Hamiltonian of a system as a function of the arrangement of objects, such as atoms, in [[configuration space]]. The change in the zero-point energy as a function of changes of the configuration can be understood to result in forces acting between the objects.
In the [[chiral bag model]] of the [[nucleon]], the Casimir energy plays an important role in showing the mass of the nucleon is independent of the bag radius. In addition, the [[spectral asymmetry]] is interpreted as a non-zero vacuum expectation value of the [[baryon number]], cancelling the [[topological winding number]] of the [[pion]] field surrounding the nucleon.
==Analogies==
A similar analysis can be used to explain [[Hawking radiation]] that causes the slow "[[evaporation]]" of [[black holes]] (although this is generally explained as the escape of one particle from a virtual particle-antiparticle pair, the other particle having been captured by the black hole).
A macroscopic effect analogous to the Casimir effect was observed by [[18th century]] [[France|French]] sailors. Where two ships are rocking from side to side in conditions with a strong swell but light wind, and the ships come closer together than roughly 40&nbsp;m, destructive [[interference]] eliminates the swell between the ships. The calm sea between the ships has a lower energy density than the swell to either side of the ships, creating a pressure that can push the ships closer together. If they get too close together, the ships' rigging can become entangled. As a countermeasure, a handbook from the early [[1800s]] recommends that each ship should send out a boat rowed by 10 to 20 sailors to physically pull the ships apart.
==References==
* H.B.G. Casimir, ''Proc. Kon. Nederland. Akad. Wetensch.'' '''B51''', 793 (1948)
* [http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Quantum/casimir.html Casimir effect description] from [[University of California, Riverside]]'s version of the [http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/index.html Usenet physics FAQ].
* A. Lambrecht, "[http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/15/9/6 The Casimir effect: a force from nothing]", ''Physics World'', September 2002.
* M. Bordag, U. Mohideen, V.M. Mostepanenko, "[http://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0106045 New Developments in the Casimir Effect]", ArXiv quant-ph/0106045. ''(275 page review paper.)''
* O. Kenneth, I. Klich, A. Mann and M. Revzen, ''Repulsive Casimir forces'', Department of Physics, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, February 2002
* S. K. Lamoreaux, "[http://link.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v78/p5 Demonstration of the Casimir Force in the 0.6 to 6 µm Range]", ''Phys. Rev. Lett.'' '''78''', 5&#8211;8 (1997)
* J. D. Barrow, "[http://www.gresham.ac.uk/event.asp?PageId=4&EventId=258 Much ado about nothing]", (2005) Lecture at [[Gresham College]]. ''(Includes discussion of French naval analogy.)''
* G. Lang, [http://www.casimir.rl.ac.uk/default.htm The Casimir Force] web site, 2002
* V.V. Nesterenkoa, G. Lambiaseb, G. Scarpettab, [http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0503100 Calculation of the Casimir energy at zero and finite temperature: some recent results], arXiv:hep-th/0503100 v2 13 May 2005
[[Category:Quantum field theory]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Crow (disambiguation)</title>
<id>7556</id>
<revision>
<id>41512776</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:37:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.126.61.142</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* People */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|crow}}
The word '''crow''' can refer to:
== Science ==
* [[Crow]] — Birds in the [[genus]] ''Corvus''; they are large [[perching bird|Passerine]] [[bird]]s.
* [[Corvus (astronomy)|Corvus]] — The constellation that represents a [[crow]]
* ([[Butterfly]]) Crow is also a family of butterfly in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. One member of this family is the [[Euploea core|Common Indian Crow]].
== People ==
* [[Crow Nation]] — A [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] [[tribe]]
* American Singer/songwriter [[Sheryl Crow]]
* American property developer [[Trammell Crow]]
* Actor [[Russell Crowe]]
== Music ==
* "Black Crow", a [[Joni Mitchell]] song on her ''[[Hejira (album)|Hejira]]'' album.
* [[The Crows]] — An influential [[doo wop]] group
* [[The Black Crowes]] — [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]]-based [[Blues music|Blues]]-influenced [[rock and roll|rock group]] of the [[1990s]]
* [[Counting Crows]] is a rock band that became extremely popular following the release of their debut album ''[[August and Everything Aft |
of the horse family include [[zebra]]s, [[donkey]]s, and [[hemionids]]. The Donkey, Burro or Domestic Ass, ''Equus asinus'', like the horse, has many breeds. A [[mule]] is a hybrid of a male ass and a mare and is infertile. A [[hinny]] is the less common hybrid of a female ass and a stallion. Recently breeders have begun crossing various species of zebra with mares or female asses to produce "zebra mules"&mdash;zorses and zonkeys (also called zedonks). This will probably remain a novelty hybrid as these individuals tend to inherit some of the nervous, difficult nature of their zebra parent.
Full species list:
*Domesticated Horse (''Equus caballus'')
*[[Wild Horse]] (''Equus ferus'')
**[[Tarpan]] (''Equus ferus ferus'') ([[Extinction|extinct]])
**[[Przewalski's Horse]] (''Equus ferus przewalskii'')
*Domesticated [[Donkey]] (''Equus asinus'')
*[[Wild Ass]] (''Equus africanus'')
*[[Onager]] (''Equus hemionus'')
*[[Kiang]] (''Equus kiang'')
*[[Mountain Zebra|Cape Mountain Zebra]] (''Equus zebra'')
*[[Mountain Zebra|Hartmann's Mountain Zebra]] (''Equus hartmannae'')
*[[Plains Zebra]] (''Equus quagga'')
*[[Grevy's Zebra]] (''Equus grevyi'')
==Evolution of the horse==
[[image:Eohippus.jpg|thumb|250px|Eohippus, the ancestor of all modern horses, was only 20cm (0.6 feet) in height]]
''Main article'': [[Evolution of the Horse]]
All equids are part of the family ''Equidae'', which dates back approximately 54 million years to the Eocene period. Horses and other equids are [[odd-toed ungulate]]s of the order ''Perissodactyla'', a relatively ancient group of browsing and grazing animals that first arose less than 10 million years after the [[dinosaur]]s became extinct. Perissodactyls were the dominant group of large terrestrial browsing animals until the [[Miocene]] (about 20 million years ago), when [[even-toed ungulates]], with stomachs better adapted to [[grass]] digestion, began to outcompete them. At one time there were twelve families of odd-toed ungulates, though today only three survive; [[tapir]]s and [[rhinoceros|rhinoceroses]] are the closest living relatives of the modern horse. Horses are believed by scientists to have first evolved in what is now North America.
One of the first true horse species was the tiny [[Hyracotherium]], also known as ''eohippus'', "the dawn horse". In the course of about 5 million years, this early equid evolved into the [[Orohippus]]. The vestiges of the 1st and 2nd toes vanished, but the additon of a new "grinding" tooth was significant in that it signalled a transition to improved browsing of tougher plant material. This would allowing grazing not just leafy plants but plains grasses. Their primary food source could transition from leaf-eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of the [[Great Plains]].
Horse evolution was characterized by a reduction in the number of toes, from 5 per foot, to 3 per foot, to only 1 toe per foot (late Myocine 5.3 million years ago). The genus Equus, to which all living equids belong, evolved a few million years ago. Examples of extinct horse genera include: [[Propalaeotherium]], [[Mesohippus]], [[Miohippus]], [[Orohippus]], [[Pliohippus]], [[Anchitherium]], [[Merychippus]], [[Parahippus]], [[Hipparion]] and [[Hippidion]].
==Horse behaviour==
[[image:White horse.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Gray Horse]]]]
Horses are prey animals with flight or fight instinct. Their first response to threat is to flee, although they are known to stand their ground and defend in cases where less capable horses would be left exposed, such as when a foal would be threatened. Horse people commonly say that inside every domestic horse is a wild horse. Through selective breeding, some horses have been made more docile, but most sport horse breeds are based on the principle of preserving the natural qualities of bravery, honesty, and athleticism that existed in horses that were taken from wild herds hundreds of years ago.
Horses are highly social and intelligent herd animals. Like many other herd animals, their soceity is derived, or has evolved from survival instincts. At the center of the herd is the alpha or dominant [[mare]]. The center of the herd is the safest because it is further away from predators than any other part. The edge of the herd is where the lowest on the social order are found. Punishment is delivered in the form of expulsion from the herd on a temporary or even permanent basis.
Herds are made up of mares, [[foals]] and immature horses of both sexes. Survival of the species dictates that females and foals are of primary importance, because they give and nurture life. Only a few males are needed--on a very temporary basis--to continue the species. The herd of twenty mares could produce twenty foals in one year. They only need one or more stallions to impregnate all of them.
When colts become mature stallions they leave to roam in small bachelor herds. They are no longer welcome in the herd. Some of these horses may battle for the privilege of the most dangerous positiion in the equine world: dominant stallion.
The dominant stallion lives in the most dangerous and tenuous position in the equine world. He lives on the periphery of the herd, exposed to predators and other bachelors who will fight him for that role. In stark contrast to the mythology of the stallion and his (ownership implied) harem, he has no value to the herd. He is totally dispensable since he is easily replaced. The male dominance heirarchy insures an immediate replacement by a strong and healthy successor at any time.
[[image:horses.london.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|Horses graze in a field near London, England]]
The ability for man to work in cooperation with the horse is based on the strong social bonds that horses have with each other. Horses do not like to be separated from the herd, because to be alone is to be exposed to predators on all sides. Horse training principles are based upon having the horse accept a person as the dominant herd member, not through force, but by virtue of ability and confidence. It is those attributes that are highly valued because they point the way to survival. A horse that is afraid more than necessary will expend energy needlessly and may not be able to escape when the threat is real. In pastures, it is the rule that horses tend to gravitate around the most mature and confident members.
As with many animals that live in large groups, establishment of a stable hierarchy is important to smooth group functioning. Contention for dominance can be risky since one well placed kick to a leg could cripple another horse to such an extent that it would be defenseless, exposed, and possibly unable to get to water, and bites can cause serious damage as well. Survival dictates that the herd members ultimately cooperate and stick together. The dominant mare exercises control over herd members to moderate aggressive behavior. Providing that they do not regard humans as they would regard predators, horses will treat humans in much the same way that they treat other horses. As a result, horses will be willing to associate with humans in a cooperative way, but they may also challenge humans for dominance in the pasture. Humans who train horses must teach them that aggressive acts toward humans will meet with sure but measured and appropriate retaliation. Once horses have been deterred from kicking and biting humans to secure dominance over them, a cooperative relationship can be maintained. However, humans sometimes abuse horses. Abusing horses can be very dangerous to humans because the abused horse may eventually cease treating humans as members of their group and instead treat them as predators. Horse bites that go beyond a herd-friendly nip (actually a positive social communication) can sever not only fingers but arms and even legs. Horse kicks can be deadly. Ordinarily, horses are very forgiving of human misbehavior, but when the balance tips a horse can be a deadly enemy. Rehabilitation of a horse that has been forced to aggressively defend itself against some humans can be very difficult and risky. (See [[John Solomon Rarey]].)
==Specialized vocabulary==
Because horses and humans have lived and worked together for thousands of years, an extensive specialized vocabulary has arisen to describe virtually every horse behavioral and anatomical characteristic with a high degree of precision.
The English-speaking world measures the height of horses in ''hands''. One hand is defined in British law as 101.6 mm, a figure derived from the previous measure of 4 [[Imperial unit|Imperial]] [[inch]]es. Horse height is measured at the highest point of an animal's ''[[withers]]''. Perhaps because of extensive selective breeding, modern adult horses vary widely in size, ranging from [[miniature horse]]s measuring 5 hands (0.5 m) to draft animals measuring 19 hands (1.8 m) or more. By convention, 15.2 hh ''means'' 15 hands, 2 inches (1.57 m) in height.
===Horses vs. ponies===
Usually, size alone marks the difference between horses and ponies. The threshold is 14.2 hh (1.47 m) for an adult. Below the threshold an animal is a pony, while above the threshold it is a horse. Thus normal variations can mean that a horse stallion and horse mare can become the parents of an adult pony. However, a distinct set of characteristic pony traits, developed in northwest Europe and further evolved in the British Isles, make it less clear whether it is more appropriate to use the word "pony" to describe a ''size'' or a ''type''. Many people consider the [[Shetland pony]] as the archetypal pony, as its proportions are so different from those of horses. Several small breeds are referred to as "horses" or "ponies" interchangeably, including the Icelandic, Fjord, and Caspian types. Breeders of miniature horses favor that name because they strive to reproduce horse-like attributes in a much smaller |
of the National Policy in Nova Scotia demonstrates how the effects of railway fares and the tariff structure helped undermine this growth. Capitalists from Central Canada purchased the factories and industries of the Maritimes from their bankrupt local owners and proceeded to close down many of them, consolidating the industry in Central Canada.
The policies in the early years of Confederation were designed by Central Canadian interests, and they reflected the needs of that region. The unified Canadian market and the introduction of railroads created a relative weakness in the Maritime economies. Central to this concept, according to Acheson, was the lack of metropolises in the Maritimes.
[[Montreal, Quebec|Montreal]] and [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]] were well suited to benefit from the development of large-scale manufacturing and extensive railway systems in [[Quebec]] and [[Ontario]], these being the goals of the Macdonald and Laurier governments. In the Maritimes the situation was very different. Today New Brunswick has a number of mid-sized centres in [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]], [[Moncton, New Brunswick|Moncton]], and [[Fredericton, New Brunswick|Fredericton]] but no significant population centre. Nova Scotia has a growing metropolitan area surrounding [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]], but a contracting population in industrial [[Cape Breton County, Nova Scotia|Cape Breton]], and several smaller centres in [[Bridgewater, Nova Scotia|Bridgewater]], [[Kentville, Nova Scotia|Kentville]], [[Yarmouth, Nova Scotia|Yarmouth]], and [[Pictou County, Nova Scotia|Pictou County]]. Prince Edward Island's only significant population centres are in [[Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island|Charlottetown]] and [[Summerside, Prince Edward Island|Summerside]]. During the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]], just the opposite was the case with little to no population concentration in major industrial centres as the predomoniantly- rural resource-dependent Maritime economy continued on the same path as it had since European settlement on the region's shores.
Despite the region's absence of economic growth on the same scale as other parts of the nation, the Maritimes has changed markedly throughout the 20th century, partly as a result of global and national economic trends, and partly as a result of government intervention. Each sub-region within the Maritimes has developed over time to exploit different resources and expertise. [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]] became a centre of the timber trade and shipbuilding, and is currently a centre for oil refining and some manufacturing. The northern New Brunswick communities of [[Edmundston, New Brunswick|Edmundston]], [[Campbellton, New Brunswick|Campbellton]], [[Dalhousie, New Brunswick|Dalhousie]], [[Bathurst, New Brunswick|Bathurst]], and [[Miramichi, New Brunswick|Miramichi]] are focused on the pulp and paper industry and some mining activity. Moncton was a centre for railways and has changed its focus to becoming a multi-modal transportation centre with associated manufacturing and retail interests. The [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]] metropolitan area has come to dominate peninsular Nova Scotia as a retail and service centre, but that province's industries were spread out from the coal and steel industries of industrial [[Cape Breton County, Nova Scotia|Cape Breton]] and [[Pictou County, Nova Scotia|Pictou]] counties, the mixed farming of the [[North Shore (Nova Scotia)|North Shore]] and [[Annapolis Valley]], and the fishing industry was primarily focused on the [[South Shore (Nova Scotia)|South Shore]] and [[Eastern Shore (Nova Scotia)|Eastern Shore]]. Prince Edward Island is largely dominated by farming, fishing, and tourism.
Given the geographic diversity of the various sub-regions with the Maritimes, policies to centralize the population and economy were not initially successful, thus Maritime factories closed while those in Ontario and Quebec prospered.
The traditional [[Staples Thesis]], advocated by scholars such as S.A. Saunders, looks at the resource endowments of the Maritimes and argues that it was the decline of the traditional industries of shipbuilding and fishing that lead to Maritime poverty, since these processes were rooted in geography, and thus all but inevitable. Kris Inwood, has revived the staples approach and looks at a number of geographic weaknesses relative to Central Canada. He repeats Acheson's argument that the region lacks major urban centres, but adds that the Maritimes were also lacking the great rivers that lead to the cheap and abundant [[hydro-electric power]], key to Quebec and Ontario's urban and manufacturing development, that the extraction costs of Maritime resources were relatively higher (particularly in the case of Cape Breton coal), and that the soils of the region were poorer and thus the agricultural sector weaker.
The Maritimes are the only provinces in Canada which entered Confederation in the [[19th century]] and have kept their original colonial boundaries. All three provinces have the smallest land base in the country and have been forced to make do with resources within. By comparison, former colonies such as [[Canada East]], [[Canada West]] and the western provinces were dozens of times larger and in some cases were expanded to take in territory formerly held in British Crown grants to companies such as the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]. The economic riches of energy and natural resources held within this larger land base was only realized by other provinces during the [[20th century]].
One comparison made with the wealthier areas of Canada is that of the region's political and/or work culture. Today few academics make such a claim, but it still a common explanation in other circles. Some writers have also alleged that Maritime business people were unwilling to take risks or invest in manufacturing, a thesis Acheson devotes much attention to debunking.
In recent years [[dependency theory]] has been used to examine the situation of the Maritimes, and while it rejects most traditional economic models it does correspond with the evidence.
==Politics==
All three provinces are currently governed by provincial Progressive Conservative parties. However, Maritime Conservatism since the [[World War II|Second World War]] has been very much part of the [[Red Tory]] tradition, key influences being former Nova Scotia [[Premier]] and federal PC leader [[Robert Stanfield]] and New Brunswick Tory strategist [[Dalton Camp]].
In recent years the [[social-democratic]] [[New Democratic Party]] has made significant inroads both federally and provincially in the region. The NDP has elected MPs from New Brunswick, but most of the focus of the party at the federal and provincial levels is currently in the Halifax area of Nova Scotia. Industrial Cape Breton has historically been a region of labour activism, electing [[Cooperative Commonwealth Federation|CCF]] (and later [[New Democratic Party|NDP]]) MPs, and even counted many early members of the [[Communist Party of Canada]] in the pre-[[World War II|Second World War]] era. In the [[Canadian federal election, 2004|2004 Federal Election]], The NDP captured 28.45% of the vote in Nova Scotia, more than any other province; former NDP leader [[Alexa McDonough]] was and is MP for [[Halifax (electoral district)|Halifax]].
The Maritimes are generally [[social conservative|socially conservative]], but unlike the province of [[Alberta]], the Maritimes also have fiscally [[socialist]] tendencies. It is because of the lack of support for fiscal conservatism that federal parties such as the [[Canadian Alliance]] never had much success in the region, and the level of support for the new [[Conservative Party of Canada]] in the region is uncertain. The [[Canadian federal election, 2004|2004 Federal Election]] saw the Conservatives have one of the worst showings in the region, going back to confederation, with the possible exception of the [[Canadian federal election, 1993|1993 Election]].
One area within the region where both fiscal and social conservatism do coincide and where the federal [[Reform Party of Canada|Reform Party]] and Canadian Alliance have met success is in the central-western part of New Brunswick in the St. John River valley north of Saint John and south of [[Grand Falls, New Brunswick|Grand Falls]]. Contributing demographics include a predominantly [[Anglophone]] population residing in a largely rural agrarian setting. One influence might be proximity to the [[Canada-U.S. Border|International Boundary]] and the state of [[Maine]]. The valley is also settled by descendents of [[United Empire Loyalists]], some of whom established [[Fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist Christian]] congregations in the area which continue to influence certain segments of society. There are also a large number of active and retired military personnel located in the Fredericton and [[Oromocto, New Brunswick|Oromocto]] area as a result of the large military base at [[CFB Gagetown]]. Another area in the region with smatterings of coinciding fiscal and social conservatism is the [[Annapolis Valley]] of Nova Scotia.
The [[Liberal Party of Canada]] has done well in the Maritimes in the past due to its [[John Maynard Keynes|interventionist]] policies. The Acadian Peninsula region of New Brunswick, long dependent upon seasonal employment in the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]] fishery, tends to vote for the Liberals or NDP for this reason. In the [[1997]] federal election, Prime Minister [[Jean Chrétien]]'s Liberals endured a bitter defeat to the PCs and NDP in many ridings as a result of unpopular cuts to [[Unemployment benefit|unemployment benefits]] for seasonal workers, as well as closures of several [[Canadian Armed Forces]] bases, the refusal to honour a promise to rescind the [[Goods and Services Tax]], cutbacks to provincial [[equalization payments]], [[he |
ontexts, he called "the absolute idea" or "absolute knowledge".
According to Hegel, the main characteristic of this [[unity]] was that it [[evolve]]d through and [[manifest]]ed itself in [[contradiction]] and [[negation]]. Contradiction and negation have a [[dynamic]] quality that at every point in each [[domain]] of [[reality]] &mdash; [[consciousness]], [[history]], [[philosophy]], [[art]], [[nature]], [[society]] &mdash; leads to further development until a [[rationality|rational]] unity is reached that preserves the contradictions as phases and sub-parts of a larger, evolutionary whole. This whole is [[mental]] because it is [[mind]] that can comprehend all of these phases and sub-parts as steps in its own process of comprehension. It is rational because the same, underlying, [[logic]]al, developmental order underlies every domain of reality and is ultimately the order of self-conscious rational thought, although only in the later stages of development does it come to full self-consciousness. The rational, self-conscious [[whole]] is not a thing or [[being]] that lies outside of other existing things or minds. Rather, it comes to completion only in the philosophical comprehension of individual existing human minds who, through their own understanding, bring this developmental process to an understanding of itself.
Central to Hegel's [[conception]] of [[knowledge]] and mind (and therefore also of reality) was the notion of [[identity]] in [[difference]], that is that mind [[externalization|externalizes]] itself in various forms and [[object]]s that stand outside of it or opposed to it, and that, through recognizing itself in them, is "with itself" in these external manifestations, so that they are at one and the same time mind and other-than-mind. This notion of identity in difference, which is intimately bound up with his conception of contradiction and negativity, is a principal feature differentiating Hegel's thought from that of other philosophers.
Many consider Hegel's thought to represent the summit of early 19th century Germany's movement of philosophical [[idealism]]. It would come to have a profound impact on many future philosophical schools, including schools that opposed Hegel's specific dialectical idealism, such as [[Existentialism]], the [[historical materialism]] of [[Karl Marx]], [[historicism]], and [[British idealism|British Idealism]]. At the same time, modern [[Analytic_philosophy|analytic]] and [[Logical_positivism|positivistic]] philosophers have considered Hegel a principal target because of what they consider the [[obscurantism]] of his philosophy (though some Germans, notably Schopenhauer, shared that criticism of his thought). Hegel was aware of his 'obscurantism' and saw it as part of philosophical thinking that grasps the limitations of everyday thought and concepts and tries to go beyond them. Hegel wrote in his essay "Who Thinks Abstractly?" that it is not the philosopher who thinks abstractly but the person on the street, who uses concepts as fixed, unchangeable [[given]]s, without any [[context]]. It is the philosopher who thinks concretely, because he or she goes beyond the limits of everyday [[concept]]s and understands their larger context. This can make philosophical thought and language seem mysterious or obscure to the person on the street.
Hegel influenced [[Kierkegaard]], [[Feuerbach]], [[Marx]], and [[Engels]], although all of them opposed the most central themes of Hegel's philosophy. Hegel did not have any influence on the [[German_nationalism|nationalist movement]] in Germany. After less than a generation, Hegel's philosophy was suppressed and even banned by the [[Prussia]]n [[right-wing]], and was firmly rejected by the [[left-wing]] in multiple official writings. After the period of [[Bruno Bauer]], Hegel's influence did not make itself felt again until the philosophy of [[British idealism|British Idealism]] and the 20th century Hegelian [[Neo-Marxism]] that began with [[Georg Lukács]].
==Life and work==
Hegel was born in [[Stuttgart]] on [[27 August]], [[1770]]. As a child he was a voracious reader of literature, newspapers, philosophical essays, and writings on various other topics. In part, Hegel's literate childhood can be attributed to his uncharacteristically progressive mother who actively nurtured her children's intellectual development. The Hegels were a well-established middle class family in [[Stuttgart]]. His father was a [[civil service|civil servant]] in the administrative government of [[Württemberg]]. Georg was a sickly child and almost died of illness before he was six.
He received his education at the [[Tübinger Stift]] (seminary of the [[Protestant Church]] in Württemberg), where he was friends with the future philosopher [[Friedrich Schelling]] and the poet [[Friedrich Hölderlin]]. In their shared dislike for what was regarded as the restrictive environment of the [[Tübingen]] seminary, the three became close friends and mutually influenced each other's ideas. The three watched the unfolding of the [[French Revolution]] and immersed themselves in the emerging criticism of the [[idealist]] philosophy of [[Immanuel Kant]]. To be more precise, Hölderlin and Schelling immersed themselves in debates on Kantian philosophy; Hegel's interest only came later, after his own abortive attempts to work out a popular philosophy - which was his original ambition. The Popularphilosophen were writers who introduced and debated issues of the day, a way of promoting the values of the Enlightenment. Most of them were informed by English or Scottish thinkers such as Locke or Reid; Hegel wanted to "complete" the critical philosophy of Kant in the mode of a Popularphilosoph. At Tübingen he was skeptical of the highly theoretical (and technical) discussions that Hölderlin and Schelling engaged in. It was only in 1800 that Hegel admitted the need to resolve the difficulties of the Kantian system before it could hope to be put into practice.
Hegel published only four books during his life: the ''[[Phenomenology of Spirit]]'' (or ''Phenomenology of Mind''), his account of the evolution of consciousness from sense-perception to absolute knowledge, published in [[1807]]; the ''[[Science of Logic]]'', the logical and [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] core of his philosophy, in three volumes, published in [[1811]], [[1812]], and [[1816]] (revised 1831); ''[[Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences]]'', a summary of his entire philosophical system, which was originally published in [[1816]] and revised in [[1827]] and [[1830]]; and the ''(Elements of the) Philosophy of Right'', his political philosophy, published in [[1822]]. He also published some articles early in his career and during his Berlin period. A number of other works on the [[philosophy of history]], [[Philosophy_of_religion|religion]], [[aesthetics]], and the [[history of philosophy]] were compiled from the lecture notes of his students and published posthumously.
[[Image:Hegelgrave.jpg|thumb|left|Hegel's Grave in Berlin]]Hegel's works have a reputation for their difficulty, and for the breadth of the topics they attempt to cover. Hegel introduced a system for understanding the [[history of philosophy]] and the world itself, often described as a ''progression in which each successive movement emerges as a solution to the contradictions inherent in the preceding movement''. For example, the [[French Revolution]] for Hegel constitutes the introduction of real [[Freedom (political)|freedom]] into [[Western world|Western societies]] for the first time in recorded history. But precisely because of its absolute novelty, it is also absolutely radical: on the one hand the upsurge of violence required to carry out the revolution cannot cease to be itself, while on the other, it has already consumed its opponent. The revolution therefore has nowhere to turn but onto its own result: the hard-won freedom is consumed by a brutal [[Reign of Terror]]. History, however, progresses by learning from its mistakes: only after and precisely because of this experience can one posit the existence of a [[constitution]]al [[state]] of free citizens, embodying both the benevolent organizing power of rational [[government]] and the revolutionary ideals of freedom and equality.
Hegel's dense and demanding writing style can be difficult to read; he is described by [[Bertrand Russell]] in the ''History of Western Philosophy'' as the single most difficult philosopher to understand. This is partly because Hegel tried to develop a new form of thinking and logic, which he called "[[speculative reason]]" and which is today popularly called "[[dialectic]]," to try to overcome what he saw as the limitations of both common sense and of traditional philosophy at grasping philosophical problems and the relation between thought and reality. His work also can be perplexing for modern audiences because he had a [[teleological]] and rationalistic view of human society and history that are at odds with recent intellectual trends. And for English readers there is the additional challenge posed by the difficulty of translating his terminology and idiom into English.
==Hegel's legacy==
Some of Hegel's writing was intended for those with advanced knowledge of philosophy, although his "Encyclopedia" was intended as a [[textbook]] in a [[university]] [[course (education)|course]]. Nevertheless, like many philosophers, Hegel assumed that his readers would be well-versed in [[Western philosophy]], up to and including [[Descartes]], [[Spinoza]], [[Hume]], [[Kant]], [[Fichte]], and [[Schelling]]. For those wishing to read his work without this background, introductions to Hegel and commentaries about Hegel may suffice. However, even this is hotly debated since the reader must choose from multiple interpretations of Hegel's writings from inco |
oma)
*[[Loch Ness]] (Scotland)
*[[Loch Morar]] (Scotland)
*[[Lough Keane]] (Ireland)
*[[Lough Ree]] (Ireland)
*[[Lough Muck]] (Ireland)
*[[Lake Manitoba]] (Manitoba/Canada)
*[[Menbu]] (China)
*[[Storsjön]] (Sweden)
* [[Tavelsjön]] (Sweden)
*[[Tian-Chi]] (China)
*[[Seljordsvatnet]] (Norway)
*[[Lake Van]] (Turkey)
*[[Deep Cove/ Cadboro Bay]] (British Columbia, Canada)
==Mountain ranges in which cryptids are said to live==
*[[Himalayas]] ([[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[China]], [[Bhutan]] and [[Nepal]])
*[[Rocky Mountains]] ([[United States|US]]/[[Canada]])
*[[Trinity Alps]] ([[California]], [[United States|US]])
==Lists of cryptids==
* [http://www.bcscc.ca/cryptidlist.htm British Columbia Scientific Cryptozoology Club]
* [http://strangeark.com/checklist/guide.html Strangeark]
==Other external links==
* [http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/mermaids/8.html Are Mermaids Real? (Mermaids on the Web)]
* [http://www.cfz.org.uk/ Centre for Fortean Zoology]
* [http://www.cryptoworld.net/ Cryptoworld] News, Info, Links and Expedition Reports
* [http://www.cryptozoology.net/ Cryptozoolgical Realms] general info on cryptzoology
* [http://www.cryptozoology.com Cryptozoology.com]
* [http://dinojoe.8m.com/crypto/cryptolinks.html Cryptozoology links]
* [http://www.parascope.com/en/cryptozoo/index.htm Enigma Cryptozoo, a website about cryptids]
* [http://www.gust.st GUST- Global Underwater Search Team (Swedish, English)]
*[http://dmoz.org/Science/Anomalies_and_Alternative_Science/Cryptozoology/ Open Directory Project - Cryptozoology] directory category
* [http://www.pabigfootsociety.com Pennsylvania Bigfoot Society]
* [http://www.pibburns.com/cryptozo.htm Pibburns's Crytozoology links]
* [http://www.swampcreature.com Swamp Creature.com]
* [http://www.lorencoleman.com The Cryptozoologist]
* [http://www.internationalsocietyofcryptozoology.org/ The International Society of Cryptozoology]
* [http://www.mothman.us The Mothman]
* [http://www.theshadowlands.net The Shadowlands]
==Sources==
*Jerome Clark, &#8216;&#8217;Unexplained! 347 Strange Sightings, Incredible Occurrences, and Puzzling Physical Phenomena&#8217;&#8217;, Visible Ink Press, 1993.
*[[Loren Coleman]] and Jerome Clark, &#8216;&#8217;Cryptozoology A to Z&#8217;&#8217;, Fireside/Simon and Schuster, 1999.
*Loren Coleman, &#8216;&#8217;Tom Slick: True Life Encounters in Cryptozoology&#8217;&#8217;, Linden Press, 2002
*Bernard Heuvelmans, &#8216;&#8217;On The Track Of Unknown Animals&#8217;&#8217;, Hill and Wang, 1958
*Bernard Heuvelmans, &#8216;&#8217;In the Wake of the Sea-Serpents&#8217;&#8217;, Hill and Wang, 1968
*[[Karl Shuker]], &#8216;&#8217;In Search of Prehistoric Survivors&#8217;&#8217;, Blandford, 1995
*Karl Shuker, &#8216;&#8217;From Flying Toads To Snakes With Wings&#8217;&#8217;, Llewellyn, 1997
*Karl Shuker, &#8216;&#8217;The Beasts That Hide From Man&#8217;&#8217;, Paraview, 2003
==See also==
* [[:Category:Cryptids|Cryptids]]
* [[Index of fictional species]]
* [[Legendary creature]]
* [[List of legendary creatures]]
* [[List of notable figures in cryptozoology]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_biology#Cryptozoology | Important publications in cryptozoology]]
* [[Monster]]
* [[Cryptic (zoology)]] - animals that are difficult to observe due to their behaviour or [[camouflage]]
* [[Pseudoscience]] and [[protoscience]] - due to some fields of study in cryptozoology
Related studies:
* [[Cryptotaxonomy]]
* [[Paleocryptoanthropology]]
* [[Xenobiology]]
[[Category:Cryptids]]
[[Category:Protoscience]]
[[Category:Zoology| cryptozoology]]
[[Category:Cryptozoology| ]]
[[Category:Legendary creatures]]
[[Category:Forteana]]
[[da:Kryptozoologi]]
[[de:Kryptozoologie]]
[[es:Criptozoología]]
[[eo:Kriptozoologio]]
[[fr:Cryptozoologie]]
[[ko:미확인동물학]]
[[is:Duldýrafræði]]
[[it:Criptozoologia]]
[[he:קריפטוזואולוגיה]]
[[hu:Kriptozoológia]]
[[nl:Cryptozoölogie]]
[[ja:未確認動物学]]
[[no:Kryptozoologi]]
[[pl:Kryptozoologia]]
[[pt:Criptozoologia]]
[[ru:Криптозоология]]
[[sl:Kriptozoologija]]
[[sr:Криптозоологија]]
[[fi:Kryptozoologia]]
[[sv:Kryptozoologi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Craig Charles</title>
<id>5829</id>
<revision>
<id>40877924</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T16:43:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arniep</username>
<id>483481</id>
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<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Craig_charles.jpg|frame|Craig Charles]]'''Craig Charles''' (born [[July 11]], [[1964]], [[Liverpool]], [[England]]) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[actor]], [[poet]], [[radio]] and [[television presenter]]. He is best known for playing [[Dave Lister]] in ''[[Red Dwarf]]''.
Before turning to entertainment, Charles played [[football (soccer)|football]] (most notably for [[Tranmere Rovers F.C.|Tranmere Rovers]]). He started his career as a [[performance poet]] on the British [[cabaret]] circuit, appearing as on the late-night [[comedy]] programme, ''Saturday Live'', and later as a presenter of [[children's television]] programmes including ''What's That Noise'' on [[BBC 1]]. He also appeared weekly as a [[John Cooper Clarke]]-style 'punk poet' on the [[BBC]] pop music television programme The ''Oxford Road Show'', calling himself ''Susan Williams''. He presented the [[virtual reality]] [[gameshow]] ''[[CyberZone]]'', shown in [[1993]] on [[BBC Two]], the [[reality television]] show ''[[Jailbreak]]'', on [[Five (TV)|five]] in [[2000]], the late night chat show ''[[Weapons of Mass Distraction]]'' in [[2004]] and ''Funky Bunker'' on [[ITV1]]. In [[1997]] Craig played the title role in the short-lived [[Channel 4]] [[sitcom]] ''[[Captain Butler]]''.
He was married to [[Cathy Tyson]] from [[1984]] to [[1989]] and married his second wife, Jackie, on [[August 9]], [[1999]].
Craig Charles acquired cult status as the [[Liverpool|Liverpudlian]] slob, Dave Lister, in the series ''[[Red Dwarf]]''. From [[1998]] until [[2004]], he presented the '[[game show]]' ''[[Robot Wars]]'', on [[BBC Two]] (from [[1998]]-[[2003]]) and [[Five (TV)|five]] (from [[2003]]-[[2004]]).
He is also a [[DJ]] on the radio station [[BBC 6 Music]], presenting 'The Craig Charles Funk Show,' the best known possibly only radio show in the UK in it's genre. The show currently plays its blend of funk and soul every Friday and Saturday evening.
In [[1994]], Charles and a friend were arrested and remanded in custody for several months on a [[rape]] charge. At their trial the following year, they were both exonerated. Craig's [[prison|imprisonment]] delayed the production of ''Red Dwarf - series VII''.
Craig was also the [[voice-over]] man for the UK version of the [[Japan]]ese hit TV-show ''[[Takeshi's Castle]]'', shown on [[Challenge]]. In [[2005]] he participated in [[Channel 4]] reality sports show, ''[[The Games (British TV)|The Games]]'', coming 4th overall in the men's competition, despite missing two events due to injury.
Craig joined the cast of long-running serial ''[[Coronation Street]]'' in [[2005]], his first appearance having been aired on [[June 20]]. He plays a philandering taxi driver called Lloyd.
==Credits==
"Coronation Street" (1960) TV Series:Lloyd Mullaney (2005-)
#Fated (2005/I) .... Pedro
#Ten Minutes (2003) .... Mark
#Sushi TV (2003) TV Series .... Narrator (after replacing Julian Clary as the original Narrator and UK version)
# EastEnders: Ricky and Bianca (2002) (TV) .... Vince
# Don't Walk (2001) (voice) .... Narrator
# Can't Smeg Won't Smeg (1998) (TV) .... Dave Lister
# "Captain Butler" (1997) TV Series .... Captain Butler
# "Cyberspace" (1996) TV Series
# "The Governor" (1995) TV Series .... Eugene Buffy
# Red Dwarf: Smeg Outs (1995) (V) (also archive footage) .... Dave Lister/Himself
# Asterix in Amerika (1994) (voice) .... Asterix
# Red Dwarf: Smeg Ups (1994) (V) (also archive footage) .... Dave Lister/Himself
# Prince Cinders (1993) (voice) .... Cat
# Comic Relief (1991) (TV) .... Dave Lister
# Super Nintendo video - Commentator
# "Takeshi's Castle" (1990) TV Series .... Narrator (UK version)
# "Red Dwarf" (1988) TV Series .... Dave Lister
==Filmography==
# "The Marksman" (1987) (mini) TV Series .... McFadden
# Business as Usual
# "The Games" (2003) TV Series .... Himself (Series 3) (2005)
# Forty Years of Fuck (2005) (TV) .... Himself
# "Britain's Best Sitcom" (2004) TV Series .... Himself
# The Sitcom Story (2003) (TV) .... Himself
# "Takeshi's Castle" (2002) TV Series .... Himself - Narrator
# Top Ten TV Sci-Fi (2001) (TV) .... Himself
# "Jailbreak" (2000) TV Series .... Himself - Host
# "Robot Wars" (1998) TV Series .... Himself - Host (1999-2004)
# The Colour of Funny (1999) .... Keith Dennis
# "Ripley's Believe It or Not!" (1999/I) TV Series .... Himself - UK Presenter
# Universe Challenge (1998) (TV) .... Himself
# "Space Cadets" (1997) TV Series .... Himself - Space Captain
# "Funky Bunker" (1997) TV Series .... Himself
# "Cyberzone" (1993) TV Series .... Himself - Host
# "Cyberpunks and Technophobes" (1993) TV Series .... Himself
# Ghostwatch (1992) (TV) .... Himself
# "Them and Us" (1992) TV Series .... Himself
# "What's That Noise" (1989) TV Series .... Himself
# "Craig Goes Mad in Melbourne" (1988) TV Series .... Himself
# "Night Network" (1987) TV Series .... Himself
==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0153002|name=Craig Charles}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/6music/shows/craig_charles/ The Craig Charles Funk Show (BBC 6Music)]
[[Category:1964 births|Charles, Craig]]
[[Category:BBC 6 Music DJs|Charles, Craig]]
[[Category:Black British actors|Charles, Craig]]
[[Category:British actors|Charles, Craig]]
[[Category:British comedians|Charles, Craig]] |
r "evolutionary creationism".
In a Christian context, many creationists adopt a [[literal]] interpretation of creation narratives, and say that the Bible provides a factual account, given from the perspective of the only one who was there at the time to witness it: [[God]]. They seek to harmonize [[science]] with what they take to be an eye-witness account of the origin of things (see [[Young Earth Creationism]], for example). However, [[scientific evidence]] as an [[empirical]] source for information on [[natural history]] is usually interpreted as contradictory to the Bible, but can be interpreted as supporting it, depending on the presuppositions that are held.
Almost all churches teach that God created the cosmos, but many Christian scholars (Roman Catholic, Anglican and Lutheran), now reject reading the Bible as though it could shed light on what the events of creation were, which they now conclude are best understood in a naturalistic way. [[Liberal theology]] assumes that Genesis is a poetic work, and that human understanding of God increases gradually over time; and just as understanding of God grows, human understanding of God's will and of the world also grows, and has grown since Biblical times.
However, many believers in a literal interpretation argue that once a poetic view of the creation account in [[Genesis]] has been adopted, it leads one to question the historicity of other central topics of that book. Furthermore, the liberal approach suggests, sometimes outright, that [[Jesus]] as seen in the New Testament, or the writers of the Bible, had a mistaken understanding of the reliability of the Bible, and erroneously believed the book of Genesis to be literal history: a proposition that, if adopted, has radical implications for Christian faith and the reliability of the Bible.
==Political context==
{{main|Creation-evolution controversy}}
In the secular sense, "creationism" refers to a [[politics|political doctrine]] which asserts the validity and superiority of a particular religiously-based origin belief over those of other [[belief systems]], including those in particular espoused through secular or scientific rationale &mdash; i.e. "[[Creation-evolution controversy]]." The meaning of the term "creationism" depends upon the context wherein it is used, as it refers to a particular origin belief within a particular political culture.
In the [[United States]], more so than in the rest of the world, creationism has become centered in political controversy, in particular over [[public education]], and whether teaching evolution in science classes conflicts unfairly with the creationist worldview. Currently, the controversy has come in the form of whether advocates of the [[Intelligent Design movement]] who wish to "[[Teach the Controversy]]" in science classes have overstepped the boundaries of [[separation of church and state]].
{{main|Creation science}}
[[Creation Science]] refers to the endeavour of [[neologism|self-described]] "creation scientists" to use [[science]] in support of a creationist worldview. The scientific status of [[Creation Science]] is disputed by most of the [[scientific community]] as [[pseudoscience]] because Creation Science begins with a desired answer and attempts to interpret all evidence to fit in with this predetermined conclusion. According to the [[philosophy of science]], scientific investigation uses the [[scientific method]] to formulate theories and predictions based only on accurate observations. Imposing such limitations is equivalent to assuming that phenomena have naturalistic descriptions, and creationists argue that this is effectively an imposition of an [[atheism|atheistic]] bias since most scientists claim, for example, that the action of a [[deity]] has never been observed.
==History of the concept of creation==
{{main|History of creationism}}
The history of creationism is tied to the [[history of religions]]. Creationism in the West primarily had some of its earliest roots in [[Judaism]]. For example, [[Abraham ibn Ezra]]'s (c. 1089–1164) commentary on Genesis is greatly esteemed in traditional rabbinical circles and he was a creationist.
In the [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century|19th]] centuries, [[naturalist]]s challenged the [[Biblical]] account of [[creation]] as to be in conflict with [[empiricism|empirical observations]] of [[natural history]] from [[science|scientific inquiry]]. Creationists consider their primary source to be the ancient [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] text describing [[creation according to Genesis]]. While the term ''creationism'' was not in common use before the late [[19th century]] they see themselves as being the philosophical and religious offspring of the traditions that held that text sacred. The biblical account of history, [[cosmology]] and [[natural history]] was believed by [[Judaism|Jews]], [[Christianity|Christians]] and [[Islam|Muslims]] and its accuracy was unquestioned through the [[Medieval]] period. Most people in [[Europe]], the [[Middle East]] and other areas of the [[Islam]]ic world believed that a supreme being had existed and would exist [[eternal]]ly, and that everything else in existence had been created by this supreme being, known variously as [[God]], [[Yahweh]], or [[Allah]]. This belief was based on the authority of [[Genesis]], the [[Qur'an]], and other ancient histories, which were held to be historically accurate and no systematic or scientific inquiry was made into the validity of the text.
Islamic scholars preserved ancient [[Greece|Greek]] texts and developed their ideas, leading to the [[Renaissance]] which brought a questioning of biblical [[cosmology]]. With [[the Enlightenment]] a variety of scientific and philosophical movements challenged traditional viewpoints in Europe and the Americas. [[Natural history]] developed with the aim of understanding God's plan, but found contradictions, which in revolutionary [[France]] were interpreted as science supporting [[evolution]]. Elsewhere, particularly in [[England]], clerical naturalists sought explanations compatible with interpretations of biblical texts, anticipating many later creationist arguments.
While the concept of an ancient earth became widely accepted, [[Charles Darwin]]'s theory of [[natural selection]] directly challenged belief in God's involvement in creating [[species]], and in response Creationism arose as a distinct movement aiming to justify and reassert the literal accuracy of sacred texts, particularly the words of [[Genesis]].
The history of creationism has relevance to the [[creation-evolution controversy]]. Proponents of creationism claim that it has a rich heritage grounded in ancient recorded histories and consistent with scientific observation, whereas opponents, particularly of what they regard as the [[pseudoscience]]s of [[creation science]] and [[intelligent design]], claim that those are a modern reactionary movement against science.
==Types of creationism==
Creationism covers a spectrum of beliefs which have been categorized into the broad types listed below. Not all creationists are in dispute with scientific theories, though very few modern scientists are creationists.
;[[Young Earth Creationist|Young-Earth Creationism]]
:The belief that the Earth was created by [[God]] a few thousand years ago, literally as described in [[Creation according to Genesis]], within the approximate timeframe of the [[Ussher-Lightfoot Calendar]] or somewhat more according to the interpretation of biblical genealogies. (They may or may not believe that the [[Universe]] is the same age.) It rejects not only [[radiometric dating|radiometric]] and [[isochron dating]] of the [[age of the Earth]], arguing that they are based on debatable assumptions, but also approaches such as [[ice core]] dating and [[dendrochronology]]. Instead, it interprets the geologic record largely as a result of a [[Noah's Ark|global flood]]. This view is held by many Protestant Christians in the USA, and by many [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi Jews]]. For Christian groups promoting this view, see the [[Institute for Creation Research]] (ICR), [[El Cajon, California]], USA, and the ''Creation Research Society'' (CRS), [[Saint Joseph, Missouri]], USA.
:Because Young Earth creationists believe in the literal truth of the description in Genesis of divine creation of every "kind" of plant and creature during a week about 6,000 years ago, they dispute parts of [[evolution]] (specifically Universal Common Ancestry) which describes all [[species]] developing from a common ancestor without a need for divine intervention over a much longer time. Different young-earth creationists offer different explanations for the [[fossil record]], which gives the appearance that the Earth is much older:
:;[[Modern geocentrism]]
::The view that God recently created a spherical world, and placed it in the center of the universe. The [[Sun]], [[planets]] and everything else in the universe revolve around it. All scientific claims about the age of the Earth are lies; evolution does not occur. Very few people today maintain such a belief. See, for example, the ''[http://www.csama.org/ Creation Science Association for Mid-America]'', in [[Cleveland, MO]], USA.
:;[[Omphalos hypothesis]]
::God created the Earth only recently, but made it appear much older. This is the belief of a small subgroup of Young Earth creationists, which is sometimes termed the [[Omphalos hypothesis]]. This argument was first made by [[Philip Henry Gosse]] in [[1857]]. He held that because the world operates in cycles (chicken to egg to chicken on so on), certain physical and biological processes need the appearance of age to function. It is termed the Omphalos hypothesis because it is based on the question of whether or not [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] (or [[Adam and Eve|Eve]] for that matter) had a [[navel]] (given that they were |
vironmental issues==
The Canadian government places a higher premium on energy and the environment than the U.S. government. The two countries also work closely to resolve transboundary environmental issues, an area of increasing importance in the bilateral relationship. A principal instrument of this cooperation is the [[International Joint Commission]] (IJC), established as part of the [[Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909]] to resolve differences and promote international cooperation on boundary waters. The [[Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972]] is another historic example of joint cooperation in controlling transboundary water pollution. However, there have been some disputes involving transboundary water pollution. Most recently, the Devil's Lake Outlet, a project instituted by North Dakota, has angered Manitobans who fear that their water may soon become polluted as a result of this project.
The two governments also consult semiannually on transboundary air pollution. Under the [[Air Quality Agreement of 1991]], both countries have made substantial progress in coordinating and implementing their acid rain control programs and signed an annex on ground level ozone in 2000.
==Illicit drugs==
The U.S. has expressed concern that Canada is an illicit producer of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] for the domestic drug market; the use of [[hydroponics]] technology permits growers to plant large quantities of high-quality [[Marijuana|marijuana]] indoors.
In 2003 the American government became quite irate when the Canadian government announced plans to [[decriminalization|decriminalize]] marijuana. David Murray, an assistant to U.S. [[Director of the National Drug Control Policy|Drug Czar]] [[John P. Walters]], said in a [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] interview that, "We would have to respond. We would be forced to respond." [http://www.cbc.ca/story/canada/national/2003/05/02/us_pot_rxn030502.html]. However the [[Canadian federal election, 2006|election]] of the [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative Party]] in early 2006 may halt liberalization of narcotic laws in the near future.
==Territorial Disputes==
These include maritime boundary disputes with the United States:
*[[Dixon Entrance]]
*[[Beaufort Sea]]
*[[Strait of Juan de Fuca]]
*[[San Juan Islands]]
*[[Machias Seal Island]]
Territorial land disputes:
*[[Aroostook War]] (Maine Boundary)
*[[Alaska Boundary Dispute]]
and disputes over the international status of the:
*[[Northwest Passage]]
*[[Inside Passage]]
==Arar Affair==
On [[September 26]], [[2002]], U.S. officials detained on suspicion of terrorist links a Syrian-Canadian citizen named [[Maher Arar]] who had been travelling through in New York as part of a trip home to Canada from vacation in Tunisia.
Despite travelling on Canadian passport, Arar was deported to Syria, a country he had not visited since his teenage years. He was imprisoned there for over a year, during which he claims he was frequently tortured. The decision by U.S. officials to deport him to Syria, his imprisonment and torture there, and the extent of collaboration between U.S. and Canadian officials became a major political issue in Canada at the time.
{{seealso|Soviet Canuckistan}}
==2003 Invasion of Iraq==
According to contemporary polls, the vast majority of Canadians were opposed to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. The Canadian government under Prime Minister [[Jean Chrétien]] maintained a wait-and-see position with emphasis on [[United Nations|UN]] authority, while moving military planners and ships into positions of readiness for the war against Iraq, as well as freeing U.S. forces by sending troops to [[Afghanistan]]. It is in fact doing what it is asked by the U.S. government in military terms, while maintaining a public stance toward the Canadian people that assumes a position of non-participation. To date 11,000 Canadian personnel have served in the [[War on Terror]]. Eighteen warships have been deployed so far, and Canada has led the International Security Assistance Force in Kabul by providing the largest contribution of troops and its commander.
The Canadian [[Embassy]] in [[Washington, DC]] maintains a [[public relations]] [[web site]] named [http://www.canadianally.com CanadianAlly.com], which is intended "to give American citizens a better sense of the scope of Canada's role in North American and Global Security and the War on Terror."
==Immigration==
Canada has been frequently criticized in U.S. media and by some U.S. politicians for its allegedly weak immigration laws, often with the implication that terrorists might succeed in entering the U.S. through Canada, as the Canada-U.S. border is more open than other entry points to the U.S.
On an [[April 19]], [[2005]] airing of [[Hannity and Colmes]], guest [[Newt Gingrich]] claimed that "far more of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11]] terrorists came across from Canada than from Mexico." As this was false (none of the 19 hijackers had come through Canada or Mexico) Gingrich later apologized to Canadian ambassador [[Frank McKenna]], saying that he deeply regretted perpetuating what had become a "widespread inaccuracy."
==Notes==
# {{note|1}} Quoted during a speech by Trudeau to the [[National Press Club]] in [[Washington, DC]] on [[25 March]] [[1969]]; the author of the speech was later attributed to Ivan Head, Trudeau's adviser.
==See also==
*[[David Wilkins]], U.S. ambassador to Canada
*[[Michael Wilson (politician)|Michael Wilson]], [[List of Canadian ambassadors to the United States|Canadian ambassador to U.S.]]
*[[Foreign relations of Canada]]
*[[Foreign relations of the United States]]
*[[Canadian and American politics compared]]
*[[Canadian and American economies compared]]
*[[Canada and the American Civil War]]
*[[Canada and the Vietnam War]]
*[[Canada in the Cold War]]
[[Category:Canada and the United States|*]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Canada]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the United States]]</text>
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<title>Canada/Provinces and territories</title>
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<title>Computer-generated art</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rendered mountain.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|A computer-generated mountain]]
'''Computer-generated art''' is [[art]] created with a [[computer]]. The term is usually applied to
A possible third paradigm is to generate art in 2D or 3D entirely through the execution of algorithms coded into computer programs. This may be called [[Proceduralism]] and could be considered the native art form of the computer. That is, it cannot be produced without the computer. [[Fractal art]] is an example.
==See also==
* [[Computer generated music]]
* [[Fractal art]]
* [[Digital art]]
* [[Machinima]]
* [[Generative art]]
[[Category:Computer art]]
[[Category:Computer graphics]]</text>
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<title>Conditional Probability</title>
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only factor. Sorting by the length of the bearing surface (that area between the base of a flat-based bullet and the ogive, or the area above the base of a boattailed bullet and the ogive) often yields better performance in custom made rifles, particularly in competition firearms. The bearing surface of the bullet has a significant effect on a number of factors, including the energy required to [[swage]] the bullet into the rifling, the friction of the bullet in the bore, and most importantly, the freebore, or the distance the bullet travels before it engages the rifling. Measuring the bearing surface requires the use of a bullet comparitor and micrometer combination. Sorting by this method ensures that the amount of bullet protruding from the case after being seated is consistent across the entire population of loads, which then ensures that the freebore is as close to identical as is possible. Varying freebore amounts invariably cause variations in chamber pressure which in turn affects velocity and downrange performance. This is particularly critical since the burn rate of [[smokeless powder]] is proportional to the pressure, so a slight change in pressure during the initial bullet movement can result in far greater changes as the burn continues. Sorting by bearing surface is generally done as a second step, first sorting by bullet weight (generally to within 0.1 grain in weight) and then sorting each weight category by bearing surface.
==Cost considerations==
Those who reload with they primary goal of maximizing accuracy or terminal performance may end up paying more per reloaded round than some commercial ammunition--this is especially true for military calibers which are commonly available as surplus. Maximum performance, however, requires the highest quality components, which are usually the most expensive. Reloaders who reload with the primary goal of saving money on ammunition, however, can make a few tradeoffs to realize significant cost savings with a minimal sacrifice in quality.
===Bullets===
While the case is usually the most expensive component of a cartridge, the bullet is usually the most expensive part of the ''reloaded'' round, especially with handgun ammunition. It is also the best place to save money with handgun ammunition.
For the truly frugal, the cheapest method of getting bullets is to cast them. This requires a set of bullet molds, which are available from a number of sources, and a source of known quality lead. [[Linotype]] and wheelweights are often used as sources of lead, and blended togethe to achieve the desired [[Brinell hardness test|Brinell hardness]]. Cast bullets are also the cheapest bullets to buy, though generally only handgun bullets are available in this form. Some firearms, such as those using polygonal rifling like [[GLOCK]] and {{H&K]], advise against the use of cast bullets. For shooters who would like to shoot cast bullets, aftermarket barrels are generally available for these models with conventional rifling, and the cost of the barrel can generally be recouped in ammunition savings after a few thousand rounds.
Soft lead bullets are generally used in handguns with velocities of 1000 fps (300 m/s) or lower, while harder cast bullets may be used, with careful powder selection, in rifles with velocities of 2000 fps (600 m/s) or slightly more. The limit is the point at which the powder gas temperature and pressure starts to melt the base of the bullet, and leave a thin coating of molten and re-solidified lead in the bore of the gun--a process called '''leading''' the bore. Cast lead bullets may also be fired in full power magnum handgun rounds like the [[.44 Magnum]] with the addition of a gas check, which is a thin [[zinc]] or [[copper]] washer or cup that is crimped over a tiny heel on the base of appropriate cast bullets. This provides protection for the base of the bullet, and allows velocites of over 1500 fps (450 m/s) in handguns, with little or no leading of the bore.
Most shooters prefer jacketed bullets, especially in rifles and pistols. The hard jacket material, generally copper or [[brass]], resists deformation and handles far higher pressures and temperatures than lead. With the exception of a single company that offers a [[swage|swaging]] machine desinged to turn [[.22 Long Rifle]] cases into brass jackets for .22 caliber (5.56 mm) bullets, handloaders have no choice but to purchase pre-made jacketed bullets. The process of manufacturing a jacketed bullet is far more complex than that for a cast bullet; first, the jacket must be punched from a metal sheet of precise thickness, filled with a premeasured lead core, and then swaged into shape with a high pressure press. This involved process makes jacketed bullets far more expensive on average than cast bullets. Further complicating this are the requirements for controlled expansion bullets (see [[terminal ballistics]]), which require a tight bond between the jacket and the core. Premium expanding bullets are, with match grade bullets, at the top tier in expense.
A more ecenomical alternative was made available to the handloader in the [[1980s]], the copper plated bullet. Copper plated bullets are lead bullets than are [[electroplate]]d with a copper jacket. While thinner than a swaged bullet jacket, the plated jacket is far thicker than normal electroplate, and provides significant structural integrity to the bullet. Since the jacket provides the strength, soft lead can be used, which allows bullets to be swaged or cast into shape before plating. While not strong enough for most rifle cartridges, plated bullets work well in many handgun rounds, up to about 1500 fps (600 m/s). Plated bullets fall between cast and and traditional jacketed bullets in price.
While originally sold to only to handloaders as an inexpensive substitute for jacketed bullets, the plated bullet has come far. The ammunition manufacturer Speer now offers the Gold Dot line, commercially loaded premium handgun ammunition using copper plated [[hollow point bullet]]s. The strong bond between jacket and core created by the electroplating process makes expanding bullets hold together very well, and the Gold Dot line is now in use by many police departments.
===Maximizing case life===
Since the case is the single most expensive part of a loaded round, the more times a case can be re-used, the better. Cases that are loaded to a moderate pressure will generally last longer, as they will not be [[work hardening|work hardened]] or flow under pressure as much as cases loaded to higher pressures. Work hardening can cause cracks to occur in the neck as the hardened brass loses its malleability, and is unable to survive swaging back into shape during the resizing operation. Rifle brass tends to flow towards the neck (this is why rifle brass must be trimmed periodically) and this takes brass away from the rear of the case. Eventually, this will show as a bright ring near the base of the cartridge, just in front of the thick web of brass at the base. If brass is used after this ring appears, it risks a crack, or worse, a complete head separation, which will leave the forward portion of the brass lodged in the chamber of the gun. This generally requires a special stuck case removal tool to extract, so it is very undesirable to have a head separation.
Work hardening happens to all cases, even low pressure handgun cases. The sudden increase in pressure upon firing hits the brass like a hammer, changing it's crystaline structure and making it more brittle. The neck of the case, if it becomes too brittle, will be incapable of standing the strain of resizing, expanding, crimping, and firing, and will split during loading or firing. While a neck split during firing is not a significant danger, a split neck will render the case incapable of holding the bullet in place, so the case must be discarded.
The simplest way to decrease the effects of work hardening is to decrease the pressure in the case. Loading to the minimum power level listed in the reloading manual, instead of the maximum, can significantly increase case life. Slower powders generally also have lower pressure peaks. If the manual lists pressures for each load given, then pick a powder and load that gives a low peak pessure.
[[Anneal]]ing brass to make it softer and less brittle is fairly easy, but annealing cartridge cases is a more complex matter. Since the base of the case should be hard, it cannot be annealed. Since annealing brass requires heating it to about about 660 F (350 C) and then cooling it back to room temperature, the heating must be done in such a way as to prevent the base of the case from heating up and loosing its hardness. The traditional way is to stand the cases in a shallow pan full of water, then heat the necks of the cases with a torch, but this method makes it very difficult to get an even heating of the case neck. A better method is to mark the case with a 660 F (350 C) temperature sensitive crayon at the point to which it is to be annealed (just behind the shoulder for bottlenecked cartridges, near the bullet seating depth for straight wall cartridges). Latch the cartridge base into a holder, such as a shell holder, that will securely hold it while you spin the case. Place the neck of the case in a [[propane]] torch flame, and heat it until the crayon mark changes color, indicating the correct temperature--the surface of the brass will also attain a bluish shade as it oxidizes slightly due to the heat. Once the correct temperature is reached, quickly quench the case in water to stop the annealing process and prevent the heat from reaching the base of the case.
Cases that have small cracks at the neck may not be a complete loss. Many cartridges, both commercial and [[wildcat cartridge|wildcats]], can be made by shortening a longer cartridge. For example, a [[.223 Remington]] can be shortened to become a |
om from [[1908]] to [[1946]] and thereafter a republic, Bulgaria sought to expand its territory in the two [[Balkan Wars]] of [[1912]]-[[1913|13]] and in World Wars [[World War I|I]] and [[World War II|II]]. Defeat in the last three conflicts led to a large loss of territory in [[1913]] and [[1919]], though the [[1940]] recovery of the [[Southern Dobruja]] was confirmed by the [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947|Paris Peace Treaty]] of [[1947]].
'''Natural hazards:'''
earthquakes, landslides
'''Environment - current issues:'''
air pollution from industrial emissions; rivers polluted from raw sewage, heavy metals, detergents; [[deforestation]]; forest damage from air pollution and resulting [[acid rain]]; soil contamination from heavy metals from metallurgical plants and industrial wastes
'''Environment - international agreements:'''
<br>''party to:''
[[Air Pollution]], [[Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides]], [[Air Pollution-Sulphur 85]], [[Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds]], [[Antarctic-Environmental Protocol]], [[Antarctic Treaty]], [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Environmental Modification]], [[Hazardous Wastes]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], Ship Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]), [[Wetlands]]
<br>''signed, but not ratified:''
[[Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants]], [[Air Pollution-Sulphur 94]], [[Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol]]
==Area and boundaries==
'''Area:'''
<br>''total:''
110,910 km²
<br>''land:''
110,550 km²
<br>''water:''
360 km²
'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly larger than [[Tennessee]]
'''Land boundaries:'''
<br>''total:''
1,808 km
<br>''border countries:''
[[Greece]] 494 km, The [[Republic of Macedonia]] 148 km, [[Romania]] 608 km, [[Serbia]] and [[Montenegro]] 318 km (all with Serbia), [[Turkey]] 240 km
'''Coastline:'''
354 km
'''Maritime claims:'''
<br>''contiguous zone:''
24 nm
<br>''exclusive economic zone:''
200 nm
<br>''territorial sea:''
12 nm
'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br>''lowest point:''
[[Black Sea]] 0 m
<br>''highest point:''
[[Musala]] 2,925 m
==Resources and land use==
'''Natural resources:'''
[[bauxite]], [[copper]], [[lead]], [[zinc]], [[coal]], [[timber]], arable land
'''Land use:'''
<br>''arable land:''
43%
<br>''permanent crops:''
2%
<br>''permanent pastures:''
14%
<br>''forests and woodland:''
38%
<br>''other:''
3% (1999 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
12,370 km² (1993 est.)
'''Geography - note:'''
strategic location near [[Turkish Straits]]; controls key land routes from [[Europe]] to [[Middle East]] and [[Asia]]
Bulgaria has only one marsh, the [[Swamp of Durankulak]].
==See also==
* [[Bulgaria]]
* [[Extreme points of Bulgaria]]
* [[Reservoirs and dams in Bulgaria]]
* [[Rivers of Bulgaria]]
* [[List of cities in Bulgaria]]
* [[Geography of Europe]]
==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''
[[Category:Geography of Bulgaria| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Bulgaria]]
[[bg:География на България]]
[[es:Geografía de Bulgaria]]
[[pt:Geografia da Bulgária]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Bulgaria</title>
<id>3670</id>
<revision>
<id>41519011</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T22:24:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dismas</username>
<id>152983</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>US -> U.S. per Wikipedia:Manual of style#Acronyms and abbreviations</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Bulgaria}}
'''Politics of Bulgaria''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Bulgaria|Chairman of the Council of Ministers]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[National Assembly of Bulgaria | National Assembly]]. Since 1990 Bulgaria has an unstable party system, wherein nowadays the post-communist social democratic [[Bulgarian Socialist Party]] and the personalist liberal [[National Movement Simeon II]] are dominant. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. The [[United States|U.S.]] [[Freedom House]] rates the country with a 1 on political rights and with a 2 on [[civil rights]] (on a scale of 1 to 7 whereas 1 is the most free). The Freedom House considers Bulgaria to be a [[freedom|free country]].
==Developments since 1990==
The [[Bulgarian Socialist Party]] (BSP) won the first post-communist Assembly elections in 1990 with a small majority. The BSP government formed at that time was brought down by a general strike in late 1990 and replaced by a transitional coalition government. Meanwhile, [[Zhelyu Zhelev]], a communist-era dissident, was elected President by the Assembly in 1990 and later won Bulgaria's first direct presidential elections, in 1992. Zhelev served until early 1997. The country's first fully democratic Assembly elections, in November 1991, ushered in another coalition government, which was led by the pro-reform Union of Democratic Forces (UDF) in partnership with the Turkish party [[Movement for Rights and Freedoms]] (MRF). This coalition collapsed in late 1992, however, and was succeeded by a technocratic team, put forward by the MRF, which governed at the sufferance of the BSP for 2 years. The BSP won pre-term elections in December 1994 and remained in office until February 1997, when a populace alienated by the BSP's failed, corrupt government demanded its resignation and called for new elections. A caretaker cabinet appointed by the President served until pre-term parliamentary elections in April 1997, which yielded a landslide victory for pro-reform forces led by the UDF in the United Democratic Forces coalition.
In [[2001]], former King [[Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]] returned to power, this time as Prime Minister with his [[National Movement Simeon II]]. The last parliamentary elections took place on [[25 June]] [[2005]].
On [[July 27]], [[2005]] the Bulgarian Parliament chose [[Sergei Stanishev]] of the [[Bulgarian Socialist Party]] as the new Prime Minister in a coalition government with the [[Movement for Rights and Freedoms]]. The vote was 120 against 119. However, the parliament voted against the cabinet's staff by 119 to 117 votes. Finally, on [[August 15]], [[2005]], the BSP and [[National Movement Simeon II]] formed a stable government, along with the [[Movement for Rights and Freedoms]]. This [[grand coalition]] comprises the three largest parties. This coalition will have a large majority in parliament with 169 of the 240 deputies.
==Office holders==
{{office-table}}
!align=left|[[President of Bulgaria|President]]
|[[Georgi Purvanov]]
|[[Bulgarian Socialist Party|BSP]]
|[[22 January]] [[2002]]
|-
!align=left|[[Vice President of Bulgaria|Vice President]]
|[[Angel Marin]]
|[[Bulgarian Socialist Party|BSP]]
|[[22 January]] [[2002]]
|-
!align=left|[[Prime Minister of Bulgaria|Chairman of the Council of Ministers]]
|[[Sergei Stanishev]]
|[[Bulgarian Socialist Party|BSP]]
|[[17 August]] [[2005]]
|-
|Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs
|[[Ivaylo Kalfin]]
|[[Bulgarian Socialist Party|BSP]]
|[[17 August]] [[2005]]
|-
|Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Education and Science
|[[Danail Vulchev]]
|[[National Movement Simeon II|NDSV]]
|[[17 August]] [[2005]]
|-
|Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Emergencies
|[[Emel Etem Toshkova]]
|[[Movement for Rights and Freedoms|DPS]]
|[[17 August]] [[2005]]
|-
!align=left|[[Chairman of the National Assembly of Bulgaria|Chairman of the National Assembly]]
|[[Georgi Pirinski]]
|[[Bulgarian Socialist Party|BSP]]
|[[11 July]] [[2005]]
|-
|Vice Chairmen of the National Assembly
|[[Luben Kornezov]]
|[[Bulgarian Socialist Party|BSP]]
|[[11 July]] [[2005]]
|-
|Vice Chairmen of the National Assembly
|[[Kamelia Kassabova]]
|[[National Movement Simeon II|NDSV]]
|[[11 July]] [[2005]]
|-
|Vice Chairmen of the National Assembly
|[[Younal Loutfi]]
|[[Movement for Rights and Freedoms|DPS]]
|[[11 July]] [[2005]]
|}
==[[Executive branch]]==
The [[President of Bulgaria]], elected for a 5-year term, is head of state and commander in chief of the armed forces. The President's main duties are to schedule elections and referenda, represent Bulgaria abroad, conclude international treaties, and head the Consultative Council for National Security. The President may return legislation to the National Assembly for further debate--a kind of veto--but the legislation can be passed again by a simple majority vote.
The Council of Ministers is the principal organ of the executive branch. It is usually formed by the majority party in Parliament, if one exists, or by the largest party in Parliament along with coalition partners. Chaired by the Prime Minister, it is responsible for carrying out state policy, managing the state budget, and maintaining law and order. The Council must resign if the National Assembly passes a vote of no confidence in the Council or the Prime Minister.
The Council of Ministers elected by the [[National Assembly (Bulgaria)|National Assembly]]. The ministers are:<br>
<ul>
<li>
[[Sergei Stanishev]] - Prime Minister
</li>
<li>
[[Ivaylo Kalfin]] - Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs
</li>
<li>
[[Daniel Vulchev]] - Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Education and Science
</li>
<li>
[[Emel Etem Toshkova]] - Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Emergencies
</li>
<li>
[[Plamen Oresharski]] - Minister of Finance
</li>
<li>
[[Rumen Ovcharov]] - Minister of Economy and Energy
</li>
<li> |
acing (see above). If one car has a huge lead, it may slow down before crossing the finish line to prevent a breakout. Especially in bracket racing, it is not uncommon to see the leading vehicle's brake lights come on briefly before the finish line.
If both cars break out, the car closer to their dial-in wins. In NHRA Junior Dragster racing, however, there is a maximum elapsed time where a car which is faster than the maximum permissible time is ejected from the entire race. This is faster than the official break out elapsed time.
==An amateur "Day at the races"==
{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
While the professional and other faster classes get all the attention on tv and in the press, there are far more casual and weekend racers for whom it's just an enjoyable hobby. Many potential first-time amateur drag racers are put off by their lack of knowledge as to what to do. Assuming a 13.0 second or slower car (most unmodified street cars other than Corvettes, Vipers, certain Camaros/Firebirds/Mustangs), it is relatively easy to have an enjoyable Friday night, Saturday, or Sunday afternoon (differs by track). Other cars running at the sportsman race other than the street cars are Super Comp/Quick Rod cars, Top Dragster vehicles, Top Sportsman cars, Cars that run in Super Gas/Super Rod and Super Street/Hot Rod, and vehicle built specifically for bracket racing. Each track usually has three car categories and a Super Pro Bike category. The car categories are Super Pro (any electronic devices are allowed, from 7.00 to 12.99 or depending on the track), Pro (doorcars with no electronics except for a transbrake, 9.00 to 14.99), and Street (no electronics allowed, full street equipment, must be street legal, 12.00 to 17.99).
===Getting ready===
The first requirement is locating a nearby drag strip. Whether it's NHRA or IHRA is unimportant in the beginning, any track will do. Web searches, going to the NHRA/IHRA sites, asking friends, or even the yellow pages should locate one reasonably close. They will be able to tell you on the phone what dates/times they have races for street cars, and the cost to race (watching is cheaper, be sure to mention you'd like to race your vehicle). Also be sure to get the two most important times - the time they open, and the time actual racing starts (usually 2-3 hours later). The difference is so amateurs can have "practice runs" to determine what kinds of times their cars will achieve. Street classes are always bracket racing (see above). There are two reasons to try to arrive right as the track is opening. First, the "pit area", where all cars that will race initially congregate offers better spots (closer to the track) early on, and secondly, there is the opportunity to get more practice runs in.
===What to bring===
An automobile racing crash helmet, Snell Foundation approved, and white shoe polish in an applicator-type container (discussed later). Alcoholic beverages are not allowed. Snacks and some beverages are acceptable. (At many NHRA tracks, Pepsico products are prohibited, as Coca-Cola is a sponsor of the NHRA's national series.) Some people enjoy using a digital camera to capture the action. Many amateur enthusiasts enjoy bringing friends, especially in another vehicle, to enjoy the racing with and to assist with picture-taking. Earplugs are also a wise choice, as are glass cleaner and paper towels.
===When you first arrive===
Depending on the track, you may need to have the car "teched", which means inspected. Gate attendants (where you enter and pay) are used to this question, and know whether a street car needs to be teched or not. Two things can happen here. First, you need to have the car teched and should go to this area. Second, there is no tech requirement for street classes (mostly IHRA tracks), and so you simply head for the pit area. In the case of a tech requirement, you will have to have an official look over the car and be sure there are things such as seat belts, a correct helmet (if required), street-legal tires, a correct exhaust, and other street-legal items. The tech official (assuming the vehicle passes) will then use his white shoe-polish (or other substance) to paint an identifying number on your upper-passenger windshield, and possibly on a side window as well. The official will then give you a slip verifying you have been teched and you may then proceed to the pit area. In the case of no tech requirements, be sure to save the stub you got at the gate, since you will be asked for it before being allowed to race.
===The pit area===
Unlike [[NASCAR]], the pit area in amateur drag racing is a huge parking lot. If your car didn't need to be teched, you will need a number on your windshield. Although most tracks have an official who will supply the number, not all do. Use the shoe polish up high on the passenger side, then draw a line under it (explained later). The pit area is where everyone in amateur drag racing walks around and enjoys talking to other people, seeing cars that are similar, and generally just "[[trash-talk|talking trash]]" with others over performance. Arriving early, as mentioned, means you can get in line to do a few practice runs down the track. During these runs, it's only practice so you could conceivably be paired up with a much faster car. The object here is not to win, but to simply get a feel for how your car performs. All tracks have a place back around the pits where you can get a "timeslip" after a run.
===The timeslip===
Years ago, timeslips were written out by hand, but now they are computerized. A quarter mile is a fair amount
of distance, and after slowing down the car will need to turn around (not on the track - there are roads leading back to the pit area, called "return roads", as you would expect). There will be a small building or other place (just ask) where you will get a
slip of paper with your number at the top (and the one you raced against as well). Aside from winning or losing, practice runs are the same as the real thing. You'll get your ET, your average speed through the final 66 feet of the track (MPH at finish, or "trap speed"), and your reaction time. Most tracks also include your time at various intervals on the way down the track. One of the most common is the "60 foot" time. The 60 foot time is a good indication of how quickly you got off the line.
===Dialing in===
Before actual racing begins, drag racers will need to dial-in, or put their estimated time on their windshield underneath the ID number. The time is to the hundredth, as in "14.55". After a couple of practice runs most racers have an idea of how their vehicle is going to perform. It is worth noting that the time you put up there is an estimate of the quickest time your car will achieve, since going faster than your dial-in will result in disqualification, called a breakout. You are allowed to change this number as many times as you like, right up until you actually stage for the race. Shoe polish is easily removed with windex and a few paper towels. A common ego trip for many weekend racers is to paint a ridiculous dial-in (say, 8.45) on a car that can barely do 17s and watch as people walk by and wonder what you have under the hood. Smart racers dial in more to their real times. For example, a Super Comp/Quick Rod Corvette in Super Pro ran two practice runs of 8.18 and 8.16, so the driver believes an 8.17 dial-in is good. His opponent in a 1967 Mustang ran times of 11.13 and 11.16, so he believes that an 11.14 is a good dial-in. The driver in the Mustang leaves three seconds before the Corvette, making it fair.
===Time to race===
[[image:draginline_waiting.jpg|thumb|right|350px|These cars are running 12s. The Viper is stock, right off the showroom floor.]]
Eventually, the loudspeakers will begin calling various classes to line up for the race. There will likely be 3 or 4 lanes to line up in. Be sure to know what class you are running in. For example, it is unwise to drive a stock Dodge Neon into a Top Fuel lineup. As a rule, one class at a time is called. Everyone else comes to watch, take pictures, or tweak their cars until it is their turn. When your turn comes to get in line, the adrenalin starts. A track official will point to the two cars he or she wants on the line, and the racing process (see above) begins. One or two lanes are kept empty for winners to re-line up in. After the first
round, the winners race again. This goes on until someone wins the class and gets either a trophy or some money. Some tracks are generous and award trophies to anyone who simply wins a single race. Other tracks
require the racer to win it all before getting anything. Most fall in between.
===After the race===
If you wait until the very end, the pit area will likely be almost empty, since most people just leave after they lose. Many ego types will re-paint a wild time on their cars and head for the local 7-11 to brag. Others will simply go home. Either way, casual drag racing is fun and millions do it each and every weekend.
=Glossary=
*Beam—starting line electric eye controlling "pre-staged" and "staged" lights
*Blow—supercharge; wreck. Said of an engine.
*Blower—[[supercharger]] (occasionally [[turbocharger]]); in '90s, generally grouped as "power adder" with turbocharger and [[nitrous oxide|nitrous]]
*Blown—supercharged; wrecked. Said of an engine.
*Blowover—flipping of a car, due to air under car lifting front wheels. Commonly suffered by diggers and floppers, not bodied cars.
*Breakout—running quicker than dial-in; also "breaking out". Grounds for disqualification if opponent does not commit a foul start or cross boundary lines.
*Cacklefest: The 21st Century Drag Racing Phenom
*Christmas Tree (or tree)—the [[Chrondek]] timing lights
*Digger—dragster (as distinct from a bodied car or flopper)
* |
virtue of calling "shotgun" in the first place. In some groups, yelling "shotty" or "gunshot" are also acceptable and equivalent. The specific rules are the subject of much heated but good-natured debate, and a number of websites claim to have the official rules.
"Calling shotgun" is also done in situations other than driving a vehicle in which order is important. For example, when playing a [[console game]], it is typical for the loser of the round to give up his controller; the next person to play is the one who called shotgun.
In certain regions the term is called "next".
== Reload rule ==
The reload rule, practised in Australia and possibly other countries, states that the driver has the right to call "reload". It is entirely the driver's prerogative as to whether he or she exercises this rule. Upon calling "reload", the game is restarted and any passenger once again has the chance to call out "shotgun" first and ride in the front.
== See also ==
*[[Shotgun messenger]]
*[[Shotgun (cannabis)]] - see: 'Determining smoking order'.
*[[Bitch#The Middle Backseat of a Car|Bitch]] (Riding Bitch) - see: 'The Middle Backseat of a Car'.
== External links ==
*[http://www.shotgunrules.com/ The Official Shotgun Rules]
*[http://members.aol.com/JGRUF/shotgun.html The Official Rules for Calling Shotgun, and its Amendments]
*[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mrideshotgun.html What's the origin of "riding shotgun"?] (from the ''Straight Dope'')
*[http://www.gunriders.com GunRiders.com]
[[Category:American cultural conventions]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Countries of the world/By continent</title>
<id>5352</id>
<revision>
<id>15903564</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-06T09:09:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
</contributor>
<comment>move to List of countries by continent</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of countries by continent]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Status of the porting of U.S. Dept of State info</title>
<id>5353</id>
<revision>
<id>36745235</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T04:17:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Doug Bell</username>
<id>752893</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>|{{PAGENAME}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Here's a list of the countries with info on [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/ the Dept of State site]. The information at this site is in the public domain ''unless it explicitly says otherwise'' on whatever page you are viewing there.''
The CIA site and the Dept of State site don't cover all of the countries; each of them is missing info on various countries; also they are not in agreement on what name to link to the countries under--that is the source of the various anachronisms on the [[List of countries]] page. Furthermore, they are not always in agreement on various figures including population and GDP, even (on occasion) when supposedly taken from the same year. If you notice a discrepancy, it's probably best to use the more cautious figure.
[[user:-- April]] suggested adding bits on contentious relationships between countries, including e.g. the U.S. and Afghanistan, but not including the more U.S.-centric bits about countries with amicable relations (e.g. location of U.S. embassies in Jamaica, Ireland, etc.)
:''If anyone wants to help, please don't hesitate. :-)''
*[[Afghanistan]] -- bits added under History, Economy, Demographics, Transportation, and Foreign relations
*[[Albania]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations
*[[Algeria]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations
*[[Andorra]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations
*[[Angola]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations
*[[Antigua and Barbuda]] -- bits added under History, Politics, and Foreign relations
*[[Argentina]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations
*[[Armenia]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations
*[[Australia]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations
*[[Austria]] -- added bits under Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations
*[[Azerbaijan]] -- added bits under History, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations
*[[Bahamas]] -- added bits under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations
*[[Bahrain]] -- added bits under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations
*[[Bangladesh]] -- added bits under History, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations; moved para under "Economy" to "Geography"
*[[Barbados]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations
*[[Belarus]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations. '''did not''' add extensive section on the U.S.' efforts to assist militarily.
*[[Belgium]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations
*[[Belize]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Benin]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign Relations, though I suspect the [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6761.htm source page] may have been truncated, and so someone knowledgeable about Benin should check that "Demographics" and "Politics" are comprehensive
*[[Bermuda]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Communications, and Transportation; added parts of "U.S.-Bermuda relations" to Bermuda's main page.
*[[Bolivia]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Government, Foreign relations
*[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Botswana]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Transportation, Communications, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Brazil]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Brunei]] Darussalam -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Bulgaria]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Burkina Faso]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Transportation; put "Foreign relations" and p. of "U.S.-Burkina Faso relations" under Transnational Issues
*[[Burundi]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Cambodia]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy; created subpage "Architecture" and bits added there, Foreign relations
*[[Cameroon]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Canada]] -- bits added under Government and Economy; put "U.S.-Canada relations" under Transnational Issues
*[[Cape Verde]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Geography, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Cayman Islands]] -- not a country, but so what? I'm not keeping several lists to get this done -- bits added under History, Politics, and Economy
*[[Central African Republic]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Chad]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Chile]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Peoples Republic of China]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations. Left quite a lot of info on U.S.-China relations unadded, available [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/bgn/index.cfm?docid=2742 here] if anyone's interested in adding it
*[[Colombia]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Military, and created "Foreign relations." bits from U.S.-Columbia relations in re: trade added to the Economy page.
*[[Comoros]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Republic of the Congo]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Costa Rica]] -- bits added under Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Côte d'Ivoire]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Croatia]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Cuba]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Cyprus]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations
*[[Czech Republic]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Military, and created "Foreign relations."
*[[Denmark]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Djibouti]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations
*[[Dominica]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
**at this point I've quit adding the "current govt officials" bits as they won't generally be timely for long; also I'm not adding the "embassy in U.S. bits" as I haven't added e.g. "embassy in U.K." or "embassy in Greenland" bits
*[[Dominican Republic]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Ecuador]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[El Salvador]] -- bit |
t [[radio]] waves were being emitted from the centre of the [[galaxy]].
*1933: [[Stereophonic sound|Stereo signals]] transmitted live from Philadelphia to Washington D.C.
*1937: The [[vocoder]], the first electronic [[speech synthesizer]], invented and demonstrated by [[Homer Dudley]].
*1937: Electrical relay digital computer [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9015241]
*1937: Bell researcher [[Clinton Davisson]] shares the Nobel Prize in Physics with [[George Paget Thomson]] for the discovery of electron diffraction, which helps lay the foundation for solid-state electronics.
*1940: The [[photovoltaic cell]] developed by [[Russell Ohl]].
*1947: The [[transistor]] is invented by [[John Bardeen]], [[William Bradford Shockley]], and [[Walter Houser Brattain]], all of whom subsequently won the [[Nobel Prize]] in Physics in 1956.
*1948: "[[A Mathematical Theory of Communication]]", one of the founding works in [[information theory]], published by [[Claude Shannon]] in the ''[[Bell System Technical Journal]]''; it built in part on earlier work in the field by Bell researchers [[Harry Nyquist]] and [[Ralph Hartley]].
*1949: First remote operation of a [[teleprinter]], controlled in New Hampshire by a computer at Bell Labs in New York City.
*1956: [[TAT-1]], the first [[transatlantic telephone cable]] laid between Scotland and Newfoundland.
*1957: [[MUSIC-N|MUSIC]], one of the first computer programs to play [[electronic music]], created by [[Max Mathews]]; New [[greedy algorithm]]s developed by [[Robert C. Prim]] and [[Joseph Kruskal]], revolutionizing network design.
*1958: The [[laser]] is first described in a technical paper by [[Arthur Schawlow]] and [[Charles Townes]].
*1962: [[Light-emitting diode]]s (LEDs) invented by [[Nick Holonyak]].
*1964: [[Carbon dioxide laser]] invented by [[Kumar Patel]].
*1965: Penzias and Wilson discovered the [[Cosmic Microwave Background]] (Nobel Prize 1978).
*1966: [[Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing]] (OFDM), a key technology in wireless services, developed and patented by [[R. W. Chang]].
*1968: [[Molecular beam epitaxy]] developed by [[J.R. Arthur]] and [[A.Y. Cho]]; allows semiconductor chips and laser matrices to be created one atomic layer at a time.
[[Image:Wisdombell.jpg|thumb|Bell Labs logo, 1969-1983]]
*1969: [[Unix|UNIX]] operating system is created by [[Dennis Ritchie]] and [[Ken Thompson]] .
*1969: The [[Charge-coupled device]] (CCD) is invented by [[Willard Boyle]] and [[George E. Smith]].
*1970: [[C programming language]] developed by Ritchie & Thompson.
*1971: A computerized [[telephone exchange|switching system]] for telephone traffic, invented by [[Erna Schneider Hoover]], receives one of the first [[software patent]]s.
*1976: [[Fiber optic]]s systems first tested in Georgia.
*1980: First single-chip [[32-bit]] [[microprocessor]], the BELLMAC-32A, is demonstrated; it goes into production in 1982.
*1980: [[TDMA]] and [[CDMA]] digital cellular telephone technology patented.
*1982: [[Fractional quantum Hall effect]] discovered by [[Horst Ludwig Störmer|Horst Störmer]] and former Bell Labs researchers [[Robert B. Laughlin]] and [[Daniel C. Tsui]]; they won a Nobel Prize for it in 1998.
*1983: The [[C++]] programming language is developed by [[Bjarne Stroustrup]].
*1984: [[Karmarkar's algorithm|Karmarkar Linear Programming Algorithm]] developed by mathematician [[Narendra Karmarkar]].
In the mid-1980's external forces began to conspire against the Bell Labs system; meanwhile, the pace of innovation continued as before:
*1984: [[Modification of Final Judgment|A Divestiture agreement]] with the Federal government results in the break-up AT&T: [[Bellcore]] is split off from Bell Labs to provide the same R&D functions for the newly created [[local exchange carrier]]s. [[AT&T]] is also limited to using the Bell trademark in association with Bell Labs.
*1985: [[Laser cooling]] used to slow and manipulate atoms by [[Steven Chu]] and team.
*1980s: [[Plan 9 (operating system)|Plan 9 operating system]] is devloped as a replacement for [[Unix]].
*1980s: Development of the [[Radiodrum]], a three dimensional electronic instrument.
*1988: [[TAT-8]] is the first fiber optic transatlantic cable.
*1990: [[WaveLAN]] is the first wireless [[local area network]] (LAN).
*1991: 56K [[modem]] technology patented by [[Nuri Dagdeviren]] and team.
*1994: [[Quantum cascade laser]] invented by [[Federico Capasso]], [[Claire Gmachl]] and team.
*1995: [[Wireless internet]] access first demonstrated.
*1996: [[SCALPEL]] [[electron lithography]], which prints features atoms wide on microchips, invented by [[Lloyd Harriott]] and team.
*1996: The [[Inferno (operating system)|Inferno operating system]], an update of Plan 9, is created by Dennis Ritchie and team using the new [[concurrent programming language|concurrent]] [[Limbo programming language]].
*1996: AT&T spins off Bell Labs, along with most of its equipment-manufacturing business, into a new company named [[Lucent Technologies]]. AT&T retains a smaller number of researchers to form [[AT&T Laboratories]].
*1997: Smallest practical transistor created, 60 [[nanometer]]s or 182 atoms wide.
*1998: First [[optical router]].
*1998: First combination of voice and data traffic on an [[Internet Protocol]] (IP) network.
*2000: [[DNA machine]] prototypes developed.
*2000: [[Progressive geometry compression algorithm]] makes widespread 3-D communication practical.
*2000: First electrically powered [[organic laser]].
*2000: Large-scale map of cosmic [[dark matter]] provided.
*2000: [[F-15 (material)|F-15]], an organic material that makes [[plastic transistor]]s possible, invented.
*2002: [[Jan Hendrik Schön]], a [[Germany|German]] [[physicist]], is fired after his work is found to contain fraudulent data; it is the first case of fraud in the lab's history. Over a dozen of Schön's papers are found to contain fictional or altered data, including a paper on molecular-scale transistors that was portrayed as a breakthrough.
*2002: World's first semiconductor laser that emits light continuously and reliably over a broad spectrum of infrared wavelengths.
*2003: New Jersey Nanotechnology Laboratory (successor to Bell Laboratories) at [[Murray Hill, New Jersey]].
[[Image:Image135.gif|thumb|Bell Labs logo, 1984-1995]]
==Calculators built by Bell Labs==
* Model I - [[Complex Number Calculator]], completed January 1940, for doing calculations of [[complex numbers]]
* Model II - [[Relay Calculator]] or [[Relay Interpolator]], September 1943, for aiming anti-aircraft guns by interpolating from positions
* Model III - [[Ballistic Computer]], June 1944, for calculations of ballistic trajectories
* Model IV - [[Bell Laboratories Relay Calculator]], March 1945, a second Ballistic Computer
* Model V - [[Bell Laboratories General Purpose Relay Calculator]], two were built: July 1946 and February 1947. These were general-purpose programmable computers using electromechanical relays.
* Model VI - November 1950, an enhanced Model V.
==See also==
*[[Lucent Technologies]]
*[[Worse is Better]]
==External links==
*[http://www.bell-labs.com/ Bell Labs]
*[http://www.bell-labs.com/about/history/timeline.html Timeline of discoveries as of 2004]
*[http://www.bell-labs.com/org/1133/Research/Acoustics/AnechoicChamber.html Bell Labs' Murray Hill anechoic chamber]
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=40.683404,-74.400744&spn=0.004066,0.006605&t=k&hl=en Google maps satellite view of the Murray Hill Facility]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bjarne Stroustrup</title>
<id>3713</id>
<revision>
<id>42068189</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:23:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MarSch</username>
<id>209153</id>
</contributor>
<comment>replace ancient interview with link to list of interview on bjarne's homepage</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BjarneStroustrup.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Bjarne Stroustrup]]
'''Bjarne Stroustrup''' (born [[December 30]], [[1950]] in [[Aarhus]], [[Denmark]]) is a [[computer scientist]] and the [[engineering|College of Engineering]] [[professor|Chair Professor]] of [[Computer science|Computer Science]] at [[Texas A&M University]]. He is most notable for developing the [[C++]] [[programming language]]. A rough English attempt at pronunciation of his name would be "B-yar-ne Strov-stroop".
Stroustrup, in his own words, "invented C++, wrote its early definitions, and produced its first implementation... chose and formulated the design criteria for C++, designed all its major facilities, and was responsible for the processing of extension proposals in the C++ standards committee." Stroustrup also wrote what many consider to be the standard text for the language, ''[http://public.research.att.com/~bs/3rd.html The C++ Programming Language]'', which is now in its third edition. The text has been revised twice to reflect the evolution of the language and the work of the C++ standards committee.
Stroustrup is ''cand. scient.'' (the Danish equivalent to a [[master's degree]]) in [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]] ([[1975]]) from the [[University of Aarhus]], Denmark, and [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in computer science ([[1979]]) from the [[University of Cambridge|University of Cambridge]], [[England]]. He formerly worked as the head of [[Bell Labs|AT&T Lab]]'s Large-scale Programming Research department, from its creation until late [[2002]]. He currently works at [[Texas A&M University]] as Professor and holder of the College of Engineering Chair in [[Computer Scienc |
rt Mead]], and others, it has proved durable and popular. But Peirce did not seize on this fact to enhance his reputation. Instead, what James and others called "pragmatism" so dismayed Peirce that he renamed his own variant [[pragmaticism]], joking that it was "ugly enough to be safe from kidnappers" (CP 5.414), that is, no one would ever appropriate a neologism so ugly.
==Scholastic realism==
Peirce’s confession to being a “scholastic realist of a somewhat extreme stripe” (CP 5.470) is well known and baffles some. He has been described by careless writers as an [[idealist]] (“[[reality]]” = “the object of the final opinion of the scientific community”), but this description is inaccurate, since he believed that reality was best described as independent of mind, at least of minds in particular, if not necessarily of minds in general. The problem of interpretation appears to arise from at least three sources. First, Peirce's use of the word "[[independent]]" needs to be understood in a way that is analogous to its definition in mathematics, where it means "[[orthogonal]]", or its definition in statistics, where it means "[[uncorrelated]]". In these senses, independence is a particular kind of relation, not a lack of relation, and certainly not a form of disconnection or exclusion. Second, Peirce did in fact describe himself as being in favor of [[objective idealism]], but what he meant by that is a far cry from ordinary [[idealism]]. Third, we need to recognize that scholastic realism is one side of the [[realist]] vs. [[nominalist]] debate over [[universals]], and not a position in the [[realist]] vs. [[idealist]] debate about a mind-independent [[reality]]. Peirce’s scholastic realism in fact supplies essential support for his own thesis of [[objective idealism]] regarding the relationship between matter and mind. Two early studies on Peirce’s realism and the influence of [[Duns Scotus]] thereon, are the chapter by McKeon in Wiener and Young (1952), and that by Moore in Moore and Robin (1964).
In his first remarks on the realist vs. nominalist debate, Peirce sided with nominalism:
<blockquote> Qualities are fictions; for though it is true that roses are red, yet redness is nothing, but a fiction framed for the purpose of philosophizing; yet harmless so long as we remember that the scholastic realism it implies is false. (CE 1:307, May-Fall 1865) </blockquote>
Here Peirce is explicitly disparaging a position he is well-known for spending most of his life defending. How might we make sense of this apparent contradiction? The temptation is to simply say Peirce changed his mind. After all, since Peirce asserts nominalism in 1865 and scholastic realism in 1868, Peirce may have gone from denying the reality of universals to asserting it. This explanation is most famously given by [[Max Fisch]] in his “Peirce’s Progress from Nominalism toward Realism” (1967) and then again in his introduction to volume two of the Chronological Edition of Peirce’s writings (1984). However, recently this way of understanding Peirce has been indepenently challenged by Rosa Mayorga in her ''On Universals'' (2002) and by Robert Lane in his “Peirce’s Early Realism” (2004). Both Mayorga and Lane are troubled by several instances where Peirce’s self assessment of his own intellectual development contradicts Fisch's account of Peirce development. One of these statemesnts appears in 1893 when Peirce states that “never, during the thirty years in which I have been writing on philosophical questions, have I failed in my allegiance to realistic opinions and to certain Scotistic ideas.” (6.605, italics mine) Remarks like these led Lane to conduct a re-evaluation of Peirce’s 1865 declarations for nomianlism, whereupon Lane discovered significant evidence for the same conclusion Mayorga had already reached two years earlier (unbenownst to Lane). Both concluded that the correct way to understand Peirce’s shift from outspoken nominalist to outspoken realist is not by reading into Peirce a change in his fundamental philosophical position, but instead to realize that Peirce merely changed his understanding and use of the terms “scholastic realism” and “nominalism”.
The reason Peirce calls himself a nominalist in 1865 is because he believes realism to only come in the form offered by Plato:
<blockquote>
It has been said that these “abstract names” [blueness, hardness, and loudness] denote qualities and connote nothing. But it seems to me the phrase “denoted object” is nothing but a roundabout expression for a thing…. To say that a quality is denoted is to say it is a thing…. [Such terms] were framed at a time when all men were realists in the scholastic sense and consequently things were meant by them, entities which had no quality but that expressed by the word. They, therefore, must denote these things and connote the qualities they relate to. (Peirce, CE 1, 311-312).
</blockquote>
When Peirce goes on to call universals “fictions,” he is not condemning their truth; he is simply asserting that they do not exist as particulars. This becomes clearer when in the same paper Peirce argues against psychologism in logic, by establishing the same “fictional” status for logic and mathematics that he claims for universals. Now by proving logic “fictional,” Peirce believes he does logic a favor, i.e., by saving it from the psychologists. This suggests that Peirce employed “fictional” in a rather idiosyncratic way. Many things (including universals) covered by Peirce’s pre-1868 use of “fictional” came under his post-1868 use of "real". Peirce had been using “fictional” to refer to things having no physical existence, and not to imply that something was merely the result of human imagination or fancy. By 1868 at least, Peirce had changed his mind about "reality", holding instead that "fictional" should be contrasted with "independent of what we think about it" (real). He no longer deemed existence as a physical object as a prerequisite for being real, so that a lack of physical existence no longer led Peirce to chatacterize universals as "fictional." That something has blueness can be true independent of what anyone thinks of it, and therefore it can be a part of reality despite the fact blueness never has a physical existence anywhere. Blueness is real (independent of what anyone thinks), but it does not exist (as an entity; it has no secondness).
==Formal perspective==
<blockquote>
In proceeding to these inquiries, it will not be necessary to enter into the discussion of that famous question of the schools, whether Language is to be regarded as an ''essential'' instrument of reasoning, or whether, on the other hand, it is possible for us to reason without its aid. I suppose this question to be beside the design of the present treatise, for the following reason, viz., that it is the business of Science to investigate laws; and that, whether we regard signs as the representatives of things and of their relations, or as the representatives of the conceptions and operations of the human intellect, in studying the laws of signs, we are in effect studying the manifested laws of reasoning. ([[George Boole]], ''Laws of Thought'', p. 24)
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
How often do we think of the thing in algebra? When we use the symbol of multiplication we do not even think out the conception of multiplication, we think merely of the laws of that symbol, which coincide with the laws of the conception, and what is more to the purpose, coincide with the laws of multiplication in the object. Now, I ask, how is it that anything can be done with a symbol, without reflecting upon the conception, much less imagining the object that belongs to it? It is simply because the symbol has acquired a nature, which may be described thus, that when it is brought before the mind certain principles of its use — whether reflected on or not — by association immediately regulate the action of the mind; and these may be regarded as laws of the symbol itself which it cannot ''as a symbol'' transgress. ("On the Logic of Science" (1865), CE 1, 173).
</blockquote>
Peirce did not live or work in a vacuum. No one who appreciates his use of phrases like 'laws of the symbol' in their historical context could fail to hear the echoes of Boole, nor indeed the background stirrings of the contemporary [[Zeitgeist]] in mathematics that went under the name of the 'symbolist movement', the clarion call to which is commonly attributed to [[George Peacock]] (1791-1858). If Peirce appears at times to march out of step, it is because he hears the beat of many different drummers, not just one.
The main themes of the symbolist movement, though they may have presented novelties to the general understanding of mathematics in the 19th Century, are nowadays familiar to anyone who has had a brush with the 'art of the story problem' in an elementary algebra course. There one learns to approach the story problem, a roughly realistic representation of a concrete circumstance, with the aim to abstract or to 'tease out' a general formula from the concrete data that specify the situation. Next one proceeds to 'crank the formula', starting from a form that is true but problematically obscure in its implications, and, circumstances warranting, continuing until a logically equivalent or a lower implied form is reached, but one that is maximally clarified in its implications. That most clear result one dubs the 'abstract answer' or the 'general solution' to the story problem, leaving nothing more to do but 'plug in' the concrete data that came with the story problem to arrive at the 'concrete answer' or the 'specific solution'.
The three-phase maneuver for solving a story problem, (1) teasing out, (2) cranking the crank, (3) plugging in, ca |
case in the 19th century, when the movements inspired by [[romantic nationalism]] were necessarily radical opponents of the then existing states, and separatist movements still are. Nor is present-day nationalism confined to self-identified conservatives, or to the right. The perception persists that nationalism is a remote or provincial ideology, but it is by definition the basis of every nation-state. Nevertheless, even nationalist conservatives sometimes prefer the less pejorative term patriotism, and Burkean conservatives would distance themselves from many nationalist groups and ideologies, on the grounds of their radicalism.
Nevertheless radical nationalist conservatism has been a major force in European history, no matter how distasteful that may be to many mainstream conservatives. Anti-immigrant and nationalist [[populist]] parties, such as France's [[Front National (France) | Front National]], continue to include a strong conservative element, and the conservative-nationalist tradition is very strong in Germany.
===Liberalism===
In the USA conservatism and [[liberalism]] are sometimes seen as polar opposites, yet in actuality the situation is more complex. A major area of difference in US politics is that between [[social liberalism]] and [[social conservatism]]. Social liberals advocate policies promoting equality and tolerance while social conservatives support established traditions of American society, or norms of their previous generations. The media widely covers the differences in opinion in issues such as [[same-sex marriage]], [[sex education]], the [[separation of church and state]] among others. Fiscally, US liberals are regarded as advocates for consumer protection regulations, and other policies which run contrary to a more fiscal conservative, (or [[neoliberal]]) ideal. The overall (US) terms ''liberal'' and ''conservative'' are [[generalization]]s and do not point to any concrete set of ideals or values. In the US, the use of the term "neoliberal" is limited mainly to non-mainstream leftist critics of fiscal conservatism and/or of the free trade movement. Some Americans term themselves "libertarians" (including some who support the Libertarian Party) and advocate fiscal conservatism along with social liberalism.
The terms ''Economic conservatism'' or ''Fiscal conservatism'' are general terms, encompass modern [[neoliberalism]], as well as [[classical liberalism]] in the tradition of [[Adam Smith]]. Popularly used outside of North America, the traditional usage of ''liberal'' refers only to these free-market policies. For example, in Europe 'liberal-conservative' is an accepted term. Differences in meaning and usage of the term 'liberal' have contributed to some confusion, see [[Liberalism]].
Theorists of liberalism often assert a moral justification for the free market, grounded in principles of individual liberty and individual choice. Their support is not moral or ideological, but driven by the Burkean notion of prescription: what works best is what is right. Conservatives might also emphasise the importance of [[civil society]] in this context: government intervention in the economy will make people feel less responsible for the society. It is necessary to note, however, that many wealthy advocates of [[free-market|free-market economics]] such as the industrialist [[Andrew Carnegie]] do not oppose government subsidies.
Historically, many arguments have been advanced for the free market, and liberal principles in general. Present western classical-liberalism and political conservatism may have reached their pro-market position by different routes, but by now the lines have blurred. Rarely will a politician claim that free markets are "simply more productive" or "simply the right thing to do" but a combination of both. This merging of the classical liberal and conservative positions is found in most western conservative movements.
In any case the free market itself is not an issue, for western conservative movements. They operate in long-established market economies: it is the degree of government intervention that is at issue. One archetypal free-market conservative government of the late 20th century - the [[Margaret Thatcher]] government in the UK saw [[deregulation]] as the cornerstone of contemporary economic conservatism. Thatcher added [[privatisation]] to this policy, and privatised [[British Airways]], with remarkable success, and [[British Rail]], with rather more mixed results. She cut taxes (especially on the upper income brackets) and slowed governmental growth. Proponents of [[Thatcherism]] attribute the unparalleled economic boom of the early 1980s to the late 1990s to these policies.
[[Capitalism]], and the outcome of the free market, may conflict with value conservatism. At times, as the [[Communist Manifesto]] emphasised, capitalism and free markets have been profoundly subversive of the existing social order:<blockquote>''
The bourgeoisie, by the rapid improvement of all instruments of production, by the immensely facilitated means of communication, draws all, even the most barbarian, nations into civilisation. The cheap prices of commodities are the heavy artillery with which it batters down all Chinese walls, with which it forces the barbarians’ intensely obstinate hatred of foreigners to capitulate. It compels all nations, on pain of extinction, to adopt the bourgeois mode of production...''</blockquote>
That economic system continues to conflict with traditional attitudes, for instance in its massive distribution of [[pornography]] in many western countries. So it is possible to be a value conservative without supporting market liberalism - at present, this is a common political stance in, for example, [[Ireland]]. And not all supporters of the free market are social conservatives.
'''Fiscal conservatism''' is not a political philosophy, and more a tradition of prudence in government spending and debt. Edmund Burke, in his '[[Reflections on the Revolution in France]]', articulated its principles:
<blockquote>''...[I]t is to the property of the citizen, and not to the demands of the creditor of the state, that the first and original faith of civil society is pledged. The claim of the citizen is prior in time, paramount in title, superior in equity. The fortunes of individuals, whether possessed by acquisition or by descent or in virtue of a participation in the goods of some community, were no part of the creditor's security, expressed or implied...[T]he public, whether represented by a monarch or by a senate, can pledge nothing but the public estate; and it can have no public estate except in what it derives from a just and proportioned imposition upon the citizens at large.''</blockquote>
In other words, a government doesn't have the right to run up large debts and then throw the burden on the taxpayer; the taxpayers' right not to be taxed oppressively takes precedence even over paying back debts a government may have imprudently undertaken.
===Nature and the Environment===
In early [[liberalism|liberal]] philosophy '[[Nature]]' and the environment were treated as a resource to be exploited: value derived from their human use, in accordance with the [[labor theory of value]]. Most early conservatives, however, saw the value of Nature as inherent. Both strands have influenced conservative politics in many countries, since the 19th century. The etymology emphasises the close correlation between the early [[conservation movement]] and conservative ideals. In recent decades, [[deep ecology]] has emerged as parallel, non-[[anthropocentric]] conservative philosophy, with remarkable similarities in value preferences.
'''Technological conservatism''' is often part of environmentalist philosophy, rejecting especially the destructive effects on nature and [[ecosystem]]s. There is also a long tradition of technological scepticism in [[Western World|western culture]], usually directed against socially disruptive effects, and potentially dangerous consequences. The term 'conservatism' is also used in the [[history of technology]] to describe the reluctance - on grounds of cost, effort and disruption - to replace a functioning technology by another.
==Regional Politics==
In western democracies, 'conservative' and 'right-wing' are often used interchangeably, as near-[[synonyms]]. That is not always accurate, but it has more than incidental validity. Certainly the opposition is in both cases the same: the [[political left]]. (Although left-wing groups and individuals may have conservative social and cultural attitudes, they are not generally accepted, by self-identified conservatives, as part of the same movement). On economic policy and the economic system, conservatives and the right generally support the free market, although less so in Europe than in other places. Attitudes on some ethical and [[bio-ethics|bio-ethical]] issues - such as opposition to abortion - are accurately described as either 'right-wing' or 'conservative'.
Burkean conservatives favour incremental over radical change, even from the right. Some conservatives distrust the [[xenophobia|xenophobic]] and even [[racist]] sentiments prominent on the political right. [[Protectionism]] and [[anti-immigration]] policies may conflict with free-market conservatives' support for deregulation and [[free trade]]. Some conservatives oppose military interventionism, inspired by early British conservative thinkers, such as [[David Hume]] and [[Edmund Burke]]. Burke saw [[imperialism]] as interfering with the traditions and organic make-up of the colonised societies.
However it is equally true, that there are numerous examples of theocratic religious conservatives, conservative nationalists, [[jingoism|jingoist]] conservative imperialists, and conservative racists - and of ‘respectable’ conservatives allied with them. The Conse |
n colour of the same sentiment of domestic virtue and the pathos of common life, which Diderot had attempted to represent upon the stage. For Diderot was above all things interested in the life of men, not the abstract life of the race, but the incidents of individual character, the fortunes of a particular family, the relations of real and concrete motives in this or that special case. He delighted with the enthusiasm of a born [[casuist]] in curious puzzles of right and wrong, and in devising a conflict between the generalities of ethics and the conditions of an ingeniously contrived practical dilemma. Diderot's interest expressed itself in didactic and sympathetic form.
In two, however, of the most remarkable of all his pieces, this interest is not sympathetic, but ironical. ''Jacques le fataliste'' (written in. 1773, but not published until 1796) is in manner an imitation of ''[[The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman|Tristram Shandy]]'' and ''The Sentimental Journey''. His dialogue ''Le Neveu de Rameau'' (Rameau's Nephew) is a "farce-tragedy" reminiscent of the ''Satires'' of [[Horace]]. A favorite classical author of Diderot's, Horace's words "Vertumnis quotquot sunt natis iniquis" are quoted at the top of the "Nephew". Diderot's intention in writing the dialogue has been matter of dispute; whether it was designed to be merely a [[satire]] on contemporary manners, or a reduction of the theory of self-interest to an absurdity, or the application of irony to the ethics of ordinary convention, or a mere setting for a discussion about music, or a vigorous dramatic sketch of a parasite and a human original. Whatever its intent, is a remarkable conversation, emblematic of an era of that held the arts of conversation in the highest esteem. The writing and publication history of the "Nephew" is likewise a bit mysterious. Diderot never saw the work through to publication during his lifetime, but there is every indication it was of continual interest to him. Though the original draft was written in 1761, he made additions to it year after year until his death twenty-three years later. Goethe's translation (1805) was the first introduction of ''Le Neveu de Rameau'' to the European public. After executing it, he gave back the original French manuscript to [[Friedrich Schiller]], from whom he had it. No authentic French copy of it appeared until the writer had been dead forty years (1823).
Diderot's miscellaneous pieces range from a graceful trifle like the ''Règrets sur ma vieille robe de chambre'' up to ''Le rêve de D'Alembert'', where he plunges into the depths of the controversy as to the ultimate constitution of matter and the meaning of life. Diderot was not a coherent and systematic thinker, but rather "a philosopher in whom all the contradictions of the time struggle with one another" ([[Rosenkranz]]). He did not develop a system of [[materialism]], but he contributed many of the most declamatory pages of the ''Système de la nature'' of his friend Paul Henri Thiry, [[baron d'Holbach]], styled by some "the very Bible of atheism".
Varied and incessant as was Diderot's mental activity, it was not of a kind to bring him riches. He secured none of the posts that were occasionally given to needy men of letters; he could not even obtain that bare official recognition of merit which was implied by being chosen a member of the [[Académie française]]. When the time came for him to provide a [[dowry]] for his daughter, he saw no other alternative than to sell his library. When the [[Catherine II of Russia]] heard of his straits, she commissioned an agent in Paris to buy the library, and then requested the philosopher to retain the books in Paris until she required them, and to constitute himself her librarian, with a yearly salary. In 1773 and 1774 Diderot spent some months at the empress's court at [[St Petersburg]].
He died of [[emphysema]] and [[dropsy]] in [[Paris]] on [[July 31]], [[1784]], and was buried in the city's [[Eglise Saint-Roch]]. His heirs sold his vast library to Catherine II, who had it deposited at the [[Russian National Library]].
==Bibliography==
* ''Essai sur le mérite et la vertu'', written by [[Anthony_Ashley-Cooper%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury|Shaftesbury]] French translation and annotation by Diderot ([[1745]])
* ''[[Pensées philosophiques]]'', essay ([[1746]])
* ''La promenade du sceptique'' ([[1747]])
* ''[[Les bijoux indiscrets]]'', novel ([[1748]])
* ''[[Lettre sur les aveugles à l'usage de ceux qui voient]]'' ([[1749]])
* L'''[[Encyclopédie]],'' ([[1750]]-[[1765]])
* ''Lettre sur les sourds et muets'' ([[1751]])
* ''[[Pensées sur l'interprétation de la nature]]'', essai ([[1751]])
* ''Le fils naturel'' ([[1757]])
* ''Entretien sur le fils naturel'' ([[1757]])
* ''Salons'', critique d'art ([[1759]]-[[1781]])
* ''[[La Religieuse]]'', roman ([[1760]])
* ''[[Le neveu de Rameau]]'', dialogue ([[1761]] ?)
* ''Lettre sur le commerce des livres ([[1763]])
* ''Mystification ou l’histoire des portraits'' ([[1768]])
* ''Entretien entre D'Alembert et Diderot'' ([[1769]])
* ''[[Le rêve de D'Alembert]]'', dialogue ([[1769]])
* ''Suite de l'entretien entre D'Alembert et Diderot'' ([[1769]])
* ''[[Paradoxe sur le comédien]]'' ([[1769]] ?)
* ''Apologie de l'abbé Galiani'' ([[1770]])
* ''Principes philosophiques sur la matière et le mouvement'', essai ([[1770]])
* ''Entretien d'un père avec ses enfants'' ([[1771]])
* ''[[Jacques le fataliste et son maître]]'', novel ([[1771]]-[[1778]])
* ''[[Supplément au voyage de Bougainville]]'' ([[1772]])
* ''Histoire philosophique et politique des deux Indes'', in collaboration with [[Raynal]] ([[1772]]-[[1781]])
* ''Voyage en Hollande'' ([[1773]])
* ''Eléments de physiologie'' ([[1773]]-[[1774]])
* ''Réfutation d'Helvétius'' ([[1774]])
* ''Observations sur le Nakaz'' ([[1774]])
* ''Essai sur les règnes de Claude et de Néron'' ([[1778]])
* ''Lettre apologétique de l'abbé Raynal à Monsieur Grimm'' ([[1781]])
* ''Aux insurgents d'Amérique'' ([[1782]])
* ''Salons''
==References==
*{{1911}}
==See also==
*[[Encyclopedia]]
*[[Encyclopedist]]
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]
*[[Atheism]]
*[[University of Paris VII: Denis Diderot]]
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Denis+Diderot | name=Denis Diderot}}
*[http://gallica.bnf.fr/scripts/catalog.php?Mod=i&Titre=&FondsTout=on&FondsTxt=on&FondsImp=on&FondsPer=on&FondsImg=on&FondsAud=on&FondsMan=on&Auteur=diderot&Sujet=&RPT= Diderot's listing at the Bibliotheque Nationale de France (in French)]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15098/15098-h/15098-h.htm The Project Gutenberg eBook of Diderot] by [[John Morley]]
* [http://dromo.info/diderotbio.htm Short biography]
[[Category:1713 births|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:1784 deaths|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:18th century philosophers|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:Atheists|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:Atheist philosophers|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:Encyclopedists|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:French philosophers|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:French literary critics|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:French essayists|Diderot, Denis]]
[[category:French art critics|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:Former Students of Lycée Louis-le-Grand|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:Philosophers|Diderot, Denis]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Discoveries of the chemical elements</title>
<id>8200</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2006-02-12T00:35:11Z</timestamp>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.142.128.9|202.142.128.9]] to last version by Fastfission</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Timeline of chemical element discovery}}
__NOTOC__ <!--move it way up-->
The story of the '''discoveries of the [[chemical element]]s''' is presented here in chronological order. The elements are listed generally in the order in which they were first isolated as the pure element, rather than as a compound (some such as boron were known to be elements decades before they could be isolated from their compounds). The first few predate any written record.
<table border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" width="75%">
<tr>
<th width="15%">Name</th>
<th width="10%">Date</th>
<th width="70%">Discoverer</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Carbon]]</td>
<td>antiquity</td>
<td>Unknown</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Gold]]</td>
<td>antiquity</td>
<td>Unknown</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Silver]]</td>
<td>antiquity</td>
<td>Unknown</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Copper]]</td>
<td>antiquity</td>
<td>Unknown</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Sulfur]]</td>
<td>antiquity</td>
<td>Unknown</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>[[Tin]]</td>
<td>antiquity</td>
<td>Unknown</td>
</tr> |
'[[De Bello Gallico|Commentarii de bello Gallico]]'' (52–51 BC; The Gallic War). In this he names the five principal gods worshipped in Gaul (according to the practice of his time, he gives the names of the closest equivalent Roman gods) and describes their roles. [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]] was the most venerated of all the deities and numerous representations of him were to be discovered. Mercury was seen as the originator of all the arts (and is often taken to refer to [[Lugus]] for this reason), the supporter of adventurers and of traders, and the mightiest power concerning trade and profit. Next the Gauls revered [[Apollo]], [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]], [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], and [[Minerva]]. Among these divinities the Celts are described as holding roughly equal views as did other populations: Apollo dispels sickness, Minerva encourages skills, Jupiter is in charge of the skies, and Mars influences warfare. In addition to these five, he mentions that the Gauls traced their ancestry to [[Dis Pater]].
====The Problem with Caesar’s ‘Equivalent’ Roman Gods====
As typical of himself as a Roman of the day, though, Caesar does not write of these gods by their Celtic names but by the names of the Roman gods with which he equated them, a process that significantly confuses the chore of identifying these Gaulish gods with their native names in the insular mythologies. He also portrays a tidy schema which equates deity and role in a manner that is quite unfamiliar to the colloquial literature handed down. Still, despite the restrictions, his short list is a helpful and fundamentally precise observation. In balancing his description with the oral tradition, or even with the Gaulish iconography, one is apt to recollect the distinct milieus and roles of these gods. Caesar's remarks and the iconography allude to rather dissimilar phases in the history of Gaulish religion. The iconography of Roman times is part of a setting of great social and political developments, and the religion it depicts may actually have been less obviously ordered than that upheld by the druids (the priestly order) in the era of Gaulish autonomy from Rome. Conversely, the want of order is often more ostensible than factual. It has, for example, been noticed that out of the several hundred names including a Celtic aspect testified in Gaul the greater part crop up only once. This has led some scholars to conclude that the Celtic deities and the related cults were local and tribal as opposed to Pan-Celtic. Proponents of this opinion quote Lucan's reference to a divinity called [[Teutates]], which they translate as “tribal spirit” (*teuta is believed to have meant “tribe” in Proto-Celtic). The apparent array of divine names may, nonetheless, be justified differently: many may be mere labels applied to key gods worshiped in extensive Pan-Celtic cults. The concept of the Celtic pantheon as a large number of local deities is gainsaid by the numerous well-testified gods whose cults seem to have been followed across the Celtic world.
==Branches of Celtic mythology==
Celtic mythology can be divided into a number of distinct, if related, subgroups, largely corresponding to the branches of the [[Celtic languages]]:
* Ancient Celtic
** [[:Category:Ancient Gaulish and British deities|Ancient Gaulish and British deities]]
* [[Goidelic]]
** [[Irish mythology]]
*** [[Mythological Cycle]]
*** [[Ulster Cycle]]
*** [[Fenian cycle]]
*** [[Historical Cycle]]
** [[Scottish mythology]]
** [[Manx mythology|Manx mythology]]
* Insular [[Brythonic]]
** [[Welsh mythology]]
** [[Cornish mythology]]
** [[:Category:Breton mythology and folklore|Breton mythology]]
==Celtic deities==
===The gods of the ancient Celts===
Though the Celtic world at its greatest extent covered much of western and central Europe, it was not politically unified nor was there any substantial central source of cultural influence or homogeneity; as a result, there was a great deal of variation in local practices of Celtic religion (although certain motifs&mdash;for example, the god [[Lugh]]&mdash;appear to have diffused throughout the Celtic world). Inscriptions to more than three hundred deities, often equated with their Roman counterparts, have survived, but most appear to have been ''[[genius loci|genii locorum]]'', local or tribal gods, and few were widely worshipped.
The nature and functions of these ancient gods can be deduced from their names, the location of their inscriptions, their [[iconography]], the Roman gods they are equated with, and similar figures from later bodies of Celtic mythology.
===The gods of Ireland===
The oldest body of myths is found in early medieval [[manuscripts]] from [[Ireland]]. These were written by Christians, so the formerly divine nature of the characters is obscured. The basic myth appears to be a war between two apparently divine races, the [[Tuatha Dé Danann]] and the [[Fomorians]], which forms the basis for the text ''[[Cath Maige Tuireadh]]'' (the Battle of Mag Tuireadh), as well as portions of the great pseudohistorical construct ''[[Lebor Gabála Érenn]]'' (the Book of Invasions). The Tuatha Dé represent the functions of human society such as kingship, crafts and war, while the Fomorians represent chaos and wild nature.
===The gods of Wales===
The gods of [[Prehistoric Britain|Britain]], also obscured by centuries of Christianity, have come down to us in manuscripts from [[Wales]]. Here the two main groups of former gods are the children of [[Dôn]] and the Children of [[Llyr]], although any distinction of function between the two groups is not apparent.
===[[The Dagda]]===
The supreme god of the Celtic [[wiktionary:pantheon|pantheon]] appears to have been the Dagda. The name means the 'Good God', not good in a moral sense, but good at everything, or all-powerful. The Dagda is a father-figure, a protector of the tribe and the basic Celtic god of whom other male Celtic deities were variants. Celtic gods were largely unspecialised entities, and perhaps we should see them as a clan rather than as a formal pantheon. In a sense, all the Celtic gods and goddesses were like the Greek [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]], who could never be described as the god of any one thing.
Because the particular character of Dagda is a figure of burlesque lampoonery in Irish mythology, some authors conclude that he was trusted to be benevolent enough (or ineffectual) to tolerate a joke at his expense.
Irish tales depict the Dagda as a figure of power, armed with a club and associated with a [[cauldron]]. In [[Dorset]] there is a famous outline of an [[ithyphallic]] giant known as the [[Cerne Abbas Giant]] with a club cut into the chalky soil. While this was probably produced in Roman times, it has long been thought that it represents the Dagda. This has been called into question by recent studies which show that there may have been a representation of what looks like a large drapery hanging from the horizontal arm of the figure, leading to suspicion that this figure actually represents [[Hercules]]([[Herakles]]), with the skin of the [[Nemean Lion]] over his arm and carrying the club he used to kill it. In [[Gaul]], it is speculated that the Dagda is associated with [[Sucellos]], the striker, equipped with a hammer and cup.
===The [[Morrigan|Morrígan]]===
Morrigan was a tripartite battle goddess of the ancient Irish Celts. Collectively she was known as the Morrigu, but her divisions were also reffered to as Nemhain, Macha, and Badh, which each represtented different aspects of war. She is most commonly known for her involvement in the Tain Bo Culligne, where is at the same time helper and hindrance of the hero Cuchulain. She was often represtented as a crow or raven but could take many different forms, including a cow, wolf or eel.
===[[Belenus]]===
Belenus was a more regional deity, who was worshipped mostly in Northern [[Italy]] and the Gaulish [[Mediterranean]] coast.
He was primarily a god of agriculture.
A great festival called [[Beltaine]] was associated with him. Some debate still lingers as to whether he was actually a deity at all. His name means "bright and shining" and some feel that 'he' simply represtents the great bonfires of the holiday Beltaine.
===[[Lugh|Lúgh]]/Lug===
The widespread diffusion of the god Lug (seemingly related to the mythological figure [[Lugh|Lúgh]] in Irish) in Celtic religion is apparent from the number of place names in which his name appears, occurring across the Celtic world from Ireland to Gaul.
The most famous of these are the cities of [[Lugdunum]] (the modern French city of [[Lyon]]) and Lugdunum Batavorum (the modern city of [[Leiden]]).
Lug is described in the Celtic myths as a latecomer to the list of deities, and is usually described as having the appearance of a young man.
His weapons were the throwing-spear and [[sling (weapon)|sling]], and in Ireland a festival called the [[Lughnasa]] (Modern Irish ''lúnasa'') was held in his honour.
===Other gods===
The Celts also worshipped a number of deities of which we know little more than their names.
Among these are the goddess [[Brigit]] (or Brigid), the Dagda's daughter; nature goddesses like [[Tailtiu]] and [[Macha]]; and [[Epona]], the horse goddess.
Male gods included [[Cu Roi]] and [[Goibniu]], the immortal brewer of [[beer]].
[[Cernunnos]] (the Horned One) is evidently of great antiquity, but we know little about him.
It is probably he who appears on the famous embossed [[Gundestrup cauldron|silver bowl]] found in [[Gundestrup]], [[Denmark]] which dates from the 1st or 2nd century BC.
The Roman writer [[Lucan (poet)|Lucan]] (1st century AD) mentions the gods [[Taranis]], [[Toutatis|Teutates]] and [[Esus]], but there is little Celtic evidence that these were important deities.
Some of these gods and goddesses may have been variants of each other; Epona the [[Gallo-Roman]] horse goddess, for instance, may well have developed into th |
ārunya'' (compassion).
* Chanted prayers, or [[mantra]]s, are central to Hindu worship. Many mantras are from the sacred [[Veda]]s, and in Sanskrit. Among the most chanted mantras in Hinduism are the [[Vishnu sahasranama]] (a prayer to [[Vishnu]] that dates from the time of the [[Mahabharata]] and describes him as the ''Universal Brahman''), [[Shri Rudram]] (a Vedic hymn to Rudra, an earlier aspect of Shiva that also describes Him as Brahman) and the [[Gayatri]] mantra, (another Vedic hymn that initially was meant as a prayer to the Sun, an aspect of Brahman but has other interpretations. It is now interpreted as a prayer to the impersonal absolute Brahman).
* The followers of [[Shaktism]] like to conceive the divine power of the Ishvara as a female goddess, the divine mother called [[Devi]] or [[Durga]]. Another famous hymn, [[Lalitha Sahasranama]], describes the 1000 names of [[Devi]], worshipped as God the Divine Mother.
* It is important to add that in Hinduism (''Sanatana Dharama'') God is considered the Supreme Being, and many views of God range from panentheism to dualism to [[monism]] and monotheism. His appearance, in its entirety, cannot be comprehended by the common man. His appearance with form is only a manifestation of certain characteristics. The various forms of God or deities which apparently give [[Smarta]] Hinduism a character of polytheism, are regarded as mundane manifestations of One Brahman or Ishvara, only to facilitate his devotional worship.
* Ayyavazhi prefers almost a similar theory to Advaita Vedanta. However, [[Kashmir Shaivism]], one notable [[Saivite]] branch disagrees and focuses on panentheism. Furthermore, it rejects the [[Maya mythology | Mayan]] illusion theory by stating that if God is real, then His creation must be real and not illusory.
In Hinduism there are two principle methods of worship:
#To worship God through meditation on an icon ([[murti]]).
#To worship God without icon worship.(eg. non-anthromorphic symbols such as [[linga]], [[saligrama]], Ayyavazhi, or through meditation)
In the early [[Upanishads]] the conception of the Divine Teacher guru on earth. Indeed, there is an understanding in some Hindu sects that if the devotee were presented with the guru and God, first he should pay respects to the guru since the guru had been instrumental in leading him to God. Hence many gurus have the epithet of [[Bhagwan]], a term often confused with God.
::'''[[Hari Bhakti Vilasa]]''' mantra ( 4.344)
::Prathamam tu gurum pujya tatas caiva mamarcanam
::Kuran siddhim avapnoti hy anyatha nisphalam bhavet
::''One does not directly worship one's God. One must begin by the worship of the Guru. Only by pleasing the Guru and gaining his mercy, can one offer anything to God. Thus, before worshiping God, one must always worship the Guru.''
See also [[Guru]].
=== Christian Monism ===
Within the body of Christian belief, the only well-known developed system of monism is found within the recently developed (1975) teachings of the book known as [[A Course In Miracles]] (ACIM). The philosophical system of ACIM presents what appears to be a unique synthesis of Hindu monistic [[Advaita Vedanta]] teachings, blended with the early Christian teaching of the universal-fatherhood-of-God belief. In this philosophy God retains the traditional Christian role of an ''All loving, all forgiving Father'', as portrayed in the Christian allegory of the [[Prodigal Son]], yet God is also attributed with the qualities of complete ''oneness'' with all of mankind. The apparent contrast between the existence of this ''oneness'' with God, and the common belief in human separation from God, is explained by the belief that man's apparent separation from God is a mere ''illusion'', an illusion that can be overcome by gaining a full understanding of, and by adopting an unfailing practice of, the dynamics of Christian forgiveness.
=== The Ultimate ===
Arguably, Eastern conceptions of [[The Ultimate]] (this, too, has many different names), except for Shaivism and Vaishnavism, which do focus on a personal God, are not conceptions of a ''personal'' divinity, though certain Western conceptions of what is at least ''called'' "God" (e.g., [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza's]] pantheistic conception and various kinds of mysticism) resemble Eastern conceptions of The Ultimate.
=== Aristotelian definition of God ===
''Main article: [[Aristotelian view of God]].''
In his [[Metaphysics]], [[Aristotle]] discusses meaning of "being as being". Aristotle holds that "being" primarily refers to the [[Unmoved Mover]]s, and assigned one of these to each movement in the heavens. Each Unmoved Mover continuously contemplates its own contemplation, and everything that fits the second meaning of "being" by having its source of motion in itself, moves because the knowledge of its Mover causes it to emulate this Mover (or should).
Aristotle's "unmoved mover" is very unlike the conception of God which one sees in most religions. It has been likened to a person who is playing [[domino]]s and pushes one of them over, so that every other domino in the set is pushed over as well, without the being having to do anything about it. This differs to the interpretation of God in most religions, where He is seen to be [[Immanence|personally involved]] in His creation.
Aristotle's definition of God attributes perfection to this being, and as a perfect being can and only contemplate upon perfection and not on imperfection, otherwise perfection would not be one of his attributes. God, according to Aristotle, is in a state of "stasis" untouched by change and imperfection.
In the 18th century, the french educator [[Allan Kardec]] brought a very similar conception of God during his work of codifying [[Spiritism]].
=== Modern views ===
==== Process philosophy and Open Theism====
* [[Process theology]] is a school of thought influenced by the metaphysical [[process philosophy]] of [[Alfred North Whitehead]] ([[1861]]-[[1947]]).
* [[Open theism]], a theological movement that began in the 1990s, is similar, but not identical, to Process theology.
In both views, God is not omnipotent in the classical sense of a coercive being. Reality is not made up of material substances that endure through time, but serially-ordered events, which are experiential in nature. The universe is characterized by process and change carried out by the agents of free will. Self-determination characterizes everything in the universe, not just human beings. God and creatures co-create. God cannot force anything to happen, but rather only influence the exercise of this universal free will by offering possibilities. See the entries on [[Process theology]], [[Panentheism]], and [[Open theism]].
====Posthuman God====
Similar to this theory is the belief or aspiration that humans will create a God entity, emerging from an [[artificial intelligence]].
[[Arthur C. Clarke]], world-renowned [[science fiction]] author, said in an interview,
"It may be that our role on this planet is not to worship God, but to create him." Clarke's friend and colleague, the late [[Isaac Asimov]], postulated in his story "[[The Last Question]]" a merger between humanity and machine intelligence that ultimately produces a deity capable of reversing [[entropy]] and subsequently initiates a new Creation trillions of years from the present era when the Universe is in the last stage of [[heat death]].
Another variant on this hypothesis is that humanity or a segment of humanity will create or [[evolution|evolve]] into a [[posthuman]] God by itself; for some examples, see [[Christian transhumanism]], [[technological singularity]], and [[omega point]].
====Extraterrestrials====
Some comparatively new belief systems and books portray God as [[Extraterrestrial life]]. Many of these theories hold that intelligent beings from another world have been visiting Earth for many thousands of years, and have influenced the development of our religions. Some of these books posit that prophets or messiahs were sent to the human race in order to teach morality and encourage the development of civilization. (See e.g. [[Rael]]). [[Francis Crick]], co-discoverer of the structure of [[DNA]], suggested that life on Earth [[panspermia | originated far away]] because of what he considered to be a miniscule timeframe allotted by scientists for the [[abiogenesis | emergence]] of life on Earth.
====Phenomenological definition====
The philosopher [[Michel Henry]] defines God in a phenomenological point of view. He says : "God is Life, he is the essence of [[Philosophy of the life|Life]], or, if we prefer, the essence of Life is God. Saying this we already know what is God, we know it not by the effect of a learning or of some knowledge, we don’t know it by the thought, on the background of the truth of the world ; we know it and we can know it only in and by the Life itself. We can know it only in God." (''I Am the [[Truth of Life|Truth]]. Toward a Philosophy of Christianity'').
This Life is not biological life defined by objective and exterior properties, nor an abstract and empty philosophical concept, but the absolute [[phenomenological life]], a radically immanent life which possesses in it the power of showing itself in itself without distance, a life which reveals permanently itself.
==== The Rosicrucian conception of God ====
''Main article: [[The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception#The Rosicrucian conception of God and the scheme of evolution|The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception]]''
According to [[Max Heindel]]'s ''The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception'', and in [[Esoteric Christianity]], in the beginning of a ''Day of Manifestation'' a certain collective Great Being, God, limits Himself to a certain portion of space, in which He elects to create a [[Solar System]] for the evolution of added self-[[consciousness]].
Heindel states that |
lity of anaphylactic shock brought on by the codeine pills he had gotten from his dentist, to which he was known to have had a mild allergy of long standing. ... There was little disagreement in fact between the two principal laboratory reports and analyses filed two months later, with each stating a strong belief that the primary cause of death was polypharmacy, and the BioScience Laboratories report ... indicating the detection of fourteen drugs in Elvis' system, ten in significant quantity."
In his book, ''Elvis: The Last 24 Hours'', [[Albert Goldman]] even went as far as to suggest that Presley killed himself by overdosing on a stash of drugs that he stockpiled. David Stanley, Elvis's stepbrother, who was at Graceland the day Elvis died, is said to have removed the needles and drug packets near Presley's body before the paramedics arrived, suggesting that he did not want to see Elvis's name tarred with the brush of suicide.
On the other hand, some of his closest family members, friends, band members, and background singers have long disputed stories concerning Elvis's alleged drug abuse and "self-destructive" lifestyle. At the same time, they have not denied that he did take prescription medications for ''bona fide'' or suspected health problems. For instance, the late Vernon Presley, Kathy Westmoreland, Charlie Hodge, and the late J.D. Sumner have pointed out that Elvis also suffered from severe health problems unrelated to drug abuse. These health problems included glaucoma, insomnia, and [[bone cancer]]. The illness may have increased his dependency on prescription medication.
Elvis Presley was originally buried at Forest Hill Cemetery in Memphis next to his mother. After an attempted theft of the body, his remains and his mother's remains were moved to [[Graceland]].
==Lasting legacy==
By 1957 Elvis Presley was the most famous entertainer in the world. After pioneer band leader [[Bill Haley]] spawned interest in rock and roll in western [[Europe]], Presley triggered a wide shift in tastes with effects lasting many decades. Singers in dozens of countries made Presley-influenced records in many languages and his own records were sold around the globe, even behind the former [[Iron Curtain]]. By 1958 [[Cliff Richard]] was rising to prominence in the [[UK]] and in [[France]] [[Johnny Hallyday]] became a rock and roll idol singing in French, soon to be followed by others like [[Claude François]]. Airplay and sales of Presley recordings across Europe were followed by those of other American rockers who began touring there. [[Teenager]]s around the world copied his "[[Ducktail]]" hair style.
[[Image:Elvis-nixon.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Richard Nixon|President Nixon]] and Elvis in a brief meeting in December, 1970 during which a reportedly prescription drug-impaired Presley offered his assistance in a national effort against drug abuse.]]
Following Presley's untimely death in 1977 US [[President]] [[Jimmy Carter]] said:
''Elvis Presley's death deprives our country of a part of itself. He was unique and irreplaceable. His music and his personality, fusing the styles of white country and black rhythm and blues, permanently changed the face of American popular culture. His following was immense and he was a symbol to people the world over, of the vitality, rebelliousness, and good humor of his country.''
Or as [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] once put it, "He taught white America to get down."
[[Wink Martindale]], who was a close friend of Elvis, aired a nationwide tribute in his memory following the news of his death. Martindale was an up-and-coming radio DJ in Memphis at the time Presley's career began to take off in high gear.
[[Richard Dawson]] also paid tribute to Elvis on an episode of [[Family Feud]].
After his death a [[kitsch]] industry grew up around his memory, chronicling his dietary and chemical predilections along with the trappings of his wide celebrity. Critics said this tended to obscure the vibrant and vital music he made as a young man, the vocally-influential recordings of his later career and his lasting mark on popular culture.
Among his many accomplishments, Elvis Presley is only one of three singers ([[Roy Orbison]] and [[Nelly]] being the others) to ever have two Top 5 albums on the charts simultaneously. He has been inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] (1986), the [[Country Music Hall of Fame]] (1998), and the [[Gospel Music Hall of Fame]] (2001). In 1984 Presley was given the [[W.C. Handy|W.C. Handy Award]] from the [[Blues Foundation]] in Memphis for "keeping the blues alive in his music - rock and roll." In [[1993]], Presley's image appeared on a [[List of people on stamps of the United States|United States postage stamp]].
==Elvis in the 21st century==
[[Image:Elvis_30hits.jpg|frame|right|''Elvis 30 #1 Hits,'' 2003.]]
Interest in Presley's recordings returned during the buildup to the [[Football World Cup 2002|2002 World Cup]], when [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] used a [[Junkie XL]] remixed version of his "[[A Little Less Conversation]]" (credited as Elvis Vs JXL) as the background music to a series of TV commercials featuring international [[football (soccer)|soccer]] stars. The remix hit Number 1 in over 20 countries, including the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Australia]] (it was also his first top 10 hit in the UK for nearly 22 years, and his first #1 there for nearly 25 years). At about the same time, a compilation of Presley's US Number 1 hits, [[Elv1s: 30|''ELV1S: 30 #1 Hits'']], was being prepared for release. "A Little Less Conversation" (remix version) was quickly added as the album's 31st track just before its release in [[October]] [[2002]].
Nearly 50 years after Presley made his first hit record and 25 years after his death, ''ELV1S: 30 #1 Hits'' reached number 1 on the charts in the US, the UK, Australia and many other countries. A re-release from the album, "[[Burning Love]]" (not a remix) also made the Australian top 40 later in the year.
His renewed fame continued with another remix in [[2003]] (this time by [[Paul Oakenfold]]) of "Rubberneckin'", which made the top 3 in [[Australia]] and top 5 in the [[UK]]. This was followed by another album called ''[[2nd to None]]'', a collection of his hits that just missed out on the number 1 spot, including the "Rubberneckin'" remix.
In mid-[[2004]], to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Presley's first professional recording, "That's All Right", the recording in question was re-released, and made the charts around the world, including top 3 in the UK and top 40 in Australia.
In December 2004 Wade Jones from Belmont, NC sold 3 tablespoons of water from a cup that Elvis Presley drank out of on eBay. The water fetched $455 Saturday (Dec. 25) on the auction site.One week later(January 2005), he sold an appearance of the Elvis Cup on eBay for $3,000.00 and currently tours with the Elvis Cup, which even has its own song "The Elvis Cup"..written and recorded by a Filipino Elvis impersonator, "Renelvis". Jones says he scored the styrofoam cup at a 1977 concert the King played. Hoping for a better souvenir, he ended up getting a cup out of which he saw Presley drink.
In early [[2005]] in the [[United Kingdom]], RCA began to re-issue his 18 UK #1 singles as CD-singles in the order they were originally released, one of them a week. The first of these re-issues, "[[All Shook Up]]", was ineligible due to its being sold together with a collector's box which holds all 18 singles in it (it actually sold enough to be #2). The second, "[[Jailhouse Rock (song)|Jailhouse Rock]]", was the number one in the first chart of 2005, and "One Night"/"I Got Stung", the third in the series, replaced it on the [[January 16]] chart (and thus becoming the 1000th UK number one entry).
All of these have reached top 5 in the official charts, with three number 1s, eight number 2s, four number 3s, one number 4, and one number 5. These re-releases have made Elvis the only artist so far to spend at least 1000 weeks in the British top 40.
[[CBS]] recently aired a TV miniseries, ''[[Elvis (2005 Mini-series)|Elvis]]'' starring Irish actor [[Jonathan Rhys-Meyers]] as Presley.
In July of 2005, Presley was named one of the top 100 "Greatest Americans," following a vote organized by [[Discovery Channel]]. In the vote, Presley ranked ahead of all entertainers and in 8th place behind Presidents [[Ronald Reagan]], [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[George Washington]], [[Bill Clinton]], and [[George W. Bush]], plus [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] and [[Benjamin Franklin]].
In mid October of 2005, ''Variety'' named the top 100 entertainment icons of the 20th century, with Presley landing on the top ten, along with The Beatles, Marilyn Monroe, Lucille Ball, Marlon Brando, Humphrey Bogart, Louis Armstrong, Charlie Chaplin, James Dean and Mickey Mouse.
A week later, ''Forbes'' magazine named Elvis Presley, for the fifth straight year, the top-earning dead celebrity, grossing US$45 million for the Elvis Presley Estate during the period from October of 2004, to October 2005. ''Forbes'' pointed out that Robert Sillerman's CKX company shelled out $100 million in cash, and stock, for an 85% interest in Presley's income stream in February 2005.
Shortly after taking over the management of all things Elvis from the Elvis Presley Estate (which retained a 15% stake in the new company, while keeping Graceland and the bulk of the possessions found therein), Sillerman promptly shook things up by producing a more personal DVD and CD featuring Presley (and appropriately <!-- How is this "appropriate"? --> titled "Elvis by the Presleys"), as well as the accompanying two-hour documentary broadcast on Viacom's CBS Network, which alone generated $5.5 million. And |
ation [http://www.darwinawards.com/darwin/darwin1996-02.html])
*Falling off a precipice while posing and/or [[Urine|urinating]]
*Self-mutilation (disqualified due to implications of mental distress or insanity)
*Urinating onto electrified wires, subway rails, ''et cetera''
*Certain forms of carelessness with fuels and other flammable liquids (and particularly using gasoline/petrol to start a campfire)
*Being a repeat of an already submitted story.
*Criminals who killed themselves or were killed in the process of running from the police.
There are some exceptions to the above rules, but these are rare. In order for a nominee to be considered regardless of the presence of one of the above conditions that would normally make them ineligible for an award, the stupidity displayed by the nominee must be extreme, even for a "normal" Darwin contender.
== Urban legends ==
If a story is found to be untrue, it is disqualified and placed in a special section of the archives entitled "[[urban legend]]s".
== History ==
Darwin Awards have circulated for as long a time as emails. The Google [[Usenet]] archive shows two early mentions of the Darwin Awards,
one dated 1985-08-07 [http://groups.google.com/groups?q=%22darwin+award%22+OR+%22darwin+awards%22&hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&c2coff=1&safe=off&scoring=d&as_drrb=b&as_mind=12&as_minm=5&as_miny=1981&as_maxd=7&as_maxm=12&as_maxy=1990&selm=7343%40Shasta.ARPA&rnum=2 Vending Machine Tipover], which wasn't mentioned on Usenet again until it was referenced in the 1990-12-07 version of the [http://groups.google.com/groups?q=JATO+rocket+darwin+award&hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&c2coff=1&safe=off&scoring=d&as_drrb=b&as_mind=12&as_minm=5&as_miny=1981&as_maxd=31&as_maxm=7&as_maxy=1995&selm=4178%40exodus.Eng.Sun.COM&rnum=35&filter=0 JATO Rocket Car]. It lists the [[JATO Rocket Car]] [[urban legend]] that incorporated the second recorded use of the term "Darwin Award" back in 1990 and was very widely distributed in 1995-1997.
Wendy Northcutt began collecting the stories in 1993 when she was working at [[Stanford University]]. She began with a short mailing list of her friends, and as they forwarded these e-mails around, the rate of nominations steadily grew.
==Books==
Three books of the best stories have been published.
*''The Darwin Awards: Evolution in Action'' (2002) ISBN 0452283442
*''The Darwin Awards II: Unnatural Selection'' (2003) ISBN 0452284015
*''The Darwin Awards III: Survival of the Fittest'' (2004) ISBN 0525947736
==Movie==
A film version, ''[[The Darwin Awards (film)|The Darwin Awards]]'', directed by [[Finn Taylor]] featuring [[Joseph Fiennes]] and [[Winona Ryder]], premiered at the [[Sundance Film Festival]] on [[January 25]], [[2006]]. It also features [[Chris Penn]] in his last perfomance. The movie has been picked up for distribution by [[Bauer Martinez]] in the US and [[Icon Entertainment]] internationally.
==See also==
*[[Schadenfreude]]
*[[Testosterone poisoning]]
==External links==
*[http://www.darwinawards.com/ The Darwin Awards - official website]
*[http://movie.darwinawards.com The Darwin Awards Movie]
[[Category:Comedy websites]]
[[Category:Ironic and humorous awards]]
[[da:Darwinpris]]
[[de:Darwin Award]]
[[fr:Darwin Awards]]
[[it:Darwin Awards]]
[[fi:Darwin Awards]]
[[pl:Nagrody Darwina]]
[[zh:達爾文獎]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of basic dance topics</title>
<id>8704</id>
<revision>
<id>31542990</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-16T00:16:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sommers</username>
<id>625266</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Add link instead of italics</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of basic topics in '''[[dance]]'''—topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the artistic field of dance. (For a comprehensive list, see [[list of dance topics]]. Specific dances can be found in the non-categorized alphabetical [[list of dances]].)
== Dance categories ==
The categories below are not mutually exclusive. For example, [[tango (dance)|tango]] is doubtless a ''partner dance''. While it is mostly ''social dance'', its [[Ballroom dance|ballroom]] form may be ''competitive dance'', especially within [[DanceSport]]. At the same time it is enjoyed as ''performance dance'', whereby it may well be a ''solo dance''. There are tangos among [[round dance]]s, and certainly ''participation dances'' can involve tango [[participation dance|mixer]]s. One might remember that at times it was a forbidden [[erotic dance]]. Finally, some try to trace its roots to African ''ceremonial dances''. Not to say that tango dance reaches beyond these categories: into [[figure skating|ice dancing]], [[burlesque]] and more.
===Dance categories by number of interacting dancers===
*[[Solo dance]]
*[[Partner dance]]
*[[Group dance]]
===Dance categories by main purpose===
*[[Ceremonial dance]]
*[[Competitive dance]]
*[[Erotic dance]]
*[[Participation dance]]
*[[Performance dance]]
*[[Social dance]]
*[[Concert dance]]
== Dance technique ==
*[[Choreography]]
*[[Connection (dance)|Connection]]
*[[Dance move|Dance moves]]
*[[Lead and follow (dance)|Lead and follow]]
*[[Musicality (dance)|Musicality]]
== Dance topics ==
*[[Dance etiquette]]
*[[History of dance]]
*[[Dance in mythology and religion]]
*[[Dance in film]]
*[[Dance music]]
*[[Dance personalia]]
*[[Dance and health]]
*[[Dance and society]]
*[[Dance notation]]
== Glossaries ==
*[[Glossary of partner dance terms]]
*[[Musical terminology]]
*[[Glossary of ballet terms]]
*[[glossary of ballroom dance terms]]
== Dance-related lists ==
*[[List of dances|General index list of dances]]
*[[List of dance topics]]
*[[List of dance style categories]]
*[[List of folk dances sorted by origin]]
*[[Novelty and fad dances|List of novelty and fad dances]]
*[[List of dance organizations]]
*[[Wikiquote:List of quotations about dance]]
*[[List of ballroom and social dance albums]]
*[[List of dance wikibooks]]
== Related links ==
*[[Dance]]
*[[Dance music]]
*[[Music]]
*[[Musical terminology]]
*[[List of musical topics]]
*[[Dance film]]
*[[Musical film]]
[[Category:Dance]]
[[Category:Wikipedia missing topics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DCM</title>
<id>8706</id>
<revision>
<id>40384112</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T04:46:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TTE</username>
<id>732708</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''DCM''' is a [[TLA]] which may stand for:
*British and Commonwealth [[Distinguished Conduct Medal|Distinguished Conduct Medal]]
*Deputy Chief of Missions - Working directly under the Ambassador or Consular at American [[embassies]] and [[consulates]].
*[[Dichloromethane]]
*[[Dilated cardiomyopathy]]
*Don't Come Monday &mdash; slang for worker's dismissal notice.
*Discontinuous Conduction Mode in [[Power electronics]], by opposition to [[CCM]]
*Electronics - Digital Clock Manager
*[[Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine]] filename extension
*Dynamic Content Management
*The [[Demented Cartoon Movie]], by [[Brian Kendall]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:DCM]]
[[ja:DCM]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DKW</title>
<id>8707</id>
<revision>
<id>38510271</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T20:58:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dkwmonza</username>
<id>864969</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Automobiles made after WWII */ Picture of Monza</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dkw-symbol-vorn.jpg|thumb|right|DKW Auto Union logotype]]
'''Dampf-Kraft Wagen''' ([[German language|German]]: ''steam-powered vehicle'') or '''DKW''' is an historic [[automobile|car]] and [[motorcycle]] brand. In [[1916]], the [[Denmark|Danish]] [[engineer]] [[Jørgen Skafte Rasmussen]] founded a factory in [[Saxony]], [[Germany]], to produce steam fittings. In the same year, he attempted to produce a steam-driven car, called the DKW. Although unsuccessful, he made a [[two-stroke cycle|two-stroke]] toy engine in [[1919]], called ''Des Knaben Wunsch'' &mdash; "the boy's wish". He also put slightly modified version of this engine into a motorcycle and called this ''Das Kleine Wunder'' &mdash; "the small wonder". This was the real beginning of the DKW brand: by the [[1930s]], DKW was the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer. In [[1932]], DKW merged with [[Audi]], [[Horch]] and [[Wanderer (car)|Wanderer]] to form the [[Auto Union]], and all brands continued until [[World War II]]. After the war, Auto Union changed ownership a couple of times, first passed into the hands of [[Daimler-Benz]] in [[1957]], and was finally purchased by the [[Volkswagen Group]] in [[1964]].
== Automobiles made before WWII ==
DKW cars were made from [[1928]] until [[1966]]. They always used [[two-stroke cycle]] engines, and from [[1931]] the company was a pioneer in [[front-wheel drive]]. The most well-known cars made before World War II bearing model names F1 through F8 (F for Front) had front wheel drive and a [[transversely mounted engine|transversely mounted]] two cylinders engine. These models also featured an innovation with a generator that doubled up as a self starter which was mounted directly on the [[crankshaft]]. This was known as a Dynastart. They also produced a less known series of rear wheel driven cars called Schwebeklasse and Sonderklasse with [[V4]] [[two-stroke engine]]s. These engines had two extra cylinders for [[forced induction]], so they really appeared like [[V6]]es but without [[sparkplug]]s on the front cylinder pair.
In [[1939]], they made a prototype with the first [[straight-3|three-cylinder engine]]. This prototype was to be put into production only after the war, fi |
f viral particles in the blood stream, marking the start of the infection's clinical latency stage (Figure 1). Clinical latency can vary between two weeks and 20 years. During this early phase of infection, HIV is active within [[Lymphatic system|lymphoid organs]], where large amounts of virus become trapped in the follicular [[dendritic cell]]s (FDC) network. The surrounding tissues that are rich in CD4+ T-cells also become infected, and viral particles accumulate both in infected cells and as free virus. Individuals who have entered into this phase are still infectious.
===The declaration of AIDS===
[[AIDS]] is the most severe manifestation of infection with HIV. Acute HIV infection progresses over time to clinical latent HIV infection and then to early symptomatic HIV infection and later, to AIDS, which is identified on the basis of certain infections.
''For more details on this topic, see [[AIDS#Diagnosis|AIDS Diagnosis]] and [[AIDS#Symptoms and Complications|AIDS Symptoms and Complications]].''
==HIV structure and genome==
{{main|HIV structure and genome}}
[[Image:800px-HIV Viron.png|thumb|250px|Diagram of HIV]]
HIV is different in structure from previously described retroviruses. It is around 120 nm in diameter (120 billionths of a meter; around 60 times smaller than a red blood cell) and roughly spherical.
HIV-1 is composed of two copies of single-stranded [[RNA]] enclosed by a conical capsid, which is in turn surrounded by a [[cell membrane|plasma membrane]] that is formed from part of the host-cell membrane. Other [[enzyme]]s contained within the virion particle include [[reverse transcriptase]], [[integrase]], and [[protease]].
HIV has several major genes coding for structural proteins that are found in all retroviruses, and several nonstructural ("accessory") genes that are unique to HIV. The ''gag'' gene provides the physical infrastructure of the virus; ''pol'' provides the basic enzymes by which retroviruses reproduce; the ''env'' gene supplies the proteins essential for viral attachment and entry into a target cell. The accessory proteins ''tat'', ''rev'', ''nef'', ''vif'', ''vpr'', and ''vpu'' enhance virus production. Although called accessory proteins, ''tat'' and ''rev'' are essential for virus replication. In some strains of HIV, a mutation causes the production of an alternate accessory protein, Tev, from the fusion of ''tat'', ''rev'', and ''env''.
The gp120 and gp41 proteins, both encoded by the ''env'' gene, enable the virus to attach to and fuse with target cells to initiate the infectious cycle. Both, especially gp120, have been considered as targets of future treatments or vaccines against HIV.
==HIV tropism ==
The term ''viral tropism'' refers to the cell type that the virus infects and replicates in. HIV can infect a variety of cells such as [[Helper T cell|CD4+ helper T-cells]] and [[macrophage]]s that express the CD4 molecule on its surface. HIV-1 entry to macrophages and T helper cells is mediated not only through interaction of the virion envelope glycoproteins (gp120) with the CD4 molecule on the target cells but also with its chemokine coreceptors. Macrophage (M-tropic) strains of HIV-1, or non-syncitia-inducing strains (NSI) use the beta-[[chemokine]] receptor [[CCR5]] for entry and are thus able to replicate in macrophages and CD4+ T-cells <ref name=Coakley>
{{cite journal
| author=Coakley, E., Petropoulos, C. J. and Whitcomb, J. M. | title=Assessing chemokine co-receptor usage in HIV | journal=Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. | year=2005 | pages=9-15 | volume=18 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|15647694}}
}}</ref>. The normal [[ligand]]s for this receptor, [[RANTES]], macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1-beta and MIP-1-alpha, are able to suppress HIV-1 infection ''in vitro''. This CCR5 coreceptor is used by almost all primary HIV-1 isolates regardless of viral genetic subtype. Indeed, macrophages play a key role in several critical aspects of HIV disease. They appear to be the first cells infected by HIV and perhaps the very source of HIV production when CD4+ cells are markedly depleted in the patient. Macrophages and microglial cells are the cells infected by HIV in the [[central nervous system]]. In tonsils and adenoids of HIV-infected patients, macrophages fuse into multinucleated giant cells that produce copious amounts of virus. T-tropic isolates, or [[syncitia]]-inducing (SI) strains replicate in primary CD4+ T-cells as well as in macrophages and use the alpha-chemokine receptor, [[CXCR4]], for entry <ref name=Coakley>
{{cite journal
| author=Coakley, E., Petropoulos, C. J. and Whitcomb, J. M. | title=Assessing chemokine co-receptor usage in HIV | journal=Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. | year=2005 | pages=9-15 | volume=18 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|15647694}}
}}</ref>. The alpha-chemokine, SDF-1, a ligand for CXCR4, suppresses replication of T-tropic HIV-1 isolates. It does this by down regulating the expression of CXCR4 on the surface of these cells. Viruses that use only the CCR5 receptor are termed R5, those that only use CXCR4 are termed X4, and those that use both, X4R5. However, the use of coreceptor alone does not explain viral tropism, as not all R5 viruses are able to use CCR5 on macrophages for a productive infection <ref name=Coakley>
{{cite journal
| author=Coakley, E., Petropoulos, C. J. and Whitcomb, J. M. | title=Assessing chemokine co-receptor usage in HIV | journal=Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. | year=2005 | pages=9-15 | volume=18 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|15647694}}
}}</ref>.
HIV can also infect a subtype of dendritic cells <ref name=Knight>
{{cite journal
| author=Knight, S. C., Macatonia, S. E. and Patterson, S. | title=HIV I infection of dendritic cells | journal=Int. Rev. Immunol. | year=1990 | pages=163-175 | volume=6 | issue=2-3 | id={{PMID|2152500}}
}}</ref>, MDC-1, which probably constitute a major reservoir that maintains infection when T helper cell numbers have declined to extremely low levels.
==Replication cycle of HIV==
{| align=right
| [[Image:Hiv gross.png|right|thumbnail|200px|Figure 2. The HIV replication cycle]]
|-
| [[Image:Hiv.gif|right|thumbnail|200px|Figure 3. The immature and mature forms of HIV]]
|}
===Viral entry to the cell===
The interaction between the [[glycoprotein]] [[HIV structure and genome#gp120|gp120]] on the HIV virion and its receptor, [[CD4]] on the target cell, provokes [[chemical conformation|conformational]] changes in gp120. This exposes a region of gp120, the V3 loop, which binds to a [[cytokine]] receptor on the target cell, such as [[CCR5]] or [[CXCR4]] depending on the strain of HIV. Without a coreceptor, fusion does not take place, explaining why HIV favors some types of CD4+ cells over others.
The change in gp120's shape also exposes a portion of the [[HIV structure and genome#gp41|gp41]] glycoprotein, which was previously buried in the viral membrane and loosely bound to gp120. A fusion peptide within gp41 causes the fusion of the viral envelope and the host-cell envelope, allowing the capsid to enter the target cell. The exact mechanism by which gp41 causes the fusion is still largely unknown <ref name=Chan>
{{cite journal
| author=Chan, D. C. and Kim, P. S. | title=HIV entry and its inhibition | journal=Cell | year=1998 | pages=681-684 | volume=93 | issue=5 | id={{PMID|9630213}}}}
</ref><ref name=Wyatt>
{{cite journal
| author=Wyatt, R. and Sodroski, J. | title=The HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins: fusogens, antigens, and immunogens | journal=Science | year=280 | pages=1884-1888 | volume=280 | issue=5371 | id={{PMID|9632381}}}}</ref>.
Once HIV has bound to the target cell, the HIV [[RNA]] and various [[enzymes]], including but not limited to reverse transcriptase, integrase and protease, are injected into the cell.
===Viral replication and transcription===
Once the viral capsid has entered the cell, an [[enzyme]] called ''[[reverse transcriptase]]'' liberates the single-stranded (+)[[RNA]] from the attached viral proteins and copies it into a negatively sensed viral complementary [[DNA]] of 9 kb pairs (cDNA) (Figure 2). This process of reverse transcription is extremely error prone and it is during this step that mutations (such as drug resistance) are likely to arise. The reverse transcriptase then makes a complementary DNA strand to form a double-stranded viral DNA intermediate (vDNA). This new vDNA is then transported into the [[cell nucleus]]. The integration of the proviral DNA into the host [[genome]] is carried out by another viral enzyme called ''[[integrase]]''. This is called the latent stage of HIV infection <ref name=Zheng>
{{cite journal
| author=Zheng, Y. H., Lovsin, N. and Peterlin, B. M. | title=Newly identified host factors modulate HIV replication | journal=Immunol. Lett. | year=2005 | pages=225-234 | volume=97 | issue=2 | id={{PMID|15752562}}
}}</ref>. To actively produce virus, certain [[transcription factors]] need to be present in the cell. The most important is called [[NF-kB]] (NF Kappa B) and is present once the T cells becomes activated. This means that those cells most likely to be killed by HIV are in fact those currently fighting infection.
The production of the virus is regulated, like that of many viruses. Initially the integrated [[provirus]] is copied to [[mRNA]] which is then [[Splicing (genetics)|spliced]] into smaller chunks. These small chunks produce the regulatory proteins [[Tat]] (which encourages new virus production) and [[Rev]]. As Rev accumulates it gradually starts to inhibit [[mRNA]] [[splicing]] <ref name=Pollard>
{{cite journal
| author=Pollard, V. W. and Malim, M. H. | title=The HIV-1 Rev protein | journal=Annu. Rev. Microbiol. | year=1998 | pages=491-532 | volume=52 | issue= | id={{PMID|9891806}}
}}</ref>. At this stage the structural proteins Gag and Env are produced from the full-length mRNA. Additionally the full-length RNA is actually the |
he support of his father, claimed the right to the errand, deeming it to be dangerous and doubtful, and traveled nearly four months to Rivendell, arriving just in time for the [[Council of Elrond]], where he reported the dream and its verses.
On February 29, 3019 at midnight, Faramir, who was on guard duty on the western shore in Osgliath, waded down to a boat floating down the Anduin river. To his grief, it was the dead body of his brother, which was pierced with many wounds. In it, lay his sword, broken, but there was no sign of the Great Horn, in which he and his father had heard being blown far across the distance in the North three days ago.
[[Image:FaramirTrial.jpg|thumb|left|230px|Faramir interrogating [[Frodo Baggins]]]]
During the battle with [[Southrons]], Faramir, who took over his brother's position as the Captain of the White Tower, encountered the [[Hobbits]] [[Frodo Baggins]] and [[Samwise Gamgee]], recognizing them to the Halflings his dream spoke of, and left [[Rangers of Ithilien#Members during the War of the Ring|Mablung]] and [[Rangers of Ithilien#Members during the War of the Ring|Damrod]] to guard them while he focused on the battle. After the assualt, Faramir questioned Frodo of his quest, in which Frodo revealed that he, along with eight other companions, set out from Rivendell. During the interrogation, Faramir asked often about Boromir, especially concerning his fate, and of Isildur’s Bane, in which Frodo was not too keen on talking about. Later, Frodo remarked that if any mortal could claim Isildur’s Bane, it would be [[Aragorn]], the heir of [[Isildur]]. The Rangers were impressed save Faramir, who said proof would be necessary if Aragorn was to claim the throne.
Through intelligent questioning and intuiotion, Faramir determined that Frodo was carrying some great evil weapon of the Dark Lord of the Enemy. At this point, he showed the crucial difference between him and his proud brother:
<blockquote>'' "But fear no more! I would not take this thing, if it lay by the highway. Not were Minas Tirith falling in ruin and I alone could save her, so, using the weapon of the Dark Lord for her good and my glory. No, I do not wish for such triumphs, Frodo son of Drogo" '' (The Two Towers: "The Window on the West").</blockquote>
In the Rangers’ secret refuge behind the waterfall, [[Henneth Annun]], Sam accidentally revealed of Boromir’s desire of the Enemy’s Ring, thus revealing the item Frodo was carrying. Despite the hobbits’ fears, Faramir remained true to his vow that he would not take it even if it laid on the highway, for he was wise enough to realize that such a weapon was not to be used and if desired, resisted. With this knowledge, he also realized of what his brother had to face, and wished that he had gone in his brother’s stead—knowing that Boromir would have wanted this ring in which he could bring glory and victory to [[Minas Tirith]] and himself.
[[Gollum]] was spotted in the Forbidden Pool the same night. Although the creature should’ve been shot for not only trepassing in Ithilien, but in Henneth Annun by law, Faramir listened to Frodo’s request to spare Gollum’s life. After interrogating Gollum, he set Frodo and those who would travel with him free in the Lands of Gondor (and Gollum under Frodo’s protection), even with the knowledge that his own life would be forfeit for not bringing them to Minas Tirith. Giving them provisions, including walking sticks made of lebethron, he sent them on their way to continue their quest with the good will of all good men and warned Frodo of Gollum being a treacherous creature and that in the place of [[Cirith Ungol]], dwelt a form of dark, unknown terror.
The following evening, Faramir and his company arrived in [[Cair Andros]], an island located in northern Anduin. After noting that the sky was now covered in complete darkness, Faramir sent the his company south to reinforce the garrison at Osgliath while he and three others of his men rode to Minas Tirith. Along the way, they were pursued by the Winged [[Nazgul]]. The men, except Faramir, were unhorsed and it was the Captain, a master of both beasts and men, who was still horsed and rode back to aid the fallen. Fortunately, Gandalf rode out to their aid, temporarily banishing the Nazgul with a bright, white light emitting from his staff.
[[Image:FaramirReport.jpg|thumb|right|330px|Faramir reporting to his father, [[Denethor II|Denethor]], and [[Gandalf]]]]
Arriving at Minas Tirith, Faramir reported to Denethor and Gandalf of his encounter of the Frodo and Sam, much like the Halfling under the Steward’s service, [[Pippin Took]]. Denethor became angry that Faramir had not brought the ring to Gondor; wishing that his and his brother’s places were reversed—since Denethor believed that Boromir would bring the Enemy’s weapon to him.
Against the rest of the Council’s opinions, Denethor sent Faramir to hold Osgiliath against the hosts of the Enemy that outnumbered their own greatly. Although Faramir disagreed with his father’s strategy, he agreed to go, requesting that his father think better of him if returned (to which Denethor coldly replied that it would depend on how he returned).
The Witch-king, who led a force from [[Minas Morgul]] ten times greater, overwhelmed the men of Gondor and won Osgiliath. Faramir drew back to Causeway Forts, in which men of the men were wounded or killed. Faramir decided to stay with the rearguard in order to make sure that the retreat over [[Pelennor]] would not turn into a rout.
After the Ramnas Echor was breached, the Nazgul assaulted the rearguard, and Faramir was gravely wounded by an arrow. Fortunately, Gandlf and Faramir’s uncle, Prince [[Imrahil]] of Dol Amroth, rode to the aid of Faramir and the troops with hosts of cavalry. Imrahil bore Faramir back to Denethor, telling him that his son had done great deeds.
Regretting that he had unthankfully sent his son off in needless peril without his blessing, Denethor, after looking in the [[palantir]], believing that the ring was captured and the end was near, ordered his servants to build a funeral pyre for him and his son, who was believed to be poisoned by the Witch-king’s dart. Despite Pippin’s protests that Faramir was still alive, Denethor continued with this madness and released the hobbit from his service.
Horrified, Pippin went to alert [[Beregond (Captain)|Beregond]], one of the Tower Guards and Gandalf. Beregond, who loved his captain enough to abadon his post and risk his life protecting him, stopped the servants from lighting the pyre with fire. Pippin returned with Gandalf, who intervened by taking Faramir off the pyre as Faramir moaned out to his father in his dreams. Denethor took out a knife, trying to take Faramir back, but Beregond placed himself in front of Faramir. Seeing that he could not win, Denethor lit the pyre and jumped in it, burning himself alive.
Then Faramir was laid in the [[Houses of Healing]] until Aragorn came and revived Faramir with [[athelas]]. It was not a poisoned dart of the Witch-king that wounded him in a state near death, but the arrow of a Southron, along with Faramir’s weariness and grief concerning his constantly strained relationship with his father and the Black Breath of the Nazgul, who, under Sauron's orders, hunted Faramir ever since he'd left Ithilien. When he awoke, Faramir immediately recognized Aragorn as his rightful King (therefore realizing that no proof was needed after all),
Before Aragorn left to lead the soldiers to the Black gate, he commanded the Warden of the Houses of Healing to have Faramir and the Lady [[Éowyn]] of [[Rohan]] to remain resting for at least ten days. After Éowyn demanded the Warden to take her to the Steward of the City to have her released so she could ride out in battle, Faramir, whose heart was moved with pity and pierced by beauty, told Éowyn that he too, had to heed the advice of the Warden and asked her to walk with him at times. He also fulfilled her request to have her room look east to Mordor.
Faramir and Éowyn walked together in the gardens nearly every day. And he learned from [[Merry Brandybuck]], of Éowyn’s despair of feeling trapped, waiting of the waning King [[Théoden]] and Aragorn's rejection of her love.
[[Image:FaramirMantle.jpg|thumb|left|330px|Faramir and [[Éowyn]] standing at the wall that looks toward [[Mordor]]]]
On March 25th, Faramir gave Éowyn a dark blue mantle sown with silver stars that had once belonged to his mother, as they stood at the wall that looked towards Mordor. There, they saw a threatening darkness towering over and seeing this, Faramir told her of his dream of the Downfall of [[Númenor]]&mdash;that the darkness threatening to overtake Middle-earth reminded him fo the great wave that swallowed the land of Númenor. Somehow, to Faramir and the people of the city, a hope and joy welled in their hearts and he kissed Éowyn’s brow.
Éowyn, however, still felt languished and unfulfilled. Several days after he’d given her the mantle, Faramir told Éowyn that he understood that she desired to be lifted in greatness and out of the cage she had felt trapped in and when Aragorn only gave her understanding and pity, instead of love (in which she later realized a shadow of love), she had wanted to die valiantly and gloriously in battle. He told her that though he had first pitied her, he now loved her. There, Éowyn’s grief was fully healed, and no longer did she desire glory or greatness and realized that she had come to love Faramir in return. Upon hearing this, Faramir kissed her, uncaring of whether or not the people of Minas Tirith could see this in full view.
Faramir briefly served as a Ruling Steward, and began preparing the city for the King’s arrial. On the day of the King’s official coronation on May 1st, Faramir surrendered his office, which was represented by the white rod of the Steward, kneeling |
is court was celebrated. Wanting to commemorate the event in a painting, the Jacobins, revolutionaries that had taken to meeting in the Jacobin Monastery, decided that they would choose the painter whose “genius anticipated the revolution.” David accepted, and began work on a mammoth canvas. The picture was never fully completed, because of its immense size (35ft. by 36ft.) and because people that needed to sit for it disappeared in the [[Reign of Terror]], but several finished drawings exist.
When Voltaire died in 1778, the church denied him a church burial, and his body was interred near a monastery. A year later, Voltaire’s old friends began a campaign to have his body buried in the [[Panthéon, Paris|Panthéon]], as church property had been confiscated by the French Government. David was appointed to head the organizing committee for the ceremony, a parade through the streets of Paris to the Panthéon. Despite rain, and opposition from conservatives based on the amount of money that was being spent, the procession went ahead. Up to 100,000 people watched the “Father of the Revolution” be carried to his resting place. This was the first of many large festivals organized by David for the republic. He went on to organize festivals for martyrs that died fighting royalists. These funerals echoed the religious festivals of the pagan Greeks and Romans and are seen by many as Saturnalian.
In 1791, the King attempted to flee the country, and the emperor of Austria announced his intention to restore the monarchy. In reaction, the people arrested the King. The monarchy was finally destroyed by the French people in 1792. When the new National Convention held its first meeting, David was sitting with his friends [[Jean-Paul Marat]] and Robespierre. In the Convention, David soon earned a nickname: “ferocious terrorist.” Soon, Robespierre’s agents discovered a secret vault of the king’s proving he was trying to overthrow the government, and demanded his execution. The National Convention held the trial of [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] and David voted for the death of the King, which caused his wife, a royalist, to divorce him.
When Louis XVI was executed on [[January 21]] [[1793]], another man died as well — [[Louis Michel le Peletier, de Saint-Fargeau]]. Le Peletier was killed by a royal bodyguard for voting for the death of the King. David was called upon once again to organize a funeral, and David painted ''Le Peletier Assassinated''. It depicts a bloody sword hanging from a thread, thrust through a note that states “I vote the death of the tyrant.” Le Peletier’s body is below this sword. The painting has disappeared, and is known only by a drawing, contemporary accounts and an engraving.
[[Image:Jacques-Louis David - La Mort de Marat.jpg|right|thumb|200px|''The Death of [[Jean-Paul Marat|Marat]]'' ([[1794]])]]
Soon, David’s friend Marat was assassinated by [[Charlotte Corday]], a woman of an opposing political party, whose name can be seen in the note Marat holds in David’s painting. David once again organized a spectacular funeral, and Marat was buried in the Panthéon. Marat died in the [[bathtub]], writing. David wanted to have his body submerged in the bathtub during the funeral procession, but the body had begun to putrefy too much. Instead, Marat’s body was periodically sprinkled with water as the people came to see his corpse, complete with gaping wound. David later completed his perhaps most famous painting, ''The Death of Marat'', which has been called the [[Pietà]] of the revolution. Upon presenting the painting to the convention, he said “Citizens, the people were again calling for their friend; their desolate voice was heard: David, take up your brushes.., avenge Marat... I heard the voice of the people. I obeyed.” David had to work quickly, but the result was a simple and powerful image. Everything in the picture leads back to Marat’s head.
After killing the King, war broke out between the new Republic and virtually every major power in Europe, and the wars France fought went very poorly. The [[Committee of Public Safety]], headed by Robespierre, came to be virtual dictator of the country, and set grain prices for Paris. The committee was severe; [[Marie Antoinette]] went to the guillotine, an event recorded in famous sketch by David. Portable guillotines killed failed generals, aristocrats, priests and perceived enemies. David organized his last festival: the festival of the Supreme Being. Robespierre had realized what a tremendous propaganda tool these festivals were, and he decided to create a new religion, mixing moral ideas with the republic, based on the ideas of Rousseau, with Robespierre as the new high priest. This process had already begun by confiscating church lands and requiring priests to take an oath to the state. The festivals, called fêtes, would be the method of indoctrination. On the appointed day, 20 Prarial by the [[French Republican Calendar|revolutionary calendar]], Robespierre spoke, descended steps, and with a torch presented to him by David, incinerated a cardboard image symbolizing atheism, revealing an image of wisdom underneath. The festival hastened the “incorruptible’s” downfall. The people were tired of his dictatorship. Later, some see David’s methods as being taken up by [[Lenin]], [[Mussolini]] and [[Hitler]]. These massive propaganda events brought the people together. France tried to have festivals in the [[United States of America|United States]], but soon received word that “to tell the truth, these methods, excellent in France where the mass of the people take part, have here only a shabby air.”
Soon, the war began to go well; French troops marched across [[Belgium]], and the emergency that had placed the Committee of Public Safety in control was no more. Then, plotters seized Robespierre at the National Convention. During this seizure, David yelled to his friend “if you drink [[hemlock]], I shall drink it with you.” After all this excitement, he fell ill, and did not attend the evening session, which saved him from being guillotined as Robespierre. David was arrested and placed in prison. There David painted his self portrait, and his jailer's portrait.
==Post Revolution==
After David’s wife visited him in jail, he conceived the idea of telling the story of the [[Sabine|Sabine Women]]. ''The Sabine Women Enforcing Peace by Running between the Combatants'', also called ''The Intervention of the Sabine Women'' is said to have been painted to honor his wife, with the theme being love prevailing over conflict. The painting was also seen as a plea for the people to reunite after the bloodshed of the revolution.
[[Image:Sabine women.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''The Intervention of the Sabine Women'']]
This work also brought him to the attention of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]. The story for the painting is as follows: “The Romans have abducted the daughters of their neighbors, the Sabines. To avenge this abduction, the Sabines attacked Rome, although not immediately – since Hersilia, the daughter of Tatius, the leader of the Sabines, had been married to [[Romulus]], the Roman leader, and then had two children by him in the interim. Here we see Hersilia between her father and husband as she adjures the warriors on both sides not to take wives away from their husbands or mothers away from their children. The other Sabine Women join in her exhortations.” During this time, the martyrs of the revolution were taken from the Panthenon and buried in common ground, and revolutionary statues were destroyed. When he was finally released to the country, France had changed. His wife managed to get David released from prison, and he wrote letters to his former wife, and told her he never ceased loving her. He remarried her in 1796. Finally, wholly restored to his position, he retreated to his studio, took pupils and retired from politics. During this time in prison, 1784-1794, some of his greatest works were completed.
==Napoleon==
In one of history's great coincidences, David's close association with the Committee of Public Safety during the Terror resulted in his signing of the death warrant for one Alexandre de Beauharnais, a minor noble. De Beauharnais's widow, [[Joséphine de Beauharnais|Rose-Marie Josephe de Tascher de Beauharnais]] would later be known to the world as Josephine Bonaparte, Empress of the French. It was her coronation by her husband, Napoleon I, that David depicted so memorably in the "Coronation of Napoleon and Josephine, 2&nbsp;December 1804".
David had been an admirer of Napoleon from their first meeting, struck by the then-General Bonaparte's classical features. Requesting a sitting from the busy and impatient general, David was able to sketch Napoleon in 1797. David recorded the conqueror of Italy's face, but the full composition of General Bonaparte holding the peace treaty with Austria remains unfinished. Napoleon had high esteem for David, and asked him to accompany him to [[Egypt]] in 1798, but David refused, claiming he was too old for adventuring and sending instead his student, [[Antoine-Louis Gros]].
After Napoleon's [[18 Brumaire|successful coup d'etat]] in 1799, as First Consul he commissioned David to commemorate his daring crossing of the Alps. The crossing of the St. Bernard Pass had allowed the French to surpise the Austrian army and win victory at the [[Battle of Marengo]] on [[June 14]] [[1800]]. Although Napoleon had crossed the Alps on a mule, he requested that he be "portrayed calm upon a fiery horse." David complied with "Napoleon Crossing the Saint-Bernard." After the proclamation of the Empire in 1804, David became the official court painter of the regime.
[[Image:David-Napoleon.png|left|thumb|200px|''[[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] Crossing the Alps'' ([[1801]])]]
One of the works David was commissi |
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[[it:Herbert Marcuse]]
[[ja:ヘルベルト・マルクーゼ]]
[[nl:Herbert Marcuse]]
[[nb:Herbert Marcuse]]
[[pl:Herbert Marcuse]]
[[pt:Herbert Marcuse]]
[[ru:Маркузе, Герберт]]
[[sv:Herbert Marcuse]]
[[zh:马尔库塞]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Human Genome Project</title>
<id>13785</id>
<revision>
<id>41949938</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:58:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Twilight</username>
<id>92617</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Goals */ typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Human Genome Project''' (HGP) endeavoured to map the [[human genome]] down to the [[nucleotide]] (or [[base pair]]) level and to identify all the [[gene]]s present in it.
==History==
The Project was launched in [[1986]] by [[Charles DeLisi]], who was then Director of the [[United States Department of Energy|US Department of Energy's]] Health and Environmental Research Programs. The goals and general strategy of the Project were outlined in a two-page memo to the Assistant Secretary in April 1986, which helped garner support from the DOE, the [[OMB]] and Congress, especially Senator [[Pete Domenici]]. A series of Scientific Advisory meetings, and complex negotiations with senior Federal officials resulted in a [[line item]] for the Project in the [[1987]] Presidential budget submission to the Congress.
Initiation of the Project was the culmination of several years of work supported by the US Department of Energy, in particular a feasibility workshop in 1986 and a subsequent [http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/project/herac2.shtml detailed description of the Human Genome Initiative] in a report that led to the formal sanctioning of the initiative by the Department of Energy{{ref|barnhart}}. This 1987 report stated boldly, "The ultimate goal of this initiative is to understand the human genome" and "Knowledge of the human genome is as necessary to the continuing progress of medicine and other health sciences as knowledge of human anatomy has been for the present state of medicine." Candidate technologies were already being considered for the proposed undertaking at least as early as 1985{{ref|delisi}}.
James Watson was Head of the National Center for Human Genome Research at the NIH starting from 1988. Largely due to his disagreement with his boss, Bernradine Healy, over the issue of patenting genes, he was forced to resign in 1992. He was replaced by [[Francis Collins]] in April 1993 and the name of the Center was changed to the [[National Human Genome Research Institute]] (NHGRI) in 1997.
The [[research funding|$3-billion project]] was formally founded in [[1990]] by the [[United States Department of Energy]] and the [[U.S. National Institutes of Health]], and was expected to take 15 years.
In addition to the [[United States]], the international [[consortium]] comprised geneticists in [[China]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Japan]], and the [[United Kingdom]].
Due to widespread international cooperation and advances in the field of [[genomics]] (especially in [[sequence analysis]]), as well as huge advances in computing technology, a rough draft of the genome was finished in [[2000]] (announced jointly by US president [[Bill Clinton]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[Tony Blair]] on [[June 26]], [[2000]]), two years earlier than planned.
President Clinton had already awarded the [[Citizen's medal]] to DeLisi for his seminal role in the Project, in January [[2000]], before the completion of the Project was announced.
==The Role of Celera Genomics==
In 1998, an identical, privately funded quest was launched by researcher [[Craig Venter]] and his firm [[Celera Genomics]]. The $300 million Celera effort was intended to proceed at a faster pace and at a fraction of the cost of the roughly $3 billion [[research funding|taxpayer-funded project]].
Celera used a newer, riskier technique called [[whole genome shotgun sequencing]], which had been used to sequence bacterial genomes.
Celera initially announced that it would seek patent protection on "only 200-300" genes, but later amended this to seeking "intellectual property protection" on "fully-characterized important structures" amounting to 100-300 targets. The firm eventually filed [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/487773.stm patent applications on 6,500 whole or partial genes].
Celera also promised to publish their findings in accordance with the terms of the 1996 "[[Bermuda Principles|Bermuda Statement]]," by releasing new data quarterly (the HGP released its new data daily), although, unlike the publicly-funded project, they would not permit free redistribution or commercial use of the data.
In March 2000, President Clinton announced that the genome sequence could not be patented, and should be made freely available to all researchers. The statement sent Celera's stock plummeting and dragged down the biotech-heavy [[Nasdaq]]. The biotech sector lost about $50 billion in market capitalization in two days.
Although the working draft was announced in June 2000, it was not until February 2001 that Celera and the HGP scientists published details of their drafts. Special issues of ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' (which published the publicly-funded project's scientific paper) and ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' (which published Celera's paper) described the methods used to produce the draft sequence and offered analysis of the sequence. These drafts are hoped to comprise a 'scaffold' of 90 % of the genome, with gaps to be filled later.
The competition proved to be very good for the project. The rivals agreed to pool their data, but the agreement fell apart when Celera refused to deposit its data in the unrestricted public database Genbank. Celera had incorporated the public data into their genome, but forbade the public effort to use Celera data.
On [[14 April]] [[2003]], a joint [http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/externe/CHODE/English/Actualites/Presse/HGP/HGP_press_release-140403.pdf press release] announced that the project had been completed by both groups, with 99 % of the genome sequenced with 99.99 % accuracy.
Each draft sequence has been checked at least four to five times to increase 'depth of coverage' or accuracy. About 47 % of the draft were high-quality sequences. The final version will have been checked eight to nine times giving an error rate of 1 in 10,000 bases.
HGP is one of several international [[genome project]]s aimed at sequencing the DNA of a specific organism. While the human DNA sequence offers the most tangible benefits, important developments in biology and medicine are predicted as a result of the sequencing of [[model organisms]], including mice, fruitflies, zebrafish, yeast, nematodes and many microbial organisms and parasites.
In [[October]] [[2004]], [[researcher]]s of the HGP announced a new estimate of 20,000 to 25,000 genes in the [[human genome]]. Previously 30,000 to 40,000 had been predicted, while estimates at the start of the project reached up to as high as 100,000.
==Goals==
The goals of the original HGP were not only to determine all 3 billion base pairs in the human genome with a minimal error rate, but also to identify all the genes in this vast amount of data. This part of the project is still ongoing although a preliminary count indicates about 30,000 genes in the human genome, which is far fewer than predicted by most scientists.
Another goal of the HGP was to develop faster, more efficient methods for DNA [[sequencing]] and [[sequence analysis]] and the transfer of these technologies to industry. The sequencing of the human genome was made possible, in part by the development of a new technology, termed Rolling Circle Amplification Technology, that amplified the number of copies of [[DNA]] in the samples being sequenced, thereby facilitating the analysis. Rolling Circle Amplification Technology was developed through the independent efforts of the research groups of Paul Lizardi ([[Yale University]]), Eric Kool ([[The University of Rochester]]), Jeffrey Auerbach ([[Replicon, Inc.]]) and David Zhang ([[Mount Sinai Medical Center]]).
The sequence of the human [[DNA]] is stored in [[database]]s available to anyone on the [[Internet]]. The U.S. [[NCBI|National Center for Biotechnology Information]] (and sister organizations in Europe and Japan) house the gene sequence in a database known as Genbank, along with sequences of known and hypothetical genes and proteins. Other organizations such as the [[UCSC|University of California, Santa Cruz]], and [http://www.ensembl.org ENSEMBL] present additional data and annotation and powerful tools for visualizing and searching it. [[Computer program]]s have been developed to analyse the data, because the data itself is difficult to interpret without them.
The process of identifying the boundaries between genes and other features in raw [[DNA]] sequence is called [[genome annotation]] and is the domain of [[bioinformatics]]. While expert biologists make the best annotators, their work proceeds slowly, and computer programs are increasingly used to meet the high-throughput demands of genome sequencing projects. The best current technologies for annotation make use of statistical models that take advantage of parallels between DNA sequences and human [[language]], using concepts from computer science such as [[formal grammar]]s.
All humans have unique gene sequences, therefore the data published by the HGP does not represent the exact sequence of each and every individual's genome. It is the combined genome of a small number of anonymous donors. The HGP genome is a scaffold for future work in identifying differences between individuals. Most of the current effort in identifying differences between individuals involves [[single nucleotide polymorphism]]s |
imestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
<id>24373</id>
</contributor>
<comment>migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Hawaiian
|nativename={{Unicode|ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi}}
|familycolor=Austronesian
|region={{Unicode|[[Hawaii|Hawaiʻi]]}}: concentrated on {{Unicode|[[Niihau|Niʻihau]]}} and {{Unicode|[[Hawaii (island)|Hawaiʻi]]}}, but speakers throughout the [[Hawaiian Islands]] and the [[United States|U.S.]] mainland
|speakers=~1,000 native<br>~15,000 total
|fam2=[[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]
|fam3=[[Central Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages|Central Eastern]]
|fam4=[[Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages|Eastern]]
|fam5=[[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]]
|fam6=[[Central-Eastern Oceanic languages|Central-Eastern]]
|fam7=[[Remote Oceanic languages|Remote Oceanic]]
|fam8=[[Central Pacific languages|Central Pacific]]
|fam9=[[East Fijian-Polynesian languages|East]]
|fam10=[[Polynesian languages|Polynesian]]
|fam11=[[Nuclear Polynesian languages|Nuclear Polynesian]]
|fam12=Eastern
|fam13=Central Eastern
|fam14=[[Marquesic languages|Marquesic]]
|nation={{Unicode|[[Hawaii|Hawaiʻi]]}} (with [[Hawaiian English]])
|iso2=haw|iso3=haw}}
'''Hawaiian''' is the [[ancestor|ancestral]] [[language]] of the [[indigenous people]] of the [[Hawaiian Islands|Hawaiian Islands]], the [[Hawaiians]], a [[Polynesia]]n people. Hawaiian, along with [[English language|English]], is an [[official language]] of the {{Unicode|[[Hawaii|State of Hawaiʻi]]}}. The [[ISO language code]] for Hawaiian is <code>haw</code>.
Hawaiian is a member of the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language family]], most closely related to [[Polynesian languages]] like [[Marquesan language|Marquesan]], [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]], [[Samoan language|Sāmoan]], [[Maori language|Māori]], and [[Rapanui]] (i.e., the language of Easter Island), as well as to other languages in the Pacific, like [[Fijian language|Fijian]], and more distantly to [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]], and the indigenous languages of [[Taiwan]] and the [[Philippines]].
==Use of the language==
Hawaiian is an [[endangered language]]. On six of the seven inhabited islands, Hawaiian was long ago displaced by [[English language|English]] and is no longer used as the daily language of [[communication]].
The one exception is {{Unicode|[[Niihau|Niʻihau]]}}, where Hawaiian has never been displaced, has never been endangered, and is still used almost exclusively. This is because:
#{{Unicode|Niʻihau}} has been privately owned for over 100 years;
#visitation by outsiders has been only rarely allowed;
#the Caucasian owners/managers of the island have favored the {{Unicode|Niʻihauans'}} continuation of their language;
#and, most of all, because the {{Unicode|Niʻihau}} speakers themselves have naturally maintained their own native language, even though they sometimes use English as a second language for school.
Native speakers of {{Unicode|Niʻihau}} Hawaiian are able to use a manner of speaking among themselves which is significantly different from the Hawaiian of the other islands, so different that it is unintelligible to non-{{Unicode|Niʻihau}} speakers of Hawaiian.
For a variety of reasons starting around [[1900]], the number of native speakers of Hawaiian diminished from 37,000 to 1,000; half of these remaining are now in their seventies or eighties (see Ethnologue report below for citations).
The most important cause for the decline of the Hawaiian language was its voluntary abandonment by the majority of its native speakers. They wanted their own children to speak English, as a way to promote their success in a rapidly changing modern environment, so they refrained from using Hawaiian with their own children. Even as early as [[1885]], before the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in [[1893]], and before the [[Bayonet Constitution]] of [[1887]], while [[Kalakaua|King Kalākaua]] was still on the throne, the Prospectus of the Kamehameha Schools announced that "instruction will be given only in English language" (see published opinion of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, Doe v. Kamehameha Schools, case no. 04-15044, page 8928, filed August 2nd 2005).
Efforts to revive the language have increased in recent decades. Hawaiian language "immersion" [[school|schools]] are now open to children whose families want to retain (or introduce) Hawaiian language into the next [[generation]]. The local [[NPR]] station features a short segment titled "Hawaiian word of the day." Additionally, the Sunday editions of the [[Honolulu Star-Bulletin]], one of Honolulu's two major newspapers, feature a brief article called [http://www.starbulletin.com/kauakukalahale.php/ ''Kauakukalahale''] written entirely in Hawaiian by a student.
When trying to learn Hawaiian as a second language, without a competent teacher and without native speakers of Hawaiian as models, English-speaking learners might mispronounce Hawaiian words by using English values for the letters. Also, learners might not be aware that one cannot simply replace the English words in an English sentence with Hawaiian words as a way to create a Hawaiian sentence. Hawaiian and English have important differences in the order of words in a phrase, and the order of phrases in a sentence. Even students of the immersion schools, where there are native speakers to imitate, are prone to produce ungrammatical expressions --- Hawaiian words are substituted directly into English syntactic patterns. Sam Warner, a major proponent of the immersion schools, has described some of the students' expressions as "bizarre" in his dissertation on the immersion program.
There is also a certain tension between those who would revive a purist Hawaiian, as spoken in the early 19th century, and those who grew up speaking a colloquial Hawaiian shaped by more than one hundred years of contact with English and pidgin.
[[Hawaiian Pidgin]] (more properly described as an English-Hawaiian [[creole language]]) is a local language, derived mostly fom English but with its own unique [[syntax]] and [[phonology]]. Its vocabulary comes from English, Hawaiian, and Asian languages. The latter are predominantly [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Cantonese language|Cantonese]], introduced by immigrants hired to work at [[sugar]] and [[pineapple]] [[plantation|plantations]]; but Philippine languages have made contributions as well. Often overlooked but also important are the contributions of European languages other than English, especially [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].
==Phonology==
Hawaiian is notable for having a small [[phoneme]] inventory (see Hawaiian alphabet, below), like many of its [[Polynesia]]n cousins. Especially notable is the fact that it originally did not distinguish between /t/ and /k/; few languages do not make that distinction. A /t/ pronunciation of this phoneme was common at the {{Unicode|Kauaʻi}} ({{Unicode|Tauaʻi}}) end of the island chain, and a /k/ pronunciation at the Big Island (island of {{Unicode|Hawaiʻi}}) end. The /k/ pronunciation won out over the /t/ pronunciation after [[Kamehameha the Great]], who was from the island of {{Unicode|Hawaiʻi}}, conquered all the islands. However, the /t/ realization remains on {{Unicode|[[Niihau|Niʻihau]]}}.
===Consonants===
The [[consonant]] [[phoneme]]s of Hawaiian are shown in the following table:
{| class="wikitable"
! [[Consonant]]s
![[labial consonant|Labial]]
![[alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[velar consonant|Velar]]
![[glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
|'''[[stop consonant|Stop]]'''
| align=center | {{IPA|p}}
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|k}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ʔ}}
|-
|'''[[nasal consonant|Nasal]]'''
| align=center | {{IPA|m}}
| align=center | {{IPA|n}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
|'''[[fricative consonant|Fricative]]'''
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|h}}
|-
|'''[[approximant consonant|Approximant]]'''
| align=center | {{IPA|w}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
|'''[[lateral consonant|Lateral approximant]]'''
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|l}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|}
The phoneme {{IPA|/w/}} has two main [[allophone]]s, {{IPA|[w]}} and {{IPA|[ʋ]}} (a [[labiodental approximant]]). Their distribution is as follows (Elbert and Pukui 1979, 12–13; Pukui and Elbert 1986, xvii):
*After {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} usually {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
*After {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} usually {{IPA|[w]}}
*After {{IPA|/a/}} and initially, [[free variation]] between the two
===Vowels===
The [[vowel]] phonemes are shown in the following tables:
{|class="wikitable"
! rowspan=2 | [[Monophthong]]s
! colspan=2 | [[Vowel length|Short]]
! colspan=2 | Long
|-
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
! Front
! Back
|-
| '''[[Close vowel|Close]]'''
| align=center | {{IPA|i}}
| align=center | {{IPA|u}}
| align=center | {{IPA|iː}}
| align=center | {{IPA|uː}}
|-
| '''[[Mid vowel|Mid]]'''
| align=center | {{IPA|e}}
| align=center | {{IPA|o}}
| align=center | {{IPA|eː}}
| align=center | {{IPA|oː}}
|-
| '''[[Open vowel|Open]]'''
| colspan=2 align=center | {{IPA|a}}
| colspan=2 align=center | {{IPA|aː}}
|}
{|class="wikitable"
! [[Diphthong]]s
! Ending with {{IPA|/i/}}
! Ending with {{IPA|/u/}}
! Ending with {{IPA|/e/}}
! Ending with {{IPA|/o/}}
|-
| '''Starting with {{IPA|/i/}}'''
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|iu}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
| '''Starting with {{IPA|/e/}}'''
| align=center | {{IPA|ei}}
| align=center | {{IPA|eu}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
| '''Starting with {{IPA|/o/}}'''
| align=center | {{IPA|oi}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ou}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
| '''Starting with {{IPA|/a/}}'' |
translated the Syriac manuscripts into [[Arabic language|Arabic]], along with many other Greek classics. They became some of the main sources for [[Islamic Golden Age|Arabian scholars]] such as [[Avicenna]], [[Rhazes]], and [[Maimonides]]. Galen was known in Arabic as '''Jalinos''', and many people with that name today are considered to be descendents of him.
== External links ==
*[http://www.med.virginia.edu/hs-library/historical/antiqua/galen.htm Galen]
*[http://www.udayton.edu/~hume/Galen/galen.htm Galen, university dayton]
*[http://www.medicinaantiqua.org.uk/bio_gal.html Galen: A Biographical Sketch]
*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html ''Greek Biology and Medicine''] by Henry Osborn Taylor (1922), scanned edition. Chapter 5 is devoted to [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0109.html "The Final System: Galen"].
*[http://pacs.unica.it/biblio/lesson2.htm Galen and the Greek-Helenic history of medicine]
== Books ==
*'''Jeanne Bendick''' - ''Galen and the Gateway to Medicine''
[[Category:History of ancient medicine]]
[[Category:Latin authors]]
[[Category:Greek anatomists]]
[[Category:Ancient Greeks]]
[[cs:Claudius Galén]]
[[de:Galenus]]
[[es:Galeno]]
[[fr:Claude Galien]]
[[it:Galenus]]
[[hu:Galénosz]]
[[nl:Claudius Galenus]]
[[no:Galen]]
[[pl:Galen]]
[[pt:Cláudio Galeno]]
[[sl:Galen]]
[[fi:Galenos]]
[[sv:Galenos]]
[[zh:盖伦]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Glossolalia</title>
<id>12327</id>
<revision>
<id>41394390</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T01:12:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>209.115.201.214</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Context and terms */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Glossolalia''' (from the Greek, "&#947;&#955;&#974;&#963;&#963;&#945;" (glossa), tongue and "&#955;&#945;&#955;&#974;" (lalô), to speak) comprises the utterance of what appears (to the casual listener) either as an unknown foreign language ('''xenoglossia'''), meaningless syllables, or utterance of an unknown [[mystical language]]; the utterances sometimes occur as part of religious worship ('''religious glossolalia''').
[[Skepticism|Skeptics]] dismiss these cases as simply being in a state of trance, self-[[hypnotism]] or [[religious]] [[ecstasy]]. It is notable that in [[Charismatic]]/[[Pentecostal]] [[Churches]] there is often a state of heightened [[emotionalism]] which may, in the view of skeptics, itself give rise to instances of glossolalia (what Christians in those churches often refer to as '''speaking in tongues''').
==Scientific perspectives==
===Linguistics===
The syllables that make up instances of glossolalia typically appear to be unpatterned reorganizations of [[phoneme]]s from the primary language of the person uttering the syllables; thus, the glossolalia of people from [[Russia]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[Brazil]] all sound quite different from each other, but vaguely resemble the Russian, English, and Portuguese languages, respectively. Many [[linguist]]s generally regard most glossolalia as lacking any identifiable [[semantics]], [[syntax]], or [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]].{{fact}}
Noted linguist [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] had a significant affinity for tongues since his early years and is reported that his great concern on phonoaesthetics, resulted in him speaking nonsense alone, playing with sounds and phonemes and generating 'beautiful' speech.{{fact}}
Improvisation is exemplified also in modern music, specifically in the singing of [[Lisa Gerrard]] and [[Elizabeth Fraser]] who also use [[mouth music]].
===Psychology===
The first scientific study of glossolalia was done by psychiatrist [[Emil Kraepelin]] as part of his research into the linguistic behaviour of [[schizophrenia|schizophrenic]] patients. In 1927, G.B. Cutten published his book ''Speaking with tongues; historically and psychologically considered'', which was regarded a standard in medical literature for many years. Like Kraepelin, he linked glossolalia to schizophrenia and [[hysteria]]. In 1972, John Kildahl took a different psychological perspective in his book ''The Psychology of Speaking in Tongues''. He stated that glossolalia was not necessarily a symptom of a mental illness and that glossolalists suffer less from [[Stress (medicine)|stress]]. He did observe, however, that glossolalists tend to have more need of authority figures and appeared to have had more crises in their lives.
Nicholas Spanos described glossolalia as an acquired ability, for which no real trance is needed (''Glossolalia as Learned Behavior: An Experimental Demonstration'', 1987). It is also known as a [[simplex communication]].
== "Speaking in tongues" in some Christian traditions ==
Certain [[Christianity | Christian]]s (see below) regard the act of '''speaking in tongues''', as a gift of [[God]] through the [[Holy Spirit]]. As described in the [[Book of Acts]] and [[1 Corinthians]], it is one of holy [[Spiritual gift|Gifts of the Spirit]] given by God to the faithful on the Day of [[Pentecost]]. Other religious faiths also incorporate glossolalia as a component of worship traditions.
====Context and terms====
For members of some Christian sects, "glossolalia" is an incorrect term from contemporary language of empirical [[classification]] (or [[neologism]]) to describe an experience in which human language itself is quickly revealed to be entirely unrelated from [[speech]], and where the depths of human [[communication]] are revealed to be [[spirituality|spiritual]], not material, in nature.
This experience is described in the Book of Acts 2:1, and is often referred to as the [[Pentecost]], as the day that the Holy Spirit was revealed to several thousand men in one place.
''Acts Chapter 2: "1When the day of Pentecost came, they were all together in one place. 2Suddenly a sound like the blowing of a violent wind came from heaven and filled the whole house where they were sitting. 3They saw what seemed to be tongues of fire that separated and came to rest on each of them. 4All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in other tongues as the Spirit enabled them. 5Now there were staying in Jerusalem God-fearing Jews from every nation under heaven. 6When they heard this sound, a crowd came together in bewilderment, because each one heard them speaking in his own language. 7Utterly amazed, they asked: "Are not all these men who are speaking Galileans? 8Then how is it that each of us hears them in his own native language? 9Parthians, Medes and Elamites; residents of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and Asia, 10Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt and the parts of Libya near Cyrene; visitors from Rome 11(both Jews and converts to Judaism Cretans and Arabs—we hear them declaring the wonders of God in our own tongues!" 12Amazed and perplexed, they asked one another, "What does this mean?" "''
Because of the profound nature of the experience, and its direct conflict with developed habits and learnings for [[rationality]] and objective realism, "the gift" is regarded by Christians not just as an innate ability for [[community]], but as one of a number of gifts which offer profound spiritual insight and a collective [[experiential proof]] of an underlying spiritual nature.
In the language of [[alternative science]], this experience would be described as group [[telepathy]], however one in which the apparent material linguistic barriers between peoples of different regions had suddenly and completely been removed. Though the communication of ''meaning'' became universal, the passage in Acts 2:1 makes it clear that the words of speech themselves remained in the ''unintelligible'' foreign tongue &mdash;which contradicts the common notion that glossolalia refers to meaningless words. In the context of this group experience, the power of the [[Holy Spirit]] was revealed to be transcendent, all-knowing, and terrifying to those for whom belief was a mystery. The timely ministry of Saint [[Peter]] was a message of understanding and [[fellowship]], which offered listeners a choice between hope and salvation or disbelief and despair.
The Christian reference to the fundamental "Holy Spirit" denotes the belief that the Pentecost "glossolalia" refers not just to connectivity between human beings, but implies a larger number of 'holy gifts' by which mortal people may directly 'know the will of [[God]].' For Christians, the acceptance of the ''[[truth]]'' of this experience of God, brings with it a greater knowledge of God.
====Tongues in the New Testament====
In the [[New Testament]], the book of [[Acts of the Apostles | Acts]] recounts how "tongues of fire" descended upon the heads of the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostle]]s, accompanied by the miraculous occurrence of speaking in languages unknown to them, but recognizable to others present as particular foreign languages. Not only their peers, but also anyone else in the room who spoke any other language, could understand the words that the Apostles spoke.
The [[Book of Acts]] (2:1) described the phenomenon in terms of a miracle of universal translation, enabling people from many parts of the world speaking many different languages to understand them. This Biblical case exemplifies '''religious xenoglossia''', i.e., miraculously speaking in an actual foreign language that the speaker does not know.
Some of the Orthodox hymns sung at the Feast of Pentecost, which commemorates this event in Acts, describe it as a reversal of what happened at the [[Tower of Babel]] as described in Genesis 11. In other words, the languages of humanity were differentiated at the Tower of Babel leading to confusion, but were reunited at Pentecost, resulting in the immediate proclamation of the [[Gospel]] to people who were gathered in Jerusalem from man |
is relatively marginal, and since the second World War its [[Member of Parliament]] has usually been drawn from the governing party. At the [[United Kingdom general election, 1997]], [[Ben Bradshaw]] was elected as MP for Exeter, and he retained the seat at the elections of [[United Kingdom general election, 2001|2001]] and [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005]].
Exeter's [[city council]] is a [[Non-metropolitan district|district]] authority, and shares responsibility for [[local government]] with the Devon [[County Council]]. In recent years, the city council has been dominated by [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] and [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]] members. Since [[2003]], no party has had a majority on the council.
==Notable Buildings==
<div style="float:right; width:250px; padding: 2px; text-align:center; border:1px solid; margin:1em;">
[[Image:Exeter Cathedral (West End) 300px.jpg|240px]]
<br />
<small>The front of [[Exeter Cathedral]]</small>
<br />
<br />
[[image:rougemontcastle.jpg|240px|Ruined gatehouse at Rougemont Castle]]
<br />
<small>Ruined gatehouse at [[Rougemont Castle]]. Note the red sandstone, characteristic of many older Exeter buildings.</small>
</div>
Among the notable buildings in Exeter are:
* The [[Exeter cathedral|cathedral]], founded in [[1050]] when the bishop's seat was moved from the nearby town of [[Crediton]] (birthplace of [[Saint Boniface]]) because Exeter's Roman walls offered better protection against "pirates", presumably [[Viking]]s. A statue[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Hooker-Statue.jpeg] of [[Richard Hooker (theologian)|Richard Hooker]], the [[sixteenth century]] [[Anglican]] [[theology|theologian]], who was born in Exeter, has a prominent place in the Cathedral Close.
* The [[ruins]] of [[Rougemont Castle]], built soon after the [[Norman Conquest]]; later parts of the castle are still in use as an [[Assize court]], though a new courts complex is under construction and the castle will probably become accessible to tourists as a result.
* The Guildhall, the oldest municipal building in England still in use.
* The Guild of Tuckers and Weavers, a fine old building that is still used for smart functions.
* The Custom House in the attractive Quay area
* St Nicholas Priory in Mint Lane.
* A number of medieval churches including St Mary Steps which has an elaborate clock.
* 'The House That Moved', a 14th century Tudor building, earned its name in 1961 when it was moved from its original location on the corner of Edmund Street in order for a new road to be built in its place. Weighing more than twenty-one tonnes, it was strapped together and slowly moved a few inches at a time to its present day home.
Many of these are built in the local dark red sandstone, which gives its name to the castle and the park that now surrounds it (Rougemont = red hill). A plaque near the gatehouse recalls that in [[1685]] [[Alice Molland]] the last person executed for witchcraft in England, was imprisoned in Exeter.
[[Northenhay Gardens]] located just outside the castle, is the oldest public open space in the whole of England, being originally laid out in [[1612]] as a pleasure walk for Exeter residents. Much of Northernhay gardens now represent Victorian design, with a beautiful display of trees, mature shrubs and bushes and plenty of flower beds. There are also many statues here, most importantly the War Memorial by John Angel and the Deerstalker by E.B.Stephens. The Volunteer Memorial from [[1895]], also in the gardens commemorates the formation of the 1st Rifle Volunteers in [[1852]]. Other statues include [[John Dinham]], [[Thomas Dyke Ackland]] and [[Stafford Northcote]] (a local landowner who was a Victorian [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]).
==Culture==
===Literature===
[[Image:Riddle-pyramid-comp.jpeg|thumb|left|The Riddles in the High St]]
The ''[[Exeter Book]]'', an original manuscript and one of the most important documents in Anglo-Saxon literature, is kept in the vaults of Exeter Cathedral. The Exeter Book dates back to the [[tenth century]] and is one of four manuscripts that between them contain virtually all the surviving poetry in [[Old English language|Old English]]. It includes most of the more highly regarded shorter poems, some religious pieces, and a series of riddles, a handful of which are famously slightly lewd. Some of the riddles are inscribed on a highly polished steel obelisk in the high street, placed in 2004.<!--I might have be a year out...-->
The ''[[Inquisitio Eliensis]]'', the "Exon Domesday" (so called from the preservation of the volume at Exeter), is a volume of [[Domesday Book]] that contains the full details which the original returns supplied.
===Theatre===
The [[Northcott Theatre]] is located on the campus of the university and is one of relatively few provincial English theatres to maintain its own [[repertory|repertory company]]. Its annual open air [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] performance in the grounds of Rougemont Castle is well regarded nationally. There are also two amateur theatre buildings with associated companies.
The [[Barnfield Theatre]] was converted in 1972 from The Barnfield Hall which was built towards the end of the 19th century by Exeter Literary Society. The theatre is a charity and is used as a venue for amateur and professional theatrical companies.
===Music===
*The Cavern Club in Queen Street is the place to go for live punk and indie music
*Exeter does not have a resident professional orchestra. The [[Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra]] tours to the city regularly.
*The cathedral choir is nationally known, and the cathedral is frequently the venue for concerts by visiting orchestras.
*There is an annual Festival, of all the arts but with a particular concentration of musical events
*[[Children of the Drone]] is an improvisational music collective, based in Exeter since 2001
===Museums and galleries===
*The city museum is the [[Royal Albert Memorial Museum]] in Queen Street.
*The Phoenix Arts Centre occupies the former university site in Gandy Street.
*Spacex is a long established modern art gallery
Timepiece bar and nightclub
===Newspapers===
*[[Express and Echo]], daily (current)
*[[Flying Post]], weekly (discontinued [[1917]], but revived in [[1975]] as an alternative (polemical) community magazine)
*[[The Western Morning News|The Western Morning News]], a [[Plymouth]]-printed daily regional paper, is also popular
===Twin towns===
Exeter is [[twin towns|twinned]] with:
{|
| valign="top" |
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Rennes]] in [[Brittany]], [[France]]
* {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Bad Homburg]] in [[Germany]]
| valign="top" |
* {{flagicon|Russia}} - [[Yaroslavl]] in [[Russia]]
* {{flagicon|Italy}} - [[Terracina]] in [[Italy]]
|}
The city also seeks to maintain a relationship with [[HMS Exeter]].
==Colleges and Universities==
*The [[University of Exeter]] has two campuses in the city, both notable for their attractive parkland. It is one of the largest employers in the city.
*Exeter is one of the four main sites of the [[University of Plymouth]]
*The [[Peninsula Medical School]], a joint operation of the two universities, has one of its main sites in Exeter
*St Loye's School of Health Studies, well known for training in [[occupational therapy]] has now been incorporated into the University of Plymouth.
*Exeter College is a major [[Further Education college]]
*Exeter is home to several substantial [[language school]]s
*Exeter School is the leading Independent School.
==Sports==
*Exeter's [[Football (soccer) |football]] club, [[Exeter City F.C.]], was relegated from [[the Football League]] in [[2003]] after 83 years' membership.
*[[Rugby Union]] is popular in the south-west: Exeter's team is the [[Exeter Chiefs]].
*The [[University of Exeter]] has a strong reputation in sport and regularly wins or comes close to winning national trophies in inter-university sports
==Transport==
===Road===
The [[M5 motorway]] to [[Bristol]] and [[Birmingham]] starts at Exeter, and connects at Bristol with the [[M4 motorway|M4]] to [[London]]. The older [[A30 road|A30]] road provides a shorter but sometimes slower route to London.
Going west, the [[A38 road|A38]] connects Exeter to [[Plymouth]] and South [[Cornwall]], whilst the A30 continues to [[Okehampton]] and North Cornwall.
===Rail===
There are two main line [[railway]] routes from Exeter to London, the faster [[Great Western Main Line]] route via [[Taunton]] to [[Paddington station|London Paddington]] and the slower [[West of England Main Line]] via [[Salisbury, England|Salisbury]] to [[Waterloo station|London Waterloo]]. Another main line, the [[Cross-Country Route]], links Exeter with [[Bristol]], [[Birmingham]], the [[Midlands]], [[Northern England]], and [[Scotland]]. Many trains on all three lines continue westwards from Exeter, variously serving [[Torbay]], [[Plymouth]] and [[Cornwall]].
Local branch lines run to [[Paignton]] (see [[Riviera Line]]), [[Exmouth, Devon|Exmouth]] (see [[Avocet Line]]) and [[Barnstaple]] (see [[Tarka Line]]). There is also a summer weekend service to [[Okehampton]] for access to [[Dartmoor]].
Exeter is served by two main railway stations. [[Exeter St Davids station|Exeter St David's]] is served by all services, whilst [[Exeter Central railway station|Exeter Central]] is more convenient for the city centre but served only by local services and the main line route to London Waterloo. There are also five suburban stations, [[St James Park railway station|St. James Park]], [[Exeter St Thomas railway station|Exeter St. Thomas]], [[Polsloe Bridge railway station|Polsloe Bridge]], [[Pinhoe railway station|Pinhoe]] and [[Digby and Sowton railway station|Digby & Sowton]], served only by local services.
===Air===
There is a small [[Exeter_Airport|airport]] near the city and the local [[airline |
argery Allingham]]
*[[Kate Fansler]] &mdash; [[Amanda Cross]]
*[[Dr. Gideon Fell]] &mdash; [[John Dickson Carr]]
*[[Jessica Fletcher]] &mdash; [[Peter S. Fischer]], [[Richard Levinson]] & [[William Link]]: ''[[Murder, She Wrote]]'' (TV)
*[[Kinky Friedman]] &mdash; [[Kinky Friedman]]
*[[Jannie Jansen]] &mdash; [[Janwillem van de Wetering]]
*[[Jimmy Kudo]] (Shin'ichi Kudo) a.k.a. Conan Edogawa &mdash; [[Gosho Aoyama]]
*[[Hajime Kindaichi]] &mdash; [[Yozaburo Kanari]] & [[Fumiya Sato]]: '''[[Kindaichi Case Files]]''' [[manga]] series
*[[Donald Lam]] &mdash; [[Erle Stanley Gardner]]
*[[Miss Marple]] &mdash; [[Agatha Christie]]
*[[Hercule Poirot]] &mdash; [[Agatha Christie]]
*[[The Great Merlini]] &mdash; [[Clayton Rawson]]
*Sir [[Henry Merrivale]] &mdash; [[Carter Dickson]]
*Special Agent [[Pendergast]] &mdash; [[Douglas Preston]] & [[Lincoln Child]]
*[[Drury Lane (fictional detective)|Drury Lane]] &mdash; [[Ellery Queen]] (originally published under the pseudonym Barnaby Ross)
*[[Ellery Queen]] &mdash; [[Ellery Queen]]
*[[Cat Who Book|Jim Qwilleran]] &mdash; [[Lilian Jackson Braun]]
*[[Simon Templar]] aka ''The Saint'' &mdash; [[Leslie Charteris]]
*[[Easy Rawlins]] &mdash; [[Walter Mosley]]
*[[Rabbi David Small]] &mdash; [[Harry Kemelman]]
*[[Paul Temple]] &mdash; [[Francis Durbridge]]
*[[Philip Trent]] &mdash; [[Edmund Clerihew Bentley|E.C. Bentley]]
*[[Augustus S. F. X. Van Dusen]] &mdash; [[Jacques Futrelle]]
*[[Lord Peter Wimsey]] &mdash; [[Dorothy L. Sayers]]
*[[Philo Vance]] &mdash; [[S.S. Van Dine]]
*[[Perry Mason]] &mdash; [[Erle Stanley Gardner]]
===Private eyes===
*[[Lew Archer]] &mdash; [[Ross Macdonald]]
*[[Joe Caneili]] &mdash; [[Hayford Peirce]]
*[[Rex Carver]] &mdash; [[Victor Canning]]
*[[The Continental Op]] (He never reveals his name, but he's an operative for the Continental Detective Agency.) &mdash; [[Dashiell Hammett]]
*[[Dan Fortune]] &mdash; [[Dennis Lynds]], aka [[Michael Collins (author)|Michael Collins]]
*[[Cliff Hardy]] &mdash; [[Peter Corris]]
*[[Mike Hammer]] &mdash; [[Mickey Spillane]]
*[[Sherlock Holmes]] &mdash; Sir [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]
*[[Thomas Magnum]] &mdash; [[Donald P. Bellisario]], [[Glen A. Larson]]:''[[Magnum, P.I.]]'' (TV)
*[[Travis McGee]] &mdash; [[John D. MacDonald]] <!-- Mc alphabetized as Mac -->
*[[Veronica Mars]] &mdash; [[Rob Thomas]]
*[[Philip Marlowe]] &mdash; [[Raymond Chandler]]
*[[Kinsey Millhone]] &mdash; [[Sue Grafton]]
*[[Nameless Detective]] &mdash; [[Bill Pronzini]]
*[[Hercule Poirot]] &mdash; [[Agatha Christie]]
*[[Laura Principal]] &mdash; [[Michelle Spring]]
*[[Precious Ramotswe]] &mdash; [[Alexander McCall Smith]]
*[[Jim Rockford]] &mdash; [[Stephen J. Cannell]] & [[Roy Huggins]]: ''[[The Rockford Files]]'' (TV)
*[[John Shaft]] &mdash; [[Ernest Tidyman]]
*[[Sam Spade]] &mdash; [[Dashiell Hammett]]
*[[Spenser]] &mdash; [[Robert B. Parker]]
*[[Nero Wolfe]] &mdash; [[Rex Stout]]
*[[Amos Walker]] &mdash; [[Loren D. Estleman]]
===Police detectives===
:''Includes FBI agents, etc.''
* [[Roderick Alleyn]] &mdash; [[Ngaio Marsh]]
* [[Sir John Appleby]] &mdash; [[Michael Innes]]
* [[J. P. Beaumont]] &mdash; [[J. A. Jance]]
* [[Martin Beck]] &mdash; [[Maj Sjöwall]] and [[Per Wahlöö]] ([[Sjöwall and Wahlöö]])
* [[Henri Bencolin]] &mdash; [[John Dickson Carr]]
* [[Lou Boldt]] &mdash; [[Ridley Pearson]]
* [[Harry Bosch]] &mdash; [[Michael Connelly]]
* [[Commissario Guido Brunetti]] &mdash; [[Donna Leon]]
* [[Charlie Chan]] &mdash; [[Earl Derr Biggers]]
* [[Jim Chee]] and [[Joe Leaphorn]] &mdash; [[Tony Hillerman]]
* Lieutenant Columbo &mdash; [[Richard Levinson]] and [[William Link]]: ''[[Columbo]]'' (TV)
* [[De Cock]] &mdash; [[A. C. Baantjer]]
* [[Inspector Espinosa]] &mdash; [[Luiz Alfredo Garcia-Roza]]
* [[Inspector Ghote]] &mdash; [[H. R. F. Keating]]
* Agent [[Leroy Jethro Gibbs]] ''et al.'' ([[Naval Criminal Investigative Service|NCIS]]) &mdash; [[Donald P. Bellisario]] & [[Don McGill]]: ''[[NCIS (TV series)|NCIS]]'' (TV)
* Det. [[Robert Goren]] &mdash; [[Rene Balcer]], [[Elizabeth Benjamin]], ''et al.'': ''[[Law & Order: Criminal Intent]]'' (TV)
* [[Grijpstra and de Gier]], the Amsterdam cops (who later became private eyes) &mdash; [[Janwillem van de Wetering]]
* [[John Hartigan]] &mdash; [[Sin City]]
* [[Robert T. Ironside]] (strictly, an ''ex''-police detective) &mdash; [[Collier Young]]: ''[[Ironside (TV series)|Ironside]]'' (TV)
* [[Richard Jury]] &mdash; [[Martha Grimes]]
* [[Maigret]] &mdash; [[Georges Simenon]]
* [[Jack Malone]] ''et al.'' ([[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]]) &mdash; [[Hank Steinberg]]: ''[[Without a Trace]]'' (TV)
* [[Colonel March]] &mdash; [[John Dickson Carr]]
* [[Adrian Monk]] (another ''ex''-police detective) &mdash; [[Andy Breckman]]: ''[[Monk (TV series)|Monk]]'' (TV)
* [[Inspector Morse]] &mdash; [[Colin Dexter]]
* [[John Rebus|Inspector Rebus]] &mdash; [[Ian Rankin]]
* [[Greg Rush]] and [[Rick Chinbroski]] &mdash; [[Steve Copling]]
* [[Charlie Resnick]] &mdash; [[John Harvey (author)|John Harvey]]
* [[Commissaire Tama]] &mdash; [[Hayford Peirce]]
* [[Dick Tracy]] &mdash; [[Chester Gould]]
* [[Kurt Wallander]] &mdash; [[Henning Mankell]]
* [[Inspector Wexford]] &mdash; [[Ruth Rendell]]
* [[Saito Masanobu]] &mdash; [[Janwillem van de Wetering]] (also as [[Seiko Legru]])
* [[Wachtmeister Studer]] &mdash; [[Friedrich Glauser]] (some kind of Maigret in Switzerland)
* [[Luis Mendoza]] &mdash; [[Dell Shannon]]
===Medical examiners, etc.===
* [[Dr Thorndyke]] &mdash; [[R Austin Freeman]]
* [[Dr Priestley]] &mdash; [[John Rhode]]
* [[Reggie Fortune]] &mdash; [[H. C. Bailey]]
* [[Craig Kennedy]] &mdash; [[Arthur B. Reeve]]
* [[Dr Basil Willing]] &mdash; [[Helen McCloy]]
*Dr. [[Temperance Brennan]] &mdash; [[Kathy Reichs]]
*Dr. Eddie "Fitz" Fitzgerald (a criminal psychologist) &mdash; [[Jimmy McGovern]]: ''[[Cracker_(British television)|Cracker]]'' (TV)
*[[Gil Grissom]], Ph.D. ''et al.'' &mdash; [[Anthony Zuiker]]: ''[[C.S.I.: Crime Scene Investigation]]''
*[[Horatio "H." Caine]] ''et al.'' &mdash; [[Ann Donahue]], [[Carol Mendelsohn]] & [[Anthony Zuiker]]: ''[[CSI: Miami]]'' (TV)
*Det. [[Mac Taylor]] ''et al.'' &mdash; [[Andrew Lipsitz]] & [[Janet Tamaro]]:''[[CSI: NY]]'' (TV)
*Dr. [[Jane Halifax]] (a forensic psychologist) &mdash; ''[[Halifax f.p.]]'' (TV)
*[[Daphne Matthews]], forensic psychologist &mdash; [[Ridley Pearson]]
*Dr. [[R. Quincy]], M.E. &mdash; [[Glen A. Larson]] & [[Lou Shaw]]: ''[[Quincy, M.E.]]'' (TV)
*Dr. [[Kay Scarpetta]] &mdash; [[Patricia Cornwell]]
*[[Dr. Watson|Dr. John H. Watson]] &mdash; Sir [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]
*[[Dr. Joseph Bell]]
===Others===
*[[Anthony Blake]] (Anthony Dorian in pilot episode) ([[magic (illusion)|magician]]) &mdash; [[Larry Brody]]: ''[[The Magician (television series)|The Magician]]'' (TV)
*[[Jonathan Creek]] (designer of illusions for a magician) &mdash; [[David Renwick]]: ''[[Jonathan Creek]]'' (TV)
*[[Auguste Dupin|Insp. J. Auguste Dupin]], from short stories by [[Edgar Allan Poe]]. One of the earliest fictional detectives.
*[[Perry Mason]] ([[lawyer]]) &mdash; [[Erle Stanley Gardner]]
*[[Ben Matlock]] (lawyer) &mdash; [[Dean Hargrove]]: ''[[Matlock (television series)|Matlock]]'' (TV)
*[[Tony Petrocelli]] (lawyer) &mdash; [[Harold Buchman]] & [[Sidney J. Furie]]: '''[[Petrocelli]]''' (TV)
*Tarot (magician) &mdash; [[Trevor Preston]]: ''[[Ace of Wands]]'' (TV)
*[[Arsene Lupin |Arsène Lupin]] (gentleman-thief) [[Maurice Leblanc]]
*[[Batman]] ([[vigilante]]/[[superhero]]) &mdash; [[Bob Kane]] and [[Bill Finger]], first appearance in 1939 comic book '''Detective Comics #27''' (Comics, TV, Movies)
*[[Robert Langdon]] (Professor of Religious Symbology) &mdash; [[Dan Brown]]
*[[Takeshi Kovacs]] (Ultraviolent soldier turned investigator) &mdash; [[Richard Morgan]]
===And for younger readers===
*[[Encyclopedia Brown]] &mdash; [[Donald J. Sobol]]
*[[Nancy Drew]] &mdash; [[Carolyn Keene]] and others
*[[The Famous Five (characters)|The Famous Five]] &mdash; [[Enid Blyton]]
*The [[Hardy Boys]] &mdash; [[Franklin W. Dixon]] and others
*[[The Secret Seven]] &mdash; [[Enid Blyton]]
*The [[Three Investigators]] &mdash; [[Robert Arthur (writer)|Robert Arthur]] and others
===Historical===
:''In chronological order.''
*[[Gordianus the Finder]] ([[Roman Republic]] of the 1st century BCE) &mdash; [[Steven Saylor]]: '''[[Roma sub Rosa]]''' series
*[[Roman Senate|Senator]] Decius [[Caecilius Metellus]] the Younger ([[Roman Republic]] of the 1st century BCE) &mdash; [[John Maddox Roberts]]: '''[[SPQR (series)|SPQR]]''' series
*[[Marcus Didius Falco]] (the [[Roman Empire]] of the 1st century CE) &mdash; [[Lindsey Davis]]
*[[Judge Dee]] (7th-century China) &mdash; [[Robert van Gulik]]
*[[Sister Fidelma]] (7th-century Ireland) &mdash; [[Peter Tremayne]]
*[[Li Kao]] (7th-century China) &mdash; [[Barry Hughart]]
*[[Brother Cadfael]] (12th-century England and Wales) &mdash; [[Ellis Peters]]
*Brother [[William of Baskerville]] (1327) &mdash; [[Umberto Eco]]: ''[[The Name of the Rose]]''
*Brother Athelstan (late [[14th century]] [[London]]) &mdash; [[P. C. Doherty]] (as Paul Harding)
===In science fiction and fantasy===
*[[Basil Argyros]] &mdash; [[Harry Turtledove]] (Byzantine Empire)
*[[Marty Burns]] &mdash; [[Jay Russell (writer)]]
*[[Elijah Baley]] and [[R. Daneel Olivaw]] &mdash; [[Isaac Asimov]]
*[[Lord Darcy]] &mdash; [[Randall Garrett]]
*[[Hawk and Fisher]] &mdash; [[Simon Green]]
*[[Garrett PI]] &mdash; [[Glen |
[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- '''P''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[PUC-Rio]]
#[[Pace University]]
#[[Pacific Lutheran University]]
#[[Pacific University]]
#[[Palacky University]]
#[[Palacky University Medical School]]
#[[Palm Beach Atlantic College]]
#[[Palm Beach Community College ]]
#[[Palmer's College]]
#[[Palomar College]]
#[[Paradise Valley Community College]]
#[[Park College]]
#[[Parkland College]]
#[[Paul Smith's College]]
#[[Payame Noor University]] ([[Iran]])
#[[Peabody Conservatory of Music]]
#[[Peace College]]
#[[Pedagogical University of Krakow]]
#[[Peking University]]
#[[Pennsylvania College of Technology]]
#[[Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education]]
#[[Pennsylvania State University]]
#[[Pensacola Junior College]]
#[[Penza State Technical University]]
#[[Pepperdine University]]
#[[Perugia University]]
#[[Pfeiffer University]]
#[[Phillips University]]
#[[Phoenix College]]
#[[Piedmont Technical College]]
#[[Piedmont Virginia Community College]]
#[[Pierce College]]
#[[Pikes Peak Community Colleges]]
#[[Pima Community College]]
#[[Pine Manor College]]
#[[Pittsburg State University]]
#[[Pitzer College]]
#[[Plymouth State College]]
#[[Postech|Pohang University of Science and Technology]] (POSTECH)
#[[Point Loma Nazarene University]]
#[[Point Park University]]
#[[Technical University of Opole|Politechnika Opolska]]
#[[Poznan University of Technology|Politechnika Poznanska]]
#[[Politechnika Szczecinska]]
#[[Politecnico di Bari]]
#[[Politecnico di Milano]]
#[[Politecnico di Torino]]
#[[Politehnica University of Bucharest]]
#[[Polytechnic University of New York]]
#[[Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico]]
#[[Polytechnical University of Bucharest]]
#[[Pomona College]]
#[[Pondicherry Engineering College]]
#[[Pontificia Universidade Catolica do Parana]]
#[[Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Campinas]]
#[[Pontificia Universidad Javeriana]]
#[[Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile]]
#[[Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Ecuador]]
#[[Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru]]
#[[Pontificia Universidade Catolica do Rio Grande do Sul]]
#[[Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo]]
#[[Portland Community College]]
#[[Portland State University]]
#[[Post University]]
#[[Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education]]
#[[Prague Institute of Chemical Technology]]
#[[Prairie Bible College]]
#[[Prairie View A&M University]]
#[[Pramongkutklao College of Medicine]]
#[[Pratt School of Art and Design]]
#[[Presbyterian College]]
#[[Presbyterian School of Christian Education]]
#[[Presidency College, Chennai]]
#[[Presidency College, Kolkata]]
#[[Prince George's Community College]]
#[[Prince of Songkla University]]
#[[Princeton University]]
#[[Providence College]]
#[[Pueblo Community College]]
#[[Pune Institute of Computer Technology]]
#[[Punjab Engineering College]]
#[[Purchase College, State University of New York]]
#[[Purdue University]]
#[[Purdue University Calumet]]
#[[Purdue University North Central]]
#[[Pusan National University]]
#[[Pusan National University of Technology]]
#[[Pusan University of Foreign Studies]]
#[[Pusan Women's University]]
:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|P]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities starting with Q</title>
<id>6490</id>
<revision>
<id>35577744</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T19:55:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vizcarra</username>
<id>116263</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- '''Q''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[Queen Margaret University College, Edinburgh]]
#[[Queen Mary, University of London]]
#[[Queens' College, Cambridge]]
#[[Queens College, Charlotte]]
#[[Queen's College, Hong Kong]]
#[[Queen's College, London]]
#[[Queens College, New York]]
#[[Queen's College, Oxford]]
#[[Queen's University, Belfast]]
#[[Queen's University, Kingston]]
#[[Queensborough Community College of The City University of New York]]
#[[Queensland International Heritage College]]
#[[Queensland University of Technology]]
#[[Quincy University]]
#[[Quinnipiac University]]
:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|Q]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities starting with R</title>
<id>6491</id>
<revision>
<id>35577793</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T19:55:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vizcarra</username>
<id>116263</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- '''R''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[Rabindra Bharati University]]
#[[Radboud University Nijmegen]] ([[Nijmegen]], [[The Netherlands]])
#[[Radford University]]
#[[Rajamangala Institute of Technology]]
#[[Ramrao Adik Institute of Engineering]]
#[[Rand Afrikaans University]]
#[[Randolph-Macon College]]
#[[Randolph-Macon Woman's College]]
#[[Rapperswil School of Engineering]]
#[[Rashtreeya Vidyalaya College of Engineering]]
#[[Rayapati Venkata Rangarao and Jagarlamudi Chandramouli College of Engineering]]
#[[University of Reading]]
#[[Red de Interconexion Universitaria (RIU)]]
#[[Red River Community College]]
#[[Reed College]] ([[Portland, Oregon]])
#[[Regent College]]
#[[Regent University College of Communication]]
#[[Regent University]]
#[[Regional Engineering College, Calicut]]
#[[Regional Engineering College, Durgapur]]
#[[Regional Engineering College, Rourkela]]
#[[Regional Engineering College, Suratkal]]
#[[Regional Engineering College, Tiruchirappalli, India]]
#[[Regional Engineering College, Trichy]]
#[[Regional Engineering College, Warangal]]
#[[Regional Institute of Technology Jamshedpur]]
#[[Regional Technical College, Carlow |
tnia internetowa]]
[[pt:Flaming]]
[[ru:Религиозные войны (сленг)]]
[[sk:Flame war]]
[[fi:Flame]]
[[sv:Flejma]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Flame war</title>
<id>10681</id>
<revision>
<id>15908480</id>
<timestamp>2003-09-27T17:43:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MyRedDice</username>
<id>5862</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[flaming]] (merge)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[flaming]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frank Lloyd Wright</title>
<id>10683</id>
<revision>
<id>42019314</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:43:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
<id>603177</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[Category:University of Wisconsin-Madison alumni]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:frank_lloyd_wright.jpg|thumb|190px|Frank Lloyd Wright]]
'''Frank Lloyd Wright ''' ([[June 8]], [[1867]] &ndash; [[April 9]], [[1959]]) was one of the most prominent and influential [[architect]]s of the first half of the 20th century. To this day he is frequently recognized as America's most famous architect and still extremely well-known in the public eye.
==Early years==
Frank Lloyd Wright was born in the agricultural town of [[Richland Center, Wisconsin]], [[USA]], on June 8, 1867, just two years after the end of the [[American Civil War]]. He was brought up with strong [[Unitarian]] and [[transcendental]] principles (eventually, in 1905, he would design the [[Unity Temple]] in [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]], [[Illinois]]). As a child he spent a great deal of time playing with the [[kindergarten]] educational blocks by [[Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel]] (popularly known as Froebel blocks) given by his mother. These consisted of various geometrically shaped blocks that could be assembled in various combinations to form three-dimensional compositions. Wright in his autobiography talks about the influence of these exercises on his approach to design. Many of his buildings are notable for the geometrical clarity they exhibit.
[[Image:Habs flw oak park home.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Wright's home in Oak Park, Illinois]]
Wright commenced his formal education in 1885 at the [[University of Wisconsin]] School for [[Engineering]], where he was a member of a [[fraternity]], [[Phi Delta Theta]]. He took classes part time for two years while apprenticing under [[Allen Conover]], a local builder and professor of civil engineering. In 1887, Wright left the university without taking a degree (although he was granted an honorary doctorate of fine arts from the university in 1955) and moved to [[Chicago, Illinois]], where he joined the architectural firm of [[Joseph Lyman Silsbee]]. Within the year, he had left Silsbee to work for the firm of [[Dankmar Adler|Adler]] and [[Louis Sullivan|Sullivan]]. Beginning in 1890, he was assigned all residential design work for the firm. In 1893, after a falling-out that probably concerned the work he had taken on outside the office, Wright left Adler and Sullivan to establish his own practice and home in the Chicago suburb of [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park, IL]]. He had completed around fifty projects by 1901, including many houses in his hometown.[http://www.wrightplus.org/wrightplus/wrightplus.html]
[[Image:Darwin_Martin_House_-_2004.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Darwin [[Martin House]], Buffalo, New York]]
Between 1900 and 1910, his residential designs were "[[Prairie Houses]]" (extended low buildings with shallow, sloping roofs, clean sky lines, suppressed chimneys, overhangs and terraces, using unfinished materials), so-called because the design is considered to complement the land around Chicago. These houses are credited with being the first examples of the "[[open plan]]."
In fact, the manipulation of interior space in residential and public buildings, such as the Unitarian Unity Temple, in Oak Park, are hallmarks of his style.
He believed that humanity should be central to all design. Many examples of this work can be found in [[Buffalo, New York]], resulting from a friendship between Wright and an executive from the [[Larkin Soap Company]], [[Darwin D. Martin]]. In 1902 the [[Larkin Company]] decided to build a new administration building .
Wright came to [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] and designed not only the first sketches for the [[Larkin Administration Building]] (completed in 1904, demolished in 1950), but also three homes for the company's executives:
*George [[Barton House]], [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo NY]], [[1903]]
*Darwin D. [[Martin House]], [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo NY]], [[1904]]
*William [[Heath House]], [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo NY]], [[1905]]
The houses considered the masterpieces of the late Prairie period (1907&ndash;9) are the Frederick Robie House and the Avery and Queene Coonley House, both in Chicago. The Robie House with its soaring, cantilevered roof lines, supported by a 110-foot-long channel of steel, is the most dramatic. Its living and dining areas form virtually one uninterrupted space. This building had a profound influence on young European architects after [[World War I]] and is sometimes called the "cornerstone of modernism." Wright's work, however, was not known to European architects until after 1910.
==Europe and personal troubles==
In 1904, Wright designed a house for a neighbor in Oak Park, Edwin Cheney, and immediately took a liking to Cheney's wife, Mamah Borthwick Cheney. The two fell in love, even though Wright had been married for over a decade. Often the two could be seen taking rides in Wright's automobile through Oak Park, and they became the talk of the town. Wright's wife, Kitty, would not grant him a divorce however, and at first, neither would Edwin Cheney grant one to Mamah. In 1909, even before the Robie House was actually completed, Wright and Mamah Cheney eloped to Europe. The scandal that erupted virtually destroyed Wright's ability to practice architecture in the United States.
Architectural historians have speculated on why Wright decided to turn his life upside-down. It has been said that he enjoyed living on the edge. Offered as proof of this are the facts that he was always digging himself into problems. He spent money almost as soon as he received it, and almost always seemed to be in debt. This argument has been coupled with speculation that Wright was himself having a professional midlife crisis (in 1907 he was already forty years old). Scholars argue that he felt by 1907-8 that he had done everything he could do with the Prairie Style, particularly from the standpoint of the one-family house. To illustrate, one can ask the question, "How many different permutations of the Prairie Style residence can you do without eventually feeling like you are going nowhere?" Wright was not getting larger commissions for commercial or public buildings, which frustrated him not only because of the desire for bigger and better work, but also because of his immense ego and desire to be recognized as the architectural genius he saw himself as.
Wright and Mamah Cheney traveled extensively throughout Europe, where Wright absorbed a great amount of architectural history. In 1910, during a stop in [[Berlin]], Wright, with virtually all of his drawings, visited the publishing house of Ernst Wasmuth, who had agreed to publish his work there. In two volumes, the [[Wasmuth Portfolio]] was thus published, and created the first major exposure of Wright's work in Europe.
Wright remained in Europe for two years, though Mamah Cheney left for the United States a few times, and set up home in [[Fiezole, Italy]]. During this time, Edwin Cheney granted her a divorce, though Kitty Wright again refused to grant one to her husband. After Wright's return to the United States in 1911, he moved to [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]], to land that was held by his mother's family, and began to build himself a new home, which he called [[Taliesin]].
== More personal turmoil ==
On August 15, 1914, while Wright was in Chicago completing a large project, Midway Gardens, Julian Carlton, a male servant whom he had hired several months earlier, set fire to the living quarters of Taliesin and murdered seven people with an ax as the fire burned. The dead were: Mamah, her two children John and Martha, a gardener, a draftsman, a workman, and the workman’s son. Two people survived the mêleé, one of whom helped to put out the fire that almost completely consumed the residential wing of the house.
In 1923, Wright's mother, Anna, passed away. Wright wed Miriam Noel in November 1923, but her addiction to [[morphine]] led to the failure of the marriage in less than one year. In 1924, after the separation, Wright met Olga (Olgivanna) Lazovich Hinzenburg, at the [[Petrograd Ballet]]. They moved in together at Taliesin in 1925, but in 1926, Olga's ex-husband sought custody of his daughter. In [[Minnetonka, Minnesota]], Wright and Olgivanna were accused of violating the [[Mann Act]] and arrested in October 1925. The charges were dropped in 1926. The couple married in 1928.
==Enduring legacy==
Wright is responsible for a concept or a series of extremely original concepts of suburban development united under the term [[Broadacre City]]. He proposed the idea in his book ''The Disappearing City'' in 1932, and unveiled a very large (12 by 12 feet) model of this community of the future, showing it in several venues in the following years. He went on developing the idea until his death.
It was also in the 1930s that Wright first designed "[[Usonian]]" houses. Essentially highly practical houses for middle-class clients, the designs were based on a simple, yet elegant geometry. He would later use similar, elementary forms in his ''[[First Unitarian Society|First Unitarian Meeting House]]'' bu |
mith used to reconstruct the original writings of Abraham through inspiration. ''See'' '''[[Book of Abraham]]''' and [http://www.jefflindsay.com/LDSFAQ/FQ_Abraham.shtml Jeff Lindsay's three-part series "Questions about the Book of Abraham"].
In the early [[1980s]], the Church was rocked again by the apparent discovery of an early Mormon manuscript called the "[[Salamander Letter]]". This letter, reportedly discovered by a scholar named [[Mark Hofmann]], alleged that the ''[[Book of Mormon]]'' was given to [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] by a being that changed itself into a [[salamander]], not by an [[angel]] as the official Church history recounted. <!--Comment about Church reaction and apologetic explanations--> The document was purchased by private collector Steven Christensen, but was still significantly publicized and even printed in the Church's official magazine, The Ensign. Some Mormon apologists including [[Apostle (Mormonism)|Apostle]] [[Dallin H. Oaks]] suggested that the letter used the idea of a salamander as a metaphor for an angel. The document, however, was revealed as a forgery in [[1985]], and Hofmann was arrested for two murders related to his forgeries.
Not all of Hofmann's finds have been deemed fraudulent. A document called the 'Anthon transcript' that allegedly contains [[reformed Egyptian]] characters from the Book of Mormon plates is still in dispute, although the characters have been highly circulated both by the Church and other individuals (see [[Reformed Egyptian]]). Due to Hofmann's methods, the authenticity of many of documents he sold to the Church and the Smithsonian will likely never be sorted out. For a more thorough discussion see [[Salamander Letter]] and [[Mark Hofmann]].
====Handling Mormon Dissidents and Scholars====
=====Excommunication of George P. Lee=====
In [[1989]], George P. Lee, a [[Navajo Nation|Navajo]] member of the First [[Quorums of the Seventy|Quorum of the Seventy]] who had participated in the Indian Placement Program in his youth, was excommunicated not long after he had submitted to the Church a 23-page letter critical of the program and the affect it had on Native American culture. However, this excommunication most likely had more to do with a charge of child molestation that surfaced at about the same time, to which he pleaded guilty and served time in prison for.
=====The Strengthening Church Members Committee: keeping files on the public statements of potential dissidents=====
In the late [[1980s]], the administration of [[Ezra Taft Benson]] formed what it called the Strengthening Church Members Committee, to keep files on potential church dissidents and collect their published material for possible later use in church disciplinary proceedings. The existence of this committee was first publicized by an [[anti-Mormonism|anti-Mormon]] ministry in [[1991]], when it was referred to in a memo dated [[July 19]], [[1990]] leaked from the office of the church's Presiding Bishopric.
At the [[1992]] Sunstone Symposium, dissident Mormon scholar [[Lavina Fielding Anderson]] accused the Committee of being "an internal espionage system," which prompted [[Brigham Young University|BYU]] professor and moderate Mormon scholar [[Eugene England]] to "accuse that committee of undermining the Church," a charge for which he later publically apologized (Letter to the Editor, ''Sunstone'', March 1993). The publicity concerning the statements of Anderson and England, however, prompted the church to officially acknowledge the existence of the Committee. ("Mormon Church keeps files on its dissenters," ''St. Petersburg Times'', Aug. 15, 1992, at 6e.) The Church explained that the Committee "provides local church leadership with information designed to help them counsel with members who, however well-meaning, may hinder the progress of the church through public criticism." ("Secret Files," ''New York Times'', Aug. 22, 1992).
The [[First Presidency]] also issued a statement on [[August 22]], [[1992]], explaining its position that the Committee had precedent and was justified based on a reference to [[Doctrine and Covenants|D&C]] (LDS) Sec. 123, written while [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] was imprisoned in [[Liberty, Missouri]], suggesting that a committee be formed to record and document acts of persecution against the church by the people of [[Missouri]].
=====Other topics=====
*BYU academic freedom
*Statements against Sunstone
*Excommunication of scholars, including the [[September Six]]
====Dealing with Mormon Polygamist Sects====
===The Church and the Information Age===
<!--This would include topics like how the Church seeks to battle pornography, its use of the internet, its battle to control its public image, broadcasting the Nauvoo temple dedication, appearances on Larry King Live, etc.-->
====The Church in the Media====
=====Newsweek cover story on Joseph Smith, Jr.=====
[[Joseph Smith Jr.]] is the subject of the cover of ''[[Newsweek]]'' Magazine, dated October 17, 2005 (but actually appearing one week earlier). The cover is a reproduction of a stained-glass window portraying the First Vision. Many opinions on Joseph Smith are quoted, ranging from the glowing tribute by LDS Church President [[Gordon B. Hinckley]] to very negative remarks by Mark Scherer, official historian of the [[Community of Christ]], formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (which was led more than a century by direct descendants of Joseph Smith Jr.)
====Using the Media for Political Influence====
<!--This would include historical information about the Church's public stands on the ERA, alcohol, gambling, gay marriage, families, etc.-->
====Church Infomercials====
*''Homefront''
*''Our Heavenly Father's Plan'', ''Together Forever'', ''What is Real'', ''Prodigal Son'', etc.
*Legacy, etc.
====The Church and Pornography====
====The Church and public relations====
[[image:Gordon B. Hinckley on Larry King Live (1998).jpg|thumb|250px|In 1998, Church President [[Gordon B. Hinckley]] appeared on [[Larry King Live]]. Courtesy Larry King Live.]]
*Hinkley's appearances on ''[[Larry King Live]]''
*Communication with foreign countries to allow entry of missionaries
====Novel uses of communications technology====
*Genealogy
*Broadcasting the Nauvoo temple dedication
====Church-owned Domain Names====
<!--This would include root-level domain names owned by the LDS Church.-->
*<b>Primary site:</b>
[http://www.lds.org LDS.org -- The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]
(Mirrors are located at [http://www.mormons.org Mormons.org], [http://www.mormonism.org Mormonism.org] and [http://www.ldschurch.org LDSChurch.org].)
*<b>Subsidiary sites:</b>
[http://www.besmart.com BeSmart.com -- Education Advocacy]
[http://www.dayofcelebration.com DayofCelebration.com -- 175th Anniversary Celebration]
[http://www.familysearch.org FamilySearch.org -- Genealogical Research]
[http://www.itsaboutlove.org ItsAboutLove.org -- Adoption Support]
[http://www.josephsmith.net JosephSmith.net -- Bicentential of Birth of Church Founder Joseph Smith Jr.]
[http://www.ldscatalog.com LDSCatalog.com -- Church Distribution]
[http://www.ldsces.org LDSCES.org -- Church Educational System]
[http://www.ldsphilanthropies.org LDSPhilanthropies.org -- Charitable Giving & Humanitarian Service]
[http://www.ldsfoundation.org LDSFoundation.org -- Now forwards to newer LDS Philanthropies site]
[http://www.ldstemples.org LDSTemples.org -- Temple locations, schedules and FAQs]
[http://www.mormon.org Mormon.org -- Basic Theological Information]
[http://www.mormontabernaclechoir.org MormonTabernacleChoir.org -- Mormon Tabernacle Choir]
[http://www.musicandthespokenword.com MusicAndTheSpokenWord.com -- Music and the Spoken Word]
[http://www.providentliving.org ProvidentLiving.org -- Provident Living]
*<b>Tertiary sites, owned by organizations affiliated with the Church:</b>
[http://www.byu.edu byu.edu -- Brigham Young University]
[http://www.byui.edu byui.edu -- BYU Idaho (formerly Ricks College)]
[http://www.ldsbc.edu ldsbc.edu -- LDS Business College]
[http://www.byuh.edu byuh.edu -- BYU-Hawaii]
[http://www.farmsresearch.com FARMSResearch.com -- Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies]
[http://www.deseretnews.com DeseretNews.com -- Deseret Morning News]
[http://www.bonneville.com Bonneville.com -- Bonneville Communications]
[http://www.ksl.com ksl.com -- KSL TV and Radio]
[http://www.byubroadcasting.org BYUBroadcasting.org -- BYU Broadcasting]
[http://www.byutv.org BYUTV.org -- BYU Television]
[http://www.byuradio.org BYURadio.org -- BYU Radio]
[http://www.kbyutv.org kbyutv.org -- KBYU Television]
[http://www.kbyufm.org kbyufm.org -- KBYU FM Radio]
[http://www.byubookstore.com BYUBookstore.com -- BYU Bookstore]
[http://www.deseretbook.com DeseretBook.com -- Deseret Bookstore]
[http://www.gospellink.com GospelLink.com -- Gospel Link]
[http://www.byucougars.com BYUCougars.com -- BYU Cougar Sports]
[http://www.hebervalleycamp.org HeberValleyCamp.org -- Young Women's Camp in N. Utah]
[http://www.historicnauvoo.net HistoricNauvoo.net -- Tourism info for Nauvoo, IL Church history site]
==References==
*[[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Smith, Joseph Smith, Jr.]] (1902). ''History of the Church'' 7 volumes; Deseret Book Company; ISBN 0875794866 (1902 Boxed Set, Paperback, 1991) [http://deseretbook.com/store/product?product_id=100015096 Current edition only available at Deseretbook.com]
*[[B. H. Roberts|Roberts, B. H.]] (1930). ''A Comprehensive History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Century I'' 6 volumes; Brigham young University Press; ISBN 0842504826 (1930; Hardcover 1965) (out of print)
*[[Leonard J. Arrington|Arrington, Leonard J.]] (1958). ''Great Basin Kingdom: An Economic History of the Latter-day Saints, 1830-1900''; University o |
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<title>List of characters from Dune</title>
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<comment>/* [[Rossak Sorceresses]] */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[fr:Personnages de Dune]]
This is a list of characters from the fictional '''''Dune''''' universe, created originally by [[Frank Herbert]] with his [[Dune]] novels. In recent years, his son, [[Brian Herbert]] and [[Kevin J. Anderson]] have added two prequel trilogies.
This article provides links to many of the main characters in the ''Dune'' universe. They are grouped by primary allegiances. In some cases these allegiances change or reveal themselves to be different throughout the novels.
=== [[House Atreides]] ===
* [[Vorian Atreides]], the founder of the house, son of the [[Titan_(Dune)|Titan]] [[Agamemnon_(Dune)|Agamemnon]].
* [[Duke Paulus Atreides]], Father of Leto I
* [[Duke Leto Atreides]], head of [[House Atreides]]
* [[Jessica Atreides|Lady Jessica]], [[Bene Gesserit]] and concubine of the Duke. Mother of Paul and Alia
* [[Paul Atreides]], the Duke's son
* [[Alia Atreides]], Paul's younger sister
* [[Leto II|Leto Atriedes II]], Paul's son and twin brother of Ghanima
* [[Ghanima Atreides]], Paul's daughter and twin sister of Leto II
* [[Thufir Hawat]], [[mentat]] and Master of Assassins to House Atreides
* [[Gurney Halleck]], staunchly loyal troubadour warrior of the Atreides
* [[Duncan Idaho]], Sword Master for House Atreides
* Dr. [[Wellington Yueh]], [[Suk doctor]] for the Atreides
=== [[House Harkonnen]] ===
* [[Xavier Harkonnen]], military leader during the [[Butlerian Jihad]]
* [[Abulurd Harkonnen]], grandson of Xavier
* [[Baron Vladimir Harkonnen]], head of House Harkonnen
* [[Piter De Vries]], twisted [[mentat]]
* [[Feyd-Rautha]], nephew of the Baron
* [[Glossu Rabban|Glossu 'Beast' Rabban]], older nephew of the Baron
=== [[House Corrino]] ===
* [[Irulan Corrino]], Princess.
* [[Faykan Corrino]], founder of the Corrino Empire
* '''Shaddam I'''
* [[Elrood IX]], father of Shaddam IV
* [[Shaddam IV]], the Padishah Emperor of the Known Universe
* Lady Anirul Corrino, Bene Gesserit wife of Shaddam IV
* [[Pardot Kynes]], first Imperial Planetologist on Arrakis
* [[Liet-Kynes]], Imperial Planetologist on [[Arrakis]]
* Count [[Hasimir Fenring]], the Emperor's closest friend and advisor (not a Corrino per se)
=== [[House Moritani]] ([[Grumman (Dune) |Grumman]]) ===
* Viscount Hundro Moritani
* Lupino Ord, Ambassador of Grumman
* Hiih Resser
* Trin Kronos
=== [[Bene Gesserit]] ===
*[[Raquella Berto-Anirul]], founder of the Bene Gesserit
*[[Reverend Mother (Dune)|Reverend Mother]] [[Gaius Helen Mohiam]], the Emperor's [[Truthsayer]].
*[[Odrade]]
*Taraza
*Bellonda
*Sheeana
*[[Miles Teg]]
=== [[Bene Tleilaxu]] ===
*[[Scytale (Dune)|Scytale]]
*[[Ajidica]]
=== [[House Vernius (Ix)]] ===
*[[Dominic Vernius]], Earl of House Vernius
*[[Rhombur Vernius]], Son of Dominic, Cyborg ruler of Ix
*[[Kailea Vernius]], Rhombur's sister
*Cammar Pilru, ambassador of Ix
*[[C'tair Pilru]], son of Cammar
*[[D'murr Pilru]], son of Cammar and Navigator for the [[Spacing Guild]]
*[[Malky]]
*[[Hwi Noree]]
=== [[Spacing Guild]] ===
*[[Edric (Dune)|Edric]]
*[[Norma Cenva]], inventor of foldspace technology, first navigator
*[[Aurelius Venport]], founder of VenKee enterprises, the ancestor of the Guild
*[[D'Murr Pilru]], Guild navigator, twin brother of C'tair of Ix
=== [[Honoured Matres]] ===
*Dama
*Logno
*[[Murbella]]
=== [[Fremen]] ===
* [[Selim Wormrider]], leader of Zensunni outlaws on Arrakis
* [[Naib Ishmael]], leader of the Zensunni Free-Men, successor to the legend of Selim
* [[Chani]], Paul's Fremen concubine
* Jamis, killed by Paul
* Warrick, best friend of liet kynes
* Shadout Mapes, housekeeper for the royal family of [[Arrakis]]
* [[Stilgar]], Fremen Naib
* Sayadina Ramallo
=== [[Rossak Sorceresses]] ===
* [[Zufa Cenva]], mother of norma
* Ticia Cenva, sister of norma
=== [[Ginaz]] ===
* [[Jool-Noret]], legendary Ginaz mercenary
* Istian Goss, received spirit of Noret
* Nar Trig
* Jammo Reed
* Jeh-Wu
* Mord Cour
* Rivvy Dinari
* Whitmore Bludd
=== [[Butlers]] ===
* Manion Butler Sr., Father of Serena
* [[Serena Butler]], Priestess of the Jihad
* [[Manion Butler]], Manion the Innocent, martyred infant of Serena
* Octa Butler
* Wandra Butler, dauther of abulurd harkonnen
* Quentin Butler
* [[Faykan Butler]], became [[Faykan Corrino]]
* Abulurd Butler, became [[Abulurd Harkonnen]]
* Rikov Butler
* [[Rayna Butler]], founder of the [[Cult of Serena]]
=== [[Titans and Cymeks]] ===
(Links are directed to the original person or character for which they were named )
* [[Agamemnon (Dune)|Agamemnon]]
* [[Telamonian Aias|Ajax]]
* [[Alexander]]
* [[Artemis]]
* [[Barbarossa]]
* [[Caesar (Dune)|Caesar]]
* [[Cleopatra]]
* [[Cortez]]
* [[Dante]]
* [[Genji]]
* [[Hecate]]
* [[Ivan]]
* [[Juno]]
* [[Kublai]]
* [[Moctezuma]]
* [[Olga]]
* [[Shaka]]
* [[Tamerlane]]
* [[Tlaloc]]
* [[Xerxes]]
* [[Beowulf]]
* [[Quentin Butler]]
* [[Evan]]
=== [[Thinking Machines]] ===
* [[Omnius]], Evermind/head of the machines
* [[Erasmus (Dune) |Erasmus]]
* [[Seurat (Dune) |Seurat]], co-pilot to Vorian Atreides
* [[Chirox]], reprogrammed by humans, used as a trainer on Ginaz
==See also==
*[[Dune (novel)]]
*The [[Bene Gesserit]]
*The [[Bene Tleilaxu]]
[[Category:Dune characters]]
[[Category:Lists of fictional characters|Dune]]</text>
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<title>Vladimir Harkonnen</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Vladimirharkonnen.jpg|thumb|210px|right|Baron Vladimir Harkonnen, portrayed by [[Ian McNeice]] in the [[Sci-Fi Channel]]'s [[Dune (miniseries)|''Dune'' miniseries]]]]
'''Vladimir Harkonnen''' is a [[fictional character]] from the [[science fiction]] series ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]''.
{{spoiler}}
Born in the year 10,110 after the foundation of the [[Spacing Guild]]. His father served as head to the [[House Harkonnen]] and as Siridar (planetary governor) and [[Baron]] of the [[planet]] [[Giedi Prime]]. Vladimir was trained since youth as a possible successor to him. Vladimir presumably proved to be the most promising candidate as he was eventually chosen over his younger half-brother [[Abulurd Harkonnen]].
Abulurd eventually married into [[House Rabban]] and renounced the name Harkonnen and his rights to the title. Under the name [[Abulard Harkonnen|Abulurd Rabban]] he reigned as [[Count]] and governor of planet [[Lankiveil]]. Vladimir was uncle to his sons: [[Glossu Rabban]] (year 10,132 - 10,193), nicknamed Beast Rabban, and [[Feyd-Rautha]] Rabban (year 10,174 - 10,193). Vladimir later adopted them back into House Harkonnen and the latter became his designated heir as Feyd-Rautha Harkonnen.
Vladimir never married and his homosexuality was additionally something of an open secret. This, however, did not prevent at least two sexual encounters with a [[Bene Gesserit]] [[Reverend Mother]], [[Gaius Helen Mohiam]], . Blackmailed into supporting their elaborate and covert breeding program, the Baron was forced to father an offspring which was to be raised on the Bene Gesserit homeworld of Wallach IX. Ironically, this child would later become the Lady [[Jessica Atreides]]. Thus, the Baron Harkonnen was also a biological ancestor of Paul Atreides and his line, including the God Emperor Leto II.
Vladimir was a skillful, if ruthless, [[politician]] with an apparent talent for manipulating people and events towards his chosen ends. During his reign the House Harkonnen progressively gained in both wealth and power. His major sources of wealth were his dominance in the [[whale]] [[fur]] [[market]] and his control of the [[Melange]]-producing [[planet]] [[Arrakis]].
The Baron was able to [[finance]] elaborate political schemes that further added to his power. For several years he was assisted by the [[sadist]]ic [[mentat]] [[Piter De Vries]]. Much of his success at political maneuvering was due to a ruse that he was rash and overtly brutal, using such overtures to mask his subtler primary plots.
The Baron's most prominent political rival was his distant cousin [[Leto Atreides]], head of [[House Atreides]] and [[Duke]] of [[planet]] [[Caladan]]. The true heritage of the Duke's consort, Lady Jessica, was unknown by either. In year 10,176, his grandson [[Paul Atreides]] was born.
In year 10,191, Vladimir was apparently contacted by [[Shaddam Corrino IV]], 81st [[Emperor]] of [[House Corrino]] with the proposal of an alliance against the Duke. Vladimir was content in accepting, although uncertain of the Emperor's motivation.
Leto was pressured to surrender Caladan to Vladimir and receive Arrakis instead. He complied, though he sent a small invasion force, really no more than a raid, against Geidi Prime.
Shortly after this, a much larger invasion force arrived on Arrakis, consisting of both [[Sardaukar]] and Harkonnen forces. The Sardaukar were disguised by Harkonnen uniforms, so that outsiders would not recognize the hand of the Emperor in destroying Duke Leto. The Duke had not yet had time to establish a solid presence on Arrakis, and soon most of the Duke's [[army]] was slain.
The Baron Harkonnen was known for his creativity. This showed itself in the war against the Duke Leto, when the Harkonnen soldiers fought the Atreides at one point with old-fashioned explosive |
ft.) above sea level is made up of either subalpine forests or [[alpine]] meadows. Territory lying above 2,900 m (9,512 ft.) is mainly covered by eternal snows and glaciers.
==Climate==
Because of Abkhazia's proximity to the [[Black Sea]], its climate is very mild, considering the northern [[latitude]]. The Caucasus Mountains are greatly responsible for moderating the region's climate, as they shield Abkhazia from cold northerly winds.
The coastal areas of the Republic have a subtropical climate, where the average annual temperature in most regions is around 15 degrees [[Celsius]]. Average winter (January) temperatures vary between 4 and 6 degrees C, while average summer (July) temperatures are anywhere between 22 and 23 degrees C. The coastal territory rarely experiences strong frosts during the winter.
Higher elevations of Abkhazia, above 1,000 meters (3,280 ft.) above sea level have a maritime, mountain climate, experiencing relatively cold winters and long, warm summers. Elevations above 2,000 m (6,560 ft.) above sea level have colder winters and shorter summers. Abkhazia's highest regions have a cold, summerless climate throughout the year.
Abkhazia receives high amounts of precipitation, but is known for its unique micro-climate (transitional from subtropical to mountain) along most of its coast, causing lower levels of humidity. The annual precipitation along the coast ranges from 1,100 to 1,500 mm (43-59 inches). The foothills, the lower ranges, and the interior gorges of the Republic receive anywhere between 1,000 and 1,800 mm (39-71 in.) of precipitation annually. Some of the interior gorges that are sheltered from the moist influences of the Black Sea receive the lowest amounts of precipitation. The higher mountainous regions receive 1,700-3,500 mm (67-138 in.) of precipitation per year. Although there is usually no significant snowfall in the coastal regions, the mountains of Abkhazia do receive significant amounts of snow. [[Avalanches]] in the northeast sometimes pose a threat to populated areas. Snow depths often exceed 5 meters (18 feet) in some of the high, mountainous areas facing the Black Sea.
==Demographics==
The demography of Abkhazia has undergone major changes since the [[1990s]]. At the time of the last Soviet census in 1989, it had a population of about 500,000, of whom 48% were [[Georgian people|Georgians]] (principally [[Mingrel]]s) and only 17% of whom were [[Abkhazians]].
In 1993, a major war led to Abkhazia breaking away from Georgia, during which virtually the entire Georgian population - about 250,000 people - were displaced in what was alleged to be a campaign of [[ethnic cleansing]]. The conflict has not yet been resolved, and Abkhazia's much-reduced population is now largely ethnically Abkhazian.
After the expulsion of the ethnic Georgians, the Abkhazians became an ethnic plurality in Abkhazia (about 45%), with Russians, Armenians, Georgians, Greeks, and Jews comprising most of the remainder of the population of Abkhazia.
==History==
===Early history===
In the [[1st millennium BC]] ([[9th century BC|9th]]-[[6th century BC|6th centuries BC]]), the territory of modern Abkhazia was a part of the ancient kingdom of [[Colchis]] (''Kolkha''), which was absorbed in [[63 BC]] into the Kingdom of [[Egrisi]]. Greek traders established ports along the Black Sea shoreline. One of those ports, Dioscurias, eventually developed into modern [[Sukhum]], Abkhazia's traditional capital.
The [[Roman Empire]] conquered Egrisi in the [[1st century]] AD and ruled it until the [[4th century]], following which it regained a measure of independence, but remained within the [[Byzantine Empire]]'s sphere of influence. The Abkhazians were converted to [[Christianity]] during the rule of the Byzantine Emperor [[Justinian I]] in the mid-[[6th century]]. Abkhazia was made an autonomous principality of the Byzantine Empire in the [[7th century]] &mdash; a status it retained until the [[9th century]], when it was united with the Georgian kingdom of [[Imereti]]. Actual independence from Constantinople ebbed and flowed during this period, which Abkhazians consider as a time of [[Abkhazian Kingdom]]. It is certain that Byzantine authority would have faded farther away from the towns, as one penetrated the mountains.
In the [[16th century]], the area was conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire]], during which the Abkhazians were partially converted to [[Islam]]. The Ottomans were pushed out by the Georgians, who established an autonomous Principality of Abkhazia (''Abkhazetis Samtavro'' in Georgian), ruled by the Sharvashidze dynasty.
===Abkhazia within the Russian Empire and Soviet Union===
The expansion of the [[Russian Empire]] into the Caucasus region led to small-scale but regular conflicts between Russian colonists and the indigenous Caucasian tribes. Various Georgian principalities were annexed to the empire between 1801 and 1864. The Russians acquired possession of Abhkazia in a piecemeal fashion between 1829 and 1842, but their power was not firmly established before 1864, when they managed to abolish the local Principality. Large numbers of Muslim Abkhazians &mdash; said to have constituted as much as 60% of the Abkhazian population, although contemporary census reports were not very trustworthy &mdash; emigrated to the Ottoman Empire between 1864 and 1878.
Modern Abkhazian historians insist that large areas of the region were left uninhabited, and that many [[Armenia]]ns, Georgians and Russians (all Christians) subsequently migrated to Abkhazia, resettling much of the vacated territory. This version of events is strongly contested by Georgian historians (see Lortkipanidze M., ''The Abkhazians and Abkhazia'', Tbilisi 1990) who argue that Georgian tribes ([[Samegrelo|Mingrelians]] and [[Svans]]) had populated Abkhazia from ancient times, since the [[Colchis]] kingdom. According to Georgian scholars, modern Abkhazians are the descendants of the North Caucasian tribes ([[Adygey]], [[Apsua]]), and are the ones who were moving down to Abkhazia from the North Caucasus mountains throughout history and merging there with the existing Georgian population. Either way, by the beginning of the 20th century, Abkhazians were a minority in the region. The ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' reported in 1911 that in the principal town, Sukhum-kaleh (modern Sukhum; population then 43,000), two-thirds were Mingrelian Georgians, and one-third Abkhazians. [[Image:Ritsa.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Lake Ritsa]] to the north from [[Pitsunda]].]]
The takeover of the [[Bolsheviks]] following the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] in 1917 led to Abkhazia being granted a degree of cultural and political autonomy, until in 1931 [[Stalin]] made it an autonomous republic within [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] Georgia. Despite its nominal autonomy, it was subjected to strong central rule from Tbilisi, and the policy of "Georgianization" was forcibly imposed. Georgian became the official language, the Abkhaz language was banned, and cultural rights were repressed, with thousands of Abkhazians killed during Stalin's purges. [[Lavrenty Beria]] encouraged Georgian migration to Abkhazia, and many took up the offer and resettled there. Later, in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]], [[Vazgen I]] and the Armenian church encouraged and funded the migration of Armenians to Abkhazia. Currently, Armenians are the largest minority group in Abkhazia.
The repression of Abkhazians was ended after Stalin's death and Beria's execution, and Abkhazians were given a much more powerful role in the governance of the autonomous republic. As in most of the smaller autonomous republics, the Soviet government encouraged the growth of culture, and particularly of literature. Ethnic quotas were established for certain bureaucratic posts, giving the Abkhaz a degree of political power that was disproportionate to their minority status in the republic. This was interpreted by some as a "divide and rule" policy whereby local elites were given a share in power in exchange for support for the Soviet regime. In Abkhazia as elsewhere, it led to other ethnic groups &mdash; in this case, the Georgians &mdash; resenting what they saw as unfair discrimination, thereby stoking ethnic discord in the republic.
===The Abkhazian War===
As the Soviet Union began to disintegrate at the end of the [[1980s]], ethnic tension grew between the Abkhazians and Georgians over Georgia's moves towards independence. Many Abkhazians opposed this, fearing that an independent Georgia would lead to "Georgianization", and argued instead for the establishment of Abkhazia as an independent republic in its own right. The dispute soon turned violent in Sukhum on [[16 July]] [[1989]]. Sixteen Georgians were said to have been killed and another 137 injured when they wanted to enroll in a Georgian University instead of an Abkhazian one. After several days of violence, Soviet troops restored order in the city, but blamed rival nationalist paramilitaries for "provoking" confrontations.
Georgia declared independence on [[9 April]] [[1991]], under the rule of the former Soviet dissident [[Zviad Gamsakhurdia]]. Gamsakhurdia's rule became unpopular, and that December, the Georgian National Guard, under the command of [[Tengiz Kitovani]], laid siege to the offices of Gamsakhurdia's government in [[Tbilisi]]. After months of stalemate, he was forced to resign in January 1992. He was replaced as president by [[Eduard Shevardnadze]], the former Soviet foreign minister and architect of the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Shevardnadze inherited a government dominated by hardline Georgian nationalists, and although he was not an ethnic nationalist, he did little to avoid being seen as supporting the government figures and powerful coup leaders who were.
On [[21 February]] [[1992]], Georgia's ruling Military Council announced that it was |
igraphers are held in great esteem. Being cursive by nature, unlike the [[Latin alphabet]], Arabic script is used to write down a [[ayah|verse]] of the Qur'an, a [[Hadith]], or simply a [[proverb]], in a spectacular composition. The composition is often abstract, but sometimes the writing is shaped into an actual form such as that of an animal. Two of the current masters of the genre are [[Hassan Massoudy]] and [http://arabworld.nitle.org/gallery.php?module_id=7 Khaled Al Saa’i].
===Transliteration===
''See [[Arabic transliteration]] and [[Arabic Chat Alphabet]] for more information.''
There are a number of different standards of [[Arabic transliteration]]: methods of accurately and efficiently representing Arabic with the [[Latin alphabet]]. The more scientific standards allow the reader to recreate the exact word using the [[Arabic alphabet]]. However, these systems are heavily reliant on [[diacritic]]al marks such as "š" for the English ''sh'' sound. At first sight, this may be difficult to recognize. Less scientific, systems often use [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s (like ''sh'' and ''kh''), which are usually more simple to read, but sacrifice the definiteness of the scientific systems. In some cases, the ''sh'' or ''kh'' sounds can be represented by italicizing or underlining them -- that way, they can be distinguished from separate ''s'' and ''h'' sounds or ''k'' and ''h'' sounds, respectively. (Compare ''gashouse'' to ''gash''.)
During the last few decades and especially since the 1990s, Western-invented text communication technologies have become prevalent in the [[Arab world]], such as [[personal computers]], the [[World Wide Web]], [[email]], [[Bulletin board system]]s, [[IRC]], [[instant messaging]] and [[mobile phone text messaging]]. Most of these technologies originally had the ability to communicate using the [[Latin alphabet]] only, and some of them still do not have the [[Arabic alphabet]] as an optional feature. As a result, Arabic speaking users communicated in these technologies by transliterating the Arabic text using the Latin script, sometime known as [[IM_Arabic]].
To handle those Arabic letters that cannot be accurately represented using the Latin script, numerals and other characters were appropriated. For example, the numeral "3" may be used to represent the Arabic letter "ع", ''ayn''. There is no universal name for this type of transliteration, but some have named it [[Arabic Chat Alphabet]]. Other systems of transliteration exist, such as using dots or capitalization to represent the "emphatic" counterparts of certain consonants. For instance, using capitalization, the letter "د", or ''daal'', may be represented by '''d'''. Its emphatic counterpart, "ض", may be written as '''D'''.
==Literature==
Kees Versteegh, ''The Arabic Language'', Edinburgh University Press (1997). [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=36] [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=17] [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=35] [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=113]
== See also ==
*[[Varieties of Arabic]]
*[[Wikibooks:en:Arabic|Learn Standard Arabic WikiBook]]
*[[Arabist]]
*[[Arabic literature]]
*[[List of common phrases in various languages]]
*[[Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic]]
== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=ar}}
*[http://ar.openoffice.org/ Arabic OpenOffice] a multiplatform and multilingual office suite.
*[http://arabic-media.com/ Arabic-Media] on-line access to Arabic newspapers, radio, and television
* [http://www.nicoweb.com/sirpus/learn%20arabic%20course%20mp3.htm Arabic Writing and Reading '''with MP3''']. Arabic Writing and Reading Course Online with MP3 audio.
*[http://pince31.free.fr/lang/arabic/liens.htm Links to learn Arabic language with online course]
*[http://www.madinaharabic.com Arabic language learning course with audio]
*[http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=10&categ_id=4&article_id=6173 "Antonyms in Arabic are a strange phenomenon" by Tamim al-Barghouti]
*[http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=17 "The Development of Classical Arabic" by Kees Versteegh]
*[http://arabworld.nitle.org/audiovisual.php?module_id=1&selected_feed=118 Wellesley College Professor of Arabic on the forms and dialects of the language]
*[http://www.uga.edu/islam/arabic_windows.html Multilingual Computing in Arabic with Windows, major word processors, web browsers, Arabic keyboards, and Arabic transliteration fonts]
*[http://www.gomideast.com/arabic/index.htm gomideast - Learning to Speak Arabic phrases]
*[http://language-directory.50webs.com/languages/arabic.htm List of online Arabic-related resources]
*[http://acon.baykal.be/ ACON: online Arabic Verb Conjugator]
*[http://www.cacac.org Center for Arabic Culture (CAC)]
*[http://st-takla.org/Learn_Languages/01_Learn_Arabic-ta3leem-3araby/Learn-Arabic_00-index_El-Fehres.html Learn Arabic language online with audio pronunciation] from [http://St-Takla.org St. Takla Egyptian Church]
*[http://www.tanzeelnet.com Arabic-translated program descriptions]
Web references and examples:
* [http://transliteration.org/quran/Pronunciation/Letters/TashP.htm Arabic language pronunciation applet] with audio samples
* [http://afl.ajeeb.com/freetour/lesson1/song/song1.html Learn Arabic]
* [http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1289272 E2 article]
* [http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/ar.htm Sprachprofi]
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Arabic-english/ Arabic - English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition.
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=arb SIL's Ethnologue]
* [http://www.nitle.org/arabworld/texts.php?module_id=1&reading_id=113 Dialects of Arabic]
* [http://www.muftah-alhuruf.com Muftah-Alhuruf.com]: Write and send Arabic emails without having an Arabic keyboard or operating system.
* [http://dictionary.sakhr.com/ Number of Arabic Words According to different dictionaries] Over 4 millions words!
Arabic languages samples:
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/arabic.php Arabic]
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/arabic-chadian-spoken.php Arabic Chadian Spoken]
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/arabic-judeo-iraqi.php Arabic Judeo Iraqi]
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/arabic-north-levantine-spoken.php Arabic North Levantine Spoken]
* [http://www.dicodialna.com Algerian-Arabic Dictionary]
[[Category:Arabic language|*]]
[[Category:Arab]]
[[af:Arabies]]
[[ang:Arabisc sprǣc]]
[[ar:لغة عربية]]
[[ast:Idioma Árabe]]
[[bg:Арабски език]]
[[bs:Arapski jezik]]
[[ca:Llengua àrab]]
[[cs:Arabština]]
[[cy:Arabeg]]
[[da:Arabisk]]
[[de:Arabische Sprache]]
[[et:Araabia keel]]
[[el:Αραβική γλώσσα]]
[[es:Idioma árabe]]
[[eo:Araba lingvo]]
[[fa:عربی]]
[[fr:Arabe]]
[[fy:Arabysk]]
[[ga:Araibis]]
[[gl:Lingua árabe]]
[[ko:아랍어]]
[[haw:ʻŌlelo ʻAlapia]]
[[hi:अरबी भाषा]]
[[io:Arabiana linguo]]
[[id:Bahasa Arab]]
[[is:Arabíska]]
[[it:Lingua araba]]
[[he:ערבית]]
[[ka:არაბული ენა]]
[[kw:Arabek]]
[[sw:Kiarabu]]
[[la:Lingua Arabica]]
[[lv:Arābu valoda]]
[[lt:Arabų kalba]]
[[li:Arabisch]]
[[hu:Arab nyelv]]
[[mk:Арапски јазик]]
[[ms:Bahasa Arab]]
[[nl:Arabisch]]
[[nds:Araabsche Spraak]]
[[ja:アラビア語]]
[[no:Arabisk språk]]
[[nn:Arabisk språk]]
[[pl:Język arabski]]
[[pt:Língua árabe]]
[[ro:Limba arabă]]
[[ru:Арабский язык]]
[[simple:Arabic language]]
[[sk:Arabčina]]
[[sl:Arabščina]]
[[sr:Арапски језик]]
[[fi:Arabian kieli]]
[[sv:Arabiska]]
[[tl:Wikang Arabo]]
[[tt:Ğäräp tele]]
[[th:ภาษาอาหรับ]]
[[tr:Arapça]]
[[zh:阿拉伯语]]
[[kn:ಅರಬ್ಬೀ ಭಾಷೆ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aztecs</title>
<id>804</id>
<revision>
<id>15899318</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-13T21:08:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hajor</username>
<id>23076</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Aztec]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aztec]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amir</title>
<id>805</id>
<revision>
<id>15899319</id>
<timestamp>2003-02-02T21:17:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vera Cruz</username>
<id>5753</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Emir]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apocalypse Now</title>
<id>806</id>
<revision>
<id>41826845</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:19:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.110.117.88</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Music */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name = Apocalypse Now |
image = Apocalypse-now-dvd-cover.jpg |
imdb_id = 0078788 |
producer = [[Francis Ford Coppola]] |
director = [[Francis Ford Coppola]] |
writer = [[Joseph Conrad]] (novel)<br>[[John Milius]] & [[Francis Ford Coppola]] (screenplay), [[Michael Herr]] (narration) |
starring = [[Martin Sheen]]<br>[[Marlon Brando]]<br>[[Robert Duvall]] |
music = [[Carmine Coppola]] & [[Francis Ford Coppola]] |
cinematography = [[Vittorio Storaro]] |
editing = [[Lisa Fruchtman]]<br>[[Gerald B. Greenberg]] <br>[[Walter Murch]] |
distributor = [[United Artists]] |
released = [[May 10]], [[1979]] |
runtime = 153 min.<br/>202 min. (Redux) |
language = [[English language|English]] |
budget = $31,500,000|
}}
'''''Apocalypse Now''''' is a [[1979 in film|1979]] [[United States|American]] [[film]] directed by [[Francis Ford Coppola]] from a script by [[John Milius]] (rewritten by Coppola) which was inspired by [[Joseph Conrad]]'s classic [[novella]] ''[[Heart of Darkness]]''. Set during the [[Vietnam War |
kians and environmental determinists often found themselves on the same side of debates.
But Boas worked more closely with Bastian, who was noted for his antipathy to environmental determinism. Instead, he argued for the "psychic unity of mankind;" a belief that all humans had the same intellectual capacity, and that all cultures were based on the same basic mental principles. Variations in custom and belief, he argued, were the products of historical accidents. This view resonated with Boas's experiences on Baffin Island, and drew him towards anthropology.
While at the Royal Ethnological Museum Boas became interested in the Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest, and after defending his habilitation thesis, he left for a three month trip to British Columbia via New York. In January, 1887, he was offered a job as assistant editor of the journal ''Science'', in New York. Alienated by growing [[anti-Semitism]] and nationalism, as well as the very limited academic opportunities for a geographer, in Germany, Boas decided to stay in the United States.
Aside from his editorial work at ''Science,'' Boas secured an appointment as ''dozent'' in anthropology at [[Clark University]], in 1888. Boas's opportunities at Clark were limited, however, because the university did not have an anthropology department. Moreover, Boas was concerned about University president [[G. Stanley Hall]]'s interference in his research. In 1892 Boas joined a number of other Clark faculty in resigning, to protest Hall's infringement on academic freedom. Boas was then appointed chief assistant in anthropology at the [[1893]] [[World's Columbian Exposition]] in Chicago.
==Fin de Siècle Debates==
===Science versus History===
Some scholars, like Boas's student [[Alfred Kroeber]], believed that Boas used his research in physics as a model for his work in anthropology. Many others, however &mdash; including Boas's student [[Alexander Lesser]], and later researchers such as [[Marian W. Smith]], [[Herbert S. Lewis]], and [[Matti Bunzl]] &mdash; have pointed out that Boas explicitly rejected physics in favor of history as a model for his anthropological research.
This distinction between science and history has its origins in 19th century German academe, which distinguished between ''Naturwissenschaften'' (the sciences) and ''Geisteswissenschaften'' (the humanities), or between ''Gesetzwissenschaften'' (the law-giving sciences) and ''Geschichtswissenschaften'' (history). Generally, the first term in either binary refers to the study of phenomena that are governed by objective natural laws; the second term refers to those phenomena that have meaning only in terms of human perception or experience. In 1884 [[Immanuel Kant|Kantian]] philosopher [[Wilhelm Windelband]] coined the terms [[nomothetic]] and [[idiographic]] to describe these two divergent approaches. He observed that most scientists employ some mix of both, but in differing proportions; he considered physics a perfect example of a nomothetic science, and history, an idiographic science. Moreover, he argued that each approach has its origin in one of the two "interests" of reason [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] had identified in the ''Critique of Judgement'' &mdash; one "generalizing," the other "specifying." (Winkelband's student [[Heinrich Rickert]] elaborated on this distinction in ''The Limits of Concept Formation in Natural Science : A Logical Introduction to the Historical Sciences''; Boas's students [[Alfred Kroeber]] and [[Edward Sapir]] relied extensively on this work in defining their own approach to anthropology.)
Although Kant considered these two interests of reason to be objective and universal, the distinction between the natural and human sciences was institutionalized in Germany, through the organization of scholarly research and teaching, following the Enlightenment. In Germany the Enlightenment was dominated by Kant himself, who sought to establish principles based on universal rationality. In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] argued that human creativity, which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality. In 1795 the great linguist and philosopher [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests. Humboldt founded the University of Berlin in 1809, and his work in geography, history, and psychology provided the milieu in which Boas's intellectual orientation matured.
Historians working in the Humboldtian tradition developed ideas that would become central in Boasian anthropology. [[Leopold von Ranke]] defined the task of the historian as "merely to show as it actually was," which is a cornerstone of Boas's empiricism. [[Wilhelm Dilthey]] emphasized the centrality of "understanding" to human knowledge, and that the lived experience of an historian could provide a basis for an empathic understanding of the situation of an historical actor. For Boas, both values were well-expressed in a quote from Goethe: "A single action or event is interesting, not because it is explainable, but because it is true."
The influence of these ideas on Boas is apparent in his 1887 essay, "The Study of Geography," in which he distinguished between physical science, which seeks to discover the laws governing phenomena, and historical science, which seeks a thorough understanding of phenomena on their own terms. Boas argued that geography is and must be historical in this sense. In 1887, after his Baffin Island expedition, Boas wrote "The Principles of Ethnological Classification," in which he developed this argument in application to anthropology:
:Ethnological phenomena are the result of the physical and psychical character of men, and of its development under the influence of the surroundings...'Surroundings' are the physical conditions of the country, and the sociological phenomena, i.e., the relation of man to man. Furthermore, the study of the present surroundings is insufficient: the history of the people, the influence of the regions through which it has passed on its migrations, and the people with whom it came into contact, must be considered.
This formulation echoes Ratzel's focus on historical processes of human migration and culture contact, and Bastian's rejection of environmental determinism. It also emphasizes culture as a context ("surroundings"), and the importance of history. These are the hallmarks of Boasian anthropology (which [[Marvin Harris]] would later call "historical-particularism"), would guide Boas's research over the next decade, as well as his instructions to future students. (see Lewis 2001b for an alternative view to Harris'.)
Although context and history were essential elements to Boas's understanding of anthropology as ''Geisteswissenschaften'' and ''Geschichtswissenschaften'', there is one essential element that Boasian anthropology shares with ''Naturwissenschaften'': empiricism. In 1949 Boas's student, [[Alfred Kroeber]] summed up the principles of empiricism that define Boasian anthropology as a science:
# The method of science is to begin with questions, not with answers, least of all with value judgements.
# Science is dispassionate inquiry and therefore cannot take over outright any ideologies "already formulated in everyday life," since these are themselves inevitably traditional and normally tinged with emotional prejudice.
# Sweeping all-or-none, black-and-white judgements are characteristic of totalitarian attitudes and have no place in science, whose very nature is inferential and judicial.
===Orthogenetic versus Darwinian Evolution===
One of the greatest accomplishments of Boas and his students was their critique of theories of physical, social, and cultural evolution current at that time. This critique is central to Boas's work in museums, as well as his work in all four fields of anthropology.
For this reason, some people have argued that Boasian anthropology is at odds with [[Charles Darwin|Darwin's]] theory of [[Evolution]]. This argument is unfounded, and mistakenly assumes that people using the word "evolution" always mean the same thing. In fact, Boas supported Darwinian theory, although he did not assume that it automatically applied to cultural and historical phenomena. The notion of evolution that the Boasians ridiculed and rejected was the then dominant belief in [["orthogenesis"]] &ndash; a determinate or teleological process of evolution in which change occurs progressively regardless of natural selection. Boas rejected the prevalent theories of social evolution developed by [[Edward Burnett Tylor]], [[Lewis Henry Morgan]], and [[Herbert Spencer]] not because he rejected the notion of "evolution" ''per se'', but because he rejected orthogenetic notions of evolution in favor of Darwinian evolution.
The difference between these prevailing theories of cultural evolution and Darwinian theory cannot be overstated: these theorists argued that all societies progress through the same stages in the same sequence. Thus, although the Inuit with whom Boas worked at Baffin Island, and the Germans with whom he studied as a graduate student, were contemporaries of one another, evolutionists argued that the Inuit were at an earlier stage in their evolution, and Germans at a later stage. This echoed a popular misreading of Darwin that suggested that human beings are descended from chimpanzees. In fact, Darwin argued that chimpanzees and humans are equally evolved. What characterizes Darwinian theory is its attention to the ''processes'' by which one species transforms into another; "adaptation" as a key principle in explaining the relationship between a species and its environment; and "natural selecti |
</math>, or <math>f(x e^g)+g</math>, but not <math>f(x e^g+g)</math>
* The [[quaternions]] with modulus 1, as a multiplicative group, act on '''R'''<sup>''3''</sup>: for any such quaternion <math>z = \cos\frac{\alpha}{2} + \sin\frac{\alpha}{2}\,\hat\mathbf{v}</math>, the mapping ''f''('''x''') = ''z'' '''x''' ''z''<sup>*</sup> is a counterclockwise rotation through an angle <math>\alpha\,</math> about an axis '''v'''; -''z'' is the same rotation; see [[quaternions and spatial rotation]].
*The isometries of the plane act on the set of 2D images and patterns, such as a [[wallpaper group|wallpaper pattern]]. The definition can be made more precise by specifying what is meant by image or pattern, e.g. a function of position with values in a set of colors.
*More generally, a group of bijections ''g'': V &rarr; V acts on the set of functions ''x'': V &rarr; W by ''(gx)(v)=x(g<sup>&minus;1</sup>(v))'' (or a restricted set of such functions that is closed under the group action). Thus a group of bijections of space induces a group action on "objects" in it.
== Types of actions ==
The action of ''G'' on ''X'' is called
* ''transitive'' if for any two ''x'', ''y'' in ''X'' there exists a ''g'' in ''G'' such that ''g''&middot;''x'' = ''y'';
** ''n-transitive'' if ''G'' acts transitively on <math>X^n</math>.
** ''sharply n-transitive'' if ''G'' acts regularly on <math>X^n</math>.
* ''faithful'' (or ''effective'') if for any two different ''g'', ''h'' in ''G'' there exists an ''x'' in ''X'' such that ''g''&middot;''x'' &ne; ''h''&middot;''x''
* ''free'' if for any two different ''g'', ''h'' in ''G'' and all ''x'' in ''X'' we have ''g''&middot;''x'' &ne; ''h''&middot;''x''
* ''regular'' (or ''simply transitive'') if it is both transitive and free; this is equivalent to saying that for any two ''x'', ''y'' in ''X'' there exists precisely one ''g'' in ''G'' such that ''g''&middot;''x'' = ''y''.
Every free action on a [[non-empty]] set is faithful. A group ''G'' acts faithfully on ''X'' [[iff]] the homomorphism ''G'' &rarr; Sym(''X'') has a trivial [[kernel (algebra)|kernel]]. Thus, for a faithful action, ''G'' is isomorphic to a [[permutation group]] on ''X''; specifically, ''G'' is isomorphic to its image in Sym(''X'').
The action of any group ''G'' on itself by left multiplication is regular, and thus faithful as well. Every group can, therefore, be embedded in the symmetric group on its own elements, Sym(''G'') &mdash; a result known as [[Cayley's theorem]].
If ''G'' does not act faithfully on ''X'', one can easily modify the group to obtain a faithful action. If we define ''N'' = {''g'' in ''G'' : ''g''&middot;''x'' = ''x'' for all ''x'' in ''X''}, then ''N'' is a [[normal subgroup]] of ''G''; indeed, it is the kernel of the homomorphism ''G'' &rarr; Sym(''G''). The [[factor group]] ''G''/''N'' acts faithfully on ''X'' by setting (''gN'')&middot;''x'' = ''g''&middot;''x''. The original action of ''G'' on ''X'' is faithful if and only if ''N'' = {''e''}.
== Orbits and stabilizers ==
Consider a group ''G'' acting on a set ''X''. The '''orbit''' of a point ''x'' in ''X'' is the set of elements of ''X'' to which ''x'' can be moved by the elements of ''G''. The orbit of ''x'' is denoted by ''Gx'':
:<math>Gx = \left\{ g\cdot x \mid g \in G \right\}</math>
The defining properties of a group guarantee that the set of orbits of ''X'' under the action of ''G'' form a [[partition of a set|partition]] of ''X''. The associated [[equivalence relation]] is defined by saying ''x'' ~ ''y'' [[iff]] there exists a ''g'' in ''G'' with ''g''·''x'' = ''y''. The orbits are then the [[equivalence class]]es under this relation; two elements ''x'' and ''y'' are equivalent iff their orbits are the same, i.e. ''Gx'' = ''Gy''.
The set of all orbits of ''X'' under the action of ''G'' is written as ''X''/''G'', and is called the '''''quotient''''' of the action; in geometric situations it may be called the '''''orbit space'''''.
If ''Y'' is a [[subset]] of ''X'', we write ''GY'' for the set { ''g''·''y'' : ''y'' <math>\in</math> ''Y'' and ''g'' <math>\in</math> ''G''}. We call the subset ''Y'' ''invariant under G'' if ''GY'' = ''Y'' (which is equivalent to ''GY'' &sube; ''Y''). In that case, ''G'' also operates on ''Y''. The subset ''Y'' is called ''fixed under G'' if ''g''·''y'' = ''y'' for all ''g'' in ''G'' and all ''y'' in ''Y''. Every subset that's fixed under ''G'' is also invariant under ''G'', but not vice versa.
Every orbit is an invariant subset of ''X'' on which ''G'' acts transitively. The action of ''G'' on ''X'' is transitive if and only if all elements are equivalent, meaning that there is only one orbit.
For every ''x'' in ''X'', we define the '''stabilizer subgroup''' of ''x'' (also called the '''isotropy group''' or '''little group''') as the set of all elements in ''G'' that fix ''x'':
:<math>G_x = \{g \in G \mid g\cdot x = x\}</math>
This is a [[subgroup]] of ''G'', though typically not a normal one. The action of ''G'' on ''X'' is free if and only if all stabilizers are trivial. The kernel ''N'' of the homomorphism ''G'' &rarr; Sym(''X'') is given by the [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]] of the stabilizers ''G''<sub>''x''</sub> for all ''x'' in ''X''.
Orbits and stabilizers are not unrelated. For a fixed ''x'' in ''X'', consider the map from ''G'' to ''X'' given by ''g'' <math>\mapsto</math> ''g''·''x''. The [[image (mathematics)|image]] of this map is the orbit of ''x'' and the [[coimage]] is the set of all left [[coset]]s of ''G<sub>x</sub>''. The standard quotient theorem of set theory then gives a natural [[bijection]] between ''G''/''G''<sub>''x''</sub> and ''Gx''. Specifically, the bijection is given by ''hG<sub>x</sub>'' <math>\mapsto</math> ''h''·''x''. This result is known as the '''orbit-stabilizer theorem'''.
If ''G'' and ''X'' are finite then the orbit-stabilizer theorem, together with [[Lagrange's theorem]], gives
:<math>|Gx| = [G\,:\,G_x] = |G| / |G_x|</math>
This result is especially useful since it can be employed for counting arguments.
Note that if two elements ''x'' and ''y'' belong to the same orbit, then their stabilizer subgroups, ''G''<sub>''x''</sub> and ''G''<sub>''y''</sub>, are [[group isomorphism|isomorphic]]. More precisely: if ''y'' = ''g''·''x'', then ''G''<sub>''y''</sub> = ''gG''<sub>''x''</sub> ''g''<sup>&minus;1</sup>.
A result closely related to the orbit-stabilizer theorem is [[Burnside's lemma]]:
:<math>\left|X/G\right|=\frac{1}{\left|G\right|}\sum_{g\in G}\left|X^g\right|</math>
where ''X''<sup>''g''</sup> is the set of points fixed by ''g''. This result is mainly of use when ''G'' and ''X'' are finite, when it can be interpreted as follows: the number of orbits is equal to the average number of points fixed per group element.
== Morphisms and isomorphisms between ''G''-sets ==
If ''X'' and ''Y'' are two ''G''-sets, we define a ''morphism'' from ''X'' to ''Y''
to be a function ''f'' : ''X'' &rarr; ''Y'' such that ''f''(''g''.''x'') = ''g''.''f''(''x'') for all ''g'' in ''G'' and all ''x'' in ''X''. Morphisms of ''G''-sets are also called ''[[equivariant map]]s'' or ''G-maps''.
If such a function ''f'' is [[bijective]], then its inverse is also a morphism, and we call ''f'' an ''[[isomorphism]]'' and the two ''G''-sets ''X'' and ''Y'' are called ''isomorphic''; for all practical purposes, they are indistinguishable in this case.
Some example isomorphisms:
* Every regular ''G'' action is isomorphic to the action of ''G'' on ''G'' given by left multiplication.
* Every free ''G'' action is isomorphic to ''G''&times;''S'', where ''S'' is some set and ''G'' acts by left multiplication on the first coordinate.
* Every transitive ''G'' action is isomorphic to left multiplication by ''G'' on the set of left [[coset]]s of some [[subgroup]] ''H'' of ''G''.
With this notion of morphism, the collection of all ''G''-sets forms a [[category theory|category]]; this category is a [[topos]].
== Continuous group actions ==
One often considers '''continuous group actions''': the group ''G'' is a [[topological group]], ''X'' is a [[topological space]], and the map ''G''&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;''X''&nbsp;&rarr;&nbsp;''X'' is [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] with respect to the [[product topology]] of ''G''&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;''X''. The space ''X'' is also called a ''G-space'' in this case. This is indeed a generalization, since every group can be considered a topological group by using the [[discrete space|discrete topology]]. All the concepts introduced above still work in this context, however we define morphisms between ''G''-spaces to be ''continuous'' maps compatible with the action of ''G''. The quotient ''X''/''G'' inherits the [[quotient topology]] from ''X'', and is called the '''quotient space''' of the action. The above statements about isomorphisms for regular, free and transitive actions are no longer valid for continuous group actions.
If ''G'' is a discrete group acting on a [[topological space]] ''X'', the action is [[properly discontinuous]] if for any point ''x'' in ''X'' there is an open neighborhood ''U'' of ''x'' in ''X'', such that the set of all <math>g \in G</math> for which <math>g(U) \cap U \ne \emptyset </math> is a finite set. If ''X'' is a [[Covering map#Deck transformation group, regular covers|regular covering space]] of another topological space ''Y'', then the action of the [[Covering map#Deck transformation group, regular covers|deck transformation group]] |
degree of the greenhouse effect is dependent primarily on the concentration of [[greenhouse gas]]es in the planetary atmosphere. The deep and [[carbon dioxide]]-rich atmosphere of [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] causes a ''runaway greenhouse effect'' with surface temperatures hot enough to melt [[lead]], the atmosphere of [[Earth]] creates habitable temperatures, and the thin atmosphere of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] causes a minimal greenhouse effect.
The use of the term ''runaway'' greenhouse effect to describe the effect as it occurs on Venus emphasises the interaction of the greenhouse effect with other processes in [[feedback|feedback cycles]]. Venus is sufficiently strongly heated by the Sun that [[water]] is vaporised and so [[carbon dioxide]] is not reabsorbed by the planetary crust. As a result, the greenhouse effect has been progressively intensified by positive feedback. On Earth there is a substantial [[hydrosphere]] and [[biosphere]] which respond to higher temperatures by recycling atmospheric [[carbon]] more quickly (in geologic terms; the timescale for the ocean/biosphere to remove a CO<sub>2</sub> perturbation is on the order of several hundred years). The presence of liquid water thus limits the increase in the greenhouse effect through negative feedback. This state of affairs is expected to persist for at least hundreds of millions of years, but, ultimately, the [[Sun#The_Death_of_Sol|warming of an aging Sun]] will overwhelm this regulatory effect.
The average surface temperature would be -18°C without a greenhouse effect or 72°C with just the greenhouse effect and no convection, but in reality this temperature is closer to 15°C due to convective flow of heat energy within the atmosphere and partly above much of the thermal IR absorbence of the atmosphere. [http://eaps.mit.edu/faculty/lindzen/cooglobwrm.pdf]
Recent measurements of [[carbon dioxide]] amounts from Mauna Loa observatory show that CO<sub>2</sub> has increased from about 313 ppm (parts per million) in 1960 to about 375 ppm in 2005. The current observed amount of CO<sub>2</sub> exceeds the geological record of CO<sub>2</sub> maxima (~300 ppm) from ice core data (Hansen, J., Climate Change, '''61''', 269, 2005). This suggests that the CO<sub>2</sub> production rate from increased industrial activity (automobile use and fossil fuel generation) and other human activities such as land-use changes has overwhelmed the normal feedback control mechanisms. Global climate model calculations indicate that the elevated CO<sub>2</sub> levels are likely to lead to global warming. There has been an observed global average temperature increase of about 0.5<sup>o</sup>C since 1960 (Science '''308''', 1431, 2005). There is still some public controversy about the role of human activities and that of CO<sub>2</sub> and other greenhouse gas increases for global warming.
===The greenhouse gases===
[[water|Water vapor]] (H<SUB>2</SUB>O) causes about 60% of Earth's naturally-occurring greenhouse effect. Other gases influencing the effect include [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<SUB>2</SUB>) (about 26%), [[methane]] (CH<SUB>4</SUB>), [[nitrous oxide]] (N<SUB>2</SUB>O) and [[ozone]] (O<SUB>3</SUB>) (about 8%). Collectively, these gases are known as [[greenhouse gas]]es. The greenhouse effect due to carbon dioxide is specifically known as the [[Callendar effect]].
The wavelengths of [[light]] that a [[gas]] absorbs can be modelled with [[quantum mechanics]] based on molecular properties of the different gas [[molecules]]. It so happens that heteronuclear diatomic molecules and tri- (and more) atomic gases absorb at infrared wavelengths but homonuclear diatomic molecules do not absorb infrared light. This is why H<sub>2</sub>O and CO<sub>2</sub> are greenhouse gases but the major atmospheric constituents (N<sub>2</sub> and O<sub>2</sub>) are not.
Between the absorptions of water vapor and those of carbon dioxide, there is an [[atmospheric window]] where, prior to the industrial era, ''no infrared radiation was trapped'', lying between 8 and 15 [[micrometres]]. Compounds such as perflurocarbons (CF<sub>4</sub>, C<sub>2</sub>F<sub>6</sub> etc.), [[CFCs|chlorofluorocarbons]], [[halons]] and SF<sub>6</sub> absorb very strongly in this window. This means that they are extremely potent greenhouse gases, especially given the absence of natural sinks to remove them. Perfluorocarbons can have a lifetime of 50,000 years, possibly longer.
==Effects of various gases==
It is hard to disentangle the percentage contributions to the greenhouse effect by different gases, because their respective infrared spectrums overlap. However, one can calculate the percentage of trapped radiation remaining, and discover:
<center>
{|border=0
!Species<br> removed
! % trapped radiation<br> remaining
|-
| All || 0
|-
| H<sub>2</sub>O, CO<sub>2</sub>, O<sub>3</sub> || 50
|-
| H<sub>2</sub>O || 64
|-
| Clouds || 86
|-
| CO<sub>2</sub> || 88
|-
| O<sub>3</sub> || 97
|-
| None || 100
|}
</center>
(Source: Ramanathan and Coakley, Rev. Geophys and Space Phys., 16 465 (1978)); see also [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=142].
===Water vapor effects===
[[Water vapor]] is the major contributor to Earth's greenhouse effect. Its effects vary due to localized concentrations, mixture with other gases, frequencies of light, different behavior in different levels of the atmosphere, and whether positive or negative feedback takes place. High humidity also affects cloud formation, which has major effects upon temperature but is distinct from water vapor gas.
The IPCC TAR (2001; section 2.5.3) reports that, despite non-uniform effects and difficulties in assessing the quality of the data, water vapor has generally increased over the 20th Century.
Estimates of the percentage of Earth's greenhouse effect due to water vapor:
* 36% (table above)
* 60-70% Nova. ''Greenhouse - Green Planet'' [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ice/greenhouse.html]
Including clouds, the table above would suggest 50%. For the cloudless case, [[IPCC]] 1990, p 47-48 estimate water vapor at 60-70% whereas Baliunas & Soon estimate 88% [http://www.greeningearthsociety.org/climate/previous_issues/vol4/v4n19/cutting1.htm] considering only H<sub>2</sub>O and CO<sub>2</sub>.
Water vapor in the [[troposphere]], unlike the better-known greenhouse gases such as CO<sub>2</sub>, is essentially passive in terms of climate: the residence time for water vapor in the atmosphere is short (about a week) so perturbations to water vapor rapidly re-equilibriate. In contrast, the lifetimes of CO<sub>2</sub>, methane, etc, are long (hundreds of years) and hence perturbations remain. Thus, in response to a temperature perturbation caused by enhanced CO<sub>2</sub>, water vapor would increase, resulting in a (limited) positive feedback and higher temperatures. In response to a perturbation from enhanced water vapor, the atmosphere would re-equilibriate due to clouds causing reflective cooling and water-removing rain. The [[contrail]]s of high-flying [[aircraft]] sometimes form high clouds which seem to slightly alter the local weather.
==Real greenhouses==
The term 'greenhouse effect' originally came from the greenhouses used for gardening, but it is a misnomer since greenhouses operate differently [http://www.ems.psu.edu/~fraser/Bad/BadGreenhouse.html] [http://www.wmconnolley.org.uk/sci/wood_rw.1909.html]. A greenhouse is built of glass; it heats up primarily because the Sun warms the ground inside it, which warms the air near the ground, and this air is prevented from rising and flowing away. The warming inside a greenhouse thus occurs by suppressing convection and turbulent mixing. This can be demonstrated by opening a small window near the roof of a greenhouse: the temperature will drop considerably. It has also been demonstrated experimentally (Wood, 1909): a "greenhouse" built of rock salt (which is transparent to IR) heats up just as one built of glass does. Greenhouses thus work primarily by preventing ''[[convection]]''; the greenhouse effect however reduces ''radiation loss'', not convection. It is quite common, however, to find sources (e.g.
[http://pangea.stanford.edu/courses/gp025/webbook/07_clement.html] [http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/paleo/globalwarming/greeneffect.html]) that make the "greenhouse" analogy. Although the primary mechanism for warming greenhouses is the prevention of mixing with the free atmosphere, the radiative properties of the glazing can still be important to commercial growers. With the modern development of new plastic surfaces and glazings for greenhouses, this has permitted construction of greenhouses which selectively control radiation transmittance in order to better control the growing environment.[http://ag.arizona.edu/ceac/research/archive/HortGlazing.pdf].
==See also==
* [[Global warming]]
* [[Climate forcing]]
* [[Climate sensitivity]]
* [[Emissions trading]]
* [[Kyoto Protocol]]
==References==
* Earth Radiation Budget, http://marine.rutgers.edu/mrs/education/class/yuri/erb.html
* Fleagle, RG and Businger, JA: An introduction to atmospheric physics, 2nd edition, 1980
* Fraser, Alistair B., Bad Greenhouse http://www.ems.psu.edu/~fraser/Bad/BadGreenhouse.html
* Giacomelli, Gene A. and William J. Roberts1, Greenhouse Covering Systems, Rutgers University, downloaded from: http://ag.arizona.edu/ceac/research/archive/HortGlazing.pdf on 3-30-2005.
* [[Ann Henderson-Sellers]] and McGuffie, K: A [[climate model]]ling primer (quote: ''Greenhouse effect: the effect of the atmosphere in re-r |
sp;ft) statue of [[Jesus]] that graces its peak, entitled '''[[Christ the Redeemer (statue)|Cristo Redentor]]''' or "[[Christ the Redeemer (statue)|Christ the Redeemer]]".
==Access==
The peak and statue can be accessed via a narrow road or by the 3.8 kilometer (2.4&nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) [[Corcovado Rack Railway]] which was opened in [[1884]] and refurbished in [[1980]]. The railway uses two-car electrically powered trains, with a passenger capacity of 360 passengers per hour. The rail trip takes approximately 20 minutes and departs every half hour. Due to its limited passenger capacity, the wait to board at the entry station can take several hours. The year-round schedule is 8:30am to 6:30pm.
From the train terminus and road, the observation deck at the foot of the statue is reached by 222 steps, or by [[elevator]]s and [[escalator]]s. Among the most popular year-round tourist attractions in Rio, the Corcovado railway, access roads, and statue platform are commonly crowded.
==Attractions==
The most popular attraction of Corcovado mountain is the statue and viewing platform at its peak, drawing over 300,000 local and international visitors per year. From the peak's platform the panoramic view includes downtown Rio, [[Sugarloaf Mountain, Brazil|Sugarloaf Mountain]], the [[Lagoa Rodrigo de Freitas|Lagoa]] ([[Lagoa Rodrigo de Freitas]]), [[Copacabana]] beach, [[Ipanema]] beach, and several of Rio's [[favela|favelas]]. Cloud cover is common in Rio and the view from the platform is often obscured. Sunny days are recommended for optimal viewing.
Notable past visitors to the mountain peak include [[Pope Pius XII]], [[Pope John Paul II]], [[Alberto Santos-Dumont]], [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Diana, Princess of Wales]].
An additional attraction of the mountain is rock climbing. The south face had 54 climbing routes as of 1992.
The easiest way starts from Park Lage.
==Geology==
The peak of Corcovado is a [[granite dome]], which describes a generally vertical rocky formation.
==Other==
'''Corcovado''' is a song by [[Antonio Carlos Jobim]] refering to Corcovado mountain.
'''Corcovado''' is also mentioned in a [[Ben Harper]] song entitled "Blessed To Be A Witness," like so: "Corcovado parted the sky/And through the darkness/On us He shined."
[[Category:Granite domes]]
[[Category:Geography of Brazil]]
[[de:Corcovado (Brasilien)]]
[[pt:Corcovado]]
[[sv:Corcovado]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cheddar</title>
<id>6427</id>
<revision>
<id>37310788</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T04:09:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kelisi</username>
<id>173996</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Copyedit; SI</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about the settlement in Somerset, England. For the cheese of the same name, see [[Cheddar cheese]].''
[[Image:Cheddar Village - Mendip Hills - Somerset - England - Project Gutenberg eText 12287.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|Cheddar Village circa 1907]]
'''Cheddar''' is a village in the district of [[Sedgemoor]] in [[Somerset]], [[England]], situated on the edge of the [[Mendip Hills]] 14.5&nbsp;km (nine [[mile]]s) northwest of [[Wells]]. The village has a [[population]] of 5,724 ([[As of 2002|2002]] estimate). It is famous for having given its name to [[Cheddar cheese]] which is one of the most popular kinds of [[cheese]]. Although the cheese is now made worldwide, only one producer remains in the village itself. Cheddar's other main produce is the [[strawberry]], which gave name to the now disused Strawberry Line railway that ran from [[Yatton]] to [[Wells]]; in the [[1960s]], when the rest of the line was closed and all passenger services ceased, the section of the line between Cheddar and Yatton remained open for goods traffic, to provide a fast link with the main markets for the strawberries in [[Birmingham]] and [[London]]. The former station has become housing and a trading estate, and is the starting point for a cycle path along the old track to Axbridge, passing the Cheddar Reservoir, home of a sailing club.
Cheddar is also famous for [[Cheddar Gorge]], the largest [[gorge]] in [[England]], and for the Cheddar Caves, where the remains of [[Cheddar Man]] were found. Nearby is [[Wookey Hole]] and [[Ebbor Gorge]]. At the junction of Church Street, Bath Street and Union Street stands a fine roofed medieval market cross, recently restored after being seriously damaged in a road traffic accident.
There are three schools, covering the primary, middle and secondary age groups, a Church of England church with a tall tower in the typical Somerset style, and also churches of the Roman Catholic, Methodist, Baptist and other groups. There is an indoor swimming pool and a refuse recycling centre. Cheddar village also has a [[Youth Hostel]] and several camping sites.
[[image:S3010334.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Cheddar, as seen from the top of the church tower]]
==Village or town?==
It is a frequent misconception that Cheddar is a town, presumably based on its present-day size and importance. Officially, however, Cheddar is a village. The adjacent settlement of [[Axbridge]], although only about a third the size of Cheddar, is a town. This apparently illogical situation is explained by the relative importance of the two places in historic times. While Axbridge grew in importance as a centre for cloth manufacture in the [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor]] period and gained a charter from [[John of England|King John]], Cheddar remained a more dispersed dairy-farming village until the advent of tourism and the arrival of the [[railway]] in the [[Victorian era]].
This situation is unlikely to change in the near future, with the residents of both Axbridge and Cheddar proud of their settlements' respective status and the inevitable friendly local rivalry between the two.
==See also==
* [[Cheddar Reservoir]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cheddarvillage.co.uk/ Community website]
*[http://www.cheddargorgecheeseco.co.uk/ The Cheddar Gorge Cheese Company]
*[http://www.cheddarcaves.co.uk/ Cheddar Caves]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/somerset BBC Somerset]
----
{{Somerset-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Villages in Somerset]]
[[ja:&#12481;&#12455;&#12480;&#12540;]]
[[pt:Cheddar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Compact disc</title>
<id>6429</id>
<revision>
<id>42056669</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:31:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brossow</username>
<id>483309</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Redirect bypass from [[Disk or disc]] to [[disk]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|CD}} ''For the Public Image Ltd album called "Compact Disc" on certain editions, see [[Album (album)]].''
[[Image:CD autolev crop.jpg|thumbnail|250px|CD-R disc, bottom side, with interference colours]]
A '''compact disc''' (or '''CD''') is an [[optical disc]] used to store digital data, originally developed for storing [[digital audio]]. It is the standard playback format for commercial audio recordings today.
A standard compact disc, often known as an "audio CD" to differentiate it from later variants, stores audio data in a format compliant with the [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|red book]] standard. An audio CD consists of several stereo tracks stored using 16-bit [[Pulse-code modulation|PCM]] coding at a sampling rate of 44.1&nbsp;kHz. Standard compact discs have a diameter of 120&nbsp;mm, though 80 mm versions exist in circular and "business-card" forms. The 120 mm discs can hold 74 minutes of audio, and versions holding 80, 90 or even 99 minutes have been introduced. The 80 mm discs are used as "CD-singles" or novelty "business-card CDs". They hold about 20 minutes of audio.
Compact disc technology was later adapted for use as a [[data storage device]], known as a [[CD-ROM]].
The design of the CD was originally conceived as an evolution of the [[gramophone record]], rather than primarily as a data storage medium. Only later did the concept of an 'audio file' arise, and the generalising of this to any data file. As a result, the original CD format has a number of limitations; no built-in track names or disc naming for example. Online services such as [[CDDB]] were developed to work around these shortcomings in the computer age.
== History ==
In the early [[1970s]], using video [[Laserdisc]] technology, [[Philips]]' researchers started experiments with "audio-only" optical discs, initially with wideband frequency modulation [[Frequency modulation|FM]] and later digitized [[pulse-code modulation|PCM]] audio signals. At the end of the 1970s, [[Philips]], [[Sony]], and other companies presented prototypes of digital audio discs.
In [[1979]] Philips and Sony decided to join forces, setting up a joint task force of engineers whose mission was to design the new digital audio disc. Prominent members of the task force were [[Kees A. Schouhamer Immink|Kees Immink]] and Toshitada Doi. After a year of experimentation and discussion, the taskforce produced the "[[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book]]", the Compact Disc standard. Philips contributed the general [[manufacturing]] [[process]], based on the video [[Laserdisc]] technology. Philips also contributed the [[Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation]], EFM, which offers both a large playing time and a high resilience against disc handling damage such as scratches and fingerprints; while Sony contributed the [[error-correction]] method, [[Cross-Interleaved Reed-Solomon Coding|CIRC]]. The [http://www.exp-math.uni-essen.de/~immink/pdf/cdstory.pdf Compact Disc Story], told by a former member of the taskforce, gives background information on the many technical decisions made, including the choice of the sampling frequency, pla |
e=[[Submachine gun]]
|inventor=Tilo Möller, Manfred Guhring,<br />Georg Seidl, Helmut Baureuter
|date=1964
|serv_date=1966–present
|cartridge= [[9 mm Luger Parabellum|9 x 19 mm Luger]]
|action= [[Blowback (arms)|Roller-delayed blowback]], [[closed bolt]]
|rof= 800 round/min
|velocity= 270 m/s (886 ft/s)
|range= 200 m (219 yd)
|mass= 2.54 kg (5.6 lb) (MP5A2)
|length=
Fixed stock:
:680 mm (26.8 in)
Retractable stock:
:490 mm (19.3 in), retracted;
:660 mm (26 in), extended
|barrel= 225 mm (8.85 in)
|capacity= 15 or 30-round detachable box
|sights= Rear: rotary diopter; front: tritium hooded post. Requires optional mount for optical sights
|variant= MP5K, MP5K-PDW, MP5SD, MP5N, MP5/F, MP5/10, MP5/40, HK94 (see [[Heckler & Koch MP5#MP5 models|MP5 models]])
|num_built= —
|}}
The '''Heckler & Koch MP5''' is a [[submachine gun]] developed by [[Germany|German]] [[weapon]]s manufacturer [[Heckler & Koch]] (HK) in the 1960s.
A typical MP5 fires [[9 mm Luger Parabellum|9 x 19 mm Luger]] [[ammunition]] from a curved, detachable box-type [[Magazine (firearm)|magazine]]. The MP5's accuracy, reliability, and wide range of accessories and variants have made it the submachine gun of choice for [[military]] and [[law enforcement]] agencies worldwide.
As with most HK weapons, the trigger assembly is completely replaceable, and includes [[Automatic fire|fully-automatic]], 4-, 3- and 2-round burst, single fire, and safe positions in various combinations. MP5s were long chambered for the 9 mm Luger cartridge, commonly used in [[pistol]]s. In the late 1990s, more powerful [[10 mm Auto]] and [[.40 S&W]] versions were introduced, but soon phased out in favor of the new [[Heckler & Koch UMP|UMP]] submachine gun. The MP5 has a roller-delayed blowback mechanism tracing back to a mid-1940s German prototype known as the [[StG45(M)]] and further developed in the [[CETME]] rifle. The design was developed by Mauser from the roller-locking system patented by [[Edward Stecke]] in the 1930s and used in the [[MG42]].
==Variants==
The original MP5 was available with a fixed (MP5A2) or retractable (MP5A3) stock. Some variants did not have a 3-round burst capacity, or had only a 3-round burst mode. HK has made many general improvements to the MP5 over the years since its introduction.
The next major development was the MP5SD series (SD1&ndash;SD6), introduced in 1974. This model had an integrated [[suppressor]] and a specially-made barrel which reduced the muzzle velocity of its ammunition to just below the [[speed of sound]]. The result was that the MP5SD series is almost inaudible at distances of more than 15 [[Metre|meters]]. By its remarkable sound and almost invisible muzzle flash, it is chosen as a stealthy operating weapon in many police and military forces.
The [[Heckler & Koch MP5K|MP5K]] (the "K" stands for ''kurz'', meaning ''short''), which is only 325 [[1 E-3 m|mm]] long, was introduced in 1976 at the request of a [[South America]]n arms dealer who saw the potential for its sale to [[bodyguard]]s as a concealable, but fully-automatic weapon. It has a vertical foregrip to reduce muzzle rise and aid in automatic firing and it can also be fired from inside a special briefcase. Additionally, a version without the diopter sights but a smooth upper surface and small pistol sights was developed to reduce the likelihood that the weapon would snag during the draw. A further development of the model by the U.S. division of HK was the MP5K-PDW ([[Personal defense weapon|Personal Defense Weapon]]), in 1991. This model was built for [[United States Air Force]] pilots who needed a compact weapon. Unlike the original, the PDW adds a folding stock and can accept a [[suppressor]] and laser sight. All variants of the MP5K are available in the similar configurations as the original weapon. A semi-automatic civilian version known as the SP89 was briefly offered before the 1994 assault weapons ban.
Under a special contract from the [[United States Navy]], HK developed the MP5N or "MP5 Navy" variant for the Navy's elite special operations units (including the [[U.S. Navy SEALs]]). The MP5N features a fully-ambidextrous trigger group, a retractable stock, and a threaded barrel for mounting suppressors. In addition, HK replaced many of the metal parts on the MP5N with lighter and corrosion-resistant plastics.
The MP5/10, an MP5 chambered in the 10 mm Auto cartridge, was HK's first attempt to increase the power of the MP5 series. In 1994, the US [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] adopted the MP5/10 as their standard submachine gun. Despite the discontinuance of MP5/10 production and the agency's adoption of the .40 S&W cartridge for pistols, the FBI recently solicited HK for the purchase of an additional fifty MP5/10. The name ''MP10'' has been incorrectly used by some to indicate the MP5/10. This error was popularized by [[Tom Clancy]]'s book ''[[Rainbow Six (book)|Rainbow Six]]''.
[[Image:Mp5k.jpg|thumb|150px|MP5KA4 9 x 19 mm Luger with 3-round burst trigger group]]
[[Image:Mp5k_brief.jpg|thumb|150px|MP5K 9 x 19 mm Luger with standard "SEF" trigger group in briefcase]]
===MP5 models===
Unless noted otherwise, all MP5 variants are chambered for the [[9 mm Luger Parabellum|9 x 19 mm Parabellum]] cartridge. Generally, ''A2'' denotes fixed stock, ''A3'' denotes retractable stock, and ''A1'' denotes no stock, with a buttcap (or receiver cap) in place.
*'''MP5A1''' — MP5 with buttcap/receiver cap; Navy/"SEF" trigger group
*'''MP5A2''' — fixed stock, Navy/"SEF" trigger group
*'''MP5A3''' — retractable stock, Navy/"SEF" trigger group
*'''MP5A4''' — fixed buttstock, 3-round burst trigger group
*'''MP5A5''' — retractable buttstock, 3-round burst trigger group
*'''MP5SFA2''' — ''SF'' denotes ''single fire'', with full auto removed, making it an ideal police weapon; fixed stock
*'''MP5SFA3''' — MP5SF w/ retractable stock
*'''MP5N''' — model developed especially for [[U.S. Navy]]. Navy trigger group, threaded barrel for attaching a suppressor and retractable stock
*'''MP5K''' — the very short version of the MP5; "SEF" trigger group
*'''MP5KA1''' — MP5K w/ smooth upper surface and small iron sights; "SEF" trigger group
*'''MP5KA4''' — MP5K w/ 3-round burst trigger group
*'''MP5KA5''' — MP5KA1 w/ 3-round burst trigger group
*'''MP5K-N''' — MP5K w/ Navy trigger group and threaded barrel to add suppressor
*'''MP5K-PDW''' — Personal Defense Weapon; MP5K w/ added folding stock and threaded barrel to add suppressor; Navy or 3-round burst trigger group
*'''MP5SD1''' — integrated suppressor (''Schalldämpfer''), A1-type buttcap w/ sling loop; Navy/"SEF" trigger group
*'''MP5SD2''' — integrated suppressor (''Schalldämpfer''), fixed stock; Navy/"SEF" trigger group
*'''MP5SD3''' — integrated suppressor (''Schalldämpfer''), retractable stock; Navy/"SEF" trigger group
*'''MP5SD4''' — MP5SD1 w/ 3-round burst trigger group
*'''MP5SD5''' — MP5SD2 w/ 3-round burst trigger group
*'''MP5SD6''' — MP5SD3 w/ 3-round burst trigger group
*'''MP5/10''' — chambered in [[10 mm Auto]], available in various stock/trigger group configurations
*'''MP5/40''' — chambered in [[.40 S&W]], available in various stock/trigger group configurations
*'''HK94A2''' — MP5SF with fixed stock, 16-inch barrel and special trigger group; designed for civilian market
*'''HK94A3''' — same as HK94A2, but w/ retractable stock
*'''SP89''' — semi-automatic-only version of the MP5K w/ modified foregrip (redesigned into a traditional handguard); designed for civilian market
==History==
The MP5 was first introduced by HK in 1966 under the name HK54. This name comes from HK's old numbering system. The "5" designates the model as a submachine gun, while the "4" identifies it as taking 9 x 19 mm ammunition. The current name dates from when it was officially adopted by the [[West Germany|West German]] government for use by its Police and Border Guard as the ''Maschinenpistole 5'', or MP5 in mid-1966. The [[GSG 9]], the counter-terrorist part of the Border Guard, then introduced the MP5 to other Western counter-terrorist units.
With the increased use of body armor, the future of the MP5 is uncertain. Several new trends in gun design have begun to eclipse the submachine gun; small caliber PDW like HK's new [[MP7]] and compact carbines such as the [[M4 Carbine|M4]], [[AKS-74]], the G36C variant of HK's [[Heckler & Koch G36|G36]], and the [[XM8 rifle]] based on the G36. The only major criticism of the MP5 has been its high cost &mdash; approximately 900 [[United States dollar|USD]] for an MP5N &mdash; the same price as an assault rifle. HK has started to complement the MP5 series with the more powerful and cheaper [[HK UMP|UMP]], which is available in [[.45 ACP]], .40 S&W and 9 mm Parabellum calibers. However, since the UMP uses a simple blowback action, it may not necessarily be a rival for the MP5 among the most discriminating users.
One famous [[counter-terrorism|counter-terrorist]] operation involving this gun is [[Operation Nimrod]] on [[April 30]], [[1980]] in the UK, where the [[Special Air Service]] (SAS), armed with MP5s, was deployed to assault the terrorists who had taken over the [[Iran]]ian embassy in [[London]].
An MP5 was used by Crown Prince [[Dipendra of Nepal|Dipendra]] of [[Nepal|Nepal]] to [[massacre|massacre]] the royal family (including King [[Birendra of Nepal|Birendra]] and [[Queen Aiswarya]]), in a shooting spree in 2001.
==Operation==
''Keep the finger off of the trigger until target has been selected and you are ready to fire. Always point the weapon in a safe direction. Always treat the weapon as if it were loaded.''
===Loading===
#On models with "SEF" trigger group, place selector (found on the left side of weapon, above pistol grip) to "S" position. On models with "Pictogram&qu |
Change'' (WG I)
* ''Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change'' (WG II)
* ''Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change'' (WG III)
Each of the last three parts was completed by a separate working group, and each has a Summary for Policymakers (SfP) that represents a consensus of national representatives. The SfP of the WG I report contains headings:
# Greenhouse gas concentrations have continued to increase
# Anthropogenic aerosols tend to produce negative radiative forcings
# Climate has changed over the past century (air temperature has increased by between 0.3 and 0.6 &deg;C since the late 19th century; this estimate has not significantly changed since the 1990 report).
# The balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate (considerable progress since the 1990 report in distinguishing between natural and anthropogenic influences on climate, because of: including aerosols; coupled models; pattern-based studies)
# Climate is expected to continue to change in the future (increasing realism of simulations increases confidence; important uncertainties remain but are taken into account in the range of model projections)
# There are still many uncertainties (estimates of future emissions and biogeochemical cycling; models; instrument data for model testing, assessment of variability, and detection studies)
==== Debate over Climate Change 1995 ====
Most scientists involved in climate research believe that the IPCC reports accurately summarise the state of knowledge. Few scientists have objected and made public comments to that effect.
The report formed the basis of negotiations over the [[Kyoto Protocol]].
A [[December 20]], [[1995]], Reuters report quoted British scientist [[Keith Shine]], one of IPCC's lead authors, discussing the Policymakers' Summary. He said: "We produce a draft, and then the policymakers go through it line by line and change the way it is presented.... It's peculiar that they have the final say in what goes into a scientists' report". It is not clear, in this case, whether Shine was complaining that the report had been changed to be more skeptical, or less, or something else entirely.
Dr. [[Frederick Seitz]], president emeritus of Rockefeller University and past president of the National Academy of Sciences, has publicly denounced the IPCC report, writing "I have never witnessed a more disturbing corruption of the peer-review process than the events that led to this IPCC report". He opposed it in the [[Leipzig Declaration]] of his [[Science and Environmental Policy Project]].
In turn, Seitz's comments were vigorously opposed by the presidents of the [[American Meteorological Society]] and [[University Corporation for Atmospheric Research]], who wrote about a ''systematic effort by some individuals to undermine and discredit the scientific process that has led many scientists working on understanding climate to conclude that there is a very real possibility that humans are modifying Earth's climate on a global scale. Rather than carrying out a legitimate scientific debate... they are waging in the public media a vocal campaign against scientific results with which they disagree'' [http://www.ucar.edu/communications/quarterly/summer96/insert.html].
[[S. Fred Singer]] disseminated a letter about what he learned about changes to Chapter 8, interpretations of the IPCC Summary's key conclusion, and some policy implications [http://www.sepp.org/ipcccont/ipccflap.htm]:
# Chapter 8 was altered substantially in order to make it conform to the Summary;
# Three key clauses-- expressing the consensus of authors, contributors, and reviewers-- should have been placed into the Summary instead of being deleted from the approved draft chapter;
# The ambiguous phrase "the balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate" has been (mis)interpreted by policymakers to mean that a major global warming catastrophe will soon be upon us;
# The IPCC report and its authors are being (mis)used by politicians and others to push an ideologically based agenda.
Dr. [[Benjamin D. Santer]], Convening Lead Author of Chapter 8 of 1995 IPCC Working Group I Report, replied [http://www.sepp.org/ipcccont/Item08.htm]:
# All revisions were made with the sole purpose of producing the best-possible and most clearly-explained assessment of the science, and were under the full scientific control of the Convening Lead Author of Chapter 8.
#* Changes were made in direct response to:
#** Written comments made by governments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) during October and November 1995.
#** Comments made by governments and NGOs during the plenary sessions of the IPCC meeting that was held in [[Madrid]] from [[November 27]]-29th, [[1995]].
#* Post-Madrid changes to Chapter 8 were made solely in response to review comments and/or in order to clarify scientific points.
# After receiving much criticism of the redundancy of a concluding summary (Section 8.7) in October and November 1995, the Convening Lead Author of Chapter 8 decided to remove it. About half of the information in the concluding summary was integrated with material in Section 8.6.
# The bottom-line assessment of the science in the [[October 9]]th draft of Chapter 8 was "Taken together, these results point towards a human influence on climate".
#* The final assessment in the now-published Summary for Policymakers is that "the balance of evidence suggests that there is a discernible human influence on global climate".
#** The latter sentence, which is entirely consistent with the earlier Oct. 9th sentence, was unanimously approved at the Madrid meeting by delegates from nearly 100 countries.
# None of the changes were politically motivated.
=== IPCC supplementary report, 1992 ===
The 1992 supplementary report was an update, requested in the context of the negotiations on the [[Framework Convention on Climate Change]] at the [[Earth Summit]] (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) in [[Rio de Janeiro]] in [[1992]].
The major conclusion was that research since [[1990]] did "not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment". It noted that transient (time-dependent) simulations, which had been very preliminary in the FAR, were now improved, but did not include aerosol or ozone changes.
=== IPCC First Assessment Report: 1990 ===
The IPCC first assessment report was completed in 1990, and served as the basis of the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC).
The executive summary of the policymakers summary of the WG I report includes:
*We are certain of the following: there is a natural greenhouse effect...; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases: CO<sub>2</sub>, methane, CFCs and nitrous oxide. These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect, resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth's surface. The main greenhouse gas, water vapour, will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it.
*We calculate with confidence that: ...CO<sub>2</sub> has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect; long-lived gases would require immeadiate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60% to stabilise their concentrations at today's levels...
*Based on current models, we predict: under [BAU] increase of global mean temperature during the [21st] century of about 0.3 <sup>o</sup>C per decade (with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 <sup>o</sup>C per decade); this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls, rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 <sup>o</sup>C [to] about 0.1 <sup>o</sup>C per decade.
*There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing, magnitude and regional patterns of climate change, due to our incomplete understanding of: sources and sinks of GHGs; clouds; oceans; polar ice sheets.
*Our judgement is that: global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 <sup>o</sup>C over the last 100 years...; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predicion of climate models, but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability. Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming. The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more.
==== Debate over IPCC First Assessment Report: 1990 ====
In 1991, the [[SEPP]] (The Science & Environmental Policy Project) surveyed IPCC contributors and researchers, along with a comparison group of global warming skeptics who had not contributed [http://www.sepp.org/glwarm/noscicons.html]. The responses showed that 40% of the IPCC group did not agree with the IPCC FAR summary, and felt that it might convey a misleading message to the public with its emphasis on the certainty about the natural greenhouse effect. The responses also showed that the majority of respondents thought that models had not been adequately validated with observational data, and that attribution of observed warming to an enhanced greenhouse effect had not been shown using only observational data. 60% of respondents also thought that the climate models used did not accurately represent the physical atmosphere-ocean system.
== Criticism of IPCC ==
=== Landsea ===
In January of 2005 Christopher Landsea resigned from work on the [[IPCC |
ense if and only
if ''f'' is idempotent in the binary sense with respect to [[function composition]] (denoted "o"). This would be written ''f''&nbsp;o&nbsp;''f'' = ''f''.
==Common examples==
=== Functions ===
As mentioned above, the identity map and the constant maps are always idempotent maps. Less trivial examples are the [[absolute value]] function of a [[real number|real]] or [[complex number|complex]] argument, and the [[greatest integer function]] of a real argument.
The function which assigns to every subset ''U'' of some [[topological space]] ''X'' the [[closure (topology)|closure]] of ''U'' is idempotent on the [[power set]] of ''X''. It is an example of a [[closure operator]]; all closure operators are idempotent functions.
=== Idempotent ring elements ===
An idempotent element of a [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] is by definition an element that's idempotent with respect to the ring's multiplication. One may define a [[partial order]] on the idempotents of a ring as follows: if ''e'' and ''f'' are idempotents, we write ''e'' &le; ''f'' [[iff]] ''ef'' = ''fe'' = ''e''. With respect to this order, 0 is the smallest and 1 the largest idempotent.
If ''e'' is idempotent in the ring ''R'', then ''eRe'' is again a ring, with multiplicative identity ''e''.
Two idempotents ''e'' and ''f'' are called ''orthogonal'' if ''ef'' = ''fe'' = 0. In this case, ''e'' + ''f'' is also idempotent, and we have ''e'' &le; ''e'' + ''f'' and ''f'' &le; ''e'' + ''f''.
If ''e'' is idempotent in the ring ''R'', then so is ''f'' = 1 &minus; ''e''; ''e'' and ''f'' are orthogonal.
An idempotent ''e'' in ''R'' is called ''central'' if ''ex'' = ''xe'' for all ''x'' in ''R''. In this case, ''Re'' is a ring with multiplicative identity ''e''. The central idempotents of ''R'' are closely related to the decompositions of ''R'' as a [[direct sum]] of rings. If ''R'' is the direct sum of the rings ''R''<sub>1</sub>,...,''R''<sub>''n''</sub>, then the identity elements of the rings ''R''<sub>''i''</sub> are central idempotents in ''R'', pairwise orthogonal, and their sum is 1. Conversely, given central idempotents ''e''<sub>1</sub>,...,''e''<sub>''n''</sub> in ''R'' which are pairwise orthogonal and have sum 1, then ''R'' is the direct sum of the rings ''Re''<sub>1</sub>,...,''Re''<sub>''n''</sub>. So in particular, every central idempotent ''e'' in ''R'' gives rise to a decomposition of ''R'' as a direct sum of ''Re'' and ''R''(1 &minus; ''e'').
Any idempotent ''e'' which is different from 0 and 1 is a [[zero divisor]] (because ''e''(1 &minus; ''e'') = 0). This shows that [[integral domain]]s and [[division ring]]s don't have such idempotents. [[Local ring]]s also don't have such idempotents, but for a different reason. The only idempotent that's contained in the [[Jacobson radical]] of a ring is 0. There is a [[catenoid]] of idempotents in the [[coquaternion]] ring.
A ring in which ''all'' elements are idempotent is called a [[boolean ring]]. It can be shown that in every such ring, multiplication is commutative, and every element is its own [[additive inverse]].
=== Other examples ===
Idempotent operations can be found in [[Boolean algebra]] as well. [[logical conjunction|Logical and]] and [[logical disjunction|logical or]] are both idempotent operations over the elements of the Boolean algebra.
In [[linear algebra]], [[projection (linear algebra)|projection]]s are idempotent. That is, any [[linear transformation]] that projects all vectors onto a subspace V (not necessarily orthogonally) is idempotent, if V itself is pointwise fixed.
An [[idempotent semiring]] is a semiring whose ''addition'' (not multiplication) is idempotent.
==See also==
[[fixed point (mathematics)]]
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Closure operators]]
[[de:Idempotenz]]
[[es:Idempotente]]
[[it:Idempotenza]]
[[nl:Idempotentie]]
[[ru:Идемпотентный элемент]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ithaca, New York</title>
<id>14973</id>
<revision>
<id>41965006</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:46:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Quinten</username>
<id>92247</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Geography and Climate */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Ithaca Commons}}
{{Infobox City |official_name = Ithaca, New York
|nickname=
|image_flag =
|image_seal =
|image_map = LocationOfIthacaNewYork.gif
|mapsize = 150px
|map_caption = Location in [[New York]]
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]<br> [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]<br> [[List of counties in New York|County]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]<br>[[New York]]<br>[[Tompkins County, New York|Tompkins County]]
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[Carolyn Peterson]]
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area_total = 6.1 sq. miles / 15.7
|area_land = 5.5 sq. miles / 14.1
|area_water = 0.6 sq. miles / 1.6
|population_as_of = 2000
|population_note =
|population_total = 29,287 (city proper)
|population_density = 2,071.0
|timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]]
|utc_offset = -5
|timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -4
|latitude = 42° 26' 36'' N
|longitude = 76° 30' 0'' W
|latd=42 |latm=26 |lats=36 |latNS=N
|longd=76 |longm=30 |longs=0 |longEW=W
|website = [http://www.ci.ithaca.ny.us www.ci.ithaca.ny.us]
|footnotes = }}
The City of '''Ithaca''' (named for the [[Greece|Greek]] island of ''[[Ithaca]]'' in [[Homer]]'s [[Odyssey]]) sits on the southern shore of [[Cayuga Lake]], in [[Central New York|Central]] [[New York State]].
The City of Ithaca is the center of the Ithaca [[metropolitan area]] and county seat of [[Tompkins County, New York]]. As of 2000, the city had a population of 29,287, and the metropolitan area had a population of 100,135. Ithaca is the smallest metropolitan statistical area in New York State.
==History==
The inhabitants of the Ithaca area at the time of European expansion were the [[Sapony tribe|Sapony]] and [[Tutelo tribe|Tutelo]] Indians, dependent tribes of the [[Cayuga tribe|Cayuga Indians]] who formed part of the [[Iroquois|Iroquois confederation]]. These tribes had been allowed to settle on Cayuga-controlled hunting lands at the south end of [[Cayuga Lake]] as well as in Pony (originally Sapony) Hollow of [[Newfield|Newfield, New York]], after being forced from [[North Carolina]] by European expansion. They were driven from the area by the [[Sullivan Expedition]] which destroyed the Tutelo village of Coregonal, located near the junction of state routes [[New York State Highway 13|13]] and [[New York State Highway 13A|13A]] just south of the Ithaca city limits. Indian presence in the current City of Ithaca was limited to a temporary hunting camp at the base of Cascadilla Gorge. The destruction of [[Iroquois|Iroquois confederation]] power opened the region to settlement by people of European origin, a process which began in [[1789]]. In [[1790]], an official program began for distributing land in the area as a reward for service to the American soldiers of the Revolutionary War; most local land titles trace back to the Revolutionary war grants. Lots were drawn in 1791; informal settlement had already started.
As part of this process, the [[Central New York Military Tract]], which included northern Tompkins County, was surveyed by Simeon DeWitt. His clerk [[Robert Harpur]] apparently had a fondness for ancient Greek and Roman history as well as English authors and philosophers (as evidenced by the nearby townships of Dryden and Locke). The Commissioners of Lands of NY State (chairman Gov. George Clinton) followed Harpur's recommendations at a meeting in 1790. The Military Tract township in which proto-Ithaca was located he named Ulysses, the Latin form of the Greek Odysseus from Homer's Odyssey. A few years later DeWitt moved to Ithaca and named it for the Greek island home of Ulysses (still the surrounding township at the time -- nowadays Ulysses is just a town in Tompkins Country). Contrary to popular myth, DeWitt did not name many of the classical references found in upstate NY such as [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]] and [[Troy, New York|Troy]]; these were from the general classical fervor of the times. Perhaps because of the name, [[The Odyssey]] is routinely taught to elementary school students in the Ithaca area.
In the [[1820s]] and [[1830]], Ithacans held high hopes of becoming a major city when the primitive Ithaca and Owego Railway was completed in 1832 to connect the [[Erie Canal]] navigation with the Susquehanna River to the south. These hopes survived the depression of [[1837]] when the railroad was re-organized as the Cayuga & Susquehanna and re-engineered with switchbacks in the late 1840's; much of this route is now used by the [[Trails in Ithaca, New York#South_Hill_Recreation_Way | South Hill Recreation Way]]. However, easier routes soon became available, such as the Syracuse, Binghamton & New York (1854). In the decade following the Civil War railroads were built from Ithaca to all surrounding points (Geneva, Cayuga, Cortland, Elmira, Athens PA) mainly with financing from [[Ezra Cornell]]; however the geography of the city has always prevented it from lying on a major transportation artery. When the [[Lehigh Valley Railroad]] built its main line from Pennsylvania to Buffalo in 1890 it bypassed Ithaca (running via eastern [[Schuyler County]] on easier grades), as the [[Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad]] had done in the 1850's. Ithaca became a city in 1888 and remained a small manufacturing and retail center until the recent education boom.
Ithaca was nationally known for the [[Ithaca Gun Company]], makers of highly-valued shotguns, and Ithaca Calender Clocks. The largest industry was the Morse Chain company, still active in [[L |
amous for his camouflage work in the [[North African campaign]]).
From [[1978]] to the early [[1980s]], the American [[2d Armored Cavalry Regiment]] stationed in Europe used a digital camouflage pattern on its vehicles. During [[1979]] and [[1980]] the [[Australian Army]] experimented with digital camouflage on helicopters. More recently, [[battledress]] in digital camouflage patterns has been adopted by the [[Canadian Forces Land Force Command|Canadian Army]] and [[Canadian Forces Air Command|Air Force]] ([[CADPAT]]), the [[United States Marine Corps]] ([[MARPAT]]), and much of the [[military of Jordan]].
===Ship camouflage===
[[Image:Q-ship dazzle camouflage.jpg|thumb|400px|A [[World War I]] [[Q-ship]] disguised by dazzle camouflage.]]
World War I also saw the advent of ship camouflage. Although most gunships were still painted a uniform grey, five schemes were approved in the United States for merchant ship camouflage. Ships without camouflage were required to pay higher war risk premiums.
[[Dazzle camouflage]] was briefly popular for ships in this period. Unlike true camouflage, the "dazzle" scheme used high contrast and confusing shapes to make it difficult for enemy forces to estimate speed and the range to the target ship &mdash; critical in the age of "dumb" [[gun]]nery and [[torpedo]]es. The effectiveness of "dazzle" is not entirely certain but it continued in use into World War II. By 1918 the British had applied various patterns to over 4,500 vessels - mainly under the direction of [[Norman Wilkinson]] (who became Inspector of Airfield Camouflage in WW II).
==Camouflage in Fashion and Art==
The transfer of camouflage patterns from battle to exclusively civilian uses is a recent phenomenon. While many hundreds of artists were involved in the development of camouflage during and since [[WW I]] the disparate sympathies of the two cultures restained the use of "militaristic" forms in works other than those of [[war artist]]s. Since the 1960s however artists have seized apon camouflage as a means to twist and subvert it away from its military origins and symbolism. The concept of camouflage - to conceal and distort shapes - is also a popular artistic tool.
Artists using camouflage include: Warhol (notably his 1986 camouflage series, his last major work), Jacquet (extraordinarily prolific in camouflage works from 1961 into the 1970s), Boetti (''Mimetico'' pieces, 1966-67), Lutz (a number of projects, the film ''True Stories'', ''Red, Hot and Blue'', etc. 1986-), Lau (''gardenergala'', 1999-2001), Hamilton Finlay, Veruschka and Trulzsch (Nature, Signs & Animals, Mimicry-Dress-Art, all 1970-73), Palmen (Streetwise series, 2002), Lapham (numerous works, including ''Mimetic series'', 1999), Anastasi (''Blind'', 2003), McGurr ("Futura 2000"), Opgenorth (Museum Camouflage series, 1998-)
Camouflage garments had a similarly hesitant adoption, although military ''styling'' has a long history of civilian use. Military patterns initially found civilian markets amongst hunters and, through military surplus, in those seeking clothing that was tough, well-made, and cheap in the United States and other countries. The steady output from countries using a [[National Service]] model was influential and several countires (intially the 'winning' sides of WW II, where there was less negative connection with military-wear) became significant markets. In the United States in the 1960s military clothing became increasingly common (mostly olive drab rather than camouflage), interestingly it was often found worn by anti-war protestors, intially groups such as [[Vietnam Veterans Against the War]] but then increasingly widely as a symbol of political protest. It is a felony in the United States to wear "any distinctive part" of a US military uniform. In the years after the [[Vietnam War]], camouflage military clothing became very popular among many people, replacing olive-drab military clothing.
The 'rebellious' links of civilian camouflage diminshed through the 1970s and beyond as more mainstream groups adopted a style seen as youthful and anti-establishment. Fashion, trailing the world as usual, has become increasingly eager to adopt camouflage - attracted by the striking designs, the "patterned disorder" of camouflage, its symbolism (to be celebrated or subverted (vide its use by Hello Kitty)), and its versatility. Early designers include Castelbajac (1975-), Roland Chakal (1970), Stephen Sprouse (using Warhol prints, 1986), and Franco Moschino (1986), but it was not until the 1990s that camouflage became a significant and widespread facet of dress from streetwear to high-fashion labels - especially the use of "faux-camouflage". Producers using camouflage in the 1990s and beyond include: John Galliano for Christian Dior, Marc Jacobs for Louis Vitton, Commes des Garcons, Chanel, Tommy Hilfiger, Dolce & Gabbana, Issey Miyake, Armani, YSL, and on and on.
Certain companies have become very closely associated with camouflage patterns (such as Maharishi and mhi, 6876, A Bathing Ape, Stone Island, or Girbaud), using and overprinting genuine military surplus fabric and have also extended the patterns by creating their own designs or integrating camouflage patterns with other symbols. The use of original patterns in new (often bright) colours is also common.
Camouflage is also common on products other than clothes.
==Theory of camouflage==
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Sniper irish sniper l96a1.jpg|thumb|right|A sniper camouflaged with a [[Sniper#Ghillie_suit|ghillie suit]].]] -->
MacKay's statement above remains one of the most important elements in the theory of camouflage &mdash; an exact match with the environment's colours is less crucial than the patterning of the regions of colour themselves. Ideally, camouflage should be made to break up and thereby conceal the structural lines of the object which it hides. Thus, the patterns often seen on camouflage clothing, masking cloth and vehicle paints are carefully constructed to deceive the human eye by breaking up the boundaries that define sharp edges and human silhouettes. This is called ''high difference'' or ''disruptive camouflage''.
Similarly, a [[tiger]]'s stripes, when viewed in the context of long grass or deeply shaded forest, have the same effect - making it hard to identify the tiger's shape as 'tiger!' Further, the tiger's non-stripe colouring tends to match its background of long grasses, called ''blending camouflage'', ''high similarity camouflage'' or ''figure-ground blending''. This mix of blending and disruptive patterns is called ''coincident disruption'' - the aim of modern military camouflage.
Coincidentally, the stark black-and-white [[zebra]] stripes, while not blending camouflage, is effective disruptive patterning - especially to the colour-blind lion. Another theory states that the zebra stripes are actually dazzle camouflage. In fact recent research, supported by experiments in the field, posits that the high contrast stripes, particularly those running horizontally, are an effective means of confusing the visual system of the [[tsetse fly]]. <!-- Can somebody provide a citation for this? -->
Disruptive patterns are designed to counter certain human perceptual models. The tendency to fill in gaps between aligned, or seemingly aligned, shapes to create 'whole' objects (closure and continuity). That overlapping, or appearing to overlap, is part of grouping shapes together (proximity grouping). That similar shapes belong together, they are a coherent unit, while dissimilar shapes are parts of different units (similarity grouping) and so on.
Modern camouflage includes environment-specific patterns such as Bill Jordan's hunting-specific "RealTree" or Camoclad's similarly targeted "Mossy Oak" series, both contain more detailed visual elements than older camouflage. While these obliterative-disruptive patterns are more effective than traditional camouflage patterns, they are also very specific to an environment and season which precludes their use for military purposes. These styles were stimulated by Jim Crumley's "Trebark" design, first marketed in [[1980]]. It should be noted that in the United States most hunted animals are colour-blind and rely on scent warnings (leading to activated-charcoal clothing from Scent-Lok).
Progress has also been made in generalized camouflage patterns as well. In [[2004]], the US Army joined the US Marine Corps in adopting an updated "digital camouflage" pattern (called [[MARPAT]] in the Marine version) to replace the traditional woodland pattern. It is termed "digital" because much of the design was done on a computer and unlike other camouflage patterns, it is blocky and appears almost pixelated.
People with [[maskun]] or other [[color blindness]] have been used to detect camouflage, because they have heightened sensitivity to visual patterns and their visual sensitivity curve is different from that of people with normal sight. Military camouflage schemes now are designed with dyes of defined spectral properties &mdash; even outside the range of [[Optical spectrum|visible light]] to avoid detection by technical means like night vision (NODs, night observation devices) or thermal imaging devices. This idea was first trialled by the German Army in late 1944 as the ''Leibermuster'' pattern. It has been argued that eventually the military will stop using simple visual camouflage as it is of such diminishing utility.
The opposite of camouflage is making a person or object more visible and easier to recognize, for example with [[retroreflector]]s and [[high-visibility clothing]]. There are hunting garments with bright orange patches that stand out to the eyes of other hunters, but are supposed to be a tone-match to the colour-blind g |
f outright [[starvation]] for an extended period. The marines, poorly disciplined themselves in many cases, were not interested in convict discipline. Almost at once, therefore, Phillip had to appoint overseers from among the ranks of the convicts to get the others working. This was the beginning of the process of convict emancipation which was to culminate in the reforms of [[Lachlan Macquarie]] after [[1811]].
Phillip showed in other ways that he recognised that [[New South Wales]] could not be run simply as a prison camp. Two convicts, Henry and Suzannah Kable, sought to sue the captain of one the transport ships for stealing their possessions during the voyage. Convicts in Britain had no right to sue. But Phillip not only allowed this, he found in their favour, and ordered the captain to make restitution. Phillip had said before leaving England: "In a new country there will be no slavery and hence no slaves," and he meant what he said. Nevertheless, Phillip believed in discipline, and floggings and hangings were commonplace.
Phillip also had to adopt a policy towards the [[Iora]] [[Australian Aborigine|Aboriginal people]], who lived around the waters of [[Sydney Harbour]]. Phillip ordered that they must be well-treated, and that anyone killing Aboriginal people would be hanged. Phillip befriended an Iora man called [[Bennelong]], and later took him to England. On the beach at [[Manly, New South Wales|Manly]], a misunderstanding arose and Phillip was speared in the shoulder: but he ordered his men not to retaliate. Phillip went some way towards winning the trust of the Iora, although the settlers were at all times treated extremely warily. Soon, [[smallpox]] and other European-introduced [[epidemic|epidemics]] ravaged the Iora population.
The Governor's main problem was with his own military officers, who wanted large grants of land, to which Phillip would not agree. The officers were expected to grow food, but they considered this beneath them. As a result [[scurvy]] broke out, and in October [[1788]] Phillip had to send ''Sirius'' to [[Cape Town]] for supplies, and strict rationing was introduced, with thefts of food punished by [[hanging]].
[[Image:Arthur Phillip - Project Gutenberg eText 12992.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|'''Arthur Phillip''']]
==Stabilising the colony==
By [[1790]] the situation had stabilised. The population of about 2,000 was adequately housed and fresh food was being grown. Phillip assigned a convict, [[James Ruse]], land at [[Rose Hill]] (now [[Parramatta]]) to establish proper farming, and when Ruse succeeded others followed. But in June [[1790]] the [[Second Fleet]] arrived with hundreds more convicts, most of them too sick to work. ''Sirius'' was wrecked in March [[1790]], depriving Phillip of vital supplies. In an attempt to relieve the overcrowding, Phillip established a satellite settlement at [[Norfolk Island]], which later developed a terrible reputation as a place of severe punishment.
By December [[1790]] Phillip was ready to return to England, but the colony had largely been forgotten in London and no instructions reached him, so he carried on. In [[1791]] he was advised that the government would send out two convoys of convicts annually, plus adequate supplies. But July, when the vessels of the [[Third Fleet]] began to arrive, with 2,000 more convicts, food again ran short, and he had to send a ship to [[Calcutta]] for supplies.
By [[1792]] the colony was well-established, though Sydney remained an unplanned huddle of wooden huts and tents. The [[whaling|whaling industry]] was established, ships were visiting Sydney to trade, and convicts whose sentences had expired were taking up farming. [[John Macarthur (wool pioneer)|John Macarthur]] and other officers were importing sheep and beginning to grow wool. The colony was still very short of skilled farmers, craftsmen and tradesmen, and the convicts continued to work as little as possible, even though they were working mainly to grow their own food.
In late [[1792]] Phillip, whose health was suffering from the poor diet, at last received permission to leave, and on [[11 December]] [[1792]] he sailed in the ship ''Atlantic'', taking with him Bennelong and many specimens of plants and animals. The European population of New South Wales at his departure was 4,221, of whom 3,099 were convicts. The early years of the colony had been years of struggle and hardship, but the worst was over, and there were no further famines in New South Wales. Phillip arrived in London in May [[1793]]. He tendered his formal resignation and was granted a pension of 500 pounds a year.
[[Image:ArthurPhillipStatueSydney_gobeirne.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Statue of Arthur Phillip in the [[Royal Botanical Gardens, Sydney]].]]
==Later life==
Phillip's wife, Margaret, had died in [[1792]]. In [[1794]] he married [[Isabella Whitehead]], and lived for a time at [[Bath]]. His health gradually recovered and in [[1796]] he went back to sea, holding a series of commands and responsible posts in the wars against the French. In January [[1799]] he became a Rear-Admiral. In [[1805]], aged 67, he retired from the Navy with the rank of [[Admiral]], and spent most of the rest of his life at Bath. He continued to correspond with friends in New South Wales and to promote the colony's interests with government officials. He died at Bath in [[1814]].
Phillip was buried in St Nicholas's Church, [[Bathampton]]. Forgotten for many years, the grave was discovered in [[1897]] and the Premier of New South Wales, [[Henry Parkes|Sir Henry Parkes]], had it restored. A monument to Phillip in [[Bath Abbey]] Church was unveiled in [[1937]]. Another was unveiled at St Mildred's Church, Bread St, London, in 1932; that church was destroyed in the London Blitz in 1940, but the principal elements of the monument were re-erected at the west end of Watling Street, near [[Saint Paul's Cathedral]], in [[1968]]. There is a statue of him in the [[Royal Botanical Gardens, Sydney|Botanic Gardens, Sydney]]. There is an excellent portrait in the [[National Portrait Gallery, London]]. His name is commemorated in Australia by [[Port Phillip]], [[Phillip Island]] and many streets, parks and schools.
[[Alan Serle]] wrote of Phillip in the ''Australian Dictionary of Biography'': "Steadfast in mind, modest, without self seeking, Phillip had imagination enough to conceive what the settlement might become, and the common sense to realize what at the moment was possible and expedient. When almost everyone was complaining he never himself complained, when all feared disaster he could still hopefully go on with his work. He was sent out to found a convict settlement, he laid the foundations of a great dominion."
==Further reading==
*M Barnard Eldershaw, ''Phillip of Australia'', Angus and Robertson 1938
==External links==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Arthur+Phillip | name=Arthur Phillip}}
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/15100 The Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay] With an Account of the Establishment of the Colonies of [[Port Jackson]] and [[Norfolk Island]] ([[1789]]) - from [[Project Gutenberg]]
* [http://aphs.nsw.edu.au/| Arthur Phillip High School], [[Parramatta]] - state high ( years 7-12) school named for Phillip
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Governor of New South Wales]] | before=''(none)'' | after=[[John Hunter (New South Wales)|John Hunter]] | years=1788-1792}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1738 births|Phillip, Arthur]]
[[Category:1814 deaths|Phillip, Arthur]]
[[Category:Royal Navy admirals|Phillip, Arthur]]
[[Category:Governors of New South Wales|Phillip, Arthur]]
[[Category:City founders|Phillip, Arthur]]
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<page>
<title>April 10</title>
<id>2564</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:59:49Z</timestamp>
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<username>Str1977</username>
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{| style="float:right;"
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'''April 10''' is the 100th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (101st in [[leap year]]s). There are 265 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1741]] - [[Prussia]] defeats [[Austria]] in the [[Battle of Mollwitz]]
*[[1790]] - [[United States]] Patent system established
*[[1815]] - [[Mount Tambora]] eruption covers several islands with ash in [[Indonesia]].
*[[1816]] - The [[United States|U.S.]] government approved the creation of a [[Second Bank of the United States]].
*[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: A day after his surrender to [[United States|Union]] forces, [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[Robert E. Lee]] addresses his troops for the last time.
*[[1866]] - The [[American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals]] [[(ASPCA)]] is founded in New York City by [[Henry Bergh]].
*[[1906]] - [[The Four Million]], [[O. Henry]]'s second [[short story]] collection, is published.
*[[1912]] - The [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] leaves port in [[Southampton]], [[England]].
*[[1916]] - The [[Professional Golfers Association of America]] (PGA) is created in [[New York City]] by 82 [[charter]] members.
*[[1919]] - [[Mexican Revolution]] leader [[Emiliano Zapata]] is ambushed and shot dead by government forces in [[Morelos]].
*[[1925]] - [[The Great Gatsby]] by [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] is first published in [[New York, New York]] by [[Charles Scribner's Sons]].
*[[1933]] - [[New Deal]]: The [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] is created.
*[[1938]] - [[Édouard Daladier]] becomes Prime Minister of [[France]]
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Axis Powers]] in [[Europe]] establish the [[Independent State of Croatia]] from occupied [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] with [[Ante Pavelic|Ante Pave |
.uk/~scsharip/bookpage.htm Carbon Nanotubes and Related Structures - New Materials for the Twenty-First Century, P.J.F. Harris (Cambridge University Press, 1999)] Introductory textbook
* {{cite journal | author=Deepak Srivastava and Chenyu Wei| title=Nanomechanics of Carbon Nanotubes and Composite | journal=Applied Mechanics Review | volume=56 | issue=2 | year=2003 | pages=215–230}}
* {{cite journal | author=Dong Qian et al. | title=Mechanics of Carbon Nanotubes | journal=Applied Mechanical Review | volume=55 | issue=6 | year=2002 | pages=495–533}}
* Dekker, C., Carbon Nanotubes as Molecular Quantum Wires, Phys. Today, 1999, May, 22-28.
* Derycke, V., Mertel, R., Appenzeller, J., Avouris, Ph., Carbon Nanotube Inter- and Intramolecular Logic Gates, Nano Lett., 2001, 1, 453-456.
* Zhu, H. W., Xu, C. L., Wu, D. H., Wei, B. Q., Vajtai, R., Ajayan, P. M., Direct Synthesis of Long Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Strands, Science, 2002, 296, 884.
[[Category:Materials]]
[[Category:Nanotechnology]]
[[Category:Carbon forms]]
[[da:Kulstof-nanorør]]
[[de:Kohlenstoffnanoröhre]]
[[es:Nanotubo]]
[[fi:Nanoputki]]
[[fr:Nanotube]]
[[it:Nanotubo di carbonio]]
[[ja:カーボンナノチューブ]]
[[pl:Nanorurka]]
[[pt:Nanotubo de Carbono]]
[[ru:Углеродные нанотрубки]]
[[sv:Nanorör]]
[[zh:碳纳米管]]
{{Link FA|fr}}</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Czech Republic</title>
<id>5321</id>
<revision>
<id>42154202</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:24:37Z</timestamp>
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<ip>70.72.236.243</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country|
native_name = Česká republika<br>Czech Republic |
common_name = Czech Republic |
image_flag = Flag of the Czech Republic.svg |
image_coat = Coat of arms of the Czech Republic.png|
image_map = LocationCzechRepublic.png |
national_motto = ''Pravda vítězí'' ([[Czech language|Czech]] for "Truth prevails")|
national_anthem = ''[[Kde domov můj]]'' |
official_languages = [[Czech language|Czech]] |
capital = [[Prague]] |
latd=50|latm=05|latNS=N|longd=14|longm=28|longEW=E|
largest_city = [[Prague]] |
government_type= [[Republic]] |
leader_titles = [[President of the Czech Republic|President]]<br />[[List of Prime Ministers of the Czech Republic|Prime Minister]] |
leader_names = [[Václav Klaus]]<br />[[Jiří Paroubek]] |
area_rank = 114st |
area_magnitude = 1_E10 |
area=78,866 |
areami² = 30,450 | <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
percent_water = 2.0% |
population_estimate = 10,241,138 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 79th |
population_census= 10,230,060 |
population_census_year= 2001 |
population_density = 130 |
population_densitymi² = 337 | <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
population_density_rank=58th |
religion = [[Roman Catholicism]], [[atheism]] |
GDP_PPP_year=2005 |
GDP_PPP = $198,976 million |
GDP_PPP_rank = 41st |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $19,488 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 39th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.874 |
HDI_rank = 31st |
HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font> |
sovereignty_type = [[Formation]]<br/>[[Independence]] |
established_events = &nbsp;•&nbsp;Regained<br/>&nbsp;•&nbsp;Dismemberment |
established_dates = [[9th century]]<br/><br/>[[October 28]], [[1918]]<br/>[[January 1]], [[1993]] |
currency = [[Czech koruna]] |
currency_code = CZK |
time_zone= [[Central European Time|CET]] |
utc_offset= +1 |
time_zone_DST= [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] |
utc_offset_DST= +2 |
cctld= [[.cz]] |
calling_code = 420<sup>1</sup> |
footnotes = <sup>1</sup> Shared code 42 with [[Slovakia]] until [[1997]]
}}
The '''Czech Republic''' ([[Czech language|Czech]]: ''Česká republika'') is a [[landlocked]] country in [[Central Europe]]. The country has borders with [[Poland]] to the north, [[Germany]] to the northwest and west, [[Austria]] to the south, and [[Slovakia]] to the east. Historic [[Prague]] ([[Czech language|Czech]]: ''Praha''), a major [[tourism|tourist]] attraction, is its capital and largest city. Other major cities include [[Brno]], [[Ostrava]], [[Zlín]], [[Plzeň]], [[Pardubice]], [[Hradec Králové]], [[České Budějovice]], [[Liberec]], [[Olomouc]], and [[Ústí nad Labem]].
The country is composed of two entire historic regions, [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]], parts of [[Silesia]] and small sections of historic [[Lower Austria]].
The Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs in [[1993]] announced that the name '''Czechia''' is to be used in all situations other than formal official documents and the full names of government institutions [http://www.p.lodz.pl/I35/personal/jw37/EUROPE/cesko2.htm], [http://www.p.lodz.pl/I35/personal/jw37/EUROPE/cesko1.htm], but this has not caught on in English usage. Its [[Czech language|Czech]] equivalent ''Česko'' faced opposition of the [[Czech people]] as well, but now it seems to be quite settled down in the language. ''See [[Names of the Czech Republic]] and [[Czech lands]].''
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of the Czech lands]]''
Archaeologists have found evidence of prehistoric human settlement in the area dating back to the [[Neolithic]] era. In the classical era, from the 3rd century [[Anno Domini|BC]] [[Celts|Celtic]] migrations, the [[Boii]] (see [[Bohemia]]) and later in the 1st century Germanic tribes of [[Marcomanni]] and [[Quadi]] settled there. During the [[Migration Period]] of ca. the 5th century, many Germanic tribes moved westward and southward out of Central Europe. In an equally significant migration, [[Slavic peoples|Slavic people]] from the [[Black Sea]] and [[Carpathian]] regions settled in the area (a movement that was also stimulated by the onslaught of peoples from Siberia and Eastern Europe: [[Huns]], [[Avars]], [[Bulgars]] and [[Magyars]]). Following in the Germans' wake, they moved southward into Bohemia, Moravia, and some of present day Austria.
During the [[7th century]] the Frankish merchant [[Samo]], supporting the Slavs fighting their Avar rulers, became the ruler of the first known Slav state in Central Europe. The Moravian principality arose in the 8th century (see under [[Great Moravia]]).
The [[History of the_Czechs|Bohemian or Czech state]] emerged in the late [[9th century]] when it was unified by the [[Premyslid dynasty|Přemyslids]]. The [[Kingdom (politics)|kingdom]] of [[Bohemia]] was a significant local power during the Middle Ages. It was part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] during the entire existence of this confederation.
Religious conflicts such as the [[15th century]] [[Hussite Wars]] and the [[17th century]] [[Thirty Years War]] had a devastating effect on the local population. Bohemia later came under [[Habsburg]] influence and became part of [[Austria-Hungary]].
Following the collapse of this empire after [[World War I]], the independent republic of [[Czechoslovakia]] was created in [[1918]]. This new country contained large [[German people|German]], [[Hungarian]] and [[Polish]] minorities. Although Czechoslovakia was a democratic and liberal state guaranteeing and also implementing cultural and language rights to its minorities (schools in German language areas were entirely German), the centralistic state did not grant its minorities territorial political autonomy, which resulted in discontent and strong support among the minorities to break away from [[Czechoslovakia]]. Hitler used the opportunity and, supported by Konrad Henlein's Sudeten German Party, gained the majority German speaking [[Sudetenland]] through the [[Munich Agreement]]. Poland occupied majority Polish speaking areas around [[Cesky Tesin]], while Slovakia gained greater autonomy, with the state being renamed to "Czecho-Slovakia". Eventually Slovakia broke away further in [[1939]] and the remaining Czech territory was occupied by Hitler who installed the so-called [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]], which was proclaimed part of the Reich and where the Protectorate President and Prime Minister were subordinate to the Nazi ''[[Reichsprotektor]]'' ('imperial protector'). Appr. 125,000 citizens, including 83,000 Jews, were killed, and hundreds of thousand of others were sent to prisons and concentration camps or forced labour. Czechoslovak government-in-exile and its army fighting against Nazis were acknowledged by Allies.
From [[1945]] to [[1948]] the [[Sudetenland]] was cleansed of ethnic Germans (under the so-called [[Beneš decrees]] and the [[Treaty of Potsdam]]). About 3 million Germans, almost the entire German minority of pre-War Czechoslovakia, were expelled to [[Germany]] and [[Austria]]. As a consequence, 15,000 - 30,000 (according to the official German-Czech Committee of Historians) Germans were killed or otherwise died. Only a few who had been active in the resistance or were required for economic reasons were allowed to stay, though many of them emigrated later due to the anti-German sentiment prevalent in post War Czechoslovakia.
In 1948, a reconstituted Czechoslovakia fell within the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[sphere of influence]]. In [[1968]], an invasion by [[Warsaw Pact]] troops ended the efforts of the country's leaders to liberalize party rule and create "[[socialism]] with a human face" during the [[Prague Spring]].
In [[1989]], Czechoslovakia regained its political independence through a peaceful "[[Velvet Revolution]]". On [[January 1]], [[1993]], the country peacefully [[Velvet Divorce|split in two]], creating the independent Czech and [[Slovakia|Slovak]] republics.
The Czech Republic joined [[NATO]] in [[1999]] and the [[European Union]] on [[May 1]], [[2004]].
== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of the Czech Republic]]''
According to its [[Constitution of Czech republic| constitution]], the Czech Republic is a parliamentary democracy whose [[head of state]] is a [[President of the |
eitel. Second row: Dönitz, Raeder, Schirach, Sauckel.]]
There were a number of legal efforts established to bring Nazis and their collaborators to justice. Some of the higher ranking Nazi officials were tried as part of the [[Nuremberg Trials]], presided over by an Allied court; the first international tribunal of its kind. In total, 5,025 Nazi criminals were convicted between 1945-1949 in the American, British and French zones of Germany. Other trials were conducted in the countries in which the defendants were citizens -- in West Germany and Austria, many Nazis were let off with light sentences, with the claim of "following orders" ruled a mitigating circumstance, and many returned to society soon afterwards. An ongoing effort to [[Pursuit of Nazi collaborators|pursue Nazis and collaborators]] resulted, famously, in the trial of Holocaust organizer [[Adolf Eichmann]] in Israel in 1961.
===Legal action against genocide===
The Holocaust also galvanized the international community to take action against future genocide, including the [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]] in 1948. While international human rights law moved forward quickly in the wake of the Holocaust, international criminal law has been slower to advance; after the Nuremberg trials and the Japanese war crime trials it was over forty years until the next such international criminal procedures, in [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia|1993 in Yugoslavia]].
==Impact on culture==
===Holocaust theology===
On account of the magnitude of the Holocaust, many theologians have re-examined the classical theological views on God's goodness and actions in the world. Some believers and [[apostate]]s question whether people can still have any faith after the Holocaust, and some of the theological responses to these questions are explored in [[Holocaust theology]].
===Art and literature===
{{main|The Holocaust in Art and Literature}}
German philopsopher [[Theodor Adorno]] famously commented that "writing poetry after [[Auschwitz]] is barbaric," and the Holocaust has indeed had a profound impact on art and literature, for both Jews and non-Jews. Some of the more famous works are by Holocaust survivors or victims, such as [[Elie Wiesel]], [[Primo Levi]], and [[Anne Frank]], but there is a substantial body of literature and art in many languages. Indeed, [[Paul Celan]] wrote his poem ''Todesfuge'' as a direct response to Adorno's dictum.
The Holocaust has also been the subject of many films, including Oscar winners ''[[Schindler's List]]'' and ''[[Life is Beautiful]]''. With the aging population of Holocaust survivors, there has been increasing attention in recent years to preserving the memory of the Holocaust. The result has included extensive efforts to document their stories, including the Survivors of the Shoah project, as well as [[Holocaust memorials|institutions devoted to memorializing and studying the Holocaust]], including [[Yad Vashem]] in Israel and the [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|US Holocaust Museum]].
===Holocaust Memorial Days===
{{main|Yom HaShoah}}
In a unanimous vote, the [[United Nations]] General Assembly voted on [[November 1]], [[2005]], to designate [[January 27]] as the "International Day of Commemoration in Memory of the Victims of the Holocaust." January 27, 1945 is the day that the former Nazi concentration and extermination camp of Auschwitz-Birkenau was liberated. Even before the UN vote, January 27 was already observed as [[Holocaust Memorial Day (UK)|Holocaust Memorial Day in the United Kingdom]] since 2001, as well as other countries, including Sweden, Italy, Germany, Finland, Denmark and Estonia. Israel observes [[Yom HaShoah|Yom Hashoah]], the "Day of Rememberence of the Holocaust," on the 27th day of the Hebrew month of [[Nisan]], which generally falls in April.
==Notes==
#{{note|whatis}} Donald L Niewyk, ''The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust,'' Columbia University Press, 2000, p.45: "The Holocaust is commonly defined as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II." Niewyk than explains that there is a debate among scholars over whether the Holocaust only refers to Jewish victims, or to all groups targeted by the Nazis, or to some subset of those groups. All scholars agree that other groups were targeted by the Nazis, but not all believe that the victims are part of the Holocaust. This article uses a wide definition of the Holocaust to include all groups systematically targeted by the Nazis.
#{{note|whichgroups}} Among the historians arguing that the Holocaust should refer only to Jews are Yehuda Baur and Guenter Levy. Those arguing the Holocaust includes Jews and Roma include Ian Hancock, Sybil Milton, and Donald Kendrick. Henry Friedlander argues that the definition should include Jews, Roma, and the handicapped. Richard Lukas and Ihor Karmenetsky include Poles among the Holocaust victims. Bodan Wytwycky includes Poles and Soviets. Richard Plant and F. Rector argue that homosexuals should be included, while Gunter Grau and Rodiger Lautmann argue against including gay men in the Holocaust.
#{{note|totalkilled}} [http://www.holocaustforgotten.com/non-jewishvictims.htm Holocaust Forgotten] lists 5 million non-Jewish victims of the Holocaust, Niewyk suggests that the broadest definitions of the Holocaust would have as many as 17 million victims. The 26 million number is given in Service d'Information des Crimes de Guerre: Crimes contre la Personne Humain, Camps de Concentration (Paris, 1946), 197. For details on the number of victims given in the introduction, please see the death toll section.
#{{note|shoah}}"[http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/index_before_change_table.asp?gate=0-2 The Holocaust: Definition and Preliminary Discussion]," Yad Vashem (accessed June 8, 2005) And www.berkeleyinternet.com/holocaust/
#{{note|overy}} Richard Overy, ''Russia's War.'' Penguin Books; 1998.
#{{note|gilbert1}} Martin Gilbert, ''The Oxford Companion to World War II'' Oxford: Oxford UP, 1995
#{{note|trdd}} [http://www.trdd.org/EUGBR_4E.HTM Euthanasia and Eugenics], trdd.org (accessed June 8, 2005)
#{{note|others}}"[http://www.uca.edu/divisions/academic/history/cahr/holocaust.htm The Forgotten Holocaust] Karen Silverstrim,Univeristy of Central Arkansas
#{{note|Haffner}} Sebastain Haffner, ''The Meaning of Hitler'' ISBN 0674557751, translated from Anmerkungen zu Hitler, Publishing house. Fischer Taschenbuch, Frankfurt am Main. ISBN 3-596-23489-1.
#{{note|hancock}}"[http://www.chgs.umn.edu/Histories__Narratives__Documen/Roma___Sinti__Gypsies_/Jewish_Responses_to_the_Porraj/jewish_responses_to_the_porraj.html Jewish Response to the Porrajmos (The Romani Holocaust)]," Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, University of Minnesota (accessed June 24, 2005). Death tolls given at [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/index.php?ModuleId=10005219&Type=normal+article United States Holocaust Museum]
#{{note|polesauschwitz}} Yisrael Gutman, Michael Berenbaum, Raul Hilberg, Franciszek Piper, Yehuda Baur, ''Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp'', Indiana University Press, 1998, p.70
#{{note|soviet}} Donald L Niewyk, ''The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust,'' Columbia University Press, 200, p 49
#{{note|pinktriangle}} Heinz Heger, ''Men with the Pink Triangle,'' Alyson Publishing: 1994
#{{note|euth}} "[http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/euthan.htm Euthenasia Program]" from the US Holocaust Museum's Encyclopedia of the Holocaust
#{{note|blacks}} [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005479 Blacks during the Holocaust]from the US Holocaust Museum's Encyclopedia of the Holocaust
#{{note|JP}}Douglas Davis, "[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/jpost/abstract/64152996.html?did=64152996&FMT=ABS&FMTS=FT&date=May+20%2C+1997&author=DOUGLAS+DAVIS&desc=7+million+died+in+Holocaust 7 million died in Holocaust]," ''Jerusalem Post'', May 20, 1997 (accessed June 8, 2005).
#{{note|howmany}} "[http://www1.yadvashem.org/about_holocaust/faqs/answers/faq_3.html How many Jews were murdered in the Holocaust? How do we know? Do we have their names?]," Yad Vashem (accessed June 8, 2005). A detailed breakdown of various estimates of the victims is available from the [http://www1.ushmm.org/research/library/index.php?content=faq/index.php%23topic01-question02 Online Library of the United States Holocaust Museum] (accessed August 10, 2005)
#{{note|polishvictims}} [http://www.ushmm.org/education/resource/poles/poles.php?menu=/export/home/www/doc_root/education/foreducators/include/menu.txt&bgcolor=CD9544 Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era] at the US Holocaust Museum
#{{note|Hilberg}} Hilberg, Raul. The destruction of the European Jews (Yale Univ. Press, 2003, c1961).
#{{note|Hilberg2}} Yisrael Gutman, Michael Berenbaum, Raul Hilberg, Franciszek Piper, Yehuda Baur, ''Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp'', Indiana University Press, 1998, p.71.
#{{note|Gilbert}}Gilbert, Martin, Atlas of the Holocaust, New York: William Morrow and Compnay, Inc, 1993.
#{{note|Dawidowicz}} Lucy Dawidowicz, The War Against The Jews, 1933-1945, New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975 ISBN 003013661X
#{{note|BenzGutman}} Wolfgang Benz in Dimension des Volksmords: Die Zahl der Judischen Opfer des Nationalsocialismus (Munich: Deutscher Taschebuch Verlag, 1991). Israel Gutman, ''Encyclopedia of the Holocaust,'' MacMillan Reference Books; Reference edition (October 1, 1995)
#{{note|gilbert2}} Gilbert, ''The Oxford Companion to World War II''
#{{note|perp}} Donald L Niewyk, ''The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust,'' Columbia University Press, 200, p 83-87. For Reserve Police 101 see Browning, Christopher R., Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland, New York, Harper Collins, 1992
#{{note|Romania}}"[http://www.ushmm.org/research/ |
4
| 198,500
| 4,822,166
|-
| align="left" | {{OMN}}
| 13
| 212,460
| 2,713,462
|-
| align="left" | {{SAU}}
| 12
| 1,960,582
| 23,513,330
|-
| align="left" | {{TKM}}
| 9.6
| 488,100
| 4,688,963
|-
| align="left" | {{KAZ}}
| 6.2
| 2,717,300
| 16,741,519
|-
| align="left" | {{RUS}}
| 3.0
| 13,083,100
| 39,129,729
|-
| align="left" | {{MNG}}
| 1.7
| 1,565,000
| 2,694,432
|- style="font-weight:bold;"
| align="left" | Total
|
| 45,711,848
| 3,895,528,341
|}
</center>
==Religion==
A large majority of people in the world who practice a religious faith practice one founded in Asia.
Religions founded in Asia and with a majority of their contemporary adherents in Asia include:
*[[Bahá'í Faith]]: slightly more than half of all adherents are in Asia
*[[Buddhism]]: [[Cambodia]], [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[Laos]], [[Mongolia]], [[Myanmar]], [[Singapore]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]], parts of northern, eastern, and western [[India]], and parts of central and eastern [[Russia]] (Siberia).
**[[Mahayana Buddhism]]: China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, Vietnam.
**[[Theravada Buddhism]]: Cambodia, parts of China, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, as well as parts of [[Vietnam]].
**[[Vajrayana Buddhism]]: Parts of China, [[Mongolia]], parts of northern and eastern [[India]], parts of central, eastern [[Russia]] and [[Siberia]].
*[[Hinduism]]: [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Pakistan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Bali]].
*[[Islam]]: [[Central Asia|Central]], [[South Asia|South]], and [[Southwest Asia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Philippines]] [[Brunei]] and [[Indonesia]].
**[[Shia Islam]]: largely to specific [[Iran]], [[Azerbaijan]], parts of [[Iraq]], [[Bahrain]], parts of [[Afghanistan]], parts of [[India]], parts of [[Pakistan]].
**[[Sunni Islam]]: dominant in the rest of the regions mentioned above.
*[[Jainism]]: [[India]]
*[[Qadiani]]: [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[India]].
*[[Shinto]]: [[Japan]]
*[[Sikhism]]: [[India]], [[Malaysia]], [[Hong Kong]]
*[[Daoism]]: [[China]], [[Korea]], [[Vietnam]], [[Singapore]], and [[Taiwan]]
*[[Zoroastrianism]]: [[Iran]], [[India]], [[Pakistan]]
*[[Shamanism]]: [[Siberia]]
*[[Animism]]: Eastern [[India]]
Religions founded in Asia that have the majority of their contemporary adherents in other regions include:
*[[Christianity]] ([[Lebanon]], [[Syria]], [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]], [[Armenia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[South Korea]], [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], [[East Timor]], [[Pakistan]], [[India]] and the [[Philippines]])
*[[Judaism]] (slightly fewer than half of its adherents reside in Asia; [[Israel]], [[Iran]], [[India]], [[Syria]].)
==See also==
{{commons|Asia}}
*[[Assuwa]]
*[[Asia Minor]]
*[[Pan-Asianism]]
==References==
{{unsourced}}
==External links==
*http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/asia.html
*http://www.freeworldmaps.net/asia/index.html
{{Continent}}
{{Region}}
[[Category:Asia| ]]
[[Category:Continents]]
[[af:Asië]]
[[ar:آسيا]]
[[an:Asia]]
[[ast:Asia]]
[[bg:Азия]]
[[zh-min-nan:A-chiu]]
[[bn:এশিয়া]]
[[bs:Azija]]
[[br:Azia]]
[[ca:Àsia]]
[[ceb:Asya]]
[[cs:Asie]]
[[cy:Asia]]
[[da:Asien]]
[[de:Asien]]
[[et:Aasia]]
[[el:Ασία]]
[[es:Asia]]
[[eo:Azio]]
[[eu:Asia]]
[[fa:آسیا]]
[[fo:Asia]]
[[fr:Asie]]
[[fy:Aazje]]
[[ga:An Áise]]
[[gl:Asia]]
[[gu:એશિયા]]
[[ko:아시아]]
[[ht:Azi]]
[[hi:एशिया]]
[[hr:Azija]]
[[io:Azia]]
[[id:Asia]]
[[ia:Asia]]
[[is:Asía]]
[[it:Asia]]
[[he:אסיה]]
[[ka:აზია (ქვეყნის ნაწილი)]]
[[csb:Azëjô]]
[[kw:Asi]]
[[sw:Asia]]
[[ku:Asya]]
[[la:Asia]]
[[lt:Azija]]
[[lb:Asien]]
[[li:Azië]]
[[jbo:zdotu'a]]
[[hu:Ázsia]]
[[mk:Азија]]
[[mg:Azia]]
[[ms:Asia]]
[[mo:Асия]]
[[my:အာရ္ဟတိုက္]]
[[nl:Azië]]
[[nds:Asien]]
[[ja:アジア]]
[[no:Asia]]
[[nn:Asia]]
[[os:Ази]]
[[pl:Azja]]
[[pt:Ásia]]
[[ro:Asia]]
[[ru:Азия]]
[[se:Ásia]]
[[sa:एशिया]]
[[simple:Asia]]
[[sk:Ázia]]
[[sl:Azija]]
[[sr:Азија]]
[[su:Asia]]
[[fi:Aasia]]
[[sv:Asien]]
[[tl:Asya]]
[[ta:ஆசியா]]
[[th:ทวีปเอเชีย]]
[[vi:Châu Á]]
[[tr:Asya]]
[[uk:Азія]]
[[war:Asya]]
[[yi:אזיע]]
[[zh:亚洲]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aruba</title>
<id>690</id>
<revision>
<id>41860401</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T05:03:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Justin Eiler</username>
<id>312798</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style =" "margin-left:" 0.5em;" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="260px"
|+ <font size="+1">'''Aruba'''</font>
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan=2 |
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
|-
| align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Flag of Aruba.png|125px|Flag of Aruba]]
| align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Aruba coa.png|100px]]
|-
| align="center" width="140px" | ([[Flag of Aruba|In Detail]])
| align="center" width="140px" | ([[Coat of Arms of Aruba|In Detail]])
|}
|-
| align="center" colspan=2 | <font size="-1">''National [[motto]]: One Happy Island''</font>
|-
| align="center" colspan=2 | [[Image:LocationAruba.png|Location of Aruba]]
|-
| [[Official language]] || [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
|-
| [[Political status]] || Dependent area of the [[Netherlands]]
|-
| [[Capital]] || [[Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]]
|-
| [[Dutch monarchy|Queen]]
| [[Beatrix of the Netherlands|Beatrix]]
|-
| [[Governor]] || [[Fredis Refunjol]]
|-
| [[Prime Minister of Aruba|Prime Minister]]
| [[Nelson O. Oduber]]
|-
| [[Area]]<br />&nbsp;- Total <br />&nbsp;- % water
| (Not ranked)<br /> [[1 E8 m²|180 km&sup2;]] <br /> Negligible
|-
| [[Population]]
<br />&nbsp;- Total (2004 est.)
<br />&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| (Ranked 187)
<br /> 103,000 (2004)
<br /> 363/km&sup2;
|-
| [[Currency]] || [[Aruban florin]]
|-
| [[Time zone]]
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -4
|-
| [[National anthem]] || [[Aruba Dushi Tera]]
|-
| [[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]] || [[.aw]]
|-
| [[List_of_country_calling_codes|Calling Code]]
| +297
|}
'''Aruba''' is an [[island]] in the [[Caribbean Sea]], just a short distance north of the [[Venezuela]]n [[Paraguaná Peninsula]], and it forms a part of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. Unlike much of the Caribbean region, it has a dry climate and an arid, cactus-strewn landscape. This climate has helped tourism, however, as visitors to the island can reliably expect warm, sunny weather.
==History==
:''Main article: [[History of Aruba]]''
Discovered and claimed for [[Spain]] in 1499, Aruba was acquired by the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] in 1636. The island's economy has been dominated by three main industries. A [[19th century|19th-century]] [[gold]] rush was followed by prosperity brought on by the opening in 1924 of an [[Petroleum|oil]] refinery. The last decades of the [[20th century]] saw a boom in the [[tourism]] industry.
Aruba seceded from the [[Netherlands Antilles]] on [[January 1]], [[1986]], and became a separate, self-governing member of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. Movement toward full independence by [[1996]] was halted at Aruba's request in 1990.
==Politics==
:''Main article: [[Politics of Aruba]]''
Aruba is a part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, but maintains full control over its own affairs except for issues dealing with national defence, citizenship, foreign affairs, and extradition. Aruba has its own laws, constitution, government, and currency.
The Aruban [[head of state]] is the ruling monarch of the [[Netherlands]], who is represented in Aruba by a [[governor]], appointed for a six-year term. The [[head of government]] is the [[Prime Minister]], who forms, together with the Council of Ministers, the [[executive branch]] of the government.
They are elected by the [[parliament]], the [[unicameral]] Legislature or ''Staten'', which holds 21 seats. Members are elected by direct, popular vote to serve four-year terms.
==Geography==
:''Main article: [[Geography of Aruba]]''
Aruba is a generally flat, [[river]]less island renowned for its white sand [[beach]]es. Most of these are located on the western and southern coasts of the island, which are relatively sheltered from fierce ocean currents. The northern and eastern coasts, lacking this protection, are considerably more battered by the sea and have been left largely untouched by humans. The interior of the island features some rolling hills, the better two of which are called [[Hooiberg]] at 165 [[metre]]s (541 [[foot (unit of length|ft]]) and [[Mount Jamanota]], which is the highest on the island, at 188 metres (617 ft) above [[sea level]]. Oranjestad, the capital, is located at {{coor dm|12|19|N|70|1|W|}}.
As a separate member state of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]], the island/state has no administrative subdivisions. On the east are [[Curaçao]] and [[Bonaire]],two island territories which form the southwest part of the [[Netherlands Antilles]]; Aruba and these two Netherlands Antilles islands are also known as the [[ABC islands]].
The local [[climate]] is a pleasant tropical marine climate. Little seasonal temperature variation exists, which helps Aruba to attract tourists all year round. Temperatures are almost constant at about 28&nbsp;[[Celsius|°C]] (82&nbsp;[[Fahrenheit|°F]]), moderated by constant [[trade wind]]s from the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Yearly precipitation barely reaches 500 [[millimeter|mm]] (20 [[inch|in]]), most of it falling in late autumn. [[Image:Aruba_map.png|right|Map of Aruba with cities]]
==Economy==
:''Main article: [[Economy of Aruba]]''
Aruba enjoys one of the highest standards of living |
not depressed (1).
[[image:HPSCHD_shove_coupler.JPG|center|frame|shove coupler (French system)]]
[[image:HPSCHD_dogleg_jack.JPG|center|frame|dogleg jack (English system)]]
==Variants==
While the terms used to denote various members of the family have been quite standardized today, in the harpsichord's heyday, this was not the case.
===Harpsichord===
In modern usage, a harpsichord can either mean all the members of the family, or more specifically, the [[Grand piano|grand-piano]]-shaped member, with a vaguely triangular case accommodating long [[Bass (musical term)|bass]] strings at the left and short [[treble]] strings at the right; characteristically, the profile is more elongated than that of a modern piano, with a sharper curve to the [[bentside]].
A harpsichord can have from one to three, and occasionally even more, strings per [[note]]. Often one is at [[four-foot|4-foot]] pitch, an octave higher than the normal [[eight-foot|8-foot]] pitch.
Single manuals, or [[musical keyboard|keyboards]], are common, especially in Italian harpsichords, though other countries occasionally produced double manuals and there are a few examples of three manual German instruments.
===Virginals===
The '''virginal''' or '''virginals''' is a smaller and simpler rectangular form of the harpsichord (that looks somewhat like a [[clavichord]]), with only one string per note running parallel to the keyboard on the long side of the case. The origin of the word is obscure, perhaps from latin word virga (?). Note that the word "virginal" in [[Elizabethan era|Elizabethan times]] was often used to designate any kind of harpsichord; thus the masterworks of [[William Byrd]] and his contemporaries were often played on full-size, Italian-style harpsichords and not just on the virginals as we call it today. Virginals are described either as '''spinet virginals''' (the usual type) or '''muselar virginals'''.
====Spinet virginals====
In spinet virginals, the keyboard is placed on the left, and the strings are plucked at one end as in other members of the harpsichord family. This is the more common arrangement, and an instrument described simply as a "virginal" is likely to be a spinet virginal.
====Muselar virginals====
In muselar virginals,( muselaar, Netherlands ), or muselars, the keyboard is placed to the rightor in the center so that the strings are plucked in the middle of their sounding length. This gives a warm and rich sound, but at a price: the action for the left hand is inevitably placed in the middle of the instrument's sounding board, with the result that any mechanical noise from this action is amplified. An 18th century commentator said that muselars "grunt in the bass like young pigs" ( muselar with arpichordum ). In the 16th and 17th centuries, muselars were nonetheless popular, but they fell out of use in the 18th century.
In addition to mechanical [[Noise (environmental)|noise]], the central plucking point in the bass makes repetition difficult, because the motion of the still-sounding string interferes with the ability of the plectrum to connect again. Thus the muselar was better suited to [[Chord (music)|chord]]-and-[[melody]] [[music]] without complex left-hand parts.
===Spinet===
Finally, a harpsichord with the strings set at an angle to the keyboard (usually of about 30 degrees) is called a '''spinet'''. In such an instrument, the strings are too close to fit the jacks between them in the normal way; instead, the strings are arranged in pairs, the jacks are placed in the large gaps between pairs, and they face in opposite directions, plucking the strings adjacent to the gap.
===Clavicytherium===
A clavicytherium is a harpsichord that is vertically strung. Few were ever made. The same space-saving principle was later embodied in the upright piano. It's action was modified to make the vertical form possible simply by modifying the shape of the jacks so that the body curved like a quarter circle.
===Variations===
Unsurprisingly, for an instrument that was produced in large numbers for over three centuries, there is a great deal of variation between harpsichords.
In addition to the varied forms that the instrument can take and the different dispositions, or [[register (music)|registrations]], that can be fitted to a harpsichord as mentioned above, the range can vary greatly.
Generally, earlier harpsichords have smaller [[Range (music)|ranges]] and later ones larger, though there are frequent exceptions.
In general, the largest harpsichords have a range of just over five [[octave]]s and the smallest have under four. Usually, the shortest keyboards were given extended range using the method of the "[[short octave]]".
==Harpsichordists==
Modern harpsichord playing can be roughly divided into three eras, beginning with the career of the influential reviver of the instrument, [[Wanda Landowska]] ([[1879]]–[[1959]]). Landowska used a harpsichord made by [[Pleyel]] of the heavy, piano-influenced type discussed above. Such instruments, though now considered inappropriate for earlier music, retain some historical importance for the works that were specifically composed for them (concertos by Falla and Poulenc, for example). An influential later group of English players using post-Pleyel instruments by Thomas Goff and the [[Goble]] family included [[George Malcolm (musician)|George Malcolm]] and [[Thurston Dart]].
The next generation of harpsichordists were the pioneers of modern performance on instruments built according to the [[Authentic performance|authentic practices]] of the earlier period, following the research of such scholar-builders as [[Frank Hubbard]] and [[William Dowd]]. This generation of performers included such players as [[Ralph Kirkpatrick]], [[Igor Kipnis]], and [[Gustav Leonhardt]]. More recently, many other outstanding harpsichordists have appeared, including [[Trevor Pinnock]], [[Kenneth Gilbert]], [[Christopher Hogwood]], [[Ton Koopman]], [[Iakovos Pappas]], [[Jory Vinikour]], [[Christophe Rousset]], [[Andreas Staier]] and [[Mitzi Meyerson]].
For a list of harpsichord performers, see [[Harpsichordist]].
== Music for the harpsichord==
===Classical===
The first music written specifically for solo harpsichord came to be published around the middle of the [[16th century]]. Composers who wrote solo harpsichord music were numerous during the whole [[Baroque music|Baroque]] era in Italy, Germany and, above all, France. Favorite genres for sole harpsichord composition included the dance [[suite]], the [[fantasia (music)|fantasia]], and the [[fugue]]. Besides [[Solo (music)|solo]] works, the harpsichord was widely used for accompaniment in the [[basso continuo]] style (a function it maintained in [[opera]] even into the [[19th century]]). Well into the 18th century, the harpsichord was considered to have advantages and disadvantages with respect to the [[piano]].
Through the 19th century, the harpsichord was ignored by [[composer]]s, the piano having supplanted it. In the 20th century, however, with increasing interest in [[early music]] and composers seeking new sounds, pieces began to be written for it once more. [[Harpsichord concerto|Concertos]] for the instrument were written by [[Francis Poulenc]] (the ''Concert champêtre'', 1927-28), [[Manuel de Falla]] and, later, by [[Henryk Górecki]] as well as [[Philip Glass]] (2002). [[Bohuslav Martinů]] wrote both a [[concerto]] and a [[sonata (music)|sonata]] for it, and [[Elliott Carter]]'s ''Double Concerto'' is for harpsichord, piano and two chamber [[orchestra]]s. [[György Ligeti]] has written a small number of solo works for the instrument (including "Continuum"). Both [[Dimitri Shostakovich]] (''Hamlet'', 1964) and [[Alfred Schnittke]] (Symphony No.8, 1998) used the harpsichord as part of the orchestral texture. More recently harpsichordist [[Hendrik Bouman]] has composed in the baroque style 32 solo pieces, one harpsichord concerto and two [[Musical composition|compositions]] of [[chamber music]] with [[obbligato]] harpsichord. In addition, the silver and small screen composer, [[Danny Elfman]], often uses harpsichord in jazz and classic pieces in his composition, such as the soundtrack for [[Tim Burton]]'s [[Corpse Bride]] which uses both genres.
===Popular music===
Like almost all instruments of classical music, the harpsichord has been adapted for popular work. Here are some examples.
*Jimi Hendrix featured a harpsichord in his hit "Burning of the Midnight Lamp" from the Electric Ladyland album. It is easily heard playing the same main riff as Jimi on the guitar.
*The harpsichord was popular for light jazz music during the 1960s, particularly in Britain. For example, the jazz theme tunes to the ''[[The Avengers (TV series)|Avengers]]'' and ''Danger Man aka Secret Agent TV'' programs from the 1960s both feature harpsichords. [[Lalo Schifrin]] sometimes featured harpsichords in his jazz recordings during the '60s.
*In 1996 [[Tori Amos]] featured the harpsichord on several of her songs of her album "Boys for Pele" - "Caught a Lite Sneeze", "Blood Roses", "Professional Widow", "Talula", and "In the Springtime of His Voodoo". She has performed the songs live on [[Saturday Night Live]], playing both a harpsichord and a piano in turn.
*On the [[Abbey Road]] album, [[The Beatles]] used the harpsichord on "[[Because (The Beatles song)|Because]]" (track #8).
*A harpsichord was part of the ensemble for the [[Linda Ronstadt]] song "Long, Long Time.
*A harpsichord is used to provide the accompaniment to singer-songwriter [[Dory Previn]]'s song "Michael Michael".
*[[The Beach Boys]] used harpsichords on [[Pet Sounds]] and on [[Good Vibrations]] (1966).
*The Japanese psychedelic band [[Ghost (band)|Ghost]] has used the harpsichord.
*[[Warmen]] a melodic metal band uses Harps |
of the term seems to be based on our understanding of the electronic connectivity, for the purpose of storing and delivering symbolic meaning, as a means of gathering and separating contents. In such a case, the word “space” might suggest a collage of positive and negative volumes, or the interplay between presence and absence of meaning. It directs us to regard the delivered meaning-complexes as delineated by operational units that are not given as symbolically meaningful, and that correspond to our actions of clicking, scrolling, typing, etc. These actions create “gaps” between our mental operations that articulate different units of meaning carried by symbols.
The prefix “cyber” is derived from our understanding of a cybernetic process as a self-reflexive dynamic system that uses a negative feedback circuit to stabilize an open-ended process. Here the notion of cyberspace applies such an understanding of the self-reflexive mechanism in cybernetics to the meaning-making process of the hypermedia. Thus cyberspace suggests a possibly infinite number of occasions of grouping and separating, [[surfing]] and [[routing]], constructing and destroying, etc. This open-ended quality resembles the perceived infinity of the physical space that cannot be pictured as being bounded by something. It is impossible to imagine that it would reach a final closure. Similarly, the experience of always having a potential to encounter something unknown or unexpected seems to be inherent in the surfing process. This is a process of perpetual interactions.
In the context of such a metaphor, how can we understand the notion of cyber-culture? In fact, there is a tendency in the media to equate cyberspace with [[cyberculture|cyber-culture]], and forget the hard-cored phenomenological aspect of cyberspace. When some journalists attempt to play the role of cultural critics on the Internet, they frequently convey a message that cyberspace is equivalent to a digital community or a digital city. That is, a web of personal relationships, where civic democracy is based on a balance of diversity and unity, or of coherence and openness. But such an equation between cyberspace and a web of personal relationships does not help us envision the possibilities of cyberspace and cyber-culture, because it prevents us from asking the question of how cyberspace allows for the rise of cyber-culture; nor does it help us understand the fact that the metaphoric nature of text-based cyberspace has been carried over to the current understanding of the formation of the so-called “cyber-culture”.
One assumption behind the notion of cyber community as currently held is that a community, as a cultural entity, can be formed solely on the act of communicating a shared set of social values. But in the real world, we don’t consider such an act alone a sufficient condition for cultural identity. It seems that the physical proximity, geographically and ethnically understood, is more basic for the formation of cultural identity among those with shared values. The rhetoric of cyber community has yet to be justified by solid analysis before it can hope to become a conceptual tool that helps us understand cyberspace and cyber-culture adequately.
==Cyberspace As an Incomplete Replica: Video-Based Game-Playing==
Video-based game playing differs from text-based communicating in regard to the meaning of spatiality, as long as the “gap” on the screen is a representation of the negative volume of space in the setting of the game. Video images are meant to be figures that actually occupy a space and the animation is meant to reproduce the movement of those figures in motion. Images are supposed to form the positive volume that delineates the empty space. Video images have to be able to move across the screen, on which the physical space of the game-player merges with the purported space surrounding the game figures.
A game cannot adopt itself to the cyber-culture metaphor unless it first reaches out to engage more players in the game, and then allows players to be figuratively represented on the screen. These figurative surrogates that act on behalf of the players are called “[[avatars]].” But since an avatar represents the player in an objectified manner, the alleged identity between the player’s actual body and the avatar is no more than a stipulation. In such a case, there is no primordial space constitution at the ontological level. The Husserlian constitutive act of consciousness does not take the space surrounding the avatar and the space surrounding the player’s body as one and the same space.
If we now call it “cyberspace” that allows avatars to move around as symbolic representations of the actual participant’s bodies, then the metaphoric use of the word that suggests an open-ended potential of meaning-generating and reserving would become obsolete. A notion of digital community discussed above would now demand a representation of the alleged community members by avatars. However, since the sense of participation depends strongly on the participant’s self-identity as an un-mediated subjective person from her first-person perspective, the objectified avatar necessarily creates an ontological gap that cannot be filled by stipulation, and the talk about cyber-culture remains metaphorical and flashy.
==Cyberspace As a 3-D Immersive Environment: Interacting with Synthetic Entities==
Video games don’t have to stop at the avatar-player level. Once an immersive environment is furnished in the game that separates the player from the natural environment, the objectified space will be incorporated into the first-person perspective. It will replace the original space, and the artificial space will be extending from the center of the player’s field of vision to unlimited possibilities, and thus cyberspace is experienced as the only space with no other level of spatiality being constituted. The 3-D images will be made to change according to a pattern such that the player’s movement will be experienced as moving in a stand-alone world; this world has a potential to evolve by itself, and can extend to the unknown remoteness. It is experientially equivalent to the physical world we are familiar with before we enter cyberspace. In his book, ''Get Real: A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality'', [[Philip Zhai]] suggested a game-playing scenario as follows:
Suppose you and your partner are going to play the game for the first time. Before you get started, you will each be instructed to wear a helmet (or goggles) so that you won't be able to see anything except the animated video images on two small screens right in front of your eyes, and to hear anything except sounds from two earphones next to your ears. So you see 3-D animation and hear stereo sound. You need also, perhaps, to wear a pair of gloves that will both monitor your hand movement and give you different amount of pressure against your palm and fingers corresponding to your changing visual and audio sensations in the game. You are now situated in a motion tracker so that you can move freely without leaving the place and your body's movement can be detected and the signals can be fed into the computer; the computer also processes all visual, audio information as well. So you are totally wired to play an interactive game with your partner, mediated by cyberspace. Your partner is in another room, wired to the same computer, doing the same.
As soon as the game gets started, you begin to see with your eyes, hear with your ears, and feel with your hands and with the whole body, a self-contained environment isolated from the actual environment. In other words, you are immersed in cyberspace. Let us assume a typical type of game contents as follows. Your partner and you, each holding a shooting gun, are ready to fire at each other. The 3-D images are so realistic, and your body movements are coordinated with your images on the screen in such a way that you can hardly tell the difference between the animated images and your original body. Your partner looks as real as yourself. There are perhaps a few trees or rocks between you and your partner. There may also be a house you can get in and out, or what not. You can touch the leaves of the tree, and feel the hardness of the wall. So you run, turn, hide, get nervous, bumped, scared, or excited; you hear noises from different directions; when your partner shoots at you, you feel the hit on the corresponding spot of your body; you hesitate and pull the trigger to fire back...back and forth…back and forth...until one of you gets a "fatal" shot, bleeding, and loses the game. Now the game stops but you don't feel a sharp pain or feel like dying even if you are the loser. Actually you will shortly get unwired and come back to the actual world, alive and amazed.
In such a game-playing experience, the players must take the cyberspace as the actual space in order to get involved in the process. They must suspend the judgment whether the perceived spatiality is “real” or “illusory” and ignore what their memory tells them concerning the difference between the current immersive experience of the game and a real situation. They must respond to the objectified entities in cyberspace exactly like they do in the real world, since they visually, aurally, and kinetically experience their own bodies in the same cyberspace. The consciousness must undertake a Husserlian non-reflective act of space constitution in the same way it does for the actual space. At this point, cyberspace has realized itself as it is originally meant to be. It isolates the player from the actual space with the immersive environment; it represents the totality of the positive and negative volumes of virtual reality.
As soon as we enter into such a virtual environment that enables us to interact with one another while we are constituting the very spatiality itself, we can anticipate the formation of cyber-cu |
t year, with a fourth and final edition appearing in 1873.
==Scientific Contributions==
Lyell's geological interests ranged from [[volcano|volcanoes]] and geological dynamics through [[stratigraphy]], [[paleontology]] and [[glaciology]] to topics that would now be classified as [[archaeology|prehistoric archaeology]] and [[paleoanthropology]]. He is best known, however, for his role in popularising the doctrine of [[uniformitarianism]].
===Uniformitarianism===
From [[1830]] to [[1833]] his multi-volume ''[[Principles of Geology]]'' was published. The work's subtitle was "An Attempt to Explain the Former Changes of the Earth's Surface by Reference to Causes now in Operation", and this explains Lyell's impact on science. He was, along with the earlier [[John Playfair]], the major advocate of the then-controversial idea of [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]], that the earth was shaped entirely by slow-moving forces acting over a very long period of time. This was in contrast to [[catastrophism]], a geologic idea that went hand-in-hand with age of the earth as implied by biblical chronology. In various revised editions (twelve in all, through [[1872]]), ''Principles of Geology'' was the most influential geological work in the middle of the 19th century, and did much to put geology on a modern footing. For his efforts he was knighted in [[1848]], then made a baronet in [[1864]].
===Volcanoes and Geological Dynamics===
===Stratigraphy===
Lyell's most important specific work was in the field of [[stratigraphy]]. In [[1828]], he travelled to the south of [[France]] and to [[Italy]], where he realised that the recent strata could be categorised according to the number and proportion of marine shells encased within. Based on this he proposed dividing the [[Tertiary]] period into three parts, which he named the [[Pliocene]], [[Miocene]], and [[Eocene]].
===Glaciers===
===Evolution===
[[Charles Darwin]] was a close personal friend, and Lyell was one of the first prominent scientists to support ''[[The Origin of Species]]''&mdash;though he never fully accepted [[natural selection]] as the driving engine behind evolution. In fact, Lyell was instrumental in arranging the peaceful co-publication of the theory of natural selection by Darwin and [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] in [[1858]], after each discovered it independently. Lyell's own ''The Geological Evidence of the Antiquity of Man'' followed a few years later in [[1863]].
[[Category:1797 births|Lyell, Charles]]
[[Category:1875 deaths|Lyell, Charles]]
[[Category:British geologists|Lyell, Charles]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Lyell, Charles]]
[[Category:Former students of Exeter College, Oxford|Lyell, Charles]]
[[Category:Alumni of King's College London|Lyell, Charles]]
== External links ==
{{commons|Charles Lyell}}
*{{gutenberg author|id=Charles_Lyell|name=Charles Lyell}}
[[de:Charles Lyell]]
[[eo:Charles LYELL]]
[[fr:Charles Lyell]]
[[it:Charles Lyell]]
[[sv:Charles Lyell]]
[[zh:查理斯·萊爾]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chelsea F.C.</title>
<id>7473</id>
<revision>
<id>42109211</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:01:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>86.137.167.28</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
clubname = Chelsea |
image = [[Image:Chelsea FC.png|100px|Chelsea logo]] |
fullname = Chelsea Football Club |
nickname = The Blues, The Pensioners |
founded = [[1905]] |
ground = [[Stamford Bridge (stadium)|Stamford Bridge]], [[London]] |
capacity = 42,360 |
chairman = {{flagicon|USA}} [[Bruce Buck]]<br />(for [[Image:Flag_of_Russia.svg|20px|Russian]] [[Roman Abramovich]])|
manager = [[Image:Portugal_flag_large.png|20px|Portuguese]] [[José Mourinho]] |
CEO = {{flagicon|England}} [[Peter Kenyon]] |
Life President = {{flagicon|England}} [[Richard Attenborough]] |
league = [[FA Premier League]] |
season = [[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004-05]] |
position = Premier League, 1st |
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leftarm1=0000FF|body1=0000FF|rightarm1=0000FF|shorts1=0000FF|socks1=FFFFFF|
pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
leftarm2=CCFFFF|body2=CCFFFF|rightarm2=CCFFFF|shorts2=000000|socks2=CCFFFF|
shirtsupplier=[[Umbro]] |
shirtsponsors=[[Samsung|Samsung Mobile]]
}}
'''Chelsea Football Club ''' (also known as the ''Blues'', previously known as the ''Pensioners'', a reference to the [[Chelsea pensioner|Chelsea pensioners]]), founded in 1905, is a [[FA Premier league|Premier League]] [[football (soccer)|football]] team that plays at the [[Stamford Bridge (stadium)|Stamford Bridge]] football ground in south-west [[London]]. Chelsea are currently at the top of the FA Premier League.
Despite its name, the club is based just outside the [[Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea]], in the [[London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham]]. It is on the [[Fulham Road]], which runs between [[Fulham]] and [[Chelsea, London|Chelsea]].
==History==
===Stamford Bridge===
''For main article see'' [[Stamford Bridge (stadium)|Stamford Bridge]].
Stamford Bridge officially opened on [[28 April]] [[1877]]. For the first 28 years of its existence it was used almost exclusively by the London Athletic Club as an arena for athletics meetings and not at all for football. In 1904 the ground was acquired by H A (Gus) Mears and his brother, J T Mears, who had previously acquired additional land (formerly a large market garden) with the aim of accommodating a football team there on the now 12.5 acre (51,000 m&sup2;) site. The Mears family remained the owners of the ground (and subsequently the Club) until the 1970s.
Stamford Bridge was designed for the Mears family by [[Archibald Leitch]]. They offered the stadium to [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham Football Club]], but the offer was turned down. As a consequence, the owners decided to form their own football club to occupy their new ground. Most football clubs were founded first, and then sought grounds in which to play, but Chelsea was founded for Stamford Bridge. Since there was already a football club named Fulham in the [[borough]], the founders decided to adopt the name of the adjacent borough of Chelsea for the new club, having rejected names such as ''Kensington FC'', ''Stamford Bridge FC'' and ''London FC''.
The pitch is owned by [[Chelsea Pitch Owners]] that took out a loan to purchase the stadium and also the rights to the Chelsea FC name. This was done to ensure the stadium could never be sold to developers. It also means that if someone tries to move the football club to a new stadium they could not use the name.
===Early years (1905-52)===
Chelsea F.C. was founded on [[March 14]] [[1905]] at The Rising Sun pub (now The Butcher's Hook) opposite today's main entrance to the ground on the Fulham Road. After being denied entry to the [[Southern League]], the club applied for admission to the [[Football League]] and were accepted at the Football League AGM on [[May 29]], [[1905]]. Blue shirts were adopted by Mears, after the [[horse racing|racing]] colours of Lord Chelsea and the club's first match took place away at [[Stockport County F.C.|Stockport County]] on [[September 2]], [[1905]]. They lost the game 1-0. Their first home match was against [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] in a friendly. They won 4-0.
The club began with established players recruited from other teams, such as new [[player-manager]] [[John Tait Robertson]], [[FA Cup]]-winning [[goalkeeper]] [[William Foulke (footballer)|William "Fatty" Foulke]] and prolific goalscorer [[George Hilsdon|George "Gatling Gun" Hilsdon]]. Promotion to the top flight was swift, but the club's early years brought no trophies. Chelsea played in the "Khaki" [[FA Cup]] final of [[1915]] (so-called because of the large number of uniformed [[soldiers]] in attendance) but lost out to [[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]]. They also finished 3rd in the [[Football League First Division|First Division]] in [[1920]] and reached the FA Cup semi-finals in the same season (thus missing out on a chance to play in the final at [[Stamford Bridge (stadium)|Stamford Bridge]]), but spent much of the inter-war period in mid-table. However, they consistently attracted enormous crowds. 77,952 attended the fourth round FA Cup tie against Swindon on [[13 April]] [[1911]], and 82,905 attended the league game against Arsenal on [[12 October]] [[1935]]. Safety considerations make such attendances impossible now: the current legal capacity of the stadium is 42,522.
===Drake's Ducklings (1952-61)===
In [[1952]], [[Ted Drake]] was appointed manager and he proceeded to modernise the club, both on and off the pitch. One of his first actions was to remove the image of a Chelsea pensioner from the match programme and the club's old nickname was no more. He also improved the club's training regime, its youth system and he recruited talented young players from the lower divisions. In [[1954-55 in English football|1954-5]], Chelsea won the [[Football League First Division|First Divsion]] title under Drake with a team that included captain and top-scorer (with 21 league goals) [[Roy Bentley]], goalkeeper Charlie 'Chic' Thomson, left-half Derek Saunders, inside-right [[John McNichol|Johnny 'Jock' McNichol]], right-half [[Ken Armstrong]], outside-left Frank Blunstone, full-back [[Peter Sillett]] and future [[England National Football Team|England]] manager [[Ron Greenwood]] at centre-half. The team were affectionately known as ''Drake's Duckling's'', after the relative youth of the side.
Though Chelsea were only 12th in the table in [[November]], they secured the title with a game to spare after a 3-0 win against [[Sheffield Wednesday F.C.|Sheffield Wednesday]]. Key to the success were two league wins against eventual runners-up [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolverhampton Wanderers]] and a ten-g |
rily consisted of [[university]] [[undergraduate]]s, but was supported by software company employees, who would leak copies of software and other [[digital media]]. DoD also received such [[computer file|files]] indirectly, from other networks.
==Member raids==
In [[2001]] the group was busted in an [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] operation called [[Operation Buccaneer]]. At the time, DrinkOrDie had two leaders, one in the [[United States]] and another in [[Australia]].
The Australian leader [[Hew Raymond Griffiths]] 40, known by his [[screenname]] "Bandido", has been charged with one count of conspiracy to commit criminal copyright infringement and one count of criminal copyright infringement, and has been involved in legal action in Australia. As of [[March 2005]], Griffiths has lost an appeal against [[extradition|extradition]] to the United States, to face charges under US copyright laws.
The American leader [[John Sankus Jr.]] of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], known by his screename "eriFlleH" (HellFire spelled backwards), was convicted and sentenced to 46 months. Sankus was also a member of the group HARM at the time of his arrest.
The [[National Hi-Tech Crime Unit]] in the [[UK]] also arrested eight members residing in Britain. Two of those arrested were charged and convicted for Conspiracy to Defraud, Alex Bell of [[Greys]], [[Essex]] and Steven Dowd of [[Newton-le-Willows]], [[Merseyside]].
Also charged and convicted were:
*[[Christopher Tresco]] age 23, of [[Boston, Massachusetts]], who used the screename "bigrar", pled guilty [[May 28]], 2002 to conspiracy to violate the criminal copyright laws, and was sentenced to 33 months of jail time. Tresco was also a member of [[Rise in Superior Couriering]] (RiSC). Tresco at the time of his arrest was the Systems Administrator for the [[MIT]] Economics department.
*Barry Erickson age 35, of [[Eugene, Oregon]], who used the screename "radsl", pled guilty on [[May 2]], [[2002]] to one felony count charging conspiracy to violate the criminal copyright laws, and was sentenced to a term of 33 months, with three years of probation to follow. Erickson was a systems engineer at [[Symantec Corporation]] and provided prerelease software to DoD and [[RiSCiSO]]. He was also a founding member of Parents On ‘Puterz (POPZ) a warez group that specialized in the release of children’s learning software and games.
*David Grimes age 25, of [[Arlington, Texas]], who used the screename "chevelle", pled guilty on [[March 4]], 2002 to one felony count charging conspiracy to violate the criminal copyright laws. Grimes was a computer engineer at [[Check Point Software]]. Grimes supplied Check Point firewall software to DrinkOrDie on at least two occasions, and he operated an FTP site known as High Octane and was affiliated with RiSC, MYTH, RTS, and DrinkOrDie.
*Richard Berry age 34, of [[Rockville, Maryland]], who used the screename "flood", pled guilty on [[April 29]], 2002 to one felony count charging conspiracy to violate the criminal copyright laws. Berry was Vice President and Chief Technology Officer at Streampipe.com in Alexandria, VA. A longtime member of DrinkOrDie, he supplied members with computer hardware, occasionally tested software, and operated [[Bounce (network)|BNC]]s for the FTP sites known as Fatal Error, Packet Storm, and Lake of Fire. Berry was also a member of POPZ.
*Sabuj Pattanayek age 21, of [[Nashville, Tennessee]], who used the screename "buj", pled guilty on [[April 16]], 2002 and was sentenced to 41 months in federal prison for conspiring to violate criminal copyright laws. Pattanayek, a student at [[Duke University]], was a council member, and a skilled software cracker. Pattanayek had also been a senior member of the courier group Request To Send (RTS).
*Stacey Nawara age 34, of [[Rosenberg, Texas]], who used the screename "avec", pled guilty on [[March 19]], 2002 to one felony count charging conspiracy to violate the criminal copyright laws. Nawara was a Council member in DoD, a senior member of the warez courier group RTS, and a leading courier for the warez group [[Razor 1911]].
*Michael Kelly age 21, of [[Miami, Florida]], who used the screename "erupt", pled guilty on [[April 10]], 2002 to one felony count charging conspiracy to violate criminal copyright laws. Kelly was a systems network administrator for Gator Leasing, Inc., of Miami, Florida, from where he conducted many of his activities. A senior member/botmaster for DoD, he also had past or current membership in the warez groups AMNESiA, CORP, and RiSC and the underground [[computer art scene|artscene]] group [[Remorse ASCII|Remorse]].
*Nathan Hunt age 25, of [[Waterford, Pennsylvania]], who used the screename "azide", pled guilty on [[April 3]], 2002 to one felony count charging conspiracy to violate criminal copyright laws. Hunt was a senior member in DoD and the group’s leading supplier of software. From [[November 2000]] through [[October 2001]], Hunt provided the group with more than 120 individual software titles. Hunt was also a senior member of The Corporation (CORP).
*David Russo age 50, of [[Warwick, Rhode Island]], who used the screename "ange", pled guilty on [[April 24]], [[2003]] to conspiracy to violate criminal copyright laws and received 13 months in federal prison. Russo was responsible for testing the programs to determine if they functioned properly before release.
*Kentaga Kartadinata, 29, of [[Los Angeles, California]], who used the screename "tenkuken", pled guilty on [[January 22]], 2002 to conspiracy to violate criminal copyright laws. Kartadinata operated an electronic mail server for the group.
*Andrew Clardy of [[Galesburg, Illinois]], who used the screename "doodad", pled guilty on [[April 4]], 2002 to criminal copyright infringement and conspiracy to violate criminal copyright laws. Clardy was also a member of POPZ.
*Derek Eiser of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], who used the screename "psychod", pled guilty on [[June 21]], 2002 to conspiracy to violate criminal copyright laws.
*Robert Gross of [[Horsham, Pennsylvania]], who used the screename "targetpractice", pled guilty on [[May 22]], 2002 to criminal copyright infringement.
*Myron Cole of [[Warminster, Pennsylvania]], who used the screename "t3rminal", pled guilty on [[July 10]], 2002 to criminal copyright infringement.
*Anthony Buchanan of [[Eugene, Oregon]], who used the screename "spaceace", pled guilty on [[August 19]], 2002 to criminal copyright infringement. Buchanan was also a member of POPZ.
*Kirk Patrick St. John age 34, of [[Gilbert, Arizona]], who used the screename "thesaint", was charged with one count of conspiracy to violate federal criminal copyright laws, and one count of possession of stolen property. St. John ran the FTP leech server "Godcomplex".
== External links and references ==
[[image:DOD DIZ.png|right]]
* [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=02/10/04/144217 Slashdot interview with former DoD member Chris Tresco aka BiGrAr]
* [http://yro.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/09/07/0112202 Slashdot article on the extradition of the leader of DrinkOrDie.]
* [http://yro.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=05/03/11/1824236&tid=123&tid=103&tid=17 Your Rights Online: DrinkOrDie Warez Trader to be Extradited to U.S.]
* [http://news.zdnet.co.uk/business/legal/0,39020651,39170749,00.htm ZDNet UK article regarding DoD members standing trial.]
* [http://www.alternet.org/story/12283/ Digital Pirates and the "Warez" Wars] by Omar J. Pahati of AlterNet
* [http://www.smh.com.au/news/National/Central-Coast-man-faces-extradition-to-US/2005/03/10/1110417612703.html Central Coast man faces extradition to US]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20010517002301/http://www.drinkordie.com/ Internet Archive backup] of www.drinkordie.com (2001)
* [http://www.cybercrime.gov/griffithsIndict.htm Defendant Indicted in Connection with Operating Illegal Internet Software Piracy Group (Hew Griffiths)]
* [http://www.cybercrime.gov/sankusSent.htm Warez Leader Sentenced to 46 Months (John Sankus)]
* [http://www.cybercrime.gov/ob/Pattanay.htm Member of "DrinkOrDie" Warez Group Sentenced to 41 Months (Sabuj Pattanayek)]
* [http://www.cybercrime.gov/russoSent.htm Warwick Man is Sentenced for Software Piracy (David Russo)]
* [http://www.defacto2.net/groups-detail.cfm?org=dod Defacto2 Drink or Die repository]
[[Category:Copyright infringement]]
[[Category:Warez groups]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DOM</title>
<id>8963</id>
<revision>
<id>39702539</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T06:30:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zambaretzu</username>
<id>621047</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redundant & overlapping, changed to redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dom]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Daily Planet</title>
<id>8964</id>
<revision>
<id>40530911</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T06:02:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anthony Dean</username>
<id>174225</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Other Media */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Titanoplanet.JPG|right|thumb|200px|The ''Daily Planet'' building under attack from Titano, from ''Showcase Presents Superman Volume 2'' ([[2006]]). Art by [[Curt Swan]] and [[George Klein]]. Note: the cover is a recolored version of the cover from ''Superman'' #138, [[July]] [[1960]].]]
The '''''Daily Planet''''' is a [[fictional]] [[newspaper]] that appears in [[Superman]] stories published by [[DC Comics]]. The ''Daily Planet'' is based in [[Metropolis (comics)|Metropolis]] and employs [[Clark Kent]], [[Lois Lane]], and [[Jimmy Olsen]]; its chief |
ce and [[Lithuania]]). Despite Catalonia's change of government in 2004 from a conservative CiU/PP alliance to a "red/green" tripartite coalition of PSC, ERC, and ICV parties, there is little evidence of greater concern for the environment. The ICV was put in charge of the Ministry of the Environment but has largely continued the outgoing administration's environmentally-unfriendly policies. The Ministry's decision to build the controversial Bracons tunnel through an area of outstanding natural beauty, and a scheme to site an incinerator burning 90,000 metric tonnes of industrial waste [http://www.valldelges.net/en] in a heavily-populated valley are just two cases in point. Although Catalonia participates in many international environmental forums, the political will to pursue "green" polices is generally lacking. This may be explained by the greater acceptance of political corruption found in southern Europe, the fragility of public institutions, and a lack of genuine commitment to grass-roots democracy.
==UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Catalonia==
There are several [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]] in Catalonia:
*[[Sagrada Familia]], Barcelona
*"[[La Patum]]" of [[Berga]] (2005)
*Archaeological Ensemble of Tarraco, [[Tarragona]]
*Catalan [[Romanesque]] Churches of the [[Vall de Boí]]
*[[Park Guell|Parc Güell]], [[Barcelona]]
*[[Palau Güell]], [[Barcelona]]
*[[Casa Milà]], [[Barcelona]]
*[[Poblet Monastery]], Poblet, Tarragona province
*[[Palau de la Música Catalana]], [[Barcelona]]
*[[Hospital de Sant Pau]], [[Barcelona]]
==See also==
{{Commons|Catalonia}}
* [[.cat]]
* [[Barcelona]]
* [[Catalan Countries]]
* [[Cuisine of Catalonia]]
* [[Education in Catalonia]]
* [[Famous Catalan People]]
* [[Flags of non-sovereign nations]]
* [[History of Catalonia]]
* [[Principality of Catalonia]]
* [[Catalan constitutions]]
* [[Catalan nationalism]]
* [[Catalan independentism]]
==External links==
*[http://www.cbrava.com/cathist.uk.htm Key dates in Catalan history]
*[http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/en/catalunya/laclau/english/index.jsp The key to Catalonia]: Site of the Generalitat de Catalunya
*[http://www.idescat.es/idescat_ang.htm Statistical information from Idescat (Catalan Institute of Statistics)]
*[http://www.topbarcos.com/puertos-deportivos/listado-puertos/cataluna Ports in Catalonia]
*[http://www.lodgephoto.com/galleries/spain/ Photographs of Catalonia including Barcelona, Girona, Besalu] and surrounding countryside
*[http://www.cataloniapyrenees.com/ Catalan Pyrenees Guide]
*[http://flickr.com/groups/catalunya/ Catalunya images at flickr.com]
*[http://www.catalanencyclopaedia.com/ Catalan Hyperencyclopaedia]: Encyclopaedia with information about Catalonia in English
* [http://www.iberianature.com/material/wild_nature_sites/catalonia/catalonia_nature.htm A guide to the natural history of Catalonia]
* News media in English
**[http://www.barcelonareporter.com/ Barcelona Reporter]: news and views from the Catalan capital
**[http://www.cataloniatoday.info/ Catalonia Today] - Catalan newspaper in English
**[http://www.diaridecatalunya.com/ Catalan news] - Local electronic newspaper
{{Spain}}
{{Comarques of Catalonia}}
[[Category:Catalonia]]
[[Category:Catalan Countries]]
[[Category:Autonomous communities of Spain]]
[[Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe]]
[[Category:European countries]]
{{Link FA|ca}}
[[ar:منطقة كاتالونيا الذاتية الحكم]]
[[an:Cataluña]]
[[ast:Cataluña]]
[[zh-min-nan:Catalunya]]
[[ca:Comunitat autònoma de Catalunya]]
[[cs:Katalánsko]]
[[cy:Catalonia]]
[[da:Catalonien]]
[[de:Katalonien]]
[[et:Kataloonia]]
[[es:Cataluña]]
[[eo:Katalunio]]
[[eu:Katalunia]]
[[fa:کاتالونی]]
[[fr:Catalogne]]
[[ga:An Chatalóin]]
[[gl:Cataluña]]
[[ko:카탈루냐 지방]]
[[it:Catalogna]]
[[he:קטלוניה]]
[[ka:კატალონია]]
[[kw:Kataloni]]
[[la:Catalonia]]
[[lt:Katalonija]]
[[hu:Katalónia]]
[[mi:Kataronia]]
[[nl:Catalonië]]
[[ja:カタルーニャ州]]
[[no:Catalonia]]
[[nn:Catalonia]]
[[oc:Catalonha]]
[[pl:Katalonia]]
[[pt:Catalunha]]
[[ro:Catalonia]]
[[ru:Каталония]]
[[simple:Catalonia]]
[[sr:Каталонија]]
[[fi:Katalonia]]
[[sv:Katalonien]]
[[tl:Catalunya]]
[[tr:Katalonya]]
[[zh:加泰罗尼亚]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Constantine Kanaris</title>
<id>6823</id>
<revision>
<id>40582368</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T16:39:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michalis Famelis</username>
<id>315151</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Military career */ fixed wikilinks</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Konstantinos Kanaris.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Konstantinos Kanaris (1790-1877) [[Athens]], National Historical Museum]]
'''Constantine Kanaris''' (''or Canaris'', [[Greek language|Greek]]: '''Κωνσταντίνος Κανάρης''') ([[1793]] or [[1795]] &ndash; [[September 2]], [[1877]]) was a [[Greece|Greek]] admiral, freedom fighter and politician.
==Family life==
He was born on the [[Aegean Sea]] island of [[Psara]] as a son of Michael and Maria Kanaris. His exact year of birth is unknown. The official records of the [[Hellenic Navy]] give it as [[1795]] but modern Greek historians believe that [[1793]] is more probable. Michael Kanaris, his father, had served several terms as the island's Elder. Constantine was left an orphan at a young age. Having to support himself he chose to became a seaman, like most members of his family since the beginning of the [[18th century]]. He was hired as a boy in the brig of his uncle Dimitris Bourekas. Over time he gained prominence in the island's society. In [[1817]] this was signified by his marriage to Despoina Maniatis, a member of one of the island's more affluent families. They would have seven children in all:
*[[Nicholas Kanaris]], ([[1818]]&ndash;[[1848]]).
*[[Themistocles Kanaris]], ([[1819]]&ndash;[[1851]]).
*[[Miltiades Kanaris]], ([[1822]]&ndash;[[1899]]) - Admiral, member of the Greek Parliament, and government minister.
*[[Lycurgus Kanaris]], ([[1826]]&ndash;[[1865]]) - Lawyer.
*[[Maria Kanari]], ([[1828]]&ndash;[[1847]]).
*[[Aristides Kanaris]], ([[1831]]&ndash;[[1863]]) - Navy officer.
*[[Thrasybulos Kanaris]], ([[1834]]&ndash;[[1898]]) - Admiral.
[[Image:Konstantinos Kanaris.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Constantine Kanaris]]
==Military career==
Constantine gained his fame during the [[Greek War of Independence]] ([[1821]]&ndash;[[1829]]). Unlike most other prominent figures of the War, he had never been initiated in the [[Filiki Eteria]] (Friendly Society). The Friendly Society, founded at [[September 14]], [[1814]] in [[Odessa]] by three traders, was mainly responsible for planning the revolution against the [[Ottoman Empire]] and recruiting supporters for it. Its founders being members of the [[Freemasonry]], they had adopted their methods of initiation, organising and assuring secrecy from it. By early [[1821]], it had gained enough support to declare a revolution. This declaration seems to have surprised Constantine, who was absent at Odessa. He returned to [[Psara]] in haste and was there when the island joined the Revolution on [[April 10]], [[1821]].
The island formed its own fleet of ships and the famed seamen of Psara, already known for their successful naval combats against pirates and their well-equipped ships, proved to be effective at full naval war. Constantine soon distinguished himself as a fire ship captain. Notably at [[Chios]], where on the night of [[June 6]]/[[June 7]], [[1822]] forces under his command destroyed the flagship of the Turkish admiral [[Pasha Kara-Ali]] in revenge for the [[Chios Massacre]]. The admiral was holding a celebration, while Kanaris and his men managed to place a fire ship next to it. When the flagships' powder keg caught fire, all men aboard were instantly killed. The Ottoman casualties consisted of 2000 men, both naval officers and common sailors, as well as Kara-Ali himself. Constantine led three further successful attacks against the Turkish fleet in [[1822]]-[[1824]]. But during this last year, the fate of both Kanaris and his island took a turn for the worst.
[[Image:Konstantinos Kanaris photograph.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Konstantinos Kanaris (1790-1877)Athens, [[Photographic Archive]] of [[Hellenic]] Literary and Historical Museum]]
[[Egypt]] was namely a province of the [[Ottoman Empire]] at the time but its viceroy [[Mehemet Ali (Egypt)|Mohammad Ali]] ([[1769]]&ndash;[[1849]]), had earned enough power to act independently from the Sultan and had formed his own army and naval fleet. It was headed by his adoptive son [[Ibrahim Pasha]] ([[1789]]&ndash;[[1848]]). The later had hired a number of veteran French officers - who had served under Emperor [[Napoleon I of France]] and were discharged from the French army following his defeat - to help organise the new army. By [[1824]] it counted 100,000 men and was both better organised and better equipped than the Sultan's army. Sultan [[Mahmud II]] offered to the viceroy the command of [[Crete]], if he agreed to send part of this army against the Greeks. They quickly reached an agreement. The Egyptian army, under the personal command of Ibrahim Pasha, started a successful campaign in both land and sea against the relatively ill-equipped, disorganized and outnumbered Greeks. Among other victories, the Egyptian fleet managed to capture Psara on [[June 21]], [[1824]]. A part of the population managed to flee the island, but those who didn't were either sold into slavery or slaughtered. The island was deserted and surviving islanders were scattered through what is now Southern Greece.
After the destruction of his home island, Constantine continued to lead his men into attacks with minor successes. Despite them, Ibrahim Pasha would be virtually undefeated until the [[Battle of Navarino]] of [[October 20]], [[1827]]. Then the Egyptian fleet was destroyed by the combined naval forces of [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[France]] and [[Russia]], that ha |
rs of Islamic learning.
Egypt's vast and rich literature constitutes an important cultural element in the life of the country and in the Arab world as a whole. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated. Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first in the Arabic-speaking world to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian books, films, and music are available and well-known throughout the Middle East.
== Statistics ==
'''Population:'''
77,505,756 (July 2005 est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br />''0-14 years:''
33% (male 13,106,043; female 12,483,899)
<br />''15-64 years:''
62.6% (male 24,531,266; female 23,972,216)
<br />''65 years and over:''
4.4% (male 1,457,097; female 1,955,235) (2005 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
1.78% (2005 est.)
'''Birth rate:'''
23.32 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)
'''Death rate:'''
5.26 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
'''Net migration rate:'''
-0.22 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br />''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br />''under 15 years:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br />''15-64 years:''
1.02 male(s)/female
<br />''65 years and over:''
0.74 male(s)/female
<br />''total population:''
1.02 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''
32.59 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
<br />''total population:''
71 years
<br />''male:''
68.5 years
<br />''female:''
73.62 years (2005 est.)
'''Total fertility rate:'''
2.88 children born/woman (2005 est.)
'''Nationality:'''
<br />''noun:''
Egyptian(s)
<br />''adjective:''
Egyptian
'''Ethnic groups:'''
Egyptians 98%, [[Nubian]]s 0.8%, Other ([[Bedouin]] [[Arabs]], [[Berbers]], [[Beja]], [[Roma people|Roma]], [[Greeks]], [[Syrians]], [[Armenians]], [[Magyarab]] 1.2%)
'''Religions:'''
[[Muslim]] (mostly [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]]) 94%, [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic Christian]] and other 6%
'''Languages:'''
[[Arabic language|Arabic]] (official), [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] (Coptic), [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]] widely understood by educated classes
'''Literacy:'''
<br />''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
<br />''total population:''
57.7%
<br />''male:''
68.3%
<br />''female:''
46.9% (2003 est.)
== References ==
* {{CIAfb}}{{clr}}
* {{StateDept}}
== See also ==
* [[Egypt]]
{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}
[[Category:Demographics by country|Egypt]]
[[Category:Geography of Egypt]]
[[Category:Egyptian society]]
[[es:Demografía de Egipto]]
[[fr:Démographie de l'Égypte]]
[[he:דמוגרפיה של מצרים]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Egypt</title>
<id>9350</id>
<revision>
<id>39374551</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T19:20:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Egypt}}
==Constitution==
''Main Article: [[History of the Egyptian Constitution]]''<BR><BR>
The [[Constitution of Egypt|Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt]] was approved by referendum in [[1970]] and amended in [[1980]] and [[2005]]. The [[Constitution of Egypt|Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt]] declares [[Egypt]] to be a ‘[[Democracy|democratic]] and [[Socialism|socialist]] republic’, operating under a ‘multiparty system’ semi-presidential system.
The national government of Egypt is divided into an executive branch, a legislative branch and a judiciary branch. The Constitution grants wide powers to the executive. The President of Egypt heads the executive branch. The President’s powers stem from his ability to appoint the powerful prime minister and one or more Vice-Presidents. However, the President’s choice of the prime minister has to yield and maintain the approval the [[People's Assembly of Egypt|People’s Assembly]] ('''Majilis Al-Sha’ab'''), the lower house of [[Parliament of Egypt|Parliament]].
Egypt is a [[unitary state]], meaning that its subdivisions do not have constitutional status. However, the various legal subdivisions, the ''governorates'' ('''Muhafazat'''), ''cities'' ('''Modon'''), and counties ('''Kofour'''), have various attributions.
==Executive branch==
===President of the Republic===
''Main Article: [[President of Egypt]]''<BR><BR>
In [[February 2005]], [[President of Egypt|President]] [[Hosni Mubarak|Mubarak]] proposed an amendment to article 76 of the constitution that would allow, for the first time, multi-candidate presidential elections. A referendum was held on [[May 25]] [[2005]], as required by the constitution, and the amendment was approved (reportedly, with a majority of over 82% support). However, the terms of the newly adopted amendment make it very difficult, if not impossible, for candidates other than those of Mubarak's National Democratic Party, which holds about 90% of parliament seats, to run for the elections. The hurdles include requiring aspiring presidential candidates to first secure the support of 250 elected officials (including 140 local council members, 65 People's Assembly deputies, and 25 members of the Shura Council), and requiring that the parties they represent to have existed for at least five years. In the event, the referendum was boycotted by some of Egypt's leading opposition parties, including the [[New Wafd Party|Wafd]].
Under the 1980 amendments of the Egyptian Constitution, the [[President of Egypt|President]] is elected for six years. As of [[2005]], President [[Hosni Mubarak|Mohamed Hosni Mubarak]] has been the President of the Republic since [[14 October]] [[1981]] and is currently serving his last year of his fourth term. President Mubarak was re-elected in 1987, 1993, and 1999, making him the longest serving Egyptian President in the history of the Republic.
The President of Republic is elected indirectly in a two-stage system unique to Egypt. The People’s Assembly, the lower house of Parliament, nominates one of a number of candidates for presidency. The presidential candidate requires at least a two-thirds majority in the People’s Assembly in order to proceed to the second stage of the elections. The presidential candidate is voted on in a yes-or-no binding public referendum. On achieving a simple majority in the public referendum, the presidential candidate is sworn in as President. However, if the candidate is fails to obtain the required majority, the People’s Assembly nominates a new candidate for presidency, thus returning to the first stage of elections. The President may be re-elected multiple times with no limitation on the number of terms allowed to be served.
The Egyptian system for presidential election is regarded by many as not being fully democratic due to the fact that it is the People’s Assembly and not the populace itself, who retains the upper-hand in choosing the Chief of State. In addition, it allows for whatever party or coalition controlling the People’s Assembly to put forward their candidate as the presidential candidate. This greatly explains how in most of the 1980s and 1990s the [[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|National Democratic Party]] has managed to maintain the office of President and a parliamentary majority.
The President names the [[Prime Minister of Egypt|prime minister]] and may preside over the cabinet. President Mubarak holds a monthly meeting with the cabinet on which he presides. In addition, the President is the Supreme Commander of the [[Military of Egypt|Egyptian Armed Forces]]. The President concludes treaties and may submit questions to national referenda. The President also possesses the constitutional power to dissolve the People’s Assembly, however, no President has ever done so. In certain emergencies, the President may assume special, comprehensive powers.
Under the system created by the 1980 constitutional amendments, the President is the pre-eminent executive figure, who names the Prime Minister. When the President's political party or supporters control parliament, the President is in effect the ‘dominant’ player in executive action, choosing whoever he wishes for government, and having it follow ‘his’ political agenda. However, when the President's political opponents control parliament, the President's dominance can be severely limited, as he must choose a prime minister and cabinet reflecting the majority in parliament. When parties from opposite ends of the political spectrum control parliament and the presidency, the power-sharing arrangement is known as [[cohabitation (government)|cohabitation]]. By convention, the President controls foreign-affairs and defence related issues of the state, while the Prime Minister manages the day-to-day affairs including the economy.
In the late 1970s Egypt had several cohabitation governments which proved to be unstable, due to the struggle arising between the President and the Prime Minister. However, since 1981, the National Democratic Party has maintained a majority in the People’s Assembly and supplied the Egyptian President.
===The Government/Cabinet ('''Al-Hokouma Al-Misreya''') ===
''Main Article: [[Cabinet of Egypt]], [[Prime Minister of Egypt]] <BR><BR>''
The government, or the [[cabinet]], is headed by the [[Prime Minister of Egypt]]. It has at its disposal the [[Egyptian Civil Service|civil service]] the government agencies. The cabinet, headed by the Prime Minister, is responsible only to Parliament, specifically the People’s Assembly. The People’s Assembly may pass a motion of censure, forcing the resignation of the cabinet. Ministers have to answer questions from Members of Parliament, both written and oral; this is kno |
it is not unusual for people to speak Cantonese and English, and sometimes Mandarin.
===Language or language family?===
{{main|Identification of the varieties of Chinese}}
<!--This is a SUMMARY. Please add new information to [[Identification of the varieties of Chinese]].-->
The diversity of Chinese variants is comparable to the [[Romance languages]], and greater than the [[North Germanic languages]]. However, owing to China's sociopolitical and cultural situation, whether these variants should be known as "languages" or "dialects" is a subject of ongoing debate. Some people call Chinese a [[language]] and its subdivisions [[dialect]]s, while others call Chinese a [[Language families and languages|language family]] and its subdivisions languages.
From a purely [[Prescription and description|descriptive]] point of view, "languages" and "dialects" are simply arbitrary groups of similar [[idiolect]]s, and the distinction is irrelevant to linguists who are only concerned with describing regional speeches scientifically. However, the language/dialect distinction has far-reaching implications in socio-political issues, such as the national identity of China, regional identities within China, and the very nature of the (Han) Chinese "nation" or "race". As a result, it has become a subject of contention.
On one hand, there is the tendency to regard dialects as equal variations of a single Chinese language. This is partly because all speakers of different varieties of Chinese use [[Vernacular Chinese|one formal standard written language]], although this written language in modern times is itself based on one variety of spoken Chinese. On the other hand, some regions with strong senses of regional cohesiveness have become more aware of regional groupings of dialects.
The idea of single language has major overtones in politics and self-identity, and explains the amount of emotion over this issue. The idea of Chinese as a language family may suggest that China consists of several different nations, challenge the notion of a single [[Han Chinese]] "[[race]]", and legitimize secessionist movements. Furthermore, for some, suggesting that Chinese is more correctly described as multiple languages implies that the notion of a single Chinese language and a single Chinese state or nationality is artificial.
However, the links between ethnicity, politics, and language can be complex. Many Wu, Min, Hakka, and Cantonese speakers consider their own varieties as separate spoken languages, but the [[Han Chinese]] race as one entity. They do not regard these two positions as contradictory, but consider the Han Chinese an entity of great internal diversity. Moreover, the government of the [[People's Republic of China]] officially states that China is a [[Nationalities of China|multinational state]], and that the term "Chinese" refers to a broader concept ''[[Zhonghua Minzu]]'' that incorporates groups that do not natively speak Chinese, such as [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]], [[Uyghur]]s, and [[Mongols]]. (Groups that do speak Chinese are properly called [[Han Chinese]], and are regarded as one component of a multiethnic whole.) Similarly, on Taiwan, some supporters of [[Chinese reunification]] promote the local language, while some supporters of Taiwan independence have little interest in the topic. And the Taiwanese identity incorporates [[Taiwanese aborigines]], who are not considered Han Chinese because they speak [[Austronesian languages]], predate Han Chinese settlement, and are culturally and genetically linked to other Austronesian-speaking peoples such as [[Polynesia]]ns.
==Written Chinese==
{{main|Chinese written language}}
<!--This is a SUMMARY. Please add new information to [[Chinese written language]].-->
The relationship among the Chinese spoken and written languages is complex. It is compounded by the fact that spoken variations evolved for centuries, since at least the late [[Han Dynasty]], while written Chinese changed much less.
Until the 20th century, most formal Chinese writing was done in ''wényán'' (文言), translated as [[Classical Chinese]] or Literary Chinese, which was very different from any spoken variety of Chinese, much as [[Classical Latin]] differs from modern [[Romance language]]s. Since the [[May Fourth Movement]] of [[1919]], the formal standard for written Chinese was changed to ''báihuà'' (白話/白话), or [[Vernacular Chinese]], which, while not completely identical to the grammar and vocabulary of dialects of Mandarin, was based mostly on them. The term ''standard written Chinese'' now refers to Vernacular Chinese.
Chinese characters are [[morpheme]]s independent of phonetic change. Thus, although the number one is "yi" in [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]], "yat" in [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] and "tsit" in [[Min-nan|Hokkien]], they derive from a common ancient Chinese word and still share an identical character ("一"). Nevertheless, the orthographies of Chinese dialects are not completely identical. The vocabularies of different dialects have diverged. In addition, while literary vocabulary is <!-- often [huh?] --> mostly used by all dialects, colloquial vocabularies are often different. Colloquial non-standard written Chinese usually involves "dialectal characters" which may not be understood in other dialects or characters that are considered archaic in standard written Chinese.
Cantonese is unique among non-Mandarin [[regional language]]s in having a written colloquial standard, used in Hong Kong and by non-[[Standard Mandarin]] speaking Cantonese speakers overseas, with a large number of unofficial characters for words particular to this variety of Chinese. By contrast, the other regional languages do not have such widely-used alternative written standards. Written colloquial Cantonese has become quite popular in online [[chat room]]s and [[instant messaging]], although for formal written communications Cantonese speakers still normally use standard written Chinese.
Also, in Hunan, some women wrote their local language in [[Nü Shu]], a [[syllabary]] derived from [[Chinese character]]s. The [[Dungan language]], considered a dialect of Mandarin, is also nowadays written in [[Cyrillic]], and was formerly written in the [[Arabic alphabet]], although the [[Dungan]] people live outside [[China]].
=== Chinese characters ===
{{main|Chinese character}}
<!--This is a SUMMARY. Please add new information to [[Chinese character]].-->
The Chinese written language employs [[Chinese character]]s (漢字/汉字 [[pinyin]]: ''hànzì''), which are [[logogram]]s: each symbol represents a [[semanteme]] (a meaningful unit of language).
They are not just [[pictograph]]s (pictures of their meanings), but are highly stylized and carry much abstract meaning. Only some characters are derived from pictographs. <!-- (1%, according to [[picogram]].) --> In [[100]] AD, the famed scholar [[Xushen]] in the [[Han Dynasty]] classified characters into 6 categories, only 4% as pictographs, and 82% as phonetic complexes consisting of a ''radical'' element that indicates meaning, and a ''phonetic'' element that arguably once indicated the pronunciation.
All modern characters derive from [[Kaishu]]. There are currently two standards for Chinese characters. One is the [[Traditional Chinese character|traditional system]], essentially a streamlined styling of Kaishu, still used in [[Hong Kong]], [[Taiwan]], and [[Macau]]. The other is the [[Simplified Chinese character|simplified system]] adopted during the [[1950s]] [[Chinese Cultural Revolution]] in [[Mainland China]]. The simplified system requires fewer strokes to write certain radicals and has fewer synonymous characters. [[Singapore]], which has a large Chinese community, is the first and only foreign country to recognize and officially adopt the simplified characters.
[[Image:shodo.jpg|thumb|250px|Various styles of Chinese calligraphy.]]
Various written styles are used in [[Chinese calligraphy]], including [[seal script|zhuanshu]] (篆書, "seal-script"), [[caoshu]] (草書, "grass script" or "haste script"), [[lishu]] (隸書, "official script") and [[kaishu]] (楷書, "standard script"). Calligraphers can write in traditional and simplified characters, but they tend to use traditional characters for traditional art.
As with [[Roman alphabet|Latin script]], a wide variety of [[typeface|fonts]] exist for printed Chinese characters, a great number of which are often based on the styles of single calligraphers or schools of calligraphy.
There is no concrete record of the origin of Chinese characters. Legend suggests that [[Cangjie]], a bureaucrat of the legendary emperor [[Huangdi]] of China about [[2600 BC]], invented Chinese characters. But archaeological evidence, mainly the oracles found in the [[19th century|19]]-[[20th centuries]], only dates Chinese characters to the [[Shang dynasty]] in [[1700 BC]].
The vast majority of oracle bone inscriptions were found in [[Yinxu]] of the Shang Dynasty, although a few [[Zhou dynasty]]-related ones were also found. The forms of the characters in the inscriptions changed over the 200 to 300 years, and scholars date the inscriptions of the Shang to the ruler by the content, particularly from the name of the diviners who inscribed the shell or bone artifacts.
Contemporaneous with the end of Shang and Western Zhou periods are the [[bronzeware script|bronze inscriptions]]. Over the last century, a great many ancient bronze artifacts have been unearthed in China which contain dedicational texts of the Zhou aristocrats where the characters show similarities and innovations compared to the oracle inscriptions.
It is said that during the reign of Zhou King Xuan (宣王 [[820s BC|827]]-[[780s BC|782 BCE]]), the form of written cha |
e range itself and its immediate branches, at a height of 6000 to 10,000 ft (1,800 to 3,000 m), we have abundant growth of large forest trees, among which conifers are the most noble and prominent, such as Cedrus Deodara, Abies excelsa, Pinus longifolia, P. Pinaster, P. Pinea (the edible pine) and the larch. We have also the yew, the hazel, juniper, walnut, wild peach and almond. Growing under the shade of these are several varieties of rose, honeysuckle, currant, gooseberry, hawthorn, rhododendron and a luxuriant herbage, among which the ranunculus family is important for frequency and number of genera. The lemon and wild vine are also here met with, but are more common on the northern mountains. The walnut and oak (evergreen, holly-leaved and kermes) descend to the secondary heights, where they become mixed with alder, ash, khinjak, Arbor-vitae, juniper, with species of Astragalus, &c. Here also are Indigoferae rind dwarf laburnum.
Lower again, and down to 3,000 ft (1,000 m) we have wild olive, species of rock-rose, wild privet, acacias and mimosas, barberry and Zizyphus; and in the eastern ramifications of the chain, Chamaerops humilis (which is applied to a variety of useful purposes), Bignonia or trumpet flower, sissu, Salvadora persica, verbena, acanthus, varieties of Gesnerae.
The lowest terminal ridges, especially towards the west, are, as has been said, naked in aspect. Their scanty vegetation is almost wholly herbal; shrubs are only occasional; trees almost non-existent. Labiate, composite and umbelliferous plants are most common. [[Fern]]s and [[moss]]es are almost confined to the higher ranges.
In the low brushwood scattered over portions of the dreary plains of the Kandahar tablelands, we find leguminous thorny plants of the papilionaceous suborder, such as camel-thorn ([[Faboideae|''Hedysarum alhagi'']]), [[''Astragalus'']] in several varieties, spiny rest-harrow (''[[Ononis]] spinosa''), the fibrous roots of which often serve as a tooth-brush; plants of the sub-order [[Mimosa|Mimosae]], as the sensitive mimosa; a plant of the [[rue]] family, called by the natives ''lipad''; the common [[Artemisia (plant)|wormwood]]; also certain [[orchid]]s, and several species of Salsola. The rue and wormwood are in general use as domestic medicines&mdash;the former for [[rheumatism]] and [[Neurasthenia|neuralgia]]; the latter in fever, debility and dyspepsia, as well as for a vermifuge. The lipad, owing to its heavy nauseous odour, is believed to keep off evil spirits. In some places, occupying the sides and hollows of ravines, are found the rose bay (Nerium Oleander), called in Persian khar-zarah, or ass-bane, the wild [[laburnum]] and various Indigoferae.
In cultivated districts the chief trees seen are [[mulberry]], [[willow]], [[poplar]], [[Ash tree|ash]], and occasionally the [[Platanus|plane]]; but these are because of man's planting.
==Sources==
*[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]] - physical geography
*Central Intelligence Agency. "Afghanistan." ''[[CIA World Factbook|CIA World Factbook 2000]]''. 2004. <small>[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/af.html]</small>
*Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. "Afghanistan: A Country Study." 1997. <small>[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html]</small>
* [[M. Ismail Marcinkowski]], ''Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in [[Iran]], the [[Caucasus]], [[Central Asia]], [[India]] and Early [[Ottoman Turkey]], with a foreword by Professor Clifford Edmund Bosworth'', member of the [[British Academy]], Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003, ISBN 9971774887.
{{Asia in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography of Afghanistan| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Afghanistan]]
[[fa:&#1580;&#1594;&#1585;&#1575;&#1601;&#1740;&#1575;&#1740; &#1591;&#1576;&#1740;&#1593;&#1740; &#1575;&#1601;&#1594;&#1575;&#1606;&#1587;&#1578;&#1575;&#1606;]]
[[fr:Géographie de l'Afghanistan]]
[[no:Afghanistans geografi]]
[[pt:Geografia do Afeganistão]]
[[zh:&#38463;&#23500;&#27735;&#22320;&#29702;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Government of Afghanistan</title>
<id>12682</id>
<revision>
<id>15910352</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-18T06:00:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>202.138.180.36</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Afghanistan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gauntlet</title>
<id>12683</id>
<revision>
<id>40363889</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar2|gauntlet|gantlet}}
'''Gauntlet''' (occasionally spelled '''gantlet''') may mean:
* [[Gauntlet (gloves)]], protective gloves used as a form of armour.
* [[Gauntlet (arcade game)]], a video game originally produced in 1985 by Atari Games.
* [[Gauntlet (body piercing studio)]] founded by Jim Ward that pioneered the field of body piercing.
* [[Gauntlet (newspaper)]], a weekly newspaper published by students at the University of Calgary.
* [[Gauntlet (marking)]], the white markings on one or more of the legs of an animal such as a cat or rabbit, making them look like they have a long white glove on. Other examples of these leg markings are the sock and the glove; all three are defined by their different lengths.
* [[Gauntlet (proxy server)]]
* [[Gauntlet Systems]], software company.
* [[SA-15 Gauntlet]], Soviet surface-to-air missile.
* [[Railroad switch#Gantlet track|Gantlet track]], a section of two railroad tracks that overlap to allow them to pass a narrow bridge or tunnel in little more than the space of one track.
* [[Running the gauntlet]] refers to a corporal punishment in which people armed with sticks or other weapons arrange themselves in two lines facing each other and beat the subject, who is forced to run between them.
* [[Gloster Gauntlet]], a British [[biplane]] in active service in the 1930s and 1940s.
==External links==
* [http://www.bartleby.com/64/C003/0140.html Word choice: Gantlet versus Gauntlet]
{{disambig}}
[[ja:ガントレット]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grand jury</title>
<id>12684</id>
<revision>
<id>39198131</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T12:08:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>David Shay</username>
<id>17302</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>interwiki he</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CrimPro}}
A '''grand jury''' is a type of [[common law]] [[jury]] responsible for investigating alleged [[crime]]s, examining [[evidence (law)|evidence]], and issuing [[indictment|indictments]] if they believe that there is enough evidence for a trial to proceed. A grand jury is distinguished from a [[petit jury]], which is used during trial; the names refer to their respective sizes (typically 25 and 12 members respectively).
Where they exist, grand juries are part of the system of [[checks and balances]], preventing a case from going to trial on a prosecutor's bare word: an impartial panel of ordinary citizens must first decide whether there exists [[reasonable cause]] or [[probable cause]] to believe that a crime has been committed. To this end [[witness]]es can be compelled to testify before them. Unlike the trial itself, the grand jury's proceedings are secret; the [[defendant]] and his or her [[counsel]] are generally not present for other witnesses' testimony. The grand jury's decision is either "true bill" (i.e. there is a case to answer) or "no true bill." In general, jurors are drawn from the same pool of citizens as a petit jury, and participate for a specific time period.
[[Britain]] abandoned grand juries in the [[1930s]] and instead uses a [[Committal procedure|committal procedure]], as do the States of [[Australia]]. Today fewer than half of the states in the [[United States|U.S.]] employ them. Most jurisdictions have abolished grand juries, replacing them with the [[preliminary hearing]] at which a [[Judge]] hears evidence concerning the alleged offenses and makes a decision on whether the prosecution can proceed. However, grand juries are still used in a number of U.S. jurisdictions.
==The United States==
Charges involving "capital or infamous crimes" under [[United States federal government|federal jurisdiction]] must be presented to a grand jury, under the [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution]]. This has been interpreted to permit bypass of the grand jury for [[misdemeanor]] offenses, which can be charged by prosecutor's information.
Unlike many other provisions of the [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]], the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] has ruled<!--in which court case?--> that this requirement does not pertain to the [[States of the United States|state]] courts, and states are therefore allowed not to use grand juries. <!-- how many?-->
==Criticism of the Grand Jury==
Some argue that the grand jury is [[justice|unjust]] as the defendant is not represented by [[lawyer|counsel]] and/or does not have the right to call witnesses. Intended to serve as a check on prosecutors, the opportunity it presents them to compel testimony can in fact prove useful in building up the case they will present at the final trial.
In practice, a grand jury rarely acts in a manner contrary to the wishes of the prosecutor. Judge [[Sol Wachtler]], the former Chief Judge of [[New York State]], was quoted as saying, "A grand jury would indict a ham sandwich." As such, many jurisdictions in the Unite |
Christ of Latter- day Saints, 1830-47" pp. 607-608).
# Miriam Work 1824 (2 children), included in his will.
# Mary Ann Angell 1834 (6 children), in will.
# Lucy A. Decker (Seeley) 1842 (7 children), in will.
# Harriet E. Cook (Campbell) 1843 (1 child), in will.
# Lucy Augusta Adams (Cobb) 1843 (no children), requested cancellation of her [[Sealing (Mormonism)|sealing]] 1846, sealed by proxy to Joseph Smith 1848, from 1850 onward asked Brigham Young to give her to various men in civil marriage but still included in will.
# Clarissa C. Decker 1844 (5 children), in will.
# Clarissa Ross-Chase 1844 (4 children), in will.
# Louisa Beaman (Smith) 1844 (5 children).
# [[Zina D. H. Young|Zina D. Huntington (Jacobs, Smith)]] 1844 (1 child), in will.
# Emily D. Partridge (Smith) 1844 (7 children), in will. (daughter of [[Edward Partridge]])
# [[Eliza Roxcy Snow|Eliza R. Snow (Smith)]] 1844 (no children), in will.
# '''*'''Elizabeth Fairchild 1844 (no children), divorced 1855.
# '''*'''Clarissa Blake 1844 (no children).
# '''*'''Rebecca W. Greenleaf Holman 1844 (no children).
# '''*'''Diana Chase 1844 (no children), separated about 1848, remarried 1849.
# Maria Lawrence (Smith) 1844 (no children), separated 1845, remarried 1846.
# Susannah Snively 1844 (no children), in will.
# Olive G. Frost (Smith) 1844 (no children).
# '''*'''Mary A. Clark (Powers) 1845 (no children), divorced 1851.
# '''*'''Mary Harvey Pierce 1845 (no children).
# Margrette W. Pierce (Whitesides) 1845 (1 child), in will.
# '''*'''Rhoda Richards (Smith) 1845 (no children). (she was Young's 1st cousin)
# Emmeline Free 1845 (10 children), in will. (former fiance of [[John D. Lee]], her sister Louisa married Lee).
# Mary E. Rollins (Lightner, Smith) 1845 (no children), remained with legal husband yet considered herself deserted by Brigham Young 1846.
# Margaret Maria Alley 1845 (2 children), in will.
# '''*'''Mary Ann Turley 1845 (no children), divorced 1851.
# '''*'''Olive Andrews (Smith) 1846 (no children).
# '''*'''Emily Haws (Chesley, Whitmarsh) 1846 (no children), separated 1848.
# Ellen A. V. Rockwood 1846 (no children).
# '''*'''Abigail Marks (Works) 1846 (no children).
# '''*'''Mary E. Nelson (Greene) 1846 (no children).
# '''*'''Mary E. de la Montague (Woodward) 1846 (no children), divorced and returned to legal husband 1847, then returned to Brigham Young 1851.
# '''*'''Amy C. Cooper 1846 (no children).
# '''*'''Julia Foster (Hampton) 1846 (no children), separated 1846, married another man, returned to Brigham Young 1855 only to leave him bitterly later.
# '''*'''Abigail Harback (Hall) 1846 (no children), returned to legal husband 1846.
# Naamah K. J. Carter (Twiss) 1846 (no children), obtained cancellation of her [[Sealing (Mormonism)|sealing]] by 1871, anointed to deceased first husband but still included in will.
# '''*'''Nancy Cressy (Walker) 1846 (no children).
# '''*'''Eliza Babcock 1846-53 (no children), divorced 1853.
# '''*'''Jane Terry (Tarbox, Young) 1847.
# Mary J. Bigelow 1847 (no children), divorced 1851.
# Lucy Bigelow 1847 (3 children), in will.
# '''*'''Sarah M. Guckin (Malin) 1848 (no children).
# Eliza Burgess 1852 (1 child), in will.
# '''*'''Mary Oldfield (Kelsey) 1852 (no children).
# '''*'''Catherine Resse (Clawson, Egan) 1855 (no children).
# Harriet E. Barney (Sagers) 1856 (1 child), in will.
# Harriet Amelia Folsom 1863 (no children), in will.
# Mary Van Cott (Cobb) 1865 (1 child), in will.
# [[Ann Eliza Young|Ann Eliza Webb]] (Dee) 1868 (no children), divorced 1875; her story was [[fiction|fictionalized]] in Irving Wallace's 1962 novel ''The Twenty-Seventh Wife.''
# '''*'''Elizabeth Jones (Lewis, Jones) 1869 (no children).
# '''*'''Lydia Farnsworth (Mayhew) 1870 (no children).
# '''*'''Hannah Tapfield (King) 1872 (no children).
==Legacy==
Brigham Young has several noteworthy descendents:
*[[Steve Young (athlete)|Steve Young]], NFL Hall of fame football player
*[[La Monte Young]], minimalist composer
*[[Brigham Young, Jr.]], mormon apostle
*[[Richard Whitehead Young]], World War I general & Phillipines Supreme Court Justice
==See also==
*''[[Brigham Young (movie)]]''
*[[Richards-Young Family|Richards-Young Political Family]]
==References==
*[[Leonard J. Arrington]], ''Brigham Young: American Moses''; University of Illinois Press; ISBN 0252012968, (1985; Paperback, 1986).
*[[Hugh Nibley]], ''Brother Brigham Challenges the Saints.''
* Gary James Bergera, [http://www.signaturebooks.com/excerpts/conflict.html ''Conflict in the Quorum: Orson Pratt, Brigham Young, Joseph Smith'']
== External links ==
*[http://www.byu.edu/about/brigham/ Biography from Brigham Young University]
*[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/essays/mormonpolygamy.htm The Brigham Young period of polygamy]
*[http://www.aoc.gov/cc/art/nsh/young.cfm Short biography of Young from Architect of the Capitol]
*[http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/people/s_z/young.htm PBS profile]
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
title= [[List of governors of Utah|Governor of Utah Territory]] |
years= [[1850]]&ndash;[[1858]] |
before= None |
after= [[Alfred Cumming]]
}}
{{succession box |
title= [[President of the LDS Church]] |
years= [[December 27]], [[1847]]&ndash;[[August 29]], [[1877]] |
before= [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] |
after= [[John Taylor (1808-1887)|John Taylor]]
}}
{{succession box |
title= [[President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]] |
years= [[March 17]], [[1839]]&ndash;[[December 27]], [[1847]] |
before= [[Thomas B. Marsh]] |
after= [[Orson Hyde]]
}}
{{series box |
title= [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]] |
years= [[February 15]], [[1835]]&ndash;[[December 27]], [[1847]] |
before=[[David W. Patten]] |
after= [[Heber C. Kimball]] |
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1801 births|Young, Brigham]]
[[Category:1877 deaths|Young, Brigham]]
[[Category:Apostles of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Young, Brigham]]
[[Category:Governors of Utah|Young, Brigham]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint leaders|Young, Brigham]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saints|Young, Brigham]]
[[Category:Mormon pioneers|Young, Brigham]]
[[Category:People from Vermont|Young, Brigham]]
[[Category:People who were pardoned by the President of the United States|Young, Brigham]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Young, Brigham]]
[[da:Brigham Young]]
[[de:Brigham Young]]
[[es:Brigham Young]]
[[eo:Brigham YOUNG]]
[[ia:Brigham Young]]
[[nl:Brigham Young]]
[[no:Brigham Young]]
[[pl:Brigham Young]]
[[ru:Янг, Бригам]]
[[fi:Brigham Young]]
[[sv:Brigham Young]]
[[zh:杨百翰]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Burns supper</title>
<id>5049</id>
<revision>
<id>36695614</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T21:33:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>204.209.24.2</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Put back categories and fix awkward passives</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''Burns Supper''' is a celebration of the life and [[poetry]] of the poet [[Robert Burns]], author of the version of the [[Scots Language|Scots]] song [[Auld Lang Syne]], which is generally sung at [[Hogmanay]] and other [[New Year]] celebrations around the [[English language|English]]-speaking world. The suppers are normally held on or near the poet's birthday, [[January 25]], sometimes known as Burns Night, although they may in principle be held at any time of the year.
Burns suppers are most common in [[Scotland]] (and also in [[Russia]], where nationally televised Burns nights are held in the [[Kremlin]]) but they occur wherever there are Burns clubs, expatriate Scots, or indeed lovers of Burns' poetry.
The first suppers were held in [[Ayrshire]] at the end of the [[18th century]] by his friends on the anniversary of his death, [[July 21]], ''In Memoriam'' and, although the date has changed to the 25th of January since then, they have been a regular occurrence ever since.
They may be formal or informal but they should always be entertaining. The only items which the informal suppers have in common are [[haggis]], [[whisky]] and perhaps a poem or two. However the formal suppers, which are often held by [[Burns club]]s follow a standard format which is as follows.
== Order of the supper ==
=== Start of the evening ===
Guests gather and mix as in any informal party.
=== Host's welcoming speech ===
The host says a few words welcoming everyone to the supper and perhaps stating the reason for it. The event is declared open.
Everyone is seated at the table(s) and grace is said, using the ''Selkirk Grace:''
'''The Selkirk Grace'''
:Some hae meat and canna eat,
:And some would eat that want it;
:But we hae meat, and we can eat,
:Sae let the Lord be thankit.
The supper then starts with the soup course. Normally a Scots soup such as [[Scotch Broth]], Potato Soup or [[Cock-a-leekie soup|Cock-a-Leekie]] is served.
=== Entrance of the haggis ===
Everyone stands as the main course is brought in. This is always a haggis on a large dish. It is brought in by the cook, generally while a piper plays bagpipes and leads the way to the host's table, where the haggis is laid down. He might play 'A man's a man for aw that'. The host, or perhaps a guest with a talent, then recites the ''Address To a Haggis'':
''[[Image:BobPurdieAddressingHaggis20040124CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|right|Addressing the haggis]]''
'''Address To a Haggis'''
Fair fa' your honest, sonsie face, (sonsie = cheeky)
Great chieftain o' the puddin-race!
Aboon them a' ye tak your place, (aboon = above)
Painch, tripe, or thairm:
Weel are ye wordy o' a grace
As lang's my arm.
The groaning trencher there ye fill,
Your hurdies like a distant hill, (hurdies = hips)
Your pin wad help to mend a mill
In time o' need,
While thro' your pores the dews distil
Like amber bead.
His knife see rustic Labour dicht, (dicht = wipe)
An' cut you up wi' ready slicht, |
respectable Catholic lawyer. As the series goes on, these roles become too difficult to maintain separately until they come crashing together repeatedly, forcing Matt to reconcile his divided nature.-->
==Characters==
===Love interests===
[[Image:Ddelektra.png|175px|thumb|right|Daredevil and Elektra; art by Frank Miller.]]
For a more complete list, see [[:Category:Daredevil love interests | Daredevil love interests]].
Within [[Marvel Comics]], few characters feature a love life as convoluted and tortured as Daredevil's. His girlfriends fall roughly into two groups: ordinary women who suffer great pain at his side; and superpowered, highly-dangerous love interests. Either way, most end up killed, maimed or traumatized. Arguably, Daredevil is a character plagued with [[Women in Refrigerator| Girlfriend-In-Refrigerator]] syndrome.
* [[Karen Page]] — prodigal love of Murdock's life. Overwhelmed by the discovery of Daredevil's secret identity, she quit her job as his law firm's secretary-receptionist and devolved into a strung-out [[adult film]] [[actress]]. When her drug habit nearly destroyed Murdock's life in "Born Again", she cleaned up and started their relationship anew. Shortly thereafter, she was killed by [[Bullseye (comics) | Bullseye]] when she jumped in front of an attack meant for Daredevil and died in his arms.
* [[Elektra (comics) | Elektra]] — daughter of a Greek diplomat and college love of Murdock who became an assassin for the [[Kingpin (comics) | Kingpin]]. She was impaled on her own [[sais]] by Bullseye when conflicting emotions prevented her from carrying out the hit of [[Foggy Nelson]], and bled to death in Murdock's arms on the steps of his [[brownstone]]. She was later brought back from death [[supernaturally]] by the Hand.
* Heather Glenn — became an alcoholic and committed suicide.
* Glorianna O'Breen — killed by Victor Krueller, a henchman of the Kingpin.
* [[Milla Donovan]] — Murdock's on-again / off-again wife in mid-2000s issues. She left him when she discovered their marriage might be a symptom of his [[nervous breakdown]], and in late 2005 attempted to reconcile.
* [[Typhoid Mary (comics) | Typhoid Mary]] — Kingpin assassin with a [[dissociative identity disorder]], who Daredevil inadvertantly created in one of his first adventures, before he was even in costume. Was traumatized when Daredevil had sex with her and then, while she was sleeping, forged [[insane asylum]] entrance papers and notified the authorities of where she lived. Therapy having subdued her murderous personality, she was working as an actress on a daytime soap opera until the Kingpin violently reminded her of who she was.
* [[Echo (comics) | Echo]] — daughter of a trusted associate of the Kingpin. She was tricked into trying to kill Daredevil when told he had murdered her father. Though she later learned she was betrayed by the Kingpin, the ordeal kept her from maintaining a relationship with Daredevil. The character, created by [[David W. Mack|David Mack]] is now a member of the [[Avengers]] under the alias of Ronin.
* [[Black Widow (comics) | Black Widow]] — non-superpowered, costumed agent of [[S.H.I.E.L.D.]] Daredevil and the Black Widow had a relatively normal relationship, one that saw Murdock briefly relocate from Hell's Kitchen to move in with her in San Francisco. Though no longer a couple, they have remained friends and occasional lovers.
===Recurring characters===
For a more complete list, see [[:Category:Daredevil supporting characters | Daredevil supporting characters]].
* [[Foggy Nelson]] — best friend, college roommate, [[sidekick]], protector and law partner.
* [[Ben Urich]] — recently estranged close friend of Murdock who as a reporter for the [[Daily Bugle]] discovered his identity as Daredevil. Urich never published the article knowing how much damage such a revelation would cause, despite the fame and recognition it would have brought him.
* [[Spider-Man]] — Daredevil's closest professional friend and confidante.
* [[Jessica Jones]] — former superhero turned private investigator and significant other of [[Luke Cage]]. Has acted as bodyguard for Matt Murdock in his civilian life.
* [[Luke Cage]] — hero for hire with unbreakable skin, has become one of Daredevil's closest friends in recent years. Matt's public denial of his life as Daredevil has strained their relationship.
* [[Gladiator (Daredevil character) | Gladiator]] — former villain turned close friend and bodyguard. Was recently coerced into betraying Daredevil, the ramifications of which have not yet been seen.
* [[Stick (comics) | Stick]] — an old and blind martial arts master who served as Murdock's mentor following his childhood accident.
* [[Punisher | The Punisher]] — [[Machiavellian]] [[vigilante]] whose methods often bring him at odds with Daredevil, especially in regards to their views towards the justice system.
===Enemies===
[[Image:Dd170.jpg|thumb|175px|right|''Daredevil'' #170 (May 1981). Cover art by Frank Miller and Klaus Janson.]]
For a more complete list, see [[:Category:Daredevil villains | Daredevil villains]].
* [[Bullseye (comics) | Bullseye]] — Daredevil's deadliest nemesis, a frequent assassin for the [[Kingpin (comics) | Kingpin]]. He killed the first two loves of Murdock's life: [[Elektra (comics) | Elektra]] and [[Karen Page]].
* [[Kingpin (comics) | Kingpin]]— criminal mastermind and Daredevil's archnemesis. He has long known Daredevil's secret identity, and used this information to try to destroy Murdock's life.
* [[Electro (comics) | Electro]] — rarely a Daredevil foe. He was the first supervillain Daredevil faced (''Daredevil'' Vol. 1, #2)
* [[Mysterio]] — primarily a Spider-Man foe. He orchestrated the events behind ''Guardian Devil'', and committed suicide before Daredevil could exact revenge.
* [[Owl (comics) | The Owl]] — the first supervillain created in ''Daredevil'', introduced in Vol. 1, #3. In mid-2000s issues, he made a play for the Kingpin's territory by manufacturing the drug [[Mutant Growth Hormone]].
* [[Purple Man]] — has the ability to make people do what he wants due to his radiated skin. Daredevil's willpower and blindness has always kept him outside of the Purple Man's influence.
* [[Stilt-Man]] — Armored villain who towers on gigantic, hydraulically operated "stilts" (actually telescoping leg armor). The original Stilt Man retired, with his successor having debuted in [[Marvel Team-Up]] '''#TK.'''
===Other Daredevils===
* The [[Golden Age of Comic Books|Golden Age]] [[Daredevil (Golden Age)|Daredevil]], a character published by [[Lev Gleason Publications]], who wore a red-and-blue costume and fought crime with [[boomerangs]]. The [[alternate universe]] version of Matt Murdock in the ''[[Mutant X (comics)|Mutant X]]'' series wore a similar costume as an homage.
* The [[Marvel 2099]] version of Daredevil made an appearance in ''2099 Apocalypse''.
* Matthew Murdoch, a blind balladeer, was a character in writer [[Neil Gaiman]]'s series [[1602 (comic)|1602]].
* [[Marvel Knights]] Daredevil 2099 is a descendent of [[Kingpin (comics)|Wilson Fisk]].
* The [[Marvel Mangaverse]] features a version of Daredevil called the Devil Hunter. His costume is patterned after an [[Oni (Japanese folklore)|oni]], or Japanese demon.
* Keeper Murdock is Daredevil's counterpart in ''The [[Age of Apocalypse]].''
* In the [[parallel universe]] "[[House of M|House of M]]" crossover, Matt Murdock / Daredevil is romantically involved with [[She-Hulk]]
* In the ''Earth X'' series, a completely invulnerable stuntman goes by the name of Daredevil as well as donning a costume that looks somewhere between that of Daredevil and [[Evel Knievel]]. It is never stated who this Daredevil really is, but the list of potential candidates includes Deadpool, Mr. Immortal, Night Raven, Yi Yang, Madcap, or the resurrected Foggy Nelson.
* In the [[Ultimate Marvel]] universe, Daredevil is a law student at [[Columbia University]]. While little of his past has been revealed, he resembles the [[Marvel 616]] Daredevil in both powers and looks.
==Powers and abilities==
Daredevil is completely blind but his remaining senses act with superhuman precision: He can feel the imprints of ink on newsprint, allowing him to read without the need for [[Braille]]; he can determine, to the same extent as a [[polygraph test]], whether someone's heart rate, sweat secretions and other evidence suggest he or she is lying; he can follow a scent like a bloodhound; and he can taste the finest differences in food and drink. He can also determine the shape and location of objects around him by means of a 360-degree "radar sense" unlike the movie interpretation of his power.
Daredevil uses a [[billy club]] as both transportation and a weapon. The [[nunchaku]]-like apparatus contains a length of cable which he can wrap around protuberances such as flagpoles, and swing, [[Tarzan]]-like, from place to place.
==Costumes==
<gallery>
Image:Dd_32.jpg|Daredevil's alter ego, Matthew Murdock. Cover to Daredevil vol. 2 #32.<br />Art by [[Alex Maleev]].
Image:Dd_yellow.jpg|Daredevil's first costume, designed by [[Bill Everett]] with input from [[Jack Kirby]].<br />Art by [[Tim Sale]].
Image:Dd_hc.jpg|Daredevil's red costume, designed by [[Wally Wood]].<br />Art by Alex Maleev.
Image:Daredevilfallfromgrace.gif|Daredevil's darker redesign from the ''Fall From Grace'' arc.<br />Art by [[Scott McDaniel]].
Image:Dd_1602.jpg|Promotional sketch of Murdoch from [[Neil Gaiman]] and [[Andy Kubert]]'s ''1602''.<br />Art by Andy Kubert.
</gallery>
==Other media adaptations==
===Film===
[[Image:Daredevil_poster.JPG|thumb|190px|right|''Daredevil'' movie poster.]]
In February [[2003]], [[20th Century Fox]] released [[Daredevil (film) | ''Daredevil'']], a feature film starring [[Ben Affleck]], [[Jennifer Garner]], [[Colin Farrell]] and [[Mic |
opularity of rock music, the popularity of girl groups began to wane. During this time, only a few all-female groups, such as [[The Supremes]] and [[Martha and the Vandellas]], made the transition to an earthier, soulful sound and success. [[Fanny]] was among the first all-female rock act to gain success in the United States and Europe. This group was among the first to sign with a major recording company (1969, [[Warner Brothers]]) and record albums released by major lables.
==Later girl groups==
In recent times, the sound of girl groups has been defined, and has helped to define, the popular musical styles of the period.
While the 1980s saw the emergence of rock and punk-rock girl groups such as [[The Go-Go's]], the girl groups of the 1990s returned to a manufactured pop style marketed as clean-cut and aimed at young, predominantly female, audiences. The [[Spice Girls]] were one of the most influential girl group of this time, bringing their slogan "[[Girl Power]]" to popular use through several number one pop singles, sold-out concerts, and even a popular motion picture. In the early 2000s, girl groups again increased in popularity, spawning such bands as California-based [[Dream (band)|Dream]], the [[Sweden|Swedish]] quartet [[Play (band)|Play]], the Russian duo [[T.A.T.u.|t.A.T.u.]].
Today's most notable girl groups include American bands such as [[Destiny's Child]] and British bands such as [[Girls Aloud]] and the [[Sugababes]].
==See also==
*[[List of girl groups]]
*[[List of all-women bands]]
{{rock}}
{{Soulmusic}}
{{popmusic}}
[[Category:Musical genres]]
[[Category:Musical groups]]
[[Category:Girl groups|*Girl group]]
<!--Interlanguage links-->
[[de:Girlgroup]]
[[he:להקת בנות]]
[[nl:Meidengroep]]
[[pl:Girlsband]]
[[no:Jente-band]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Global warming potential</title>
<id>12908</id>
<revision>
<id>40721380</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T15:42:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
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<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[EPA]] to [[Environmental Protection Agency]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Global warming potential''' (GWP) is a measure of how much a given mass of [[greenhouse gas]] is estimated to contribute to [[global warming]]. It is a relative scale which compares the [[gas]] in question to that of the same mass of [[carbon dioxide]] (whose GWP is by definition 1). A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval and the value of this must be stated whenever a GWP is quoted or else the value is meaningless.
==Calculation of GWP==
GWP is based on a number of factors, including the radiative efficiency (heat-absorbing ability) of each gas relative to that of carbon dioxide, as well as the decay rate of each gas (the amount removed from the atmosphere over a given number of years) relative to that of carbon dioxide [http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/gwp.html].
The [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) provides the generally accepted values for GWP, which changed slightly between 1996 and 2001. An exact definition of how GWP is calculated is to be found in the IPCC's [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/247.htm 2001 Third Assessment Report].
<center><math>GWP \left(x\right) = \frac{\int_0^{TH} a_x \cdot \left[x(t)\right] dt} {\int_0^{TH} a_r \cdot \left[r(t)\right] dt}</math></center>
where: TH is the time horizon over which the calculation is considered; a<sub>x</sub> is the radiative efficiency due to a unit increase in atmospheric abundance of the substance (i.e., Wm<sup>-2</sup> kg<sup>-1</sup>) and [x(t)] is the time-dependent decay in abundance of the substance following an instantaneous release of it at time t=0. The denominator contains the corresponding quantities for the reference gas (i.e. CO<sub>2</sub>).
===GWP used in Kyoto protocol===
Under the [[Kyoto protocol]], the Conference of the Parties decided (decision 2/CP.3) [http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/cop3/07a01.pdf#page=31 ] that the values of GWP calculated for the [[IPCC Second Assessment Report]] are to be used for converting the various greenhouse gas emissions into comparable CO<sub>2</sub> equivalents when computing overall sources and sinks.
==Importance of time horizon==
Note that a substance's GWP depends on the timespan over which the potential is calculated. A gas which is quickly removed from the atmosphere may initially have a large effect but for longer time periods as it has been removed becomes less important. Thus methane has a potential of 23 over 100 years but 62 over 20 years; conversely [[sulfur hexafluoride]] has a GWP of 22,000 over 100 years but 15,100 over 20 years (IPCC TAR). The GWP value depends on how the gas concentration decays over time in the atmosphere. This is often not precisely known and hence the values should not be considered exact. For this reason when quoted a GWP it is important to give a reference to the calculation.
The GWP for a mixture of gases can not be determined from the GWP of the consituent gases by any form of simple linear addition.
== GWP Values==
[[Carbon dioxide]] has a GWP of exactly 1 (since it is the baseline unit to which all other greenhouse gases are compared.)
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
|+'''GWP values and lifetimes from IPCC TAR [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/248.htm]'''
!rowspan=2|'''Gas'''
!rowspan=2|'''Lifetime (years)'''
!colspan=3|GWP<br>Time horizon
|-
|20 years
|100 years
|500 year
|-
|[[Methane]]
|12
|62
|23
|7
|-
|[[Nitrous oxide]]
|114
|275
|296
|156
|-
|[[HFC-23]] ([[hydrofluorocarbon]])
|260
|9400
|12000
|10000
|-
|[[sulfur hexafluoride]]
|3200
|15100
|22200
|32400
|}
A GWP is not usually calculated for [[Water]] vapour, largely because it is not relevant; see [[greenhouse gas]].
==External links==
*[http://www.epa.gov/nonco2/econ-inv/table.html List of Global Warming Potentials and Atmospheric Lifetimes] from the U.S. [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]]
*[http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/UniqueKeyLookup/SHSU5BUM9T/$File/ghg_gwp.pdf Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming Potential Values, Excerpt from the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2000] from the U.S. [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]]
*[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/247.htm IPCC 2001 Third Assessment Report page on Global Warming Potentials]
*[http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=142 An overview of the role of H<sub>2</sub>O as a greenhouse gas]
[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:Greenhouse gases]]
[[Category:Climate forcing]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Green Bank equation</title>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Drake equation]]
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<page>
<title>Grothendieck topology</title>
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<id>37705459</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-01T18:08:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.32.183.146</ip>
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<comment>/* Definition */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[category theory]], a branch of [[mathematics]], a '''Grothendieck topology''' is a structure on a category ''C'' which makes the objects of ''C'' act like the [[open set]]s of a [[topological space]]. Grothendieck topologies axiomatize the notion of an [[open cover]]. Using the notion of covering provided by a Grothendieck topology, it becomes possible to define sheaves on a category and their cohomology. This was first done in [[algebraic geometry]] and [[algebraic number theory]] by [[Alexandre Grothendieck]] to define the [[étale cohomology]] of a [[scheme (mathematics)|scheme]]. It has been used to define many other cohomology theories since then, such as [[l-adic cohomology]], [[flat cohomology]], and [[crystalline cohomology]]. While Grothendieck topologies are most often used to define cohomology theories, they have found other applications as well, such as to [[John Tate]]'s theory of [[rigid analytic geometry]].
Grothendieck topologies are not comparable to the classical notion of a [[topological space|topology]] on a space. While it is possible to interpret [[sober space]]s in terms of Grothendieck topologies, more pathological spaces have no such representation. Conversely, not all Grothendieck topologies correspond to topological spaces.
== Introduction ==
''Main article: [[Background and genesis of topos theory]]''
[[André Weil]]'s famous [[Weil conjectures]] proposed that certain properties of equations with integral coefficients should be understood as geometric properties of the [[algebraic variety]] that they defined. His conjectures postulated that there should be a [[cohomology]] theory of algebraic varieties which gave number-theoretic information about their defining equations. This cohomology theory was known as the "Weil cohomology", but using the tools he had available, Weil was unable to construct it.
In the early [[1960s]], Alexandre Grothendieck introduced [[étale map]]s into algebraic geometry as algebraic analogues of local analytic isomorphisms in [[analytic geometry]]. He used étale coverings to define an algebraic analogue of the [[fundamental group]] of a topological space. Soon [[Jean-Pierre Serre]] noticed that some properties of étale coverings mimicked those of [[open immersion]]s, and that consequently it was possible to make constructions which imitated the cohomology functor H<sup>1</sup |
Carl Menger's [[1871]] book, ''[[Principles of Economics]],'' is considered one of the crucial works that began the period known as [[neoclassical economics]]. While marginalism was generally influential, there was also a more specific school that grew up around Menger, which came to be known as the "Vienna School" or "Austrian School". Austrian economics is currently closely associated with advocacy of radical ''[[laissez-faire]]'' views. However, earlier Austrian economists were more cautious compared to later economists such as [[Ludwig von Mises]], with [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]] saying that he feared that unbridled free competition would lead to "anarchism in production and consumption." However, the Austrian School, especially through the works of [[Friedrich Hayek]], would be influential in the revival of laissez-faire thought in the [[1980s]].
The school originated in [[Vienna]] and owes its name to members of the [[Historical School]] of [[economics]] who during the ''[[Methodenstreit]],'' where the Austrians defended the reliance that [[classical economics|classical economists]] placed on logic over observation. Their Prussian opponents derisively named them the "Austrian School" to emphasize a departure from mainstream German thought and to suggest a provincial approach.
Menger's contributions were closely followed by [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]] and [[Friedrich von Wieser]]. [[Austria|Austrian]] economists developed a sense of themselves as a school distinct from [[neoclassical economics]] during the [[economic calculation debate]], with [[Ludwig von Mises]] and [[Friedrich von Hayek]] representing the Austrian position, where they contended that without monetary prices or private property, meaningful economic calculation was impossible. The Austrian economists were the first liberal economists to systematically challenge the [[Marxist]] school. This was partly a reaction to the ''[[Methodenstreit]]'' when they attacked the [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegelian]] doctrines of the [[Historical School]]. Though many Marxist authors have attempted to portray the Austrian school as a ''[[bourgeois]]'' reaction to Marx, such an interpretation is untenable: Menger wrote his ''[[Principles of Economics]]'' at almost the same time as [[Karl Marx|Marx]] was completing ''[[Das Kapital]].'' The Austrian economists were, however, the first to clash directly with Marxism, since both dealt with such subjects as money, [[capital (economics)|capital]], [[business cycle|business cycles]], and economic processes. Böhm-Bawerk wrote extensive critiques of Marx in the 1880s and 1890s, and several prominent Marxists &mdash; including [[Rudolf Hilferding]] &mdash; attended his seminar in 1905&ndash;06. In contrast, the classical economists had shown little interest in such topics, and many of them did not even gain familiarity with Marx's ideas until well into the twentieth century.
The school was no longer centered in Austria after [[Hitler]] came to power. Austrian economics was ill-thought of by most economists after [[World War II]] due to its rejection of observational methods. Its reputation has lately risen with work by students of [[Israel Kirzner]] and [[Ludwig Lachmann]], as well as an interest in Hayek after he won the [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]]. However, it remains a distinctly minority position, even in such areas as capital value.
Austrian economics can be broken into two general trends. One, exemplified by Hayek, while distrusting of many neoclassical concepts, generally accepts their formulations, the other exemplified by the [[Ludwig von Mises Institute]], seeks a different formalism for [[economics]]. The primary areas of contention between neoclassical theory and the Austrian school are on the possibility of consumer indifference &mdash; neoclassical theory says it is possible, where as Mises rejected it as being "impossible to observe in practice" &mdash; and when Mises and his students argued that utility functions are ordinal, and not cardinal; that is, one can only rank preferences and not measure their intensity. Finally there are a host of questions about uncertainty raised by Mises and other Austrians, who argue for a different means of [[risk assessment]].
An area that is often overlooked is the influence that Austrian school ideas have had on Keynesian [[macroeconomics]]. The source of this influence is the period of time where the [[London School of Economics]] brought in Hayek and other "continental" economists. While their students "flew the coop", refusing to join the Austrian school, many of the concepts, particularly relating time to the value of capital and its importance, would find their way into the work of Keynesians such as [[John Hicks]]. [[Alan Greenspan]], speaking of the originators of the School, said in 2000, "the Austrian school have reached far into the future from when most of them practiced and have had a profound and, in my judgment, probably an irreversible effect on how most mainstream economists think in this country." The long-time U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman said he attended a seminar hosted by Ludwig von Mises. [http://www.usagold.com/gildedopinion/greenspan-gold.html]
== Analytical framework ==
Austrian economists reject observation as a tool applicable to economics, saying that while it is appropriate in the natural sciences where factors can be isolated in laboratory conditions, acting human beings are too complex for this treatment. Instead one should isolate the logical processes of human action - a discipline named "[[praxeology]]" by [[Ludwig von Mises]].
Austrians view [[entrepreneurship]] as the driving force in [[economic development]], see [[private property]] as essential to the efficient use of resources, and often see government interference in market processes as counterproductive.
As with neoclassical economists, Austrians reject [[classical economics|classical]] cost of production theories, most famously the [[labor theory of value]]. Instead they explain value by reference to the subjective preferences of individuals. This psychological aspect to Menger's economics has been attributed to the school's birth in turn of the century [[Vienna]]. [[Supply and demand]] are explained by aggregating over the decisions of individuals, following the precepts of [[methodological individualism]], which asserts that only individuals and not collectives make decisions, and [[marginalist]] arguments, which compare the costs and benefits for incremental changes.
Contemporary neo-Austrian economists claim to adopt [[economic subjectivism]] more consistently than any other school of economics and reject many neoclassical formalisms. For example, while neoclassical economics formalizes the economy as an [[economic equilibrium|equilibrium]] system with supply and demand in balance, Austrian economists emphasize its dynamic, perpetually dis-equilibrated nature.
The core of the Austrian framework can be summarized as taking a subjectivist approach to marginal economics, and a focus on the idea that theory should absolutely overrule observation. Austrians focus completely on the [[opportunity cost]] of goods, as opposed to balancing downside or disutility costs. It is an Austrian assertion that everyone is ''better'' off in a mutually voluntary exchange, or they would not have carried it out. A fuller explanation of this in more exact terms is [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/essays/margrev/oppcost.htm available at the New School's economic pages].
This focus on opportunity cost alone means that their interpretation of the [[time value]] of a good has a strict relationship: since goods will be as restricted by scarcity at a later point in time as they are now, the strict relationship between investment and time must also hold. A factory making goods next year is worth as much less as the goods it is making next year are worth. This means that the business cycle is driven by miscoordination between sectors of the same economy, caused by money not carrying incentive information correct about present choices, rather than within a single economy where money causes people to make bad decisions about how to spend their time. This means, in the Austrian context, the correct way to prevent imbalances in the economy is to make people want to buy the correct goods, rather than controlling when people buy goods.
== Contributions ==
Some contributions of Austrian economists:
* A theory of distribution in which factor [[price]]s result from the [[imputation (economics)|imputation]] of prices of consumer goods to goods of "higher order", that is goods used in the production of consumer goods (goods of the first order).
* An emphasis on [[opportunity cost]] and reservation demand in defining [[marginal theory of value|value]], and a refusal to consider supply as an otherwise independent cause of value. (The British economist [[Philip Wicksteed]] adopted this perspective.)
* An emphasis on the forward-looking nature of choice, seeing time as the root of uncertainty within economics (see also [[time preference]]).
* A fundamental rejection of mathematical methods in economics seeing the function of economics as investigating the essences rather than the specific quantities of economic phenomena. This was seen as an evolutionary, or "genetic-causal", approach against the stresses of [[economic equilibrium|equilibrium]] and [[perfect competition]] found in mainstream Neoclassical economics (see also [[praxeology]]).
* [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]]'s critique of [[Karl Marx|Marx]] centered around the untenability of the [[labor theory of value]] in the light of the [[transformation problem]]. There was also the connected argument that capitalists do not exploit workers; they accommodate workers by providing t |
phy}}
The basic idea of digital filmmaking is simple: to use digital [[professional video camera|electronic camera]]s to capture and store motion images in [[Binary file|binary]] data (similar in process to [[digital photography]]), as well as record synchronized [[digital audio]]. Thereafter the image and sound are edited via [[non-linear editing]] and then sent for projection in a theater with digital projectors or pressed straight for video in playback capacities like [[DVD]]s. In many cases though digital is transferred back to film for distribution, although this would lead to higher cost of production.
===Digital capture===
==== HD vrs. 2K and 4K formats ====
At this point, no high-end movie productions are using conventional HD cameras to make theatrical films, as they still do not rival the resolution of film. Only a several directors, including [[Robert Rodriguez]] are using high-end digital cameras to do original photography in cinema (films such as ''[[Sin City (film)|Sin City]]'' were shot using 4K cameras), as the cost for the equipment at all stages of production is so high.
For the time being, films are mostly shot on film, and perhaps composited to a [[digital intermediate]] (DI). From the DI, they can go to film or digital release. Until 4K cameras are perfected, very little digital shooting for the theater market will likely occur.
Digital release of films may progress with 2K technology, but, on the other hand, may not. Sony has developed and released 4K projectors using their [[SXRD]] technology, with one of the major purchasers being [[Mark Cuban]]'s Landmark Theatres. 2K digital 3D only works well on fairly small screens. 4K, being four times bigger in file size, will allow much bigger and brighter 3D images.
==Digital projection==
There are two types of projectors for digital cinema. The original one in the US was DLP technology. 1990s style [[DLP|DLP projectors]] used limited 1280 x 1024 resolution. These are widely used for pre-show advertising but not feature shows. The [[Digital Cinema Initiatives]] (DCI) has included 2K (2048x1080) and 4K (4096x2160) resolutions in its [http://www.dcimovies.com/DCI_Digital_Cinema_System_Spec_v1.pdf (LARGE FILE) system specification for digital cinema]. [[Christie (company)|Christie]] Digital Systems, Inc. is the market leader in terms of units (CP2000 - 2K DCI compliant Digital Cinema Projector) sold and deployed internationally and has signed digital distribution agreements with the majority of Hollywood Studios through its joint venture with [[Access Integrated Technologies]]. Barco is the second big player in DC (with its DP100 and DP90 - 2K DCI compliant Digital Cinema Projector). Because of its strong position in Europe Barco possess roughly the same market share as Christie. Sony has developed a "4K SXRD" projector intended for digital cinema with 4096x2160 resolution.
===Digital end-to-end has failed to gain traction, so far===
During October 23-29, 1998, ''The Last Broadcast'' became the first film to be end-to-end digitally produced and distributed when it was exhibited in theaters in Providence, Orlando, Philadelphia, Portland, and Minneapolis, transmitted by satellite and projected with DLP projectors, 7 months before ''[[Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace]]'' was distributed to digital cinemas electronically. This ''Star Wars'' film would become the first time a film was projected digitally at a movie theatre for a paying audience, led by [[CineComm Digital Cinema]]. (CineComm founder [[Russell J. Wintner]] would go on to lead digital cinema development at [[Technicolor]], and later at [[Access Integrated Technologies]], Inc.) Recently, with the growing interest in 3D, a re-birth of the "still-born" digital revolution has been taking place on a small but encouraging scale. ''[[Chicken Little (2005 film)|Chicken Little]]'' from Disney, with its experimental release of the film in digital 3D, may lead to growth in the projection
base, in 2K format. Several digital 3D films will surface in 2006 to test the concept further.
== Culture ==
{{mergeto|Digital cinematography}}
There are some like [[George Lucas]] or [[Robert Rodriguez]] who think celluloid is as good as dead and the future is an all-digital medium. Directors such as [[Steven Soderbergh]] and [[Michael Mann (film director)|Michael Mann]] have filmed some parts of their most recent pictures on digital. Many think digital filmmaking will democratize the world of film and point out how inexpensive shooting digitally can be considering the cost of film, especially if the output is on [[video]] as a movie can be [[editing|edit]]ed on a home computer and burned to DVD. (Many would characterize this as wishful idealism, as film and laboratory work are only about 1% of the cost of a Hollywood or even "Bollywood" style production) but it is part of the "cultural" background of the issue.
Given the constant year-on-year improvements in digital cinema technology, it appears that the future of cinema is likely to be digital within the next 10 to 20 years. However, digital cinema still has some way to go before it can completely replace film.
For the last 100 years all movies have been shot on film and nearly every film student learns about how to handle 35mm film. Digital, especially the super high-definition equipment, has not had the time to become as widely accepted, though the growing popularity of HD video camera (less than 2K) equipment in the television domain will certainly have an effect to spur development of theatrical grade 4K cameras and post-production facilities.
Some purists would argue that digital does not have the same "feel" as a movie shot on film. While this may be a matter of personal preference more than anything, digital cameras have been evolving quickly and quality is improving dramatically from each generation of hardware to the next. Also many counter-argue that because most films are developed back to film when distributed to theatres the film's 'feel' returns to the audience. While today's digital cameras cannot achieve the same level of quality as [[35 mm film]] some believe clarity and color are "good enough". [[70 mm film|70 mm]] offers a sharper picture, but is now considered obsolete. [[IMAX]] remains well out of reach for now, since the equivalent resolution (around 30 [[megapixel]]s) is far beyond the capability of any digital motion picture camera today. The compromise, 6 perf. 35mm format, delivers 4K for a low cost, so might find a place with 3D and to "recover" the lost 70mm roadshow market.
It is also hard to say how democratized cinema would become if it were to turn all digital. There are over 5,000 films shot a year in digital. With such a huge supply, a digital filmmaker has difficulty getting seen and, therefore, often doesn't get the upper hand in distribution negotiations. It has actually given more power to large distribution companies, because now they can play the gatekeepers, in picking which films are seen and which are not.
== Technical challenges ==
{{mergeto|Digital cinematography}}
Film is in many ways more portable than its high quality digital counterparts. The chemical process initiated by exposing film to light give reliable results, that are well documented and understood by cinematographers. In contrast every digital camera has a unique response to light and it is very difficult to predict without viewing the results on a [[monitor]] or a [[waveform analyzer]], increasing the complexity of lighting. However, accurate calibration techniques are being developed which eliminate this as a practical problem, and the possibility of inexpensive post-production [[color grading]] can make digital cinematography more flexible than film in achieving artistic color effects.
More seriously, most digital cameras have an insufficient [[exposure|exposure latitude]] when compared to film, increasing the difficulties of filming in a high contrast situation, such as direct sunlight. Exposure latiture is also known as a dynamic range and the problems of the insuficient dynamic range are addressed by the [[high dynamic range imaging]]. This is a much greater problem, because if highlight or shadow information is not present in the recorded image, it is lost forever, and cannot be re-created by any form of exposure curve compensation. Cinematographers can learn how to adjust for this type of response using techniques garnered from shooting on [[Reversal film]] that has a similar lack of latitude in the highlights. Digital video is also more sensitive than film stocks in low light conditions, allowing smaller, more efficient and natural lighting to be used for shooting. Some directors have tried the "best for the job" route, using digital video for indoor or night shoots, but traitional film for daylight work outdoors.
==Economics==
Digital cinema has also big advantages when it comes to distribution. Making and distributing copies is cheaper and faster with digital files than with film reels. Distribution may be electronical, and storage on DVDs.
A film print can cost up to $2000 so making 4000 prints or for a wide-release movie can cost up to $8 million. However, any film needing the 4000 prints would likely have an $80,000,000 budget, so the added cost would only be 10% over the production cost. To put things in perspective, any film with a production budget below $800,000 (1% of the average cost of production) would likely have no theatrical release whatever (go direct to cable or video). If it did reach the theaters, the first risk of print cost, might be only 200 copies or far less. If it proves a hit, in limited release, there is no problem getting more prints made.
On the downside, the initial costs for converting theaters to digital are high: up to US$150,000. Theaters may be reluctant to switch without a cost-sharing arrangement |
nl:Internationaal Olympisch Comité]]
[[ja:国際オリンピック委員会]]
[[no:Den internasjonale olympiske komité]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowy Komitet Olimpijski]]
[[pt:Comité Olímpico Internacional]]
[[ru:Международный олимпийский комитет]]
[[sk:Medzinárodný olympijský výbor]]
[[sl:Mednarodni olimpijski komite]]
[[fi:Kansainvälinen olympiakomitea]]
[[sv:IOK]]
[[tr:Uluslararası Olimpiyat Komitesi]]
[[zh:国际奥林匹克委员会]]</text>
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<page>
<title>List of Presidents of the International Olympic Committee</title>
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<title>The Inklings</title>
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<page>
<title>Integrated circuit</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{backlink|Electronics}}
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[[Image:SEM integrated circuit (400x).jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[Scanning electron microscope|SEM]] image of an integrated circuit showing defects in the [[aluminium]] layer deposition (shown in [[cyan]]).]]
[[Image:Diopsis.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Integrated circuit showing memory blocks, logic and input/output pads around the periphery]]
A [[monolithic]] '''integrated circuit (IC)''' or often referred to as a '''microchip''' or simply '''chip''' is a miniaturized [[electronic circuit]] (consisting mainly of [[semiconductor device]]s, as well as [[passive component]]s) which has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of [[semiconductor]] material.
A [[hybrid circuit|hybrid integrated circuit]] is a miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of individual semiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a substrate or circuit board.
This article is about monolithic integrated circuits.
==Introduction==
The integrated circuit was made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that [[semiconductor device]]s could perform the functions of [[vacuum tube]]s and by mid-20th-century technology advancements in [[Fabrication (semiconductor)|semiconductor device fabrication]]. The integration of large numbers of tiny [[transistor]]s onto a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of [[vacuum tube]]s and circuits using discrete [[components]]. The integrated circuit's [[mass production]] capability, reliability, and ease of adding [[complexity]] prompted the use of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors which quickly pushed vacuum tubes into [[obsolescence]]. There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits - cost and performance. The cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by [[photolithography]] and not constructed a transistor at a time. As of 2006, chip areas range from a few square [[millimeter|mm]] to around 250 [[millimeter|mm]]<sup>2<sup>, with up to 1 million [[transistor]]s per [[millimeter|mm]]<sup>2<sup>.
==Advances in integrated circuits==
Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the [[microprocessor]]s, which control everything from [[computer]]s to [[cellular phone]]s to digital [[microwave oven]]s. Digital [[Random_access_memory|memory chip]]s are another family of integrated circuit that is crucially important to the modern [[information society]]. While cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, when spread across typically millions of production units the individual IC cost is minimized. The performance of ICs is high because the small size allows short traces which in turn allows low [[Electric power|power]] logic (such as CMOS) to be used at fast switching speeds.
ICs have consistently migrated to smaller feature sizes over the years, allowing more circuitry to be packed on each chip - see [[Moore's law]]. As the feature size shrinks, almost everything improves - the cost and the power consumption go down, and the speed goes up. Since these gains are apparent to the end user, there is fierce competition among the manufacturers to use finer geometries. This process, and the expected progress over the next few years, is well described by the [[International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors]], or [[ITRS]].
==Popularity of ICs==
Only a half century after their development was initiated, integrated circuits have become ubiquitous. [[Computer]]s, [[cellular phone]]s, and other [[digital]] [[appliance]]s are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies. That is, modern [[computing]], [[communication]]s, [[manufacturing]] and [[transport]] systems, including the [[Internet]], all depend on the existence of integrated circuits. Indeed, many [[scholar]]s believe that the [[digital revolution]] brought about by integrated circuits was one of the most significant occurrences in the [[history]] of [[mankind]].
==Classification and complexity==
[[Image:cmosic.JPG|thumb|A [[CMOS|CMOS]] [[4000_series|4000]] IC]]
Integrated circuits can be classified into [[analog circuit|analog]], [[digital circuit|digital]] and [[mixed-mode integrated circuit|mixed signal]] (both analog and digital on the same chip).
Digital integrated circuits can contain anything from one to millions of [[logic gate]]s, [[flip-flop (electronics)|flip-flop]]s, [[multiplexer]]s, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. Analog integrated circuits perform analog functions like [[Amplifier|amplification]], [[active filter]]ing, [[demodulation]], [[Frequency mixer|mixing]], etc. [[Analog-to-digital converter|ADC]]s and [[digital-to-analog converter|DAC]]s are the key elements of mixed signal ICs. They convert signals between analog and digital formats. Analog ICs ease the burden on circuit designers by having expertly designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult analog circuit from scratch.
The growth of complexity of integrated circuits follows a trend called "[[Moore's Law]]", first observed by [[Gordon Moore]] of [[Intel]]. Moore's Law in its modern interpretation states that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles every two years. By the year 2000 the largest integrated circuits contained hundreds of millions of transistors. It is difficult to say whether the trend will continue (see [[technological singularity]]).
==Manufacture==
===Fabrication===
''Main article: [[Semiconductor fabrication]].''
The [[semiconductor]]s of the [[periodic table]] of the [[chemical element]]s were identified as the most likely materials for a ''[[solid state]] [[vacuum tube]]'' by researchers like [[William Shockley]] at [[Bell Laboratories]] starting in the 1930s. Starting with [[copper oxide]], proceeding to [[germanium]], then [[silicon]], the materials were systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s. Today, silicon [[monocrystal]]s are the main [[Substrate (printing)|substrate]] used for ''integrated circuits (ICs)'' although some III-V compounds of the periodic table such as [[gallium arsenide]] are used for specialised applications like [[LEDs]], [[lasers]], and the highest-speed integrated circuits. It took decades to perfect methods of creating [[crystal]]s without defects in the [[crystalline structure]] of the semiconducting material.
[[Semiconductor]] ICs are fabricated in a layer process which includes these key process steps:
*Imaging
*Deposition
*Etching
The main process steps are supplemented by doping, cleaning and planarisation steps.
Mono-crystal [[silicon]] [[wafer (electronics)|wafers]] (or for special applications, [[silicon on sapphire]] or [[gallium arsenide]] wafers) are used as the ''substrate''. [[Photolithography]] is used to mark different areas of the substrate to be [[Doping (Semiconductors)|doped]] or to have polysilicon, insulators or metal (typically [[aluminium]]) tracks deposited on them.
[[Image:Integrated circuit 0101.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Criss-crossing geometry of the layers of an IC]]
*For a [[CMOS]] process, for example, a [[transistor]] is formed by the criss-crossing intersection of striped layers. The stripes can be monocrystalline substrate, doped layers, perhaps insulator layers or polysilicon layers. Some etched vias to the doped layers might interconnect layers with [[metal]] conducting tracks.
*The criss-crossed checkerboard-like (see image above) transistors are the most common part of the [[Electrical network|circuit]], each checker forming a transistor.
*[[resistor|Resistive structures]], meandering stripes of varying lengths, form the loads on the circuit. The ratio of the length of the resistive structure to its width, combined with its sheet resistivity determines the resistance.
*[[capacitor|Capacitive structures]], in form very much like the parallel conducting plates of a traditional electrical capacitor, are formed according to the area of the "plates", with insulating material between the plates. Owing to limitations in size, only very small capacitances can |
oyal Gibraltar Regiment]], although the [[Royal Air Force]] and [[Royal Navy]] remain.
*Spain made various proposals involving the sovereignty of Gibraltar, which have been rejected by all parties in the Gibraltar House of Assembly.
*1991 - The Spanish [[PSOE|Socialist]] government of [[Felipe González]] proposed joint sovereignty over Gibraltar with the [[United Kingdom]]. A similar proposal was advocated by [[Peter Cumming]], formerly of the GSD, in which the Rock would become a self-governing [[condominium (international law)|condominium]] or 'Royal City', with the British and Spanish monarchs as joint heads of state.
*1997 - The [[Partido Popular]] Spanish Foreign Minister, [[Abel Matutes]] made proposals under which Gibraltar would be under joint sovereignty for fifty years, before being fully incorporated into Spain, as an autonomous region, similar to [[Catalonia]] or the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]], but these were rejected by British Government.
*2000 - An agreement was reached between the UK and Spain over recognition of 'competent authorities' in Gibraltar. Spain had a policy of non-recognition of the Government of Gibraltar as a 'competent authority', therefore refusing to recognise Gibraltar's courts, police and government departments, [[driving licence]]s, and [[identity card]]s. Under the agreement, the [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]] in London would act as a 'post box', through which Gibraltar's [[police]] and other government departments could communicate with their counterparts in Spain. In addition, identity documents issued by the Government of Gibraltar now featured the words 'United Kingdom'.
*2000 May - 2001 May - The [[nuclear submarine]] [[HMS Tireless (S88)]] was repaired in Gibraltar. This caused diplomatic tension with Spain, which expressed its concern about the effective safety for the inhabitants of Gibraltar and those living in its hinterland -some 250,000 people {{ref|pique}}. The inhabitants of the area saw this repair as a precedent of future nuclear repair operations in Gibraltar. The Gibraltar government has accused Spain of using this incident as an excuse to go on creating a dispute over Gibraltar, since there are more severe environmental problems in the Bay {{ref|benach}} and American nuclear vessels are possibly repaired in Rota without any complaint {{ref|rota}}. Spain now frequently complains whenever a nuclear submarine docks in Gibraltar. However, Spanish organizations, such as left-wing [[United Left (Spain)|Izquierda Unida]], have also accused the Spanish government of not handling nuclear submarines docking in Gibraltar and Rota in the same way {{ref|iu}}.
===21st Century===
*2001 - The UK Government announced plans to reach a final agreement with Spain over the future of Gibraltar, which would involve shared sovereignty; however agreement was not reached due to the opposition of the Gibraltarians.
*2002 - The Gibraltar government organised a referendum on [[7 November]]. The voters rejected shared sovereignty by 17,900 votes to 187 on a turnout of 87.9%. The wording of the question of the 2002 referendum was:
: ''On the [[12 July]] [[2002]] the Foreign Secretary, Jack Straw, in a formal statement in the House of Commons, said that after twelve months of negotiation the British Government and Spain are in broad agreement on many of the principles that should underpin a lasting settlement of Spain's sovereignty claim, which included the principle that United Kingdom and Spain should share sovereignty over Gibraltar.''
:''Do you approve of the principle that Britain and Spain should share sovereignty over Gibraltar?''
:The Gibraltarians did not approve. The Referendum was supervised by a team of international observers headed by the Labour MP [[Gerald Kaufman]], who certified that it had been held fairly, freely and democratically {{ref|observers}}.
*2002 - The [[British Overseas Territories Act 2002]] made provision for the renaming of British Dependent Territories as [[British Overseas Territories]], which changed the status of Gibraltar to an Overseas Territory. This act granted full British citizenship to British Overseas Territories, which was already available to Gibraltarians since 1983.
[[Image:Gibraltar-flags-national-pride.jpg|thumb|Flags hanging from a building in the Tercentenary celebrations of the capture of the Rock]]
*2004 August - Gibraltar celebrated 300 years of British rule. Spanish officials labeled this as the celebration of 300 years of British occupation {{ref|washtimes}}.
*[[2004]] [[November 18]] - A joint commission (''Comisión mixta de Cooperación y Colaboración'') was established between the ''Mancomunidad de Municipios de la Comarca del Campo de Gibraltar'' (the Council Association of the Campo de Gibraltar, the historic Spanish county that surrounds Gibraltar) and the Gibraltarian government.
*2004 [[October 28]] - The governments of the United Kingdom and Spain agreed to allow the Gibraltar government to represent itself in a new open agenda discussion forum (so called Tripartite Talks) {{ref|tri}}.
*2005 July - First Tripartite Talks took place in [[Faro, Portugal]].
==Sources==
===British sources===
<div style="font-size: 85%">
* {{note | contention }} {{cite book
| first = George | last = Hills
| year = 1974
| title = Rock of Contention. A History of Gibraltar
| publisher = Robert Hale | location = London
| id = ISBN 0-7091-4352-4
}} [http://www.owa.org.uk/obituaries.htm#Dr%20George%20A.M.%20Hills George Hills] was a BBC World Service broadcaster, Spanish Historian and Fellow of the Royal Historical Society.
* {{note | rock }} {{cite book
| first = William | last = Jackson
| year = 1990
| title = The Rock of the Gibraltarians. A History of Gibraltar
| publisher = Gibraltar Books
| edition = 2nd edition
| location = Grendon, Northamptonshire, UK
| id = ISBN 0-948466-14-6
}} General Sir [[William Jackson (Gibraltar)|William Jackson]] was Governor of Gibraltar between 1978 and 1982, a military Historian and former Chairman of the Friends of Gibraltar Heritage.
</div>
===Gibraltarian sources===
<div style="font-size: 85%;display:none"><!-- display when something added -->
*{{cite book}}
</div>
===Spanish sources===
<div style="font-size: 85%">
* {{note | razon }} {{cite book
| first = Isidro | last = Sepúlveda
| year = 2004
| title = Gibraltar. La razón y la fuerza (Gibraltar. The reason and the force)
| publisher = Alianza Editorial
| others = in [[Spanish language | Spanish]]
| location = Madrid
| id = ISBN 84-206-4184-7
}} Chapter 2, "La lucha por Gibraltar" (The Struggle for Gibraltar) is available [http://www.alianzaeditorial.es/catalogos/capitulo_promocion/LU00046301.pdf online] (PDF). Isidro Sepúlveda Muñoz is a Contemporary History Professor in the UNED ("Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia"), the biggest Spanish university.
</div>
==Notes==
<div style="font-size: 85%">
# {{note|radio4}} {{note_label|radio4|1|a}} {{cite web
| author = BBC Radio 4
| year = 2005-11-01
| url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/empire/episodes/episode_27.shtml
| title = Gibraltar
| work = The Sceptred Island: Empire. A 90 part history of the British Empire
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
# {{note|charlesiii}} {{cite web
| author = Virginia León Sanz
| year = 2000
| url = http://www.bib.uab.es/pub/manuscrits/02132397n18p41.pdf
| title = El reinado del archiduque Carlos en España: la continuidad de un programa dinástico de gobierno (The reign of the Archduke Charles in Spain: the continuity of a dynastic government program), in Spanish
| format = PDF
| work = Manuscrits. Revista d'història moderna
| publisher = Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (Spain)
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
# {{note|map}} {{cite web
| author = Tito Benady
| year = 2004 August
| url = http://www.chronicle.gi/terc/attack%20on%20gib/05.pdf
| title = The Attack on Gibraltar. Friday [[2 August]] [[1704]]
| format = PDF
| work = Tercentenary Special
| publisher = Gibraltar Chronicle
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
# {{note|bossano}} {{cite web
| author = Joe Bossano
| year = 1994
| url = http://www.gibnet.com/texts/jbun1.htm
| title = The Fight for Self - Determination. Joe Bossano at the United Nations
| publisher = Gibraltar... The unofficial homepage. Reference Documents about Gibraltar and its political struggles
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
# {{note|tercentenary}} {{cite web
| author = David Eade
| year = 2004
| url = http://www.gibraltar2004.gov.gi/history.html
| title = 1704 and all that
| work = Celebrating 300 Years of British Gibraltar (Tercentenary Web Site)
| publisher = Government Tercentenary Office, Gibraltar Government
| accessdate = 2005-12-16
}}
# {{note|britannica}} {{cite web
| author = Cambrigde University Press
| year = 1911
| url = http://66.1911encyclopedia.org/G/GI/GIBRALTAR.htm
| title = Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Ed. Gibraltar entry
| accessdate = 2005-12-17
}}
# {{note|Sepulveda1}}''Gibraltar. La razón y la fuerza'', p. 90.
# {{note|Jackson1}}''The Rock of the Gibraltarians. A History of Gibraltar'', p. 99.
# {{note|Hills1}} {{note_label|Hills1|9|a}}''Rock of Contention. A History of Gibraltar'', p. 475-477.
# {{note|Hills2}} {{note_label|Hills2|10|a}}''Rock of Contention. A History of Gibraltar'', p. 176.
# {{note|Jackson2}} {{note_label|Jackson2|11|a}}''The Rock of the Gibraltarians. A History of Gibraltar'', p. 101.
# {{note|sanroquemotto}} {{cite web
| url = http://www.sanroque.es/portal/lloc_d10_v2.jsp?codMenuPrimerNivel=2&codMenu=44
| title = Ciudad de San Roque, Gibraltar en el exilio (''City of San Roque, Gibraltar in exile''), in Spanish
| publisher = San Roque City Council
| accessdate = 2005-12-15
}}
# {{note|sanroquesymbols}} {{cite web
| url = http://www.sanroque.es/portal/13_pagina_subcabecera.jsp?c |
title V permit is meant to contain all the requirements for emissions from the permitted source. The permit requires &lsquo;regular&rsquo; reporting, monitoring, and annual certification of compliance &ndash; (all of which is information which is made public).
The permit information is available online through the EPA ECHO (Enforcement and Compliance History Online) database and the state permits themselves are available online through the RI-DEM website.
See also: [[Emissions trading]]
==External links==
*[http://www.epa.gov/echo/ EPA Enforcement and Compliance History Online]
[[Category:1970 in law]]
[[Category:United States federal environmental legislation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Concord, New Hampshire</title>
<id>6503</id>
<revision>
<id>40910795</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T21:04:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kummi</username>
<id>270411</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fi.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City |
official_name = '''Concord, New Hampshire''' |
nickname = |
image_seal = ConcordCitySeal.gif |
image_flag = ConcordFlag.gif |
image_map = NHMap-doton-Concord.png |
mapsize = 150px |
map_caption = Location in [[Merrimack County, New Hampshire]] |
subdivision_type = [[Counties of the United States|Counties]] |
subdivision_name = [[Merrimack County, New Hampshire|Merrimack County]] |
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = Michael L. Donovan |
area_magnitude = 1 E9 |
area_total = 67.5 mi&sup2; / 174.9 |
area_land = 64.3 mi&sup2; / 166.5 |
area_water = 3.2 mi&sup2; / 8.4 |
population_as_of = 2000 |
population_note = |
population_total = 40,687 ([[city limits|city proper]]) |
population_density = 244.4|
timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]] |
utc_offset = -5 |
timezone_DST = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]] |
utc_offset_DST = -4 |
latitude = 43° 13' 12" N |
longitude = 71° 32' 57" W |
latd=43 |latm=13 |lats=12 |latNS=N |
longd=71 |longm=32 |longs=57 |longEW=W |
website = [http://www.ci.concord.nh.us/ www.ci.concord.nh.us] |
footnotes =
}}
'''Concord''' is the capital of [[New Hampshire]], a [[U.S. state|state]] of the [[United States|United States of America]]. As of the [[2000]] census, it has a population of 40,687. (2003 Est. 41,378) It is the [[county seat]] of [[Merrimack County, New Hampshire|Merrimack County]].
Concord is the home of [[Franklin Pierce Law Center]], the only [[law school]] in New Hampshire, and the prep school [[St. Paul's School (Concord, NH)|St. Paul's School]].
== History ==
[[Image:Concordcapitolsign.jpg|left|thumb|Sign Outside of The State Capitol]]
The land which Concord now occupies along the banks of the [[Merrimack River]] was settled thousands of years ago by [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]. The broad sweeps of the river valley, good soil for farming, and easy transportation on the Merrimack made the site of Concord equally inviting to [[English language|English]]-speaking settlers in the [[18th century]]. During the 18th century the community grew in prominence. Some of Concord's earliest houses remain today at the north end of Main Street.
The city was settled by immigrants from [[Massachusetts]] in 1727 as '''Penacook'''. In 1733, it was incorporated as '''[[Rumford]]''', and in 1765, the name was changed to Concord. In the years following the [[American Revolution]], Concord's central location made it a logical choice for the state capital, and in 1808 it was named the official seat of state government. Today the 1819 [[New Hampshire State House|State House]] is the oldest state capitol in which the legislative branches meet in their original chambers.
== Geography ==
Concord is located at 43&deg;13'12" North, 71&deg;32'57" West (43.220093, -71.549127){{GR|1}}and sits at 288 ft. above sea level.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 174.9 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (67.5 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 166.5 km&sup2; (64.3 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 8.4 km&sup2; (3.2 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 4.78% water.
== Demographics ==
[[Image:DSC 0101.JPG|thumb|200px|left|The New Hampshire State House, December 2004]]
[[Image:Concord,_NH;_1917.jpg|thumb|right|''Concord, NH'' in 1917]]
[[Image:Downtownconcordnh.jpg|thumb|right|Main Street in ''Concord'' as of 2005]]
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 40,687 people, 16,281 households, and 9,622 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 244.4/km&sup2; (632.9/mi&sup2;). There are 16,881 housing units at an average density of 101.4/km&sup2; (262.6/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 95.52% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.03% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.29% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.47% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.03% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.34% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.31% from two or more races. 1.45% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 16,281 households out of which 30.6% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.3% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.4% have a female householder with no husband present, and 40.9% are non-families. 32.7% of all households are made up of individuals and 11.2% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.30 and the average family size is 2.95.
In the city the population is spread out with 23.1% under the age of 18, 8.3% from 18 to 24, 33.0% from 25 to 44, 22.0% from 45 to 64, and 13.7% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 37 years. For every 100 females there are 98.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 95.0 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $42,447, and the median income for a family is $52,418. Males have a median income of $35,504 versus $27,348 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $21,976. 8.0% of the population and 6.2% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 9.3% of those under the age of 18 and 5.4% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
== Sites of interest ==
The city hosts the [[Christa McAuliffe]] Planetarium, named after the Concord teacher who died during the [[Space Shuttle Challenger]] disaster in 1986. It is also the home of the New Hampshire Historical Society that has two historic buildings in Concord &mdash; the [http://nhhistory.org/museum.html Museum of New Hampshire History] and the [http://www.nhhistory.org/library.html Tuck Library].
== External links ==
* [http://www.ci.concord.nh.us/ Official Website]
* [http://www.onconcord.com/LIBRARY/CONCORDHISTORY/concordv2.asp?siteindx=L0m,06 Volume One of James Lyford's History of Concord (Downloadable PDF)]
* [http://www.onconcord.com/LIBRARY/CONCORDHISTORY/concordv2.asp?siteindx=L0m,08 Volume Two of James Lyford's History of Concord (Downloadable PDF)]
* [http://www.concordlitho.com Concord Litho]
* [http://www.concordmonitor.com The Concord Monitor]
* [http://nhhistory.org/ The New Hampshire Historical Society]
* [http://www.sps.edu St. Paul's School]
* [http://www.piercelaw.edu Franklin Pierce Law Center]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|43.220093|-71.549127}}
{{New Hampshire}}
{{United_States_state_capitals}}
[[Category:Cities in New Hampshire]]
[[Category:Merrimack County, New Hampshire]]
[[Category:State capitals in the United States]]
[[bg:Конкорд (Ню Хампшир)]]
[[da:Concord]]
[[de:Concord (New Hampshire)]]
[[eo:Concord (Nov-Hampŝiro)]]
[[fr:Concord (New Hampshire)]]
[[hr:Concord, New Hampshire]]
[[it:Concord (New Hampshire)]]
[[ja:コンコード_(ニューハンプシャー州)]]
[[nl:Concord (New Hampshire)]]
[[pl:Concord (New Hampshire)]]
[[pt:Concord (Nova Hampshire)]]
[[fi:Concord]]
[[sv:Concord, New Hampshire]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CAT</title>
<id>6504</id>
<revision>
<id>38388894</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T00:33:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lotsofissues</username>
<id>192574</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removing item to minor, writing class at a college</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary|CAT}}
:''See also [[Cat (disambiguation)]]''
The acronym '''CAT''' may stand for:
* [[Centre for Advanced Technology]]
* [[Cable Avoidance Tool]]
* [[California Achievement Test]]
* [[Call Any Time]]
* [[Calling All Troops]]
* [[Camarillo Area Transit]]
* [[Cambridge Antibody Technology]], the UK biotechnology company
* [[Canadian Association of Transplantation]]
* [[Canby Area Transit]], a public transportation bus service in [[Canby, Oregon]]
* [[Canine Agility Team]]
* [[Capital Acquisitions Tax]]
* [[Capital Area Transit]]
* [[Capsule Ariane Technologies]]
* [[Carboxyatractyloside]]
* [[Carburetor Air Temperature]]
* [[Casual American Teenager]]
* [[Catalan language]]
* [[Catalonia]]
* [[Catalunya]]
* [[Catalyst]]
* [[Catalytic Converter]]
* [[Catamaran]]
* [[Catapult]]
* [[Cataract]]
* [[Catastrophe]]
* [[Catch Airboat Thieves]]
* [[Catechism]]
* [[Catenate]]
* [[Caterpillar]]
* [[CECOM Accreditation Team]]
* [[Cellular Action Team]]
* [[Center for Advanced Technologies]]
* [[Center for Appropriate Transport]]
* [[Central African Time]]
* [[Central Alaska Time]]
* [[Perth Central Area Transit|Central Area Transit]], the free bus transit system that running in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth City]].
* [[Central Arizona Trails]]
* [[Central Arkansas Transit]]
* [[Central Artery-Tunnel]]
* [[Centre for Alternative Technology]], an eco-centre in Wales
* [[Certified Automotive Technician]]
* [[Change Agent |
f Mactan]] against indigenous forces led by [[Lapu-Lapu]] on April 27, 1521. [[Antonio Pigafetta]], a wealthy tourist who paid to be on the Magellan voyage, provided the only extant eyewitness account of the events culminating in Magellan's death, as follows:
[[Image:MagellanMonument.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Monument in [[Lapu-Lapu City]] that marks the site where Magellan was purportedly killed]]
:''"When morning came, forty-nine of us leaped into the water up to our thighs, and walked through water for more than two cross-bow flights before we could reach the shore. The boats could not approach nearer because of certain rocks in the water. The other eleven men remained behind to guard the boats. When we reached land, [the natives] had formed in three divisions to the number of more than one thousand five hundred persons. When they saw us, they charged down upon us with exceeding loud cries... The musketeers and crossbow-men shot from a distance for about a half-hour, but uselessly... Recognizing the captain, so many turned upon him that they knocked his helmet off his head twice... An Indian hurled a bamboo spear into the captain's face, but the latter immediately killed him with his lance, which he left in the Indian's body. Then, trying to lay hand on sword, he could draw it out but halfway, because he had been wounded in the arm with a bamboo spear. When the natives saw that, they all hurled themselves upon him. One of them wounded him on the left leg with a large cutlass, which resembles a scimitar, only being larger. That caused the captain to fall face downward, when immediately they rushed upon him with iron and bamboo spears and with their cutlasses, until they killed our mirror, our light, our comfort, and our true guide. When they wounded him, he turned back many times to see whether we were all in the boats. Thereupon, beholding him dead, we, wounded, retreated, as best we could, to the boats, which were already pulling off."''
===The circumnavigation===
[[Image:Magellan-Map-En.png|450px|thumb|One of Magellan's ships circumnavigated the globe, finishing 16 months after the explorer's death.]]
Magellan had provided in his will that his Malay interpreter was to be freed upon his death. His interpreter, who was baptized as [[Henry the Black|Enrique]] ([[Henry the Black]]) in Malacca in 1511, had been captured by [[Sumatra]]n slavers from his home islands. Thus Enrique became the first man to circumnavigate the globe (in multiple voyages). Enrique was [[indentured servitude|indentured]] by Magellan during his earlier voyages to Malacca, and was at his side during the battles in Africa, during Magellan's disgrace at the King's court in Portugal, and during Magellan's successful raising of a fleet. However, after Mactan, the remaining ship's masters refused to free Enrique. Enrique escaped his indenture on May 1, with the aid of Rajah Humabon, amid the deaths of almost 30 crewmen. However, Antonio Pigafetta had been making notes about the language, and was apparently able to continue communications during the rest of the voyage.
[[Image:Magellan'sVoyage.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Magellan]]'s voyage to the Spice Islands led to Limasawa, [[Cebu]], [[Mactan]], [[Palawan]], [[Brunei]], [[Celebes]] and finally to the [[Spice Islands]] (Zoom in for detail here: {{coor dm|0|47|N|127|22|E|}})]]
The casualties suffered in the Philippines left the expedition with too few men to sail the three remaining ships. Accordingly, on May 2, 1521, they abandoned ''Concepción'', burning the ship to make sure it could not be used against them. The fleet, now reduced to ''Trinidad'' and ''Victoria'', fled westward to [[Palawan]]. They left that island on [[June 21]], [[1521]], and were guided to [[Brunei]], [[Borneo]] by Moro pilots, who could navigate the shallow seas. They anchored off the Brunei breakwater for 35 days, where the Venetian Pigafetta mentions the splendor of Rajah Siripada's court ([[gold]], two [[pearl]]s the size of hens' eggs, etc.). In addition, Brunei boasted tame [[elephant]]s and armament of 62 cannon, more than 5 times the armament of Magellan's ships. Brunei disdained the [[clove]]s which were to prove more valuable than gold, upon the return to Spain. Pigafetta mentions some of the technology of the court, such as [[porcelain]] (which was not yet widely available in Europe), and [[Glasses|spectacles]] (eyeglasses were only just becoming available in Europe).
After reaching the Maluku Islands (the Spice Islands]]) [[November 6]] [[1521]], 115 crew were left. They managed to trade with the Sultan of [[Tidore]], a rival of the Sultan of [[Ternate]], who was the ally of the Portuguese.
The two remaining ships, laden with valuable spices, attempted to return to Spain by sailing west. As they left the Moluccas, however, ''Trinidad'' was found to be taking on water. The crew tried to discover and repair the leak, but failed. They concluded that ''Trinidad'' would need to spend considerable time being overhauled. The small ''Victoria'' was not large enough to accommodate all the surviving crewmembers. As a result, ''Victoria'' with some of the crew sailed west for Spain. Several weeks later, ''Trinidad'' left the Moluccas to attempt to return to Spain via the Pacific route. This attempt failed; the ship was captured by the Portuguese, and was eventually wrecked in a storm while at anchor under Portuguese control.
The ''Victoria'' set sail via the [[Indian Ocean]] route home on [[December 21]] [[1521]]. By [[May 6]], [[1522]], the ''Victoria'', commanded by [[Juan Sebastián Elcano]], rounded the Cape of Good Hope, with only rice for rations. Twenty crewmen died of starvation before Elcano put in to the Cape Verde Islands, a Portuguese holding, where he abandoned 13 more crewmen on [[July 9]] in fear of losing his cargo of 26 [[ton]]s of spices ([[clove]]s and [[cinnamon]]).
=== The return===
On [[September 6]], [[1522]], Juan Sebastián Elcano and the remaining crew of Magellan's voyage and the last ship of the fleet, ''[[Victoria (ship)|Victoria]]'', arrived in Spain, almost exactly three years after leaving. The expedition actually eked out a small profit, but the crew were not paid their full wages.
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:1em 0 1em 1em"
|+ 18 men returned to Seville with ''Victoria'' in 1522
|-
! Name !! Rating
|-
| [[Juan Sebastian Elcano]], from [[Getaria]] || Master
|-
| Francisco Albo, from [[Axio]] || Pilot
|-
| Miguel de [[Rhodes|Rodas]] || Pilot
|-
| Juan de Acurio<!-- Acuario? -->, from [[Bermeo]] || Pilot
|-
| [[Antonio Pigafetta|Antonio Lombardo (Pigafetta)]], from [[Vicenza]] || Supernumerary
|-
| [[Martín de Judicibus]], from [[Genoa]] || Chief Steward
|-
| Hernándo de Bustamante, from [[Alcántara]]<!-- Mérida? --> || Mariner
|-
| Nicholas the Greek, from [[Naples]] || Mariner
|-
| Miguel Sánchez, from [[Rhodes]] || Mariner
|-
| Antonio Hernández Colmenero, from [[Huelva]] || Mariner
|-
| Francisco Rodrigues, [[Portugal|Portuguese]] from [[Seville]] || Mariner
|-
| Juan Rodríguez, from [[Huelva]] || Mariner
|-
| Diego Carmena<!-- Gallego, from Bayona? --> || Mariner
|-
| Hans of [[Aachen]] || Gunner
|-
| Juan de [[Arratia]], from [[Bilbao]] || Able Seaman
|-
| Vasco Gomez Gallego ''the Portuguese'', from [[Bayona]] || Able Seaman
|-
| Juan de Santandrés, from [[Cueto]] || Apprentice Seaman
|-
| Juan de Zubileta, from [[Barakaldo]] || Page
|}
Four crewmen of the original 55 on the ''Trinidad'' finally returned to Spain in 1525.
===The discoveries===
Magellan's expedition was the first to circumnavigate the globe and the first to navigate the strait in South America connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The men among Magellan's expedition were also the first Europeans to observe the following:
*A "[[camel]] without humps" &mdash; which could have been the [[llama]], [[guanaco]], [[vicuña]], or [[alpaca]].
*A black "[[goose]]" which had to be skinned instead of plucked &mdash; the [[penguin]].
*Two of our closest [[galaxy|galaxies]], the [[Magellanic Clouds]], visible from the [[Southern Hemisphere]].
*The extent of the [[Earth]] &mdash; their voyage was "14,460 leagues" (69,800 [[kilometre|km]]&nbsp;or&nbsp;43,400&nbsp; [[mile|mi]]).
*The need for an [[International date line]] &mdash; That going round the earth westward was winning one day: upon their return they observed a mismatch of one day between their calendars and those who did not travel, even though they faithfully maintained their ship's log. They did not have clocks accurate enough to observe the variation in the length of the day during the journey.
==References==
*Laurence Bergreen, ''Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe'', HarperCollins Publishers, 2003, hardcover 480 pages, ISBN 0066211735
==Further reading==
For students
* W.D.Brownlee, ''The First Ships around the World'', (1977) Lerner Publications Co., Minneapolis ISBN 0-8225-1204-1
* Richard Humble, ''The Voyage of Magellan'', (1988) Franklin Watts, ISBN 0-531-10638-1
==See also==
*[[Military History of the Philippines]]
*[[History of the Philippines]]
*[[Portuguese Empire]]
*[[Spanish Empire]]
*[[Age of Exploration]]
*[[Henry the Black]]
==External links==
*[http://www.historyhouse.com/in_history/magellan/ Magellan's untimely demise on Cebu in the Phillipines] from History House.
*Lists of crew members:
**[http://www.armada15001900.net/tripulantesmagallanes.htm 107 people]
**[http://olivetreegenealogy.com/ships/magship_vict.shtml The 18 arriving on ''Victoria'']
*[http://cvc.cervantes.es/actcult/museo_naval/sala8/personajes/personaje_13.htm A picture of the 1522 disembarkment with names of the 18]
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|NAME=Magellan, Ferdinand
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Magalhães, Fernão de (Portuguese); Magallanes, Fernando de (Spanish)
|SHORT |
cumcision - guidance for doctors] March 2003''
* Proposed bills to ban male circumcision in the U.S.: [http://www.mgmbill.org/ MGMbill.org]
[[Category:Circumcision debate]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Churches Uniting In Christ</title>
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<username>Karen Johnson</username>
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<comment>merging two almost identical articles on the same subject</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Churches Uniting in Christ]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Called to Common Mission</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:47:28Z</timestamp>
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<username>Antandrus</username>
<id>57658</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/220.94.125.128|220.94.125.128]] ([[User talk:220.94.125.128|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Called to Common Mission''' is an agreement between [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|The Episcopal Church]] and the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] (ELCA), establishing full communion between them. Under the agreement, they recognize the validity of each other's [[baptism]]s and [[ordination]]s. The agreement provided that ELCA would accept the [[historic episcopate]], something which became controversial in ELCA. Conservatives within ELCA argued that requiring historic episcopate would contradict the traditional [[Lutheran doctrine]] that the church exists wherever the Word is preached and Sacraments are practiced. In response, the 2001 ELCA Churchwide Assembly adopted a bylaw permitting ordination of [[pastor]]s to be performed by another pastor with permission of the local synodical bishop in "unusual circumstances". This would appear to contradict the agreement reached with the Episcopal Church, but that may depend on whether the bylaw is used in practice. The Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church expressed his disappointment at the Assembly's decision.
''See also'':
*[[Lutheranism]]
*[[Anglicanism]]
[[Category:Christian group structuring]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Context menu</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:word.gif|frame|right|An example for a context menu taken from the [[word processor]] [[Microsoft Word]].]]
The term '''context menu''' is commonly used for menus which pop up when clicking an item in a [[graphical user interface]], offering a list of options which vary depending on the context of the action, the application running, and the item selected. These menus are typically invoked with a secondary mouse button (usually the right-hand button) on a computer running an [[operating system]] such as [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Mac OS X]] or [[Unix]] running the [[X Window System]]. Computers with a single-button mouse may use a keyboard-click combination, as with a '''Control-click''' in the [[Mac OS|Macintosh OS]]. PC keyboards with [[Microsoft]] [[Windows key]]s also have an additional '''menu''' key that opens context menus in [[Microsoft Windows]] applications.
Context menus first appeared in the [[Smalltalk]] environment on the [[Xerox Alto]] computer, where they were called ''pop-up menus.'' The [[NEXTSTEP]] operating system further developed the idea, incorporating a feature whereby the right or middle mouse button brought the main menu (which was vertical and automatically changed depending on context) to the location of the mouse, thereby eliminating the need to move the mouse pointer all the way across the large (for the time) NextStep screen.
Context menus are sometimes hierarchically organized, allowing navigation through different levels of the menu structure. The implementations differ: [[Microsoft Word]] was one of the first applications to only show sub-entries of some menu entries after clicking an arrow icon on the context menu, otherwise executing an action associated with the parent entry. This makes it possible to quickly repeat an action with the parameters of the previous execution, and to better separate options from actions.
Context menus have received some criticism from usability analysts when improperly used, as some applications make certain features ''only'' available in context menus, which may confuse even experienced users (especially when the context menus can only be activated in a limited area of the application's client window).
In some applications, like newer versions of [[Microsoft Office]], some of the "infrequent" items in the context menu are hidden by default. This is subject to criticism as users have to expand the menu before accessing items which are classified as infrequent items (which may not be as infrequent as assumed).
== See also ==
*[[Pie menu]]
[[Category:Graphical interface]]
[[de:Kontextmenü]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Jews as a chosen people</title>
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<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Jew}}
In Judaism, '''chosenness''' is the belief that the [[Jew]]s are a [[chosen people]]: chosen to be in a [[covenant]] with [[God]]. This idea is first found in the [[Torah]] (five books of [[Moses]]) and is elaborated on in later books of the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]]. Much is written about this topic in [[rabbinic literature]].
== Chosenness in the Hebrew Bible ==
According to the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], Israel's character as the chosen people is conditioned by obedience to God's commandments. "Now therefore, if you will obey my voice indeed, and keep my covenant, then you shall be a peculiar treasure unto me above all people. For all the earth is mine: and you shall be unto me a kingdom of priests, and a holy nation" ([[Exodus]] 19:5, 6). "The Lord did not set his love upon you, nor choose you, because you were more in number than any people; for you were the fewest of all people; but because the Lord loved you, and because he would keep the oath which he had sworn unto your ancestors." ([[Deuteronomy]] 7:7, 8).
The obligation imposed upon the Israelites is emphasized by the prophet [[Amos (prophet)|Amos]] ([[Book of Amos]] 3:2): "You only have I singled out of all the families of the earth: therefore will I visit upon you all your iniquities." This idea is also expressed in Deuteronomy 14:2: "You are a holy people unto the Lord your God, and the Lord has chosen you to be a peculiar people unto Himself, above all peoples that are upon the face of the earth."
==Rabbinic Jewish views of chosenness==
The idea of chosenness has traditionally been interpreted by Jews in two ways: one way is that God chose the Israelites, while the other idea is that the Israelites chose God. Although collectively this choice was made freely, religious Jews believe that it created individual obligation for the descendants of the Israelites.
Crucial to the Jewish notion of chosenness is that it creates obligations exclusive to Jews, while non-Jews receive from God other covenants and other responsibilities. Generally, it does not entail exclusive rewards for Jews. Classical rabbinic literature holds that all mankind is made in the image of God. For example, [[Mishnah]] Avot 3:14, and [[Talmud|Babylonian Talmud]] Avot 9b, contain this teaching:
:[[Rabbi Akiva]] used to say, "Beloved is man, for he was created in God&rsquo;s image; and the fact that God made it known that man was created in His image is indicative of an even greater love. As the verse states [Genesis 9:6], 'In the image of God, man was created.')"
Most Jewish texts do not state that "God chose the Jews" by itself. Rather, these claims are usually linked with a mission or purpose, such as proclaiming God's message among all the nations. This implies a special duty, which devolves from the belief that Jews have been pledged by the covenant which God concluded with the biblical patriarch [[Abraham]], their ancestor, and again with the entire Jewish nation at [[Mount Sinai]]. In this view, Jews are charged with living a holy life as God's priest-people.
In the [[Siddur|Jewish prayerbook (the siddur)]], chosenness is referred to in a number of ways. The blessing for reading the [[Torah]] reads "Praised are you, Lord our God, King of the universe, who has chosen us out of all the nations and bestowed upon us his Torah." When read as two separate clauses, chosenness and the receiving of the Torah are two distinct aspects of Jewish identity. In this view, one would look to other rabbinic texts to understand what chosenness means. Some modern day prayerbook editors translate this as "who has chosen us out of all the nations by bestowing upon us his Torah." thus making explicit their theology that chosenness is linked to receiving of the Torah.
There is a similar qualification in the prayer known as "Kiddush", a prayer of sanctification in which the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] is inaugurated over a cup of wine. The text reads "For you have chosen us and sanctified us out of all the nations, and have given us the Sabbath as an inheritance in love and favour. P |
results of his explorations were published in [[Paris]] between 1860 and 1873 in ''Geodesie d'Ethiopie'', full of the most valuable information and illustrated by ten maps. Of the ''Geographie de l'Ethiopie'' (Paris, 1890) only one volume has been published. In ''Un Catalogue raisonné de manuscrits ethiopiens'' (Paris, 1859) is a description of 234 Ethiopian [[manuscript]]s collected by Antoine. He also compiled various vocabularies, including a ''Dictionnaire de la langue amarinna'' (Paris, 1881), and prepared an edition of the ''[[Shepherd of Hermas]]'', with the Latin version, in 1860. He published numerous papers dealing with the geography of Ethiopia, Ethiopian coins and ancient inscriptions. Under the title of ''Reconnaissances magnetiques'' he published in 1890 an account of the [[magnetic]] observations made by him in the course of several journeys to the [[Red Sea]] and the [[Levant]]. The general account of the travels of the two brothers was published by Arnaud in 1868 under the title of ''Douze ans dans la Haute Ethiopie''.
Both brothers received the grand medal of the [[Paris Geographical Society]] in 1850. Antoine was a knight of the [[Légion d’honneur|Legion of Honour]] and a member of the [[French Academy of Sciences]]. He died in 1897, and bequeathed an estate in the [[Pyrenees]], yielding 40,000 francs a year, to the Academy of Sciences, on condition of its producing within fifty years a catalogue of half-a-million stars. His brother Arnaud died in 1893.
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbadie, Antoine Thomson D' and Arnaud Michel D'}}
{{1911}}
[[Category:1810 births|Abbadie, Antoine Thomson d']]
[[Category:1897 deaths|Abbadie, Antoine Thomson d']]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Abbadie, Antoine Thomson d']]
[[Category:French explorers|Abbadie, Antoine Thomson d']]
[[Category:Natives of County Dublin|Abbadie, Antoine Thomson d']]
[[fr:Antoine d'Abbadie d'Arrast]]
[[it:Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie]]
[[ru:Аббади, Антуан Томсон д']]</text>
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<page>
<title>Abba Mari</title>
<id>2608</id>
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<comment>bypassed [[Providence]] disambiguation page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Abba Mari''' (in full, '''Abba Mari ben Moses ben Joseph'''), [[France|French]] [[rabbi]], was born at [[Lunel]], near [[Montpellier]], towards the end of the [[13th century]]. He is also known as '''Yarhi''' from his birthplace ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''Yerah'', i.e. [[moon]], lune), and he further took the name '''Astruc''', '''Don Astruc''' or '''En Astruc of Lunel'''.
The descendant of men learned in [[rabbinic]] lore, Abba Mari devoted himself to the study of [[theology]] and [[philosophy]], and made himself acquainted with the writings of [[Maimonides|Moses Maimonides]] and [[Nachmanides]] as well as with the ''[[Talmud]]''.
In Montpellier, where he lived from 1303 to 1306, he was much distressed by the prevalence of [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] [[rationalism]], which in his opinion, through the medium of the works of Maimonides, threatened the authority of the [[Old Testament]], obedience to the law, and the belief in [[miracle]]s and [[revelation]]. He therefore, in a series of letters (afterwards collected under the title ''Minhat Kenaot'', i.e., "Jealousy Offering") called upon the famous rabbi [[Solomon ben Adret]] of [[Barcelona]] to come to the aid of orthodoxy. Ben Adret, with the approval of other prominent Spanish rabbis, sent a letter to the community at Montpellier proposing to forbid the study of philosophy to those who were less than thirty years of age, and, in spite of keen opposition from the liberal section, a decree in this sense was issued by Ben Adret in 1305. The result was a great schism among the [[Jew]]s of [[Spain]] and southern [[France]], and a new impulse was given to the study of philosophy by the unauthorized interference of the Spanish rabbis.
On the expulsion of the Jews from France by [[Philip IV of France|Philip IV]] in 1306, Abba Mari settled at [[Perpignan]], where he published the letters connected with the controversy. His subsequent history is unknown. Beside the letters, he was the author of liturgical poetry and works on civil law.
==Defender of Law and Tradition==
(Graetz and others have, incorrectly, En Duran): Leader of the opposition to the [[rationalism]] of the Maimonists in the Montpellier controversy of 1303-1306; born at Lunel—hence his name, Yarḥi (from Yeraḥ = Moon = Lune). He was a descendant of [[Meshullam ben Jacob]] of Lunel, one of whose five sons was Joseph, the grandfather of Abba Mari, who, like his son Moses, the father of Abba Mari, was highly respected for both his rabbinical learning and his general erudition. Abba Mari moved to Montpellier, where, to his chagrin, he found the study of rabbinical lore greatly neglected by the young, who devoted all of their time and zeal to [[science]] and [[philosophy]]. The rationalistic method pursued by the new school of Maimonists (including [[Levi ben Abraham ben Chayyim]] of [[Villefranche]], near the town of [[Perpignan]], and [[Jacob Anatolio]]) especially provoked his indignation; for the sermons preached and the works published by them seemed to resolve the entire [[Scripture]]s into [[allegory]] and threatened to undermine the Jewish faith and the observance of the Law and tradition. He was not without some philosophical training. He mentions even with reverence the name of Maimonides, whose work he possessed and studied; but he was more inclined toward the mysticism of Nachmanides. Above all, he was a thorough believer in [[revelation]] and in a [[divine providence]], and was a sincere, law-observing follower of rabbinical Judaism. He would not allow Aristotle, "the searcher after God among the heathen," to be ranked with Moses.
==Opponent of Rationalism==
Abba Mari possessed considerable Talmudic knowledge and some poetical talent; but his zeal for the Law made him an agitator and a persecutor of all the advocates of liberal thought. Being himself without sufficient authority, he appealed in a number of letters, afterward published under the title of ''Minḥat Ḳenaot'' (''Jealousy Offering''), to [[Solomon ben Adret]] of [[Barcelona]], the most influential rabbi of the time, to use his powerful authority to check the source of evil by hurling his [[anathema]] against both the study of philosophy and the allegorical interpretations of the Bible, which did away with all belief in miracles. Ben Adret, while reluctant to interfere in the affairs of other congregations, was in perfect accord with Abba Mari as to the danger of the new rationalistic systems, and advised him to organize the conservative forces in defense of the Law. Abba Mari, through Ben Adret's aid, obtained allies eager to take up his cause, among whom were Don [[Bonafoux Vidal]] of Barcelona and his brother, Don [[Crescas Vidal]], then in Perpignan. The proposition of the latter to prohibit, under penalty of [[excommunication]], the study of philosophy and any of the sciences except [[medicine]], by one under thirty years of age, met with the approval of Ben Adret. Accordingly, Ben Adret addressed to the congregation of Montpellier a letter, signed by fifteen other rabbis, proposing to issue a decree pronouncing the anathema against all those who should pursue the study of philosophy and science before due maturity in age and in rabbinical knowledge. On a Sabbath in September, 1304, the letter was to be read before the congregation, when [[Jacob Machir Don Profiat Tibbon]], the renowned astronomical and mathematical writer, entered his protest against such unlawful interference by the Barcelona rabbis, and a [[schism]] ensued. Twenty-eight members signed Abba Mari's letter of approval; the others, under Tibbon's leadership, addressed another letter to Ben Adret, rebuking him and his colleagues for condemning a whole community without knowledge of the local conditions. Finally, the agitation for and against the liberal ideas brought about a schism in the entire Jewish population in southern [[France]] and [[Spain]].
Encouraged, however, by letters signed by the rabbis of [[Argentière]] and Lunel, and particularly by the support of [[Kalonymus ben Todros]], the ''[[nasi]]'' of [[Narbonne]], and of the eminent Talmudist [[Asheri of Toledo]], Ben Adret issued a decree, signed by thirty-three rabbis of Barcelona, excommunicating those who should, within the next fifty years, study [[physics]] or [[metaphysics]] before their thirtieth year of age (basing his action on the principle laid down by Maimonides, ''Moreh,'' i. 34), and had the order promulgated in the synagogue on Sabbath, [[July 26]], [[1305]]. When this [[heresy]]-decree, to be made effective, was forwarded to other congregations for approval, the friends of liberal thought, under the leadership of the Tibbonites, issued a counter-ban, and the conflict threatened to assume a serious character, as blind party zeal (this time on the liberal side) did not shrink from asking the civil powers to intervene. But an unlooked-for calamity brought the warfare to an end. The expulsion of the Jews from France by [[Philip IV of France|Philip IV]] ("the Fair"), in 1306, caused the Jews of Montpellier to take refuge, partly in [[Provence]], partly in Perpignan and partly in [[Majorca]]. Consequently, Abba Mari removed first to [[Arles]], and, within the same year, to Perpignan, where he finally settled and disappeared from public view. There he published his correspondence with Ben Adret and his colleagues.
==His Works==
Abba Mari collected the correspondence and added to each letter a few explanatory notes. Of this collection, called ''Minḥat Ḳenaot,'' there are several manuscript copies extant; namely, at [[Oxford]] (Neubau |
gust 1999. ISBN 0299166740.
* James, Simon & Rigby, Valerie. ''Britain and the Celtic Iron Age.'' London: British Museum Press, 1997. ISBN 0714123064.
* Kruta, V., O. Frey, Barry Raftery and M. Szabo. eds. ''The Celts.'' New York: Thames & Hudson, 1991. ISBN 0847821935.
* Laing, Lloyd. ''The Archaeology of Late Celtic Britain and Ireland c. 400--1200 AD.'' London: Methuen, 1975. ISBN 0416823602
* MacKillop, James. ''A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0192801201
* McEvedy, Colin. ''The Penguin Atlas of Ancient History''. New York: Penguin, 1985. ISBN 0140708324
* Mallory, J. P. ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth.'' London: Thames and Hudson, 1991. ISBN 0500276161.
* Powell, T. G. E. ''The Celts.'' New York: Thames and Hudson, 1980. third ed. 1997. ISBN 0500272751.
* Raftery, Barry. ''Pagan Celtic Ireland: The Enigma of the Irish Iron Age.'' London: Thames & Hudson, 1994. ISBN 0500279837.
* Renfrew, Colin. ''Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0521386756.
* Ward-Perkins, Bryan. "Why Did The Anglo-Saxons Not Become More British?" in ''English Historical Review'', June 2000.
* Weale, M. "Y Chromosome Evidence For Anglo-Saxon Mass Migration." in ''Society For Molecular Biology And Evolution'', 2002.
* Lloyd and Jenifer Laing. ''Art of the Celts'', London: Thames and Hudson, 1992 ISBN 0500202567
* Rosser, ZH et al. "Y-chromosomal diversity in Europe is clinal and influenced primarily by geography, rather than by language.", Am J Hum Genet. 2000 Dec;67(6):1376-81.
<!-- AWOL:
*Article On Study Re Celtic Population by Cristian Capelli, David Goldstein and others at University College London. http://www.iht.com/cgi-bin/generic.cgi?template=articleprint.tmplh&ArticleId=97790
-->
==External links==
*[http://www.resourcesforhistory.com Celts and Romans]
*[http://www.familytreedna.com/pdf/capelli2_CB.pdf "A Y Chromosome Census of the British Isles" (pdf)]
* BBC [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/2076470.stm "English and Welsh are races apart"]
* BBC [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/programmes/bloodofthevikings/genetics_results_07.shtml "Descendents of the ancient Britons in genetic survey results for Rush and Castlerea, Ireland, [[2003]]".]
*[http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=15309688 The Long Duration of Genetic Ancestry: Multiple Genetic Marker Systems and Celtic Origins on the Atlantic Facade of Europe, October 2004]
* [http://www.lonympics.co.uk/top10citiesincelticland.htm] A list of the 10 largest Celtic cities, and at the bottom a list of the world's countries that consider themselves to be Celtic.
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Celts]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[als:Kelten]]
[[bg:Келти]]
[[ca:Celtes]]
[[cs:Keltové]]
[[cy:Y Celtiaid]]
[[de:Kelten]]
[[el:Κελτικός πολιτισμός]]
[[eo:Keltoj]]
[[es:Celta]]
[[fi:Keltit]]
[[fr:Celtes]]
[[gl:Celta]]
[[gv:Ny Celtiee]]
[[he:קלטים]]
[[it:Celti]]
[[ja:ケルト人]]
[[la:Celtae]]
[[lt:Keltai]]
[[ms:Celt]]
[[nl:Kelten]]
[[nn:Keltarar]]
[[no:Keltere]]
[[pl:Celtowie]]
[[pt:Celta]]
[[ro:Celt]]
[[ru:Кельты]]
[[sl:Kelti]]
[[sr:Келти]]
[[sv:Kelter]]
[[uk:Кельти]]
[[zh:凯尔特人]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Conductor</title>
<id>6547</id>
<revision>
<id>38063998</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T22:51:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dual Freq</username>
<id>578219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Redirection bypass from [[Conductor (music)]] to [[Conducting]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|conductor}}
'''Conductor''' may refer to
*[[Conductor (material)]], a material in which an electric current can be produced. Most metals are good conductors.
*[[Conducting|Conductor (music)]],The person who leads a musical ensemble.
*[[Conductor (transportation)]], a person who sells and checks tickets on a bus, train, etc.
====Related terms====
* [[conduct]]
{{disambig}}
[[da:Leder]]
[[de:Leiter]]
[[es:Conductor]]
[[gl:Conductor]]
[[sv:Ledare]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Claude Monet</title>
<id>6548</id>
<revision>
<id>41905715</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T14:47:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Etacar11</username>
<id>162093</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ClaudeMonet.jpg|right|frame|Claude Monet]]
'''Claude Monet''' also known as '''Oscar-Claude Monet''' or '''Claude Oscar Monet''' ([[November 14]], [[1840]] &ndash; [[December 5]], [[1926]]) was a [[France|French]] [[impressionism|impressionist]] painter. His painting ''Impression: Sunrise'' was the source for the naming of the [[Impressionism]] movement.
==Life==
[[Image:Claude Monet 049.jpg|thumb|left|Self-portrait, by Monet]]
Monet was born in [[Paris]], but his family moved to [[Le Havre]] in [[Normandy]] when he was five. His father wanted him to go into the family grocery store business, but Claude Monet wanted to become an artist.
He first became known locally for his charcoal caricatures, which he would sell for ten to twenty [[francs]]. On the beaches of Normandy, he met fellow artist [[Eugène Boudin]], who became his mentor and taught him to use oil paints. Boudin taught Monet ''[[en plein air]]'' (outdoor) techniques for painting.
When Monet travelled to [[Paris]] to visit [[The Louvre]], he would see many painters imitating famous artists' work. Monet, having brought his paints and other tools with him, would instead go and sit by a window and paint what he saw.
Monet served in the army in [[Algeria]] for two years of a seven-year commitment ([[1860]]&ndash;[[1862]]), but upon his contracting typhoid his aunt Madame Lecadre intervened to get him out of the army if he agreed to complete an art course at a university.
Disillusioned with the traditional art taught at universities, instead in [[1862]] he joined the studio of [[Charles Gleyre]] in Paris, where he met [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], [[Frederic Bazille]], and [[Alfred Sisley]]. Together they shared new approaches to art, which later came to be known as [[impressionism]], featuring open spaces and light painted with thick brushstrokes.
Monet's [[1866]] ''The Woman in the Green Dress'' ''(Camille, ou la femme à la robe verte)'', which brought him recognition, depicted [[Camille Doncieux]]. Shortly thereafter Doncieux became pregnant and bore their first child, Jean.
During the [[Franco-Prussian War]] ([[1870]]&ndash;[[1871]]), Monet took refuge in [[England]] to avoid the conflict. There he studied the works of [[John Constable]] and [[J. M. W. Turner]].
From 1871 to 1878 Monet lived at [[Argenteuil]], a village on the Seine near Paris, and here were painted some of his best known works.
[[Image:Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant, 1872.jpg|thumb|left|275px|''[[Impression, Sunrise]] (Impression, soleil levant)'' ([[1872]]/[[1873]])]]
Upon returning to France, in [[1872]] (or [[1873]]) he painted ''[[Impression, Sunrise]] (Impression, soleil levant)'' depicting a [[Le Havre]] landscape. It hung in the first [[impressionist]] exhibition in [[1874]] and is now displayed in the [[Musée Marmottan-Monet]], [[Paris]]. From the painting's title, art critic Louis Leroy coined the term "impressionism".
In [[1870]], Monet and Doncieux married and in [[1873]] moved into a house in [[Argenteuil]] near the [[Seine River]]. They had another son, Michel, on [[March 17]], [[1878]]. Madame Monet died of [[tuberculosis]] in [[1879]].
[[Alice Hoschedé]] decided to help Monet by bringing up his two children together with her own. They lived in [[Poissy]], which Monet hated. In April [[1883]] they moved to a house in [[Giverny]], [[Eure]], in [[Haute-Normandie]], where he planted a large garden which he painted for the rest of his life. Monet and Hoschedé married in [[1892]].
In the 1880s and 1890s, Monet began "series" painting &mdash; paintings of one subject in varying light and viewpoints. His first series is of [[Rouen Cathedral]] from different points of view and at different times of the day. Twenty views of the cathedral were exhibited at the Durand-Ruel gallery in [[1895]]. He also made a series of paintings of haystacks.
[[image:monet.waterlilies.500pix.jpg|thumb|right|275px|''Water Lily Pond (Le bassin aux Nympheas)'' ([[1889]])]]
Monet was exceptionally fond of painting controlled nature &mdash; his own garden, his [[water lilies]], his pond, and his bridge. He also painted up and down the banks of the [[River Seine|Seine]].
Between [[1883]] and [[1908]], Monet travelled to the [[Mediterranean]] and painted many beautiful landscapes and seascapes such as ''Bordighera''. Landmarks were another subject for Monet in the Mediterranean. His wife Alice died in [[1911]] and his son Jean died in [[1914]]. [[Cataracts]] formed on his eyes for which he underwent two surgeries in [[1923]]. He died [[December 5]], [[1926]] and is buried in the [[Giverny]] church cemetery.
In [[2004]], ''[[London]], the Parliament, Effects of Sun in the Fog (Le Parlement, Effet de Brouillard)'' ([[1904]]), sold for over [[United States dollar|U.S. $]]20 million.
==References==
* [http://www.accents-n-art.com/artists/claude-monet-biography.html Claude Monet's Biography]
* [http://www.triada.bg/Gallery/Monet/Monetbio.htm A Monet biography]
* [http://www.fondation-monet.com/uk/biographie/index.html Biography at Foundation Claude Monet à Girerny]
* [http://www.allaboutartists.com/bios/monet.html All About Artists biography of Monet]
* [http://www.intermonet.com/biograph/index.htm Biography of Claude MONET]
==External links== |
became a [[killer application]] that all capable [[game console|console]]s and [[operating system]]s were expected to have, and versions of ''Doom'' have subsequently been released for the following systems: [[DOS]], [[Microsoft Windows]], [[QNX]], [[Irix]], [[NEXTSTEP]], [[Linux]], [[Apple Macintosh]], [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super NES]], [[Sega 32X]], Sony [[PlayStation]], [[Game Boy Advance]], [[RiscOS]], [[Atari Jaguar]], [[Sega Saturn]], [[Nintendo 64]], the [[Tapwave Zodiac]] and [[3DO Interactive Multiplayer|3DO]]. The total number of copies of ''Doom'' games sold is unknown, but may be well over 4 million{{ref|sales}}; ''Doom II'' alone has sold for over $100 million.
The game engine was licensed to several other companies as well, who released their own games based on it, including ''[[Heretic (computer game)|Heretic]]'', ''[[HeXen]]'', ''[[Strife]]'' and ''[[HacX]]''. There is also a ''Doom''-based game released by a breakfast [[cereal]] maker as a product tie-in called ''[[Chex Quest]]'', and the [[United States Marine Corps]] released ''[[Marine Doom]]'', designed to "teach teamwork, coordination and decision-making".
Dozens of new first-person shooter titles appeared following ''Doom''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s release, and they were often referred to as "[[Doom clone|''Doom'' clones]]" rather than "first-person shooters". Some of these were certainly "clones"&mdash;hastily assembled and quickly forgotten about&mdash;others explored new grounds of the genre and were highly acclaimed. ''Doom''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s principal rivals were [[Apogee Software|Apogee]]'s ''[[Rise of the Triad]]'' and [[Origin Systems]]' ''[[System Shock]]''. The popularity of ''[[Star Wars]]''-themed WADs is rumored to have been the factor that prompted [[LucasArts]] to create their first-person shooter ''[[Dark Forces]]''. {{ref|GamespyClones}}
When, three years later, [[3D Realms]] released ''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'', a tongue-in-cheek science fiction shooter based on [[Ken Silverman]]'s technologically similar [[Build engine|''Build'' engine]], id Software had nearly finished ''[[Quake]]'', its next-generation game, which mirrored ''Doom''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s success for the remainder of the 1990s and significantly reduced interest in its predecessor. The franchise remained in that state until 2000, when ''[[Doom 3]]'' was announced. A retelling of the original ''Doom'' using entirely new graphics technology, ''Doom 3'' was [[hype]]d to provide as large a leap in realism and interactivity as the original ''Doom'', but received mixed reactions when released in 2004.
''Doom'' has appeared in several forms in addition to games, including a [[Doom comic book|comic book]], four novels by [[Dafydd Ab Hugh]] and [[Brad Linaweaver]] (loosely based on events and locations in the games), and [[Doom (movie)|a film]] starring [[Karl Urban]] and [[The Rock (entertainer)|The Rock]] released in 2005. The game's development and impact on popular culture is also the subject of the book ''[[Masters of Doom]]'' by [[David Kushner]].
===Controversy===
[[Image:Doom gibs.png|thumb|240px|The [[Shoulder-launched missile weapon|rocket launcher]] can be used to explode enemies into piles of [[gibs]]; the graphic violence made ''Doom'' highly controversial.]]
''Doom'' was and remains notorious for its high levels of [[violence]], [[gore]], and [[Satanism|satanic]] imagery, which have generated much controversy from a broad range of groups. It has been criticized numerous times by [[Christianity|Christian]] organizations for its diabolic undertones and was dubbed a "mass murder simulator" by critic and [[Killology Research Group]] founder [[Dave Grossman (author)|Lt. Col. David Grossman]].{{ref|Grossman}} ''Doom'' prompted fears that the then-emerging [[virtual reality]] technology could be used to simulate extremely realistic killing, and in 1994 led to unsuccessful attempts by [[Washington]] [[State Senator|state senator]] [[Phil Talmadge]] to introduce compulsory licensing of VR use.
The game again sparked controversy throughout a period of [[school massacre|school shooting]]s in the [[United States]] when it was found that [[Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold]], who committed the [[Columbine High School massacre]] in 1999, were avid players of the game. While planning for the massacre, Harris said that the killing would be "like fucking ''Doom''" and that his shotgun was "straight out of" the game{{ref|Columbine}}. A rumor spread afterwards that Harris had designed ''Doom'' levels that looked like the halls of the high school, populated with representations of Harris's classmates and teachers, and that Harris practiced for Columbine by playing these levels over and over. However, although Harris did design ''Doom'' levels, they were not simulations of Columbine (see [[Harris levels]]).
===Continued legacy===
''Doom'' is widely regarded as one of the [[Computer and video games that have been considered the greatest ever|most important titles]] in gaming history. It was voted the "#1 game of all time" in a poll among over 100 game developers and journalists conducted by [[GameSpy]] in July 2001{{ref|no1}}, and [[PC Gamer]] proclaimed ''Doom'' the most influential game of all time in its ten-year anniversary issue in April 2004. However, several game journalists have also contrasted the relatively simplistic gameplay in ''Doom'' unfavorably with more story-oriented first-person shooters such as ''[[Half-Life]]''.
Although the popularity of the ''Doom'' games dropped with the release of ''[[Quake]]'' (1996) and afterwards, the games have retained a strong fan base that continues playing competitively and creating [[Doom WAD|WADs]] (the ''idgames'' FTP archive receives a few to a dozen new WADs each week [[as of 2005]]), and ''Doom''-related news is still tracked at multiple websites such as [[Doomworld]]. Interest in ''Doom'' was renewed in 1997, when the [[source code]] for the ''Doom'' engine was released (it was also placed under the [[GNU General Public License]] in 1999). Fans then began [[porting]] the game to various operating systems, even to previously unsupported platforms such as the [[Dreamcast]], [[PlayStation Portable|PSP]] and the [[iPod]], and adding new features such as [[OpenGL]] rendering and [[scripting]], which allows WADs to alter the gameplay more radically. There are well over 50 different [[Doom source port|''Doom'' source ports]], some of which remain under active development.
Devoted players have spent years creating [[Doom speedrunning|speedruns for ''Doom'']], competing for the quickest completion times and sharing knowledge about routes through the levels and how to exploit [[computer bug|bug]]s in the ''Doom'' engine for shortcuts. Achievements include the completion of both ''Doom'' and ''Doom II'' on the ''Ultra-Violence'' difficulty setting in less than 30 minutes each. In addition, a few players have also managed to complete ''Doom II'' in a single run on the ''Nightmare!'' difficulty setting, on which monsters are twice as fast and respawn some time after they have been killed (level designer [[John Romero]] characterized the idea of such a run as "[just having to be] impossible"{{ref|Nightmare}}). Movies of most of these runs are available from the [[COMPET-N]] website.
==References==
# {{note|ESRB}} {{cite web | author = Entertainment Software Rating Board | title = Game ratings | url = http://www.esrb.org/search_results.asp?key=doom&x=0&y=0&type=game | accessdate = December 4 | accessyear = 2004 }}
# {{note|story}} {{cite web | author = id Software | title = The ''Doom'' instruction manual (unofficial transcript) | year = 1993 | url = http://oregonstate.edu/~lloydo/doomstory.txt | accessdate = November 15 | accessyear = 2005 }}
# {{note|DWCarmack}} {{cite web |author=Doomworld |title=Interview with John Carmack |url=http://doomworld.com/interviews/int7.shtml |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|bible}} {{cite web |author=Hall, Tom |title=The Doom Bible |year=1992 |publisher=Doomworld (1998) |url=http://5years.doomworld.com/doombible/ |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|MastersOfDoom}}{{note_label|MastersOfDoom|6|a}} {{cite book |author=Kushner, David |title=[[Masters of Doom: How Two Guys Created an Empire and Transformed Pop Culture]] |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |year=2003 |id=ISBN 0-3755-0524-5}}
# {{note|BillGates}} {{cite web |author=Lombardo, Mike |publisher=Reel Splatter |title=Bonus movie: Bill Gates "DOOM" video |url=http://www.reelsplatter.com/downloads.htm |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|idgamesCount}} {{cite web |author=Doomworld |title=/idgames database |url=http://www.doomworld.com/idgames/ |accessdate=September 3 |accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|sales}} {{cite web |author=Doom Wiki |title=Sales |url=http://doom.wikicities.com/wiki/Sales |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005 |year=2005}}
# {{note|GamespyClones}} {{cite web |author=Turner, Benjamin & Bowen, Kevin |title=Bringin' in the DOOM Clones |url=http://archive.gamespy.com/articles/december03/doom/clones/index2.shtml |publisher=GameSpy |year=2003 |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|Grossman}} {{cite web |author=Irvine, Reed & Kincaid, Cliff |title=Video Games Can Kill |url=http://www.aim.org/media_monitor/A3327_0_2_0_C/ |publisher=Accuracy In Media |year=1999 |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|Columbine}} {{cite web |author=4-20: a Columbine site |title=Basement Tapes: quotes and transcripts from Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold's video tapes |url=http://columbine.free2host.net/quotes.html |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|no1}} {{cite web |author=GameSpy |title=GameSpy's Top 50 Games of All Time |url=http://archive.gamespy.com/articles/july01/top50index/ |year=20 |
ange communities include (in a roughly north-to-south order):
* [[Fort Collins, Colorado|Fort Collins]]
* [[Greeley, Colorado|Greeley]]
* [[Loveland, Colorado|Loveland]]
* [[Longmont, Colorado|Longmont]]
* [[Boulder, Colorado|Boulder]]
* [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]] and suburbs
* [[Castle Rock, Colorado|Castle Rock]]
* [[Colorado Springs, Colorado|Colorado Springs]]
* [[Pueblo, Colorado|Pueblo]]
{{Colorado}}
[[Category:Geography of Colorado]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Complete list of language wikis available</title>
<id>7113</id>
<revision>
<id>20182886</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-03T11:21:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RuM</username>
<id>191732</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>avoid double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[meta:List of Wikipedias]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Channel Isles</title>
<id>7114</id>
<revision>
<id>15905197</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Channel_Islands]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Churnsike Lodge</title>
<id>7118</id>
<revision>
<id>18021034</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-02T17:25:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kjlewis</username>
<id>268232</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:Buildings and structures in Northumberland]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Churnsike Lodge''' ({{gbmapping|NY664771}}) was an early [[Victorian era|Victorian]] [[hunting lodge]] situated in West [[Northumberland]], [[England]], near
[[Gilsland]] and [[Greenhead]]. It was built in [[1850]].
{{UK-struct-stub}}
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Northumberland]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>William Kidd</title>
<id>7119</id>
<revision>
<id>42062727</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:27:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.193.88.4</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Early life and career */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Captain Kidd (Pyle painting).gif|thumb|right|[[Howard Pyle]]'s painting of Kidd and his ship, the [[Adventure Galley]], in a [[New York City]] harbor.]]
'''William''' "'''Captain'''" '''Kidd''' ([[January 22]], [[1654]] &ndash; [[May 23]], [[1701]]) is often remembered in [[infamy]] as a [[cruel]], bloody [[pirate]]. Indeed, he, along with his crew, has been accused of every crime in pirate history by popular tradition. He achieved perhaps more fame in [[song]], [[story]], and [[legend]] than any other pirate to sail the [[seven seas]]. However, historical record calls this characterization into question. It is more likely that Kidd earned his reputation through circumstance and did not consider himself to even be a pirate.
==Early life and career==
Kidd was born into a reputable family in [[Greenock]], [[Scotland]]. However after the death of his father when he was five, Kidd's family's income was severely reduced. As a young man he chose to head out to sea, and bounced around freely from ship to ship for three decades. After war broke out between England and France, he showed courage, patriotism, and a bit of lucky timing in winning a French ship and saving English troops from destruction. With his newfound prestige, he finally settled in [[New York]] in [[1691]], at the age of thirty-seven. There he [[married]] the 20-year-old twice widow, Sarah Bradley Cox Oort. They had two daughters: Elizabeth and Sarah Kidd. The marriage eventually brought to Kidd a considerable amount of property (after the legal dispute around her inheritance from her first husband was resolved.) During this time Kidd was respected as an honest, hard-working ship [[captain]]. He befriended many prominent [[colonial]] citizens, including three [[governor]]s.
Later that year, on orders from the province of New York, [[Massachusetts]], he captured an enemy [[privateer]] on the [[New England]] coast. Shortly thereafter, Kidd was awarded [[£]]150 for successful privateering in the [[Caribbean]]. One year later, [[Robert Culliford|"Captain" Culliford]], a [[notorious]] pirate, stole Kidd's ship while he was ashore at [[Antigua]] in the [[West Indies]]. In [[1695]], [[William III of England]] replaced the [[corrupt]] governor [[Benjamin Fletcher]], known for accepting [[bribe]]s of one hundred dollars to allow [[illegal]] trading of pirate [[loot]], with [[Richard Coote]], Earl of Bellomont.
==Preparing his expedition==
On [[December 11]] that same year, Coote, who was now governing New York, Massachusetts, and [[New Hampshire]], asked the ''"trusty and well beloved Captain Kidd"'' {{an|2}} to attack [[Thomas Tew]], [[John Ireland]], [[Thomas Wake]], [[William Maze]], and all others who associated themselves with pirates, along with any enemy [[France|French]] ships. This preceded the [[voyage]] which established his reputation as a pirate, and cemented his image in history and [[folklore]].
Four-fifths of the cost for the venture was paid for by noble lords, who were amongst the most powerful men in England; the [[Edward Russell, 1st Earl of Orford|Earl of Orford]], The Baron of Romney, the [[Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury|Duke of Shrewsbury]] and [[John Somers, 1st Baron Somers|Sir John Somers]]. According to Henry Gilbert writing in ''The Book of Pirates'', Kidd's backers were rumored to include King William himself. In fact, according to a time-honored practice, the King would receive a tenth share of everything captured. Kidd and an acquaintance, Colonel [[Robert Livingston the Elder|Robert Livingston]] paid for the rest. Kidd had to sell his ship the ''Antigua'' to raise funds.
The new ship, the ''[[Adventure Galley]]'', was well suited to the task of catching pirates; weighing over 284 [[tonnage|tons]], it was equipped with 34 [[cannon]]s, [[oar]]s, and 150 [[men]]. The oars were a key advantage as it would enable him to maneuver in a [[battle]] when the [[wind]]s had calmed and other ships were floating free. Kidd took pride in personally selecting the crew, choosing only those he deemed to be the best and most [[loyalty|loyal]] [[officer (armed forces)|officers]]. Unfortunately, soon after setting sail he was stopped by the [[HMS Duchess]], whose captain enlisted much of Kidd's crew for service in the [[navy]], despite rampant [[protest]]ing. To make up for the lack of officers, Kidd was sent replacement crew, the vast majority of which consisted of known hardened [[criminal]]s, undoubtedly some of which had been former pirates.
==Hunting for pirates==
In [[September]] of [[1696]], Kidd finally set sail again. However, more [[bad luck]] struck and a third of his crew soon perished due to the uncontrolled spread of [[cholera]]. To make matters worse, the brand-new ship developed many leaks. According to Gilbert, after taking a single French ship (which was legal under his commission) on the first leg of his voyage, he proceeded eastward to [[Madagascar]] but was not able to find pirates to take in that vicinity. Kidd then sailed to the [[Malabar|Malabar Coast]]. During this time Kidd never attacked a single richly-laden [[India]]n ship that passed before him, and probably was not yet pirate at the time. However, as it became obvious his ambitious enterprise was failing he became understandably desperate to cover its costs. But, once again, Kidd failed to attack several ships when given a chance, including a Dutchman and New York privateer. Some of the crew now deserted Kidd the next time the Adventure Galley anchored offshore, and those who decided to stay behind made constant [[threat|open-threats]] of [[mutiny]].
On [[October 30]], [[1697]], as William Moore, the ships [[gunner]] and strong follower of the mutinous crew, was sharpening a [[chisel]] on the deck, he saw Kidd walk by and furiously shouted ''“You have brought us to ruin and we are desolate! I could have put you in the way of taking that ship [the Dutchman] and be none the worse for it!”'' {{an|3}} After an exchange of strong words, Kidd snatched up and heaved an ironbound bucket at Moore. Moore fell to the deck of a [[Skull fracture|fractured skull]], and died the following day.
== Turning pirate==
Finally, under pressure from his men, and perhaps in [[shock]] over what he had done, Kidd finally made the [[fatal]] decision of turning pirate. He started taking any vessels which were not English. So the [[Netherlands|Dutch]], [[Moorish]], Indian, [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and French were not safe from the onslaught. As the voyage progressed Kidd’s actions became increasingly more like those of a pirate than an agent of the English King. Acts of [[savagery]] on Kidd’s part were reported by escaped [[prison|prisoner]]s, who told of being hoisted up by the arms and drubbed with a [[naked]] [[cutlass]].
On [[January 30]], [[1698]] he raised French [[colors]] and took his greatest [[prize]], an [[Armenian]] beast of a ship, the 400 tons ''Quedagh Merchant'', which was loaded with [[satin]]s, [[muslin]]s, [[gold]], [[silver]], an incredible variety of [[East Indian]] [[merchandise]], as well as extremely valuable [[silk]]s. The captain of the Quedagh Merchant was an [[Englishman]] named Wright, who was sailing under the promised protection of the French government. However, after realizing the captain of the taken vessel was an Englishman, Kidd tried to persuade his crew to return the ship to its owners but they refused. Thus, Kidd changed his focus and took his prize claiming it was legal prey for an English privateer. Unfortunately, when news of the deed reached England, along with horrifying tales of [[torture]], the |
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DirectX<br>
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dirtball<br>
dirty power<br>
DISA<br>
disc<br>
disc drive<br>
disclaimer<br>
disconnect<br>
Discordianism<br>
discrete cosine transform<br>
discrete Fourier transform<br>
discrete preorder<br>
discriminated union<br>
discussion group<br>
Disiple<br>
disjoint union<br>
Disjunctive Normal Form<br>
disk<br>
[[disk controller]] - '''DONE'''<br>
disk drive<br>
disk duplexing<br>
diskette<br>
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diskless workstation<br>
disk mirroring<br>
Disk Operating System<br>
disk operating system<br>
disk striping<br>
Dislang<br>
display<br>
display hack<br>
[[Display PostScript]] '''DONE'''<br>
display standard<br>
display standards<br>
display terminal<br>
Dissociated Press<br>
distfix<br>
Distributed Component Object Model<br>
Distributed Computing Environment<br>
distributed database<br>
Distributed Data Management<br>
Distributed Eiffel<br>
Distributed Logic Programming<br>
Distributed Management Environment<br>
distributed memory<br>
Distributed Network Operating System<br>
Distributed Operating Multi Access Interactive Network<br>
Distributed Processes<br>
Distributed Queue Dual Bus<br>
Distributed Smalltalk<br>
distributed system<br>
distributed systems<br>
distribution<br>
distributive lattice<br>
disusered<br>
dithering DONE<br>
Ditto Drive<br>
diverge<br>
divisor<br>
dj<br>
DJGPP<br>
DjVu<br>
DK<br>
dk<br>
DL/1<br>
DLC<br>
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DLE<br>
DLG<br>
DL/I<br>
DLL<br>
DLM<br>
DLP<br>
DLPI<br>
DLT<br>
DLUR/DLUS<br>
DLZ1<br>
dm<br>
DMA<br>
DMAD<br>
dmake<br>
DMALGOL<br>
DME<br>
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DML<br>
DMM<br>
[[DMTF]] -- DONE<br>
DMZ<br>
DNA computing<br>
DNF<br>
DNIS<br>
DNIX<br>
DNOS<br>
DNS<br>
do<br>
DOA<br>
Doc<br>
doc<br>
docking station<br>
DOCMaker<br>
doco<br>
DOCSIS<br>
document<br>
documentation<br>
Document Examiner<br>
Document Image Processing<br>
Document Object Model<br>
Document Style Semantics and Specification Language<br>
Document Type Definition<br>
DOCUS<br>
DoD<br>
DoD-1<br>
dodgy<br>
DOD-STD-2167A<br>
DoD-STD-2168<br>
DOE<br>
DOF<br>
dogcow<br>
dogpile<br>
dogwash<br>
DOL<br>
dollar<br>
do loop<br>
DOM<br>
domain<br>
domain address<br>
Domain Analysis<br>
domain architecture<br>
Domain Architecture Model<br>
domain calculus<br>
domain engineering<br>
domainist<br>
domain maturity<br>
domain model<br>
domain name<br>
Domain Name Server<br>
Domain Name System<br>
domain selection<br>
Domain Software Engineering Environment<br>
domain-specific language<br>
domain theory<br>
DOMF<br>
Donald Knuth<br>
dongle<br>
dongle-disk<br>
Don't do that then!<br>
donuts<br>
DOOM<br>
DOORS<br>
doorstop<br>
Dorito Syndrome<br>
DORUM<br>
DOS<br>
DOS/360 -- '''DONE'''<br>
DOS Protected Mode Interface<br>
DOS requester<br>
dot<br>
dot address<br>
dot file<br>
dot matrix printer<br>
dot notation<br>
dot pitch<br>
dotted quad<br>
double bucky<br>
double-click<br>
Double Data Rate Random Access Memory<br>
Double Data Rate Synchronous Random Access Memory<br>
double DECkers<br>
double density<br>
doubled sig<br>
double-duplex<br>
double quote<br>
doubly linked list<br>
DOUGLAS<br>
Douglas Engelbart<br>
Doug Lenat<br>
DOW COMPILER<br>
down<br>
download<br>
downloading<br>
downsizing<br>
downstream<br>
down-time<br>
downward closed<br>
Downy cocktail<br>
DP<br>
DPB<br>
DPer<br>
[[DPI|dpi]] '''DONE'''<br>
DPL<br>
DPL-82<br>
DPLL<br>
DPMI<br>
DPMS<br>
DPN<br>
DPP<br>
d-Prolog<br>
DPS<br>
dpSather<br>
DPSK<br>
DQDB<br>
draco<br>
Draft Once ReUse Many<br>
drag and drop<br>
drag-n-drop<br>
DRAGON<br>
dragon<br>
Dragon Book<br>
DRAGOON<br>
drain<br>
DRAM<br>
DRAM refresh<br>
Drawing eXchange Format<br>
dread high bit disease<br>
DRECNET<br>
driver<br>
drivers<br>
Dr. James H. Clark<br>
droid<br>
DROOL<br>
drool-proof paper<br>
drop cable<br>
drop-down list<br>
drop-down menu<br>
drop-ins<br>
drop on the floor<br>
drop-outs<br>
DrScheme<br>
DRUCO I<br>
drugged<br>
drum<br>
drunk mouse syndrome<br>
dry run<br>
DS0<br>
DS1<br>
DS1C<br>
DS2<br>
DS3<br>
DSA<br>
DSE<br>
DSEE<br>
D-shell connector<br>
DSI<br>
DSL<br>
DSLAM<br>
DS level<br>
DSM<br>
DSN<br>
DSP<br>
DSP32 Assembly Language<br>
DSP56000<br>
DSP56001<br>
dsp56165-gcc<br>
dsp56k-gcc<br>
DSP/C<br>
DSPL<br>
DSR<br>
DSS<br>
DSSSL<br>
DST<br>
DSU<br>
DSVD<br>
DSW<br>
DTALGOL<br>
DTD<br>
DTE<br>
DT&amp<br>E<br>
DTLS<br>
DTMF<br>
DTP<br>
DTR<br>
DTS<br>
DTSS<br>
D-type<br>
D-type flip-flop<br>
DUA<br>
dual<br>
DUAL-607<br>
dual-attached<br>
dual-homed<br>
Dual In-Line<br>
Dual In-line Memory Module<br>
Dual In-Line Package<br>
dual ported<br>
dual-stack<br>
Dual Tone Multi Frequency<br>
DUEL<br>
Duff's device<br>
dumbed down<br>
dumb terminal<br>
dump<br>
dumpster diving<br>
Dungeon<br>
dup killer<br>
duplex<br>
Duplex High Speed Data<br>
dup loop<br>
Durra<br>
dusty deck<br>
DV cartridge<br>
DVD<br>
DVD-R<br>
DVD-ROM<br>
DVI '''DONE''' (several versions)<br>
Dvorak<br>
Dwarf Storage Unit<br>
DWDM<br>
dweeb<br>
dwg<br>
DWIM<br>
DX4<br>
DXF<br>
dyadic<br>
DYANA<br>
Dylan<br>
Dylperl<br>
dynamic adaptive routing<br>
Dynamic Address Translation<br>
Dynamically Linked Library<br>
dynamically scoped<br>
dynamic analysis<br>
dynamic binding<br>
dynamic database management system<br>
Dynamic Data Exchange<br>
Dynamic Data Linking<br>
dynamic DBMS<br>
Dynamic Drive Overlay<br>
Dynamic Execution<br>
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol<br>
Dynamic HTML<br>
DYnamic LANguage<br>
dynamic link<br>
dynamic link library<br>
Dynamic Object-Oriented Requirements System<br>
dynamic RAM<br>
dynamic random access memory<br>
dynamic routing<br>
DYnamics ANAlyzer<br>
dynamic scope<br>
dynamic scoping<br>
DYNAMO<br>
Dynix<br>
Dynix Automated Library Systems<br>
dynner<br>
DYSAC<br>
DYSTAL<br>
dz<br>
:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/T - W</title>
<id>11338</id>
<revision>
<id>23256455</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-15T02:06:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>66.169.103.126</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>wikify some links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/symbols - B|symbols - B]]
-- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/C - D|C - D]] --
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/E - H|E - H]] --
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/I - K|I - K]] --
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/L - N|L - N]] --
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/O - Q|O - Q]] --
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/R - S|R - S]] -- '''T -
W''' -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/X - Z|X - Z]] --
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/Status|FOLDOC Status
Page]]
[[T-carrier|T1]] '''DONE'''<br>
T1 line '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
T1 rate '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
[[T-carrier|T3]] '''NO IMPORT''' <br>
T3 line '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
TA '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant<br>
TAA '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant<br>
TAB '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
table '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant<br>
table locking '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant<br>
TABLET '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant<br>
TABLOG '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric<br>
tab-separated values<br>
TABSOL '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric<br>
Tabulating Machine Company '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
TAC '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric<br>
[[TACL]] '''DONE'''<br>
TACPOL '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant<br>
tag '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant<br>
[[Tagged Image File Format]] '''DONE'''<br>
tagged queueing '''DONE'''<br>
tagged types '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant<br>
tag name '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
tail circuit '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant<br>
[[Tail recursion|tail recursion]] '''DONE'''<br>
tail recursion modulo cons<br>
tail recursion optimisation<br>
tail-strict<br>
[[Transaction Application Language|TAL]] '''DONE'''<br>
T |
United Kingdom]]. A draft Constitution was published in [[2002]], which envisaged the following:
* The right to self-determination being enshrined in the preamble, as in the [[Falkland Islands]].
* The replacement of the Governor by a Lieutenant Governor, as in the [[Channel Islands]] and the [[Isle of Man]], as the Queen's representative, with the office of Deputy Governor being abolished.
* The abolition of the office of the Financial Development Secretary, whose functions would pass to an elected member of the Council of Ministers, with the Attorney-General being similarly appointed.
* The House of Assembly, henceforth called the Gibraltar Parliament, to consist solely of elected members.
* The abolition of the Gibraltar Council (presently obsolete), and its replacement by a Consultative Council for [[European Union]] matters, consisting of Gibraltar and UK Ministers
* The right of the Government of Gibraltar to dispose of Crown lands in Gibraltar
===Integration with the UK===
A group in Gibraltar has campaigned in favour of a far closer relationship with the UK, in the form of devolved integration or incorporation into the UK itself. This is similar to what was offered to [[Malta]] in [[1955]]. The Rock would be represented in the [[British House of Commons]], while retaining internal self-government. This would be a similar status to [[France]]'s [[Overseas Department]]s, and indeed to [[Spain]]'s [[North Africa]]n [[enclave]]s, [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]], claimed by [[Morocco]]. One of Spain's arguments in rejecting comparisons between Gibraltar and these territories, is that they are part of Spain, whereas Gibraltar is merely a British [[crown colony]], and not part of the UK.
However, the British [[Foreign Office]] rejected the idea in [[1976]], along with independence, on the grounds that any further constitutional reform or decolonisation would have to take into account the so-called 'Spanish dimension'. Many in Gibraltar, including the present Government, have also argued against integration on the grounds that it would mean the surrendering of many existing powers of self-government.
While there is still considerable emotional attachment to the idea of Gibraltar being British, some see the Rock's future as being within a larger 'Europe of the Regions', rather than as part of one nation state or another.
===Condominium===
The idea of a [[Condominium (international law)|condominium]], with sovereignty shared between the UK and Spain has even less support in Gibraltar. The suggestion was made on a BBC Television programme made in Gibraltar on the eighties by a UK politician, and attended by Fernando Moran, prior to becoming foreign minister of Spain and re-opening the land frontier. The suggestion was for a status similar to that of [[Andorra]], in which [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] and [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|King Juan Carlos]] would be joint [[heads of state]], in the same way that [[President of France]] and the Spanish [[Bishop of Urgell]] are Co-Princes of Andorra.
This would give Spain a symbolic constitutional role in Gibraltar, but would not go far enough for Spain towards effective Spanish control of the Rock. Even a symbolic role would be a step too far for most Gibraltarians.
==European election 2004==
''Main article: [[European Parliament Election, 2004 (Gibraltar)]].''
Although affected by [[European Union]] law, Gibraltar had not voted in elections for the [[European Parliament]]. This changed in the [[European Parliament Election, 2004 (UK)|2004 election]], when it was included as part of the [[South West England]] region, as its electorate of 20,740 is too small to justify even a single seat set aside for it.
This was the first UK election Gibraltar has ever participated in. The [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] took 69.52% of the vote, which has generally been interpreted as a protest against the handling of Gibraltar by the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]].
The Conservatives also campaigned more strongly, with the support of the [http://www.conservatives.gi Gibraltar branch] of the party, and a visit from the party leader [[Michael Howard |Michael Howard]].
== External links ==
*[http://www.gsd.gi The Gibraltar Social Democrats]
*[http://www.gslp.gi The Gibraltar Socialist Labour party]
*[http://www.gibnet.com/eurovote History of the Eurovote Issue]
*[http://citymayors.com/government/gibraltar_government.html CityMayors article]
*[http://www.conservatives.gi The Conservative Party branch in Gibraltar]
*[http://www.froegib.motime.com Friends of the Earth, Gibraltar]
* [http://www.gibnet.com/gwa The Womens Association]
* [http://www.esg-gib.net Environmental Safety Group]
* [http://equalityrightsggr.blogspot.com Equality Rights - GGR]
* [http://www.vogg.gi The Voice of Gibraltar Group]
[[Category:Politics of Gibraltar]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Gibraltar</title>
<id>12082</id>
<revision>
<id>39388646</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T21:12:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gibnews</username>
<id>640014</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* currency corrected */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''Economy - overview:'''
'''Gibraltar''' benefits from an extensive shipping trade, offshore banking, and its position as an international conference center. The [[United Kingdom|British]] military presence has been sharply reduced and now contributes about 11% to the local economy. The financial sector accounts for 20% of GDP; [[tourism]] (almost 5 million visitors in 1998), [[shipping]] services fees, and duties on consumer goods also generate revenue. In recent years, Gibraltar has seen major structural change from a public to a private sector economy, but changes in government spending still have a major impact on the level of employment.
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $500 million (1997 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
NA%
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $17,500 (1997 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
NA%
'''industry'''
NA%
'''services'''
NA%
'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br>''highest 10%:''
NA%
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
1.5% (1998)
'''Labor force:'''
14,800 (including non-Gibraltar laborers)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
services 60%, industry 40%, agriculture NEGL%
'''Unemployment rate'''
2% (2001)
'''Budget'''
'''revenues'''
$307 million
'''expenditures'''
$284 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY00/01)
'''Industries'''
[[tourism]], [[banking]] and [[finance]], [[ship]] repairing, [[tobacco]]
'''Industrial production growth rate'''
NA%
'''[[Electricity]] - production'''
100 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - production by source'''
'''[[fossil fuel]]'''
100%
'''[[Hydropower|hydro]]'''
0%
'''[[Nuclear reactor|nuclear]]'''
0%
'''other'''
0% (2001)
'''Electricity - consumption'''
93 GWh (2001)
'''Electricity - exports'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - imports'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Oil - production'''
0 barrel/day (2001 est.)
'''Oil - consumption'''
42,000 barrel/day (6,700 m&sup3;/d) 2001
'''Oil - exports'''
NA (2001)
'''Oil - imports'''
NA (2001)
'''[[Agriculture]] - products'''
none
'''Exports'''
$81.1 million (f.o.b., 1997)
'''Exports - commodities'''
(principally reexports) [[petroleum]] 51%, manufactured goods 41%, other 8%
'''Exports - partners'''
[[United Kingdom|UK]], [[Morocco]], [[Portugal]], [[Netherlands]], [[Spain]], [[United States|US]], [[Germany]]
'''Imports'''
$492 million (c.i.f., 1997)
'''Imports - commodities'''
Fuels, manufactured goods, and foodstuffs
'''Imports - partners'''
[[United Kingdom|UK]], Spain, [[Japan]], Netherlands
'''[[Currency]]'''
1 [[Gibraltar pound]] = 100 pence
'''[[Exchange rates]]'''
Gibraltar uses the Pound Sterling GBP
Gibraltar pounds per US$1 - 0.0661 (2002), 0.6092 (January 2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997), 0.6403 (1996), 0.6335 (1995);
[[Fiscal year]]
[[1 July]] - [[30 June]]
==Taxation in Gibraltar==
Gibraltar is a well known and regulated international finance centre and has been a popular jurisdiction for European off-shore companies.
Gibraltar's legal system is based on English law, but is separate from the English legal system. Tax exempt companies, which must not trade or conduct any business locally, are taxed at a flat rate of up to £300 a year. Gibraltar has not signed any Double Taxation Treaties. Non-resident businesses do not pay income tax unless the source of this income is Gibraltar proper. There is no tax on capital income.
In Gibraltar there is no capital gains tax, wealth tax, sales tax or VAT. Import duty is payable on most items at 12% The main tax for companies is income tax, and Social insurance contributions. there are also stamp duties on certain transactions, and property taxes ('rates').
Non resident companies can take advantage of a number of offshore regimes in order to reduce taxation, although in line with the elimination of unfair tax practices this is being phased out. Individuals pay quite high taxes on their income in Gibraltar unless they are able to take advantage of High Net Worth Individual status or gain exemption as an expatriate executive. There is a moderately high estate duty, and import duties are quite high on some items.
Assessment and collection of tax is administered by the Commissioner of Income Tax; the tax year runs from 1st July to the following 30th June.
== Tax rate information ==
Disclaimer: Tax rates may vary and information here may be incorrect or out of date.
=== Value Added Tax ===
There is no VAT in Gibraltar.
=== Gaming Tax (On-line Gaming)===
Levied at the rate of 1% of relevant income (gaming yield for on-line casinos and bets |
Gigabajt]]
[[sl:Gigazlog]]
[[sv:Gigabyte]]
[[th:จิกะไบต์]]
[[tr:Gigabayt]]
[[zh:GB (单位)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Galaxy groups and clusters</title>
<id>12571</id>
<revision>
<id>40842866</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T10:24:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Art Carlson</username>
<id>42188</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Observational methods */ apostrophe to avoid redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Galaxy groups and clusters''' are the largest [[gravity|gravitationally]]-bound objects. They form the densest part of the [[Large-scale structure of the cosmos|large scale structure of the Universe]]. In models for the gravitational formation of structure with [[cold dark matter|cold dark matter]], the smallest structures collapse first and eventually build the largest structures, clusters of galaxies. Clusters are then formed relatively recently between 10 billion years ago and now. Groups and clusters may contain from ten to thousands of galaxies. The clusters themselves are often associated with larger groups called [[supercluster]]s.
==Groups of galaxies==
Groups of [[galaxy|galaxies]] are the smallest aggregates of galaxies. They typically contain fewer than 50 galaxies in a diameter of 1 to 2 [[Megaparsec]]s (Mpc) (see [[1 E22 m]] for distance comparisons). Their mass are approximately 10<sup>13</sup> solar masses. The spread of velocities for the individual galaxies is about 150 km/s.
The group which contains our own galaxy, the [[Milky Way]], is called the [[Local Group]], and contains more than 40 galaxies.
==Clusters of galaxies==
[[image:galaxy.group.hickson.arp.500pix.jpg|thumb|200px|<small>The galaxies of [[HCG 87]], about four hundred million light-years distant. The large edge-on spiral, the fuzzy elliptical galaxy immediately to its right, and the spiral near the top of the image are members of the group, while the small spiral galaxy exactly in the middle is a more distant background galaxy.</small>]]
Clusters are larger than groups, although there is no sharp dividing line between a group and a cluster. When observed visually, clusters appear to be collections of galaxies held together by mutual gravitational attraction. However, their velocities are too large for them to remain gravitationally-bound by their mutual attractions, implying the presence of either an additional invisible mass component, or an additional attractive force besides gravity. X-ray studies have revealed the presence of large amounts of intergalactic gas known as the [[intracluster medium]]. This gas is very hot, between 10<sup>7</sup>K and 10<sup>8</sup>K, and hence emits X-rays in the form of [[bremsstrahlung|bremsstrahlung]] and [[atomic spectral line|atomic line emission]]. The total mass of the gas is greater than that of the galaxies by roughly a factor of two. However this is still not enough mass to keep the galaxies in the cluster. Since this gas is in approximate [[hydrostatic equilibrium]] with the overall cluster gravitational field, the total mass distribution can be determined. It turns out the total mass deduced from this measurement is approximately six times larger than the mass of the galaxies or the hot gas. The missing component is known as [[dark matter]] and its nature is unknown. In a typical cluster perhaps only 5% of the total mass is in the form of galaxies, maybe 10% in the form of hot X-ray emitting gas and the remainder is dark matter.
Clusters typically have the following properties.
* They contain 50 to 1000 galaxies, hot X-ray emitting gas and large amounts of [[dark matter]]
* The distribution of these three components is approximately the same in the cluster.
* They have total masses of 10<sup>14</sup> to 10<sup>15</sup> solar masses.
* They typically have a diameter of 2 to 10 Mpc (see [[1 E23 m]] for distance comparisons).
* The spread of velocities for the individual galaxies is about 800-1000 km/s.
Notable galaxy clusters in the relatively nearby universe include the [[Virgo cluster]], [[Hercules Cluster]], and the [[Coma Cluster]]. A very large aggregation of galaxies known as the [[Great Attractor]], dominated by the [[Norma cluster]], is massive enough to affect the local expansion of the universe ([[Hubble flow]]).
Note: clusters of galaxies should not be confused with [[star cluster]]s such as [[galactic cluster]]s and [[open cluster]]s, which are structures ''within'' galaxies, as well as [[globular cluster]]s, which typically orbit galaxies.
==Superclusters==
''Main article: [[Supercluster]]''
Groups, clusters and some isolated galaxies form even larger structures, the [[supercluster]]s. At the very largest scales of the visible universe, matter is gathered into [[filament (astronomy)|filament]]s and walls surrounding vast [[void (astronomy)|void]]s. This structure resembles a [[foam]].
==Observational methods==
Clusters of galaxies have been found in [[astronomical catalog|surveys]] by a number of observational techniques and have been studied in detail using many methods:
* [[Optical spectrum|Optical]] or [[infrared]]: The individual galaxies of clusters can be studied through optical or infrared imaging and spectroscopy. Galaxy clusters are found by optical or infrared telescopes by searching for clustered galaxies, and then confirmed by finding several galaxies at a similar [[redshift]]. Infrared searches are more useful for finding more distant (higher [[redshift]]) clusters.
* [[X-ray]]: The hot plasma emits X-rays which can be detected by [[X-ray]] [[telescope]]s. The cluster gas can be studied using both X-ray imaging and X-ray spectroscopy. Clusters are quite prominent in X-ray surveys and along with [[AGN]] are the brightest X-ray emitting extragalactic objects.
* [[Radio]]: A number of diffuse structures emitting at radio frequencies have been found in clusters. Groups of radio sources (which may include diffuse structures or [[AGN]] have been used as tracers of cluster location. At high [[redshift]] imaging around individual radio sources (in this case [[AGN]]) has been used to detect proto-clusters (clusters in the process of forming).
* [[Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect]]: The hot electrons in the intracluster medium scatter radiation from the [[cosmic microwave background]] through [[Compton scattering]]. This produces a "shadow" in the observed [[cosmic microwave background]] at some radio frequencies.
* [[gravitational lens|Gravitational Lensing]]: Clusters of galaxies contain enough matter to distort the orientations of galaxies behind them. This method can constrain the distribution of dark matter.
===Instruments and surveys for clusters of galaxies===
* The [[Arcminute Microkelvin Imager|AMI array]] at [[Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory]]
==See also==
*[[List of galaxy clusters]]
*[[Large-scale structure of the cosmos]]
*[[Timeline of galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure]]
[[Category:Galaxy clusters|*]]
[[Category:Large-scale structure of the cosmos]]
[[ca:Cúmul de galàxies]]
[[da:Galaksehob]]
[[de:Galaxienhaufen]]
[[es:Agrupaciones galácticas]]
[[eo:Galaksiamaso]]
[[fr:Amas de galaxies]]
[[io:Galaxiala grupo]]
[[it:Gruppi e ammassi di galassie]]
[[he:צביר גלקסיות]]
[[ja:銀河団]]
[[lv:Galaktiku grupas un kopas]]
[[pl:Gromada galaktyk]]
[[ru:Скопление галактик]]
[[sk:Skupina galaxií]]
[[fi:Galaksijoukko]]
[[sv:Galaxhop]]
[[vi:Quần tụ thiên hà]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Grus (constellation)</title>
<id>12572</id>
<revision>
<id>38744542</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T09:28:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GrinBot</username>
<id>411872</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: hu</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Grus |
abbreviation = Gru |
genitive = Gruis |
symbology = the [[Crane (bird)|Crane]] |
RA = 22 |
dec= &minus;47 |
areatotal = 366 |
arearank = 45th |
numberstars = 2 |
starname = [[Alpha Gruis|&alpha; Gru]] (Al Na'ir) |
starmagnitude = +1.73 |
meteorshowers =
*[[??????]]
*[[??????]] |
bordering =
* [[Piscis Austrinus]]
* [[Microscopium]]
* [[Indus (constellation)|Indus]]
* [[Tucana]]
* [[Phoenix (constellation)|Phoenix]]
* [[Sculptor (constellation)|Sculptor]] |
latmax = 34 |
latmin = 90 |
month = October |
notes=}}
'''Grus''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[Crane (bird)|Crane]]'') is a southern [[constellation]]. The constellation was one of twelve constellations created by [[Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser]] and [[Frederick de Houtman]] between [[1595]] and [[1597]], and it first appeared in [[Johann Bayer]]'s ''[[Uranometria]]'' of [[1603]].
==History and mythology==
Until the 17th century, Grus was considered part of [[Piscis Austrinus]]. The [[Arabic language|Arabic]] names of many of its stars reflect this classification. Since it was created in the 17th century, there is no earlier mythology associated with it.
==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* ([[Alpha Gruis|&alpha; Gru]]) 1.73 '''Al Na'ir''' [Al Nair, Alnair]
:*: < &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585; ''an-na´ir'' The illuminous
:* ([[Gamma Gruis|&gamma; Gru]]) 3.00 '''''Al Dhanab'''''
:*: < &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1606;&#1576; ''að-ðanab'' The tail
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Beta Gruis|&beta; Gru]] 2.07; [[Delta1 Gruis|&delta;<sup>1</sup> Gru]] 3.97; [[Delta2 Gruis|&delta;<sup>2</sup> Gru]] 4.12; [[Epsilon Gruis|&epsilon; Gru]] 3.49; [[Zeta Gruis|&zeta; Gru]] 4.11; [[Eta Gruis|&eta; Gru]] 4.84; [[Theta Gruis|&theta; Gru]] 4.28; [[Iota Gruis|&iota; Gru]] 3.88; [[Kappa Gruis|&kappa; Gru]] 5.37; [[Lambda Gruis|&lambda; Gru]] 4.47; [[Mu1 Gruis|&mu;<sup>1&l |
ouston]] would be an even match. However, the Astros' situational hitting continued to plague them throughout the World Series. The White Sox swept the Astros in the best-of-seven series with a run differential of only 6.
==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' [[1962]] ([[National League]] expansion)
:'''Uniform colors:''' Brick red, black, and gold
:'''Logo design:''' Red five-pointed star with the word "Astros" below it in script
:'''Playoff appearances''' (9): [[1980]], [[1981]], [[1986]], [[1997]], [[1998]], [[1999]], [[2001]], [[2004]], [[2005]]
:'''World Series appearances'''(1): [[2005]]
:'''Official Television Stations:''' [[FSN]] (Houston), KNWS TV-51
:'''Official Radio Stations:''' KTRH (740), KLAT (1010) (Spanish)
==Awards==
<center>
{| border="1" cellpadding="2"
!width="100"|Name
!width="150"|Award
!width="50"|Year
|-
|[[Jeff Bagwell]]
|[[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|NL MVP]]
|[[1994]]
|-
|[[Roger Clemens]]
|[[Cy Young Award|NL Cy Young]]
|[[2004]]
|-
|[[Mike Scott (baseball)|Mike Scott]]
|[[Cy Young Award|NL Cy Young]]
|[[1986]]
|-
|[[Jeff Bagwell]]
|[[MLB Rookie of the Year Award|NL Rookie of the Year]]
|[[1991]]
|-
|[[Larry Dierker]]
|[[Manager of the Year Award|NL Manager of the Year]]
|[[1998]]
|-
|Hal Lanier
|[[Manager of the Year Award|NL Manager of the Year]]
|[[1986]]
|-
|[[Bill Virdon]]
|[[Manager of the Year Award|NL Manager of the Year]]
|[[1980]]
|}
</center>
==Current roster==
{{:Houston Astros roster}}
==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
* 8 [[Joe Morgan]], 2B, 1963-71 & 1980
* 2 [[Nellie Fox]], 2B, 1964-65
* 38 [[Robin Roberts (baseball player)|Robin Roberts]], P, 1965-66 (Phillies retired his #36)
* 11 [[Eddie Mathews]], 3B, 1967 (Braves retired his #41)
* 2 [[Leo Durocher]], MGR, 1972-73
* 34 [[Nolan Ryan]], P, 1980-88 (Rangers also retired his #34, and Angels his #30)
* 20 [[Don Sutton]], P, 1981-82
==Retired Numbers==
* 24 [[Jimmy Wynn]], OF, 1963-73
* 25 [[José Cruz]], OF, 1975-87
* 32 [[Jim Umbricht]], P, 1962-63
* 33 [[Mike Scott]], P, 1983-91
* 34 [[Nolan Ryan]], P, 1980-88
* 40 [[Don Wilson]], P, 1966-74
* 49 [[Larry Dierker]], P 1964-76, MGR 1997-2001
While not officially retired, the Astros have not reissued number 57 since [[2002]], when pitcher [[Darryl Kile]] died as an active player with the [[St. Louis Cardinals]].
==Minor league affiliations==
* '''AAA:''' [[Round Rock Express]], [[Pacific Coast League]]
* '''AA:''' [[Corpus Christi Hooks]], [[Texas League]]
* '''Advanced A:''' [[Salem Avalanche]], [[Carolina League]]
* '''A:''' [[Lexington Legends]], [[South Atlantic League]]
* '''Short A:''' [[Tri-City Valley Cats]], [[New York-Penn League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Greeneville Astros]], [[Appalachian League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[VSL Astros]], [[Venezuelan Summer League]]
==See also==
*[[Lone Star Shootout]] - interleague rivalry with the [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]]
*[[Houston Astros/Award winners and league leaders|Astros award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Houston Astros/Team records|Astros statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Houston Astros/Players of note|Astros players of note]]
*[[Houston Astros/Broadcasters|Astros broadcasters and media]]
*[[Houston Astros/Managers and ownership|Astros managers and ownership]]
*[[Curse of Judge Hofheinz]]
*[[Juice-Beer rivalry]] - a rivalry between the [[St. Louis Cardinals]]
==External links==
*[http://houston.astros.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/hou/homepage/hou_homepage.jsp Houston Astros official web site]
*[http://www.astrosdaily.com AstrosDaily.com, reference and daily commentary ]
*[http://www.astroszone.com AstrosZone.com reference site]
*[http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/HOU/ Astros team page on Baseball-Reference.com]
*[http://www.thebaseballpage.com/present/fp/nl/hou.htm Astros team page at TheBaseballPage.com]
*[http://p200.ezboard.com/bastrofans Houston Astros Fan Forum]
*[http://www.petitiononline.com/richrd50/petition.html Petition to the Astros to Retire #50 in Honor of JR Richard]
{{MLB Team Houston Astros}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Hal Clement</title>
<id>13895</id>
<revision>
<id>27637737</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-07T18:04:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Re-categorisation per [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Harry Clement Stubbs''' ([[May 30]], [[1922]] - [[October 29]], [[2003]]), better known by the pen name '''Hal Clement''', was an [[United States|American]] [[science fiction]] writer, a leader of the subgenre [[Hard science fiction|hard science fiction]].
He was born in [[Somerville, Massachusetts]]
During the [[World War II]] he was a pilot and copilot of the [[B-24 Liberator]] and flew 35 combat missions over [[Europe]] with [[Eighth Air Force|8th Air Force]]. He served in the [[United States Army Air Corps|Army Air Corps]] Reserve, and retired with the rank of colonel. He taught chemistry for many years at [[Milton Academy]] in [[Milton, Massachusetts]].
He went to [[Harvard University|Harvard]], graduating with a B.S. in [[astronomy]] in 1943. While there he published his first story, "Proof", in the June [[1942]] issue of [[Astounding Science Fiction]]. His further educational background includes an, M. Ed. ([[Boston University]] [[1946]]), and M.S. in [[chemistry]] ([[Simmons College]] [[1963]]).
Clement received the [[1998]] recognition as a Grand Master by the [[Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America]] (SFWA). In [[1996]] he retroactively received a [[1946]] [[Hugo Award]] for his short story "Uncommon Sense".
His best-known novel, ''[[Mission of Gravity]],'' is the account of a land and sea expedition across the [[superjovian]] planet [[Mesklin]] to recover a stranded scientific probe. The natives of Mesklin are centipede-like intelligent beings about 50 centimeters in length. Various episodes hinge on the fact that Mesklin's fast rotational speed causes it to be considerably deformed from the spherical, and its effective surface gravity to vary from approximately 3 ''[[gee|g]]''<sub>n</sub> at the equator to approximately 700 ''g''<sub>n</sub> at the poles.
Clement's article "Whirligig World" describes his approach to writing a science fiction story:<blockquote>"Writing a science fiction story is fun, not work. ... the fun... lies in treating the whole thing as a game. ... the rules must be quite simple. They are; for the reader of a science-fiction story, they consist of finding as many as possible of the author's statements or implications which conflict with the facts as science currently understands them. For the author, the rule is to make as few such slips as he possibly can. ... Certain exceptions are made [e.g., to allow travel faster than the speed of light, but] fair play demands that all such matters be mentioned as early as possible in the story..."</blockquote>
He also painted astronomically oriented artworks under the name George Richard.
Clement was a frequent guest at science fiction conventions, especially in the eastern United States, where he usually presented talks and slide shows about writing and astronomy.
==Bibliography==
*''Needle'' (1950)
*''Iceworld'' (1953)
*''Mission of Gravity'' (1954)
*''The Ranger Boys in Space'' (1956) (for children)
*''Cycle of Fire'' (1957)
*''Close to Critical'' (1964)
*''Star Light'' (1971) (sequel to ''Mission of Gravity'')
*''Ocean on Top'' (1973)
*''Through the Eye of a Needle'' (1978) (sequel to ''Needle'')
*''The Nitrogen Fix'' (1980)
*''Still River'' (1987)
*''Fossil'' (1993)
*''Half Life'' (1999)
*''Noise'' (2003)
==External links==
* {{isfdb name|id=Hal_Clement|name=Hal Clement}}
[[Category:1922 births|Clement, Hal]]
[[Category:2003 deaths|Clement, Hal]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Clement]]
[[Category:Nebula Grand Masters|Clement, Hal]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Clement, Hal]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Clement, Hal]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Clement, Hal]]
[[Category:ISBN needed]]
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<page>
<title>Halldór Laxness</title>
<id>13896</id>
<revision>
<id>41402562</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T02:19:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DMG413</username>
<id>72499</id>
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<comment>spacing</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:halldorlaxness.jpg|right|thumb|Halldór Laxness]]
'''Halldór Kiljan Laxness''' (born '''Halldór Guðjónsson''') ([[April 23]], [[1902]] &ndash; [[February 8]], [[1998]]) was a [[20th century]] [[Iceland|Icelandic]] author of such novels as ''[[Independent People]]'', ''[[The Atom Station]]'', ''[[Paradise Reclaimed]]'', ''[[Iceland's Bell]]'', ''[[The Fish Can Sing]]'' and ''[[World Light]]''. He won the [[Nobel Prize in Literature#1950s|Nobel Prize in Literature]] in [[1955]].
==Some facts==
Halldór Kiljan Laxness was the son of Sigríður Halldórsdóttir (born [[1872]]) and Guðjón Helgason (born [[1870]]). He lived in [[Reykjavík]] during his early years, then moved to [[Laxnes]] in [[Mosfellssveit]] in [[1905]]. Forty years later, he moved to [[Gljúfrasteinn]], Mosfellsveit.
He soon started to read books and write stories, and when he was 14 years old, his first article was published in ''[[Morgunblaðið]]'' under |
czna Partia Chin]]
[[pt:Partido Comunista da China]]
[[ru:Коммунистическая партия Китая]]
[[fi:Kiinan kommunistinen puolue]]
[[sv:Kinas kommunistiska parti]]
[[zh:中国共产党]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cryogenics</title>
<id>7176</id>
<revision>
<id>41151613</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T10:39:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>59.92.35.60</ip>
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<comment>/* Definitions/Distinctions */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cryogenics''' is a branch of [[physics]] (or [[engineering]]) that studies very low [[temperatures]] or the production thereof.
== Definitions/Distinctions ==
;Cryogenics:Cryogenics is the study of how to get to low temperatures and of how materials behave when they get there. Besides the familiar temperature scales of Farenheit and Celsius (Centigrade), cryogenicists use other temperature scales, the Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales.
The branch of [[physics]] (or [[engineering]]) that studies very low [[temperatures]] (or the production of very low [[temperatures]]). People often mistakenly say "'''cryogenics'''" when they really mean "'''cryonics'''".
;[[Cryobiology]]: The branch of [[biology]] that studies the effects of low [[temperature]]s on [[organism]]s (most often for the purpose of achieving [[cryopreservation]]).
;[[Cryonics]]: Cryonics is the nascent [[technology]] of [[cryopreservation|cryopreserving]] humans and animals with the intention of future revival. Unlike cryogenics and cryobiology, cryonics is not an established science and is viewed with skepticism by most scientists and doctors today (although there are many scientists involved in cryonics{{ref|Note1}}). As a [[technology]], cryonics seeks to apply the results of many [[science]]s, including '''cryobiology''', [[cryogenics]], [[rheology]], [[emergency medicine]], etc.
== Etymology ==
The word '''''cryogenics''''' literally means "the production of icy cold"; however the term is used today as a [[synonym]] for the low-temperature state. It is not well-defined at what point on the temperature scale [[refrigeration]] ends and cryogenics begins. The workers at the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] at [[Boulder, Colorado]] have chosen to consider the field of cryogenics as that involving temperatures below –150 [[Celsius|&deg;C]] (123 [[Kelvin|K]]). This is a logical dividing line, since the normal [[boiling point|boiling points]] of the so-called permanent [[gases]] (such as [[helium]], [[hydrogen]], [[neon]], [[nitrogen]], [[oxygen]], and normal [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]) lie below -150 °C while the [[Freon]] refrigerants, [[hydrogen sulfide]], and other common refrigerants have boiling points above -150 °C.
Recent research regarding superconductivity at low temperatures has been called [[cryoelectronics]], and the utilization of these sciences is called [[cryotronics]].
== Industrial Application ==
[[Liquid air|Liquefied gas]]es, such as liquid nitrogen and liquid helium, are used in many cryogenic applications. Liquid nitrogen is the most commonly used element in cryogenics and is legally purchaseable around the world. Liquid helium is also commonly used and allows for the lowest attainable temperatures to be reached
These gases are held in either special containers known as [[Dewar flask]]s, which are generally about six feet tall (1.8 m) and three feet (90 cm) in diameter, or giant tanks in larger commercial operations. Dewar flasks are named after their inventor, [[James Dewar]], the man who first liquefied [[hydrogen]]. Museums typically display smaller [[vacuum flask]]s fitted in a protective casing.
=== Cryogenic processing ===
The field of cryogenics advanced during World War II when scientists found that metals frozen to low temperatures showed more resistance to wear. Based on this theory of [[cryogenic hardening]], the commercial [[cryogenic processor|cryogenic processing]] industry was founded in the sixties (1966 to be exact) by [[Ed Busch]]. With a background in the [[heat treatment|heat treating]] industry, Mr. Busch founded a company in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] called [[CryoTech]] in 1966 and experimented with the possibility of increasing the life of metal tools to anywhere between 200%-400% of the original life expectancy using [[cryogenic tempering]] instead of heat treating. The theory was based on how heat-treating metal works (the temperatures are lowered to room temperature from a high degree causing certain strength increases in the molecular structure to occur) and supposed that continuing the descent would allow for further strength increases. Using liquid nitrogen, CryoTech formulated the first early version of the [[cryogenic processor]]. Unfortunately for the newly-born industry, the results were unstable, as components sometimes experienced thermal shock when they were cooled too fast. Some components in early tests even shattered because of the ultra-low temperatures. In the late twentieth century, the field improved significantly with the rise of applied research, which coupled [[computer]]s to the [[cryogenic processor]] in order to create more stable results.
=== Fuels ===
Another use of cryogenics is cryogenic fuels. Cryogenic fuels, mainly oxygen and hydrogen, have been used as rocket fuels. For example, [[NASA]]'s workhorse [[space shuttle]] uses cryogenic oxygen and hydrogen fuels as its primary means of getting into [[orbit]], as did all of the rockets built for the [[Soviet space program]] by [[Sergei Korolev]] (this was a bone of contention between him and rival engine designer [[Valentin Glushko]], who felt that cryogenic fuels were impractical for large-scale rockets such as the ill-fated [[N-1 rocket]] spacecraft.
Cryogens, like liquid [[nitrogen]], are further used for specialty chilling and freezing applications. Some chemical reactions, like those used to produce the active ingredients for the popular [[statin]] drugs, must occur at low temperatures of approximately -100 [[Celsius|&deg;C]]. Special cryogenic [[chemical reactor]]s are used to remove reaction heat and provide a low temperature environment. The freezing of foods and biotechnology products, like [[vaccine]]s, requires nitrogen in blast freezing or immersion freezing systems.
Russian aircraft manufacturer [[Tupolev]] is currently researching a version of its popular design [[Tu-154]] with a cryogenic fuel system, known as the [[TU-155]]. The plane uses a fuel referred to as [[liquefied natural gas]] or LNG, and made its first flight in 1989.
== Detectors ==
Cryogenic temperatures, usually well below 77 [[kelvin]]s (&minus;196 °C) are required to operate [[cryogenic_detectors| cryogenic detectors]].
==Notes==
*1.{{note|Note1}} [http://www.cryoletter.org/ Scientists' Open Letter on Cryonics]
== See also ==
* [[300 Below]]
* [[Absolute zero]]
* [[Coldest temperature achieved on earth]]
* [[Cryocoolers]]
* [[Cryogenic processor]]
* [[Cryogenic tempering]]
* [[Cryobiology]]
* [[Cryonics]]
* [[List of publications in physics#Cryogenics|Important publications in cryogenics]]
* [[Quantum hydrodynamics]], [[Superfluidity]] or [[Superconductivity]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.benbest.com/cryonics/CryoFAQ.html Cryonics FAQ]
*[http://www.tupolev.ru/English/Show.asp?SectionID=82 Tupolev's pages regarding Cryogenic airliners]
[http://www.alcor.org A Cryonics Page, in relation]
[[Category:Cryogenics| ]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cryopreservation</title>
<id>7177</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-12T07:18:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Benbest</username>
<id>167797</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[cryobiology]] is not [[cryogenics]], correct the miscateorizations</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cryopreservation.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Cryopreservation of plant shoots.]]
'''Cryopreservation''', is a process where [[cell (biology)|cell]]s or whole [[Biological tissue|tissue]]s are preserved by cooling to low sub-zero [[temperature]]s, such as (typically) -80°C or -196°C (the boiling point of liquid [[nitrogen]]). At these low temperatures, any biological activity, including the biochemical reactions that would lead to [[cell death]] is effectively stopped. However, when [[vitrification]] solutions are not used, the [[cell (biology)|cell]]s being preserved are often damaged due to [[freezing]] during the approach to low temperatures or warming to room temperature.
Phenomena which can cause damage to cells during cryopreservation are solution effects, [[extracellular]] [[ice]] formation, dehydration and [[intracellular]] ice formation. Solution effects are caused by concentration of solutes in non-frozen solution during freezing as solutes are excluded from the crystal structure of the ice. (High [[salt]] concentrations can be very damaging.) When tissues are cooled slowly, water migrates out of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s and ice forms in the extracellular space. Too much extracellular ice can cause mechanical damage due to crushing, and the stresses associated with cellular dehydration can cause damage directly. However, while some [[organism]]s and [[biological tissue|tissue]]s can tolerate some [[extracellular]] ice, any appreciable [[intracellular]] ice is almost always fatal to [[cell (biology)|cell]]s.
[[Vitrification]] provides the benefits of cryopreservation without the damage due to ice formation. In clinical cryropreservation, [[vitrification]] usually requires the addition of [[cryoprotectant]]s prior to cooling. The cryoprotects act like antifreeze: they lower the freezing temperature. They also increase the viscosity. Ins |
isease of sorts. Believing that God could never forgive their sins, many humans came to Hell and subconsciously demanded to be actively punished, although that was not their due. Slowly but surely (and reminiscent of the doctrine of [[responsibility assumption]]), Hell became a "suffering pit" to contain all these gluttons for punishment. According to Azrael, Hell is far more horrifying for the fallen angels residing there than for the Damned themselves, as the angels not only have to endure the absence of God, but also the unending howls of the Damned as they undergo torture essentially at their own hands. This concept of Hell had appeared previously in [[Neil Gaiman]]'s successful [[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|Sandman]] series of graphic novels.
The 2004 [[Insane Clown Posse]] album "[[The Wraith: Hell's Pit]]" is a concept album about Hell.
The first [[Fear Effect]] game deals extensively with the Chinese concept of hell, replete with its aforementioned political ramifications. Several of the later levels actually take place in the Chinese hell.
The famous PC game series ''[[Doom]]'' also involves the concept of Hell, but with a science-fiction twist, as a future teleportation experiment accidentally opens a gate to Hell. Hell is treated in the Christian conception, replete with Satanic symbols and corporeal demons, as a parallel universe of crimson skies, black mountains and oceans of fire.
The first game in the ''[[Quake]]'' computer game series involves an invasion by forces from Hell.
In the [[comic book]] series ''[[Hellboy]]'' by award-winning artist [[Mike Mignola]], Hell is shown in the two page story "Pancakes" (1999 ''[[Dark Horse]] Presents Annual'') to be a dark, alternate dimension filled with flames and demons and where the infernal capital city of [[Pandemonium]] resides. In issue one "Seed of Destruction" the [[Nazis]] with aid of the mad monk [[Grigori Rasputin|Rasputin]] successfully breach the transdimensional boundary of Hell via magic and call forth the infant Hellboy so that he may bring about the end of the world. They are stopped, however, by the [[World War II|Allied Forces]] who also rescue Hellboy and raise him.
The 2005 Warner Bros. film ''[[Constantine (film)|Constantine]]'' depicts as graphic a version of the traditional Christian version of Hell as can be found in cinema: it shows a parallel plane with many of the same buildings and structures as the normal world, but twisted, ruined and perpetually engulfed in hellfire. This movie is based on the DC/Vertigo comic series [[Hellblazer]].
In the first of the ''[[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]]'' series of games, hell is portrayed as a pit deep under the ground largely characterized as a place of suffering, as the bodies of hundreds of apparently tortured people reside there. The game manual refers to this place as actually part of the mortal realm whose barriers with the metaphysical Hell have weakened, causing it to take on hellish attributes combined with more worldly ones. None of the apparently tortured bodies show any signs of life or torment, and as such may simply be the Decor that Diablo, the lord of Terror, has chosen for his home in the mortal world. This fits with the view of the actual Hell as portrayed in ''[[Diablo II]]'', which features Hell as a bleak landscape populated by grotesque monsters and souls in active torment.
[[Lobo (comics)|Lobo]] in the [[DC Universe]] was banned from hell, as he caused too many problems there, thus achieving immortality, as he was also banned from heaven for much the same reason. Incidentally, God apparently got some mirth from watching Lobo's antics.
== Non-religious context ==
The word "Hell" used away from its religious context was long considered to be [[profanity]], particularly in North America. Although its use was commonplace in everyday speech and on television by the 1970s, many people in the US still consider it somewhat rude or inappropriate language, particularly involving children.[http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/04036/269490.stm]
Many, particularly among religious circles and in certain sensitive <!-- ???--> environments, still avoid casual usage of the word. In [[British English]] and some parts of North America, the word has fallen into common use and is not considered profane; often considered to be a safer and less offensive alternative to swearing.
=== [[Euphemism|Euphemistic]] ways of saying hell ===
"Hell" is sometimes used as a [[minced oath]], as "''H-E-double-hockey-sticks''", "''H-E-double-toothpicks''", "''heck''" or "''Sam Hill''" ("What in the Sam Hill is going on here?"). Another common euphemism for Hell is "The Other Place" (which is also the formal term used in the UK parliament to refer to the [[House of Lords]] by a member of the [[House of Commons]], and vice-versa).
Example: "Gosh darn you to heck and tarnation" in place of "May God damn you to hell and eternal damnation."
===[[Censorship|Language edits]]===
In the [[Cartoon Network]] dubbed broadcast of the [[anime]] series [[Rurouni Kenshin]], edits were made in the dialogue to change "hell" to "Hades" in some cases. Example: "The flames of hell (Hades) have been burning in my body for every single day since then."
This edit was only used when talking about hell. "What the hell?" was changed to "What the [[heck]]?"
In the popular [[anime]] ''[[Dragon Ball Z]]'', the central character [[Son Goku (Dragon Ball)|Goku]] spends an episode traveling through Hell. He is tormented and teased by big ogre-like monsters wearing shirts with HELL written clearly in large letters. In the American version produced by [[Saban]], the shirts were digitally altered to spell [[HFIL]] by removing the lower bars of the two middle letters. This new place was named Home For Infinite Losers (this edit was later removed when [[Funimation]] redubbed those episodes for their own DVD release). [[Vegeta]] also says "See you in Hell" in the [[Frieza]] saga.
====Cold day in hell====
Another example of common use of "hell" in daily language, a '''Cold Day in Hell''' is a [[paradox]] and an [[idiom]], since most imagery of hell depicts it as hot and fiery, such as in the [[Bible]] in [[Revelation]], where sinners are cast into a [[lake of fire]]. Similar or related phrases include: "Over my dead body," "When hell freezes over," "A snowball's chance in hell," "When the devil goes ice-skating," and "[[flying pig|When pigs fly]]."
Interestingly, [[Cocytus]], the bottom circle of Hell in [[Dante]]'s ''[[Divine Comedy]]'', is depicted as an ice-covered lake.
=== Places named '''Hell''' ===
*[[Hell, Michigan|Hell]], [[Michigan]] [[USA]]
*[[Hell, Norway|Hell]], [[Nord-Trøndelag]] [[Norway]]
*[[Hell, Grand Cayman Island|Hell]], [[Cayman Islands]]
== See also ==
*[[Theodicy]]
*[[Eschatology]]
*[[Purgatory]]
*[[Problem of Hell|The problem of Hell]]
*[[Annihilationism]]
*[[Demon|Demons]]
*[[Book of Revelation]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Religions/iranian/Zarathushtrian/hell.htm Concept of Hell in Iranian culture]
*[http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/beliefs/hell.htm Christian Doctrines of Hell] - statements from the Old Testament, New Testament, church fathers and modern denominations on Hell, plus common arguments for and against Hell.
* [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1999/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_28071999_en.html July 28, 1999 statement of Pope John Paul II concerning the topic of Hell]
*[http://www.tentmaker.org/books/Aion_lim.html Hell as non-eternal] (Universalist study)
*[http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/2002/7/15/article_02.htm The Jehovah's Witnesses perspective]
* [http://veda.harekrsna.cz/encyclopedia/dying.htm Dying, Yamaraja and Yamadutas + terminal restlessness]
*[http://www.khandro.net/doctrine_hells.htm example Buddhist hells]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/heaven-hell/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Heaven and Hell]
*[http://hyperstition.abstractdynamics.org/archives/003569.html Five Billion Years of Hell-engineering] (Ge-hinnom valley, Jerusalem)
* [http://www.people.virginia.edu/~rjh9u/hellthrm.html The thermodynamics of Hell] (humor)
* [http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?scope=6198&kid=9562 The Jewish view of Hell]
* [http://www.av1611.org/hell.html]
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[[Category:Jewish mysticism]]
[[Category:Profanity]]
[[Category:Christian eschatology]]
[[Category:Abrahamic mythology]]
[[Category:Life after death]]
[[ca:Infern]]
[[cs:Peklo]]
[[de:Hölle]]
[[es:Infierno]]
[[eo:Infero]]
[[fi:Helvetti]]
[[fr:Enfer]]
[[el:Κόλαση]]
[[he:גיהנום]]
[[hu:Pokol]]
[[id:Neraka]]
[[it:Inferno]]
[[ja:地獄]]
[[la:Inferno]]
[[nl:Hel]]
[[no:Helvete (religion)]]
[[pl:Piekło]]
[[pt:Inferno]]
[[ru:Ад]]
[[sv:Helvete]]
[[th:นรก]]
[[uk:Пекло]]
[[zh:地獄]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Heteroatom</title>
<id>13605</id>
<revision>
<id>20845603</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-12T11:20:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
<id>228773</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: de</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In the [[organic nomenclature|nomenclature]] of [[organic chemistry]], a '''heteroatom''' (from [[Old Greek]] ''heteros'', different, + ''atomos'') is any [[atom]] that is not [[carbon]] or [[hydrogen]], typically, but not exclusively, [[nitrogen]], [[oxygen]], [[sulfur]], [[phosphorus]] or [[boron]].
In the description of [[protein]] structure, particularly in the now-deprecated [[Protein Data Bank]] file format, a heteroatom record (HETATM) describes an atom belonging to a small molecule cofactor rat |
mushrooms. (used in the plural)
* A male [[kangaroo]]. Term used by singer [[Rolf Harris]] in his [[Christmas]] song "Six White '''Boomers'''"; the [[Australia|Australian]] men's [[basketball]] team is also called the [[Boomers (Australian men's basketball)|'''Boomers''']]
* An alternate name for the [[mountain beaver]], an extremely rare burrowing [[rodent]] found in the mountains of [[Pacific Northwest|Pacific Northwestern]] and southern [[British Columbia]]. The name ''boomer'' comes from a sound it makes to sound alarm or seek a mate.
{{disambig}}
[[fr:Boomer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Body piercing</title>
<id>4867</id>
<revision>
<id>40888124</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T18:00:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.143.176.27</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:P1096446529568Stal.Bcr.1.jpeg|right|thumb|150px|A captive bead ring.]]
'''''Body piercing''''' usually refers to the piercing of a part of the [[human body]] for the purpose of wearing [[body piercing jewelry|jewelry]] in the opening created. Body piercing is a form of [[body modification]]. The word "'''piercing'''" can refer to the act or practice of body piercing, or to a specific pierced opening in the body.
Some people practice piercing for [[religion|religious]] or other cultural reasons, while many individuals, particularly in the modern West, choose to be pierced for spiritual, ornamental, or sexual reasons.
==In ancient times==
Evidence suggests that body piercing (including ear piercing) has been practiced by peoples all over the world from ancient times.
[[Mummy|Mummified]] bodies with piercings have been discovered, including the oldest mummified body discovered to date, which was found in an [[Austria]]n [[glacier]]. This mummy had an ear piercing 7&ndash;11 mm in diameter.
[[Nose piercing]] and ear piercing are mentioned in the [[Bible]]. In [[Genesis]] 24:22 [[Abraham]]'s servant gave an ear ring and bracelets to Rebekah, wife of his son Isaac. Nose piercing has been common in [[India]] since the 16th century. <!--BC or AD?-->
[[Tongue piercing]] was popular with the elite of [[Aztec]] and [[Maya civilization]], though it was carried out as part of a [[blood ritual]] and such piercings were not intended to be permanent. Ancient [[Mesoamerica]]ns wore jewelry in their ears, noses, and lower lips, and such decorations continue to be popular amongst indigenous peoples in these regions.
==Body piercing folklore==
Many contemporary authors and body piercing enthusiasts have made attempts to explain the history or development of body piercing in Western Culture, prior to its contemporary practice. In ''Dreamtime'' by [[Hans Peter Duerr]], he claims that [[nipple piercing]] became popular in 14th century [[Europe]]. There is evidence, both anecdotal and photographic, that nipple piercing was practiced in Europe during the late 19th century and in the early 20th century, but it was not consiedered to be a common practice. It is sometimes claimed that [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] centurions practiced nipple piercing and that soldiers attached their capes to the piercings. This is however, not true, their capes were actually attached to the [[breastplate]] of their armor. This particular myth owes its popularity to [[Doug Malloy]], an American piercing pioneer who published pamphlets in the late 1970's promoting his highly fanciful histories of body piercing.
==Body piercing today==
[[Image: Sharps_Container.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Immediate disposal of used needles into a sharps container is standard procedure.]]
===Modern history and societal attitudes===
[[Ear piercing]] has existed continuously since ancient times, including throughout the [[20th century]] in the Western world. However, in many cultures within the [[United States]], it became a relative rarity from the [[1920s]] until the [[1960s]]. At that time, it regained popularity among American women, and was eventually adopted by men in the [[hippie]] and [[gay]] communities, and later the [[punk rock]] culture. Ear piercing, of either or both ears, has always been practiced by men in many non-Western cultures. By the [[1980s]], male ear piercing had become somewhat common in the United States, although men usually only pierced one of their ears. Today, single and multiple piercing of either or both ears is extremely common among Western women, and fairly common among men.
Less conventional forms of body piercing have also existed continuously for as long as ear piercing, but generally not in Western cultures. For example, women in [[India]] routinely practice [[nose piercing|nostril piercing]], and have done so for centuries.
In the [[1970s]], body piercing gained popularity in the gay [[BDSM]] sub-culture. In [[1975]], [[Jim Ward (body piercing pioneer)|Jim Ward]] opened [[Gauntlet (body piercing studio)|The Gauntlet]], America's first storefront body piercing operation, in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]].
Attitudes toward body piercing have grown more accepting in the West and in other parts of the world. In some areas, certain types of piercings, even those once considered radical, are becoming more accepted. For example, while ear piercing was long uncommon among middle- and upper-class Western males, today men with pierced ears can be seen working in banks and other traditionally conservative settings in some areas, though this is by no means universal. In other parts of the world, ear piercing is still considered inappropriate for males in many settings, as are multiple ear piercings on women.
[[Image:Septum and labret.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Female pierced through the following: Lobe (Ear), Septum (Nose), Labret (Lips)]]
===Personal attitudes===
Attitudes towards piercing can be divisive. Some regard the practice of piercing or of being pierced as spiritual, sometimes embracing the term "modern primitive", while others deride this approach as insulting, as cultural appropriation, or as faddish. Some see the practice as a form of artistic or self-expression, while others choose to be pierced as a form of sexual expression and/or for sexual stimulation or the perceived increase in sexual feeling that certain piercings are thought by some to create. For some people, piercing is part of an [[Sadism and masochism|S-M]] lifestyle or relationship, or is incorporated into S-M play.
Some people choose to be pierced for symbolic reasons. For example, some survivors of sexual abuse have said that they experience piercing as allowing them to retake control over their own bodies. Some people choose to be pierced to symbolize certain relationships. For gay men, piercing has historically been viewed as a form of public self-identification or "[[coming out]]". However, the current popularity of piercing among many different groups has diluted much of its specific cultural identification and symbolism.
While some people consider body modification to be a sign of non-conformity, others deride body piercing as faddish. This can at times lead to [[prejudice]] or [[cognitive bias]] against those with piercings or visible signs of past piercings.
==Contemporary piercing procedure==
Permanent body piercings (as opposed to [[play piercing]]s) are created by creating an opening in the body using a sharp object through the area to be pierced. This can either be done by cutting an opening using a needle (usually a hollow medical needle) or [[scalpel]] or by removing tissue, either with a scalpel or a [[dermal punch]].
Contemporary body piercing studios generally take numerous precautions to protect the health of the person being pierced and the piercer. Tools and jewelry are sterilised in [[autoclave]]s and non-autoclavable surfaces are cleaned with sterilising agents on a regular basis and between clients. Sterile, single use gloves are worn by the piercer to protect both the piercer and the client.
===Standard Needle Method===
The standard method in the United States involves making an opening using a hollow medical needle. The needle is inserted into the body part being pierced, but not all the way through. While still in the body, the initial jewelry to be worn in the piercing is pushed through the opening, following the back of the needle. Piercing using hollow medical needles does not actually remove any flesh, they cut a slit and hold it open in the shape of the cross section of the needle, in this case, a circle. In this method, the needle is the same gauge or larger than the initial jewelry to be worn. Piercings that penetrate cartilige are often pierced one or two gauges larger than the jewelry, to reduce pressure on the healing piercing, allowing for a fistula to properly form.
===Indwelling Cannula Method===
Many European (and other) piercers use a needle containing a [[cannula]] (hollow plastic tube placed at the end of the needle). Procedure is identical to the standard method, only that the initial jewelry is inserted into the back of the cannula and the cannula and the jewelry are then pulled through the piercing. This method reduces the chance of the jewelry slipping during the insertion procedure.
===Pierce and Taper===
Similar to the standard method, this is a more advanced technique, sometimes used to pierce where large gauge initial jewelry is desired. In this method, after the needle is inserted and the opening is created, a tapered steel bar (usually one gauge larger than that of the needle at the large end) is inserted instead of initial jewelry. Then the jewelry is pushed through the opening, following the tapered bar. The success of this method is dependent on the elasticity of the skin in the area being pierced, the skill of the piercer and the type of piercing being done.
===[[Scalpelling]]===
In this method, a medical [[ |
;
Data definition language<br>
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deferral<br>
definite clause<br>
definite sentence<br>
definitional constraint programming<br>
deflate<br>
deflate compression<br>
deflate/inflate compression<br>
deforestation<br>
defrag<br>
defragment<br>
defunct process<br>
degree<br>
degrees of freedom<br>
dehose<br>
DEK<br>
Delaunay triangulation<br>
delayed control-transfer<br>
delay instruction<br>
delay slot<br>
delete<br>
delimiter<br>
delint<br>
Delirium<br>
Delivered Source Instruction<br>
Dell Computer Corporation<br>
Delphi<br>
Delphi Technique<br>
Delta<br>
delta<br>
Delta-4<br>
delta conversion<br>
Delta-Prolog<br>
delta reduction<br>
DELTASE<br>
demand driven<br>
demand paged<br>
demand paging<br>
DeMarco<br>
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demented<br>
Demeter<br>
demigod<br>
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demo<br>
demodulate<br>
demodulation<br>
demo mode<br>
demon<br>
Demon Internet Ltd.<br> '''NO IMPORT''' article from 1994
DeMorgan's theorem<br>
demo version<br>
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denotational semantics<br>
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DER<br>
dereference<br>
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DES<br>
descender<br>
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Descriptive Top-Level Specification<br>
descriptor<br>
design<br>
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design pattern<br>
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desk check<br>
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[[Desktop Management Task Force]] -- DONE<br>
desktop manager<br>
desktop publishing<br>
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DESY<br>
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deterministic<br>
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DETOL<br>
developer<br>
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Developmental Test and Evaluation<br>
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device<br>
Device Control<br>
Device Control 1<br>
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device driver<br>
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dev/null<br>
devo<br>
DEX<br>
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DHTML<br>
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dialup<br>
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Dictionary APL<br>
dictionary flame<br>
Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures<br>
Dictionary of Computing<br>
DID<br>
diddle<br>
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die horribly<br>
diff<br>
Difference Engine<br>
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differential<br>
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digerati<br>
digest<br>
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digirati<br>
digit<br>
Digital<br>
digital<br>
digital audio<br>
Digital Audio Tape<br>
digital camera<br>
digital carrier<br>
digital dashboard<br>
Digital Data Service<br>
Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications<br>
digital envelope<br>
Digital Equipment Computer Users Society<br>
[[Digital Equipment Corporation]] '''DONE'''<br>
Digital Equipment Corporation Network '''DONE''', as DECnet<br>
Digital European Cordless Telecommunications<br>
Digital Express Group, Inc.<br>
Digital Lempel Ziv 1<br>
Digital Library Initiative<br>
Digital Linear Tape<br>
Digital Multimeter<br>
[[Digital Research]] '''DONE'''<br>
digital service unit<br>
[[Digital Signal Processing]] '''DONE'''<br>
Digital Signal Processing Language<br>
digital signature<br>
digital signatures<br>
Digital Signature Standard<br>
Digital Simulation Language<br>
Digital Simultaneous Voice and Data<br>
DIGITAL Standard MUMPS<br>
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dike<br>
DIL<br>
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Dilberted<br>
DIM<br>
DIMATE<br>
DIMM<br>
DIM statement<br>
DIN<br>
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ding<br>
Dining Philosophers Problem<br>
dink<br>
DinnerBell<br>
DINO<br>
dinosaur<br>
dinosaur pen<br>
dinosaurs mating<br>
diode<br>
Diophantine equation<br>
DIP<br>
diplex<br>
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directed acyclic graph<br>
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direct mapped cache<br>
Direct Memory Access<br>
directory<br>
Directory Access Protocol<br>
directory service<br>
Directory System Agent<br>
Directory User Agent<br> |
b|320px|Computer game ''Mr Mephisto''.]]
Large numbers of games were written for the Beeb, including the original version of the classic ''[[Elite (computer game)|Elite]]''. (It has been suggested, but not verified, that the world's first networked multiplayer game was written for the BBC computer, a strategy wargame of some kind). A range of hardware add-ons and expansions were available, and the machine had provisions for [[floppy disk]] drives and [[Econet|networking hardware]]. There were also sockets for the addition of extra [[Read-only memory|ROM]] chips. The built-in ROM-resident [[BBC BASIC]] programming language [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreter]] was by far the most sophisticated of its time, and wholly supported the machine's educational focus. Advanced programs could be written without having to wade into the jungle of [[assembly language]] programming (necessary with many competing computers). Should one want, or need, to do some assembly programming, BBC BASIC featured a built-in assembler.
==Successor machines and the retro scene==
A cut-down version of the BBC Micro, intended more for game playing was the [[Acorn Electron]] (1983); games were written specially for the Electron's more limited hardware, but they could usually also be run on the BBC. Acorn introduced the Model B+ in mid 1985, increasing the total RAM to 64 KB and including floppy disk support as standard, but this had modest market impact. The extra RAM in the '''Model B+''' BBC Micro was assigned as two blocks, a block of 20 kB dedicated solely for screen display (so-called "Shadow" RAM) and a block of 12 kB of 'special' Sideways RAM. The much-needed memory increase provided by this new 1985 'Beeb' was a welcome development, but was seen as a 18 months or so too late to challenge the increased specifications of new rival microcomputer systems. [[Acorn_computers|Acorn]] also sold a version of the B+ with an addition 64 kB ( 4 × 16 kB "Sideways" RAM banks) to give a total RAM of 128 kB.
In [[1986]], Acorn followed up with the [[BBC Master]] series, which offered 128 kB memory and many other refinements which improved on the 1981 original. This attracted more interest and was the target of more software, although at heart it was essentially the same 6502-based BBC architecture, with many of the upgrades that the original design had intentionally made possible (extra ROM software, extra paged RAM, second processors) now included on the circuit board—a market stopgap while Acorn developed their [[32-bit]] [[RISC]] project the [[Acorn Archimedes]].
[[As of 2005]], thanks to its ready expandability and I/O functions, there are still numbers of BBCs in use, and a [[retrocomputing]] community of dedicated users finding new things to do with the old hardware. The British Railway Network is believed to still use BBCs to drive the video departure boards on station platforms, and they still survive in a few interactive displays in museums across the country (often with no maintenance since they were first built). There are also a number of BBC Micro [[Emulator|emulators]] for many OSes, so that even the original hardware is no longer necessary.
== Specifications ==
*2 [[megahertz|MHz]] [[MOS Technology]] [[MOS Technology 6502|6502A]] processor (6512A in model B+)
*32 KB [[Read-only memory|ROM]] (48 KB in model B+ due to the presence by default of the WD1770 disk filing system 16 KB "DFS" ROM) + (16 KB [[Acorn MOS|MOS]] (Machine Operating System), 16 KB read-only paged space defaulting to the [[BBC BASIC programming language|BBC BASIC]] EPROM)
*32 KB [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] (16 KB in model A, 64 KB in model B+)
*Full-travel [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] with a top row of ten red-orange [[function key]]s&nbsp;&nbsp;<math>f_0-f_9</math>
*Highly configurable graphics display based on the [[Motorola 6845|Motorola CRTC6845]]. Eight graphics modes were provided by the system ROM:
**Modes 0 to 6 could display a choice of colours from a logical palette of sixteen, though only eight actual physical colours were available; the eight basic [[RGB color model#24-bit representation|RGB]] colours (black, red, green, yellow, blue, magenta, cyan, white) and said colours in a flashing state;
**Mode 7's [[Teletext]] capability was provided by a [[Mullard]] SAA5050 Teletext chip<br /><br />
:{|border=1 cellpadding="2"
!rowspan="2" width="20%" align="center" |Graphics mode
!colspan="2" align="center" |Resolution (X×Y)
!rowspan="2" width="20%" align="center" |Hardware colours
!rowspan="2" width="20%" align="center" |Video RAM<br>used (KB)
|-
!align="center" width="20%" |Char cells
!align="center" width="20%" |Pixels
|-
|align="center"|0
|align="center"|80 &times; 32
|align="center"|640 &times; 256
|align="right"|2
|align="right"|20
|-
|align="center"|1
|align="center"|40 &times; 32
|align="center"|320 &times; 256
|align="right"|4
|align="right"|20
|-
|align="center"|2
|align="center"|20 &times; 32
|align="center"|160 &times; 256
|align="right"|8
|align="right"|20
|-
|align="center"|3
|align="center"|80 &times; 25
|align="center"| &ndash;
|align="right"|2
|align="right"|16
|-
|align="center"|4
|align="center"|40 &times; 32
|align="center"|320 &times; 256
|align="right"|2
|align="right"|10
|-
|align="center"|5
|align="center"|20 &times; 32
|align="center"|160 &times; 256
|align="right"|4
|align="right"|10
|-
|td align="center"|6
|align="center"|40 &times; 25
|align="center"| &ndash;
|align="right"|2
|align="right"|8
|-
|align="center"|7
|align="center"|40 &times; 25
|align="center"|Teletext
|align="right"|8
|align="right"|1
|}
<br>
*Four independent sound channels (one noise and 3 melodic) using the [[Texas Instruments SN76489]] [[sound chip]]
*Built-in hardware support included:
**Sidways (paged) 8K or 16K ROMs (of which the standard basic was one) up to 16 were supported by the software but only 4 by the standard hardware. Addon boards were made by a variety of companies to allow use of the full 16.
**[[compact audio cassette|tape]] interface (with motor control), using a variation of the [[Kansas City standard]] data encoding scheme
**[[Centronics]] parallel printer (model B only)
**serial communication (using [[RS-423]], a superset of [[RS-232]])
**display output for TV, RGB or 1v p-p video monitor
**four analogue inputs (suitable for two [[joystick]]s)
**proprietary "Tube" interface for external second CPU (options included a 3 MHz extra [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]], a [[Zilog Z80]] for e.g. [[CP/M operating system|CP/M]], an [[NS32016]], an [[ARM architecture|ARM1]], and others)
**a "user port" (model B only), and
**generic expansion through the "1 MHz bus".
*Use of [[floppy disk]] drives required the installation of a [[Disk Filing System|DFS]] ROM (disk filing system) and a disk controller card based on the [[8271]] chip (later, and on the model B+, the [[WD1770]])
*Via "The Tube" a second CPU could be attached (including a 3 MHz extra [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]], a [[Zilog Z80]] for e.g. [[CP/M operating system|CP/M]], an [[NS32016]], an [[ARM architecture|ARM1]], and others)
*The default Model A/B motherboard could also be upgraded by adding the following components:
**"Econet" large-scale low-cost networking system
**ROM/RAM cartridge filing system via a slot to the left of the keyboard
**speech synthesis hardware (Very few people bothered with this upgrade - the synthesiser was rather limited, and some games programmers succeeded in producing more versatile software speech synthesis using only the standard sound hardware)
**Reset Button (It is doubtful if anyone ever added this, as a complete hardware reset can be accomplished by keyboard shortcuts at any time, even if the machine has crashed.)
The case was designed by industrial designer [[Allen Boothroyd]] of Cambridge Product Design Ltd.
The machine was produced in a warm yellow/cream colour, in contrast to the sterile beige boxes favoured by other manufacturers. Somewhat amusingly, this means collectors of BBC computers do not need to worry as much about the dreaded "yellowing" that plagues the aging plastic housings of many other machines.
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**mode 7: 40&times;25 [[teletext]], 8 colours and teletext graphics using the [[Mullard]] SAA5050 Teletext chip
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== Trivia ==
* Musician [[Vince Clarke]] of the British synth pop bands [[Depeche Mode]], [[Yazoo (band)|Yazoo]], and [[Erasure]] used a BBC Micro (and later a [[BBC Master]]) with the UMI [[music sequencer]] to compose many hits. In [[music video]]s from the 1980s featuring Vince Clarke, a BBC Micro is often present or provides text and graphics such as the clip for Erasure's ''Oh L'Amour''
* In addition to Yazoo, also [[Queen (band)|Queen]] used the UMI Music Sequencer on their ''A Kind of Magic '' record. The UMI is also mentioned in the CD booklet. Other |
anography]]
=== Human geography ===
'''[[Human geography]]''' is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with various environments. It encompasses [[human]], [[political]], [[cultural]], [[social]], and [[economics|economic]] aspects. While the major focus of human geography is not the physical landscape of the Earth (see [[physical geography]]) it is hardly possible to discuss human geography without referring to the physical landscape on which human activities are being played out, and [[environmental geography]] is emerging as a link between the two.
Human geography can be divided into many broad categories, such as:
* [[Economic geography]]
* [[Development geography]]
* [[Population geography]] or [[Demography]]*
* [[Urban geography]]
* [[Social geography]]
* [[Behavioral geography]]
* [[Cultural region|Cultural geography]]
* [[Political geography]], including [[Geopolitics]]*
* [[Historical geography]]
* [[Regional science]] (Regional geography)
* [[Tourism geography]]
* [[Strategic geography]]
* [[Military geography]]
* [[Feminist geography]]
<nowiki>*</nowiki> Distinction between these fields of study have become increasingly blurred over time and the above list should not be considered definitive.
Related topics: [[Countries of the world]] - [[Country]] - [[Nation]] - [[State]] - [[Personal union]] - [[Province]] - [[County]] - [[City]] - [[Municipality]] - [[Central_Place_Theory|Central place theory]] - [[Urban morphology]]
=== Socio-environmental geography ===
During the time of environmental determinism, geography was defined not as the study of spatial relationships, but as the study of how humans and the natural environment interact. Though environmental determinism has lost support, there remains a strong tradition of geographers addressing the relationships between people and nature. There are two main subfields of socio-environmental geography:
* cultural and political ecology (CAPE) and
* risk-hazards research.
==== Cultural and political ecology ====
Cultural ecology grew out of the work of [[Carl O. Sauer|Carl Sauer]] in geography and a similar school of thought in [[anthropology]]. It examined how human societies adapt themselves to the natural environment. [[Sustainability]] science has been one important outgrowth of this tradition. Political ecology arose when some geographers used aspects of [[critical geography]] to look at relations of power and how they affect people's use of the environment. For example, an influential study by [[Michael Watts]] argued that famines in the [[Sahel]] are caused by the changes in the region's [[political system|political]] and [[economic system]] as a result of [[colonialism]] and the spread of [[capitalism]].
==== Risk-hazards research ====
Research on hazards began with the work of geographer [[Gilbert F. White]], who sought to understand why people live in disaster-prone floodplains. Since then, the hazards field has expanded to become a multidisciplinary field examining both natural hazards (such as [[earthquake]]s) and technological hazards (such as [[nuclear reactor]] meltdowns). Geographers studying hazards are interested in both the dynamics of the hazard event and how people and societies deal with it.
=== Historical geography ===
Historical geography seeks to determine how cultural features of various societies across the planet emerged and evolved, by understanding their interaction with their local environment and surroundings.
For some in the United States, the term ''historical geography'' has a more specialized meaning: the name given by [[Carl O. Sauer|Carl Ortwin Sauer]] of the [[University of California, Berkeley]] to his program of reorganizing cultural geography (some say all geography) along regional lines, beginning in the first decades of the [[20th century]]. To Sauer, a landscape and the cultures in it could only be understood if all of its influences through history were taken into account: physical, cultural, economic, political, environmental. Sauer stressed regional specialization as the only means of gaining sufficient expertise on regions of the world. Sauer's philosophy was the principal shaper of American geographic thought in the mid-20th century. Regional specialists remain in academic geography departments to this day. But some geographers feel that it harmed the discipline; that too much effort was spent on data collection and classification, and too little on analysis and explanation. Studies became more and more area-specific as later geographers struggled to find places to make names for themselves. These factors may have led in turn to the [[Quantitative_revolution#The_1950s_Crisis_in_Geography|1950s crisis in geography]], which raised serious questions about geography as an academic discipline in the United States.
==History of geography==
:''See main article: [[History of geography]]
[[Image:Marco_Polo._Map_of_explore.jpg|right|thumb|Map of the journeys of [[Marco Polo]].]]
The [[ancient Greece|Greek]]s are the first known culture to actively explore geography as a [[science]] and [[philosophy]]. Mapping by the [[Roman Empire|Roman]]s as they explored new lands added new techniques. During the [[Middle Ages]], [[Arab]]s such as [[Idrisi]], [[Ibn Batutta]], and [[Ibn Khaldun]] maintained the Greek and Roman techniques and developed new ones.
Following the journeys of [[Marco Polo]], interest in geography spread throughout [[Europe]]. The great voyages of exploration in [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th centuries]] revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail, and more solid theoretical foundations. This period is also known as [[Great Geographical Discoveries]]. By the [[18th century]], geography had become recognized as a discrete discipline and became part of a typical [[university]] curriculum in [[Europe]] (especially [[Paris]] and [[Berlin]]).
Over the past two centuries the quantity of knowledge and the number of tools has exploded. There are strong links between geography and the sciences of [[geology]] and [[botany]], as well as [[economics]], [[sociology]] and [[demographics]]. In the West during the [[20th century]], the discipline of geography went through four major phases: [[environmental determinism]], [[regional geography]], the [[quantitative revolution]], and [[critical geography]].
== Geographic techniques ==
As spatial interrelationships are key to this [[synoptic science]], [[map]]s are a key tool. Classical [[cartography]] has been joined by a more modern approach to geographical analysis, computer-based [[geographic information system|geographic information systems]] (GIS).
* ''[[Cartography]]'' studies the representation of the Earth's surface with abstract symbols (map making). Although other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses, the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately. Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science. Cartographers must learn [[cognitive psychology]] and ergonomics to understand which symbols convey information about the Earth most effectively, and [[behavioral psychology]] to induce the readers of their maps to act on the information. They must learn [[geodesy]] and fairly advanced [[mathematics]] to understand how the shape of the Earth affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing. It can be said, without much controversy, that cartography is the seed from which the larger field of geography grew. Most geographers will cite a childhood fascination with maps as an early sign they would end up in the field.
[[Image:31b.jpg|thumb|right|[[Geographic_information_system|GIS]] software.]]
<!-- the following singular verb for a seemingly plural noun is intentional. The name of the academic subject is "Geographic information systems". If you didn't care about parallel construction, you could precede the following with THE SUBJECT OF --->
* ''[[Geographic_information_system|Geographic information systems (GIS)]]'' deal with the storage of information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer, in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's purpose. In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand [[computer science]] and [[database]] systems. GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography; nearly all mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of GIS software.
* ''Geographic quantitative methods'' deal with numerical methods peculiar to (or at least most commonly found in) geography. In addition to [[spatial analyses]], you are likely to find things like [[cluster analysis]], [[discriminant analysis]], and [[non-parametric statistical tests]] in geographic studies.
* ''Geographic qualitative methods'', or [[ethnographic]] research techniques, are used by human geographers. In cultural geography there is a tradition of employing [[qualitative research]] techniques also used in [[anthropology]] and [[sociology]]. [[Participant Observation]] and [[in-depth interviews]] provide human geographers with qualitative data.
In their study, geographers use four interrelated approaches:
* Systematic - Groups geographical knowledge into categories that can be explored globally.
* Regional - Examines systematic relationships between categories for a specific region or location on the planet.
* Descriptive - Simply specifies the locations of features and populations.
* Analytical - Asks ''why'' we find features and populations in a specific geographic area.
== Related fields ==
=== Urban, regional and spatial planning ===
[[Urban planning]], [[regional planning]] and [[spatial planning]] use the science of geography to assist in determining how to develop (or not develop) the land to meet particular criteria, such as safe |
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