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]] is a U.S. based organization. Conversely the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] names its electrical and electronics engineering department as the "Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering" where as the [[University of Sheffield]] refers to its deparment as the "Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering".
:<cite id="demographics">[[#demographics back|Note II]]</cite> - There are around 366,000 people working as electrical engineers in the [[United States]] constituting 0.25% of the labour force ([[as of 2002|2002]]).{{ref|DoL3}} In [[Australia]], there are around 24,000 constituting 0.23% of the labour force ([[as of 2005|2005]]) and in [[Canada]], there are around 34,600 constituting 0.21% of the labour force ([[as of 2001|2001]]). Australia and Canada also report that 96% and 89% of their electrical engineers respectively are male.{{ref|AJS}}{{ref|JobFutures.ca}}
'''Citations'''
# {{note|ieeefaq}} {{cite web
| title = What is the difference between electrical and electronics engineering?
| work = FAQs - Studying Electrical Engineering
| url = http://www.ieee.org/organizations/eab/faqs1.htm
| accessdate = February 4
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|1911BritA}} {{Citeencyclopedia
| ency = The Encyclopedia Britannica
| edition = 11
| year = 1911
| article = "Ohm, Georg Simon", "Faraday, Michael" and "Maxwell, James Clerk"
}}
# {{note|cornell}} {{cite web
| title = Welcome to ECE!
| work = Cornell University - School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
| url = http://www.ieee.org/organizations/eab/faqs1.htm
| accessdate = December 29
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|ryder}} {{cite book
| author = Ryder, John and Fink, Donald;
| title = Engineers and Electrons
| publisher = IEEE Press
| year = 1984
| id = ISBN 087942172X
}}
# {{note|tesla-edison}} {{cite web
| title = History
| work = National Fire Protection Association
| url = http://www.nfpa.org/itemDetail.asp?categoryID=500&itemID=18020&URL=About%20Us/History
| accessdate = January 19
| accessyear = 2006
}} ''(published 1996 in the NFPA Journal)''
# {{note|radio}} {{cite web
| title = History of Amateur Radio
| work = What is Amateur Radio?
| url = http://www.amateurradio.uni-halle.de/hamradio.en.html
| accessdate = January 18
| accessyear = 2006
}}
# {{note|television}} {{cite web
| title = History of TV
| url = http://history.acusd.edu/gen/recording/television1.html
| accessdate = January 18
| accessyear = 2006
}}
# {{note|magnetron1}} {{cite web
| title = Albert W. Hull (1880 - 1966)
| work = IEEE History Center
| url = http://www.ieee.org/organizations/history_center/legacies/hull.html
| accessdate = January 22
| accessyear = 2006
}}
# {{note|magnetron2}} {{cite web
| title = Who Invented Microwaves?
| url = http://www.gallawa.com/microtech/history.html
| accessdate = January 22
| accessyear = 2006
}}
# {{note|radar}} {{cite web
| title = Early Radar History
| work = Peneley Radar Archives
| url = http://www.penleyradararchives.org.uk/history/introduction.htm
| accessdate = January 22
| accessyear = 2006
}}
# {{note|z3}} {{cite web
| title = The Z3
| url = http://irb.cs.tu-berlin.de/~zuse/Konrad_Zuse/en/Rechner_Z3.html
| accessdate = January 18
| accessyear = 2006
}}
# {{note|ENIAC}} {{cite web
| title = The ENIAC Museum Online
| url = http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~museum/guys.html
| accessdate = January 18
| accessyear = 2006
}}
# {{note|transistor}} {{cite web
| title = Electronics Timeline
| work = Greatest Engineering Achievements of the Twentieth Century
| url = http://www.greatachievements.org/?id=3956
| accessdate = January 18
| accessyear = 2006
}}
# {{note|hoff}} {{cite web
| title = Computing History (1971 - 1975)
| url = http://mbinfo.mbdesign.net/1971-75.htm
| accessdate = January 18
| accessyear = 2006
}}
# {{note|education}} Various including graduate degree requirements at MIT [http://www.eecs.mit.edu/grad/degrees.html], study guide at UWA [http://www.ecm.uwa.edu.au/study_guides/be/ee], the curriculum at Queen's [http://www.queensu.ca/calendars/appsci/ElectricalEngineering_944.htm] and Aberdeen's unit tables [http://www.abdn.ac.uk/registry/calendar/requirements/07H50116.doc]
# {{note|nspe}} {{cite web
| title = Why Should You Get Licensed?
| work = National Society of Professional Engineers
| url = http://www.nspe.org/lc1-why.asp
| accessdate = July 11
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|qea}} {{cite web
| title = Engineers Act
| work = Quebec Statutes and Regulations (CanLII)
| url = http://www.canlii.org/qc/laws/sta/i-9/20050616/whole.html
| accessdate = July 24
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|ethics}} {{cite web
| title = Codes of Ethics and Conduct
| work = Online Ethics Center
| url = http://onlineethics.org/codes/
| accessdate = July 24
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|shuman}} {{Citenewsauthor
| surname = Shuman
| given = Ellis
| title = Joy turns to tragedy in collapse of Versailles wedding hall
| date = May 27, 2001
| org = Israel Insider
| url = http://www.israelinsider.com/channels/politics/articles/pol_0022.htm
}}
# {{note|IEEE}} {{cite web
| title = About the IEEE
| work = IEEE
| url = http://www.ieee.org/about/
| accessdate = July 11
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|IEE1}} {{cite web
| title = About the IEE
| work = The IEE
| url = http://www.iee.org/TheIEE/about.cfm
| accessdate = July 11
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|IEE2}} {{cite web
| title = Journal and Magazines
| work = The IEE
| url = http://www.iee.org/Publish/Journals/
| accessdate = July 11
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|DoL2}} {{cite web
| title = Electrical and Electronics Engineers, except Computer
| work = Occupational Outlook Handbook
| url = http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos031.htm
| accessdate = July 16
| accessyear = 2005
}} (see [[work of the United States Government|here]] regarding copyright)
# {{note|NSF-foreign}} {{cite web
| publisher = National Science Foundation
| date = 2004
| url = http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind04/append/c2/at02-33.pdf
| title = Science and Engineering Indicators 2004, Appendix 2-33
| format = PDF
}}
# {{note|DoL1}} {{cite web
| title = Electrical and Electronics Engineers, except Computer
| work = Occupational Outlook Handbook
| url = http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos031.htm
| accessdate = July 16
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|trevelyan}} Trevelyan, James; (2005). ''What Do Engineers Really Do?''. University of Western Australia. (seminar with [http://www.mech.uwa.edu.au/jpt/Engineering%20Roles%20050503.pdf slides])
# {{note|mems}} {{cite web
| title = MEMS the world!
| work = IntelliSense Software Corporation
| url = http://www.intellisensesoftware.com/Technology.html
| accessdate = July 17
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|DoL3}} {{cite web
| title = Electrical and Electronics Engineers, except Computer
| work = Occupational Outlook Handbook
| url = http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos031.htm
| accessdate = August 27
| accessyear = 2005
}} and {{cite web
| title = Computer Hardware Engineers
| work = Occupational Outlook Handbook
| url = http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos266.htm
| accessdate = August 27
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|AJS}} {{cite web
| title = Electrical and Electronics Engineers
| work = Australian Careers
| url = http://jobsearch.gov.au/joboutlook/default.aspx?PageId=AscoDesc&AscoCode=2125
| accessdate = August 27
| accessyear = 2005
}}
# {{note|JobFutures.ca}} {{cite web
| title = Electrical and Electronics Engineers (NOC 2133)
| work = Job Futures (National Edition)
| url = http://www.jobfutures.ca/noc/2133p1.shtml
| accessdate = August 27
| accessyear = 2005
}}
</div>
== External links ==
{{Wikibooks}}
*[http://www.ieee.org/portal/site/mainsite/menuitem.818c0c39e85ef176fb2275875bac26c8/index.jsp?&pName=corp_level1&path=about/whatis&file=index.xml&xsl=generic.xsl History of the IEEE Electrical Engineering Professional Society at its website]
*[http://www.allaboutcircuits.com All About Circuits] Learn the nuts and bolts about building electrical circuits, and to build appliances based on electrical circuits
*[http://www.physicsarchives.com/electrical_engineering.htm electrical engineering courseware]
*[http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/ IEEE Virtual Museum] A virtual museum that illustrates many of the basic electrical engineering and electricity concepts through examples, figures, and interviews.
*[http://www.careercornerstone.org/eleceng/eleceng.htm Sloan Career Center: Electrical Engineering] This is an excellent resource for anyone that is interested in electrical engineering as a career. Learn what electrical engineers do on a daily basis, where they work, how much they earn, and much more.
{{-}}
{{Technology}}
[[Category:Electrical engineering|*]]
[[Category:Electronic engineering|*]]
[[Category:Electronics]]
[[bs:Elektrotehnika]]
[[bg:Електротехника]]
[[ca:Enginyeria electrònica]]
[[de:Elektrotechnik]]
[[et:Elektrotehnika]]
[[es:Ingeniería eléctrica]]
[[eo:Elektroteĥniko]]
[[fa:مهندسی برق]]
[[fr:Électrotechnique]]
[[fy:Elektrotechnyk]]
[[hr:Elektrotehnika]]
[[it:Ingegneria elettronica]]
[[he:הנדסת חשמל]]
[[lt:Elektrotechnika]]
[[nl:Elektrotechniek]]
[[nds:Elektrotechnik]]
[[ja:電気工学]]
[[pl:Inżynieria elektryczna]]
[[pt:Engenharia eléctrica]]
[[ru:Электротехника]]
[[sl:Elektrotehnika]]
[[sr:Електротехника]]
[[th:วิศวกรรมไฟฟ้า]]
[[tr:Elektrik Mühendisliği]]
[[zh:电子工程]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electromagnetism</title>
<id>9532</id>
<revision>
<id>41422080</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T05:21:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wolfkeeper</username>
<id>41690</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41054922 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Electromagnetism''' |
and she does so. Joey later reveals his feelings to Rachel, who politely rejects him.
Rachel goes into labor, and while she's in the hospital Ross's mother approaches him with a ring to give to Rachel. Ross keeps the ring in his coat pocket, even though he doesn't want to propose to Rachel. After Rachel gives birth to their daughter, Emma, Joey finds the engagement ring. He bends down to pick it up. Rachel, seeing Joey on one knee with an engagement ring, thinks that he's proposing to her, and says "yes". Monica and Chandler decide to have a baby.
=== Season nine (2002-2003)===
Rachel finds out that Joey wasn't proposing to her, and neither was Ross. Rachel decides to move back in with Joey and takes Emma with her. Chandler's job requires him to be in [[Tulsa]]. He puts up with this for a while, but when he finds himself working in Tulsa over Christmas. When a female associate comes on to him, he quits and starts a new job in advertising. Chandler and Monica cannot conceive a baby, so decide to adopt. Phoebe starts dating [[Mike Hanigan]]. They move in together, but when he tells Phoebe he doesn't want to get married they break up. Rachel begins to develop feelings for Joey.
The group goes to Barbados. Phoebe takes her boyfriend David (whom she first met in the first season) and Joey takes his girlfriend Charlie. Monica learns David is planning on proposing to Phoebe, and calls Mike to tell him to get back together with her. Mike comes to Barbados and proposes to Phoebe. She turns him down, but - knowing their relationship has a future - agrees to take him back. Joey and Charlie break up. Joey learns Rachel likes him, but refuses her advances because he feels he would be betraying Ross. However, when Joey sees Charlie and Ross kissing he changes his mind and kisses Rachel.
=== Season ten (2003-2004)===
Joey and Rachel's relationship doesn't last and Charlie goes back to an old boyfriend. Mike and Phoebe get married, and decide to have a baby. Chandler and Monica apply to adopt the baby of a pregnant woman named Erica and also decide to move out of their apartment into a house in the suburbs. Erica gives birth to twins, a boy and a girl, who are named Jack (after Monica's dad) and Erica (after Erica). Rachel accepts a job in Paris. The group holds a going-away party for her and she says goodbye to each of them in turn, except Ross. He is upset about this until Rachel tells him it was too hard to say goodbye to him. They then sleep together.
In the final episode, Ross realizes he still loves Rachel, and after she leaves for Paris, he goes after her. However, she rejects him. Ross gets back to his apartment and finds a message from Rachel on his answering machine, telling him she does still love him and is trying to get off the plane. As the message ends, she arrives at Ross' apartment, and they kiss. The episode ends with Chandler and Monica moving out of their apartment, and everyone going for one last coffee at Central Perk.
== Ratings ==
The 66-minute [[series finale]] was named by [[Entertainment Tonight]] as the biggest [[United States|US]] TV moment of the year 2004, and was the second highest rated show in 2004 beaten only by the [[Super Bowl XXXVIII|Super Bowl]]. However, it did not surpass the ratings received by series finales for ''[[M*A*S*H (TV series)|M*A*S*H]]'' (106m), ''[[Cheers]]'' (80.4m) or ''[[Seinfeld]]'' (76.3m), nor was it the most watched episode of ''Friends'' —that accolade remains with the season two episode ''The One After the Superbowl'', which aired on [[January 28]], [[1996]] and drew 52.9m viewers. During the 2001–2002 season, ''Friends'' was the highest rated show in America according to the [[Nielsen Ratings]].
Ratings by country for the finale:
* United States: 52.5m ([[Nielsen Ratings|Nielsen]])
* Canada: 5.159m ([[BBM Canada]])
* United Kingdom: 8.6m ([[BARB]])
* Australia: 2.54m ([[OZTAM]])
== Possible return to television ==
In January 2006, NBC was reported to have announced that the six stars of ''Friends'', including Jennifer Aniston, would reunite to make four "double episode" special editions of the series. The cast were apparently receiving $5 million each for their participation in the specials, which were rumoured to air some time in [[2007]]. [http://www.hollywood.com/news/detail/id/3477372] [http://www.rte.ie/arts/2006/0123/friends.html]
An NBC spokesperson later indicated that these rumours were untrue. [http://smallscreen.monstersandcritics.com/article_1078771.php/NBC_says_forget_%60Friends%60_reunion_rumors]
But the rumours continued after that, with [[Kathleen Turner]] claiming that NBC bosses approached her about reprising her role as Chandler's father within the sitcom: [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4657516.stm]
However, Nick at Nite is supposedly claiming Friends for syndication in 2011.
== Trivia ==
*The character of Ursula (Phoebe's twin sister) first appeared in the sitcom ''[[Mad About You]]'' as a waitress. [[Lisa Kudrow]] played Ursula on both ''Mad About You'' and ''Friends''. Phoebe was not originally envisioned as having a twin, but the show's creators added the fact to explain why Kudrow was appearing on two different shows, at one point on the same night.
*[[James Michael Tyler]]'s character (Gunther) came into the series by accident. He can be seen as an extra throughout the first season, and when given a line in the second, the directors were adequately impressed that they created a full-time part for him. He was hired because he was the only extra on the set of the pilot who knew how to operate an [[espresso]] machine.
*[[Central Perk]], the coffee shop on the show, is based on Chomondley's (pronounced Chumley's), a coffee shop/lounge in Usen Castle at [[Brandeis University]], the alma mater of the show's creators.
*Although the show was filmed in [[California]], it took place in the [[Greenwich Village|West Village]] in [[Manhattan]], [[New York City]]. The exterior shot of the Friends' apartment building is actually located at Grove and Bedford streets in the Village.
*The picture frame around the peep hole in Monica and Rachel's apartment originally was a framed mirror, but a crew member accidentally broke it. The producers liked the look and decided not to replace the mirror.
*55 people were paid to come to the studio and watch the first four episodes of "The Six of Us"; the title was thereafter changed to "Friends."
*Not all episodes were filmed in front of a studio audience. Most episodes were filmed with a [[laugh track]], particularly those featuring Ursula and Phoebe together.
*Alternate titles were "Six Of One", "Across The Hall", "Insomnia Cafe" and "Friends Like Us".
*In the first six episodes of Season 1, Chandler and Joey's apartment number was 4, and Monica and Rachel's was 5. Shortly after production began, it was decided that the apartment building where much of the show takes place was too big to have upper apartments with numbers as low as 4 and 5, so the numbers were changed to 19 and 20, respectively.
*Courtney Cox was originally approached for the role of Rachel, but convinced the producers that her personality was more suited for the character of Monica&mdash;which, amusingly enough, is the role producers first pitched to Jennifer Aniston.
*Behind the scenes, the show was known for its unusually cohesive and unified cast. The six main actors made deliberate and conscious efforts, from early on, to keep the show's ensemble format and to not allow any one of them to dominate. This included requesting that all actors on the show be nominated either for the same category (mostly "Supporting Actor") or not at all, and entering collective instead of individual salary negotiations. The actors became such close friends that at least one guest star, Tom Selleck, reported sometimes feeling left out.
*Behind the scenes, Jennifer Aniston and Matthew Perry were really very close friends.
*Matthew's wit is so legendary that directors often used his gags and suggestions on the show.
*There was one scene where Joey's character was seen to shave his right leg. No dummy was used there, it was really Matt , who shaved his leg.
*David Schwimmer even directed some of the episodes, for ex. The One With the Birth Mother, The One With Phoebe's Birthday Dinner, The One Where Joey Dates Rachel etc.
*The fictional addresses of the Friends' apartments are:
:Joey's address is 495 Grove St. Apt. 19, New York, NY 10001.
:Monica's address is 495 Grove St. Apt 20, New York, NY 10001.
:Phoebe's address is 5 Morton St. Apt. 14, New York, NY 10001
==Trivia game==
A few trivia games have been released over the years as well as a trivia book. The trivia book spans seasons 1-8. There have been two version of a board game released, one being a cardboard box version with fewer questions and the other a die cast collector editon with more questions. Recently, a Scene It version of Friends was released with actual show clips, trivia questions and other puzzles on screen. The trivia includes questions from all ten seasons. A new [[PlayStation 2|PS2]], [[PC]] and [[Xbox]] game called ''"Friends: The One with All the Trivia"'' was released simultaneously with the Season 10 box set. It includes the voices of characters Janice, Gunther and Jack & Judy Geller as hosts.
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www2.warnerbros.com/friendstv/index.html Official ''Friends'' site]
* {{imdb title|id=0108778|title=Friends}}
* {{tvtome show|id=71|title=Friends}}
* {{dmoz|Arts/Television/Programs/Comedy/Sitcoms/Friends/|''Friends''}}
* [http://tviv.info/wiki/Friends ''Friends''] at the [[TV IV]] Wiki
* [http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/0510041friends1.html Negative 1994 NBC research report about the pilot]
* [http://www.friends-tv.org/ The “Original” ''Friends'' Site]
* [http://www.absurdtriv |
on.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/1859843603/ Pinochet and Me] by Allende's US translator Marc Cooper, ISBN:1859843603
[[Category:1915 births|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:Living people|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:History of South America|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:History of Chile|Pinochet, Augusto]]
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[[Category:Chilean heads of state|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:Chilean generals|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:Past leaders by coup|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:Politics of Chile|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:Rotary Club members|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:Operation Condor|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:Cold War|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:Anti-communism|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:December 2004 news|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[be:Аўгуста Піначэт]]
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[[zh-min-nan:Augusto Pinochet]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Attribution of recent climate change</title>
<id>3201</id>
<revision>
<id>40703608</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T12:34:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Climate Change Attribution.png|250px|right|thumb|One [[global climate model]]'s reconstruction of temperature change during the 20th century as the result of five studied forcing factors and the amount of temperature change attributed to each.]]
'''Attribution of recent climate change''' attempts to discover what mechanisms are responsible for the observed changes in climate. The endeavour centers on the observed changes over the last century and in particular over the last 50 years, when observations are best and human influence greatest.
Over the past 150 years human activities have released increasing quantities of [[greenhouse gas]]es into the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] that theory and [[climate model]]s say should lead to increases in temperature - colloquially known as [[global warming]]. Other human effects are relevant&mdash;for example, sulphate [[Particulate|aerosol]] are believed to lead to cooling&mdash;and natural factors also act.
[[historical temperature record|Temperatures have risen in the last century]] (somewhere between 0.4 and 0.8 °C) and the proportion of this warming that is due to human influence is still open to question. The current scientific consensus, as expressed in [[2001]] by the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) and the [[National Academy of Sciences]] (NAS), and recently confirmed by a joint statement of the [[G8]] academies of science, is that ''most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities''.
A summary of IPCC climate research may be found in the [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/ IPCC assessment reports]; the NAS report and an overview of the report may be found [http://www4.nationalacademies.org/onpi/webextra.nsf/web/climate?OpenDocument here]; the degree of consensus is discussed at [[scientific opinion on climate change]].
== Attribution of 20th century climate change ==
The most fiercely-contested question in current climate change research is over attribution of climate change to either natural/internal or human factors over the period of the instrumental record - from about 1860, and especially over the last 50 years. In the 1995 second assessment report (SAR) the [[IPCC]] made the widely quoted statement that "The balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate&rdquo;. The phrase "balance of evidence" was used deliberately to suggest the (English) common-law standard of proof required in civil as opposed to criminal courts: not as high as "beyond reasonable doubt". In 2001 the third assessment report (TAR) upgraded this by saying "There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities" [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/007.htm].
Over the past 5 decades there has been a warming of approximately 0.4°C at the Earth's surface (see [[historical temperature record]]). This warming might have been caused by internal variability, or by external forcing, or by "greenhouse" gases. Current studies indicate the latter is most likely, on the grounds that
* estimates of internal variability from climate models, and reconstructions of past temperatures, indicate that the warming is unlikely to be entirely natural
* climate models, forced by changes in greenhouse gases and aerosols, reproduce the observed global changes; those forced by natural factors alone do not
* "fingerprint" methods indicate that the pattern of change is closer to that expected from greenhouse gas forced change than from natural change [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/460.htm]
In 2001 the US [[National Academy of Sciences]] released a report supporting the IPCC's conclusions regarding the causes of recent climate change. It stated:
''&#8220;Greenhouse gases are accumulating in Earth&#8217;s atmosphere as a result of human activities, causing surface air temperatures and subsurface ocean temperatures to rise. Temperatures are, in fact, rising. The changes observed over the last several decades are likely mostly due to human activities, but we cannot rule out that some significant part of these changes are also a reflection of natural variability.&#8221;''[http://www4.nationalacademies.org/onpi/webextra.nsf/web/climate?OpenDocument][http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggccebro/chapter1.html][http://www.eldis.org/static/DOC8822.htm]
[[Global climate model]]s (GCM) do not incorporate the indirect [[solar forcing]] through modulation of cosmic ray flux (increased solar activity reduces cosmic ray flux and is speculated to modify cloud cover). This is because there is no known mechanism for this effect; climate models cannot incorporate unknown mechanisms. One possible mechanism for the cosmic ray flux to influence climate is via [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/301/5641/1886 Particle Formation by Ion Nucleation in the Upper Troposphere and Lower Stratosphere ]''"These findings indicate that, at typical upper troposphere and lower stratosphere conditions, particles are formed by this nucleation process and grow to measurable sizes with sufficient sun exposure and low preexisting aerosol surface area. Ion-induced nucleation is thus a globally important source of aerosol particles, potentially affecting cloud formation and radiative transfer. ... Atmospheric aerosols affect climate directly by altering the radiative balance of the Earth (1) and indirectly by acting as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) (2), which in turn change the number and size of cloud droplets and the cloud albedo"''; however there is no agreement within the community for the correctness of this.
Since GCM ''can'' reproduce observed temperature trends (including early 20th century changes, where solar forcing is non-negligible) there is no obvious need for a high sensitivity to solar forcing. Indeed, a significantly higher sensitivity to solar forcing would make early 20th century temperature change inexplicable.
=== Subsequent to the TAR ===
Following the publication of the TAR in 2001 "detection and attribution" of climate change has remained an active area of research. Some important results include:
* Multiple independent reconstructions of the [[temperature record of the past 1000 years]] confirm that the late 20th century is probably the warmest period in that time
* Two papers in Science in August 2005 [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=170] [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=179] resolve the problem, evident at the time of the TAR, of tropospheric temperature trends. The UAH version of the record contained errors, and there is evidence of spurious cooling trends in the radiosonde record, particularly in the tropics. See [[satellite temperature measurements]] for details.
* Barnett et al. "Penetration of Human-Induced Warming into the World's Oceans" (Science, Vol 309, Issue 5732, 284-287, [[8 July]] [[2005]]), say that the observed warming of the oceans ''cannot be explained by natural internal climate variability or solar and volcanic forcing, but is well simulated by two anthropogenically forced climate models. We conclude that it is of human origin, a conclusion robust to observational sampling and model differences'' [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/309/5732/284?rbfvrToken=478e88391c8e1ff344f98f5f5d3b62bac11e2a12].
== Detection and Attribution ==
Detection and attribution of climate signals, as well as its common-sense meaning, has a more precise definition within the climate change literature, as expressed by the IPCC [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/443.htm#1211].
''Detection'' of a signal requires demonstrating that an observed change is statistically significantly different than can be explained by natural internal variability.
''Attribution'' is to demonstrate that a signal is
* unlikely to be due entirely to internal variability;
* consistent with the estimated responses to the given combination of anthropogenic and natural forcing
* not consistent with alternative, physically p |
/title>
<id>12746</id>
<revision>
<id>38882879</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T06:09:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>144.131.1.167</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">Concept A is a (strict) '''generalization''' of concept B if and only if:
* every instance of concept B is also an instance of concept A; and
* there are instances of concept A which are not instances of concept B.
Equivalently, A is a generalization of B if B is a [[specialization]] of A.
For instance, ''[[animal]]'' is a generalization of ''[[bird]]'' because every bird is an animal, and there are animals which are not birds ([[dog]]s, for
instance).
This kind of ''generalization'' versus ''specialization'' (or ''particularization'') is reflected in either of the contrasting words of the word pair [[hypernym]] and [[hyponym]]. A hypernym as a generic stands for a class or group of equally-ranked items, such as ''tree'' does for ''beech'' and ''oak''; or ''ship'' for ''cruiser'' and ''steamer''. Whereas a hyponym is one of the items included in the generic, such as ''lily'' and ''daisy'' are included in ''flower'', and ''bird'' and ''fish'' in ''animal''. A hypernym is superordinate to a hyponym, and a hyponym is subordinate to hypernym.
Generalization questions: is the statement a reasonable assumption?
==See also==
*[[inheritance (object-oriented programming)]],
*[[faulty generalization]]
*[[hasty generalization]]
*[[-onym]]
[[Category:Logic]]
[[es:Generalización (semántica)]]
[[he:הכללה (מתמטיקה)]]
[[sv:Generalisering]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gia Carangi</title>
<id>12747</id>
<revision>
<id>42060007</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T15:01:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BillFlis</username>
<id>846916</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Death */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gia_Carangi.jpg|right|thumb|'''Gia Carangi''' on the cover of Vogue Paris August 1980.]]
'''Gia Marie Carangi''' ([[January 29]], [[1960]] – [[November 18]], [[1986]]) was a top [[United States|US]] [[fashion model]] of the late [[1970s]] and early [[1980s]]. Addicted to [[drug addiction|drugs]], she later became infected with [[HIV]] and was among the first women in the public eye to die from [[AIDS]]-related complications.
Miss Carangi, who was of [[Italians|Italian]], [[Welsh people|Welsh]] and [[Irish people|Irish]] ancestry, was a prototype of the [[Cindy Crawford]]/[[Rachel Hunter]]/[[Elle MacPherson]] "[[Supermodel]]" era, who also appeared on the covers of several fashion publications of her time.
[[Fashion magazine]]s featuring covers of Gia included British [[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]], [[April 1]] [[1979]]; Vogue Paris, April 1979; American Vogue, August 1980; Vogue Paris, August 1980; Italian Vogue, January 1981; and several issues of American [[Cosmopolitan (magazine)|Cosmopolitan]] between 1979 and 1982.
==Beginning==
"Gia", as she was known in modeling circles, moved from [[Philadelphia]] to [[New York City]] at the age of 18, and quickly rose to prominence, reaching international fame with such magazines as Vogue, Cosmo, and others. Gia was the favourite model of many eminent [[fashion photographer]]s including [[Francesco Scavullo]], [[Arthur Elgort]] and [[Chris von Wangenheim]]. She posed for photos in many countries world-wide and led a fast life. Her [[sexual orientation]] has been disputed: while some think she was completely [[lesbian]], others point to the fact she had many relationships with males and call her [[bisexuality|bisexual]].
==Rise==
[[Image:Gia4.JPG|204|200|right|thumb|Gia on the cover of American Cosmopolitan.]]
Gia was swept right into the [[fashion]] world. She never went through the tough rejections that other models faced, but was considered a "rare [[Gemstone|gem]]" in the modelling business. Partly due to supermodel [[Janice Dickinson]]'s success, a demand for more ethnic-looking models was in. Visually striking, she was a hit with prominent [[photographer]]s. “There’s only been maybe 3 girls in my whole career that have walked into my studio and I went ‘wow’. Gia was the last who came in here and I said ‘wow.’” said top photographer Francesco Scavullo. By the end of [[1978]], at age 18, Gia had already rocked the fashion world. However, she was extremely [[Loneliness|lonely]] and still looking for stability in her life.
Gia was a regular at [[Studio 54]] and [[Mudd Club]], in which anyone who was anyone was seen. "We loved it," Janice Dickinson would later recall, "it was a place for us. A place where we could be with the beautiful, do drugs, be out of our minds and it all seemed normal." Gia began to develop a [[cocaine]] [[Drug addiction|addiction]]. [[Kelly LeBrock]], a top model at the time, remembered the time she spent with Gia: “Gia, when I was working with her, was still sort of in the beginning, still very fresh and lovely, I think drowning a little bit in her own success, but not anymore screwed up than anybody else was in the set.”
[[Image:Gia5.JPG|200px|left|thumb|Gia on the cover of French Vogue.]]
In October of 1978, Gia did her first major shoot with top fashion photographer Chris von Wangenheim. Wangenheim had Gia pose nude behind a chain-link fence, with makeup assistant [[Sandy Linter]]. She automatically fell in love. "She sent flowers to me, and she really sort of courted me, which I thought was adorable. Eventually I did go out with her. She’s the type of person at that time, and anyone who knew her at the time can tell you, if she showed up on your doorsteps and you opened the door and she got in your apartment she was there, that’s it,”
By January of [[1980]], Gia's surrogate mother and agent, [[Wilhelmina Cooper]] was diagnosed with [[lung cancer]]. Gia quickly turned to drugs to escape the harsh reality. Scavullo recalled a distinct instance in which Gia was on a fashion shoot in the Caribbean. "She was crying, she couldn't find her drugs. I literally had to lay her down on her bed until she fell asleep." A month after she returned, Wilhelmina passed away at the age of 40.
To the world, 1980 was a great year for Gia in fashion. She was seen on covers of Vogue and Cosmpolitan, but behind the scenes she was a very angry and hurt person. She would have violent temper tantrums, walk out of photo shoots, and even fell asleep in front of the camera. In the November 1980 issue of ''Vogue'', Gia's track marks from [[heroin]] can be easily seen. For three weeks, Gia was signed with Eileen Ford, who soon dropped her because she had little tolerance for Gia's behavior.
==Fall==
In 1981, Gia dropped from the face of the fashion world. She had hopes of getting her life back in order. She enrolled in a 21-day [[Substance-abuse rehabilitation|detox program]]. It is said at that time, Gia started dating a college student named ''Rochelle'' (her real name was Elyssa Golden — she used an alias when interviewed by Stephen Fried for ''Thing of Beauty''). The Carangi family and Gia's mother had always suspected that Rochelle had an abusive [[heroin]] problem, and brother Michael Carangi even recalls being offered some by Rochelle. With Rochelle by her side, Gia's recovery failed. In 1981, she moved out of her mother's house and in with some friends, once again entering a detox program.
Her attempt to quit drugs was shattered when news that good friend and fashion photographer Chris von Wangenheim had died in a car accident. It is said that Gia locked herself in a bathroom for hours, shooting heroin. In the fall of 1981, Gia looked far different from the top model she once had been. However, she was still determined to make a comeback in the fashion industry. She contacted [[Monique Pillard]] (who was largely responsible for Janice Dickinson's career), who was hesitant to sign her. “She was sitting in my chair and I said, ‘Gia, I want to represent you so badly and everything, but I hear a lot of negative stories about you.’ And I remember I asked her ‘well, why are you wearing such a long shirt? Can I see your arms?’ And she said ‘No!’ And she held on to her shirt and she said to me, ‘Do you want to represent me or not?’”
For her second time, Gia received the harsh treatment she skipped last time. Nobody would book her. Desperate, she turned to good friend Scavullo. She landed a ''Cosmo'' cover, a gift from Scavullo. At that time, even he knew she had no career left. “It made me very sad, I had a tough time that day because I really wanted it to be her best cover and it wasn’t; it just couldn’t be. No matter how hard I tried it just couldn’t happen. That wonderful spirit she had was gone,” says Scavullo. Many believe that Gia's arms were placed behind her back because of all the trackmarks, but Scavullo has denied the rumors. Shot in the winter of 1982, it would be Gia's last cover.
[[Image:Gia2.JPG|275px|right|thumb|Gia's last cover, a gift from photographer Francesco Scavullo.]]
In [[West Germany]], a budding fashion industry was being created. Although seen as tacky by the designers from New York, [[Paris]] and [[Milan]], the Germans were willing to pay 10,000 a week to shoot Gia abroad. However, no one in the states would book her. In the spring of 1983, Gia was caught with drugs in a shoot in Africa. Her career was over.
Gia moved back in with Rochelle, and after pressures from her family she entered a drug-rehabilitation program again at Eagleville Hospital. Another patient, Rob Fay became close to Gia. Although rumors among the other patients said that Fay was romantically interested with Gia, Fay claimed it was just a friendship. "She was really the only person I was real close to at the time."
After six months, Gia was released from the program. She moved back to Philadelphia, and it seemed as if she was getting her life back on track. She starte |
stice judge (b. [[1917]])
*2004 - [[Jan Miner]], American actress (b. [[1917]])
*[[2005]] - [[Samuel Francis]], American journalist (b. [[1947]])
<!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Candlemas]] in [[Russia]] and other [[Eastern Orthodox]] countries
*[[Flag of Canada|Flag Day]] in [[Canada]]
*[[National Day]] in [[Serbia]]
*[[John Frum|John Frum Day]] in [[Vanuatu]] [http://www.smithsonianmagazine.com/issues/2006/february/john.php]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/15 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060215.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=15 On this day in Canada]
----
[[February 14]] - [[February 16]] - [[January 15]] - [[March 15]] -- [[Historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:15 Februarie]]
[[ar:15 فبراير]]
[[an:15 de frebero]]
[[ast:15 de febreru]]
[[bg:15 февруари]]
[[be:15 лютага]]
[[bs:15. februar]]
[[ca:15 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 15]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 15]]
[[co:15 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:15. únor]]
[[cy:15 Chwefror]]
[[da:15. februar]]
[[de:15. Februar]]
[[et:15. veebruar]]
[[el:15 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:15 de febrero]]
[[eo:15-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 15]]
[[fo:15. februar]]
[[fr:15 février]]
[[fy:15 febrewaris]]
[[ga:15 Feabhra]]
[[gl:15 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 15일]]
[[hr:15. veljače]]
[[io:15 di februaro]]
[[id:15 Februari]]
[[ia:15 de februario]]
[[is:15. febrúar]]
[[it:15 febbraio]]
[[he:15 בפברואר]]
[[jv:15 Februari]]
[[ka:15 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:15 gromicznika]]
[[ku:15'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 15]]
[[lb:15. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 15]]
[[mk:15 февруари]]
[[ms:15 Februari]]
[[nap:15 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:15 februari]]
[[ja:2月15日]]
[[no:15. februar]]
[[nn:15. februar]]
[[oc:15 de febrièr]]
[[os:15 февралы]]
[[pl:15 lutego]]
[[pt:15 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:15 februarie]]
[[ru:15 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 15.]]
[[sco:15 Februar]]
[[sq:15 Shkurt]]
[[scn:15 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 15]]
[[sk:15. február]]
[[sl:15. februar]]
[[sr:15. фебруар]]
[[fi:15. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:15 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 15]]
[[tt:15. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 15]]
[[th:15 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:15 tháng 2]]
[[tr:15 Şubat]]
[[uk:15 лютого]]
[[wa:15 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 15]]
[[zh:2月15日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 15]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>February 6</title>
<id>11021</id>
<revision>
<id>41738040</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:27:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.50.37.83</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=6}}
|}
'''[[February 6]]''' is the 37th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 328 days remaining, 329 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
*[[337]] - [[Pope Julius I|Julius I]] is elected [[pope]].
*[[1778]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: In [[Paris]] the [[Treaty of Alliance]] and the [[Treaty of Amity and Commerce]] are signed by the [[United States]] and [[France]] signaling official recognition of the new republic.
*[[1788]] - [[Massachusetts]] becomes the sixth state to ratify the [[United States Constitution]].
*[[1806]] - [[Royal Navy]] victory off [[Santo Domingo]] - [[Action of 6 February 1806]].
*[[1815]] - [[New Jersey]] grants the first [[United States|American]] [[railroad]] charter to a [[John Stevens (inventor)|John Stevens]].
*[[1819]] - Sir [[Thomas Stamford Raffles]] founds [[Singapore]].
*[[1820]] - The first 86 [[African American]] [[immigrant]]s sponsored by the [[American Colonization Society]] started a [[settlement]] in present-day [[History of Liberia|Liberia]].
*[[1840]] - Signing of the [[Treaty of Waitangi]], founding document of [[New Zealand]].
*[[1843]] - The first [[minstrel]] show in the [[United States]] The [[Virginia Minstrels]] opens ([[Bowery Amphitheatre]] in [[New York City]]).
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Ulysses S. Grant]] gives the [[United States]] its first victory of the war, by capturing [[Fort Henry, Tennessee]], known as the [[Battle of Fort Henry]].
*[[1899]] - [[Spanish-American War]]: The [[Treaty of Paris (1898)]], a [[peace treaty]] between the [[United States]] and [[Spain]] is ratified by the [[United States Senate]].
*[[1900]] - The international arbitration court at [[The Hague]] is created when the [[Netherlands]]' [[Senate]] ratifies an [[1899]] [[peace conference]] decree.
*[[1922]] - [[Achille Ratti]] becomes [[Pope Pius XI]].
*1922 - The [[Washington Naval Treaty]] was signed in [[Washington, DC]], limiting the [[navy|naval armaments]] of [[United States]], [[British Empire|Britain]], [[Japan]], [[France]], and [[Italy]].
*[[1933]] - The [[Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution|20th Amendment to the United States Constitution]] goes into effect.
*[[1934]] - [[France|French]] [[far right]] rally in front of the [[Palais Bourbon]], an attempted [[coup d'état|coup]] against the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]].
*[[1936]] - [[1936 Winter Olympic Games]] open in [[Garmisch-Partenkirchen]], [[Germany]].
*[[1951]] - ''[[The Broker (passenger train)|The Broker]]'', a [[Pennsylvania Railroad]] passenger train derails near [[Woodbridge Township, New Jersey]]. The accident kills 85 people and injures over 500 more. The wreck is one of the worst rail disasters in American history.
*[[1952]] - [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] becomes [[British monarchy|Queen]] upon the death of her father [[George VI of the United Kingdom|George VI]]. At the exact moment of [[succession]], she was in a [[treehouse]] at the [[Treetops Hotel]] in [[Kenya]].
*[[1958]] - [[Bobby Charlton]] survived the [[Munich air disaster]] in [[Germany]], which killed eight of his teammates with [[Manchester United F.C.]].
*[[1959]] - [[Jack Kilby]] of [[Texas Instruments]] filed the first [[patent]] for an [[integrated circuit]].
*1959 - At [[Cape Canaveral]], [[Florida]], the first successful test firing of a [[Titan intercontinental ballistic missile]] is accomplished.
*[[1968]] - [[1968 Winter Olympic Games]] open in [[Grenoble]], [[France]].
*[[1978]] - The [[Blizzard of 1978]], one of the worst [[Nor'easter]]s in [[New England]] history, hit the region, with sustained winds of 65 mph and snowfall of 4" an hour.
*[[1985]] - [[Steve Wozniak]] leaves [[Apple Computer]].
*[[1996]] - A [[Turkish Airlines]] [[Boeing 757]] crashes into the [[Atlantic Ocean]], off the coast of [[Dominican Republic]] killing 189.
*[[1998]] - [[Washington National Airport]] is renamed [[Ronald Reagan National Airport]].
*[[2004]] - In [[Russia]], a suicide-attack in a [[Moscow]] metro kills 40 commuters, and injures a hundred and twenty-nine. The blast is blamed on [[Chechen]] separatist groups.
*[[2005]] - [[Super Bowl XXXIX]]: The [[New England Patriots]] win their third title in four years by defeating the [[Philadelphia Eagles]] 24-21.
*2005 - [[Jerrick De Leon]], born 13 weeks premature, becomes the world's smallest infant to survive an open-heart procedure called an [[arterial switch]].
*[[2006]] - The [[Conservative Party of Canada]] becomes a minority [[Government of Canada|government]] in Canada's Parliament, replacing the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberals]] after 13 years in power.
==Births==
*[[1564]] - [[Christopher Marlowe]], English playwright (d. [[1593]])
*[[1577]] - [[Beatrice Cenci]], Italian noblewoman who conspired to kill her father (d. [[1599]])
*[[1608]] - [[Antonio Vieira]], Portuguese writer (d. [[1697]])
*[[1611]] - [[Chongzhen]], Emperor of China (d. [[1644]])
*[[1639]] - [[Daniel Georg Morhof]], German writer and scholar (d. [[1691]])
*[[1664]] - [[Mustafa II]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (d, [[1703]])
*[[1665]] - [[Queen Anne of England]] (d. [[1714]])
*[[1695]] - [[Nicolaus II Bernoulli]], Swiss mathematician (d. [[1726]])
*[[1744]] - [[Pierre-Joseph Desault]], French anatomist and surgeon (d. [[1795]])
*[[1748]] - [[Adam Weishaupt]], founder of the Bavarian Illuminati (d. [[1811]])
*[[1756]] - [[Aaron Burr]], [[Vice President of the United States]] (d. [[1836]])
*[[1833]] - [[James Ewell Brown Stuart]], American Confederate general (d. [[1864]])
*[[1834]] - [[Ema Puksec]], Croatian singer (d. [[1889]])
*[[1838]] - [[Yisrael Meir Kagan]], Chafetz Chayim (d. [[1933]])
*[[1853]] - [[Ignacij Klemenčič]], Slovenian physicist (d. [[1901]])
*[[1887]] - [[Josef Frings]], German Archbishop of Cologne (d. [[1978]])
*[[1892]] - [[William Murphy (scientist)|William Parry Murphy]], American physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1987]])
*[[1894]] - [[Eric Partridge]], New Zealand lexicographer (d. [[1979]])
*[[1895]] - [[Babe Ruth]], baseball player (d. [[1948]])
*[[1901]] - [[Ben Lyon]], American actor (d. [[1979]])
*[[1902]] - [[George Brunies]], American musician (d. [[1974]])
*[[1903]] - [[Claudio Arrau]], Chilean-born pianist (d. [[1991]])
*[[1905]] - [[Władysław Gomułka]], Polish leader (d. [[1982]])
*[[1910]] - [[Irmgard Keun]], German author (d. [[1982]])
*[[1910]] - [[Carlos Marcello]], Tunisian-born gangster (d. [[1993]])
*[[1911]] - [[Ronald Reagan]], 40th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[2004]])
*[[1912]] - [[Eva Braun]], German mistress of [[Adolf Hitler]] (d. [[1945]])
*[[1913]] - [[Mary Leakey]], British anthropologist (d. [[1996]])
*[[1914]] - [[Thurl Ravenscroft]], American voice actor (d. [[2005]])
*[[1917]] - [[Zsa Zsa Gabor]], Hungarian actress
*[[1918]] - [[Lothar-Günther Buchheim]], German author
*[[1922]] - [[Bill Johnston (cricketer)|Bill Johnston]], Australian cricketer
*[[1922]] - [[Patrick Macnee]], British actor
*[[1922]] - [[Denis Norden]], British television abd radio personality and scriptwriter
*[[1926]] - [[Bob Trow]], American actor (''[[Mister Rogers' Neighborhood]]'') (d. [[1998]])
*[[1926]] - [[Haskell Wexler]], American cinematographer
*[[1929]] - [[Pierre Bric |
t;small>9</small> [[Ghazni Province|Ghazni]]
*<small>10</small> [[Ghowr Province|Ghowr]]
*<small>11</small> [[Helmand Province|Helmand]]
|
*<small>12</small> [[Herat Province|Herat]]
*<small>13</small> [[Jowzjan Province|Jowzjan]]
*<small>14</small> [[Kabul Province|Kabul]]
*<small>15</small> [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]]
*<small>16</small> [[Kapisa Province|Kapisa]]
*<small>17</small> [[Khost Province|Khost]]
*<small>18</small> [[Konar Province|Konar]]
*<small>19</small> [[Kunduz Province|Kunduz]]
*<small>20</small> [[Laghman Province|Laghman]]
*<small>21</small> [[Lowgar Province|Lowgar]]
*<small>22</small> [[Nangarhar Province|Nangarhar]]
|
*<small>23</small> [[Nimruz Province|Nimruz]]
*<small>24</small> [[Nurestan Province|Nurestan]]
*<small>25</small> [[Oruzgan Province|Oruzgan]]
*<small>26</small> [[Paktia Province|Paktia]]
*<small>27</small> [[Paktika Province|Paktika]]
*<small>28</small> [[Panjshir Province|Panjshir]]
*<small>29</small> [[Parvan Province|Parvan]]
*<small>30</small> [[Samangan Province|Samangan]]
*<small>31</small> [[Sar-e Pol Province|Sar-e Pol]]
*<small>32</small> [[Takhar Province|Takhar]]
*<small>33</small> [[Vardak Province|Vardak]]
*<small>34</small> [[Zabol Province|Zabol]]
|
[[Image:Afghanistan provinces numbered.png|thumb|250px|right|Map showing provinces of Afghanistan]]
|}
==Geography==
[[Image:Afghanistan map.png|framed|Map of Afghanistan]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Afghanistan]]''
Afghanistan is a land-locked [[mountain]]ous country, with plains in the north and southwest. The highest point, at 7485 m (24,557 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) above sea level, is [[Nowshak]]. Large parts of the country are dry, and fresh water supplies are limited. Afghanistan has a continental climate, with hot summers and cold winters. The country is frequently subject to [[earthquake]]s.
The major cities of Afghanistan are its capital Kabul, [[Herat]], [[Jalalabad, Afghanistan|Jalalabad]], [[Mazar-e Sharif]] and [[Kandahar]].
See also [[List of cities in Afghanistan]], [[Places in Afghanistan]].
==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Afghanistan]]''
Afghanistan is an extremely impoverished country, being one of the world's poorest and least developed countries. Two-thirds of the population lives on less than US$2 a day. The economy has suffered greatly from the recent political and military unrest since the 1979-80 Soviet invasion and subsequent conflicts, while severe drought added to the nation's difficulties in 1998-2001.
About 70 percent of the population is under 30 according to Asian Development Bank. The total fertility rate is 6.8, the highest in South Asia (with a regional average at 3.3), but so are mortality rates. Infant mortality rate is 166 per 1000 births. The economically active population in 2002 was about 11 million (out of a total of an estimated 29 million). While there are no official unemployment rate estimates available, it is evident that it is high. The number of non-skilled young people is estimated at 3 million, which is likely to increase by some 300,000 per annum. (Fujimura, 2004a). [http://www.adbi.org/research-policy-brief/2004/10/15/698.afghan.economy.after.election/]
The country's natural resources include copper, zinc and iron ore in central areas; precious and semi-precious stones such as lapis, emerald and azure in the north-east and east; and (unproved) oil and gas reserves in the north. However, "its significant mineral resources remain largely untapped because of the Afghan War of the 1980s and subsequent fighting" (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2005). A good portion of Afghanistan GDP comes from illicit drugs including opium, its derivtives morphine and heroin and hashish.
[[Image:President Celal Bayar, King Zahir and Lord Nasher.jpg|thumb|Afghanistan was once a world-renowned producer of cotton. Here Turkish President Celal Bayar and King Zahir inspect the produce of Khan Nasher's Spinzar Cotton Company in 1966]]
On a positive note, international efforts to rebuild Afghanistan led to the formation of the Afghan Interim Authority (AIA) as a result of the December 2001 [[Bonn Agreement (Afghanistan)| Bonn Agreement]], and later addressed at the Tokyo Donors Conference for Afghan Reconstruction in January 2002, where $4.5 billion was committed in a trust fund to be administered by the [[World Bank Group]]. Priority areas for reconstruction include the rebuilding of education system, health, and sanitation facilities, enhancement of administrative capacity, the development of the agricultural sector, and the rebuilding of road, energy, and telecommunication links.
According to a 2004 report by the Asian Development Bank, the present reconstruction effort is two-pronged: first it focuses on rebuilding critical physical infrastructure, and second, on building modern public sector institutions from the remnants of Soviet style planning to ones that promote market-led development (Fujimura, 2004b). But macroeconomic planning and management at present is hampered by poor information, weak service delivery systems, and less than adequate law enforcement.
The country has been going through economic recovery since the Taliban were overthrown in October 2001. However, estimating Afghanistan's economy is problematic as it is impossible to gather reliable statistics while it is going through a significant change period in all fronts, with the added problem of less than ideal security situation. The best estimate that can be relied upon is that of the Central Statistical Office in 2003, from which the CIA Factbook seems to have drawn some data. Accordingly, the country's estimated gross domestic product (GDP) was $21.5 billion in 2003, a 28.6% growth over 2002 (CIA Factbook 2003) [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/af.html]
Among the 232 listed countries in the CIA Factbook, Afghanistan ranks 108th in terms of GDP, which means per capita income of $800. A brief comparison shows that Afghanistan is the poorest country among its neighbors. Pakistan, with a GDP of $347 billion in 2003 had a per capita purchasing power of $2200 and Iran with its $517 billion had $7700. In the north, Turkmenistan had a GDP of $27.6 billion and a per capita income of $5700, Uzbekistan with its $48 billion had $1800, and Tajikistan despite a low GDP of only $8 billion had a per capita income of $1100 per head. The World Bank estimates that Afghanistan will remain in need of external financial help before it can stand on its own feet economically.
Ironically, Afghanistan's GDP ranks approximately at the same level as Jordan ($25.5bn) and Qatar ($19.5bn). However, considering that those oil-rich Arab states have smaller populations, Jordan per capita income amounts to $4500 and Qatar's to $23,200.
One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over two million refugees from neighbouring countries and the West, who brought with them fresh energy, entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed capital to start up small businesses. What is also helping is the estimated $2-3 billion in international assistance, the partial recovery of the agricultural sector, and the reestablishment of market institutions.
While the country's current account deficit is largely financed with the "donor money", only a small portion - about 15% - is provided directly to the government budget. The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the UN system and NGOs. It needs to be mentioned that there are some (as yet unconfirmed) claims that most of this money is spent on the expenses of the UN and other non-governmental organizations as well as being funneled into illegitimate activities.
The government had a central budget of only $350 million in 2003 and an estimated $550 million in 2004. The country's foreign exchange reserves totals about $500 million. Revenue is mostly generated through customs, as income and corporate tax bases are negligible.
Inflation had been a major problem until 2002. However, the depreciation of the afghani in 2002 after the introduction of the new notes (which replaced 1,000 old afghani by 1 new afghani) coupled with the relative stability compared to previous periods has helped prices to stabilize and even decrease between December 2002 and February 2003, reflecting the turnaround appreciation of the new Afghani currency. Since then, the index has indicated stability, with a moderate increase toward late 2003 (Fujimura, 2004c).
The Afghan government and international donors seem to remain committed to improving access to basic necessities, infrastructure development, education, housing and economic reform. The central government is also focusing on improved revenue collection and public sector expenditure discipline. The rebuilding of the financial sector seems to have been so far successful. Money can now be transferred in and out of the country via official banking channels and according to accepted international norms. A new law on private investment provides 3-7 year tax holidays to eligible companies and a 4-year exemption from exports tariffs and duties.
While these improvements will help rebuild a strong basis for the nation in the future, for now, the majority of the population continues to suffer from insufficient food, clothing, housing, medical care, and other problems exacerbated by military operations and political uncertainties. The government is not strong enough to collect customs duties from all the provinces due to the power of the warlords. Fraud is widespread and “corruption is rife within all Afghan government org |
res the ability to shoot the dog. [http://www.cyberiapc.com/flashgames/duckhunt2.swf] The dog also makes a cameo in the NES game [[Barker Bill's Trick Shooting]] (also a Zapper game) and he can be shot.
The game had three modes: one and two-duck variations on the above formula and a third clay pigeon shooting mode. Most players regard this last mode as by far the most difficult; the clay pigeons were much smaller [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprites]] than the ducks. Additionally, in later rounds shooting multiple clays required faster [[reaction time]] than as in the same numbered round in the duck modes.
The [[skeet shooting|skeet shoot]] mode appeared only as a bonus game in ''Vs. Duck Hunt''.
==Packaging==
The game was placed in two combination [[cartridge (electronics)|cartridges]]. If one bought the original Action Set configuration of the NES in the late [[1980s]], ''Duck Hunt'' was included with ''[[Super Mario Bros.]]''. This particular cartridge is the most commonly found NES cartridge in the United States. If one had purchased the NES system in a bundle with the [[Power Pad]], then ''Duck Hunt'' was included on a 3-in-1 cartridge that additionally included [[World Class Track Meet]]. ''Duck Hunt'' was available in a standard single cartridge form, but it is very rare (yet not that valuable).
==Trivia==
* While marketed as a single player game, the second player controller could be used to direct the duck, though it was tricky to master. Many people believe that this is a [[glitch]], but the instruction booklet packaged with the game shows this as a feature.
* The player could not control the ducks in "Two Duck" and the "[[Trap shooting|Trap Shooting]]" modes.
* The [[music]] was composed by [[Hirokazu Tanaka|Hirokazu "Hip" Tanaka]].
* On [[Comedy Central]]'s ''[[The Daily Show with Jon Stewart]]'', this game was used as a "digital simulation" of a duck-hunting trip between [[Donald Rumsfeld]] and Justice [[Antonin Scalia]]. Also mentioned in the [[FCC Song]].
* Duck Hunt does not continue forever. After level 99, the player advances to level "00". On level "00", no ducks emerge, but the sound of duck wings persists. After 10 non-duck appearances (and 10 bursts of mocking laughter from the dog), the game ends.
* "Duck Hunted", a short animated comedy involving a person being transported into the video game world of Duck Hunt, was featured at the 2005 Newport Beach Film Festival.
* On Februrary 14, 2006, the game was again used as "digital simulation" of [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Dick Cheney]]'s accidental shooting of [[Harry Whittington]] on both Comedy Central's ''The Daily Show with Jon Stewart'' and [[MSNBC]]'s ''[[Countdown with Keith Olbermann]]''.
==Appearances in other video games==
*''[[Barker Bill's Trick Shooting]]'' has occasional appearances of the ''Duck Hunt'' dog. In the "Balloon Saloon" game, he can be shot when he pops his head up during a round.
*''[[Super Smash Bros. Melee]]'' features a trophy of ducks from ''Duck Hunt''.
*Many entries in the ''[[WarioWare, Inc.]]'' series features minigames based on ''Duck Hunt''.
==See also==
*[[List of Famicom games]]
*[[List of NES games]]
*''[[Repercussions of Fowl Lamentation]]'' - Comedic tribute album of the Duck Hunt soundtrack
*[[List of Duck Hunt games by genre]]
==External links==
*[http://www.johnnyslack.com/duckhunt/ Duck Hunt recreated on Flash]
*{{moby game|id=/duck-hunt|name=''Duck Hunt''}}
[[Category:Light gun games]]
[[Category:Arcade games]]
[[Category:NES games]]
[[Category:Intelligent Systems games]]
[[Category:1984 arcade games]]
[[Category:1984 computer and video games]]
[[Category:First-person shooter]]
[[Category: PlayChoice-10 games]]
[[Category:Nintendo Vs. Series games]]
[[fr:Duck Hunt]]
[[nl:Duck Hunt]]
[[pl:Duck Hunt]]
[[sv:Duck Hunt]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Das Boot</title>
<id>8994</id>
<revision>
<id>42147245</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:16:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.129.4.103</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Detailed plot */ m</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
name =Das Boot |
image =Das Boot DVD.jpg |
writer =[[Wolfgang Petersen]] (screenplay) <br> [[Lothar-Günther Buchheim]] (novel) |
producer =[[Günter Rohrbach]] |
starring =[[Jürgen Prochnow]]<br>[[Herbert Grönemeyer]] |
director =[[Wolfgang Petersen]] |
distributor =[[Columbia Pictures]] |
released =[[September 17]], [[1981]] ([[West Germany]]) |
runtime =216 min. ''(director's cut)''; 293 min. ''(original uncut version)''|
language =German |
budget =$14,000,000 |
music =[[Klaus Doldinger]] |
awards = |
imdb_id =0082096 |
}}
'''''Das Boot''''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[dɑs boːt]}}, [[German (language)|German]] for ''The Boat'') is a film directed by [[Wolfgang Petersen]], adapted from a novel of the same name by [[Lothar-Günther Buchheim]]. [[Hans-Joachim Krug]], former first officer on [[Unterseeboot 219|U-219]], served as a consultant, as well as [[Heinrich Lehmann-Willenbrock]], the actual captain of the real [[Unterseeboot 96|U-96]].
The movie has a strong anti-war message. One of Petersen's stated goals was to guide the audience through a "journey into madness," showing "what war is all about." Petersen heightened suspense by very rarely showing any external views of the [[submarine]] unless it is running on the surface and relying on sounds to convey action outside the boat, thus showing the audience only what the crew would see.
The original [[1981]] version cost [[Deutsche Mark|DM]] 30 million<ref>[http://www.dasboot.com/original.htm Official Website]</ref> ($40 million in [[1997]] dollars<!---US dollars? Say so!--->) to make; it was at the time the most expensive film in the history of [[Cinema of Germany|German cinema]]. The director's meticulous attention to detail resulted in the most realistic submarine movie – and one of the most historically accurate war movies – ever made.
==Movie==
===Story===
The movie is the story of a single mission of one [[U-boat]] and its crew, following [[Unterseeboot 96|U-96]] from its departure from [[La Rochelle]], [[France]], through its patrols in the North [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] and an attempted penetration of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], to its return to [[La Rochelle]]. It depicts both the excitement of battle and the tedium of the fruitless hunt, and portrays the men serving aboard U-boats as ordinary individuals with a desire to do their best for their comrades and their country. The story is based, loosely, on an amalgamation of the exploits of the real [[Unterseeboot 96|U-96]], a [[Type VII U-boat|Type VIIC-class U-boat]] commanded by [[Heinrich Lehmann-Willenbrock]], one of Germany's top U-boat "tonnage aces" during the war.
===Detailed plot===
[[Image:DasBoot(Rochelle).jpeg|233px|thumb|right| [[U-96]] departs from La Rochelle, France on a patrol.]]
{{spoilers}}
The story is told from the viewpoint of war correspondent Lt. Werner ([[Herbert Grönemeyer]]), who has signed up to write a report on the U-96. He joins its captain ([[Jürgen Prochnow]]), who is only named as "der Alte" ("the Old Man") or "Kaleu" (short for his rank of [[Kapitänleutnant|Kapitänleutnant]]), and drives to [[Saint Nazaire]], where he is disturbed to see most of the crew, including the "2WO" (the Second Lieutenant, played by [[Martin Semmelrogge]]) drunk in a sleazy cabaret. There, he also meets the "1WO" (the First Lieutenant, played by Hubertus Bengsch), an ardent [[Nazi]], and the "LI", the quiet Chief Engineer ([[Klaus Wennemann]]), who is tormented by the failing health of his wife back in [[Cologne]].
When the U-96 launches into the sea, Werner is in awe and takes a lot of photos of the submarine and its crew. He gets to know the rest of the crew, like Johann, the Mechanic (Erwin Leder), Chief Bosun, and some crewmen like Ullmann, Pilgrim, Frenssen, Dufte or Schwalle. He marvels when the submarine makes its first dive to 150 metres. But time passes, and he begins to realize the routine of being crammed together with 40 people in a small space with no ventilation. There is an unhealthy undercurrent of sweat, filth and boredom, fuelled by the fact that there is nobody to fight against. Werner has no one to talk to. He cannot relate to the battle-hardened Captain, the quiet LI, the Nazi 1WO, the cynical 2WO or the tough crew.
[[Image:DasBoot(Destroyer).jpeg|thumb|233px|right|[[U-96]] under attack by a British destroyer.]]
Life becomes crushingly boring when the U-96 fails to make contact with the enemy. But then, the U-96 stumbles upon a British destroyer and attempts to attack it. Their [[periscope]] is spotted, and they barely escape being rammed. The U-96 dives, but is hit by [[depth charge]]s and takes damage, most notably water leaks, every submariner's nightmare. The crew quickly patches them up and resurfaces safely.
A huge storm hits which reduces the U-96 to a bit of driftwood. Towering waves hit the submarine and send it reeling. Werner is ridiculed for his fear of the elements, but after a week of the relentless storm (i.e. almost no resting or sleeping), even the sea-hardened crew get pushed to their limits. Then, the U-96 sees a friendly German submarine. The Captain is irate, because two submarines in such close proximity mean that a huge part of the sea is unguarded, and safe for enemy ships. The misfortune of the U-96 — no kills, totally out of position, horrible weather — sends the crew's morale to a nadir.
[[Image:Dasboot043.jpeg|thumb|233px|right|[[U-96]] enco |
<revision>
<id>15910858</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-25T21:01:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Karen Johnson</username>
<id>1300</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hobbit]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hollywood cycles</title>
<id>13240</id>
<revision>
<id>40070838</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T22:45:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>WhyBeNormal</username>
<id>256949</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In the classic era of [[Hollywood]] [[film|cinema]] ([[1930]] – [[1945]]) the "cycles" or genres matured. They were called cycles, which was a short term for stories that were similar. While we would recognize many of the genres as [[Western (genre)|Westerns]], [[Gangster film|gangsters]], [[Musical film|musicals]], etc., often the cycles were significantly more specific. Instead of "romantic comedy" it might be "Boy-meets-girl-boy-loses-girl-boy-gets-girl" cycle.
==See also==
* [[Film theory]]
* [[Genre film theory]]
* [[Formula fiction]] ''In literary works, generic storylines are referred to as formula fiction.''
{{filming-stub}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>H.G. Wells</title>
<id>13241</id>
<revision>
<id>15910860</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-23T20:06:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>UtherSRG</username>
<id>33145</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[H. G. Wells]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hillary Rodham Clinton</title>
<id>13242</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42153222</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:14:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lockley</username>
<id>207616</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Possible presidential race */ narrow cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Senator | name=Hillary Rodham Clinton
| nationality=American
| image name=Hillary Rodham Clinton.jpg
| jr/sr and state=Junior [[United States Senator|Senator]], [[New York]]
| party=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| term=January [[2001]]&ndash;Present
| preceded=[[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]]
| succeeded= Incumbent
| date of birth=[[October 26]], [[1947]]
| place of birth=[[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]]
| dead=alive
| date of death=
| place of death=
| height=174 cm
| law school=[[Yale University]], 1973
| spouse=President [[Bill Clinton]]
| religion=[[United Methodist]]
}}
'''Hillary Rodham Clinton''' (born '''Hillary Diane Rodham''' on [[October 26]], [[1947]]) is the junior [[United States Senate|United States Senator]] from [[New York]], serving her freshman term since [[January 3]], [[2001]]. She is married to <!--do not add "former" here, as former Presidents are still referred to as President--> [[President of the United States|President]] [[Bill Clinton]], and was [[First Lady of the United States]] from [[1993]] to [[2001]]. Before that she was a prominent [[lawyer]] and First Lady of [[Arkansas]]. She is a member of the [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]].
==Early life and education==
[[Image:Rodham family portrait.jpg|thumb|Rodham family portrait]]
Hillary Rodham was born in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], and was raised in a [[Methodist]] family in [[Park Ridge, Illinois|Park Ridge]], [[Illinois]]. Her father, [[Hugh Rodham| Hugh Ellsworth Rodham]], a [[American conservatism|conservative]], worked in the textile industry, and her mother, [[Dorothy Emma Howell Rodham]], was a [[homemaker]].
===Grade School===
As a child, Hillary was interested in sports, her church, and her school, a public school in Park Ridge. Prior to graduating from [[Maine South High School]], she attended [[Maine East High School]], where she served as class president, a member of the student council, a member of the debating team, and as a member of the [[National Honor Society]]. During her final year of high school (Maine South High School), she received the school's first [[social science]] award. Throughout her youth, Rodham was fond of sports, including [[tennis]], [[ice skating|skating]], [[ballet]], [[swimming]], [[volleyball]], and [[softball]]. She earned many awards as a Brownie and [[Girl Scouts of the USA| Girl Scout]] [http://www.hillary-rodham-clinton.org/education.html]. Hillary entered the world of politics in [[1964]], at the age of 16, by supporting the presidential bid of [[Arizona]] [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] [[Senator]] [[Barry Goldwater]]. Her parents encouraged her to pursue the career of her choice [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/hc42.html] [http://www.hillary-rodham-clinton.org/].
===College===
====Wellesley====
After completing high school in [[1965]], Rodham enrolled at [[Wellesley College]] in [[Massachusetts]] where she became active in politics, serving, for a time, as President of the Wellesley College Chapter of the [[College Republicans]]. During her junior year at Wellesley in [[1968]], Rodham was affected by the death of the [[civil rights]] leader [[Martin Luther King Jr.| Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.]], whom she had met in person in [[1962]] [http://www.hillary-rodham-clinton.org/education.html]. After attending the Wellesley in Washington program at the urging of Professor [[Alan Schechter]], her political views became more [[Liberalism|liberal]] and she joined the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]. Having been named [[valedictorian]] of her graduating class at Wellesley, Rodham graduated, in [[1969]], with departmental honors in [[Political Science]]. She became the first student in the history of Wellesley College to deliver a [[commencement address]] when she spoke at her own graduation [http://www.wellesley.edu/PublicAffairs/Commencement/1969/053169hillary.html]. Her speech received a standing ovation and she was featured in an article published by [[Life (magazine)| ''Life'']] magazine [http://www.hillary-rodham-clinton.org/education.html].
====Yale Law School====
In [[1969]], Rodham entered [[Yale Law School]] where she served on the Board of Editors of [[Yale Review of Law and Social Action]] and worked with underprivileged children at the [[Yale-New Haven Hospital]]. During the [[summer]] of [[1970]], she was awarded a [[grant]] to work at the [[Children's Defense Fund]] in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], [[Massachusetts]]. During the summer of [[1971]], she traveled to [[Washington, D.C.]] to work on Senator [[Walter Mondale]]'s subcommittee on [[migrant]] workers, researching migrant problems in [[housing]], [[sanitation]], [[health]] and [[education]]. For the summer of [[1972]], Rodham worked in the western states for the Democratic presidential candidate [[George McGovern]]'s campaign. During her second year in law school, she volunteered at the [[Yale Child Study Center]], learning about new research on early childhood [[brain]] development. She also took on cases of [[child abuse]] at New Haven Hospital and worked at the city Legal Services, providing free legal service to the poor. She received a [[Juris Doctor]] (J.D.) degree from Yale in [[1973]], having written her widely recognized thesis on the rights of children [http://www.hillary-rodham-clinton.org/education.html], and began a year of post-graduate study on [[children]] and [[medicine]] at the [[Yale Child Study Center]].
==1972-1992==
===Role in Watergate===
During her post-graduate study, Rodham also served as staff attorney for the Children’s Defense Fund. She joined the presidential impeachment inquiry staff advising the [[U.S. House Committee on the Judiciary|Judiciary Committee]] of the [[United States House of Representatives]] during the [[Watergate Scandal]].
===Arkansas Law School===
Rodham became a faculty member (one of only two women in the faculty) at the [[University of Arkansas]] Law School, located in [[Fayetteville]], where her Yale Law School classmate and boyfriend [[Bill Clinton]] was teaching as well.
===Marriage and Rose Law Firm===
In [[1975]] Rodham and Clinton were married and moved to [[Little Rock]], [[Arkansas]]. In [[1976]], Hillary Rodham joined the venerable and influential [[Rose Law Firm]], specializing in [[intellectual property]] cases while doing child advocacy cases [[pro bono]]. In [[1979]], she became the first woman to be made a full [[partnership|partner]] of Rose Law Firm [http://www.edwardsly.com/clinton.htm]. [[Jimmy Carter|President Jimmy Carter]] appointed Rodham to the board of the [[Legal Services Corporation]] in [[1978]].
===First Lady of Arkansas===
In [[1978]], with the election of her husband as [[governor]] of [[Arkansas]], Rodham became Arkansas's First Lady, her title for a total of 12 years. On February 27, [[1980]], Rodham gave birth to [[Chelsea Clinton|Chelsea]], their only child.
In [[1980]], Bill Clinton was defeated in his re-election bid for governor and the couple left the statehouse. In February [[1982]], Bill Clinton announced his bid to regain the office, which would be successful; at the same time, Rodham began using the name Hillary Rodham Clinton. [''Living History'' p. 93]
As first lady, Clinton chaired the Arkansas Educational Standards Committee, where she successfully fought (against some opposition) for improved testing standards of new teachers [http://www.oldstatehouse.com/educational_programs/classroom/arkansas_news/detail.asp?id=528&issue_id=29&page=1]. She also chaired the Rural Health Advisory Committee and introduced a pioneering program called Arkansas' Home Instruction Program for Preschool Youth, which trains parents to work with their children in preschool preparedne |
timestamp>2003-12-27T21:35:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RedWolf</username>
<id>27822</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Changed to redirect (see the talk page)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AppleTalk]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apple II family</title>
<id>2116</id>
<revision>
<id>41926296</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:49:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nintendude</username>
<id>584148</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:The_Apple_II.jpg|thumb|400px|The 1977 Apple II, complete with integrated keyboard, color high-resolution graphics, sound, a sleek plastic case, and eight expansion slots.]] The '''Apple II''' was the first [[microcomputer]] manufactured by [[Apple Computer]]. Its direct ancestor was the [[Apple I]], a circuit board computer for hobbyists that was never produced in quantity but which pioneeered many of the features that made the Apple II a success. Introduced at the [[West Coast Computer Faire]] in 1977, the Apple II was one of the very first (and most successful) [[personal computers]]. A number of different models were sold, and the most popular model was manufactured, with relatively minor changes, into the 1990s.
Unlike any other machine before it, the Apple II looked more like an appliance than a piece of electronic test equipment. This was a computer that would not seem out of place in the home, on a manager's desk, or in a classroom. The lid popped easily off the sleek beige plastic case, allowing access to the entire motherboard and inviting users to look inside and tinker with the computer's eight expansion slots and its bounty of empty RAM sockets, which could hold up to 48 kilobytes of memory.
Also unique for its time were the machine's color and high-resolution graphics modes (which could be used on an ordinary television), its sound capbilities, and its built-in BASIC programming language. Compared to earlier machines, these features were well-documented and easy to learn. The Apple II thus marked the beginning of the personal computer revolution: it was a machine for the masses, not just hobbyists, scientists, and engineers. The Apple II's influence was widespread; most of the machines that followed imitated many aspects of the successful machine.
Throughout the 1980s and much of the 1990s, the Apple II was the ''de facto'' standard computer in [[United States|American]] [[K-12]] schools and even some colleges and universities. Some of these machines are still operational in classrooms today. The Apple II was popular with business users as well as with families and schools, particularly after the release of the first-ever computer [[spreadsheet]], ''[[VisiCalc]]'', which initially ran only on the Apple II.
See the [[computing timeline]] for dates of Apple II family model releases &ndash; the 1977 Apple II and its younger siblings, the II Plus, [[Apple IIe|IIe]], [[Apple IIc|IIc]], [[Apple IIc Plus|IIc Plus]] and [[Apple IIgs|II<small>GS</small>]].
== History ==
=== The original Apple II ===
The first Apple II computers went on sale on [[June 5]], [[1977]] with a [[MOS Technology]] [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] microprocessor running at 1 MHz, 4 [[kilobyte|KB]] of [[Random Access Memory|RAM]], an [[compact audio cassette|audio cassette]] interface for loading programs and storing data, and the [[Integer BASIC]] programming language built into the [[Read-only memory|ROMs]]. The video controller displayed 24 lines by 40 columns of upper-case-only text on the screen, with [[NTSC]] [[composite video]] output suitable for display on a monitor, or on a TV set by way of an [[RF modulator]]. The original retail price of the computer was $1298 with 4KB of RAM and $2638 with 48KB of RAM, the maximum amount of memory supported on the original motherboard.
To reflect the machine's then-unique color graphics capability, the Apple logo on the computer's case was made up of rainbow stripes, and these remained a part of the logo until early 2000.
Later, an external 5&frac14;-inch [[floppy disk]] drive, the '''Disk II''', attached via a controller card that plugged into one of the computer's expansion slots (usually slot 6), gave users much more convenient data storage and retrieval. The Disk II interface, created by [[Steve Wozniak]] ("Woz"), is still regarded as an engineering masterpiece. Where other controllers had dozens of chips for synchronizing data I/O with disk rotation, seeking the head to the appropriate track, and encoding the data into magnetic pulses, Woz's controller card had few chips; instead, the Apple DOS used software to perform these functions. The [[Group Code Recording]] used by the controller was simpler and easier to implement in software than the more common [[Modified Frequency Modulation|MFM]]. According to legend, Woz laid out the circuit board several times as he realized that moving one more function to software would allow him to remove yet another chip. In the end, the low chip count of the controller contributed to making Apple's Disk II the first affordable floppy drive system for personal computers. As a side effect, Woz's scheme also made it easy for [[proprietary software]] developers to [[copy protection|copy-protect]] the media on which their software shipped by changing the low-level sector format or stepping the drive's head between the tracks; naturally, other companies eventually sold software to foil such protection.
The approach taken in the Disk II controller was typical of Woz's design sensibility. The Apple II is full of clever engineering tricks to save hardware and reduce costs. For example, by interleaving the video generation circuitry's memory access with the CPU's, a feature unique to the 6502, Woz eliminated the need for a separate refresh circuit for the DRAM chips. Rather than using a complex analog-to-digital circuit to read the outputs of the game controller, Woz used a simple timer circuit whose period was proportional to the resistance of the game controller, then used a software loop to measure the timer. The text and graphics screens had a frankly Byzantine arrangement (the scanlines were not stored in sequential areas of memory) which reputedly was due to Woz's realization that doing it that way would save a chip; it was less expensive to have software calculate or look up the address of the needed scanline than to include the extra hardware.
The epitome of the Apple II design philosophy was the Apple II sound circuitry. Rather than having a dedicated sound-synthesis chip, the Apple II had a toggle circuit that could only emit a click through a built-in speaker; all other sounds (including two, three, and eventually four-voice music and playback of audio samples and speech synthesis) were generated entirely by clever software that clicked the speaker at just the right times. Not for nearly a decade would an Apple II be released with a dedicated sound chip. Similar techniques were used for cassette storage; the cassette output worked the same as the speaker, and the input was a simple zero-crossing detector that served as a very crude (1-bit) audio digitizer. Routines in the ROM were used to encode and decode data in [[frequency shift keying]] for the cassette. These brilliant quirks served as a gauntlet that drew scores of equally quirky and brilliant programmers to the platform, and these became the Apple II's lifeblood.
Wozniak's open design and the Apple II's multiple expansion slots permitted a wide variety of third-party devices to expand the capabilities of the machine. Serial controllers, improved display controllers, memory boards, hard disks, and networking components were available for this system in its day. There were also emulator cards, such as the Z80 card which permitted the Apple to switch to the [[Zilog Z80|Z80]] processor and run a multitude of programs developed under the [[CPM operating system|CP/M operating system]], including the [[DBASE|dBase II]] database and the [[WordStar]] word processor. There was also a third-party [[Motorola 6809|6809]] card with which one could run [[OS-9]] Level One. The [[Mockingboard]] sound card greatly improved the audio capabilities of the Apple with simple music synthesis and text to speech. Eventually ''accelerator boards'' were created to double or quadruple the computer's speed.
==The family grows==
===Apple II Plus===
[[Image:Apple_II_Plus.jpg|thumb|right|375px|The Apple II Plus with a pair of Disk II drives. The Disk II was the first microcomputer floppy drive.]]
The Apple II was eventually superseded by the '''Apple II Plus''', which included the [[Applesoft BASIC]] programming language in ROM. This Microsoft-authored dialect of BASIC, which was previously available as an upgrade, supported floating-point arithmetic (albeit at a slower speed than Steve Wozniak's Integer BASIC) and became the standard BASIC dialect on the Apple.
The Apple II Plus had a total of 48 kilobytes of RAM, expandable to 64 KB by means of the ''language card,'' an expansion card that could be installed in the computer's slot 0. The Apple's 6502 microprocessor could support a maximum of 64 KB of memory, and a machine with 48 KB RAM reached this limit because of the additional 16 KB of read-only memory and I/O addresses. For this reason, the extra RAM in the language card was bank-switched over the machine's built-in ROM, allowing code loaded into the additional memory to be used as if it actually were ROM. Users could thus load Integer BASIC into the language card from disk and switch between the Integer and Applesoft dialects of BASIC with DOS 3.3's INT and FP commands just as if they had the BASIC ROM expansion card. The language card was also required to use the [[UCSD Pascal]] and [[FORTRAN|FORTRAN 77]] compilers, which were released |
l into a pocket of the table. If they succeed, they continue to "shoot". If no balls are pocketed, then the shooting player's turn is over and the other player/team attempts to pocket their balls. If a player has sunk all of his or her balls, the player must sink the black 8 in order to win the game. If the black 8 is sunk earlier, the player loses. These are the basics of the game and the rest of the rules vary wildly based upon where the game is being played and by whom. These variations are based upon the rules of the various pool organizations and also local house rules.
Eight Ball is the most popular billiards game in the [[United States]].
[[image:Eight_Ball_Rack_2005_SeanMcClean.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The rack.]]
== Lines and points on the table ==
Imagine the pool table divided into two equal halves the long way by an imaginary line (called the "long string"). Also imagine two lines crossways to the long string one quarter of the way from each end. These are called the "head string" and "foot string". The intersection of the long and head strings is called the "head spot", and the intersection of the long and foot strings is called the "foot spot".
[[Image:8 ball.jpg|thumb|right|300px|8 ball]]
==Playing the game==
There are four phases to the game: setup, breaking, taking turns, and pocketing the 8 ball.
===Setting up the game===
To start the game, the colored balls are placed in a [[triangle]], called a "rack." The base of the rack is parallel to the short end of the pool table and positioned so the ball in the tip of the rack is located on the foot spot. The balls in the rack are pressed into contact with the foot ball, and remain in contact after the rack is removed. Within the rack, the 8-ball is centered while the two corners are each spotted with one solid ball and one stripe ball (See image). The cue ball is placed anywhere the breaker desires between the head string and its nearest short side (that is, the quarter of the table farthest from the rack), an area known as the "kitchen."
===Break===
One person is chosen to shoot first ("break" the balls apart; note that this is a different definition of the word "break" than in other billiards games, notably [[snooker]]) by any number of methods: flip of a coin, loser of last game breaks, winner of last game breaks, "lag", etc. If the shooter who breaks fails to make a legal break (usually defined as at least four balls hitting cushions) then the opponent can either re-rack and break, or play from the current position.
If the breaker pockets a ball, it is still the same player's turn. This area of the game has two possible variations.
*The breaker is deemed to have legally pocketed the ball, and continues to shoot for balls in the same group. In this interpretation, if balls in both groups are potted, a common rule is for the player to nominate which group they will shoot for, but for their turn to end.
*The table is still "open" until someone legally pockets a ball (accepted by BCA)
A common "house rule" is that if the 8 ball is potted on the break, the player wins immediately.
===Taking Turns===
The players now take turns. The turn is over if a player makes a fault or fails to pocket one of the object balls.
===Pocketing the 8 ball===
Once all the player's object balls are pocketed, he/she can now attempt to sink the 8 ball and win. First he/she must specify the pocket it will land in, and make it in that pocket; otherwise it will be in the wrong pocket and he/she loses.
==Faults==
When one player commits a fault, the other player gets "ball in hand", that is, may place the cue ball anywhere on the table before playing their next shot. Area of substantial disagreement in rules: some (including the [[Billiard Congress of America|BCA]]) play that (after the break) the cueball may be placed anywhere, and shoot at anything. Others play that the person with ball in hand may only place the cue ball in the "kitchen", and must shoot out of the "kitchen" before hitting any ball (that is, they may not shoot at a ball inside the "kitchen" directly). However, if all their balls are inside the "kitchen", they can request that the one closest to the head string be placed on the head spot. Under BCA rules, if the cue ball is pocketed on the break, the cue ball must be placed in the "kitchen" and shot out. If he/she pots the cue ball while playing on the black, it will be an immediate foul and the opposite player will receive two shots whether or not he/she is on the black. If he/she pots the black and the cue ball he/she will automatically lose the game.
'''APA rules:'''
* Whether (and how) jumping the cue ball is a fault
* Whether you lose if you:
** Shoot at the eight ball and miss
** Shoot at the eight ball, pocket the cue ball, but don't pocket the eight ball
* Whether the players have to announce ball and pocket
* Whether pocketing the eight ball on the break is a win or a loss
== Possible set of rules ==
'''Note:''' The rules for this game may be the most contested of any billiard game; MAKE SURE that you and your opponent agree on the rules before playing. Many people and leagues in the USA use the [[Billiard Congress of America]] (BCA) rules as their standard. The place where you are playing may also have their own house rules, though you should still consult your opponent on whether to play by them.
One possible set of rules follows, but it doesn't exactly match the BCA rules:
Winning situation:
* the player has legally pocketed the eight ball
Losing situations:
* the player plays the eight ball in a fault situation.
* the player pockets the eight ball while he still has object balls in his group on the table
* the player pockets the eight ball in the same shot as the last object ball in his group
* the player has jumped the eight ball off the table
Possible fault situations:
* the player does not execute a legal stroke
* the player pockets the cue ball
* the player does not have at least one foot on the floor
* the player shoots the cue ball before all other balls have come to a complete stop
* the player hits the cue ball more than once during a shot
* the player touches the cue ball with something other than the tip of his cue
* the player touches any other ball
* the player causes a ball to leave the table
A legal stroke is defined as:
* the player hits the cue ball, then the cue ball hits one of the balls of that player's group of balls, then either the player pockets one of the player's own balls (not necessarily the one hit) or any ball hits a cushion.
== Differences between UK and US ==
In the version of pool or Eight Ball played in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Australia]], plain unnumbered red balls and yellow balls often replace the solid and striped balls. If not, the terms "bigs" (9-15) and "smalls" (1-7) are generally used instead. The black ball, however, still typically bears a number eight. Another difference is that the UK table has pockets just larger than the balls, whereas the American table has pockets significantly larger.
The cue ball is often placed initially directly opposite the other balls, on the boundary line of the kitchen.
Whether a ball contacts the rail, or the player pots one of his own balls, is irrelevant in deciding a foul. Instead, a legal move is one where the cueball first hits one of the balls in the player's own group, and does not pot the cueball, the black ball or any of the balls in the opponent's group. If the player does succeed in potting one of his own balls then he or she will often be rewarded with a free shot.
After a foul stroke in the UK, the offending player will miss a turn - known as the "two shots" rule. This generally replaces the "ball in hand" rule, except in the case that the cueball is potted. In this case the opposing player, in addition to receiving a second shot, may choose where to place the cueball. Sometimes the player is limited to the semicircle ("the D"), although the horizontal boundary line of the "kitchen" can also be permitted. It should also be noted there has never been a one-shot on the black rule despite popular belief, the EPA rules can be found at http://www.epa.org.uk/wrules.php
A common area of contention concerns "fouls on the black". Possibilities include:
*Any foul committed while shooting for the black ball is an instant loss.
*Any foul committed while both players are shooting for the black ball is an instant loss.
*Any foul committed while one's opponent shooting for the black ball only entitles him to one shot.
Similarly, there is contention over two shots "carrying over". Possibilities include:
#If a player has two shots, and pots a ball with the first, he still has two shots.
#If a player has two shots, and pots a ball with the first, he now has one shot left.
#Rule 1 applies unless the potted ball is his last coloured ball, in which case rule 2 applies.
Lastly, the question of "shooting backwards" after the white ball is respotted following being potted. Possibilities here include:
#A player may not hit a ball on or behind the line without hitting another ball or cushion first.
#A player may not "shoot backwards", but may shoot at balls behind the line provided that the direction of motion of the white ball is forwards.
#A player may shoot backwards.
Further disagreement may arise over whether it is acceptable to deliberately pot the white ball (usually if a "no shooting backwards" rule is in effect, and the opponents' balls are behind the line).
== Standardized Rules (World 8 Ball rules) ==
A standardized version of pool rules for professional competitions have been established. These are the rules played in most |
onza]]
* 1954 [[Ferrari 250#250 Monza|250 Monza]]
* 1956 [[Ferrari TR#250 Testa Rossa|250 Testa Rossa]]
* 1960 [[Ferrari TR#250 TR|250 TR60/61]]
* 1962 [[Ferrari 250 GTO|GTO]]
** 1962 [[Ferrari 250 GTO|250 GTO]]
** 1963 [[Ferrari 330#330 LMB|330 LMB]]
* 1963 [[Ferrari P|P/LM series]]
** 1963 [[Ferrari P#250 P|250 P]]
** 1964 [[Ferrari P#250 LM|250 LM]]
** 1964 [[Ferrari P#330 P|330 P]]
** 1965 [[Ferrari P#330 P2|330 P2]]
** 1966 [[Ferrari P#330 P3|330 P3]]
** 1967 [[Ferrari P#330 P4|330 P4]]
** 1967 [[Ferrari P#412 P|412 P]]
* 1969 [[Ferrari P|312 P]]
* 1969 [[Ferrari 512|512 S and 512 M]]
* 1971 [[Ferrari P|312 PB]]
* 1994 [[Ferrari 333 SP|333 SP]]
* 1996 [[Ferrari F50|F50 GT]]
** 2003 [[Ferrari F60|F60 ENZO|ENZO]]
== See also ==
* [[List of automobile manufacturers]]
* [[List of Italian companies]]
* [[List of Ferrari engines]]
== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Ferrari}}
* [http://ferrariworld.com The official Ferrari website] (in Italian, English and German)
* [http://www.ferrariforum.com Ferrari Forum] - Networking the Ferrari World
* [http://www.Forumula1.co.uk/ F1 Discussion Forum]
* [http://ferrarichat.com An online Ferrari community]
* [http://www.classictvcars.com/308-ferrari.php Magnum PI Ferrari]
* [http://www.myautoworld.com/autos/ferrari/ferrari.html myAutoWorld.com] Ferrari Profiles and Reviews
* [http://team56.gumballers.net Ferrari driving videos]
* [http://www.gumball-3000.com/rally/ Overview of Ferrari's in the Gumball 3000]
* [http://www.ferrarimarketletter.com Ferrari Market Letter] - Widely accepted as the bible on the Ferrari market
* [http://www.wheelsofitaly.com Ferrari's and other Italian Cars (Wheels Of Italy)]
* [http://www.automotoportal.com/ Automotive industry portal with Ferrari news]
==External Pictures Galleries==
*[http://galleriaferrari.com The Galleria Ferrari museum website] (in Italian and English)
*[http://www.netcarshow.com/ferrari/ Ferrari Pictures and Wallpapers]
; Chatting in IRC
* [irc://irc.quakenet.org/ferrari #Ferrari] -- The unofficial Ferrari support channel for all Ferrari fans in [[QuakeNet]] [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] Network
{{Template:Ferrari_vehicles}}
[[Category:Ferrari]]
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<page>
<title>Finno Ugric</title>
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<timestamp>2004-11-17T00:41:49Z</timestamp>
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<username>Naive cynic</username>
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<page>
<title>Freemasonry</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:16:51Z</timestamp>
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<username>Bedford</username>
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<comment>/* Organizations with Masonic affiliations */</comment>
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[[Image:Square compasses.png|frame|right|'''The Masonic Square and Compasses.''' (''This is found with or without the "G"'')]]
'''Freemasonry''' is a worldwide [[fraternal organization]]. Members are joined together by shared ideals of both [[Morality|moral]] and [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] nature and, in most of its branches, by a constitutional declaration of belief in a [[Great_Architect_of_the_Universe|Supreme Being]]. Organisationally, Freemasonry is governed on a geographic basis by independent, [[Sovereign]] [[Grand Lodge| Grand Lodges]] which may, or may not, be in a state of mutual recognition.<ref>http://www.grandlodge-england.org/pdf/cr-rule-update2-141205.pdf Aims and Relationships of the Craft Para 9</ref>
{{NPOV-section}}
Freemasonry is an [[Esotericism|esoteric]] society, in that certain aspects of its internal work are not generally disclosed to the public<ref>http://www.grandlodge-england.org/pdf/cr-rule-update2-141205.pdf Aims and Relationships of the Craft Para 11</ref>, but it is not an [[occult]] system. Masonry's critics however say that many of the most well known occultists have been Freemasons, and that in fact Freemasonry is at the very center of the [[occult]].<ref>http://www.conspiracyarchive.com/NWO/Freemasonry.htm Freemasonry: Midwife to an Occult Empire.</ref> Masonry says in recent years, it has become less and less a [[secret society]] and more of a "society with secrets." <ref>http://www.grandlodge-england.org/masonry/what-is-freemasonry.htm</ref><ref>http://www.grandlodge-england.org/masonry/YQA-secret-society.htm</ref> Freemasonrys critics say that there has been no change and that Freemasonry is as it has always been, a [[secret society]]. <ref>http://www.freemasonrywatch.org Freemasonry Watch</ref> Masons say that therefore, the private aspects of modern Freemasonry deal with elements of ritual and the modes of [[recognition]] amongst members within the [[ritual]]. <ref>Emulation Ritual ISBN 0 85318 187 X pub 1991, London</ref><ref>http://www.grandlodge-england.org/masonry/YQA-secret-society.htm</ref> Freemasonry's critics maintain that the oaths taken by Masons require them to keep all secrets of Masons, including knowledge of activities of other Masons that take place outside the Lodge. <ref>Inside the Brotherhood, Martin Short</ref>
==Organizational structure==
{{main|Grand Lodge}}
[[Image:freemasons.hall.london.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|Home of the United Grand Lodge of England.]]
There are many jurisdictions within Freemasonry, each sovereign and independent of the others, and usually defined according to a national or geographic territory. There is no central Masonic '''organizational structure''' or authority, and in any event many practices are determined by Lodge custom, so any general description will inevitably be inaccurate in respect of some places.
The authority in any Masonic jurisdiction is vested in a ''[[Grand Lodge]]'', or sometimes a ''Grand Orient''. Each jurisdiction maintains a list of other jurisdictions that it formally ''recognizes'' as meeting its requirements for ''regularity'' based on a number of ''Landmarks''. If the other jurisdiction reciprocates the recognition, the two jurisdictions are said to be ''in amity''. Being in amity means that the members are able to attend meetings bilaterally. In keeping with the decentralized and non-dogmatic nature of Freemasonry, there is no universally accepted list of landmarks, although a number of core principles exist. Jurisdictions in amity with each other may have very different ideas as to what those landmarks are, with some taking no official position at all{{fact}}.
Subject to the size of the Grand Lodge the geographic area of coverage may be sub-divided into Provinces, each governed by a Provincial, District or Metropolitan Grand Lodge.
The first Grand Lodge jurisdiction in Freemasonry was the [[Grand Lodge of England]], founded in [[1717]] when four existing Lodges met to form the governing body. A competing [[Grand Lodge]] formed in [[York]] claiming that the Grand Lodge in London had broken with a number of traditions and was divergent from the principles of Freemasonry. The Grand Lodge became known as the ''Moderns'' and the York Grand Lodge became known as ''Antients''. The two reunited in [[1813]], to become the [[United Grand Lodge of England]] (UGLE). It is today the only regular Craft jurisdiction in [[England]], and generally considered to be the oldest Grand Lodge jurisdiction in the world.
The oldest jurisdiction in the [[European]] Continental branch, and the largest jurisdiction in [[France]], is the [[Grand Orient de France]] (GOdF), founded in [[1728]]. At one time, the two branches bilaterally recognized each other, but most jurisdictions cut off formal relations with the GOdF around 1877<ref name="GOdF">Freemasons for Dummies, by Christopher Hodapp, Wiley Publishing Inc., Indianapolis, 2005, p.70, sec. "The Grand Orient of France"</ref>. The Grande Loge Nationale Francaise (GLNF) <ref>[http://www.grandelogenationalefrancaise.com/ The Grande Loge Nationale Francaise (GLNF)], accessed [[February 6]] [[2006]].</ref> is currently the only French Grand Lodge that is in ''regular amity'' with The United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE), and concordant jurisdictions. In most Latin countries, and in [[Belgium]], the GOdF style of European Continental Freemasonry predominates. The rest of the world, accounting for the bulk of Freemasonry, tends to follow the lead of the English UGLE, and concordant juristictions.
So, Freemasonry is often said to consist of two different branches:
* the UGLE and concordant tradition of jurisdictions (termed Grand Lodges) in amity and,
* the GOdF European Continental tradition of jurisdictions (often termed Grand Orients) in amity.
In reality, there is no tidy way to split jurisdictions into distinct camps, as recognition is constitutional, not dogmatic. In addition, the geographical territory of one jurisdiction may overlap with another's, which may affect their relations, for purely territorial reasons. In other cases, one jurisdiction may overlook irregularities in another due simply to |
his world is different from that of the child while still in the womb of its mother." The analogy to the womb in many ways summarizes the Bahá'í view of earthly existence. Just as the womb constitutes an important place for a person's initial physical development, the physical world provides the matrix for the development of the individual soul. Accordingly, Bahá'ís view life as a sort of workshop, where one can develop and perfect those qualities which will be needed in the next life.
"Know thou, of a truth, that if the soul of man hath walked in the ways of God, it will, assuredly return and be gathered to the glory of the Beloved," Bahá'u'lláh wrote. "By the righteousness of God! It shall attain a station such as no pen can depict, or tongue can describe."
In the [[Bahá'í Faith]], heaven can be seen partly as a state of nearness to God; [[hell]] being a state of remoteness from God. Each state follows as a natural consequence of individual efforts, or the lack thereof, to develop spiritually. The key to spiritual progress is to follow the path outlined by the Manifestations of God.
==Heaven in Judaism==
While the concept of heaven (''malkuth hashamaim'' מלכות השמים - The [[Kingdom of Heaven]]) is well-defined within the [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[Islam|Islamic]] religions, the [[Jewish eschatology|Jewish concept of the afterlife]], sometimes known as "olam haba", the world to come, was never set forth in a systematic or official fashion as was done in Christianity and Islam. Jewish writings refer to a "new earth" as the abode of humanity following the resurrection of the dead. Judaism does, however, have a belief in Heaven, not as a future abode for "good souls", but as the "place" where [[God]] "resides". [[kabbalah|Jewish mysticism]] recognizes seven heavens.
== Heaven in Hinduism ==
In Hinduism, with it's emphasis on [[reincarnation]], the concept of Heaven is not as prominent. While heaven is temporary (until the next birth), the permanent state that Hindus aspire to is [[Moksha]]. Moksha is seen as the soul's liberation from the cycle of life and death, a re-establishment in one's own fundamental divine nature and may include union with or joining God.
Entry into heaven ([[swarga]] loka) or hell ([[Naraka]]) is decided by the Lord of death [[Yama]] and his [[karma|karmic]] accountant, [[Chitragupta]], who records the good and bad deeds of a person during his lifetime. It must be noted that Yama and Chitragupta are subordinate to the supreme Lord [[Ishwara]] ('''God''') and work under his direction. Entry into heaven is only dependent on ones actions in the previous life and is not restricted by faith or religion. The ruler of heaven, where one enjoys the fruits of ones good deeds, is known as [[Indra]] and life in that realm is said to include interaction with many celestial beings (gandharvas).
==See also==
*[[Afterlife]]
*[[Astral projection]]
*[[Elysium]]
*[[Eschatology]]
*[[Hell]]
*[[Islamic eschatology]]
*[[Jannah]]
*[[Kingdom of Heaven]]
*[[Limbo]]
*[[Mag Mell]]
*[[Nirvana]]
*[[Out-of-body experience]]
*[[Purgatory]]
*[[Pure Land Buddhism]]
*[[Summerlands]]
*[[Svarga]]
*[[The Divine Comedy]]
*[[Utopia]]
*[[Vaikuntha]]
*[[Valhalla]]
==External links==
*[http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p123a12.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church "I believe in Life Everlasting"] Explanation of Catholic teaching about Heaven, Hell & Purgatory
*[http://www.yourquotations.net/Heaven.html Famous Quotes on Heaven]
*[http://www.many-lives.com/lives/paradise.html Salavation Versus Liberation, A Buddhist View of the Paradise or Heavenly Worlds]
* [http://www.Qu'ranichealing.com/bp.asp?caid=68 Everlasting Life in Paradise according to Qu'ran] Seven Steps rising to the heavens
* [http://lorabeth.com/lorafiles/loss/heaven/theology.htm Christian Theological Views of Heaven]
* [http://lorabeth.com/lorafiles/loss/heaven/betty.htm Personal Accounts (NDEs & Visions) of Heaven]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/heaven-hell/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Heaven and Hell]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20051222.shtml Heaven] from [[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)]]
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<page>
<title>History of Libya</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Leptis Magna market place April 2004.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Ruins of [[Leptis Magna]] in Libya]]
The visible '''history of Libya''' is a flux of stronger and weaker control by outsiders. The ''invisible'' unwritten history of Libya includes the history of its rich mix of peoples added to the indigenous [[Berber]] tribes. For most of their history, the peoples of Libya have been subjected to varying degrees of foreign control. The modern history of independent Libya begins in 1951.
==Ancient Libya (Tripolitania and Cyrenaica) to 647 CE==
Since Neolithic times, the climate of North Africa has been drying. A reminder of the [[desertification]] of the area is provided by megalithic remains, which occur in great variety of form and in vast numbers in presently arid and uninhabitable wastelands: dolmens and circles like [[Stonehenge]], cairns, underground cells excavated in rock, barrows topped with huge slabs, and step-pyramidlike mounds. Most remarkable are the [[trilithon]]s, some still standing, some thrown down, which occur isolated or in rows, and consist of two squared uprights standing on a common pedestal that support a huge transverse beam. In the Terrgurt valley "there had been originally no less than eighteen or twenty megalithic trilithons, in a line, each with its massive altar placed before it" according to Cowper.
In ancient times, the [[Phoenicia]]ns and [[Carthage|Carthaginians]], the armies of [[Alexander the Great]] and his [[Ptolemaic empire|Ptolemaic]] successors from Egypt, then [[Rome|Romans]], [[Vandal]]s, and local representatives of the [[Byzantine Empire]] ruled all or parts of Libya.
The territory of modern Libya had separate histories until Roman times, as Tripoli and Cyrenaica.
[[Tripoli]], was originally a group of Phoenician colony dependent on [[Carthage]]. Phoenicians founded the three great cities (''tri + polis'') of [[Oea]], Sabrata and [[Leptis Magna]] (site of magnificent Roman ruins). Carthage and its dependencies fell to Rome after the [[Third Punic War]]. Tripoli is the ancient sea port at the terminus of three great caravan routes linking the coast with [[Lake Chad]] and [[Timbuktu]] across the Sahara. Near the port of Tripoli stands a Roman triumphal arch with four richly sculpured fronts of white marble, the blocks being held together with cramps. It was begun in the reign of the emperor [[Antoninus Pius]], according to a still-unmutilated dedicatory inscription, and finished under [[Marcus Aurelius]].
[[Cyrenaica]], by contrast, was Greek before it was Roman. It was also known as Pentapolis, the "five cities" being [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] (near the village of Shahat) with its port of Apollonia (Marsa Susa), Arsinoe (Tocra), Berenice (Bengazi) and Barca (Merj). From the oldest and most famous of the [[Greek colonies]] the fertile coastal plain took the name of Cyrenaica.
==Islamic Tripolitania and Cyrenaica 642-1911==
[[Image:Age of Caliphs.gif|225px|thumb|right|The Age of the Caliphs]]
With tenuous Byzantine control over Libya restricted to a few poorly defended coastal strongholds, the Arab horsemen who first crossed into Pentapolis, Cyrenaica in September 642 encountered little resistance. Under the command of [[Amr ibn al-A'as]], the armies of Islam conquered Cyrenaica, renaming the city of Pentapolis, Burqa.
From Burqa, Uqba bin Nafe led a campaign against Fezzan, marching to Zaweela, the capital of Fezzan. No resistance was offered, and the entire district submitted to the Muslims agreeing to pay Jizya. A clause was further inserted in the peace treaty that part of the Jizya coming from the district was to be spent on the poor of the area.
In 647 an army of 40,000 [[Arab]]s, led by [[Abdallah ibn al-Sa’ad]], the foster-brother of Caliph [[Uthman ibn Affan]], penetrated further into western Libya. Tripoli was taken from the Byzantines, followed by [[Sufetula]], a city 150 miles south of [[Carthage]], where the Exarch Gregory, was killed. The campaign lasted fifteen months, after which Abdallah's force returned to [[Egypt]] after Gregory's successor Gennadius promised them an annual tribute of some 330,000 nomismata. Gennadius also sent the usual surplus of revenues over expenditures to Constantinople, but otherwise administered Africa as he liked. The new Exarch's greatest source of strength was from the [[Amazigh]] tribes&mdash;the Sanhaja-Awrabi, Zenata, Shawia, Hoda and others. When Gennadius refused to pay the additional sums demanded from Constantinople, his own men overthrew him.
Following the revolt Gennadius fled to Damascus and asked for aid from [[Muawiyah]], to whom he had paid tribute for years. The caliph sent a sizable force with Gennadius to invade Africa in 665. Even though the deposed exarch died after reaching [[Alexandria]], the Arabs marched on. From Sicily the Byzantines dispatched an army to reinforce Africa, but its commander Nicephorus the Patrician lost a battle with the Arabs and reembarked. |
ecosystem==
{{main|Biosphere}}
Earth is the only place in the universe where life is absolutely known to exist, and some scientists believe that [[Rare Earth hypothesis|biospheres might be rare]]. The planet's lifeforms are sometimes said to form a "[[biosphere]]". This biosphere is generally believed to have begun [[evolution|evolving]] about 3.5 billion (3.5{{e|9}}) years ago.
The biosphere is divided into a number of [[biome]]s, inhabited by broadly similar [[flora (plants)|flora]] and [[fauna (animals)|fauna]]. On land, biomes are separated primarily by [[latitude]]. Terrestrial biomes lying within the [[Arctic Circle|Arctic]] and [[Antarctic Circle]]s are relatively barren of [[plant]] and [[animal]] life, while most of the more populous biomes lie near the [[Equator]].
[[Image:90 mile beach.jpg|thumb|right|220px|A familiar [[beach|scene]] on Earth which simultaneously shows the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.]]
===Climate===
{{main|Climate}}
Two large areas of polar [[climate]]s separated by two rather narrow [[temperate]] zones from a wide [[equator]]ial band of [[tropical]] to [[subtropical]] climates. [[precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] patterns vary widely, ranging from several metres of water per year to less than a millimetre.
Ocean currents, particularly the spectacular [[thermohaline circulation]] which distributes heat energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions, are important determinators of climate.
===Terrain===
{{main|Extreme points of the world}}
'''Elevation extremes:''' (measured relative to [[sea level]])
* Lowest point on land: [[Dead Sea]] [[1 E2 m| &minus;417]] m
* Lowest point overall: [[Mariana Trench]] in the [[Pacific Ocean]] [[1 E4 m| &minus;10,924]] m <!-- Takuyo measurement; see Mariana Trench for details -->[http://www.rain.org/ocean/ocean-studies-challenger-deep-mariana-trench.html]
* Highest point: [[Mount Everest]] [[1 E3 m|8,844]] m (2005 est.)
===Natural resources===
{{main|Natural resource}}
* Earth's crust contains large deposits of [[fossil fuel]]s: ([[coal]], [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[methane clathrate]]). These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production.
* Mineral [[ore]] bodies have been formed in Earth's crust by the action of [[erosion]] and [[plate tectonics]]. These ore bodies form concentrated sources for many [[metal]]s and other useful [[chemical element|element]]s.
* Earth's [[biosphere]] produces many useful biological products, including (but far from limited to) [[food]], [[wood]], [[pharmaceutical]]s, oxygen, and the recycling of many organic wastes. The land-based [[ecosystem]] depends upon [[topsoil]] and fresh water, and the oceanic [[ecosystem]] depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.
Some of these resources, such as [[fossil fuel|mineral fuel]]s, are difficult to replenish on a short time scale, called [[non-renewable resources]]. The exploitation of non-renewable resources by human [[civilization]] has become a subject of significant controversy in modern [[environmentalism]] movements.
===Land use===
* ''Arable land:'' 10%
* ''Permanent crops:'' 1%
* ''Permanent pastures:'' 26%
* ''Forests and woodland:'' 32%
* ''Urban areas:'' 1.5%
* ''Other:'' 30% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
2,481,250 km<sup>2</sup> ([[1993]] est.)
===Natural and environmental hazards===
Large areas are subject to extreme [[weather]] such as (tropical [[cyclone]]s), [[hurricane]]s, or [[typhoon]]s that dominate life in those areas. Many places are subject to [[earthquake]]s, [[landslide]]s, [[tsunami]]s, [[volcano|volcanic eruptions]], [[tornado]]es, [[sinkhole]]s, [[flood]]s, [[drought]]s, and other calamities and [[disaster]]s.
Large areas are subject to man-made [[pollution]] of the air and water, [[acid rain]] and toxic substances, loss of vegetation ([[overgrazing]], [[deforestation]], [[desertification]]), loss of [[wildlife]], [[species]] [[extinction]], [[soils retrogression and degradation|soil degradation]], soil depletion, [[erosion]], and introduction of [[invasive species]].
Long-term [[climate]] [[global warming|alteration]] due to enhancement of the [[greenhouse effect]] by human industrial [[carbon dioxide]] emissions is an increasing concern, the focus of intense study and debate.
===Human geography===
[[Image:Earthlights dmsp.jpg|333px|thumb|right|Earth at night, composite of pictures taken between October 1994 and March 1995.]]
{{main|Human}}
Earth has approximately 6,500,000,000 human inhabitants ([[February 25]] [[2006]] estimate). [http://news.yahoo.com/s/space/20060224/sc_space/planetspopulationtohit65billionsaturday] Projections indicate that the [[world population|world's human population]] will reach seven billion in 2013 and 9.1 billion in 2050 (2005 [[United Nations|UN]] estimates). Most of the growth is expected to take place in [[developing nations]]. Human [[population density]] varies widely around the world.
It is estimated that only one eighth of the surface of the Earth is suitable for [[human]]s to live on &mdash; three-quarters is covered by [[ocean]]s, and half of the land area is [[desert]], high [[mountain]]s or other unsuitable terrain.
The northernmost settlement in the world is [[Alert, Nunavut|Alert]], [[Ellesmere Island]], [[Canada]]. The southernmost is the [[Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]], in [[Antarctica]], almost exactly at the [[South Pole]].
There are 267 administrative divisions, including nations, dependent areas, other, and miscellaneous entries. Earth does not have a [[sovereignty | sovereign]] [[government]] with planet-wide authority. Independent sovereign [[nation|nations]] claim all of the land surface except for some segments of [[Antarctica]]. There is a worldwide general [[international organization]], the [[United Nations]]. The United Nations is primarily an international discussion forum with only limited ability to pass and enforce [[international law|law]]s.
In total, about four hundred people have been outside the Earth's atmosphere as of [[2004]], and of these twelve have walked on the [[Moon]]. ''See [[space exploration]].''
==Descriptions of Earth==
Earth has often been personified as a [[deity]], in particular a [[goddess]] (''see [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] and [[Mother Earth]]''). The [[China|Chinese]] Earth goddess [[Hu-Tu]] is similar to Gaia, the deification of the Earth. As the patroness of fertility, her element is Earth. In [[Norse mythology]], the Earth goddess [[Jord]] was the mother of [[Thor]] and the daughter of [[Annar]].
Although commonly thought to be a sphere, the earth is actually an "oblate spheroid". It bulges slightly at the equator and slightly flattened at the poles. In the past there were varying levels of belief in a [[flat Earth]] because of this, but ancient Greek philosophers and, in the [[Middle Ages]], thinkers such as [[Thomas Aquinas]] knew that the Earth was a sphere.
Prior to the introduction of [[space flight]], this belief was countered with deductions based on observations of the secondary effects of the Earth's shape and parallels drawn with the shape of other planets. [[Cartography]], the study and practice of mapmaking, and vicariously [[geography]], have historically been the disciplines devoted to depicting the Earth. [[Surveying]], the determination of locations and distances, and to a somewhat lesser extent [[navigation]], the determination of position and direction, have developed alongside cartography and geography, providing and suitably quantifying the requisite information.
The technological developments of the latter half of the 20th century are widely considered to have altered the public's perception of the Earth. A photo taken of Earth by ''[[Voyager 1]]'' inspired [[Carl Sagan]] to describe the planet as a "[[Pale Blue Dot]]". Earth has also been described as a massive [[spaceship]], with a [[life support system]] that requires maintenance, or as having a [[biosphere]] that forms one large [[organism]]. ''See [[Spaceship Earth]] and [[Gaia theory]].''
==See also==
{|
!align=left| Subtopic !!align=left| Links
|-
| Ecology || [[Millennium Ecosystem Assessment]]
|-
| Economy || [[World economy]]
|-
| Fiction || [[Hollow Earth]] · [[Journey to the Center of the Earth]]
|-
| Astronomy || [[Darwin (ESA)]] · [[Terrestrial Planet Finder]]
|-
| Geography, &nbsp;&nbsp;<br>Geology || [[Degree Confluence Project]] · [[Earthquake]] · [[Extremes on Earth]] · [[Plate tectonics]] · [[Equatorial bulge]]
|-
| History || [[Geologic time scale]] · [[History of the World|Human history]] · [[Solar system#Origin and evolution of the solar system|Origin and evolution of the solar system]] · [[Timeline of evolution]]
|-
| Law || [[International law]]
|-
| Mapping || [[Google Earth]] · [[World Wind]]
|-
| Politics || [[List of countries]]
|}
==References==
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html NASA's Earth fact sheet]
* ''Discovering the Essential Universe'' (Second Edition) by Neil F. Comins (2001)
* [http://space.about.com/od/earth/a/earthinfo_2.htm space.about.com - Earth - Pictures and Astronomy Facts]
==External links==
{{commons|Earth}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{wiktionary}}
* [http://geomag.usgs.gov USGS Geomagnetism Program]
* [http://www.geo.cornell.edu/geology/classes/isacks/velstruct.pdf Overview of the Seismic Structure of Earth] {{PDFlink}}
* [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/BlueMarble NASA Earth Observatory]
* [http://www.projectshum.org/Planets/earth.html Projectshum.org's Earth fact file] (for younger folk)
{{Footer_SolarSystem}}
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[[Category:Earth|Earth]]
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[[af:Aarde]]
[[ang:Eorðe]]
[[ar:أرض]]
[[ast:Tierra]]
[[bg:Земя (планета)]]
[[bn:পৃথিবী]]
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[[cs:Země]]
[[csb:Zemia |
rn Europe and occurring as far east as the [[Urals]]. Some of the amber districts of the Baltic and North Sea were known in prehistoric times, and led to early trade with the south of Europe. Amber was carried to [[Olbia]] on the [[Black Sea]], Massilia (today [[Marseille]]) on the [[Mediterranean]], and [[Hatria]] at the head of the [[Adriatic]]; and from these centres it was distributed over the [[Hellenic]] world.
The [[Amber Room]] was a collection of chamber wall panels commissioned in [[1701]] for the king of [[Prussia]], then given to Tsar [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]]. The room was hidden in place from invading [[Nazi]] forces in 1941, who upon finding it in the Cathrine Palace, disassembled it and moved it to [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]]. What happened to the room beyond this point is unclear. It is presumed lost. It was [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3025833.stm re-created in 2003].
[[Image:amberroomdetail.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Amber Room]] was reconstructed from the [[Kaliningrad]] amber.]]
Amber and certain similar substances are found to a limited extent at several localities in the [[United States]], as in the green-sand of [[New Jersey]], but they have little or no economic value. A fluorescent amber occurs in the southern state of Chiapas in [[Mexico]], and is used extensively to create eye-catching jewellery. Blue amber is recorded in the [[Dominican Republic]]. These Central American ambers are formed from the resins of Legume trees (Hymenea) and not conifers.
==Varieties==
Besides succinite, which is the common variety of European amber, the following varieties also occur:
* Gedanite, or ''brittle amber,'' closely resembling succinite, but much more brittle, not quite so hard, with a lower melting point and containing no succinic acid. It is often covered with a white powder easily removed by wiping. The name comes from Gedanum, the Latin name of [[Gda&#324;sk]] at the [[Baltic Sea]].
* Stantienite, a brittle, deep brownish-black resin, destitute of succinic acid.
* Beckerite, a rare amber in earthy-brown nodules, almost opaque, said to be related in properties to gutta-percha.
* Glessite, a nearly opaque brown resin, with numerous microscopic cavities and dusty enclosures, named from glesum, an old name for amber.
* Krantzite, a soft amber-like resin, found in the lignites of [[Saxony]].
* Allingite, a [[fossil]] resin allied to succinite, from Switzerland.
* Roumanite, or Romanian amber, a dark reddish resin, occurring with lignite in Tertiary deposits. The nodules are penetrated by cracks, but the material can be worked on the lathe. [[Sulfur|Sulphur]] is present to the extent of more than 1%, whence the smell of sulphuretted hydrogen when the resin is heated. According to [[Gheorghe Murgoci]] the Romanian amber is true succinite.
* Simetite, or Sicilian amber, takes its name from the river [[Simeto]] or [[Giaretta]]. It occurs in [[Miocene]] deposits and is also found washed up by the sea near [[Catania]]. This beautiful material presents a great diversity of tints, but a rich hyacinth red is common. It is remarkable for its fluorescence, which in the opinion of some authorities adds to its beauty. Amber is also found in many localities in [[Emilia]], especially near the sulphur-mines of [[Cesena]]. It has been conjectured that the ancient [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] ornaments in amber were wrought in the Italian material, but it seems that amber from the Baltic reached the Etruscans at Hatria. It has even been supposed that amber passed from [[Sicily]] to northern Europe in early times - a supposition said to receive some support from the fact that much of the amber dug up in Denmark is red; but it must not be forgotten that reddish amber is found also on the Baltic, though not being fashionable it is used rather for varnish-making than for ornaments. Moreover, yellow amber after long burial is apt to acquire a reddish colour. The amber of Sicily seems not to have been recognized in ancient times, for it is not mentioned by local authorities like [[Diodorus Siculus]].
* Burmite is the name under which the Burmese amber is now described. Until the British occupation of [[Burma]] but little was known as to its occurrence, though it had been worked for centuries and was highly valued by the natives and by the Chinese. It is found in fiat rolled pieces, irregularly distributed through a blue clay probably of Miocene age. It occurs in the [[Hukawng]] valley, in the [[Nangotaimaw]] hills, where it is irregularly worked in shallow pits. The mines were visited some years ago by Dr [[Fritz Noetling]], and the mineral has been described by Dr [[Otto Helm]]. The Burmese amber is yellow or reddish, some being of ruby tint, and like the Sicilian amber it is fluorescent. Burmite and simetite agree also in being destitute of succinic acid. Most of the Burmese amber is worked at [[Mandalay]] into rosary-beads and ear-cylinders.
Many other fossil resins more or less allied to amber have been described. Schraufite is a reddish resin from the [[Carpathian]] [[sandstone]], and it occurs with [[Jet (lignite)||jet]] in the [[Cretaceous]] rocks of the [[Lebanon]]; ambrite is a resin found in many of the [[coal]]s of [[New Zealand]]; retinite occurs in the lignite of [[Bovey Tracey]] in Devonshire and elsewhere; whilst copaline has been found in the London clay of [[Highgate]] in North London. Chemawinite or cedarite is an amber-like resin from the [[Saskatchewan river]] in [[Canada]].
== See also ==
* [[List of minerals]]
* [[Ammolite]]
* [[Dominican amber]]
* [[Amber in British place names]]
* [[Spirit of amber]]
* [[Oil of amber]]
== References ==
# {{Note|1}} ''Assignment of vibrational spectra of labdatriene derivatives and ambers: A combined experimental and density functional theoretical study'' Manuel Villanueva-García, Antonio Martínez-Richa, and Juvencio Robles [[Arkivoc]] (EJ-1567C) pp 449-458 [http://www.arkat-usa.org/ark/journal/2005/I06_Juaristi/1567/EJ-1567C.asp Online Article]
==External links==
*[http://www.emporia.edu/earthsci/amber/amber.htm The World of Amber] A comprehensive website maintained by the Earth Science Department of Emporia State University, Emporia, Kansas (Accessed [[29 May]] [[2005]])
*[http://www.lariamber.com/mine.html Visit to an amber mine in the Dominican Republic]
*[http://www.ambarazul.com/domamb.html Dominican Amber]
*[http://www.amberemotion.com/faszination-bernstein.html Information about amber from Poland - Gdansk (German)]
* [http://baltic-amber.amberizon.com/ Facts about Baltic Amber]
[[Category:Fossils]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[cs:Jantar]]
[[cy:Ambr]]
[[da:Rav]]
[[de:Bernstein]]
[[et:Merevaik]]
[[es:Ámbar]]
[[eo:Sukceno]]
[[fr:Ambre]]
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[[io:Sucino]]
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[[it:Ambra (resina)]]
[[he:ענבר]]
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[[nl:Barnsteen]]
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[[pt:Âmbar]]
[[ru:Янтарь]]
[[sl:Jantar]]
[[fi:Meripihka]]
[[sv:Bärnsten]]
[[vi:Hổ phách]]
[[zh:琥珀]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amalaric</title>
<id>1373</id>
<revision>
<id>39465994</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T08:26:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.35.130.224</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Castlevania references</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Amalaric''' or ''Amalarico'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (died [[531]]), king of the [[Visigoths]], son of [[Alaric II]], was a child when his father fell in battle against [[Clovis I]], king of the [[Franks]], in ([[507]]). [[Gesalec]] was chosen king and the child Amalaric was carried for safety into [[Hispania]], which country and [[Provence]] were thenceforth ruled by his maternal grandfather, [[Theodoric the Great|Theodoric]] the Ostrogoth, acting through his vice regent, [[Theudis]], an Ostrogothic nobleman. In [[522]] the young Amalaric was proclaimed king, and four years later, on Theodoric's death, he assumed full royal power in Hispania and that part of [[Languedoc]] called [[Septimania]], relinquishing [[Provence]] to his cousin [[Athalaric]]. He married [[Chrotilda]], daughter of Clovis; but his disputes with her, he being an [[Arianism|Arian]] and she a [[Catholicism|Catholic]], brought on him the penalty of a Frankish invasion by [[Childebert I]], king of [[Paris]], in which he lost his life in [[531]].
[[Konami]] has twice included flying, angelic [[Archery|archers]] enemies in its [[Castlevania]] series of games, tying them to the story of Amalaric's demise. In [[Castlevania: Symphony of the Night]], there is a blue-tinted angelic enemy known as "Sniper of Goth," whose description reads "Slew Amalaric of the Goths." In [[Castlevania: Dawn of Sorrow]], the enemy appears again and is functionally identical, although its name is now "Amalaric Sniper" and its description now reads "A fearsome archer and a fallen angel."
==References==
*{{1911}}
*Edward Gibbon, [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/gibbon/edward/g43d/chapter39.html ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''] Chapter 39
{{start box}}
|width=25% align=center|'''Preceded by:'''<br>'''[[Gesalec]]'''
|width=25% align=center|'''[[Visigoths#Kings_of_the_Visigoths|King of the Visigoths]]'''<br>511&ndash;531
|width=25% align=center|'''Succeeded by:'''<br>'''[[Theudis]]'''
|-
{{end box}}
[[Category:531 deaths|Amalaric]]
[[Category:Kings of the Visigoths]]
[[de:Amalrich]]
[[es:Amalarico]]
[[pl:Amalaryk]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alphorn</title>
<id>1374</id>
<revision>
<id>40326721</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T21:06:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Missmarple</username>
<id>207003</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix some links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Alphorn.JPG|thumb|D' Dieß'ner alphorn players]]
'''Alpenhorn''' or ' |
n as the boundary between Asia and Australasia, as such making Indonesia a [[bicontinental country]].
See also: [[Asia#Map|Map of Asia]]
==Economy==
[[Image:Pachung%2C_Bali_200507-2.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Irrigation]] in [[Pachung]], [[Bali]].]]
{{Main|Economy of Indonesia}}
Indonesia's economy suffered greatly in the late 1990s, partly due to the [[Asian financial crisis|financial crisis]] that struck most of Asia at the time. It has stabilized somewhat since then.
The country has extensive natural resources outside Java, including [[crude oil]], [[natural gas]], [[tin]], [[copper]] and [[gold]]. Indonesia is the world's second-largest exporter of natural gas, though it has recently become a net importer of crude oil. Major agricultural products include [[rice]], [[tea]], [[coffee]], [[spice]]s and [[rubber]]. The [[central bank]] of Indonesia is Bank Indonesia [http://www.bi.go.id].
Indonesia's major trading partners are [[Japan]], the [[United States]] and the surrounding nations of [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Australia]].
Despite being the only Asian member of [[OPEC]], Indonesia's fuel production has declined significantly over the years, owing to aging oil fields and lack of investment in new equipment. As a result, despite being an exporter of crude oil, Indonesia is now a net importer of oil and had previously subsidized fuel prices to keep prices low, costing [[US$]] 7 billion in 2004 [http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/GC10Ae04.html]. The current president has mandated a significant reduction of government subsidy of fuel prices in several stages [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4200100.stm]. In order to alleviate economic hardships, the government has offered one-time subsidies to qualified citizens.
The economy is now undergoing rebuilding after the December 2004 tsunami. The government has stated to reduce subsidies, aiming to reduce the budget deficit to 1% of [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) this year, down from around 1.6% last year.
==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Indonesia}}
Indonesia's population statistics are difficult to estimate. In the 2000 national census, an initial population estimate of 203 million was recorded: most of the population of [[Aceh]] was estimated from previous counts as the conflict meant that a survey was not possible, as were hard-to-reach regions of [[Papua]]. The Indonesian government later revised the estimate up to 206 million. Internationally, an undercount had been assumed, though there is no data to confirm it. The country's Central Statistics Bureau ([http://www.bps.go.id BPS]) and '''Statistics Indonesia''' quote 219.9 million as the population for 2005, while the [[CIA Factbook]] estimates are over 240 million. Some parts of Indonesia are some of the most densly populated areas in the world: for example, [[Java (island)|Java]] is the most populous island in the world and many Indonesian cities are some of the most populous and densely populated.
Indonesia's population can be roughly divided into two groups. The west of the country is Asian and the people are mostly [[Malay people|Malay]], while the east is more Pacific and people on New Guinea are Papuan, with roots in the islands of [[Melanesia]]. There are, however, many more subdivisions, since Indonesia spans an area the size of Europe or the USA and consists of many islands that to a large degree had separate developments. Many Indonesians identify with a more specific ethnic group that is often linked to language and regional origins; examples of these are [[Javanese]], [[Sundanese]], or [[Batak (Indonesia)|Batak]]. There are also quite different groups within many islands, such as [[Borneo]], with its [[Dayak]] and [[Punan]], who have different lifestyles and [[skintone]]s.
Most Indonesians speak a local language (''bahasa daerah'') as their first tongue, but the official national language, [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] (locally called ''Bahasa Indonesia'') is almost universally taught in schools and is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. It was originally a [[lingua franca]] for most of the region, including present-day [[Malaysia]] (and is thus closely related to [[Malay language|Malay]]), accepted by the Dutch as the de facto language for the colony, and declared the official language after independence. The formerly large, influential [[Eurasian]] community (locally known as [[Indos]]) has largely left the country for the Netherlands, California and Australia, but some Eurasians remain in Indonesia and are highly esteemed models and soap opera stars.
Indonesia has serious ethnic tensions, particularly between [[Indonesian Chinese| Indonesians of Chinese ethnicity]] and the Pribumi peoples, who are considered natives of Indonesia. "Non-Pribumi" people are not always considered entirely Indonesian. The [[Jakarta Riots of May 1998|riots in Jakarta in 1997 and 1998]] highlight this recurring tension. Ethnic relations are strained mostly due to a perception that the Chinese community is too rich relative to the Pribumis, and that this is unfair. It is indisputable that the Chinese community is on average wealthier than the Pribumis, and positions of power and influence in the business sphere are indeed held by relatively few very wealthy ethnic Chinese Indonesians. However, some of the resentment may be against the shopkeepers and more or less small-time creditors who constitute much of the Chinese Indonesian community. Chinese people occupied these roles under Dutch rule, and were used as middlemen and treated as second-class citizens, while Pribumi peasants and laborers were treated as third-class citizens (see [[Indonesian Chinese#Pre-independence History]]). Chinese-owned shops, and the families living and working in storefront dwellings were the target of much of the wrath of the rioters. The Indonesian government is attempting to remedy problems which helped trigger the riots, but due to widespread corruption and discontent experienced by poorer Indonesians, ethnic harmony is slow in coming. The [[corruption]], [[collusion]], and [[nepotism]] which characterized Suharto's presidency built up a public resentment that led to the eventual downfall of the Orde Baru regime but also clearly exacerbated ethnic tensions in Indonesia.
Another type of ethnic conflict that occurs with some frequency and lethality in certain areas of Indonesia is between people with deep roots in those areas and Javanese and [[Madurese]] people whose internal migration ([[transmigrasi]]) to those areas was facilitated by the central government. This type of conflict often takes on religious overtones, too, as Muslim Javanese and Madurese find themselves in areas which were predominantly Christian or animist. A particularly horrific example of this type of ethnic violence occurred in West Kalimantan, where some members of the local [[Dayak]] community massacred hundreds of Madurese, and the survivors ran for their lives. Other places where conflicts at least partly sparked by differences between internal migrants and members of the preexisting local population have resulted in fatalities include [[Ambon City|Ambon]], [[Sulawesi Tengah]], and parts of [[West Papua]] (formerly known as Irian Jaya).
Islam is [[Islam in Indonesia|Indonesia's main religion]], with almost 88% of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000 religious [[census]], making Indonesia the most populous Muslim-majority nation in the world. The remaining population is 8% [[Christianity|Christian]] (of which roughly 75% are [[Protestant]], the remainder mainly [[Catholic]], and a large minority [[Charismatic movement|Charismatic]]), 3% [[Hindu]] and 1% [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], with small communities of Jews. Before the arrival of the [[Abrahamic]] faiths of Christianity and Islam in the [[Malay Archipelago]], the popular beliefs in region had been thoroughly influenced by [[Indic]] religious philosophy through Hinduism and Buddhism. Although Islam was once mainly practiced in Java and parts of Sumatra, the [[transmigration program]] has increased the number of Muslims living in Bali, Borneo, the Celebes, the Moluccas, and Papua. After independence, [[syncretism]] and [[intermarriage]] has decreased somewhat and religious divides sharpened, leading to communal violence in many eastern islands and in Java. Although only about 3% of Indonesians are officially Hindu, Indonesian beliefs are too complex to classify as belonging to a single world [[religion]]. In Java in particular, a substantial number of Muslims follow a non-orthodox, Hindu-influenced form of Islam known as [[Abangan]], while across the archipelago the Hindu legacy, along with the older mystic traditions, influences popular beliefs. Indonesians are required to declare themselves as one of these official religions. As a result, many Indonesian "Muslims" are non-practicing, follow Indonesia's [[animist]] traditions (a fact that the government strenuously denies), or are entirely secular.
==Culture==
[[Image:WayangKulit Scene Zoom.JPG|thumb|[[Wayang|Wayang kulit]] as seen by the audience]]
{{Main|Culture of Indonesia}}
Art forms in Indonesia have been influenced by several cultures. The famous [[Javanese]] and [[Balinese people|Balinese]] dances, for example, contain aspects of [[Hindu]] culture and mythology.
Also well-known are the Javanese and Balinese [[Wayang|wayang kulit]] shadow theatre shows, displaying several mythological events. Several islands are famous for their [[batik]] and [[ikat]] cloth.
''[[Pencak Silat]]'' is a unique martial art originating from the archipelago.
==See also==
{{Indonesian_Topics}}
==Further reading==
* Theodore Friend, ''Indonesian Destinies'', [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/ Harvard University Press], 2003, hardcover, 544 pages, ISBN 0674011376
* Steven Drakeley: ''The history of Indonesia'', Westport, Connecticut : Greenwood, 2005, 201 pages, ISBN 0-313-33114-6
==Ex |
the Byzantine Empire, as opposed to the [[Paganism|pagan]] Roman Empire.
Constantine also introduced a new stable gold coin, the ''[[solidus (coin)|solidus]]'', which was to become the standard coin for centuries, and not only in the Byzantine Empire.
Another defining moment in the history of the Roman/Byzantine Empire was the [[Battle of Adrianople (378)|Battle of Adrianople]] in 378 in which the Emperor [[Valens]] and the best of the remaining Roman [[legion|legions]] were killed by the [[Visigoths]]. This defeat has been proposed by some authorities as one possible date for dividing the ancient and medieval worlds. The Roman Empire was divided further by Valens' successor [[Theodosius I]] (also called "the Great"), who had ruled both parts since 392: following the dynastic principle well established by Constantine, in 395 Theodosius gave the two halves to his two sons [[Arcadius]] and [[Flavius Augustus Honorius|Honorius]]; Arcadius became ruler of the eastern half, with his capital in Constantinople, and Honorius became ruler of the western half, with his capital in [[Ravenna]]. Theodosius was the last Roman emperor whose authority covered the entire traditional extent of the Roman Empire. At this point, it is common to refer to the empire as "Eastern Roman" rather than "Byzantine."
==Early history==
The Eastern Roman Empire was largely spared the difficulties of the west in the [[3rd century|3rd]] and [[4th century|4th centuries]] (see [[Crisis of the Third Century]]) in part because urban culture was better established there and the initial invasions were attracted to the wealth of [[Rome]]. Throughout the 5th century, various invasions conquered the western half of the Roman Empire and at best only demanded tribute from the eastern half. [[Theodosius II]] fortified the walls of [[Constantinople]], leaving the city impenetrable to attacks: it was to be preserved from foreign conquest until 1204. To spare the Eastern Roman Empire from the invasion of the [[Huns]] of [[Attila]], Theodosius gave them subsidies of gold. Moreover, he favored merchants living in Constantinople who traded with the barbarians. His successor, [[Marcian]], refused to continue to pay the great sum. However, [[Attila]] had already diverted his attention from the Western Roman Empire and died in 453 after the [[Battle of Chalons]]. The Hunnic Empire collapsed and Constantinople was free from the menace of Attila. This started a profitable relationship between the Eastern Roman Empire and the remaining Huns. The Huns would eventually fight as mercenaries in Byzantine armies during the following centuries.
At the time since the fall of Attila, the true chief in Constantinople was the [[Alans|Alan]] general [[Aspar]]. [[Leo I]] managed to free himself from the influence of the barbarian chief favouring the rise of the [[Isauri]], a crude semi-barbarian tribe living in Roman territory, in southern [[Anatolia]]. Aspar and his son Ardabur were murdered in a riot in 471, and henceforth, Constantinople became free from foreign influences for centuries. Leo was also the first emperor to receive the crown not from a general or an officer, as evident in the Roman tradition, but from the hands of the [[patriarch]] of [[Constantinople]]. This habit became mandatory as time passed, and in the Middle Ages, the religious characteristic of the coronation had totally substituted the old form. In 468, Leo unsuccessfully attempted to reconquer North Africa from the Vandals. By that time, the Western Roman Empire was already restricted to Italy (Britain had fallen to [[Angles]] and [[Saxons]], Spain fell to the [[Visigoths]], Africa fell to the [[Vandals]] and [[Gaul]] fell to the [[Franks]]).
In 466, as a condition of his Isaurian alliance, Leo married his daughter Ariadne to the Isaurian Tarasicodissa, who took the name Zeno. When Leo died in 474, Zeno and Ariadne's minor son (Leo I's grandson) succeeded to the throne as [[Leo II]], with Zeno acting as regent. When Leo II died later that year, [[Zeno of the Byzantine Empire|Zeno I]] became emperor. The end of the Western Empire is sometimes dated to 476, early in Zeno's reign, when the barbarian general [[Odoacer]] deposed the titular Western Emperor [[Romulus Augustus]], but declined to replace him with another puppet. To recover Italy, Zeno could only negotiate with the [[Ostrogoths]] of [[Theodoric]] who had been settled in [[Moesia]]. He sent the barbarian king in Italy as ''magister militum per Italiam'' ("chief of staff for Italy"). After the fall of [[Odoacer]] in 493, Theodoric, who had lived in Constantinople during his youth, ruled over Italy on his own, maintaining a merely formal obedience to Zeno. He revealed himself as the most powerful Germanic king of that age, but his successors were greatly inferior to him and their kingdom of Italy started to decline in the 530s.
In 475, Zeno was deposed by a plot to elevate [[Basiliscus]] (the general who led Leo I's 468 invasion of North Africa) to the throne. Zeno recovered the throne twenty months later. However, Zeno had to face the threat coming from his Isaurian former official Illo and the other Isaurian, Leontius, who was also elected rival emperor. Isaurian prominence ended when an aged civil officer of Roman origin, [[Anastasius I]], became emperor in 491 and after a long war defeated them in 498. Anastasius revealed himself to be an energetic reformer and an able administrator. He perfected Constantine I's coin system by definitively setting the weight of the copper ''follis'', the coin used in most everyday transactions. He also reformed the tax system in which the State Treasury contained the enormous sum of 320,000 pounds of gold when he died.
==The age of Justinian I==
<!--[[Image:Meister von San Vitale in Ravenna 004.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Justinian I]] depicted on one of the famous mosaics of the St. Vitale church in [[Ravenna]].]]-->
The reign of [[Justinian I]], which began in 527, saw a period of extensive imperial conquests of former Roman territories (indicated in green on the map below). The 6th century also saw the beginning of a long series of conflicts with the Byzantine Empire's traditional early enemies, such as the [[Sassanid empire|Sassanid Persians]], [[Slavs]] and [[Bulgars]]. Theological crises, such as the question of [[Monophysitism]], also dominated the empire.
[[Justinian I]] had perhaps already exerted effective control during the reign of his predecessor, [[Justin I]] (518–527). Justin I was a former officer in the imperial army who had been chief of the guards to [[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius I]], and had been proclaimed emperor (when almost 70) after Anastasius' death. Justinian was the son of a peasant from [[Illyricum]], but was also a nephew of Justin. Justinian was later adopted as Justin's son. Justinian would become one of the most refined people of his century, inspired by the dream to re-establish Roman rule over all the Mediterranean world. He reformed the administration and the law, and with the help of brilliant generals such as [[Belisarius]] and [[Narses]], he temporarily regained some of the lost Roman provinces in the west, conquering much of [[Italy]], North [[Africa]], and a small area in southern [[Spain]].
In 532, Justinian secured for the Eastern Roman Empire peace on the eastern frontier by signing an "eternal peace" treaty with the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid Persian]] king [[Khosrau I of Persia|Khosrau I]]. However, this required in exchange a payment of a huge annual tribute of gold.
Justinian's conquests in the west began in 533 when Belisarius was sent to reclaim the former province of North Africa with a small army of 18,000 men who were mainly mercenaries. Whereas an earlier expedition in 468 had been a failure, this new venture was successful. The kingdom of the [[Vandals]] at [[Carthage]] lacked the strength of former times under King [[Gaiseric]] and the Vandals surrendered after a couple of battles against Belisarius' forces. General Belisarius returned to a [[Roman triumph]] in [[Constantinople]] with the last Vandal king, [[Gelimer]], as his prisoner. However, the reconquest of [[North Africa]] would take a few more years to stabilize. It was not until 548 that the main local independent tribes were entirely subdued.
[[Image:Byzantium550.png|thumb|300px|right|Map of the Byzantine Empire around 550 A.D.]]
In 535, Justinian I launched his most ambitious campaign, the reconquest of Italy. At the time, Italy was still ruled by the [[Ostrogoth|Ostrogoths]]. He dispatched an army to march overland from [[Dalmatia]] while the main contingent, transported on ships and again under the command of General Belisarius, disembarked in [[Sicily]] and conquered the island without much difficulty. The marches on the Italian mainland were initially victorious and the major cities, including [[Naples]], [[Rome]] and the capital [[Ravenna]], fell one after the other. The Goths were seemingly defeated and Belisarius was recalled to Constantinople in 541 by Justinian. Belisarius brought with him to Constantinople the Ostrogoth king [[Witiges]] as a prisoner in chains. However, the Ostrogoths and their supporters were soon reunited under the energetic command of [[Totila]]. The ensuing [[Gothic Wars]] were an exhausting series of sieges, battles and retreats which consumed almost all the Byzantine and Italian fiscal resources, impoverishing much of the countryside. Belisarius was recalled by Justinian, who had lost trust in his preferred commander. At a certain point, the Byzantines seemed to be on the verge of losing all the positions they had gained. After having neglected to provide sufficient financial and logistical support to the desperate troops under Belisarius' former command, in the summer of 552 Justinian gathered a massive army of 35,000 men (mostly Asian and [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] mercenaries |
te from the color grades of white diamonds. Gemologists have developed rating systems for fancy colored diamonds, but they are not in common use because of the relative rarity of colored diamonds.
===Cut===
{{main|Diamond cut}}
[[Diamond cutting]] is the art and science of creating a gem-quality diamond out of mined rough. The ''cut'' of a diamond describes the manner in which a diamond has been shaped and polished from its beginning form as a rough stone to its final gem proportions. The cut of a diamond describes the quality of workmanship and the angles to which a diamond is cut. Often diamond cut is confused with "shape."
There are mathematical guidelines for the angles and length ratios at which the diamond is supposed to cut at in order to reflect the maximum amount of light. Round brilliant diamonds, the most common, are guided by these specific guidelines, though fancy cut stones are not able to be as accurately guided by mathematical specifics.
The techniques for cutting diamonds have been developed over hundreds of years, with perhaps the greatest achievements made in 1919 by [[mathematician]] and gem enthusiast [[Marcel Tolkowsky]]. He developed the [[brilliant (diamond cut)|round brilliant cut]] by calculating the ideal shape to return and scatter light when a diamond is viewed from above. The modern round brilliant has 57 facets (polished faces), counting 33 on the ''crown'' (the top half), and 24 on the ''pavilion'' (the lower half). The girdle is the thin unpolished middle. The function of the crown is to diffuse light into various colors and the pavilion's function to reflect light back through the top of the diamond.
Tolkowsky defines the ideal dimensions to have:
* Table percentage (table diameter divided by overall diameter) = 53%
* Depth percentage (Overall depth divided by the overall diameter) = 59.3%
* Pavilion Angle (Angle between the girdle and the pavilion) = 40.75°
* Crown Angle (Angle between the girdle and the crown) = 34.5°
* Pavilion Depth (Depth of pavilion divided by overall diameter) = 43.1%
* Crown Depth (Depth of crown divided by crown diameter) = 16.2%
The culet is the tiny point at the bottom of the diamond. This should be a negligible diameter, otherwise light leaks out of the bottom. Tolkowsky's ideal dimensions did not include a girdle. However, a thin girdle is required in reality in order to prevent the diamond from easily chipping in the setting. A normal girdle should be about 1%&ndash;2% of the overall diameter.
The further the diamond's characteristics are from Tolkowsky's ideal, the less light will be reflected. However, there is a small range in which the diamond can be considered "ideal." Today, because of the relative importance of carat weight in society, many diamonds are often intentionally cut poorly to increase carat weight. There is a financial premium for a diamond that weighs the magical 1.0 carat, so often the girdle is made thicker or the depth is increased. Neither of these tactics make the diamond appear any bigger, but it also greatly reduces the sparkle of the diamond. So a poorly cut 1.0 carat diamond may have the same diameter and appear as large as a 0.85 carat diamond. The depth percentage is the overall quickest indication of the quality of the cut of a round brilliant. "Ideal" round brilliant diamonds should not have a depth percentage greater than 62.5%. Another quick indication is the overall diameter. Typically a round brilliant 1.0 carat diamond should have a diameter of about 6.5 mm. Mathematically, the diameter in millimeters of a round brilliant should approximately equal 6.5 times the [[cube root]] of carat weight, or 11.1 times the cube root of gram weight.
====Shape====
Diamonds do not show all of their beauty as rough stones; instead, they must be cut and polished to exhibit the characteristic fire and brilliance that diamond gemstones are known for. Diamonds are cut into a variety of shapes that are generally designed to accentuate these features.
Diamonds which are not cut to the specifications of Tolkowsky's round brilliant shape (or subsequent variations) are known as "fancy cuts." Popular fancy cuts include the ''baguette'' (from the French, resembling a [[baguette|loaf of bread]]), ''marquise'', ''princess'' (square outline), ''heart'', ''briolette'' (a form of the rose cut), and ''pear'' cuts. Generally speaking, these "fancy cuts" are not held to the same strict standards as Tolkowsky-derived round brilliants and there are less specific mathematical guidelines of angles which determine a well-cut stone. Cuts are influenced heavily by fashion: the baguette cut&mdash;which accentuates a diamond's luster and downplays its fire&mdash;was all the rage during the [[Art Deco]] period, whereas the princess cut&mdash;which accentuates a diamond's fire rather than its luster&mdash;is currently gaining popularity. The princess cut is also popular amongst diamond cutters: of all the cuts, it wastes the least of the original crystal. The past decades have seen the development of new diamond cuts, often based on a modification of an existing
cut. Some of these include extra facets. These newly developed cuts are viewed by many as more of an attempt at brand differentiation by diamond sellers, than actual improvements to the state of the art.
====Quality====
The quality of a diamond's cut is widely considered the most important of the four Cs in determining the beauty of a diamond; indeed, it is commonly acknowledged that a well-cut diamond can appear to be of greater carat weight, and have clarity and color appear to be of better grade than they actually are. The skill with which a diamond is cut determines its ability to reflect and refract light.
In addition to carrying the most importance to a diamond's quality as a gemstone, the cut is also the most difficult to quantitatively judge. A number of factors, including proportion, [[symmetry]], and the relative angles of various facets, are determined by the quality of the cut and can affect the performance of a diamond. A poorly cut diamond with facets cut only a few degrees out of alignment can result in a poorly performing stone. For a round brilliant cut, there is a balance between "brilliance" and "fire." When a diamond is cut for too much "fire," it looks like a [[cubic zirconia]], which gives off much more "fire" than real diamond. A well executed round brilliant cut should reflect most light out from the tabletop and make the diamond appear white when viewed from the top. An inferior cut will produce a stone that appears dark at the center and in some extreme cases the ring settings may show through the top of the diamond as shadows.
Several different theories on the "ideal" proportions of a diamond have been and continue to be advocated by professional gemologists. Recently, there has been a shift away from grading cut by the use of various angles and proportions toward measuring the performance of a cut stone. A number of specially modified viewers and machines have been developed toward this end. They included the FireScope, a.k.a. SymmetriScope or IdealScope (tests for light leakage, light return and proportions), Hearts and Arrows Viewer (test for "[[hearts and arrows]]" characteristic pattern observable on stones exhibiting high symmetry), GemEx BrillianceScope (tests for direct light performance results of a diamond), Isee2 Machine (tests for diffused light performance results of a diamond), and ASET (test for AGS cut grade). These viewers and machines often help consumers determine the light performance results of the diamond in addition to the traditional 4 C's. Along with this shift there are a few companies that provide results on these viewers and machines in addition to the original 4c's.
====The cutting process====
{{main|Diamond cutting}}
[[Image:DiamanteEZ.jpg|thumb|An uncut diamond does not show its prized optical properties.]]
The process of shaping a rough diamond into a polished gemstone is both an art and a science. The choice of cut is often decided by the original shape of the rough stone, location of the inclusions and flaws to be eliminated, the preservation of the weight, popularity of certain shapes amongst consumers and many other considerations. The round brilliant cut is preferred when the crystal is an octahedron, as often two stones may be cut from one such crystal. Oddly shaped crystals such as macles are more likely to be cut in a ''fancy cut''&mdash;that is, a cut other than the round brilliant&mdash;which the particular crystal shape lends itself to.
Even with modern techniques, the cutting and polishing of a diamond crystal always results in a dramatic loss of weight; rarely is it less than 50%. Sometimes the cutters compromise and accept lesser proportions and symmetry in order to avoid inclusions or to preserve the carat rating. Since the per carat price of diamond shifts around key milestones (such as 1.00 carat), many one-carat diamonds are the result of compromising "Cut" for "Carat." Some jewelry experts advise consumers to buy a 0.99 carat diamond for its better price or buy a 1.10 carat diamond for its better cut, avoiding a 1.00 carat diamond which is more likely to be a poorly cut stone.
===Cleaning===
{{main|Jewelry cleaning}}
Although it is not one of the four Cs, ''cleanliness'' affects a diamond's beauty as much as any of the four Cs. A clean diamond is more brilliant and fiery than the same diamond when it is "dirty." Dirt or grease on the top of a diamond reduces its luster. Water, dirt, or grease on the bottom of a diamond interferes with the diamond's brilliance and fire. Even a thin film absorbs some light that could have been reflected to the person looking at the diamond. Colored dye or smudges can affect the perceived color of a |
ege, Oxford|Vincent, Angela]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Arithmetic-geometric mean</title>
<id>3090</id>
<revision>
<id>37845102</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T14:26:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gwaihir</username>
<id>303411</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+de:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''arithmetic-geometric mean '''
:''M''(''x'', ''y'')
of two positive [[real number]]s ''x'' and ''y'' is defined as follows: we first form the [[arithmetic mean]] of ''x'' and ''y'' and call it ''a''<sub>1</sub>, i.e.
:''a''<sub>1</sub> = (''x'' + ''y'') / 2.
We then form the [[geometric mean]] of ''x'' and ''y'' and call it ''g''<sub>1</sub>, i.e. ''g''<sub>1</sub> is the [[square root]] of ''xy''.
Now we can iterate this operation with ''a''<sub>1</sub> taking the place of ''x'' and ''g''<sub>1</sub> taking the place of ''y''. In this way, two [[sequence|sequences]] (''a''<sub>''n''</sub>) and (''g''<sub>''n''</sub>) are defined:
:<math>a_{n+1} = \frac{a_n + g_n}{2}</math>
and
:<math>g_{n+1} = \sqrt{a_n g_n}.</math>
These two sequences [[limit (mathematics)|converge]] to the same number, which we call the '''arithmetic-geometric mean''' M(''x'', ''y'') of ''x'' and ''y''.
M(''x'', ''y'') is a number between the geometric and arithmetic mean of ''x'' and ''y''; in particular it is between ''x'' and ''y''. If ''r'' > 0, then M(''rx'', ''ry'') = ''r'' M(''x'', ''y'').
M(''x'', ''y'') is sometimes denoted agm(''x'', ''y'').
=== Implementation ===
The following example code in the [[Scheme programming language]] computes the arithmetic-geometric mean of two positive real numbers:
<pre>
(define agmean
(lambda (a b epsilon)
(letrec ((ratio-diff ; determine whether two numbers
(lambda (a b) ; are already very close together
(abs (/ (- a b) b))))
(loop ; actually do the computation
(lambda (a b)
;; if they're already really close together,
;; just return the arithmetic mean
(if (< (ratio-diff a b) epsilon)
(/ (+ a b) 2)
;; otherwise, do another step
(loop (sqrt (* a b)) (/ (+ a b) 2))))))
;; error checking
(if (or (not (real? a))
(not (real? b))
(<= a 0)
(<= b 0))
(error 'agmean "~s and ~s must both be positive real numbers" a b)
(loop a b)))))
</pre>
One can show that
:<math>\Mu(x,y) = \frac{\pi}{4} \cdot \frac{x + y}{K \left( \frac{x - y}{x + y} \right) }</math>
where ''K''(''x'') is the ''complete [[elliptic integral]] of the first kind''.
The reciprocal of the arithmetic-geometric mean of 1 and the [[Square root of 2]] is called [[Gauss's constant]].
: <math> \frac{1}{\Mu(1, \sqrt{2})} = G </math>
named after [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]].
The [[geometric-harmonic mean]] can be calculated by an analogous method, using sequences of geometric and [[harmonic mean|harmonic]] means. The [[arithmetic-harmonic mean]] is none other than the geometric mean.
==See also==
* [[generalized mean]]
* [[geometric-harmonic mean]]
* [[arithmetic mean]]
* [[geometric mean]]
* [[Gauss's constant]]
[[Category: Means]]
[[Category: Special functions]]
[[Category: Elliptic functions]]
[[de:Arithmetisch-geometrisches Mittel]]
[[ja:&#31639;&#34899;&#24190;&#20309;&#24179;&#22343;]]
[[pl:&#346;rednia arytmetyczno-geometryczna]]
[[sv:Aritmetisk-geometriskt medelvärde]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Akira Toriyama</title>
<id>3092</id>
<revision>
<id>42133430</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T01:12:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.83.182.173</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Akira21.jpg|thumb|Akira Toriyama]]
'''Akira Toriyama''' (鳥山 明 ''Toriyama Akira'', born on [[April 5]], [[1955]] in [[Kiyosu, Aichi|Kiyosu]], [[Aichi Prefecture]]) is a [[Japan]]ese [[manga]] artist.
He debuted in [[1978]] with the story ''Wonder Island'', published in ''[[Weekly Shonen Jump]]'' magazine, and gained fame for ''[[Dr. Slump]]'', serialized weekly in Shonen Jump from [[1980]] to [[1984]].
He is probably best known for his series ''[[Dragon Ball]]''. This work was one of the linchpins for what is known as the Golden Age of ''Jump''. Its success "forced" Toriyama to work on ''Dragon Ball'' from 1984 to [[1995]]. During that eleven-year period, he produced 519 chapters, collected into 42 volumes. Each volume has an average of 200 pages, so the entire ''Dragon Ball'' storyline extends to almost 9,000 pages. Moreover, the success of ''Dragon Ball'' led to an animated television series (with a later part of the story known as ''[[Dragon Ball Z]]''), feature-length animated [[film|movies]], [[video games]], and mega-merchandising.
His clean line and design sense led to jobs designing characters for the phenomenally popular ''[[Dragon Quest]]'' series of [[computer role-playing game|role-playing game]] (formerly called ''Dragon Warrior'' in the United States). He has also served as the character designer for the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super Famicom/SNES]] RPG ''[[Chrono Trigger]]'' and the popular [[fighting game]] ''[[Tobal No. 1]]'' for the [[PlayStation]] (as well as its sequel, ''[[Tobal 2]]'', released only in Japan), and continues to produce the occasional [[manga]] story.
His works after ''Dragon Ball'' tend to be short (100-200 page) stories, including ''[[Cowa!]]'', ''[[Kajika]]'', and ''[[Sandland]]'', as well as one-shots, like the spoof ''[[Neko Majin Z]]''.
He is currently the character designer for a new RPG coming out for the [[Xbox 360]] entitled ''[[Blue Dragon (video game)|Blue Dragon]]''.
The name of Toriyama's studio is ''[[Bird Studio]]'', which is a play on his name, meaning "Bird Mountain".
==Selected Bibliography==
===Manga/Anime===
*''[[Wonder Island]]''
*''[[Dr. Slump]]''
*''[[Dragon Ball]]''
*''[[Akira Toriyama's Lousy Manga Laboratory]]''
*''[[Akira Toriyama's Insert Adjective Here Theatre]]''
*''[[Go!Go!Ackman]]''
*''[[Cowa!]]''
*''[[Kajika]]''
*''[[Sand Land]]''
*''[[Neko Majin Z]]''
===Childrens Books===
*''[[Toccio the Angel]]''
===Video Games===
*''[[Dragon Quest]]'' franchise
*''[[Chrono Trigger]]'' franchise
*''[[Tobal No. 1]]'' franchise
[[Category:1955 births|Toriyama, Akira]]
[[Category:Living people|Toriyama, Akira]]
[[Category:People from Aichi Prefecture|Toriyama, Akira]]
[[Category:Japanese comics artists|Toriyama, Akira]]
[[Category:Manga artists|Toriyama, Akira]]
[[Category:Dragon Ball|Toriyama, Akira]]
[[ca:Akira Toriyama]]
[[de:Akira Toriyama]]
[[es:Akira Toriyama]]
[[fr:Akira Toriyama]]
[[gl:Akira Toriyama]]
[[it:Akira Toriyama]]
[[nl:Akira Toriyama]]
[[ja:鳥山明]]
[[nn:Akira Toriyama]]
[[pl:Akira Toriyama]]
[[pt:Akira Toriyama]]
[[ru:Торияма, Акира]]
[[fi:Akira Toriyama]]
[[sv:Akira Toriyama]]
[[th:อากิรา โทริยามา]]
[[zh:鳥山明]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epsilon Ursae Majoris</title>
<id>3093</id>
<revision>
<id>41225586</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T22:30:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brighterorange</username>
<id>219031</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>missing period(s) ([[Wikipedia:WikiProject Punctuation|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Starbox begin |
name=Epsilon Ursae Majoris }}
{{Starbox observe |
epoch=J2000 |
ra=12<sup>h</sup> 54<sup>m</sup> 01.6<sup>s</sup> |
dec=+55&deg; 57&prime; 35.4&Prime; |
appmag_v=1.76 |
constell=[[Ursa Major]] }}
{{Starbox character |
class=A0pCr |
b-v=-0.02 |
u-b=0.02 |
variable=alpha<sup>2</sup>-CVn }}
{{Starbox astrometry |
radial_v=-9.3 |
prop_mo_ra=111.74 |
prop_mo_dec=-8.99 |
parallax=40.3 |
p_error=0.62 |
dist_ly=80.9 |
dist_pc=24.8 |
absmag_v=-0.22 }}
{{Starbox detail|
mass=~3 |
radius=~4 |
luminosity=108 |
temperature=9,400 |
metal=? |
rotation=38 km/sec. |
age=? }}
{{Starbox catalog |
names=Alioth, Allioth, Aliath, 77 Ursae Majoris, [[Harvard Revised catalogue|HR]] 4905, [[Bonner Durchmusterung|BD]] +56&deg;1627, [[Henry Draper catalogue|HD]] 112185, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 2964.00, [[Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory|SAO]] 28553, FK5 483, CCDM 12540+5558, [[Hipparcos catalogue|HIP]] 62956. }}
{{Starbox end}}
'''Epsilon Ursae Majoris''' (&epsilon; UMa / &epsilon; Ursae Majoris) is the brightest [[star]] in the [[constellation]] [[Ursa Major]] (despite its [[Bayer designation]] being merely "epsilon"), and at [[apparent magnitude|magnitude]] 1.76 is the [[list of brightest stars|thirty-first brightest star]] in the sky. It also has the traditional name '''Alioth''' (from the Arabic word ''alyat''&mdash;fat tail of a sheep).
It is the star in the tail of the bear closest to its body, and thus the star in the handle of the [[Big Dipper]] closest to the bowl. It is also a member of the large and diffuse [[Ursa Major moving group]]. Historically, the star was frequently used in maritime navigation.{{ref label|1728|1|^}}
According to ''[[Hipparcos]]'', Alioth is 81 [[light year]]s (25 [[parsec]]s) from [[Earth]]. Its [[spectral type]] is A0p; the "p" stands for peculiar, as the [[electromagnetic spectrum|spectrum]] of its light is quite odd, of a kind characteristic of an [[Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variable]]. Alioth, as a representative of this type, is believed to look the way it does because of two interacting processes: first, the star's strong [[magnetic field]] separating different elements salting the star's [[hydrogen]] fuel, then a rotation axis at an angle to the magnetic axi |
icut State University]]
#[[Central Electrochemical Research Institue]]
#[[Central Electrochemical Research Institute, Karaikudi]]
#[[Central European University]]
#[[Central Florida Community College]]
#[[Central Institute of Technology]]
#[[Central Methodist College]]
#[[Central Michigan University]]
#[[Central Missouri State University]]
#[[Central Oregon Community College]]
#[[Central Piedmont Community College]]
#[[Central Queensland University]]
#[[Central University for Nationalities]]
#[[Central University of Hyderabad]]
#[[Central University of Venezuela]]
#[[Central Washington University]]
#[[Centre College]]
#[[Centre Universitaire de Luxembourg]]
#[[Centre universitaire Saint-Louis-Maillet]]
======Centro======
#[[Centro de Ensenanza Te y Superior Universidad, Unidad Ensenada]]
#[[Centro de Ensenanza Te y Superior Universidad, Unidad Mexicali]]
#[[Centro de Ensenanza Te y Superior Universidad, Unidad Tijuana]]
#[[Centro de Investigacion Cientifica y de Educacion Superior de Ensenada]]
===Cer===
#[[Cerritos College]]
==Ch==
===Cha===
#[[Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology, Hyderabad]]
#[[Chalmers Lindholmen University College]]
#[[Chalmers University of Technology]]
#[[Champlain College]]
#[[Chandler-Gilbert Community College]]
#[[Chang'an University]]
#[[Chang Shin College]] -- [[South Gyeongsang]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Changwon Polytechnic College]] -- South Gyeongsang, South Korea
#[[Changwon National University]] -- South Gyeongsang, South Korea
#[[Chapman University]]
#[[Charing Cross and Westminster Medical School]]
#[[Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science]]
#[[Charles Sturt University]]
#[[Charles University|Charles University, Prague]]
#[[Charleston Southern University]]
#[[Chase College of Law]]
#[[Chatham College]]
#[[Chattanooga State Technical Community College]]
===Che===
#[[Cheju Halla College]] -- [[Jeju]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Cheju National University]] -- Jeju, South Korea
#[[Cheju Tourism College]] -- Jeju, South Korea
#[[Chemeketa Community College]]
#[[Cheonan National Technical College]] -- [[South Chungcheong]], South Korea
#[[Cheonan University]] -- South Chungcheong, South Korea
#[[Cheonan Yonam College]] -- South Chungcheong, South Korea
#[[Cheongju National University of Education]] -- [[North Chungcheong]], South Korea
#[[Cheongju Polytechnic College]] -- North Chungcheong, South Korea
#[[Cheongju University]] -- North Chungcheong, South Korea
#[[Cheongyang Provincial College]] -- South Chungcheong, South Korea
#[[Chesapeake College]]
===Chi-Chr===
#[[Chiang Mai University]]
#[[Chiba University]]
#[[Chicago School of Professional Psychology]]
#[[Chicago-Kent College of law]]
#[[China Academy of Railway Sciences]]
#[[China Junior College of Industrial and Commercial Management]]
#[[China Medical College]]
#[[Chinese University of Hong Kong]]
#[[Chinju National University of Education]] -- [[South Gyeongsang]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Chodang University]] -- [[South Jeolla]], South Korea
#[[Chongju National College of Science and Technology]] -- [[North Chungcheong]], South Korea
#[[Chongshin University]] -- [[Seoul]], South Korea
#[[Chonnam National University]] -- [[Gwangju]], South Korea
#[[Choonhae College]] -- [[Ulsan]], South Korea
#[[Chosun University]] -- Gwangju, South Korea
#[[Christchurch Polytechnic]]
#[[Christendom College]]
#[[Christian Brothers University]]
#[[Christian-Albrechts-Universitat zu Kiel]]
#[[Christian College of Nursing]] -- [[Gwangju]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Christopher Newport University]]
===Chu===
#[[Chubu University]]
#[[Chugye University for the Arts]] -- [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Chukyo University]]
#[[Chulalongkorn University]]
#[[Chuncheon National University of Education]] -- [[Gangwon]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Chuncheon Polytechnic College]] -- Gangwon, South Korea
#[[Chung-Ang University]] -- [[Seoul]] and [[Gyeonggi]], South Korea
#[[Chungbuk National University]] -- [[North Chungcheong]], South Korea
#[[Chungbuk Provincial University of Science and Technology]] -- North Chungcheong, South Korea
#[[Chung Cheong College]] -- North Chungcheong, South Korea
#[[Chung Hua Polytechnic Institute]]
#[[Chungju National University]] -- North Chungcheong, South Korea
#[[Chungkang College of Cultural Industries]] -- [[Gyeonggi]], South Korea
#[[Chungnam National University]] -- [[Daejeon]], South Korea
#[[Chung Shan Medical and Dental College]]
#[[Chungwoon University]] -- [[South Chungcheong]], South Korea
#[[Chung Yuan Christian University]]
#[[Chunnam Techno College]] -- [[South Jeolla]], South Korea
#[[Churchill College, Cambridge]]
==Ci-Cl==
#[[The Citadel (Military College)|The Citadel]]
#[[La Cité collégiale|(La) Cité collégiale]]
#[[City College of New York]]
#[[City College of San Francisco]]
#[[City University, London]]
#[[City University of Hong Kong]]
#[[City University of New York]]
#[[City University, Seattle WA]]
#[[Clackamas Community College]]
#[[Claflin College]]
#[[Claremont College ]]
#[[Claremont McKenna College]]
#[[Clarion University of Pennsylvania]]
#[[Clark Atlanta University]]
#[[Clark College]]
#[[Clark University]]
#[[Clarke College]]
#[[Clarkson University]]
#[[Clemson University]]
#[[Cleveland State University]]
#[[Clinch Valley College]]
==Co==
===Coa-Cok===
#[[Coast Community College District]]
#[[Cochin University of Science and Technology]]
#[[Cochise Community College]]
#[[Coe College]]
#[[Cogswell Polytechnical College]]
#[[Coimbatore Institute of Technology]] (CIT)
#[[Coker College]]
===Col===
====Colb-Colg====
#[[Colby College]]
#[[Colby-Sawyer College]]
#[[Colegio America]]
#[[Colegio Mayor de Nuestra Senora del Rosario]]
#[[Colegio Universitario Andino]]
#[[Colgate University]]
====Coll====
=====Colla=====
#[[Collaborative Information Technology Research Institute]]
=====Colle=====
======Colleg======
'''College d-College N'''
#[[Collège de France]]
#[[Collège de Lévis]]
#[[Collège des Ingenieurs]]
#[[Collège Boréal]]
#[[College International de Cannes]]
#[[College Jean-de-Brebeuf]]
#[[College Jean-Guy Leboeuf]]
#[[College Militaire Royale]]
#[[College Notre-Dame]]
'''College o-College S'''
#[[College of Aeronautics]]
#[[College of Charleston]]
#[[College of DuPage]]
#[[College of Eastern Utah]]
#[[College of Lake County]]
#[[College of Marin]]
#[[College of Saint Benedict / Saint John's University | College of Saint Benedict | Saint John's University]]
#[[College of Science, Warsaw]]
#[[College of Security Technology and Management]]
#[[College of St. Catherine]]
#[[College of St Hild and St Bede]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[College of Staten Island]]
#[[College of the Atlantic]]
#[[College of the Canyons]]
#[[College of the Holy Cross]]
#[[College of the Redwoods]]
#[[College of the Siskiyous]]
#[[College of William and Mary]]
#[[The College of Wooster|College of Wooster]]
#[[College Shawinigan]]
=====Colli=====
#[[Collin County Community College District]]
#[[Collingwood College]], [[University of Durham]]
====Colo-Colu====
#[[Colorado Christian University]]
#[[Colorado College]]
#[[Colorado Mountain College]]
#[[Colorado Northwestern Community College]]
#[[Colorado School of Mines]]
#[[Colorado State University]]
#[[Colorado State University - Pueblo]]
#[[Columbia College Chicago]]
#[[Columbia College (Columbia, South Carolina)|Columbia College]] in Columbia, SC
#[[Columbia Union College ]]
#[[Columbia University]]
#[[Columbus State Community College]]
===Com-Coq===
#[[Comenius University in Bratislava]]
#[[Community College of Beaver County]]
#[[Community College of Southern Nevada]]
#[[Concord College]]
#[[Concordia College]]
#[[Concordia International University Estonia]]
#[[Concordia University]]
#[[Concordia University College of Alberta]]
#[[Concordia University Wisconsin]]
#[[Concordia University, River Forest]]
#[[Conestoga College]]
#[[Confederation College]]
#[[Connecticut College]]
#[[Connecticut Community-Technical College]]
#[[Converse College]]
#[[Coolmine Community School]]
#[[Cooper Union]]
#[[Copenhagen Business School]]
#[[Coppin State University]]
#[[Coquitlam College]]
===Cor-Cov===
#[[Cornell College]]
#[[Cornell University]]
#[[Cornerstone College]]
#[[Corning Community College]]
#[[Cosumnes River College]]
#[[Covenant College]]
#[[Covenant Theological Seminary]]
==Cr-Cz==
#[[Cracow University of Technology]]
#[[Cranbrook Academy of Art]]
#[[Cranfield University]]
#[[Creighton University]]
#[[Crescent Engineering College]]
#[[Cricklade College]]
#[[Criswell College]]
#[[Culdee College]]
#[[Culinary Institute of America]]
#[[Culinary Institute of America at Greystone]]
#[[Cumbria Institute of the Arts]]
#[[Curry College]]
#[[Curtin University, Western Australia]]
#[[Cuyahoga Community College]]
#[[Cuyamaca Community College District]]
#[[Cypress College]]
#[[Cyprus College]]
#[[Czech Technical University in Prague]]
:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|C]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities starting with D</title>
<id>6477</id>
<revision>
<id>41648545</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T20:01:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jibbajabba</username>
<id>533133</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Dea-Deu */ disambig [[Delta College]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- '''D''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_univers |
who has "Perfect Knowledge. In wrath of Samael, the God of the Aeon then separated Adam from Eve, causing their superior knowledge of God to flee from them.
The Perfection of the Protanthropos is also sometimes seen as a result of a non material emanation from God, called the Son of God and seen as the prefigurement for the appearance of [[Jesus]], who, even in Conventional Christian literature is often referred to as "The Second Adam". According to the Naassenes it is only when Adam and Eve are separated that they "sink" into material form. The Genesis verse, that "according to the image of God he made them, male and female he made them", implied that the first account of the creation of man and woman, according to Theodotus (c.160 CE), that both man and God were anthropogynous beings, later separated by God, the Father/Mother. As [[Elaine Pagels|Pagels]] shows "The followers of Valentinus suggested that the Mother herself had encouraged the God of Israel to think he was acting autonomously, but as they explain, "It was because he was foolish and ignorant of his Mother that he said, 'I am (the only) God; there is noone beside me'"". (p.69) In the Secret Book of John, the creator of Adam and Eve, when he said
:"'I am a jealous God and there is no other God besides me.' But by announcing this he indicated to the angels ... that another God does exist; for if there were no other one, of whom would he be jealous?... Then the Mother began to be distressed."
===The Role of Eve as the opener of Adam's Eyes===
Eve too has different roles within Gnosticism. For example she is often seen as the embodiment of the supreme feminine principle, called barbelo, barbeloth, or barthenos. As such she is equated with the Light-Maiden of Sophia (Wisdom), creator of the word (Logos) of God, the "thygater tou photos" or simply the Virgin Maiden, "parthenos". Again, in conventional Christianity, this is a prefigurement of Mary, also sometimes called "the Second Eve". In other Gnostic texts, such as The Hypostasis of the Archons, (The Reality of the Rulers), the Pistis Sophia is equated with Eve's daughter, Norea, the wife of Seth.
As a result of such Gnostic beliefs, especially amongst [[Marcionites]], women were considered equal to men, being revered as prophets, teachers, travelling evangelists, faith healers, priests and even bishops.
{{Main|Manichaeans}}
This is taken up in [[Manichaean]] belief the Protanthropos is seen as "the World Soul", ([[Anima Mundi]]), sent to fight against darkness. The "Fall" is then seen as the primordial man being delivered up to evil and swallowed in darkness, with the Universe as a whole now existing as a means of delivering the primordial Adam from Darkness. Here too the intercourse between Adam and Eve was seen as the way in which darkness overcame the light.
:"Mani said, 'Then Jesus came and spoke to the one who had been born, who was Adam, and explained to him (about) the gardens (of Paradise), the deities, Gehenna, the satans, earth, heaven, sun, and moon. He also made him fear Eve, showing him how to suppress (desire) for her, and he forbade him to approach her, and made him fear to be near her, so that he did (what Jesus commanded). Then that (male) archon came back to his daughter, who was Eve, and lustfully had intercourse with her. He engendered with her a son, deformed in shape and possessing a red complexion, and his name was Cain, the Red Man. Then that son had intercourse with his mother, and engendered with her a son of white complexion, whose name was Abel, the White Man. Then Cain again had intercourse with his mother, and engendered with her two girls, one of whom was named Hakimat al-Dahr and the other Ibnat al-Hirê . Then Cain took Ibnat al-Hirê as his wife and presented Hakimat al-Dahr to Abel, and he took her as his wife.'" [[http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/jcreeves/manichaean_version_of_genesis_2-4.htm]]
===Role of Satan===
Gnostics seem to have taken the Marcionite belief that the Wrathful Yahweh of the Torah and the loving Father of Christianity were two separate divinities. In their book "The Origin of the World" for instance it states:-
:The heaven and his earth were destroyed by the troublemaker that was below them all. And the six heavens shook violently; for the forces of chaos knew who it was that had destroyed the heaven that was below them. And when Pistis (Faith) knew about the breakage resulting from the disturbance, she sent forth her breath and bound him and cast him down into Tartaros. Since that day, the heaven, along with its earth, has consolidated itself through Sophia (Wisdom) the daughter of Yaldabaoth, she who is below them all.
:Now when the heavens had consolidated themselves along with their forces and all their administration, the prime parent became insolent. And he was honored by all the army of angels. And all the gods and their angels gave blessing and honor to him. And for his part, he was delighted and continually boasted, saying to them, "I have no need of anyone." He said, "It is I who am God, and there is no other one that exists apart from me." And when he said this, he sinned against all the immortal beings who give answer. And they laid it to his charge.
:Then when Pistis saw the impiety of the chief ruler, she was filled with anger. She was invisible. She said, "You are mistaken, Samael," (that is, "blind god"). "There is an immortal man of light who has been in existence before you, and who will appear among your modelled forms; he will trample you to scorn, just as potter's clay is pounded. And you will descend to your mother, the abyss, along with those that belong to you.
[[Gnostic]] accounts also turned the identification of the serpent with Satan on its head, and the serpent was seen as the hero, particularly to [[Ophite]]s, who was trying to help the couple gain knowledge to defeat evil Samael, whom the Gnostics saw as the jealous [[demiurge]] of the creation.
There is also the tradition that Satan refused to bow to Adam as a result of his exclusive love of God, and felt that bowing to humankind was a form of idolatry. This tradition informs the treatment of Satan in some forms of Christian [[gnosticism]].
More extended versions of the fall of Satan exist in which he leads a divine war, which, while in works such as the Book of Enoch is recorded as being in heaven after Satan turns away from God.
==Adam and Eve in Islamic Tradition==
The important early Islamic commentator [[Tabari]] adds a number of details to the Torah, based on claimed [[hadith]] as well as specific Jewish traditions (so-called ''[[isra'iliyyat]]''). Tabari records that when it came time to create Adam, God sent [[Gabriel (archangel)|Gabriel]] (Jibril), then [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]] (Mika'il), to fetch clay from the earth; but the earth complained, saying ''I take refuge in God from you, if you have come to diminish or deform me'', so the angels returned empty-handed. Tabari goes on to state that God responded by sending the [[Angel of Death]], who took clay from all regions, hence providing an explanation for the variety of appearances of the different races of mankind.
Aaccording to Tabari's account, after receiving the breath of God, Adam remained a dry body for 40 days, then gradually came to life from the head downwards, sneezing when he had finished coming to life, saying ''All praise be to God, the Lord of all beings''. Having been created, Adam, the first man, is described as having been given dominion over all the lower creatures, which he proceeds to name. As one of the people to whom God is said to have spoken to directly, Adam is seen as a [[Prophets of Islam|prophet in Islam]].
===The fall of Satan===
At this point, Adam takes a prominent role in Islamic traditions concerning the fall of [[Satan]], which is not recorded in the Torah, or in Christianity though is present in the historically important [[Book of Enoch]]. In these, when God announces his intention of creating Adam, some of the angels express dismay, asking why he would create a being that would do evil. Teaching Adam ''the names'' reassures the angels as to Adam's abilities, though commentators dispute which particular names were involved; various theories say they were the names of all things animate and inanimate, the names of the angels, the names of his own descendants, or the [[99 Names of God|names of God]].
When God orders the angels to bow to Adam one of those present, Satan ([[Iblis]] in Islam, regarded as a [[jinn]] rather than an angel, and hence avoiding questions about angels having [[free will]]), refuses due to his pride, and is summarily banished from the heavens. [[Liberal movements within Islam]] have viewed God's commanding the angels to bow before Adam as an exaltation of humanity, and as a means of supporting [[human rights]].
More extended versions of the fall of Satan also exist in works such as that of Tabari, and the [[Shia]] commentator al-[[Qummi]], is explained where he is sent against the jinn, who had angered God by sin and fighting. In such versions where Satan leads the battle on God's behalf, rather than his own, it is the pride and conceit resulting from his victory which results in his expulsion, since pride is here seen as a sin. Islamic traditions further record that, in vengeful anger, Iblis promises God that he will lead as many humans astray as he can, to which God replies that it is the choice of humans - those who desire to will follow Satan, while those who desire to will follow God.
===The Creation of Eve in Islam===
Eve, is not mentioned by name in the Qur'an, she is nevertheless referred to as Adam's spouse, and Islamic tradition refers to her by an etymologically similar name - Hawwa. In fact, although he |
riods of normal rainfall, only 4 of 10 islands (Santiago, Santo Antão, Fogo, and Brava) support significant agricultural production. Mineral resources are salt, pozzolana (a volcanic rock used in cement production), and limestone. The economy is service-oriented, with commerce, transport, and public services accounting for almost 70% of GDP. Although nearly 70% of the population lives in rural areas, the share of [[agriculture]] in GDP in 1998 was only 13% (up from 8.9% in 1995); of the 1998 total, [[fishing]] accounts for 1.5%. About 90% of food must be imported. The fishing potential, mostly [[lobster]] and [[tuna]], is not fully exploited. Cape Verde annually runs a high trade deficit, financed by foreign aid and remittances from emigrants; remittances constitute a supplement to GDP of more than 20%. Economic reforms, launched by the new democratic government in 1991, are aimed at developing the private sector and attracting foreign investment to diversify the economy. Since 1991, the policies the government has pursued include an open welcome to foreign investors and a far-reaching privatization program. It established as top development priorities the promotion of market economy and of the private sector; the development of tourism, light manufacturing industries, and fisheries; and the development of transport, communications, and energy facilities. In 1994-95 Cape Verde received a total of about U.S.$50 million in foreign investments, of which 50% was in industry, 19% in tourism, and 31% in fisheries and services. Prospects for 2000 depend heavily on the maintenance of aid flows, remittances, and the momentum of the government's development program.
Fish and shellfish are plentiful, and small quantities are exported. Cape Verde has cold storage and freezing facilities as well as fish processing plants in [[Mindelo]], Praia, and on Sal.
Cape Verde's strategic location at the crossroads of mid-Atlantic air and sea lanes has been enhanced by significant improvements at Mindelo's harbor (Porto Grande) and at Sal's international airport. Ship repair facilities at Mindelo were opened in 1983, and the harbors at Mindelo and Praia were recently renovated. The major ports are Mindelo and Praia, but all other islands have small port facilities, some of which are to be expanded in the near future. In addition to the international airport on Sal, airports are located on all of the inhabited islands. The archipelago has 3,050 kilometers (1,830 mi.) of roads, of which 1,010 kilometers (606 mi.) are paved. The airport of Praia is currently undergoing expansion.
:''See also :'' [[Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Cape Verde]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Cape Verde]]
==References==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cv.html CIA World Factbook]
[[fr:Économie du Cap-Vert]]
[[pt:Economia de Cabo Verde]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Cape Verde</title>
<id>5464</id>
<revision>
<id>15903671</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-22T05:27:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Josh Parris</username>
<id>201578</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dab ISP</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
60,935 (2002)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
28,119 (2002)
'''Telephone system:'''
<br>''domestic:''
idomestic: interisland microwave radio relay system with both analog and digital exchanges; work is in progress on a submarine fiber-optic cable system which is scheduled for completion in 2003
<br>''international:''
2 coaxial submarine cables; HF radiotelephone to [[Senegal]] and [[Guinea-Bissau]]; satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 0, FM 15 (and 17 repeaters), shortwave 0 (2002)
'''Radios:'''
73,000 (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
1 (and 7 repeaters) (2002)
'''Televisions:'''
2,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
1 (2002)
'''[[Internet]] Users'''
12,000 (2002)
'''[[Country code]]:''' CV
:''See also :'' [[Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Cape Verde]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in Cape Verde</title>
<id>5465</id>
<revision>
<id>37831752</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-02T11:42:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved [[Transportation in Cape Verde]] to [[Transport in Cape Verde]]: part of a series</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''[[Railway]]s:'''
0 km
'''[[Highway]]s:'''
<br>''total:''
1,100 km
<br>''paved:''
858 km
<br>''unpaved:''
242 km (1996 est.)
'''Ports and [[harbor]]s:'''
[[Mindelo]], [[Praia]], [[Tarrafal]]
'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
<br>''total:''
5 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 9,523 GRT/11,795 DWT
<br>''ships by type:''
cargo 4, chemical tanker 1 (1999 est.)
'''[[Airport]]s:'''
6 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
6
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
5 (1999 est.)
'''National Airline'''
<br>''[[TACV|TACV Cabo Verde]]''
:''See also :'' [[Cape Verde]]
{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}
[[Category:Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Cape Verde]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Cape Verde</title>
<id>5466</id>
<revision>
<id>15903673</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-20T01:37:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ingoolemo</username>
<id>71699</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>categorisation</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Military branches:'''
Army, Coast Guard
'''Military manpower - availability:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
92,486 (2002 est.)
'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
52,215 (2002 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$9.3 million (FY01)
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
1.6% (FY01)
==References and Links==
*[[Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Militaries|Cape Verde]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Cape Verde</title>
<id>5467</id>
<revision>
<id>37154323</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T01:59:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wikiacc</username>
<id>84893</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Cape Verde}}
Cape Verde follows a policy of [[nonalignment]] and seeks cooperative relations with all friendly states. [[Angola]], [[Brazil]], the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Cuba]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Portugal]], [[Senegal]], [[Russia]], and the [[United States]] maintain embassies in [[Praia]].
Cape Verde is actively interested in foreign affairs, especially in Africa. It has [[Bilateralism|bilateral relations]] with some [[lusophone]] nations and holds membership in a number of international organizations. It also participates in most international conferences on economic and political issues.
'''Disputes - international:'''
none
'''Illicit drugs:'''
used as a transshipment point for illicit drugs moving from [[Latin America]] and [[Africa]] destined for Western [[Europe]]
:''See also :'' [[Cape Verde]]
{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}
[[Category:Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Cape Verde, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cayman Islands</title>
<id>5468</id>
<revision>
<id>42106435</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:42:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SnappingTurtle</username>
<id>689160</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41926545 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country |<!-- If editing infobox, please update [[Template:Country infobox data Cayman Islands]] also -->
native_name = Cayman Islands |
common_name = the Cayman Islands |
image_flag = Flag of the Cayman Islands.svg |
image_coat = Cayman Islands coat of arms large.png |
image_map = LocationCaymanIslands.png |
national_motto = He hath founded it upon the seas |
national_anthem = [[God Save the Queen]]'' (Royal Anthem)'' |
official_languages = [[English language|English]] |
capital = [[George Town, Cayman Islands|George Town]] |
largest_city = George Town |
latd=19|latm=20|latNS=N|longd=81|longm=24|longEW=W|
largest_district = [[George Town, Cayman Islands|George Town]] |
government_type = [[Constitutional monarchy]] |
leader_titles = [[Governors of the Cayman Islands|Governor]]<br>[[Leader of Gov't Business]] |
leader_names = [[Stuart Jack]]<br>[[Kurt Tibbetts]] |
area = 260 |
areami² = 100.4 |<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
area_rank = 221st |
area_magnitude = 1 E8 |
percent_water = 1.6% |
population_estimate = 44,270 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 212th |
population_census = 39,020 |
population_census_year = 1999 |
population_density = 139.5 |
population_densitymi² = 361.3 |&l |
outside thereof (''[[adiaphora]]''). The first category includes aspects like ambition or animosity; the latter health, fame or property. He concludes that positive or negative interpretation of personal circumstances emerging from uncontrollable facts is an act of free will. Stoicism is the state of recognition that such facts cannot affect life.
In the last chapter in ''Enchiridion'' he concludes his ethics with four maxims meant to help during everyday life:
<blockquote>
"Lead thou me on, O Zeus, and Destiny,<br/>
To that goal long ago to me assigned.<br/>
I'll follow and not falter; if my will<br/>
Prove weak and craven, still I'll follow on.<br/>
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
"Whoever has complied well with necessity<br/>
Is counted wise by us, and understands divine affairs. (From [[Euripides]], Frag. 965)<br/>
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
"O Crito, if it thus pleases the gods, thus let it be." (From [[Plato]]'s [[Crito]])
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
"Anytus and Meletus can kill me, but they can't harm me." (From [[Plato]]'s [[Apology (Plato) | Apology]])
</blockquote>
== References ==
* Epictetus, Nicholas P. White (trans.), ''The Handbook'', ISBN 0915145693, 1983.
* Epictetus, George Long (trans.), ''Enchiridion'', ISBN 0879757035, 1955.
* Adolf Friedrich Bonhoffer, William O. Stephens, ''The Ethics of the Stoic Epictetus'', ISBN 0820451398, 2000.
* A. A. Long, ''Epictetus: A Stoic and Socratic Guide to Life'', ISBN 0199245568, 2002.
* Epictetus, ''The Discourses (The Handbook, Fragments)'', Everyman Edition, Edited by Christopher Gill, ISBN 0460873121, 2003.
* Robert Dobbin, ''Epictetus Discourses: Book 1'' (Clarendon Later Ancient Philosophers), Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0198236646, 1998.
* ''Epictetus: The Discourses,'' trans. W.A. Oldfather. 2 vols. (Loeb Classical Library edition.) Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1925 & 1928. ISBN 0674991451 and ISBN 0674992407.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Epictetus | name=Epictetus}}
*[http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/epictetu.htm Epictetus] entry at The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* Epictetus' writings at the [http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/browse-Epictetus.html Internet Classics Archive]
* [http://www.philosophyarchive.com/text.php?era=100-199&author=Epictetus&text=Discourses Books of the Discourses]
[[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]]
[[Category:Stoic philosophers]]
[[Category:Roman era philosophers]]
[[Category:Roman slaves and freedmen]]
[[bs:Epiktet]]
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[[el:Επίκτητος]]
[[es:Epicteto]]
[[eo:Epikteto]]
[[fr:Épictète]]
[[he:אפיקטטוס]]
[[hu:Epiktétosz]]
[[nl:Epictetus]]
[[pt:Epiteto]]
[[ru:Эпиктет]]
[[fi:Epiktetos]]
[[sv:Epiktetos]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Edward Lear</title>
<id>10408</id>
<revision>
<id>41646777</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:47:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>R Lowry</username>
<id>3399</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>qualifying 'dictionary'</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:edwardlear.jpg|thumb|right|Edward Lear, 1812-1888]]
[[image:eagleowl.jpg|thumb|right|''Eagle Owl'', Edward Lear, 1837]]
[[image:owlpussycat.jpg|thumb|right|Another Edward Lear owl, in his more familiar style]]
'''Edward Lear''' ([[12 May]] [[1812]] - [[29 January]] [[1888]]) was an [[artist]], [[illustrator]] and [[writer]] known for his [[nonsense verse|nonsensical poetry]] and his [[limerick (poetry)|limericks]], a form which he popularised. He was born in [[Highgate]], a suburb of [[London]], the 20th child of his parents and raised by his eldest sister, Ann, twenty-one years his senior. At the age of fifteen, he and his sister had to leave the family home and set up house together. He started work as a serious illustrator and his first publication, at the age of 19, was ''Illustrations of the Family of Psittacidae, or Parrots'' in [[1830]]. His paintings were well received and he was favorably compared with [[John James Audubon|Audubon]]. Throughout his life he continued to paint seriously. He had a lifelong ambition to illustrate [[Alfred Tennyson|Tennyson]]'s poems; near the end of his life a volume with a small number of illustrations was published, but his vision for the work was never realised.
He did not keep good health. From the age of seven until the time of his death he suffered frequent ''grand mal'' [[epilepsy|epileptic]] [[seizure]]s, as well as [[bronchitis]], [[asthma]], and in later life, partial [[blindness]].
In [[1846]] he published ''A Book of Nonsense'', a volume of limericks which went through three editions and helped popularise the form. In [[1865]] ''The History of the Seven Families of the Lake Pipple-Popple'' was published, and in [[1867]] his most famous piece of [[nonsense]], ''[[The Owl and the Pussycat]]'', which he wrote for the children of his patron [[Edward Stanley, 13th Earl of Derby]]. Many other works followed.
== Lear's writing ==
Edward Lear's nonsense works are distinguished by a facility of verbal invention and a poet's delight in the sounds of words, both real and imaginary. A stuffed rhinoceros becomes a "diaphanous doorscraper". A "blue Boss-Woss" plunges into "a perpendicular, spicular, orbicular, quadrangular, circular depth of soft mud". His heroes are Quangle-Wangles, Pobbles, and Jumblies. His most famous piece of verbal invention occurs in the closing lines of ''The Owl and the Pussycat'':
<!-- This ugly HTML renders much better, and is more browser-independent than other alternatives-->
&nbsp;&nbsp;They dined on mince, and slices of quince<br>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Which they ate with a runcible spoon;<br>
&nbsp;&nbsp;And hand in hand, on the edge of the sand,<br>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;They danced by the light of the moon,<br>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The moon,<br>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The moon,<br>
&nbsp;&nbsp;They danced by the light of the moon.<br>
The "[[runcible spoon]]", a Lear coinage, entered the language and is now found in almost any English dictionary.
Limericks are invariably typeset as five lines today, but Edward Lear's limericks were published in a variety of formats. It appears that Lear wrote them in manuscript basically in as many lines as there was room for beneath the picture. In the first three editions, most are typeset as, respectively, three, five, and three lines. The cover of one edition [http://www.nonsenselit.org/Lear/BoN/index.html] bears an entire limerick typeset in only '''two''' lines, thus:
<!-- This ugly HTML renders much better, and is more browser-independent than other alternatives-->
&nbsp;&nbsp;There was an Old Derry down Derry, who loved to see little folks merry;<br>
&nbsp;&nbsp;So he made them a book, and with laughter they shook at the fun of that Derry down Derry.<br>
In Lear's limericks, the first and last lines usually end with the same word, rather than rhyming. For the most part, they are truly nonsensical and devoid of any punch line or point; there is nothing in them to "get". They are completely free of the [[off-color humor|off-color humour]] with which the verse form is now associated. A typical thematic element is the presence of a callous and critical "they". An example of a typical Lear limerick:
<!-- This ugly HTML renders much better, and is more browser-independent than other alternatives-->
&nbsp;&nbsp;There was an Old Man of Aôsta,<br>
&nbsp;&nbsp;Who possessed a large Cow, but he lost her;<br>
&nbsp;&nbsp;But they said, 'Don't you see, she has rushed up a tree?<br>
&nbsp;&nbsp;You invidious Old Man of Aôsta!'<br>
It is interesting to compare those two [[Victorian era|Victorian]] masters of nonsense, Edward Lear and [[Lewis Carroll]]. Lewis Carroll's "nonsense" is a ''reversal'' or parody of ordinary logic. He plays on the ''meaning'' of words, and his writing style itself is prosaic. Edward Lear's "nonsense" is a true ''absence'' of logic; he plays on the ''sound'' of words and his writing style is poetic. Among Lear's tremble-bembles and the chippy-wippy-sikki-tees can be found some very felicitous turns of phrase. Lear's self-portrait in verse, ''How Pleasant to know Mr. Lear,'' closes with this [[stanza]], a pleasant reference to his own mortality:
<!-- This ugly HTML renders much better, and is more browser-independent than other alternatives-->
&nbsp;&nbsp;He reads but he cannot speak Spanish,<br>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;He cannot abide ginger-beer;<br>
&nbsp;&nbsp;Ere the days of his pilgrimage vanish,<br>
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;How pleasant to know Mr. Lear!<br>
[[Image:EdwardLearSelfPortrait.jpg|thumb|Edward Lear self portrait]]
==Works==
*''Illustrations of the Family of the [[Psittacidae|Psittacidæ]]'' (1832)
*''Tortises, Terrapins, and Turtles'' by [[John Edward Gray|J.E. Gray]]
*''Views in Rome and its Environs'' (1841)
*''Gleanings from the Menagerie at Knowsley Hall'' (1846)
*''Illustrated Excursions in Italy'' (1846)
*''Book of Nonsense'' (1846)
*''Journal of a Landscape Painter in Greece and Albania'' (1851)
*''Journal of a Landscape Painter in Souther Albania'' (1852)
*''Book of Nonsense and More Nonsense'' (1862)
*''Views in the Seven Ionian Isles'' (1863)
*''Journal of a Landscape Painter in Corsica'' (1870)
*''Nonsense Songs and Stories'' (1871)
*''More Nonsense Songs, Pictures, etc.'' (1872)
*''Laughable Lyrics'' (1877)
*''Nonsense Alphabets''
*''Nonsense Botany'' (1888)
*'' |
ts/manuals/javascript-1.0/ Authoring Guide for JavaScript 1.0] as used by Netscape Navigator 2.0
===Authoring Guides===
*Guides for Core JavaScript versions [http://developer.mozilla.org/en/docs/Core_JavaScript_1.5_Guide 1.5] and [http://research.nihonsoft.org/javascript/CoreGuideJS14/ 1.4]
*[http://docs.sun.com/source/816-5930-10/ iPlanet Web Server, Enterprise Edition Server-Side JavaScript 1.4 Guide]
*[http://research.nihonsoft.org/javascript/ClientGuideJS13/ Client-Side JavaScript 1.3 Guide]
*[http://docs.sun.com/source/816-6411-10/ Server-Side JavaScript 1.2 Guide]
*[http://research.nihonsoft.org/javascript/jsguide/ Client-Side JavaScript 1.2 Guide]
*[http://www.bobbyvandersluis.com/articles/goodpractices.php Ten good practices for writing JavaScript in 2005]
===Tutorials===
*[http://www.quirksmode.org/ Quirksmode - cross-browser JavaScript Tutorials]
*[http://www.onlinetools.org/articles/unobtrusivejavascript/ Unobtrusive Javascript]
*[http://www.yourhtmlsource.com/javascript/ HTML Source JavaScript Tutorials]
*[http://www.remast.de/javascript.php JavaScript functional programming Tutorial]
*[http://www.webreference.com/programming/javascript/diaries/ The JavaScript Diaries]
===Resources===
*[http://developer.mozilla.org/en/docs/JavaScript Mozilla JavaScript Language Documentation]
*[http://developer.mozilla.org/en/docs/New_in_JavaScript_1.6 New in JavaScript 1.6] as implemented in [[Mozilla]]/5.0 release version (rv) 1.8 and later, e.g. [[Mozilla Firefox]] 1.5 RC3 and later
*[http://mozilla.org/js/language/js20/ Proposal for JavaScript 2.0]
*[http://www.jibbering.com/faq/ The official comp.lang.javascript FAQ]
*[http://www.openjsan.org/ JavaScript Archive Network]
*[http://www.crockford.com/javascript/ Douglas Crockford's JavaScript page]
*[http://www.somecoders.com/category/javascript/ Lots of JavaScript Tutorials]
*[[Javascript Namespaces]]
===Common Problems===
*[http://www.softwaresecretweapons.com/jspwiki/Wiki.jsp?page=JavascriptStringConcatenation Performance impact of JavaScript string concatenations]
===History===
*[http://wp.netscape.com/comprod/columns/techvision/innovators_be.html Innovators of the Net: Brendan Eich and JavaScript] ([[Marc Andreesen]], Netscape TechVision, [[24 June]] [[1998]])
*[http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bl_javascript.htm Brendan Eich and JavaScript] (about.com)
*[http://weblogs.mozillazine.org/roadmap/archives/008325.html Brendan's Roadmap Updates: JavaScript 1, 2, and in between] - the author's blog entry
{{Major programming languages small}}
[[Category:JavaScript programming language]]
[[Category:Curly bracket programming languages]]
[[Category:Domain-specific programming languages]]
[[Category:Prototype-based programming languages]]
[[Category:Object-based programming languages]]
[[Category:Scripting languages]]
[[ar:جافا سكريبت]]
[[bg:JavaScript]]
[[be:JavaScript]]
[[cs:JavaScript]]
[[da:JavaScript]]
[[de:JavaScript]]
[[es:JavaScript]]
[[eo:JavaScript]]
[[fr:JavaScript]]
[[ko:자바스크립트]]
[[ia:JavaScript]]
[[is:JavaScript]]
[[it:JavaScript]]
[[he:JavaScript]]
[[lv:JavaScript]]
[[lt:JavaScript]]
[[hu:JavaScript]]
[[nl:JavaScript]]
[[ja:JavaScript]]
[[no:JavaScript]]
[[pl:JavaScript]]
[[pt:JavaScript]]
[[ro:JavaScript]]
[[ru:JavaScript]]
[[simple:JavaScript]]
[[sk:JavaScript]]
[[sl:JavaScript]]
[[fi:JavaScript]]
[[sv:JavaScript]]
[[th:จาวาสคริปต์]]
[[vi:JavaScript]]
[[tr:JavaScript]]
[[uk:Джава сценарій]]
[[zh:JavaScript]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elbing</title>
<id>9846</id>
<revision>
<id>17746659</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-28T09:06:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Diderot</username>
<id>31928</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elbląg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elbing/Elblag</title>
<id>9847</id>
<revision>
<id>23051204</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-11T18:41:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Triddle</username>
<id>176858</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixed double redirect; [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk/cleanup/double redirects/20050713|You can help!]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elbląg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elbing/Truso</title>
<id>9848</id>
<revision>
<id>23340166</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-16T13:12:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JoanneB</username>
<id>385115</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Fixed double redirect; [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk/cleanup/double redirects/20050713|You can help!]].</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elbląg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Estonian</title>
<id>9850</id>
<revision>
<id>19222146</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-20T12:16:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PeepP</username>
<id>327858</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Estonian''' can refer to:
*Anything related to [[Estonia]].
*The [[Estonians|Estonian]] [[ethnic group]].
*The [[Estonian language]].
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ego</title>
<id>9852</id>
<revision>
<id>15907717</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-03T00:57:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eequor</username>
<id>49577</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Serial communism.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ego, superego, and id]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Estonia disaster</title>
<id>9854</id>
<revision>
<id>15907718</id>
<timestamp>2004-04-02T01:09:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Leonard G.</username>
<id>46238</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>added colon</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT:[[M/S Estonia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Exile</title>
<id>9855</id>
<revision>
<id>41912030</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:50:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.250.143.131</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Famous people who have been in exile */ Khomeini. El Cid</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[Exile (disambiguation)]] for other meanings.''
'''Exile''' is a form of [[punishment]]. It means to be away from one's home (i.e. [[city]], [[state]] or [[country]]) while either being explicitly refused permission to return and/or being threatened by [[prison]] or [[death penalty|death]] upon return.
It is common to distinguish between '''internal exile''', i.e., forced [[resettle]]ment within the [[country]] of [[residence]], and '''external exile''', [[deportation]] outside the country of residence.
== History ==
Exile has a long tradition as a form of punishment. It has been known in [[Ancient Rome]], where the [[Roman Senate]] had the power to exile individuals, entire families or countries (which amounted to a [[declaration of war]]).
In the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] a court of law could sentence a noble to exile (''banicja''). As long as the exile (''banita'') remained in the Commonwealth he had a price on his head and lost the priviliges and protection granted to him as a noble. Even killing a ''banita'' was not considered a crime although there was no reward for his death. Special forms of exile were accompanied by ''wyświecenie'' (a declaration of the sentence in churches) or by issuance of a separate declaration to [[townfolk]] and [[peasant]]ry (all of them increased the knowledge of the exile and thus made his capture more likely).
A more severe penalty than exile was [[infamy]] (''infamia'') - 'a loss of honor and respect' (''utrata czci i wiary''). A noble who has been infamed not only suffered from the same penalties as an exiled one, but in addition, an exiled noble (''banita'') who killed an infamed one (''infamis'') could expect his exile sentence to be revoked. In addition anybody killing an infamed noble could expect a monetary reward from the state (usually a [[starosta]] of given region), and sheltering or supporting an infamed noble were also punishable offences. Both exile and infamy could be revoked if the person had done a great service to the state. As the law system in the Commonwealth was fairly inefficient, many exiles actually stayed within the country, often employed and protected by some [[magnate]]s. One of the most famous exiles of the Commonwealth was [[Samuel Łaszcz]].
== Personal exile ==
Exile was used particularly for political opponents of those in power. The use of exile for political purposes can sometimes be useful for the government because it prevents the exilee from organizing in their native land or from becoming a [[martyr]].
Exile represented a severe punishment, particularly for those, like [[Ovid]] or [[Du Fu]], exiled to strange or backward regions, cut off from all of the possibilities of life as well as their families and associates. [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] describes the pain of exile in the ''[[Divine Comedy]]'':
:«. . . Tu lascerai ogne cosa diletta
:più caramente; e questo è quello strale
:che l'arco de lo essilio pria saetta.
:Tu proverai sì come sa di sale
:lo pane altrui, e come è duro calle
:lo scendere e 'l salir per l'altrui scale . . .»
:". . . You will leave everything you love most:
:this is the arrow that the bow of exile
:shoots first. You will know how salty
:another's bread tastes and how hard it
:is to ascend and descend
:another's stairs . . ."
:Paradiso XVII: 55-60
Exile has been softened, to some extent, in the [[19th century|nineteenth]] and [[20th century|twentieth]] centuries, as exiles have received welcome in other countries and have either created new communities within those countries or, less frequently, returned to thei |
t;/math>
were computed in order to seek solution to its derivatives.
Upon integration,
:<math>\left\{ \begin{matrix}
u = - \int {\tan xdx = - \ln \left| {\sec x} \right| + C} \\
v = \int {1dx = x + C} \\
\end{matrix} \right.</math>
Computing <math>y_p</math> and <math>y_G</math>:
:<math>\begin{matrix}
y_p = f = uy_1 + vy_2 = \cos x\ln \left| {\cos x} \right| + x\sin x \\
y_G = y_c + y_p = C_1 \cos x + C_2 \sin x + x\sin x + \cos x\ln \left( {\cos x} \right) \\
\end{matrix}</math>
===General solution method for first-order linear ODEs===
{{ExampleSidebar|35%|<math>y'+3y=2 \,</math>
with the initial condition
<math>f\left(0\right)=2 \,</math>.
Using the general solution method:
<math>f=e^{-3x}\left(\int 2 e^{3x} dx + \kappa\right) \,</math>.
The integration is done from 0 to x, giving:
<math>f=e^{-3x}\left(2/3\left( e^{3x}-e^0 \right) + \kappa\right) \,</math>.
Then we can reduce to:
<math>f=2/3\left(1-e^{-3x}\right) + e^{-3x}\kappa \,</math>.
Assume that kappa is 2 from the initial condition.}}
For a first-order linear ODE, with coefficients that may or may not vary with ''t'':
<math>x'(t) + p(t) x(t) = r(t)</math>
Then,
:<math>x=e^{-a(t)}\left(\int r(t) e^{a(t)} dt + \kappa\right)</math>
where <math>\kappa</math> is the constant of integration, and
<math>a(t)=\int{p(s)ds}.</math>
====Proof====
This proof comes from [[Jean Bernoulli]]. Let
:<math>x^\prime + px = r</math>
Suppose for some unknown functions ''u''(''t'') and ''v''(''t'') that ''x'' = ''uv''.
Then
:<math>x^\prime = u^\prime v + u v^\prime</math>
Substituting into the differential equation,
:<math>u^\prime v + u v^\prime + puv = r</math>
Now, the most important step: Since the differential equation is ''linear'' we can split this into two independent equations and write
:<math>u^\prime v + puv = 0</math>
:<math>u v^\prime = r</math>
Since v is not zero, the top equation becomes
:<math>u^\prime + pu = 0</math>
The solution of this is
:<math>u = e^{ - \int p dt } </math>
Substituting into the second equation
:<math>v = \int r e^{ \int p dt } + C </math>
Since ''x'' = ''uv'', for arbitrary constant ''C''
:<math>x =e^{ - \int p dt } \left( \int r e^{ \int p dt } + C \right)</math>
==== First order differential equation with constant coefficients ====
As an illustrative example, consider a first order differential equation with [[constant coefficients]]:
:<math>a\frac{dx}{dt} + bx = Af(t).</math>
This equation is particularly relevant to first order systems such as RC circuits, mass-damper systems.
After [[nondimensionalization]], the equation becomes
:<math>\frac{d \chi}{d \tau} + \chi = F(\tau).</math>
In this case, ''p''(''t'') = ''r''(''t'') = 1.
Hence its solution by inspection is
:<math>\chi (\tau) = e^{-\tau} \left( \int F(\tau)e^{\tau} \, d\tau + C \right).</math>
<!-- Commented until someone adds content
===System of ODEs===
====System of linear ODEs (L-ODE)====
====System of non-homogeneous linear ODEs (NHL-ODE)====
-->
===Linear PDEs===
The theory of linear [[partial differential equation]]s may be said to
begin with [[Joseph Louis Lagrange|Lagrange]] (1779 to 1785). Monge (1809) treated ordinary
and partial differential equations of the first and second order,
uniting the theory to geometry, and introducing the notion of the
"characteristic", the curve represented by <math>F(z) = 0</math>, which was
investigated by [[Gaston Darboux|Darboux]], [[Paul Pierre Lévy|Levy]], and [[Sophus Lie|Lie]].
===First-order PDEs===
[[Pfaff]] (1814, 1815) gave the first general method of integrating partial
differential equations of the first order, of which [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]]
(1815) gave an analysis. [[Augustin Cauchy|Cauchy]] (1819) gave a simpler method, attacking
the subject from the analytical standpoint, but using the [[Monge characteristic]]. Cauchy also first stated the theorem (now called the [[Cauchy-Kovalevskaya theorem]]) that every analytic differential equation
defines an [[analytic function]], expressible by means of a [[convergent series]].
[[Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi|Jacobi]] (1827) also gave an analysis of Pfaff's
method, besides developing an original one (1836) which [[Alfred Clebsch|Clebsch]]
published (1862). Clebsch's own method appeared in 1866, and others
are due to [[Boole]] (1859), [[Aleksandr Korkin|Korkin]] (1869), and A. Mayer
(1872). [[Pfaff's problem]] (on [[total differential equation]]s) was investigated by Natani (1859),
Clebsch (1861, 1862), DuBois-Reymond (1869), Cayley, Baltzer,
Frobenius, Morera, Darboux, and Lie.
The next great improvement in the theory of partial differential equations of the first order was made by [[Sophus Lie|Lie]] (1872), who placed the whole subject on a solid foundation. After about 1870, Darboux, Kovalevsky, Méray,
Mansion, Graindorge, and Imschenetsky became prominent in this line. The theory of partial differential equations of the second and higher orders, beginning with Laplace and Monge, was notably advanced by Ampère (1840).
The integration of partial differential equations with three or more variables was the object of elaborate investigations by Lagrange, and his name became connected with certain subsidiary equations. It was he and Charpit who originated one of the methods for integrating the general equation with two variables; a method which now bears Charpit's name.
===Singular solutions===
The theory of [[singular solution]]s of ordinary and partial
differential equations was a subject of research from the time
of Leibniz, but only since the middle of the [[nineteenth century]] did it
receive special attention. A valuable but little-known work on the
subject is that of Houtain (1854). Darboux (starting in 1873) was a
leader in the theory, and in the geometric interpretation of these
solutions he opened a field which was worked by various
writers, notably Casorati and Cayley. To the latter is due (1872)
the theory of singular solutions of differential equations of the
first order as accepted circa 1900.
===Reduction to quadratures===
The primitive attempt in dealing with differential equations had in
view a reduction to [[quadrature (mathematics)|quadrature]]s. As it had been the hope of
eighteenth-century algebraists to find a method for solving the
general equation of the <math>n</math>th degree, so it was the hope of analysts
to find a general method for integrating any differential
equation. Gauss (1799) showed, however, that the differential
equation meets its limitations very soon unless [[complex number]]s are
introduced. Hence analysts began to substitute the study of
functions, thus opening a new and fertile field. Cauchy was the
first to appreciate the importance of this view. Thereafter the real question
was to be, not whether a solution is possible by means of known
functions or their integrals, but whether a given differential
equation suffices for the definition of a function of the
independent variable or variables, and if so, what are the
characteristic properties of this function.
===The Fuchsian theory===
Two memoirs by Fuchs (''Crelle'', 1866, 1868), inspired a novel approach, subsequently elaborated by Thomé and Frobenius. Collet was a prominent contributor beginning in 1869, although his method for integrating a
non-linear system was communicated to Bertrand in 1868. Clebsch (1873) attacked
the theory along lines parallel to those followed in his theory of
[[Abelian integral]]s. As the latter can be classified according to the
properties of the fundamental curve which remains unchanged under a
rational transformation, so Clebsch proposed to classify the
transcendent functions defined by the differential equations
according to the invariant properties of the corresponding surfaces
''f'' = 0 under rational one-to-one transformations.
==Lie's theory==
From 1870 [[Sophus Lie|Lie's]] work put the theory of differential equations
on a more satisfactory foundation. He showed that the integration
theories of the older mathematicians can, by the introduction of what are now called [[Lie group]]s, be referred to a common source; and that
ordinary differential equations which admit the same [[infinitesimal transformation]]s present comparable difficulties of integration. He
also emphasized the subject of [[contact transformation|transformations of contact]]
(''Berührungstransformationen'').
==See also==
*[[Examples of differential equations]]
*[[Differential equations of mathematical physics]]
*[[Differential equations from outside physics]]
*[[Difference equation]]
*[[Laplace transform applied to differential equations]]
*[[Boundary value problem]]
*[[List of dynamical systems and differential equations topics]]
== Bibliography ==
* A. D. Polyanin and V. F. Zaitsev, ''Handbook of Exact Solutions for Ordinary Differential Equations (2nd edition)", Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2003. ISBN 1-58488-297-2
* A. D. Polyanin, V. F. Zaitsev, and A. Moussiaux, Handbook of First Order Partial Differential Equations'', Taylor & Francis, London, 2002. ISBN 0-415-27267-X
* D. Zwillinger, ''Handbook of Differential Equations (3rd edition)'', Academic Press, Boston, 1997.
* Hartman, Philip, ''Ordinary Differential Equations, 2nd Ed.'', Society for Industrial & Applied Math, 2002. ISBN 0898715105.
* W. Johnson, [http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/b/bib/bibperm?q1=abv5010.0001.001 ''A Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations''], John Wiley and Sons, 1913, in [http://hti.umich.edu/u/umhistmath/ University of Michigan Historical Math Collection]
==External links==
*[http://eqworld.ipmnet.ru/index.htm EqWorld: The World of Mathemat |
s possible to trace out the local history of the Alps.
==Exploration==
:''Main article: [[Exploration of the High Alps]]''
The higher regions of the Alps were long left to the exclusive attention of the men of the adjoining valleys, even when Alpine travellers (as distinguished from Alpine climbers) began to visit these valleys. The two men who first explored the regions of ice and snow were H.B. de Saussure (1740-1799) in the [[Pennine Alps]], and the Benedictine monk of [[Disentis]], Placidus a Spescha (1752-1833), most of whose ascents were made before 1806, in the valleys at the sources of the [[Rhine]].
==Flora==
A natural vegetation limit with altitude is given by the presence of the chief [[deciduous]] [[tree]]s &mdash; [[oak]], [[beech]], [[Ash tree|ash]] and [[sycamore maple]]. These do not reach exactly to the same elevation, nor are they often found growing together; but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the wild [[herb]]aceous vegetation. This limit usually lies about 1200 m above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to 1500 m, sometimes even to 1700 m.
It must not be supposed that this region is always marked by the presence of the characteristic trees. The interference of man has in many districts almost removed them, and, excepting the beech forests of the [[Austria]]n Alps, a considerable wood of deciduous trees is rare. In many districts where such woods once existed, their place has been occupied by the [[Scots pine]] and [[Norway spruce]], which suffer less from the ravages of goats, the worst enemies of tree vegetation. The mean annual temperature of this region differs little from that of the [[British Islands]]; but the climate conditions are widely different. Here snow usually lies for several months, till it gives place to a spring and summer considerably warmer than the average of British seasons.
'''Typical plants found in the Alps:'''
<gallery>
Image:Leontopodium alpinum1.jpg|Edelweiss<br />(''[[Edelweiss|Leontopodium alpinum]]'')
Image:Gentiana acaulis.jpg|stemless gentian<br />(''[[Gentiana acaulis]]'')
Image:RostblaettrigeAlpenrose.jpg|rusty-leaved Alpenrose<br />(''[[Rhododendron ferrugineum]]'')
Image:Chamorchis_alpina_230705b.jpg|Alpine dwarf orchid<br />(''[[Chamorchis alpina]]'')
Image:Ranunculus_glacialis.jpg|glacier buttercup<br />(''[[Ranunculus glacialis]]'')
Image:Kosodrzewina (Sosna górska) Pinus mugo mugo.jpg|mountain pine<br />(''[[Mountain Pine|Pinus mugo]]'')
Image:Pulsatilla_alpina_schneebergensis.jpg|Alpine pasque-flower<br />(''[[Pulsatilla alpina]]'')
Image:Androsace alpina02.jpg|Alpine rock-jasmine (''[[Androsace alpina]]'')
</gallery>
==Fauna==
[[:Category:Fauna of the Alps|Species common to the Alps]]. These are most numerously found in the 15% of the Alps protected in parks and reserves.
<gallery>
Image:Plochacz 3001xx.jpg|<center>[[Alpine Accentor]]</center>
Image:Chamois Kleinwalsertal 1997.jpg|<center>[[Chamois]]</center>
Image:Alpenkauw2.jpg|<center>[[Alpine Chough]]</center>
Image:Goldie.JPG|<center>[[Golden Eagle]]</center>
Image:Alpine ibex.jpg|<center>[[Alpine Ibex|Ibex]]</center>
Image:Corvus monedula2.jpg|<center>[[Jackdaw]]</center>
Image:Marmota marmota Alpes2.jpg|<center>[[Alpine Marmot|Marmot]]</center>
Image:Arctic Hare.jpg|<center>[[Mountain Hare]]</center>
Image:Ptarmigan9.jpg|<center>[[Ptarmigan]]</center>
Image:Elk4.jpg|<center>[[Red Deer]]</center>
Image:Aegolius-funereus-001.jpg|<center>[[Tengmalm's Owl]]</center>
</gallery>
==See also==
{{commons|Category:Alps}}
*[[Paganism in the Eastern Alps]]
*[[Alpinism]]
==External links==
* [http://gridk1ach.grid.unep.ch/preAC/en/soia.htm System for Observation of and Information on the Alps], established in 1991 by the [[Alpine Convention]]
* [http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/gallery/individual.php?db_date=2005-09-17 Satellite photo of the Alps], taken on [[August 31]], [[2005]] by [[MODIS]] aboard [[Terra (satellite)|Terra]]
* [http://www.eumetsat.int/en/area5/iotm/19930503_convection/19930503_convection.html Convection over the Alps], a satellite photo taken on [[May 3]], [[1993]] by [[Meteosat]]-4, with analysis
*[http://www2.snowfactory.com/portal/modules.php?name=WebCAM_Belalp SNOWFactory.com] The live webcam locate in the swiss alps. More than 50'000 images since summer 2003.
*[http://www.snownews.de Winter holidays in the european Alps]
*[http://www.via-ferrata.de Hiking and climbing in the ALps]
* [http://www.travel-france-vacation.com/south-riviera-france/southern-nice-provence.htm Visit Alps and Rhone valley]
[[Category:Alps| ]]
[[Category:Mountains of Europe]]
[[Category:Mountains of Austria]]
[[Category:Mountains of France]]
[[Category:Mountains of Germany]]
[[Category:Mountains of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Mountains of Slovenia]]
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[af:Alpe]]
[[als:Alpen]]
[[ar:ألب]]
[[bg:Алпи]]
[[ca:Alps]]
[[cs:Alpy]]
[[da:Alperne]]
[[de:Alpen]]
[[et:Alpid]]
[[el:Άλπεις]]
[[es:Alpes]]
[[eo:Alpoj]]
[[eu:Alpeak]]
[[fr:Alpes]]
[[ga:Sliabh Alpa]]
[[ko:알프스 산맥]]
[[hr:Alpe]]
[[is:Alpafjöll]]
[[it:Alpi]]
[[he:הרי האלפים]]
[[la:Alpes]]
[[lt:Alpės]]
[[nl:Alpen]]
[[ja:アルプス山脈]]
[[no:Alpene]]
[[nn:Alpane]]
[[pl:Alpy]]
[[pt:Alpes]]
[[ro:Alpi]]
[[ru:Альпы]]
[[sk:Alpy]]
[[sl:Alpe]]
[[sr:Алпи]]
[[fi:Alpit]]
[[sv:Alperna]]
[[tr:Alpler]]
[[uk:Альпи]]
[[zh:阿尔卑斯山]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>A priori and a posteriori knowledge</title>
<id>982</id>
<revision>
<id>15899492</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-15T20:16:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kzollman</username>
<id>166829</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Knowledge]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albert Camus</title>
<id>983</id>
<revision>
<id>42036634</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T10:29:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.159.110.243</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:camus-albert.gif|thumb|right|Albert Camus]]
'''Albert Camus''' (pronounced Kam-oo, [[IPA]]: ka.mʉ̟ː) ([[November 7]], [[1913]] &ndash; [[January 4]], [[1960]]) was a [[France|French]] [[author]] and [[philosopher]] and one of the principal luminaries (with [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]) of [[absurdism]]. Camus was the second youngest-ever recipient of the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]] (after [[Rudyard Kipling]]) when he received the award in 1957. He is also the [[List of Nobel Prize in Literature winners by longevity|shortest-lived of any literature laureate]] to date, having died in a car crash three years after receiving the award.
==Early years==
Albert Camus was born in [[Mondovi, Algeria]] to a French Algerian ([[pied noir]]) settler family. His mother was of Spanish extraction. His father, Lucien, died in the [[First Battle of the Marne|Battle of the Marne]] in [[1914]] during the [[World War I|First World War]], while serving as a member of the [[Zouave]] infantry regiment. Camus lived in poor conditions during his childhood in the Belcourt section of [[Algiers]].
In [[1923]], Camus was accepted into the [[lycée]] and eventually to the [[University of Algiers]]. However, he contracted [[tuberculosis]] in [[1930]], which put an end to his [[football (soccer)|football]] activities (he had been a [[goalkeeper]] for the university team) and forced him to make his studies a part-time pursuit. He took odd jobs including private [[tutor]], car parts clerk, and work for the Meteorological Institute. He completed his ''licence de philosophie'' ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]]) in [[1935]]; in May of [[1936]], he successfully presented his thesis on [[Plotinus]], ''Néo-Platonisme et Pensée Chrétienne'' for his ''diplôme d'études supérieures'' (roughly equivalent to an M.A. by thesis).
{{French literature (small)}}
Camus joined the [[French Communist Party]] in 1934, apparently for concern over the political situation in [[Spain]] (which eventually resulted in the [[Spanish Civil War]]) rather than support for [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] doctrine. In 1936, the independence-minded Algerian Communist Party (PCA) was founded. Camus joined the activities of [[Le Parti du Peuple Algérien]], which got him into trouble with his communist party comrades. As a result, he was denounced as "[[Trotskyism|Trotskyite]]", which did not endear him to Stalinist communism.
In 1934, he [[Married|married]] Simone Hie, a [[morphine]] addict, but the marriage ended due to Simone's infidelity. In 1935, he founded ''Théâtre du Travail'' &mdash; "Worker's Theatre" &mdash; (renamed ''Théâtre de l'Equipe'' ("Team's Theatre") in [[1937]]), which survived until 1939. From 1937 to 1939, he wrote for a socialist paper, ''Alger-Republicain'', and his work included an account of the peasants who lived in [[Kabylie]] in poor conditions, which apparently cost him his job. From 1939 to 1940, he briefly wrote for a similar paper, ''Soir-Republicain''. He was rejected from the French army because of his [[tuberculosis]].
In 1940, Camus married Francine Faure, a pianist and mathematician. Francine gave birth to twins Catherine and Jean Camus on September 5th, 1945. Also in this year, Camus began to work for ''[[Paris-Soir]]'' magazine. In the first stage of [[World War II]], the so-called [[Phony War]] stage, Camus was a [[pacifism|pacifist]]. However, he was in [[Paris]] to witness how the [[Wehrmacht]] took over. On [[December 15]], [[1941]], Camus witnessed the execution of [[Gabriel Peri]], an event which Camus later said crystallized his revolt against the Germans. Afterwards he moved to [[Bordeaux]] alongside the rest of the staf |
he digits spelled out, and the only output was an extended version of [[Roman numerals]].
The C-INTERCAL reimplementation, being available on the Internet, has made the language more popular with devotees of esoteric programming languages. The C-INTERCAL dialect has a few differences from original INTERCAL and introduced a few new features, such as a [[COMEFROM|COME FROM]] statement and a means of doing text I/O based on the [[Turing Text Model]].
The authors of C-INTERCAL also created the TriINTERCAL variant, based on the [[ternary]] system and generalising INTERCAL's set of operators.
A more recent variant is Threaded Intercal, which extends the functionality of COME FROM to support [[multithreading]].
== Hello, world ==
The traditional [[Hello world program|"Hello, world!" program]] demonstrates how different INTERCAL is from standard programming languages. In C, it reads as follows:
<pre>
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
printf("hello, world\n");
return 0;
}
</pre>
The equivalent program in C-INTERCAL is longer and harder to read:
<pre>
DO ,1 <- #13
PLEASE DO ,1 SUB #1 <- #234
DO ,1 SUB #2 <- #112
DO ,1 SUB #3 <- #112
DO ,1 SUB #4 <- #0
DO ,1 SUB #5 <- #64
DO ,1 SUB #6 <- #194
DO ,1 SUB #7 <- #48
PLEASE DO ,1 SUB #8 <- #22
DO ,1 SUB #9 <- #248
DO ,1 SUB #10 <- #168
DO ,1 SUB #11 <- #24
DO ,1 SUB #12 <- #16
DO ,1 SUB #13 <- #214
PLEASE READ OUT ,1
PLEASE GIVE UP
</pre>
== External links ==
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/intercal/ INTERCAL home page on the Web].
*[http://www.muppetlabs.com/~breadbox/intercal/ INTERCAL Resources on the Web], including several implementations
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/intercal/stross.html INTERCAL &mdash; the Language from Hell] ([[Charles Stross]], ''Computer Shopper'' [UK], September 1992)
*[http://www.progsoc.uts.edu.au/~sbg/intercal/intercal.html INTERCAL reference manual]
*[http://www.progsoc.uts.edu.au/~sbg/intercal/ick.html C-INTERCAL supplemental reference manual]
*[http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~malcolmr/intercal/threaded.html Threaded Intercal]
----
Part of an earlier version of this article contains text from [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/ The Jargon File 4.2.3 Mar 2001].
[[Category:Esoteric programming languages]]
[[de:INTERCAL]]
[[et:INTERCAL]]
[[es:INTERCAL]]
[[eo:INTERCAL (programlingvo)]]
[[ja:INTERCAL]]
[[ko:INTERCAL]]
[[pl:InterCal]]
[[ru:INTERCAL]]
[[sk:Intercal]]
[[sv:INTERCAL]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Data Encryption Algorithm</title>
<id>15076</id>
<revision>
<id>34872905</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-12T09:53:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RuM</username>
<id>191732</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>interwiki cs</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Block Ciphers|
fullName = IDEA |
image = International Data Encryption Algorithm InfoBox Diagram.png |
caption = An encryption round of IDEA |
yearPublished = [[1991]] |
derivedFrom = PES |
derivedTo = [[MESH]], [[Akelarre]], [[FOX (cipher)|FOX]] (IDEA NXT) |
designers = [[James Massey]], [[Xuejia Lai]] |
blockSize = 64 bits |
keySize = 128 bits |
cipherStructure = [[Substitution-permutation network]] |
rounds = 8.5 |
cryptanalysis = A collision attack requiring 2<sup>24</sup> [[chosen plaintext]]s breaks 5 rounds with a complexity of 2<sup>126</sup> (Demirci et al, 2003).
}}
In [[cryptography]], the '''International Data Encryption Algorithm''' ('''IDEA''') is a [[block cipher]] designed by Xuejia Lai(來學嘉) and [[James L. Massey]] of [[ETH-Zürich]] and was first described in [[1991]]. The algorithm was intended as a replacement for the [[Data Encryption Standard]]. IDEA is a minor revision of an earlier [[cipher]], '''PES (Proposed Encryption Standard)'''; IDEA was originally called '''IPES''' ('''Improved PES''').
The cipher was designed under a research contract with the Hasler Foundation, which became part of Ascom-Tech AG. The cipher is patented in a number of countries but is freely available for non-commercial use. The name "IDEA" is also a [[trademark]]. The [[patent]]s will expire in [[2010]]&ndash;[[2011]]. Today, IDEA is licensed worldwide by MediaCrypt.
IDEA was used in [[Pretty Good Privacy]] (PGP) V2.0, and was incorporated after the original cipher used in v1.0 ("Bass-O-Matic") was found to be insecure. It is an optional algorithm in [[OpenPGP]].
==Operation==
<!-- notation: would like to use the LaTeX symbols <math>\odot</math> and <math>\boxplus</math>, but these are not yet supported by the software -->
IDEA operates on 64-bit [[block size (cryptography)|blocks]] using a 128-bit [[key (cryptography)|key]], and consists of a series of eight identical transformations (a ''round'', see the illustration) and an output transformation (the ''half-round''). The processes for encryption and decryption are similar. IDEA derives much of its security by interleaving operations from different [[group (mathematics)|groups]] &mdash; [[modular arithmetic|modular]] addition and multiplication, and bitwise [[XOR|eXclusive OR (XOR)]] &mdash; which are algebraically "incompatible" in some sense. In more detail, these operators, which all deal with 16-bit quantities, are:
* Bitwise [[XOR|eXclusive OR]] (denoted with a blue &oplus;).
* Addition modulo 2<sup>16</sup> (denoted with a green [[Image:Boxplus.png|boxplus]]).
* Multiplication modulo 2<sup>16</sup>+1, where the all-zero word (0x0000) is interpreted as 2<sup>16</sup> (denoted by a red [[Image:Odot.png|odot]]).
==Security==
The designers analysed IDEA to measure its strength against [[differential cryptanalysis]] and concluded that it is immune under certain assumptions. No successful [[linear cryptanalysis|linear]] or algebraic weaknesses have been reported. Some classes of [[weak key]]s have been found &mdash; E.g. (Daemen et al, 1994) &mdash; but these are of little concern in practice, being so rare as to be unnecessary to avoid explicitly. [[As of 2004]], the best attack which applies to all keys can break IDEA reduced to 5 rounds (the full IDEA cipher uses 8.5 rounds) (Demirci et al, 2003).
[[Bruce Schneier]] thought highly of IDEA in [[1996]], writing, "In my opinion, it is the best and most secure block algorithm available to the public at this time." (''Applied Cryptography'', 2nd ed.) However, by [[1999]] he was no longer recommending IDEA due to the availability of faster algorithms, some progress in its cryptanalysis, and the issue of patents [http://slashdot.org/interviews/99/10/29/0832246.shtml].
IDEA is patented in [[Austria]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Netherlands]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[United Kingdom]], (European patent EP-B-0482154), the [[United States]] ([http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&p=1&r=1&l=50&f=G&d=PALL&s1=5214703.WKU.&OS=PN/5214703&RS=PN/5214703 US patent #5,214,703]) and [[Japan]] (JP 3225440).
MediaCrypt is now also offering a successor to IDEA and focuses on its new cipher (official release on May 2005), IDEA NXT, which is in fact [[FOX (cipher)|FOX]].
==References==
* [[Joan Daemen|J. Daemen]], R. Govaerts, and J. Vandewalle, Weak keys for IDEA, Crypto '93. pp224&ndash;231.
* Hüseyin Demirci, Erkan Türe, Ali Aydin Selçuk, A New Meet in the Middle Attack on The IDEA Block Cipher, 10th Annual Workshop on Selected Areas in Cryptography, 2003.
* Xuejia Lai and James L. Massey, A Proposal for a New Block Encryption Standard, EUROCRYPT 1990, pp389&ndash;404
* Xuejia Lai and James L. Massey and S. Murphy, Markov ciphers and differential cryptanalysis, ''Advances in Cryptology &mdash; Eurocrypt <nowiki>'</nowiki>91'', Springer-Verlag (1992), pp17&ndash;38.
==External links==
* [http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2254 RSA FAQ on Block Ciphers]
* [http://www.mediacrypt.com/ Mediacrypt homepage] &mdash; IDEA licensor
* [http://www.users.zetnet.co.uk/hopwood/crypto/scan/cs.html#IDEA SCAN entry for IDEA]
* [http://home.ecn.ab.ca/~jsavard/crypto/co040302.htm John Savard's description of IDEA]
* [http://www.cs.ut.ee/~helger/crypto/link/block/idea.php Helger Lipmaa's links for IDEA]
{{Block_ciphers}}
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indoor rower</title>
<id>15077</id>
<revision>
<id>40601054</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T19:19:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Johnteslade</username>
<id>102856</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rem link spam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Concept2_Indoor_Rowers.JPG|thumb|250px|A row of [[Concept2]] "Model C" indoor rowers]]
An '''indoor rower''' is a machine used to simulate the action of [[watercraft rowing]] for the purpose of exercise or training for rowing. Indoor Rowing has become established as a sport in its own right. The term also refers to a participant in this sport.
An indoor rower is also known as an '''ergometer''' (slang '''ergo''' or '''erg'''). An ergometer being a device which measures the amount of energy or work performed. The indoor rower is calibrated to measure the amount of energy |
f storing general consumer content &mdash;such as photos, music, and video&mdash; than in the past. Hard disk drives having a few terabytes of storage capacity will be on the market before 2008. A terabyte is equivalent to about 2000 CD-ROMs, 130 DVD-9s, or 20 dual-layer BDs. However, hard disk drives and memory cards are at the moment hundreds of times more expensive than optical discs (US$50 or more compared to $0.50), so they will never replace discs as a <i>publishing</i> format. The price per gigabyte of a hard disk drive, $0.20 ($100/500GB), is growing closer to that of a DVD-ROM, $0.06 ($0.50/8.5GB), or BD-ROM, $0.03 ($1.50/50GB), or recordable DVD-5, $0.10 ($0.50/4.7GB), and is lower than the cost of a recordable DVD-9, $0.30 ($2.50/8.5GB), or BD-RE25, $1.20 ($30/25GB). Direct access to large amounts of information is much more convenient with a hard disk drive. As <i>true</i> broadband (25 Mbps or higher) becomes widely available in a decade or two, physical media will become less important as a distribution format.
The new generations of optical formats have restricted access (anti-copy mechanisms), and it is therefore possible that consumers will ignore them as they did with Super Audio CD.
== Direct-to-DVD ==
The popularity of [[DVD]]s has caused the term "direct-to-DVD" to widely replace "[[Direct-to-video]]" (see main article). However, the lucrative market for DVDs has resulted in less stigma for direct-to-DVD releases as compared to direct-to-video releases. Some minor films can be made with a small budget and turn a profit on DVD sales alone, and some are made specifically for this purpose.
== See also ==
* [[Camcorder]]
* [[Digital camera]] integration
* [[DeCSS]]
* [[DivX]]
* [[DIVX]]
* [[DualDisc]]
* [[Dual layer]]
* [[DVD Formats]]
* [[DVD Forum]]
* [[DVD Jon]]
* [[DVD TV Games]]
* [[DVD-D]] disposable DVD
* [[DVD-R]] (DVD recordable)
* [[EZ-D]] disposable DVD
* [[FireWire]]
* Updatable [[firmware]]
* [[Home cinema]]
* [[MPEG-1]]
* [[MPEG-2]]
* [[Netflix]] (DVD rental)
* [[Nuon]]
* [[PVR]]
* [[Special edition|Special Edition]]
* [[Superbit]]
* [[User_operation_prohibition|UOP]]
* [[MultiLevel Recording]]
* [[:Category:DVD covers|DVD cover art]]
* [[List of video players (software)]]
* Inphase Tecnologies [[Holographic]] system.
== References ==
* ''DVD Demystified'', Jim Taylor; McGraw-Hill Professional; ISBN 0071350268 (2nd edition, [[December 22]] [[2000]])
* ''DVD Authoring and Production'', Ralph Labarge; CMP Books; ISBN 1578200822 (August 2001)
* Bennett, Hugh. ''Understanding Recordable & Rewritable DVD''. Cupertino: Optical Storage Technology Association, Apr. 2004. [http://www.osta.org/technology/dvdqa/]
== External links ==
===Official===
* [http://www.dvdforum.org DVD Forum]
* [http://www.dvdrw.com/ DVD+RW Alliance]
* [http://www.dvdcca.org/ DVD Copy Control Association and the Content Scramble System (CSS)]
===Technology===
* [http://www.osta.org/technology/dvdqa/ Understanding Recordable & Rewritable DVD] by Hugh Bennett
* [http://www.dvdrecorderworld.com/formatlist.php DVD recorder formats explained]
===DVD collection===
* [http://www.ultimatedisney.com The Ultimate Guide to Disney DVD] News, reviews, and more
* [http://www.cinemademerde.com Cinema de Merde] Reviews and essays on bad and cheesy movies on video
* [http://www.dvdaficionado.com/ DVD Aficionado organizer]
* [http://www.thedigitalbits.com/ The Digital Bits-DVD news and reviews]
* [http://dvd.ign.com/releases.html IGN | Upcoming DVD releases] at [[IGN]]
* [http://www.compare-dvd-prices.co.uk/ UK DVD Price Comparison Website]
* [http://www.thedvdinsider.com DVD reviews and analysis] at The DVD Insider
* [http://dvdmg.com/ A Weekly Guide to DVD Movie Releases & Reviews] at DVD Movie Guide
* [http://www.herorealm.com/ Weekly look at DVDs coming out] at Hero Realm
* [http://www.dvdanthology.com/ DVD Anthology Collectors Community]
===Other===
* [http://www.dvddemystified.com/dvdfaq.html DVD Frequently Asked Questions (and Answers)]
* [http://www.dvdremotehack.com/index.php DVD Code's Archive to make your player multiregional]
* [http://www.dvdsoftwareguide.com/all-about-dvd-1-guide.html All About DVD Part 1: DVD Format] at [http://www.dvdsoftwareguide.com DVDSoftwareGuide.com]
* [http://www.dvd-copy.com/reference/The_Challenge_of_DVD_Authoring.pdf The Challenge of DVD Authoring] a PDF report at DVD-Copy.com
* [http://www.nbc4.tv/news/2281636/detail.html "DVD Rentals Overtake VHS Cassettes For First Time,"] June 19, 2003 article from NBC4 TV
* [http://www.dvdark.co.uk Archive of Region 2 and Region 0 DVDs from 1997 onwards] provided by DVDark.co.uk
* [http://fy.chalmers.se/~appro/linux/DVD+RW/ DVD+RW/+R/-R(W) for Linux]
* [http://www.dvdtoday.com/Recordable%20DVD%20Test.htm DVD and DVD+RW compatibility testing]
* [http://www.howstuffworks.com/dvd.htm How DVD works] from [[HowStuffWorks|HowStuffWorks.com]]
* [http://www.redrobe.com/dvd/vcd.php DVD Player CDR Compatibility list]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Digital</title>
<id>8276</id>
<revision>
<id>41599302</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T11:59:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>200.125.48.231</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Historical digital systems */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Digital (disambiguation)]]''
A '''digital''' [[system]] is one that uses [[number]]s, especially [[binary numbers]], for input, processing, transmission, storage, or display, rather than a [[continuum|continuous]] spectrum of values (an [[Analog signal|analog]] system) or non-numeric [[symbol]]s such as [[letter]]s or [[icon]]s.
The distinction of "digital" versus "analog" or "symbolic" can refer to method of input, data storage and transfer, the internal working of an instrument, and the kind of display. The word comes from the same source as the word [[digit]] and ''digitus'': the [[Latin]] word for ''[[finger]]'' (counting on the fingers) as these are used for discrete counting.
The word ''digital'' is most commonly used in [[computing]] and [[electronics]], especially where real-world information is converted to [[Binary numeral system|binary]] numeric form as in [[digital audio]] and [[digital photography]]. Such data-carrying signals carry either one of two electronic or optical pulses, logic 1 (pulse present) or 0 (pulse absent). The term is often meant by the prefix "e-", as in [[e-mail]] and [[ebook]], even though not all electronics systems are digital.
===Digital noise===
When data are transmitted using analog methods, a certain amount of [[noise]] enters into the signal. This can have myriad causes: data transmitted by [[radio]] may be received badly, suffer [[interference]] from other radio sources, or pick up background radio noise from the rest of the universe. Electric pulses being sent down wires are attenuated by the resistance of the wire, and dispersed by its capacitance, and heat variations can increase or reduce these effects. While digital transmissions are also degraded, any slight variations can be safely ignored. With an analog signal, any variance can provide a great amount of distortion. In a digital signal, these variances can be overcome, as any signal close to a particular value will be interpreted as that value. Care must be taken when connecting digital and analog systems; tolerable variances for the digital part can leak into the analog part and become intolerable.
===Analog, symbolic, and digital displays; ease of reading===
For human readable information, digital, analog, and symbol display methods can all be useful. Should an instant impression be required, analog meters and indicator lights often give information quickly. Many people glance quickly at their analog watch and know roughly what the time is or at an automobile dashboard and know that a door is ajar. When accuracy is required, however, digital displays are preferred. Reading analog meters requires time and a little bit of skill, whereas writing down the value on a digital display is merely a case of copying down the numbers. In cases where both accuracy and quick reckoning are both required, dual displays are often used.
A needle ('''analog''') just touching onto the bottom of an orange shaded area is much different from a needle almost touching into the red area, but an indicator lamp ('''symbol''') would just glow orange and a numeric ('''digital''') display, although it could be colored orange, would not indicate the relative level of danger to an untrained operator.
==Analog to digital conversion==
:''Main article: [[Analog-to-digital converter]]''
Converting an analog source to digital data is done with two steps: [[Sampling (information theory)|sampling]], which changes the source to a series of [[Discrete signal|discrete]] values (called ''samples''), and [[Quantization (signal processing)|quantization]], which converts each sample to a number. For example, the sensor of a digital camera contains millions of sensing elements (one for each [[pixel]]). When an exposure is made, the light focused on the array is converted into millions of electric charges (sampled). These charges are then amplified and converted |
[[Gulrukh Begum]], daughter<br>
*[[Fakhr-un-nisa]], daughter<br>
|}
'''Zahir-ud-din Mohammad ''Babur''''' ([[Persian language|Persian]]: محمد بابر) ([[February 14]], [[1483]] &ndash; [[December 26]], [[1530]]), (also spelled ''Zahiriddin, Muhammad, Bobur, Baber, Babar, etc.''), Emperor and Founder of the [[Mughal]] dynasty of [[India]].
==Background==
Babur's name was derived from the [[Persian language|Persian]] ''"Babr"'' meaning "[[leopard]]". He was born on [[February 14]], [[1483]]. There are three suggestions to where he was born, which are [[Fergana]], [[Fergana Valley]] or [[Andijan]] all of which are in [[Uzbekistan]]. He was the eldest son of Omar Sheikh Mirza (also spelled as Umar Shaykh Mirza or Umar Shaikh Mirza), ruler of the Fergana Valley, and his wife [[Qutlugh Nigar Khanum]]. He was a descendant of the famous [[Mongol]] warlord, [[Timur]] (also known as ''Tamarlane'') on his father's side and a descendant of [[Genghis Khan]] on his mother's side. Although Babur hailed from the ''Barlas'' tribe which was of Mongol origin, his tribe had embraced [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] culture, converted to Islam and resided in Turkic regions. Hence Babur, though nominally a Mongol (or ''Mughal'' in Persian), drew much of his support from the Turks, and his army was diverse in its ethnic makeup. Babur is said to have been extremely strong and physically fit. Allegedly, he would carry two men, one on each of his shoulders, and then climb slopes on the run, just for exercise. Legend holds that Babur swam across every major [[river]] in [[India]], again for exercise.
==Military career==
When only eleven years of age, Babur succeeded his father as ruler of Fergana in 1494. His uncles were relentless in their attempts to dislodge him from this position; Babur spent a major portion of his life shelterless and in exile. In [[1497]], Babur attacked and gained possession of the Uzbek city of [[Samarkand]]. While he was winning that city, a rebellion among Uzbek nobles back home robbed him of [[Fargana]]. As he was marching to recover it, his troops deserted him; he lost [[Samarkand]] as well as [[Fargana]]. Babur did manage to regain both cities within a relatively brief period. In [[1501]], however, he was again defeated, this time by his most formidable enemy, [[Muhammad Shaybani]], Khan of the [[Uzbek|Uzbeks]]; [[Samarkand]], his lifelong obsession, was lost again. For three years, Babur concentrated on building up a strong army. In [[1504]], he was able to cross the snowy [[Hindu Kush]] mountains and capture [[Kabul]]. With this move, he gained a wealthy new kingdom and re-established his fortunes and assumed the title Padshah. In the following year, Babur united with [[Husayn Bayqarah]] of [[Herat]] against Muhammad Shaybani. The death of Husayn Bayqarah in [[1506]] put paid to that venture, but Babur occupied his ally's city of [[Herat]] and spent a year there, enjoying the pleasures of that city. A brewing rebellion finally induced him to return to Kabul from Herat. He prevailed on that occasion, but two years later, a revolt among some of his leading generals drove him out of Kabul; he was compelled to escape with very few companions. Babur however soon returned; he again captured Kabul and compelled the allegiance of the rebels. Muhammad Shaybani died in [[1510]]. Babur used this opportunity to regain his ancestral Timurid territories. He received considerable aid from Shah [[Ismail I]], [[Safavid]] ruler of [[Persia]], and made a triumphant entry into [[Samarkand]] in [[1511]]. However, he was again defeated by the Uzbeks in [[1514]] and returned to [[Kabul]] with great difficulty.
==Conquest of North India==
Babur now resigned all hopes of recovering [[Fergana]]. Although he dreaded an invasion from the Uzbeks to his West, his attention increasingly turned towards [[India]]. He had made several preliminary incursions, including an attack on the [[Gakhar]] stronghold of Pharwala, when an opportunity for a more extended expedition presented itself in [[1521]]. [[Ibrahim Lodi]], ruler of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], was widely detested; several of his [[Afghan people|Afghan]] nobles invited Babur's intervention. Babur assembled a 12,000-man army, complete with [[artillery]], which was then a great novelty, and marched into [[India]]. This number actually increased as Babur advanced as members of the local population joined the invading armies. [[Ibrahim Lodi]] advanced against him with 100,000 soldiers and 100 elephants. Their main engagement, the [[First battle of Panipat]], was fought on [[April 21]], [[1526]]. [[Ibrahim Lodi]] was slain and his army was routed; Babur quickly took possession of both [[Delhi]] and [[Agra]]. Now Babur was having sleepless nights because of [[Rana Sanga]], the [[Rajput]] ruler of [[Mewar]]. Babur sent about 1500 choice cavalry to attack Sanga. These were butchered by Sanga's rajputs. Babur wanted to discuss peace terms. For discussions Sanga sent his general [[Silhadi]] (Shiladitya). Babur won this general by promising him independent kingdom. Silhadi came back and reported that Babur did not want peace and he wanted to fight. [[Battle of Khanwa]] started on [[March 17]], [[1527]] and Babur's army was being knocked out of the field and victory was certain for Sanga. At this juncture Silhadi and his army left the field and this tilted the war in favor of Babur and he won. [See Annals and Antiquities of Ancient Rajasthan: James Tod. ISBN 8170691281]. On [[May 6]], [[1529]], Babur defeated Mahmud Lodi, brother of Ibrahim Lodi, at the [[Battle of Ghagra]], thus crushing the last remnant of resistance in [[North India]].
==Last days==
Babur spent the later years of his life consolidating his new empire and its revenue and taxation. He wrote his memoirs, the [[Baburnama]], in the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] dialect known as [[Chagatai language|Chaghatai]]. Towards the end of Babur's life, his son, [[Humayun]], became deathly ill, and was declared by the physicians to have little chance of survival. Babur was devastated and began to constantly pray for his son. In these prayers, which he recited while circumambulating his son, Babur said that he wanted to take the disease away from Humayun, and die in his place. Strangely enough, Babur's prayers were answered; Humayun recovered while Babur grew ill. He died at the age of 48, and was suceeded by his eldest son, [[Humayun]]. As per his wishes, Babur was buried at [[Kabul]], [[Afghanistan]].
==References==
*''The Babur-nama. Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor'' Translated, Edited and annotated by Wheeler M. Thackston (New York) 2002
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Mughal emperors|Mughal Emperor]]|before=-|after=[[Humayun]]|years=1526&ndash;1530}}
{{end box}}
-----''This article incorporates text from the [[public domain]] [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]].''[[Category:1911 Britannica]]
==External links==
*[http://www.literature.uz/english/poetwriter.php?poetid=7&periodid=4 Uzbek Literature-Zahiriddin Muhammad Bobur]
[[Category:Mughal empire]]
[[Category:Timurid Monarchs]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bernard of Clairvaux</title>
<id>4552</id>
<revision>
<id>41308897</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T12:56:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Knights Templar]] to [[Knights Templar (military order)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bernhard von Clairvaux (Initiale-B).jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|Bernard of Clairvaux, in a medieval [[illuminated manuscript]].]]
Saint '''Bernard of Clairvaux''' (Fontaines, near [[Dijon]], [[1090]] &ndash; [[August 21]], [[1153]] in [[Clairvaux]]) was a French abbot and theologian who was the main voice of conservatism during the intellectual revival of Western Europe called the Renaissance of the [[12th century]]. The voice of conscience, the dominating figure in the Christian church from 1125 to 1153 (Cantor 1993), he was declared a [[Doctor of the Church]] in [[1830]]. Bernard is a [[saint]] of the [[Catholic Church]] and was the primary builder of the reforming [[Cistercian]] monastic order.
Bernard preached in favor of a second [[crusade]] at [[Easter]] [[1146]] at [[Vezelay]] in front of King [[Louis VII of France|Louis VII]]. Louis took the cross and spent [[1147]]-[[1149]] conducting the disastrous [[Second Crusade]].
== Early life ==
He was born at Fontaines, near [[Dijon]], in [[France]]. Bernard was born into the noble class: his father, a knight named Tecelin, perished on crusade; and his mother Aleth, a daughter of the noble house of Mon-Bar, and a woman distinguished for her piety, died while Bernard was a boy. Constitutionally unfit for a military career, his own disposition, as well as his mother's early influence, directed him to the church. His desire to enter a monastery was opposed by his relations, who sent him to study at [[Châlons]] in order to qualify him for high ecclesiastical preferment. Bernard's resolution to become a monk was not, however, shaken, and when he at last definitely decided to join the community which [[Saint Robert|Robert of Molesme]] had founded at [[Citeaux]] in 1098, he took with him his brothers and many of his relations and friends.
==Abbot of the Cistercian abbey of Clairvaux==
:''General history of Clairvaux: [[Clairvaux Abbey]]''.
The little community of reformed [[Benedictines]] at Citeaux, which would have so profound an influence on Western [[monasticism]], grew so rapidly that it was soon able to send out offshoots. One of these monasteries, [[Clairvaux]], was founded in 1115, in a |
hp.org/healthcareproviders/cme/onlinecme/IUDCP/TOC.cfm/ Association of Reproductive Health Professionals' Clinical Proceedings: New Developments in Intrauterine Contraception]
* [http://www.plannedparenthood.org/bc/iud.html Planned Parenthood: Understanding IUDs]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Isle Royale National Park</title>
<id>15379</id>
<revision>
<id>42105795</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:38:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dcclark</username>
<id>124212</id>
</contributor>
<comment>removing merge notice</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_protected_area | name = Isle Royale National Park
| iucn_category = Ib
| image = US_Locator_Blank.svg
| caption =
| locator_x = 175
| locator_y = 27
| location = [[Michigan]], [[United States|USA]]
| nearest_city = [[Duluth, Minnesota|Duluth, MN]]
| lat_degrees = 48
| lat_minutes = 6
| lat_seconds = 0
| lat_direction = N
| long_degrees = 88
| long_minutes = 33
| long_seconds = 0
| long_direction = W
| area = 571,790 acres<br>(2,314 km&sup2;)
| established = [[April 3]], [[1940]]
| visitation_num = 17,276
| visitation_year = 2004
| governing_body = [[National Park Service]]
}}
'''Isle Royale National Park''' is a [[U.S. National Park]] in the state of [[Michigan]]. [[Isle Royale]], the largest island in [[Lake Superior]], is over 45 miles (72 km) in length and 9 miles (14 km) wide at its widest point{{ref|dimensions}}; the park is made of Isle Royale itself and multiple smaller islands, along with all water up to 2.5 miles beyond the outer islands. Isle Royale National Park was established on [[April 3]], [[1940]], was designated as a [[Wilderness Area]] in [[1976]], and as an [[International Biosphere Reserve]] in [[1980]]. It is a relatively small national park at 894 square miles ([[1 E9 m²|2314 km&sup2;]]), with only 209 square miles ([[1 E8 m²|542 km&sup2;]]) above water.
==Human history==
The island was once the site of a fishing industry, native copper mining and a resort community. Because numerous small islands surround Isle Royale, ships were once guided through the area by [[lighthouse]]s at [[Passage Island Lighthouse|Passage Island]], [[Rock Harbor Lighthouse|Rock Harbor]], [[Rock of Ages Lighthouse|Rock of Ages]], and [[Isle Royale Lighthouse]] on Menagerie Island.
==Natural history==
[[Image:IsleRoyaleMap.jpg|thumb|right|275px|Official map of Isle Royale National Park courtesy of NPS]]
===Ecology===
Isle Royale National Park is known for its [[wolf]] and [[moose]] populations which are studied by scientists investigating [[Predation|predator-prey relationships]] in a closed environment. There are usually around 25 wolves and 1000 moose on the island but the numbers change greatly year to year. In rare years with very hard winters, animals can travel over the frozen lake from the [[Canada|Canadian]] mainland. To protect the wolves from canine diseases, dogs are not allowed in any part of the park, including the adjacent waters.
===Geology===
Isle Royale greenstone ([[chlorastrolite]], a form of Pumpellyite) is found here, as well as on the [[Upper Peninsula of Michigan]]. It is the official Michigan state gemstone.
==Recreation==
[[Image:Isle Royale aerial.jpg|thumb|right|275px|An aerial view of Isle Royale]]
The Greenstone Ridge is a high ridge in the center of the island and carries the longest trail in the park, the Greenstone Ridge trail, which runs 40 miles (60 km) from one end of the island to the other. This is generally done as a 4 or 5 day hike. A boat shuttle can carry hikers back to their starting port. In total there are 165 miles of hiking trails. There are also canoe/kayak routes, many involving portages, along coastal bays and inland lakes.
==Services==
The park has two developed areas—Windigo, at the southwest end of the island (docking site for the ferries from Minnesota), with a campstore, showers, campsites, and boat dock; and [[Rock Harbor]] on the south side of the northeast end (docking site for the ferries from Michigan), with a campstore, showers, restaurant, lodge, campsites, and boat dock.
Sleeping accommodations at the park are limited to the lodge at Rock Harbor, and 36 designated wilderness campsites. Some campgrounds are accessible only by private boat; other campgrounds away from the lakeshore are accessible only by trail or by [[canoe]]/[[kayak]] on the interior lakes. The campsites vary in capacity, but typically include a small number of three-sided wood shelters (the fourth wall is screened) with floors and roofs, and a number of individual sites suitable for pitching a small tent. Some tent sites with space for groups of up to 10 are available, and require a special permit. The only amenities at the campsites are pit toilets. Campfires are not permitted; gas camp stoves are recommended. Drinking and cooking water must be drawn from local water sources (Lake Superior and inland lakes) and filtered to avoid parasites. Hunting is not permitted, but fishing is, and edible berries may be picked from the trail.
==Access==
The park is accessible by floatplane and by ferry during the summer months from [[Grand Portage, Minnesota]] and [[Houghton, Michigan|Houghton]] and [[Copper Harbor, Michigan|Copper Harbor]] in Michigan. Private boats travel to the island mainly from [[Thunder Bay, Ontario]], the closest city to the park.
Isle Royale is not popular with day-trippers because of the scheduling constraints of transportation to and from the park; with a round-trip travel time of 6-8 hours, the ferries that make this voyage on a daily basis have only a 2-3 hour layover at the island. These ferries may delay - and in some situations cancel - trips during heavy weather.
The ''Ranger III'' is a 165-foot (50 m) boat operated by the National Park Service. It is claimed to be the largest piece of equipment in the National Park system. It carries 125 passengers, and canoes and kayaks, and operates out of [[Houghton, Michigan]], a six-hour trip from the park, so it only travels one way each day, overnighting at the island. Currently it makes the crossing there and back only twice a week, June to mid-September. The ''Isle Royale Queen'' out of [[Copper Harbor, Michigan]] and the ''Wenonah'', out of [[Grand Portage, Minnesota]] operate round-trips daily in peak season, less frequently in spring and autumn. The ''Voyager'', also out of Grand Portage, circles the island with an overnight at Rock Harbor, providing water taxi service for lakeside campgrounds.
Due to the difficulty of travel and the hazards of wilderness survival during the winter months, it is the only major [[National Park Service]] park to close entirely for the season. Because of the relative difficulty of reaching the park and its seasonal closing, only some 20,000 people a year visit Isle Royale, fewer than visit the most popular national parks in a single day.
==List of islands within or adjacent to Isle Royale National Park==
*Amygdaloid Island - has a ranger station
*Beaver Island - has a campground
*Belle Isle - has a campground
*Caribou Island - has a campground
*Grace Island
*Johns Island
*Long Island
*Menagerie Island - has a lighthouse
*Mott Island - summer park headquarters
*Passage Island - has a lighthouse and short trail
*Raspberry Island - has a nature trail
*Rock of Ages - has a lighthouse
*Ryan Island (Siskiwit Lake) - the largest island in the largest lake on the largest island in the largest lake in the world
*Tookers Island - has a campground
*Washington Island - has a campground
*Wright Island
==References==
# {{note|dimensions}} {{Web reference | title=Isle Royal National Park | work=National Park Service | URL=http://www.nps.gov/isro/index.htm | date=October 13 | year=2005}}
==External links==
* Official site: [http://www.nps.gov/isro/ Isle Royale National Park]
* [http://www.isle.royale.national-park.com/info.htm Isle Royale National Park info page]
{{National parks of the United States}}
[[Category:1940 establishments]]
[[Category:Michigan landmarks]]
[[Category:National Parks of the United States]]
[[Category:Upper Peninsula of Michigan]]
[[de:Isle-Royale-Nationalpark]]
[[fr:Isle Royale National Park]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>INADS</title>
<id>15380</id>
<revision>
<id>28912639</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-21T15:49:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SimonP</username>
<id>1591</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''INADS''' can refer to:
*[[Centre for Inadmissible Passengers]]
*[[Initialization and Administration System]]
*[[Integrated Naval Air Defense Simulation]]
*[[Integrated NATO Air Defense System]]
*[[Investigational New Animal Drugs]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Integrated NATO Air Defense System</title>
<id>15381</id>
<revision>
<id>15912857</id>
<timestamp>2005-02-06T17:07:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SimonP</username>
<id>1591</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:NATO]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Integrated [[NATO]] Air Defense System''' or '''INADS''' was the NATO response to the [[Russia]]n development of long range [[bomber]]s in the [[1950s]]. The need to maintain a credible deterrence when early warning and intercept times were massively reduced led to the development of an improved air defense (AD) system.
Development was approved by the [[NATO Military Committee]] in December 1955. The system was to be based on four air defense regions (ADRs) coordinated by [[Supreme Allied Commander|SACEUR]] (Supreme Allied Comm |
nt2.php/cid=68
#{{note|13}}Jonathan M. House, <cite>Toward Combined Arms Warfare: A Survey of 20th-Century Tactics, Doctrine, and Organization</cite>. (U.S. Army Command General Staff College, 1984; reprint University Press of the Pacific, 2002). http://cgsc.leavenworth.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/House/House.asp
==Further reading==
*[[Len Deighton|Deighton, Len]]. <cite>Blitzkrieg: From the rise of Hitler to the fall of Dunkirk</cite>. 1981.
*Corum, James S. <cite>The Roots of Blitzkrieg: Hans von Seeckt and German Military Reform</cite>. University Press of Kansas, 1994.
*Edwards, Roger. <cite>Panzer: A Revolution in Warfare, 1939-1945</cite>. London: Brockhampton Press, 1998.
* {{cite book | author=[[Heinz Guderian|Guderian, Heinz]] | title=[[Panzer Leader (book)|Panzer Leader]] | publisher=Da Capo Press Reissue edition, 2001. New York: [[Da Capo Press]] | year=1952 | id=ISBN 0306811014}}
*House, Jonathan M. <cite>[http://cgsc.leavenworth.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/House/House.asp Toward Combined Arms Warfare: A Survey of 20th-Century Tactics, Doctrine, and Organization]</cite>. U.S. Army Command General Staff College, 1984. Reprinted by University Press of the Pacific, 2002.
*[[Erich von Manstein|Manstein, Erich von]]. <cite>Lost Victories</cite>. Trans. Anthony G. Powell. Presidio, 1994.
*[[John Mosier|Mosier, John]]. <cite>The Blitzkrieg Myth: How Hitler and the Allies Misread the Strategic Realities of World War II</cite>. HarperCollins, 2003.
*[[Michael Patrick Sinesi|Sinesi, Michael P]]. <cite>Modern Bewegungskrieg. German Battle Doctrine, 1920-1940</cite>. Thesis submitted to Columbian School of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University, May 2001.
*[[Bruce Condell]] (Ed.),[[David T. Zabecki]] (Ed.). ''On the German Art of War: Truppenführung'' (Literal Trans: 'Troop Leading'). Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 2001
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Military doctrines]]
[[Category:Nazi Germany]]
[[Category:World War II European theatre]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]
{{Link FA|he}}
[[cs:Blitzkrieg]]
[[de:Blitzkrieg]]
[[es:Blitzkrieg]]
[[fr:Blitzkrieg]]
[[ko:전격전]]
[[id:Blitzkrieg]]
[[it:Blitzkrieg]]
[[he:מלחמת בזק]]
[[ka:ელვისებური ომი]]
[[lt:Blickrigas]]
[[ms:Blitzkrieg]]
[[nl:Blitzkrieg]]
[[ja:電撃戦]]
[[no:Blitzkrieg]]
[[pl:Blitzkrieg]]
[[pt:Blitzkrieg]]
[[ru:Блицкриг]]
[[simple:Blitzkrieg]]
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[[fi:Salamasota]]
[[sv:Blixtkrig]]
[[vi:Chiến tranh chớp nhoáng]]
[[tr:Blitzkrieg]]
[[zh:闪电战]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>The Beano</title>
<id>4653</id>
<revision>
<id>40881835</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T17:12:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.42.37.36</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beanologo.png|300px|right|The Beano logo]]
:''This article is about the comic. For other uses, see [[Beano]].''
'''''The Beano''''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[child]]ren's [[comic book|comic]] published by [[D. C. Thomson & Co. Ltd]] of [[Dundee]], [[Scotland]], which was first issued on [[26 July]] [[1938]] (dated [[30 July]]). The present [[editor]] is [[Euan Kerr (editor)|Euan Kerr]], who has been in this role since [[1984]]. Currently the comic costs 80p.
There have been several long-running strips over the years. The longest-running strip in the comic [[as of 2005]] is ''[[Dennis the Menace (UK)|Dennis the Menace and Gnasher]]'', which first appeared (under the name ''Dennis the Menace'') in [[1951]]. Other famous strips include ''[[The Bash Street Kids]]'', ''[[Minnie the Minx]]'', and ''[[Roger the Dodger]]''. ''[[Lord Snooty]]'' appeared in the very first issue, but disappeared from the comic in [[1990]].
There are frequent [[fictional crossover]]s between the strips, with most of the characters living in the fictional town of [[Beanotown]].
A first issue of The Beano sold for [[Pound Sterling|£]]12,100 on [[16 March]] [[2004]], which was at the time the highest price ever paid for a British comic at an [[auction]].
The Beano is also the second longest running comic, the first being [[The Dandy]] which is also made by [[D.C. Thomson & Co. Ltd]].
==List of Beano comic strips==
===Current strips===
* [[Ball Boy]]
* [[The Bash Street Kids]]
* [[Bash Street Kids - Singled Out]]
* [[Bea (Dennis the Menace character)|Bea]]
* [[Billy Whizz]]
* [[Calamity James]]
* [[Colin the Vet]]
* [[Crazy for Daisy]]
* [[Dennis the Menace (UK)|Dennis the Menace and Gnasher]]
* [[Derek the Sheep]] (occasionally)
* [[Freddie Fear]] Son of a Witch
* [[Gordon Bennett]]
* [[Gnasher and Gnipper]]
* [[Ivy the Terrible]]
* [[Les Pretend]] He's Round the Bend/The Little Kid with the BIG Imagination (occasionally)
* [[Little Plum]]
* [[Minnie the Minx]]
* [[The Numskulls]] (from The [[Beezer]])
* [[Robbie Rebel]] Nobody Tells Him What to Do!
* [[Roger the Dodger]]
===Past strips===
* [[2-Gun Tony]] The King Street Cowboy
* [[Alf Wit]] The Ancient Brit
* [[Baby Face Finlayson]] The Cutest Bandit in the West!/The Cutest Bandit Around
* [[The Belles of St. Lemons]]
* [[Biffo the Bear]] (later abbreviated to "Biffo")
* [[Big Eggo]]
* [[Big Fat Joe]]
* [[Billy the Cat and Katie]] (originally just "Billy the Cat")
* [[Black Bun]]
* [[Brave Captain Kipper]]
* [[Camp Cosmos]]
* [[Chip the Stone Age Boy]]
* [[Cocky Dick]] He's Smart and Slick
* [[Colonel Crackpot's Circus]]
* [[Come to Beanotown]]
* [[The Country Cuzzins]] - a group of [[hillbilly]]s, similar to [[The Bash Street Kids]], plus a goat
* [[Christmas Carole]]
* [[Danny on a Dolphin]]
* [[Danny's Nanny]]
* [[Dean's Dino]]
* [[Ding-Dong Belle]]
* [[Dog's Breakfast T.V.]]
* [[Dr Beastly's Tales of the Slightly Unpleasant]]
* [[Emlyn the Gremlin]]
* [[Even Steven]] He's Out for Revenge
* [[The Fix-It Twins]]
* [[Freddy Flipper-Feet]]
* [[General Jumbo]] ("Admiral Jumbo" for a while)
* [[The Germs (comics)|The Germs]] with Ill Will
* [[Gnasher's Tale]]
* [[Go, Granny, Go!]]
* [[Good King Coke]] He's Stoney Broke
* [[Gordon Gnome]]
* [[Grandpa]]
* [[Hairy Dan]]
* [[Handy Sandy]]
* [[Hard-Nut the Nigger]]
* [[Have a Go Jo]]
* [[Helpful Henry]]
* [[Hot Foot]]
* [[Hugh Dunnit]]
* [[Inspector Horse and Jocky]]
* [[The Iron Fish]]
* [[Jack Flash]]
* [[Jacky Daw with Maw and Paw]]
* [[Jimmy and his Magic Patch]]
* [[Jinx]] - a boarding school girl who jinxes everything she is involved in, similarly to Jonah
* [[Joe Jitsu]]
* [[Joe King]]
* [[Johnny Hawk]]
* [[Jonah (comics)|Jonah]]
* [[Karate Sid]]
* [[Kat and Kanary]]
* [[Little Larry]]
* [[Little Monkey]]
* [[Little Nell and Peter Pell]]
* [[Lord Snooty]]
* [[The Magic Lollipops]]
* [[Matt Hatter]]
* [[Maxy's Taxi]]
* [[The McTickles]]
* [[Minder Bird]]
* [[Multy the Millionaire]]
* [[The Nibblers]]
* [[Number 13 (comics)|Number 13]]
* [[Pansy Potter]] The Strongman's Daughter
* [[Peter the Penguin]]
* [[Phone-a-Fiend]]
* [[Ping the Elastic Man]]
* [[Polly Wolly Doodle]] And Her Great Big Poodle
* [[Prince Whoopee]]
* [[Punch and Jimmy]] - two warring brothers
* [[Pup Parade]]
* [[The Q-Bikes]]
* [[Rasher]]
* [[Richard the Lion]]
* [[Ricky Grainger]] He Laughs at Danger
* [[Rip Van Wink]] He's 700 years old!
* [[Sammy Shrinko]]
* [[The Shipwrecked Circus]]
* [[Simply Smiffy]]
* [[Smart Alec]]
* [[Smudge (comics)|Smudge]]
* [[The Sort Out Squad]]
* [[Space Kidette]]
* [[Splodge]] The Naughtiest, Cleverest (he thinks) [[Goblin]] in Beanotown Woods (from The [[Topper (comic book)|Topper]])
* [[Sticky Willie]]
* [[Swanky Lanky Liz]]
* [[Sweet Sue]]
* [[Sydd]]
* [[The Three Bears (comic)|The Three Bears]]
* [[Tim Traveller]]
* [[Tin-Can Tommy]] The Clockwork Boy
* [[Tom, Dick and Sally]]
* [[Trash Can Ally]]
* [[Tricky Dicky (comics)|Tricky Dicky]] (from The Topper)
* [[Uncle Windbag]] He Tells Tall Tales
* [[Vic Volcano]]
* [[Wavy Davy and his Navy]]
* [[Wee Ben Nevis]]
* [[Wee Peem]]
* [[Whoopee Hank]] The Slap-Dash [[Sheriff]]
* [[Winnie the Witch]]
* [[The Yeti with Betty]]
* [[Zap Zodiac]]
==Trivia==
The Beano comic takes its name from the [[English English]] word ''beano'' which can be loosely interpreted as ''a fun time''. For further discussion of the origin of this word, see [http://www.bicycle-beano.co.uk/beano.html The Meaning Of Beano]. [[Private Eye]] refers to [[The Spectator (1828)|The Spectator]] as "The Hasbeano", with the Spectator's editor [[Boris Johnson]] becoming "Boris the Menace".
==See also==
* [[British comics]]
* [[Comics]]
* [[List of DC Thomson publications]]
* [[Plug (comic)|Plug]]
* [[The Beano Annual]]
* [[The Dandy]]
* [[Leo Baxendale]]
==External links==
* [http://www.beanotown.com Official Beano site]
* [http://www.paulmorris.co.uk/beano/ Beano Fan site]
* [http://www.comicsuk.co.uk/ComicInformationPages/BeanoPages/BeanoHomePage.asp Comics UK: Beano]
[[Category:DC Thomson Comics titles|Beano, The]]
[[Category:British children's literature|Beano, The]]
[[Category:The Beano|Beano, The]]
[[Category:British comics|Beano, The]]
[[de: The Beano]]
[[sco: The Beano]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bee</title>
<id>4654</id>
<revision>
<id>42158470</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:10:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Elb2000</username>
<id>899395</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Bees
| image = Osmia ribifloris bee.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''[[Osmia ribifloris]]''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Arthropoda]]
| classis = [[Insecta]]
| ordo = [[Hymenoptera]]
| subordo = [[Apocrita]]
| superfamilia = '''Apoidea'''
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision =
[[Andrenidae]]<br />
[[Apidae]]<br />
[[Colletidae]]<br />
[[Halictidae]]<br />
[[Heterogynaidae]]<br />
[[Megachilidae]]<br />
[[ |
complete from S(2)(2)
(4) S &rarr; S + M &bull; (0) # complete from S(2)(1)
(5) S &rarr; S &bull; + M (0) # complete from S(0)(2)
(6) P &rarr; S &bull; (0) # complete from S(0)(1)
And now the input is parsed, since we have the state (P &rarr; S &bull;, 0) (note that we also had it in S(3) and S(1); those were complete sentences).
== References ==
J. Earley. An efficient context-free parsing algorithm. ''Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery'', 13(2):94-102, 1970.
== See also ==
* [[CYK algorithm]]
* [[Context-free grammar]]
* [[List of algorithms#Parsing|Parsing Algorithms]]
* [http://search.cpan.org/~lpalmer/Parse-Earley-0.15/Earley.pm Parse::Earley] An Earley parser [[Perl]] module.
* [http://cocom.sourceforge.net/ammunition-13.html 'early'] An Earley parser [[C_programming_language|C]] -library.
* [http://pages.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/~aycock/spark/ Spark] an Object Oriented "little language framework" for [[Python programming language|Python]] that implements an earley parser.
[[Category:Parsing algorithms]]
[[de:Earley-Algorithmus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cuisine of Ethiopia</title>
<id>9686</id>
<revision>
<id>41826889</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:19:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TKE</username>
<id>531146</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Rev</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cuisine}}
'''Ethiopian cuisine''' consists of various vegetable or meat side dishes and entrees, usually a ''wat'' or thick stew, served atop [[injera]], a large [[sourdough]] [[flatbread]], which is 50 cm (20 inches) in diameter and made out of fermented [[teff]] flour. One does not eat with utensils, but instead uses injera (always with the right hand) to scoop up the entrees and side dishes.
[[Image:Alicha 1.jpg|thumb|left|This meal, consisting of ''[[injera]]'' and several kinds of ''wat'' (stew), is typical of [[Ethiopia]]n and [[Eritrea]]n cuisine.]]
Traditional Ethiopian cuisine employs no [[pork]] of any kind, as most Ethiopians are either [[Islam|Muslims]] or [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Christians]], and are thus prohibited from eating pork. Furthermore, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church prescribes a number of [[fasting]] (''tsom'') periods, including Wednesdays, Fridays, and the entire [[Lent|Lenten]] season, so Ethiopian cuisine contains many [[vegetarian cuisine|vegetarian]] (''ye'tsom'') dishes. Ethiopian restaurants are a popular choice for vegetarians living in Western countries.
''[[Berbere]]'', a combination of powdered [[chile pepper]] and other spices (somewhat analogous to [[Indian cuisine|Indian]] [[curry]]), is an important ingredient used in many dishes. Also essential is ''[[niter kebbeh]]'', a [[clarified butter]] infused with ginger, garlic, and several spices.
Wat stews all begin with a large amount of chopped red [[onions]], which the cook simmers in a pot. Once the onions have softened, the cook adds niter kebbeh (or, in the case of vegetarian dishes, [[vegetable oil]]). Following this, the cook adds berbere to make a spicy ''kai'' (red) wat, or may omit the berbere for a milder ''aletcha'' wat. (In the event that the berbere is particularly spicy, the cook may elect to add it before the kibbeh or oil so the berbere will cook longer and become milder.) Finally, the cook adds [[meat]] such as [[beef]] (''siga''), [[chicken]] (''doro''), or [[lamb]] (''beg''); [[legume]]s such as split [[pea]]s (''kek'') or [[lentil]]s (''misr''); or [[vegetables]] such as [[potato]]es (''dinich'').
Alternatively, rather than being prepared as a stew, meat or vegetables may be [[Sautéing|sautéed]] to make ''tebs''.
Another distinctive Ethiopian dish is ''ketfo'' (frequently listed as ''kitfo''), which consists of raw (or rare) ground beef marinated in ''mitmita'' (very spicy chili powder) and ''niter kibbeh''. ''Gored gored'' is very similar to ''ketfo'', but uses cubed, rather than ground, beef.
''[[firfir]]'' made from shredded injera with spices (''injera b injera'') is the typical breakfast food. Also ''dulet'' is popular for breakfast, a spicy mixture of beef parts with injera. ''Fatira'' consists of a large fried pancake made with flour often with a layer of egg, eaten with honey. ''Chechebsa'' is a very good food too, it is made pieces of pancake, with spices and honey, and it can be eaten with a spoon.
[[Gurage]] cuisine additionally makes use of the false banana plant (''enset''), a type of [[ensete]]. The plant is pulverized and fermented to make a bread-like food called ''kocho,'' which is eaten with ketfo. The root of this plant may be powderized and prepared as a hot drink called ''bula'', which is often given to those who are tired or ill. Another typical Gurage cuisine is coffee with butter (''kebbeh'').
[[Tej]] is a honey wine, similar to [[mead]], that is frequently drunk in bars (in particular, in a ''tejbeit''). [[Katikal]] and [[Araki]] are inexpensive local spirits that are very strong.
Ethiopian cuisine is virtually the same as the [[Cuisine of Eritrea]], given the shared history of the two countries.
==External links==
*[http://www.ethiopianrestaurant.com/index.html Ethiopian Restaurants: Worldwide Listing]
*[http://www.gonomad.com/features/0211/ethiopiafood.html Eating and Drinking in Ethiopia]
*[http://www.globalgourmet.com/destinations/ethiopia/index.html Ethiopia: Spicy Food from the Cradle of Civilization]
*[http://www.musical-saw.com/injera.htm Injera recipe] Injera is a traditional Ethiopian meal
[[Category:Ethiopian cuisine|*]]
[[de:Äthiopische Küche]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Epistle of James</title>
<id>9688</id>
<revision>
<id>42046518</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:44:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brusselsshrek</username>
<id>235512</id>
</contributor>
<comment>linked to justification by faith</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
The '''Epistle of James''' is a book of the [[New Testament]], best known for its teaching that "[[faith]] without works is dead" (James 2:26 KJV).
==Authorship==
The author identifies himself in the opening verse as "James, a servant of [[God]] and of the Lord [[Jesus]] Christ". Of the several people named [[James|James in the New Testament]], three have garnered support as being this James:
# From the middle of the third century, patristic authors cited the ''Epistle'' as written by [[James the Just]], the brother of [[Jesus]]. This James was not one of the Twelve, but Paul described him as "the brother of the Lord" in [[Epistle to Galatians|Galatians]] 1:19 and as one of the three pillars of the Church in 2:9.
# [[John Calvin]] and others suggested that the author was [[St. James the Less|James, son of Alphaeus]], apparently the brother of [[Matthew the Evangelist|Matthew]], aka Levi. It is feasible that James of Alphaeus is the same person as the author of [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 15:40. Since very little is known about this person, this proposal does not tell us very much about the author.
# It is rarely but occasionally argued that this James was the apostle [[Saint James the Great]], brother of [[John the Evangelist|John]], son of [[Zebedee]]. However, most conclude that the author was not the apostle James, because he died too early. Specifically, James must have been killed before [[44]], but the Epistle of James seems to be written in order to clear up misconceptions about [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]'s teaching on justification by faith in the [[50s]].
Many modern, critical scholars consider the epistle to be [[pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphical]] and so the author could have been anyone, but they generally agree that "James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ" was intended by its author to refer to James the Just, the patriarch of the Jewish Christians at Jerusalem. Of course, it is also possible that the author was a completely unrelated James who never intended to attribute his work to James the Just.
== Date and place of composition ==
If written by James the Just, the place and time of the writing of the epistle would be [[Jerusalem]], where James was residing before his martyrdom in [[62]]. If pseudepigraphical, then any time from [[50]] to [[200]] is possible. It was first definitely quoted by [[Origen]], and possibly a bit earlier by [[Clement of Alexandria]] in a lost work if [[Eusebius]] is to be believed.
== Canonicity ==
In the first centuries of the Church the authenticity of the Epistle was doubted by some, and amongst others by [[Theodore of Mopsuestia|Theodore]], Bishop of Mopsuestia in Cilicia; it is therefore deuterocanonical. It is missing in the [[Muratorian fragment]], and because of the silence of several of the western churches regarding it, [[Eusebius]] classes it amongst the ''antilegomena'' or contested writings (''Historia ecclesiae'', 3.25; 2.23). St. [[Jerome]] gives a similar appraisal but adds that with time it had been universally admitted.
Its late recognition in the Church, especially in the West, may be explained by the fact that it was written for Jewish Christians, and therefore not widely circulated among the Gentile Churches. There is some indication that a few groups distrusted the book because of its doctine. However, it was included among the 27 New Testament books first listed by [[Athanasius of Alexandria]] and eventually confirmed by a series of councils in the fourth century.
In Reformation times a few theologians, most notably [[Martin Luther]], argued that this epistle was too defective to be part of the canonical New Testament. This is probably due to the book's specific teaching that faith alone is not enough for salvation, which Luther saw appeared to contradict his doctrine of [[so |
eing placed elsewhere, typically on the floor).
==The serial computer interface==
The 1541 used a bit-serial version of the [[IEEE-488]] interface, the speedier parallel version of which was used on Commodore's earlier drives for the [[Commodore PET|PET/CBM]] range of personal/business computers. To ensure a ready supply of inexpensive cabling for its home computer peripherals, Commodore chose standard [[DIN connector]]s for the serial interface. Disk drives and other peripherals such as printers were connected to the computer via a [[daisy-chain]] scheme, necessitating only a single connector on the computer itself.
Initially, Commodore intended to use a hardware shift register (the [[MOS Technology 6522|6522 VIA]]) to maintain relatively brisk drive speeds with the new serial interface. However, a hardware bug with this chip prevented the initial design from working as anticipated, and the ROM code was hastily rewritten to handle the entire operation in software. According to [[Jim Butterfield]], this caused a speed reduction by a factor of five. [http://www.binarydinosaurs.co.uk/Museum/Commodore/c64/c64notes.php]
As implemented on the [[VIC-20]] and [[Commodore 64]], [[Commodore DOS|CBM DOS]] could transfer only about 300 bytes per second, which translated to about 20 minutes to copy one disk&mdash;10 minutes of reading time, and 10 minutes of writing time. However, since both the computer and the drive could easily be reprogrammed, third parties quickly wrote more efficient firmware that would speed up drive operations drastically. Without hardware modifications, some "fast-loader" utilities managed to achieve speeds of up to 4 KB/sec. The most common of these third-party products were the [[Epyx FastLoad]], the [[The Final Cartridge III|Final Cartridge]], and the [[Action Replay (cartridge)|Action Replay]] plug-in [[cartridge (electronics)|cartridge]]s, which all had [[machine code monitor]] and [[disk editor]] software on board as well. The popular Commodore computer magazines of the era also entered the arena with type-in fast-load utilities, with [[Compute!'s Gazette]] publishing ''TurboDisk'' in 1985 and [[RUN (magazine)|RUN]] publishing ''Sizzle'' in 1987.
Because each 1541 had its own onboard disk controller and disk operating system, it was possible for a user to command two 1541 drives to copy a disk (one drive reading and the other writing), and then unplug the C64 itself from the drives (i.e. from the first drive in the daisy chain) and do something else with the computer as the drives proceeded to spend the next 35 seconds copying the entire disk.
==Copy protection by read error==
Early copy prevention schemes deliberately introduced read errors on the disk, the software refusing to load unless the correct error message was returned. The general idea was that the inbuilt disk copy command was incapable of copying the errors. When one of these errors was encountered, the disk drive (as do all disk drives) would attempt one or more re-read attempts after first resetting the head to track zero. Few of these schemes had much deterrent effect, as various software companies soon released 'nibbler' utilities that enabled protected disks to be copied.
The later [[Commodore 1571|1571]] drive (which was 1541 compatible) incorporated track zero detection and was thus immune from the problem. A third party fix for the 1541 appeared where the solid head stop was replaced by a sprung stop which gave the head a much easier life. Also a software solution which resided in the drive controller's RAM, prevented the re-reads from occurring, though this could cause problems when genuine errors did occur.
==The drive head misalignment issue==
The drive-head mechanism was notoriously easy to misalign, and had a tendency to make a 'machine-gun' rattle when out of alignment or when formatting a new disk. Some people even wrote code to vibrate the head at different frequencies to play simple tunes such as ''[[Amazing Grace]]''. The most common cause of the 1541's drive head knocking and subsequent misalignment, however, was [[copy prevention]] schemes on commercial software.
The main cause of the problem was that the disk drive itself did not feature any means of detecting when the read/write head returned to track zero. Accordingly when a disk was formatted or a disk error occurred, the unit would physically drive the head 40 tracks to track zero (although the 1541 only used 35 tracks, the drive itself was a 40 track unit). Once track zero was reached, the head would be physically rammed against a solid stop. This ramming gave the characteristic 'machine gun' noise and would, sooner or later, throw the head out of alignment.
==Commodore's successor products==
The [[Commodore 1570]] was an upgraded 1541 for use with the [[Commodore 128]], available in Europe. It offered [[Modified Frequency Modulation|MFM]] capability for accessing CP/M disks, improved speed, and somewhat quieter operation, but was only manufactured until Commodore got its production lines going with the double-sided [[Commodore 1571|1571]]. Finally, the small, external power supply, MFM-based [[Commodore 1581]] 3&frac12;" drive was made, giving 800 KB access to the C128 and C64. By this time, however, many CBM users had shifted their attention to the 16/32-bit Amiga, and the 1581 was mostly sold to remaining [[GEOS (8-bit operating system)|GEOS]] users.
==References==
* CBM (1982). ''VIC-1541 Single Drive Floppy Disk User's Manual''. 2nd ed. Commodore Business Machines, Inc. P/N 1540031-02.<!--not a great book--><!--true, but should still be listed, as it was the original reference that user's would normally read when getting the disk drive...-->
* Neufeld, Gerald G. (1985). ''1541 User's Guide. The Complete Guide to Commodore's 1541 Disk Drive''. Second Printing, June 1985. 413 pp. Copyright &copy; 1984 by DATAMOST, Inc. (Brady). ISBN 0-89303-738-9.
* Immers, Richard; Neufeld, Gerald G. (1984). ''Inside Commodore DOS. The Complete Guide to the 1541 Disk Operating System.'' DATAMOST, Inc & Reston Publishing Company, Inc. (Prentice-Hall). ISBN 0-8359-3091-2.
* Englisch, Lothar; Szczepanowski, Norbert (1984). ''The Anatomy of the 1541 Disk Drive''. Grand Rapids, MI: Abacus Software (translated from the original 1983 German edition, Düsseldorf: Data Becker GmbH). ISBN 0-916439-01-1.
==External links==
*[http://project64.c64.org/hw/1541_tricks.txt Undocumented 1541 drive functions] &ndash; From the Project 64 website
{{FOLDOC}}
[[Category:CBM storage devices]]
[[Category:Commodore 64]]
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<page>
<title>Condominium (disambiguation)</title>
<id>6768</id>
<revision>
<id>15904888</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-13T01:35:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adam Bishop</username>
<id>13008</id>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by 63.191.136.230 to last version by Template namespace initialisation script</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[ja:&#12510;&#12531;&#12471;&#12519;&#12531;]]
There are two meanings of '''condominium'''
*In [[international law]], a [[condominium (international law)|condominium]] is a territory in which two sovereign powers have equal rights.
*In [[housing tenure]], a [[condominium (housing)|condominium]] is a type of joint ownership of real property in which portions of the property are commonly owned and other portions are individually owned.
{{disambig}}</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Commodore 1581</title>
<id>6769</id>
<revision>
<id>34988646</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-13T05:58:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mirror Vax</username>
<id>231030</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Commodore 1581''' is a 3&frac12; inch [[double sided]] [[double density]] [[floppy disk]] drive made by [[Commodore International|Commodore Business Machines (CBM)]] primarily for its [[Commodore 64|C64]] and [[Commodore 128|C128]] [[home computer|home]]/[[personal computer]]s. The drive stores 800 [[kilobyte]]s using an [[Modified Frequency Modulation|MFM]] format different from both [[MS-DOS|DOS]] (720 KB), and the [[Amiga]] (880 KB) formats. It was released in the summer of [[1987]] and quickly became popular with [[bulletin board system|bulletin board system (BBS)]] operators and other users.
Like the [[Commodore 1541|1541]] and [[Commodore 1571|1571]], the 1581 has an onboard [[MOS Technology 6502]] CPU with its own ROM and RAM, and uses a serial version of the [[IEEE-488]] interface. Inexplicably, the drive's ROM contains commands for parallel use, although no parallel interface was available. Like the 1571, it can read various other disk formats using special software. This capability was most frequently used to read MS-DOS disks. However, unlike the 1571, which is nearly 100% backward-compatible with the 1541, the 1581 has limited compatibility with Commodore's earlier drives. Although it responds to the same DOS commands, most disk utilities written prior to 1987, most notably fast loaders, are 1541-specific.
The 1581 added support for partitions, but this was largely unused. It implements faster [[burst mode]] access than the [[Commodore 1571]] 5&frac14;" drive. The 1581 provides a total of 3160 blocks free when formatted (a block being equal to 256 [[byte]]s). The number of permitted directory entries was also increased, to 288 entries. With a storage capacity of 800 KB, the 1581 was the highest capacity serial bus drive ever made by Commodore (the 1 MB SFD-1001 used the parallel IEEE-488), and the only 3&frac12;" one. However, starting in 1991, [[Creative Micro Designs|Creative Micro Designs (CMD)]] made the [[CMD FD-2000|FD-2000]] [[ |
voivodship=[[Pomeranian Voivodship|Pomeranian]]
| council=''Rada miasta Gdańska''
| mayor=[[Paweł Adamowicz]]
| area=262
| population=460 524 <small>(2004)</small> - [[List of cities in Poland|Ranked 6th]]
|agglomeration=1,100,000 ([[Tricity]])
| density=1761
| date_founded=[[997]]
| city_rights=[[1263]]
| latitude=54°40'N
| longitude=18°60'E
| area_code=+48 58
| car_plates=GD
| twin_towns=[[Astana]], [[Barcelona]], [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]], [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]], [[Elsinore]], [[Kaliningrad]], [[Kalmar]], [[Marseille]], [[Nice]], [[Odessa]], [[Rotterdam]], [[Rouen]], [[Sefton]], [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], [[Turku]], [[Vilnius]]
| website=http://www.gdansk.pl/
| location_pic=Polandmap cia gdansk.png
| flag_pic=Flagge Gdansk.PNG
| coa_pic=PB Gdańsk CoA.png
|colour_scheme=background:#cccccc;
|}}
'''Gdańsk''' (pronounced {{IPAudio|Gdansk.ogg|['gdaɲsk]}}, ''Danzig'' in [[German language|German]], [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]: ''Gduńsk'', [[Latin]]: ''Gedania''; also [[Names of European cities in different languages|other languages]]) is the sixth-largest city in [[Poland]], its principal [[seaport]], and the capital of the [[Pomeranian Voivodship]].
The city lies on the southern coast of the [[Gdańsk Bay]] (of the [[Baltic Sea]]), in a conurbation with the spa town of [[Sopot]], the city of [[Gdynia]] and [[suburb]]an communities, which together form a [[metropolitan area]] called the greater Gdańsk or the [[Tricity]] (''Trójmiasto'') with a population of over a million people. Gdańsk is, with a population of 460,524 (mid 2004), the largest city in the historical province of [[Eastern Pomerania]]. North lies the Kashubian Tricity: [[Rumia]], [[Reda]], and [[Wejherowo]]
Gdańsk is situated at the mouth of the [[Motława]] river, connected to the [[Leniwka]], a branch in the delta of the [[Vistula]], whose waterway system connects 60% of the area of Poland, giving the city a unique advantage as the center of Poland's sea trade.
Historically an important seaport since mediaeval times and subsequently a principal ship-building centre, Gdańsk was a member of the [[Hanseatic League]]. Today the city remains an important industrial centre, together with the nearby port of [[Gdynia]], and is world famous as the birthplace of the [[Solidarity]] movement which, under the leadership of [[Lech Wałęsa]], played a major role in bringing an end to [[Communist]] rule in the [[Eastern Bloc]].
==Names==
The name is thought to mean ''town located on Gdania river'', the original name of the Motława branch the city is situated on. Like many other European cities, Gdańsk has had many different names throughout its history.
The Polish name is '''Gdańsk''', and in the local [[Kashubian language]] it is known as '''Gduńsk'''. Since the city was dominated by its German population, became part of the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] in [[1792]], and was part of the German Empire until 1919, the German name '''Danzig''' was widely used until the end of the Second World War. The city's [[Latin]] name may be given as any of '''Gedania''', '''Gedanum''' or '''Dantiscum'''; the variety of Latin names reflects the influence of the Polish, Kashubian, and German names.
A former [[English language|English]] version of its name was '''Dantsic''' (in use until the end of [[WWI]]). Gdańsk is usually pronounced [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[gəˈdɑːnsk]}}, {{IPA|[gəˈdaɪnsk]}}, or {{IPA|[gəˈdænsk]}} in English. The acute accent is frequently neglected by non‐Poles.
''See also:'' [[Names of European cities in different languages#G|List of European cities with names in different languages]]
=== Historical documents ===
[[Image:RegiaCivitatisGedanensis.jpg|left|thumb|Danzig Royal City coin of 1589 ([[Sigismund_III_of_Poland|Sigismund III Vasa]] period)]]
The name of a settlement was recorded after St. Adalbert's demise in 997 A.D. as ''urbs Gyddanyzc'' and later was written as Kdanzk (1148), Gdanzc (1188), Gdansk (1236), Danzc (1263), Danczk (1311, 1399, 1410, 1414&ndash;1438), Danczik (1399, 1410, 1414), Danczig (1414), Gdansk (1454, 1468, 1484), ''Gdansk'' (1590), ''Gdąnsk'' (1636) and in Latin documents ''Gedanum'' or ''Dantiscum''. These early recordings show the Pomeranian name Gduńsk, the Polish name Gdańsk and the German name Danzig.
Alternative spellings from [[Middle Ages|medieval]] and early modern documents are ''Gyddanyzc'', ''Kdansk'', ''Gdanzc'', ''Dantzk'', ''Dantzig'', ''Dantzigk'', ''Dantiscum'' and ''Gedanum''. The official Latin name of ''Gedanum'' was used simultaneously.
=== Special celebration names ===
On special occasions it is also known as '''The Royal Polish City of Gdańsk'''; [[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Królewskie Polskie Miasto Gdańsk'', [[German language|German]]: ''Königliche Polnische Stadt Danzig'', [[Latin]]: ''Regia Civitas Polonica Gedanensis'', [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]: ''Królewsczi Polsczi Gard Gduńsk''.
The Kashubians prefer the name: '''Our Capital City Gdańsk''' (=''Nasz Stoleczny Gard Gduńsk'') or '''The Kashubian Capital City Gdańsk''' (=''Stoleczny Kaszëbsczi Gard Gduńsk'').
Sources:
* Gdańsk, in: Kazimierz Rymut, ''Nazwy Miast Polski'', [[Ossolineum]], Wrocław 1987
* Hubert Gurnowicz, ''Gdańsk'', in: ''Nazwy miast Pomorza Gdańskiego'', [[Ossolineum]], Wrocław 1978
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Gdańsk]], see also: [[History of Pomerania]]''
[[Image:Seal of Msciwoj II of Pomerania.gif|frame|left|Seal of [[Msciwoj II of Pomerania|Mściwój II]], duke of Gdańsk Pomerania (1271-1294)]]
[[Image:ZURAW-Gdansk 2004 ubt.jpeg|thumb|240px|right|[[Żuraw]], mediaeval port [[crane (machine)|crane]] in Gdańsk]]
=== Foundation and the Middle Ages ===
[[Image:Pomnik Sobieski Gdansk.jpg|240px|thumb|right|[[John III Sobieski, King of Poland|King John III Sobieski]]]]
According to archeologists, the Gdańsk stronghold was built in the 980s by [[Mieszko I of Poland]]. The year [[997]] is recently being considered to be the date of the foundation of the city, this being the year when Saint [[Adalbert of Prague]] (sent by the Polish king [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Boleslaus the Brave]]) baptized the inhabitants of Gdańsk (''urbs Gyddanyzc'').
In the following years Gdańsk was the main centre of a Polish splinter duchy ruled by the [[Dukes of Pomerania]]. The most famous of them, [[Świętopełk II of Pomerania]], granted a local autonomy charter in ca. [[1235]] to the city, which at the time had about 2,000 inhabitants. The town had earlier obtain a city charter under Lübeck Law in 1224.
By [[1308]] Gdańsk had became a flourishing trading city with some 10,000 inhabitants, but in the [[Gdańsk Massacre]] of [[November 13]] 1308, it was occupied and demolished by the [[Teutonic Knights]]. This led to the city's decline and to a series of wars between the Knights and the Poland, ending with the [[Peace of Kalisz]] in [[1343]] when the Knights acknowledged that they would hold Pomerania as "an alm" from the Polish king. Although it left the legal basis of their possession of the province in some doubt, the agreement permitted the foundation of the municipality in [[1343]] and the development of increased export of grain from Poland via the [[Vistula river]] trading routes.
While under the control of the Knights, the city and its trade prospered, German influence increased, and the city began to be referred to by variations of "Gdańsk", ultimately developing into the Germanised version of the Polish name: "Danzig". The city became a full member of the [[Hanseatic League]] in [[1361]], and its city seal showed a Hanse "Kogge" with the inscription SIGILLUM BURGENSIUM DANTZIKE.
A new war broke out in [[1409]], ending with the [[Battle of Grunwald]] ([[1410]]), and the city briefly came under the direct overlordship of the Polish king. A year later, with the [[Peace of Toruń 1411|Peace of Toruń (Thorn) in 1411]], it returned to the Teutonic Knights' administration. In [[1440]] Danzig participated in the foundation of the [[Prussian Union]] which eventually led to the [[Thirteen Years War]] ([[1454]]-[[1466]]) and the [[Peace of Toruń 1466|incorporation]] of [[Royal Prussia]] to the direct rule of the Polish Crown.
Thanks to the Royal charters granted by king [[Casimir IV the Jagiellonian]] and the free access to all Polish markets, Danzig became a large and prosperous seaport and city. The [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th]] centuries were a Golden Age for trade and culture of the city. Inhabitants from various ethnic groups (Germans, Poles, [[Jews]], and [[Dutch people|Dutch]] being the largest) contributed to Danzig's identity and rich culture of this period. A large number of [[Scotsmen]] took refuge or emigrated to and received citizenship in Danzig and other Prussian cities (see links below) and also, through trade, all over the Baltic region.
The city suffered a slow economic decline due to the wars in the 18th century, which ended with the [[Partitions of Poland]] from [[1772]] to [[1795]]. Danzig was annexed to the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] in [[1793]] and remained Prussian until 1919 &ndash; except for the short period of 1807-1815 when it was the [[Free City of Danzig]] during the [[Napoleon]]ic years. As part of Prussia, it became part of the [[German Empire]] in [[1871]].
[[Image:GD032003_ubt.jpeg|240px|thumb|right|[[Main Town Hall]]]]
=== World Wars and Inter-War Years ===
As a result of the [[Versailles treaty]] after [[World War I]], Danzig became a free city under the control of the [[League of Nations]]. Its now predominantly German population had no right of self-determination in a referendum as in other disputed parts of the former [[German Empire]]. When Poland regained its independence after [[World War I]], the Poles hoped to regain the city to provide the free access to the sea which they had been promised by the [[Allies o |
n of a coronary artery when a plaque ruptures, activating the clotting system and [[atheroma]]-clot interaction fills the lumen of the artery to the point of sudden closure. The typical [[stenosis|narrowing]] of the lumen of the [[coronary artery|heart artery]] before sudden closure is typically 20%, according to clinical research completed in the late 1990s and using [[IVUS]] examinations within 6 months prior to a [[heart attack]]. High grade [[stenosis|stenoses]] exceeding 75% blockage, such as detected by [[Cardiac stress test|stress test]]ing, were found to be responsible for only 14% of acute [[heart attack]]s. The events leading up to plaque rupture are only partially understood. [[Myocardial infarction]] is also caused, far less commonly, by spasm of the artery wall occluding the lumen, a condition also associated with [[atheroma]]tous plaque and CHD.
CHD is associated with [[Tobacco smoking|smoking]], [[obesity]], [[hypertension]] and a chronic sub-clinical lack of vitamin C. A family history of CHD is one of the strongest predictors of CHD. Screening for CHD includes evaluating [[homocysteine]] levels, [[High density lipoprotein|high-density]] and [[Low density lipoprotein|low-density lipoprotein]] ([[cholesterol]]) levels and [[triglyceride]] levels.
==Angina==
The pain associated with very advanced CHD is known as [[angina]], and usually presents as a sensation of pressure in the chest, arm pain, jaw pain, and other forms of discomfort. The word ''discomfort'' is preferred over the word ''pain'' for describing the sensation of [[angina]], because it varies considerably among individuals in character and intensity and most people do not perceive angina as [[pain]]ful, unless it is severe. There is evidence that angina and CHD present differently in women and men.
[[Angina]] that occurs regularly with activity, upon awakening, or at other predictable times is termed stable angina and is associated with high grade [[stenosis|narrowing]]s of the [[heart]] [[artery|arteries]]. The symptoms of angina are often treated with nitrate preparations such as [[nitroglycerin]], which come in short-acting and long-acting forms, and may be administered transdermally, sublingually or orally. Many other more effective treatments, especially of the underlying [[atheroma]]tous disease, have been developed.
Angina that changes in intensity, character or frequency is termed unstable. Unstable angina may precede myocardial infarction, and requires urgent medical attention. It is treated with oxygen, intravenous nitroglycerin, and morphine. Interventional procedures such as [[angioplasty]] may be done.
==Prevention==
Coronary heart disease is the most common form of heart disease in the Western world. Prevention centers on the modifiable risk factors, which include decreasing [[cholesterol]] levels, addressing [[obesity]] and [[hypertension]], avoiding a [[sedentary lifestyle]], making healthy dietary choices, and [[smoking cessation|stopping smoking]]. There is some evidence that lowering [[uric acid]] and [[homocysteine]] levels may contribute. In [[diabetes mellitus]], there is little evidence that [[blood sugar]] control actually improves cardiac risk. Some recommend a diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids and [[vitamin C]]. In terms of [[hypertension reduction]] it has been demonstrated that removing the person from a high noise environment can contribute to [[vasoconstriction]] reduction (Rosen, 1965).
An increasingly growing number of other [[physiological]] markers and [[homeostatic]] mechanisms are currently under scientific investigation.
Individuals with CHD are advised to avoid fats that are readily oxidized (e.g., saturated fats and trans-fats), limit carbohydrates and processed sugars to reduce production of [[Low density lipoprotein]]s while increasing [[High density lipoprotein]]s, keeping [[blood pressure]] normal, exercise and stop smoking. These measures limit the progression of the disease. Recent studies have shown that dramatic reduction in LDL levels can cause mild regression of coronary heart disease.
Risk factor management is carried out during cardiac rehabilitation, a 4-phase process beginning in hospital after MI, angioplasty or heart surgery and continuing for a minimum of three months. Exercise and Vitamin C supplementation is a main component of cardiac rehabiltation along with diet, smoking cessation and blood pressure and cholesterol management.
===Preventive Diets===
====Vegetarian Diet====
[[Vegetarianism|Vegetarians]] have been shown to have a 24% reduced risk of dying of heart disease (source: Key TJ, Fraser GE, et al. 1999, Sep. Mortality in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies. Am J Clin Nutr, 70:516S-524S). This is not surprising, as plant foods are low in saturated fat and have no cholesterol.
The most powerful cholesterol-lowering agents are soluble fiber, unsaturated fats, and phytochemicals, all of which are found almost exclusively in plant foods. In the seventeen studies conducted between 1978 and 2002, the average vegan’s cholesterol level was a mere 160 mg/dl, while the average non-vegetarian’s cholesterol was 202 mg/dl. (source: Norris, J. 2003, March. Making Sense of Nutritional Research.)
Physicians such as Dr. Dean Ornish and Dr. Caldwell Esselstyn have actually stopped and even reversed heart disease in patients by putting them on programs that include plant-based diets that are high in Vitamin C.
Despite the strong benefits of a vegetarian diet, it is likely that with a few changes to the typical vegetarian diet, the risks of heart disease could be reduced even further. Vegetarian diets are sometimes low in Vitamin B12, which can lead to increased [[homocysteine]] levels--a risk factor for heart diease. Since vegetarians don't eat fish, some vegetarians don't have high intakes of Omega-3 fatty acids. There is strong evidence that higher intakes of Omega-3 fatty acids reduce the risk of heart disease. Both of these shortcomings can be easily overcome by taking a vitamin B12 supplement and increasing intake of omega-3 fatty acids via ground flax seeds or flax oil, walnuts, and canola oil. There is some evidence that flax may be even more beneficial than fish oil in its effectiveness in reducing C-reactive protein, an indicator of heart disease.
====Cretan Mediterranean-Style diet====
The Seven Country Study found that Cretan men had exceptionally low death rates from heart disease, despite moderate to high intake of fat. The Cretan diet is similar to other traditional Mediterranean diets: consisting mostly of olive oil, bread, abundant fruit and vegetables, a moderate amount of wine and a small amount of animal products. However, the Cretan diet consisted of less fish and wine consumption than some other Mediterranean-style diets, such as the diet in Corfu, another region of Greece, which had higher death rates.
The Lyon Heart Study set out to mimic the Cretan diet, but adopted a pragmatic approach. Realizing that some of the people in the study would be reluctant to move from butter to olive oil, they used a margarine based on rapeseed (canola) oil. The dietary change also included 20% increases in vitamin C rich fruit and bread and decreases in processed and red meat. On this diet, mortality from all causes was reduced by 70%. This study was so successful that the ethics committee decided to stop the study prematurely so that the results of the study could be made available to the public immediately.
==Bibliography==
[[S. Rosen]] and P. Olin, ''Hearing Loss and Coronary [[Heart Disease]]'', Archives of [[Otollaryngology]], 82:236 (1965)
== Recent research ==
Controversial research has recently suggested a link between the [[atherosclerosis]]-causing CHD and the presence of [[nanobacteria]] in the arteries. However, trials of currently available antibiotics known to inhibit or kill some of these microorganisms have not shown much benefit to patients. If an infectious role were found to be a significant factor, this could have important implications for treatment and prevention of the disease beyond the many current, proven strategies. See [[atheroma]] & [[atherosclerosis]]
Ornisch has suggested that coronary heart disease is partially reversible using an intense dietary regime such as the Cretan diet coupled with regular cardio exercise.
== External links ==
* [http://www.invisionguide.com/heart The InVision Guide to a Healthy Heart] An interactive website on the development and function of the cardiovascular system and cardiovascular diseases and consequences. The website also features treatment options and preventative measures for maintaining a healthy heart.
[[Category:Cardiovascular diseases]]
[[Category:Ischemic heart disease]]
[[de:Koronare Herzkrankheit]]
[[es:Síndrome coronario agudo]]
[[he:מחלת לב כלילית]]
[[pt:Doenças das coronárias]]
[[vi:Bệnh tim mạch vành]</text>
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<page>
<title>CORAL66</title>
<id>5877</id>
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<id>15904066</id>
<timestamp>2002-07-30T15:40:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Derek Ross</username>
<id>33</id>
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<minor />
<comment>redirect redundant page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[CORAL66 programming language]]</text>
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<title>Carnel</title>
<id>5878</id>
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<id>36713160</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T23:37:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Seancdaug</username>
<id>132265</id>
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<comment>recategorization: added to [[Category:Role-playing game magazines]], and added {{rpg-stub}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Carnel''''' is a [[United Kingdom]] [[role-playing game]] [[fanzine]]. It is dedicated to discussions of [[roleplaying]] and "non-system bound" arti |
ml:space="preserve">{{Indianmusic}}
The '''music of [[India]]''' includes multiple varieties of [[folk music|folk]], [[popular music|popular]], [[pop music|pop]], and [[Indian classical music|classical music]]. India's classical music tradition, including [[Carnatic music|Carnatic]] and [[Hindustani music]], has a history spanning millennia and, developed over several eras, remains fundamental to the lives of Indians today as sources of religious inspiration, cultural expression and pure entertainment. India is made up of several dozen [[ethnic group]]s, speaking their own [[language]]s and [[dialect]]s. Alongside distinctly [[Indian subcontinent|subcontinental]] forms there are major influences from [[Persian music|Persian]], [[Arab music|Arab]] and [[British music]]. Indian genres like [[filmi]] and [[bhangra]] have become popular throughout the [[United Kingdom]], [[South Asia|South]] and [[East Asia]], and around the world.
Indian pop stars now sell records in many countries, while [[world music]] fans listen to the roots music of India's diverse nations. American [[soul music|soul]], [[rock and roll|rock]] and [[hip hop music|hip hop]] have also made a large impact, primarily on Indian pop and filmi music. Other highly popular forms are [[ghazal]], [[qawwali]], [[thumri]], [[dhrupad]], [[dadra]], [[bhajan]], [[kirtan]], [[shabad]], and [[gurbani]].
The earliest texts of Indian music are the [[Natya Shastra]], [[Dattilam]], [[Brihaddeshi]], and the [[Sangita-Ratnakara]].
==Pop music==
''Main article: [[Indian pop]].''
The biggest form of Indian [[pop music]] is [[filmi]], or songs from Indian musical films. Independent pop acts such as Alisha Chenoy,Shaan,and rock bands like [[Indus Creed]],Indian Ocean,[[Euphoria_band_india | Euphoria]] exist and have gained mass appeal with the advent of cable music television. As far as Western rock music is concerned, one of the greatest personalities in rock history, [[Freddie Mercury]] of the legendary band [[Queen (band)|Queen]] had Indian Parsi roots, starting his first band in the Indian boarding school of St. Peters in [[Panchgani]].
===Filmi===
''Main article: [[Filmi]]''
Many languages are spoken in India, and there are film industries for each of the major languages (see [[Indian cinema]]). Film music is mostly used in commercial Indian cinema, which is mainly produced in the centres of [[Mumbai]], [[Chennai]] and [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]. Indian movies are best-known for their music, and composers (music directors). Today's most popular music director, [[A.R. Rahman]], got his start in Tamil films and then moved to Bollywood. Well-known music directors of the past include [[Naushad]], [[R.D. Burman]] and [[Ilayaraaja]].
Most Indian films are musicals. The actors generally do not sing, but lip-synch to songs sung by such accomplished [[playback singer]]s as
[[Yesudas]],[[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Asha Bhosle]], [[Alka Yagnik]], [[Mohammed Rafi]], [[Kishore Kumar]],[[S.P. Balasubrahmaniam]] and [[Jayachandran]].
Filmi songs are extremely popular; they are sold on tape and CD, played on the radio, and featured on television programs. They combine Indian classical music, with its sophisticated, melismatic vocals and traditional instruments, with catchy tunes and stylings from Western pop music. The novel experimentation (resulting in such mixes as 'Indian hip hop') has been received well in India and continues to grow in popularity.
<table align="right">
<tr><td>[[Image:India052.jpg]]</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><small>''1907 EMI International poster featuring<br> goddess of [[music]] [[Saraswati]] and a [[gramophone]]''</small></td></tr>
</table>
===Western fusions===
In the late [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]], [[rock and roll]] fusions with Indian music were well-known throughout [[Europe]] and [[North America]]. [[Ali Akbar Khan]]'s [[1955]] performance in the [[United States]] was perhaps the beginning of this trend, which was soon centred around [[Ravi Shankar (musician)|Ravi Shankar]].
In [[1962]], Shankar and [[Bud Shank]], a [[jazz]] musician, released ''Improvisations and Theme From Pather Pachali'' and began fusing jazz with Indian traditions. Other [[jazz]] pioneers such as [[John Coltrane]]—who recorded a composition entitled 'India' during the November [[1961]] sessions for his album [[Village Vanguard|''Live At The Village Vanguard'']] (the track was not released until [[1963]] on [[John Coltrane|Coltrane]]'s album ''[[Impressions (album)|Impressions]]'')—also embraced this fusion. [[George Harrison]] (of [[the Beatles]]) played the [[sitar]], which he had learned from Shankar, on the song "Norwegian Wood" in [[1965]]. [[Jazz]] innovator [[Miles Davis]] recorded and performed with musicians like Khalil Balakrishna, Bihari Sharma, and Badal Roy in his post-[[1968]] electric ensembles. Other Western artists like the [[Grateful Dead]], [[Incredible String Band]], [[the Rolling Stones]], [[the Move]] and [[Traffic (band)|Traffic]] soon incorporated Indian influences and instruments, and added Indian performers.
Guitarist (and former [[Miles Davis]] associate) [[John McLaughlin (musician)|John McLaughlin]] flirted with Indian music elements in his electric [[Jazz fusion|jazz-rock fusion]] group [[Mahavishnu Orchestra|The Mahavishnu Orchestra]], and pursued this with greater authenticity in the mid-[[1970s]] when he collaborated with [[L. Shankar]], [[Zakir Hussain (musician)|Zakir Hussain]] and others in the acoustic ensemble [[Shakti (band)|Shakti]].
Though the Indian music craze soon died down among mainstream audiences, diehard fans and immigrants continued the fusion. In the late [[1980s]], Indian-British artists fused Indian and Western traditions to make the [[Asian Underground]].
In the new millennium, American [[hip hop music|hip-hop]] has featured Indian Filmi and Bhangra. Mainstream hip-hop artists have sampled songs from Bollywood movies and have collaborated with Indian artists. Examples include [[Timbaland]]'s "Indian Flute", [[Erick Sermon]] and [[Redman]]'s "React", Slum Village's "Disco", and [[Truth Hurts]]' hit song "Addictive", which sampled a [[Lata Mangeshkar]] song. [[United Kingdom|British]]-born Indian artist [[Panjabi MC]] also had a Bhangra hit in the U.S. with "Mundian To Bach Ke" which featured rapper [[Jay-Z]].
==Folk music==
''Main article: [[Indian folk music]]''
The arrival of [[film|movie]]s and [[pop music]] weakened folk music's popularity, but cheaply recordable music has made it easier to find and helped revive the traditions. Folk music (''desi'') has been influential on classical music, which is viewed as a higher art form. Instruments and styles have impacted classical ragas. It is also not uncommon for major writers, saints and poets to have large musical libraries and traditions to their name, often sung in ''thumri'' (semi-classical) style.
===Brass bands===
[[Brass band]]s, descended from [[England|English]] traditions, are now very popular especially at weddings and other special occasions.
===Bhangra===
''Main article: [[Bhangra]]''
[[Bhangra]] is a form of [[dance]]-oriented [[folk music]] that has become a [[pop music|pop]] sensation in the [[United Kingdom]]. The present musical style is derived from the traditional musical accompaniment to the folk dance of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] called by the same name, ''bhangra''.
===Lavani===
''Main article: [[Lavani]]''
[[Lavani]] is a popular folk form of [[Maharashtra]]. Traditionally, the songs are sung by female artistes, but male artistes may occasionally sing [[Lavani]]s. The dance format associated with [[Lavani]] is known as Tamasha.
===Dandiya===
''Main article: [[Dandiya]]''
[[Dandiya]] is a form of dance-oriented folk music that has also been adapted for pop music worldwide. The present musical style is derived from the traditional musical accompaniment to the folk dance of [[Dandiya]] called by the same name, dandiya.
===Rajasthan===
[[Rajasthan]]i has a diverse collection of musician [[caste]]s, including langas, sapera, bhopa, jogi and manganiyar.
===Bauls===
The [[Baul]]s of [[Bengal]] were a mystical order of musicians in 18th, 19th and early 20th century India who played a form of music using a khamak, [[ektara]] and dotara. The word Baul comes from [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] ''batul'' meaning ''divinely inspired insanity''. They are a group of [[Hindu]] mystic minstrels. They are thought to have been influenced greatly by the Hindu tantric sect of the Kartabhajas as well as by [[Sufi]] sects. Bauls travel in search of the internal ideal, ''Maner Manush'' (''Man of the Heart'').
==Classical music==
''Main article: [[Indian classical music]]''
The two main traditions of classical music have been [[Carnatic music]], found predominantly in the peninsular regions and [[Hindustani music]], found in the northern and central parts. While both traditions claim [[Vedic civilization|Vedic]] origin, history indicates that until c. 13th century, there was only one Indian music tradition. From then on, most of north India was under Islamic rule, and Hindustani music is the result of a fusion of [[Mughal]], [[Arab]]ic and [[Iran|Persia]]n traditions with traditional Indian music. Carnatic music, on the other hand, traces much of its contemporary concert repertoire to a series of composers and musicologists in the 15th and 16th centuries including Govindacharya, Venkatamakhin, [[Purandaradasa]], [[Tyagaraja]] and [[Muttusvami Dikshitar]]. For more, see [[Indian classical music]], [[Hindustani music]] and [[Carnatic music]].
===Rabindra Sangeet===
A towering figure of Indian music was [[Rabindranath Tagore]]. Writing in [[Bengali]], he created a library of over 2000 songs now known by Bengalis as ''rabindra sangeet'' whose form is primarily influenced |
s the same overall pattern as the Ninth Symphony as a whole. The scheme is as follows:
*First "movement": theme and variations with slow introduction. Main theme which first appears in the cellos and basses is "recapitulated" with voices(see below).
*Second "movement": 6/8 scherzo in military style (begins at "Alla marcia", words "Froh, wie seine Sonnen fliegen"). Beethoven's older listeners at the premiere would have recognized this as so-called "[[Turkish music (style)|Turkish music]]." Concludes with 6/8 variation of the main theme with chorus.
*Third "movement": slow meditation with a new theme on the text "Seid umschlungen, Millionen!" (begins at "[[Andante]] maestoso")
*Fourth "movement": [[fugue|fugato]] finale on the themes of the first and third "movements" (begins at "[[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] energico")
The movement differs from an independent symphony because of its thematic unity: every part is based on either the main theme, the "Seid umschlungen" theme, or some combination of the two.
The first "movement within a movement" itself is organized into sections:
*An introduction, which starts with a stormy, chaotic ''[[Presto (music)|Presto]]'' passage. It then briefly quotes all three of the previous movements in order, each dismissed in various ways by the cellos and basses, which play in an instrumental foreshadowing of the vocal [[recitative]]. The introduction eventually "discovers" the famous theme, which then becomes the subject of---
*A series of [[variation (music)|variations]] for orchestra alone.
*The introduction is then repeated from the ''[[Presto (music)|Presto]]'' passage, this time with the bass soloist singing the recitatives previously suggested by cellos and basses, followed by---
*The variations again, this time for vocal soloists and chorus.
=====Text of fourth movement=====
Words written by Beethoven, not Schiller, are shown in italics.
{|
|-
|
:'''German original'''
:''O Freunde, nicht diese Töne!''
:''Sondern laßt uns angenehmere''
:''anstimmen und freudenvollere.''
:Freude! Froh Freude!
:Freude, schöner Götterfunken
:Tochter aus Elysium,
:Wir betreten feuertrunken,
:Himmlische, dein Heiligtum!
:Deine Zauber binden wieder
:''Was die Mode streng geteilt;''
:''Alle Menschen werden Brüder,''
:<small>(Schiller's original:</small>
:<small>Was der Mode Schwert geteilt;</small>
:<small>Bettler werden Fürstenbrüder,)</small>
:Wo dein sanfter Flügel weilt.
:Wem der große Wurf gelungen,
:Eines Freundes Freund zu sein;
:Wer ein holdes Weib errungen,
:Mische seinen Jubel ein!
:Ja, wer auch nur eine Seele
:Sein nennt auf dem Erdenrund!
:Und wer's nie gekonnt, der stehle
:Weinend sich aus diesem Bund!
:Freude trinken alle Wesen
:An den Brüsten der Natur;
:Alle Guten, alle Bösen
:Folgen ihrer Rosenspur.
:Küsse gab sie uns und Reben,
:Einen Freund, geprüft im Tod;
:Wollust ward dem Wurm gegeben,
:Und der Cherub steht vor Gott.
:Froh, wie seine Sonnen fliegen
:Durch des Himmels prächt'gen Plan,
:Laufet, Brüder, eure Bahn,
:Freudig, wie ein Held zum Siegen.
:Seid umschlungen, Millionen!
:Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt!
:Brüder, über'm Sternenzelt
:Muß ein lieber Vater wohnen.
:Ihr stürzt nieder, Millionen?
:Ahnest du den Schöpfer, Welt?
:Such' ihn über'm Sternenzelt!
:Über Sternen muß er wohnen.
:''Finale repeats the words:''
:Seid umschlungen, Millionen!
:Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt!
:Brüder, über'm Sternenzelt
:Muß ein lieber Vater wohnen.
:Seid umschlungen,
:Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt!
:Freude, schöner Götterfunken
:Tochter aus Elysium,
:Freude, schöner Götterfunken
|
:'''English translation'''
:''Oh friends, not these tones!''
:''Rather let us sing more''
:''cheerful and more joyful ones.''
:Joy! Glad joy!
:Joy, beautiful spark of the gods,
:Daughter of Elysium,
:We approach fire-drunk,
:Heavenly One, your shrine.
:Your magic reunites
:''What custom sternly divides;''
:''All people become brothers''
:<small>(Schiller's original:</small>
:<small>What custom's sword separates;</small>
:<small>Beggars become princes' brothers)<small>
:Where your gentle wing alights.
:Whoever succeeds in the great attempt
:To be a friend of a friend,
:Whoever has won a lovely woman,
:Let him add his jubilation!
:Yes, whoever calls even one soul
:His own on the earth's globe!
:And who never has, let him steal,
:Weeping, away from this group.
:All creatures drink joy
:At the breasts of nature;
:All the good, all the evil
:Follow her roses' trail.
:Kisses gave she us, and wine,
:A friend, proven unto death;
:Pleasure was to the worm granted,
:And the cherub stands before God.
:Glad, as his suns fly
:Through the Heavens' glorious plan,
:Run, brothers, your race,
:Joyful, as a hero to victory.
:Be embraced, you millions!
:This kiss for the whole world!
:Brothers, beyond the star-canopy
:Must a loving Father dwell.
:Do you bow down, you millions?
:Do you sense the Creator, world?
:Seek Him beyond the star-canopy!
:Beyond the stars must He dwell.
:''Finale repeats the words:''
:Be embraced, ye millions!
:This kiss for the whole world!
:Brothers, beyond the star-canopy
:Must a loving Father dwell.
:Be embraced,
:This kiss for the whole world!
:Joy, beautiful spark of the gods,
:Daughter of Elysium,
:Joy, beautiful spark of the gods
|}
==Trivia==
===Performing the symphony===
Lasting about 74 minutes in performance, the Ninth was an exceptionally long symphony for its time, although it has been exceeded in length by several later symphonies, most notably those of [[Bruckner]] and [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]]. Mahler's 2nd, 3rd and 8th, inspired by Beethoven, are very similar in conception and style due to their "grand" demeanors and extensive use of large choral and vocal forces.
Beethoven's Ninth makes extreme demands on the singers, partly because his vocal writing seems designed to evoke a sense of effort, and partly because [[Pitch (music)#Historical pitch standards|concert pitch]] is higher now than it was in Beethoven’s day. Thus, it is fairly rare to find a performance that is suitably forceful but avoids any hint of shrieking or shouting. Specialists in [[authentic performance]] have experimented with performing the work at Beethoven’s concert pitch, which seems to help somewhat.
A delicate issue conductors must face is the fact that Beethoven left [[metronome]] markings specifying the [[tempo]] of each section. Historically, conductors have been very reluctant to respect these markings, preferring, for example, a slower tempo than Beethoven's for the slow movement and a faster tempo for the military march section of the finale. In general, Beethoven's metronome markings have proven unpopular among modern artists, and the possibility that Beethoven was (despite his unquestioned abilities as a composer) an inept metronome user should perhaps not be excluded. Conductors in the authentic performance movement, notably [[Roger Norrington]], have experimented with adhering to Beethoven's tempos, to mixed reviews.
===Ninth Symphony in the 20th century===
In [[1964]] [[Maurice Béjart]] and his [[Ballet du XXe siècle]] gave an acclaimed performance of "IXe symphonie", a ballet based on the Ninth Symphony.
Among recorded performances, those conducted by [[Wilhelm Furtwängler]], especially those of [[1942]], [[1951]], and [[1954]], [[Herbert von Karajan]], especially those of [[1963]] and [[1976]], [[Fritz Reiner]], [[Leonard Bernstein]], [[George Szell]], and [[John Eliot Gardiner]] are highly regarded. Such judgments about musical performances are often biased or controversial. The musicologist Richard Taruskin has a detailed analysis and comparison of performances of Beethoven's 9th in his essay "Resisting the Ninth".
The Ninth Symphony has frequently been incorporated into film scores, television, and popular music. For a list of instances, see [[Beethoven's Ninth Symphony in popular culture]].
At most [[Olympic games]] during the second half of the [[20th Century]], the fourth movement has been performed as part of ceremonial processions.
The symphony seems to have taken particularly deep root in [[Japan]], where it is widely performed during December as part of the annual celebration of the new year. For example, in the Japanese [[anime]] [[Neon Genesis Evangelion]], the character [[Nagisa Kaworu|Kaworu]] states that "[The fourth movement] is the greatest achievement in the [human] culture."
An adapted form of Beethoven's setting of Schiller's ode was chosen to be the [[European anthem]] first by the [[Council of Europe]] and later by the [[European Union]].
[[Ritchie Blackmore]]'s band ''[[Rainbow]]'' record the final ''[[Ode to Joy]]'' movement for their 1980 album ''[[Difficult to Cure]]'', renaming it to be the title track.
Students in [[Beijing]]'s [[Tiananmen Square]] protest broadcast the symphony through loudspeakers in [[1989]] as a statement against tyranny. A famous performance conducted by [[Leonard Bernstein]] on [[December 25]], [[1989]] celebrated the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]]. It substituted ''Freiheit'' ("freedom") for ''Freude'' ("joy") in the sung text.
It is widely believed that the playback time specifications of the [[Sony]]/[[Philips]] [[Compact disc|Compact Disc]] were influenced by a desire to accommodate performances of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony on a single disc, without interruption. This requirement has been variously attributed to [[Herbert von Karajan]] (a Philips artist with access to Sony chairman [[Akio Morita]]), to Morita's wife, and to Sony president [[Norio Ohga]]. The urban legends investigators at [http://www.snopes.com/music/media/cdlength.htm snopes.com] consider this to be "undecided." It does appear that at a late stage in developm |
evidence for this. [http://www.upi.com/NewsTrack/view.php?StoryID=20060112-022844-5548r] [http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/othersports/255299_sportsbeat12.html] [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2006/golf/01/12/china.golf/] [http://news.scotsman.com/index.cfm?id=46872006]
==Social aspects of golf==
In the [[United States]], golf is the unofficial game of the business world. It is often said that [[board of directors | board]] meetings merely confirm decisions that are actually made on the golf course. For this reason, the successful conduct of business golf (which extends beyond merely knowing the game) is considered a useful business skill; various schools, including prestigious universities such as [[Stanford University]], have started both undergraduate and graduate-level courses that teach "business golf." The PGA of America, an organization separate from the PGA Tour, helps to sponsor these programs at universities nationwide.
Golf is not inherently an expensive activity; the cost of an average round of golf is [[USD]] $36 [http://www.ngf.org], and the game is regularly enjoyed by over 26 million Americans and many more world-wide. In fact, most regions of the United States feature public courses which strive to be affordable for the average golfer. But the perception of golf as a game for the wealthy elite and [[Country_Club|country clubs]] as a haven for corrupt businessmen is common among many. Films such as ''[[Caddyshack]]'' perpetuate this belief.
This being said the social status of better (and usually more expensive) equipment cannot be overlooked. In order to be outfitted with the latest equipment (including rather expensive clothing, shoes and gloves) one can end up spending quite a sum. Also, green fees at some of the more picturesque and prestigious courses can be quite sizeable.
==Golfing countries==
In 2005 ''[[Golf Digest]]'' calculated that there were nearly 32,000 golf courses in the world, approximately half of them in the [[United States]]. [http://www.golfdigest.com/planetgolf/] The countries with most golf courses in relation to population, starting with the best endowed were: [[Scotland]], [[New Zealand]], [[Australia]], [[Republic of Ireland]], [[Northern Ireland]], [[Canada]], [[Wales]], [[United States]], [[Sweden]], and [[England]] (countries with less than 500,000 people were excluded). Apart from Sweden all of these are countries where [[English language|English]] is the main language, but the number of courses in new golfing territories is increasing rapidly. For example the first golf course in the [[People's Republic of China]] only opened in the mid-1980s, but by [[2005]] there were 200 courses in that country.
The professional game was initially dominated by British golfers, but since [[World War I]], America has produced the greatest quantity of leading professionals. Other [[Commonwealth]] countries such as [[Australia]] and [[South Africa]] are also traditional powers in the game. Since around the 1970s, [[Japan]], [[Scandinavia]]n and other [[Western Europe]]an countries have produced leading players on a regular basis. The number of countries with high-class professionals continues to increase steadily, especially in [[East Asia]]. [[South Korea]] is notably strong in women's golf. More information is available at [http://www.golf.com.au].
==Professional golf==
Golf is played professionally in many different countries. The majority of [[professional golfer]]s work as club or teaching professionals, and only compete in local competitions. A small elite of professional golfers are "tournament pros" who compete full time on international "tours".
===Golf tours===
[[Image:Tiger Woods.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Tiger Woods]], who is currently the leading professional golfer in the World.]]
{{main|Professional golf tours}}
There are at least twenty professional golf tours, each run by a [[PGA]] or an independent tour organisation, which is responsible for arranging events, finding sponsors, and regulating the tour. Typically a tour has "members" who are entitled to compete in all of its events, and also invites non-members to compete in some of them. Gaining membership of an elite tour is highly competitive, and most professional golfers never achieve it.
The most widely known tour is the [[PGA TOUR]] (officially rendered in all caps), which attracts the best golfers from all the other men's tours. This is due mostly to the fact that most PGA TOUR events have a first prize of at least [[United States dollar|USD]] 800,000. PGA TOUR wins can mean endorsement deals, automatically provide the winner a minimum two-year exemption to play in other tournaments, and supply the prestige earned by beating the best of the best. The [[PGA European Tour]], which attracts a substantial number of top golfers from outside North America, ranks only slightly below the PGA TOUR in worldwide prestige. Some top professionals from outside North America play enough tournaments to maintain membership on both the PGA TOUR and European Tour. There are several other men's tours around the world.
The Sunshine is being played in South Africa, Asian Tour is associating with The European Tour to host European Tour level tournaments in Asia. In 2005, China started a China Tour. The Japan Tour is the 3rd biggest Tour overall, it has the best sponsors besides the PGA Tour.
Golf is unique in having lucrative competition for older players. There are several senior tours for men 50 and older, the best known of which is the U.S.-based [[Champions Tour]].
There are five principal tours for women, each based in a different country or continent. The most prestigious of these is the U.S-based [[LPGA Tour]].
===Men's major championships===
{{main|Men's major golf championships}}
The major championships are the four most prestigious men's tournaments of the year. In current (2005) chronological order they are:
* [[The Masters Tournament|The Masters]]
* [[U.S. Open (golf)|U.S. Open]]
* [[The Open Championship]] (referred to in North America as the ''British Open'')
* [[PGA Championship]]
The fields for these events include the top several dozen golfers from all over the world. The Masters has been played at Augusta National Golf Club in [[Augusta, Georgia]] since its inception in 1934. The U.S. Open and PGA Championship are played at various courses around the United States, while The Open Championship is played at various courses in the UK.
The number of major championships a player accumulates in his career has a very large impact on his stature in the game. [[Jack Nicklaus]] is widely regarded as the greatest golfer of all time, largely because he has won a record 18 professional majors, or 20 majors in total if his two [[U.S. Amateur]]s are included. [[Tiger Woods]], who may be the only golfer likely to challenge Nicklaus's record, has won ten professional majors (13 total if his three U.S. Amateurs are included), all before the age of thirty. Woods also came closest to winning all four current majors in one season (known as a [[Grand Slam of golf|Grand Slam]] completed first by Bobby Jones) when he won them consecutively across two seasons: the 2000 U.S. Open, Open Championship, and PGA Championship; and the 2001 Masters. This feat has been frequently called the ''Tiger Slam''.
Prior to the advent of the PGA Championship and The Masters, the four Majors were the U.S. Open, the U.S. Amateur, the Open Championship, and the [[The Amateur Championship|British Amateur]]. These are the four that [[Bobby Jones (golfer)|Bobby Jones]] won in [[1930]] to become the only player ever to have earned a Grand Slam.
===Women's majors===
{{main|Women's major golf championships}}
Women's golf does not have a globally agreed set of majors. The LPGA's list of majors has changed several times over the years, with the last change in 2001. Like the PGA TOUR, the LPGA currently has four majors:
* [[Kraft Nabisco Championship]]
* [[U.S. Women's Open (golf)|U.S. Women's Open]]
* [[LPGA Championship]]
* [[Women's British Open]]
Only the last of these is also recognised by the [[Ladies European Tour]].
In 2003 [[Annika Sörenstam]] was the first woman after fifty years who started at a men's PGA Tour.
==Environmental impact==
[[Environmentalism|Environmental concerns]] over the use of land for golf courses have grown over the past 30 years. Specific concerns include the amount of water and chemical [[pesticide]]s and [[fertilizer]]s used for maintenance, as well as the destruction of [[wetland]]s and other environmentally important areas during construction.
[[Image:deer_on_golf_course.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Wildlife is sometimes seen on golf courses but not encouraged due to damage it causes to the course.]]
These, along with health and cost concerns, have led to significant research into more environmentally sound practices and turf grasses. The modern golf course superintendent is well trained in the uses of these practices and grasses. This has led to reductions in the amount of chemicals and water used on courses. The turf on golf courses is an excellent filter for water and has been used in many communities to cleanse grey water. While many people continue to oppose golf courses for environmental reasons, there are others who feel that they are beneficial for the community and the environment as they provide corridors for migrating animals and sanctuaries for birds and other wildlife.
A major result of modern equipment is that today's players can hit the ball much further than previously. In a concern for safety, modern golf course architects have had to lengthen and widen their design envelope. This has led to a ten percent increase in the amount of area that is required for golf courses today. At the same time, water restrictions placed by many communities have forced many courses to limit the amount of maintained turf grass. While most modern 18-hole golf courses occup |
mal House]]''.
==Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}
The story is set in the [[Southwest United States]] in 1874 (though it is filled with deliberately [[anachronism#Anachronisms in art and fiction|anachronistic]] references to the [[1970s]]). Construction on a new railroad runs into [[quicksand]]; the route has to be changed, which will cause it to be built near Rock Ridge, a frontier town where everyone has the last name of "Johnson". State Attorney General Hedley Lamarr (played by Korman) &mdash; not to be confused, as he often is in the film, with [[Hedy Lamarr]] &mdash; wants to buy the land along the new railroad route cheaply, but first has to cause the townspeople to leave. He sends a gang of thugs, led by Pickens's character, to scare them away, prompting the townsfolk to demand that the Governor appoint a new [[sheriff]]. The Attorney General convinces the dim-witted governor (Brooks) to appoint Bart (Little), an [[African American]] railroad worker, as the new sheriff. He believes that this will so offend the townspeople they will either abandon the town or lynch the new sheriff.
With his quick wits and the assistance of an [[List of fictional alcoholics|alcoholic]] former [[gunslinger]] Jim (Wilder), "The Waco Kid" ("I must have killed more men than [[Cecil B. DeMille]]!"), Bart begins to overcome the hostile reception. He defeats Mongo (Karras), an immensely strong subhuman sent by Pickens, then resists the seductions of wily temptress-for-hire Lili von [[List of English words of Yiddish origin|Shtupp]] (Kahn), before inspiring the townfolk to lure Lamarr's small army of thugs into an ambush.
The resulting fight between the townsfolk and the gunfighters is so devastating that it even breaks the [[fourth wall]]; the fight spills out from the westerns lot in the [[Warner Brothers Studios]] and manages to destroy a musical set before culminating in a cream pie fight in the studio canteen. As with all westerns, however, it cheerfully ends with the good guys defeating the bad guy, rescuing the town, catching the end of the movie, persuading people of all colors and creeds to live in harmony and, finally, riding off into a beautiful sunset (although Bart and Jim quickly swap their horses for a [[limousine]]) &ndash; in that order.
{{endspoiler}}
== Themes and motifs ==
The movie uses some outrageously [[racist]] themes, but in a self-aware manner that successfully manages to mock racism itself. The racist individuals in the movie are quite possibly the dumbest people on earth; stupid enough, for instance, to fall for Bart holding himself hostage until he gets to safety. No ethnic group is spared from satirical barbs. At one point, [[David Huddleston]]'s character grudgingly concedes to some railroad workers: "All right, we'll give some land to the [[nigger]]s and the [[chink]]s. ''But we don't want the [[Irish ethnicity|Irish]]!''" Although to be fair, he did not use a racial epithet to refer to the Irish. After a vocal outcry, he then lets everyone, including the Irish, have land.
One of the film's most famous scenes is of a group of cowboys sitting round a fire eating plates of beans; for the entire scene the soundtrack plays loud evidence of the most [[Flatulence|notorious side effect]] of beans.
==Featured Cast==
{| class="wikitable" width="50%"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Actor !! Role
|-
| [[Mel Brooks]] || Gov. William J. Le Petomane / Indian chief
|-
| [[Carol DeLuise]] || Harriett Johnson
|-
| [[Dom DeLuise]] || Buddy Bizarre
|-
| [[Liam Dunn]] || Rev. Johnson
|-
| [[George Furth]] || Van Johnson
|-
| [[Burton Gilliam]] || Lyle
|-
| [[John Hillerman]] || Howard Johnson
|-
| [[David Huddleston]] || Olson Johnson
|-
| [[Madeline Kahn]] || Lili Von Shtupp
|-
| [[Alex Karras]] || Mongo
|-
| [[Harvey Korman]] || Hedley Lamarr
|-
| [[Cleavon Little]] || Bart
|-
| [[Slim Pickens]] || Taggart
|-
| [[Jack Starrett]] || Gabby Johnson
|-
| [[Gene Wilder]] || Jim "The Waco Kid"
|}
==Awards==
The film was nominated for three [[Academy Awards]], including one for Kahn for a [[Marlene Dietrich|Dietrich]]-like portrayal of the "Teutonic Titwillow" and one for the film's title song, co-written by Brooks and performed with complete sincerity by [[Frankie Laine]]. In [[2000 in film|2000]], the [[American Film Institute]] listed ''Blazing Saddles'' as #6 on its list of the [[100 Years Series#100 Years...100 Laughs|all-time funniest American films]]. Also in [[2000]], readers of ''[[Total Film]]'' magazine voted it the 9th greatest comedy film of all time.
'''[[1975]] [[Academy Award]]s (Oscars)'''
* Nominated - [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role]] — [[Madeline Kahn]]
* Nominated - [[Academy Award for Film Editing|Best Film Editing]] — John C. Howard, Danford B. Greene
* Nominated - [[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Original Song]] — John Morris, [[Mel Brooks]] for the song "Blazing Saddles"
'''[[1975]] [[BAFTA]] Film Awards'''
* Nominated - Best Newcomer — [[Cleavon Little]]
* Nominated - Best Screenplay — [[Mel Brooks]], [[Norman Steinberg]], [[Andrew Bergman]], [[Richard Pryor]], [[Alan Uger]]
'''[[1975]] [[Writers Guild of America Award]]s'''
* Nominated - Best Comedy Written Directly for the Screen — [[Mel Brooks]], [[Norman Steinberg]], [[Andrew Bergman]], [[Richard Pryor]], [[Alan Uger]]
==Trivia==
* This was Mel Brooks's first movie shot in the [[anamorphic widescreen|2.35:1]] [[Panavision]] [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]].
* Brooks wanted [[Richard Pryor]] to play the sheriff's role given to Little, but the studio objected because of Pryor's perceived vulgarity (Pryor's comedy routines contained numerous obscenities, sexist remarks, and comments which some thought would be perceived as outright racist if they had come from a white man). Warner [[executive|execs]] also expressed concern about Pryor's reliability, because of his heavy drug use at the time. Pryor was, however, hired as one of the film's screenwriters.
* When the original title (''Tex X'') was turned down by the studio because it sounded like the title of a [[blaxploitation]] film, Brooks next choice was ''Black Bart''. Although that name also was not used, it became name of a [[television pilot]] based on the film (produced without Brooks's participation). That pilot is included on the 30th anniversary [[DVD]] release of ''Blazing Saddles''.
* [[Hedy Lamarr]] sued [[Warner Bros.]] for the unauthorized use of her name; an out-of-court settlement was reached. Prophetically, in the movie, the Governor calls his right-hand man "Hedy" to his face, and Lamarr sheepishly corrects him: "Hed-LEY". He answers, "What the hell are you worried about? This is 1874, you'll be able to sue her!"
* Brooks didn't tell Laine that the movie was planned as a comedy, and was frankly embarrassed by how much heart Laine put into singing the title song, which was nominated for a "Best Song" Oscar (music by John Morris, with lyrics by Brooks). After that, Brooks couldn't bear to tell Laine the truth.
* Gene Wilder's future wife [[Gilda Radner]] appears as a townswoman in the church scene.
* ''Blazing Saddles'' also offers a rare look into the Warner [[backlot]], with scenes spilling off the ''Laramie Street'' set into various [[Sound stage|stages]] and eventually out of Gate 3 onto Olive Blvd. in [[Burbank, Los Angeles County, California|Burbank]], [[California|CA]].
* The film contained two notable alumni of the [[University of Iowa]]: accomplished actor Gene Wilder as Jim (The Waco Kid), and [[Alex Karras]], the [[NFL]] lineman playing Mongo.
* [[Dom Deluise]] has a bit part as a [[Busby Berkeley]]-esque director, as does his wife, making one of her only film appreances as one of the townsfolk.
* The movie was the first Hollywood film to have a character apparently [[Flatulence|pass wind]] on-screen.
* Legendary Western star [[John Wayne]] was approached by Mel Brooks to be in the film, for the role played by [[Slim Pickens]]. After reading the script he said "I can't be in this picture, it's too dirty...but I'll be the first in line to see it."
* The film was popular enough to warrant the development of a television series pilot, available on the [[DVD]] edition of the film.
* Mel Brooks originally wanted Gene Wilder to play the role of Hedley Lamarr.
* There is a fair amount of profanity in the film, but in the scene where Lamarr slaps Lili he calls her a "[[Teutonic]] [[twat]]!". This is highly unusual in that ''twat'' is scarcely used in [[U.S.]] films. (Nor, for that matter, is ''Teutonic''). However, this [[Alliteration|alliteration]] dovetails nicely with his earlier comment to Taggart, "You [[Provincial|provincial]] [[Yiddish words and phrases used by English speakers|putz]]!"
==Quotes==
*'''Sheriff Bart''': Are we awake?
:'''Jim (Waco Kid)''': We're not sure... are we ''black?''
:'''Sheriff Bart''': Yes, we are.
:'''Jim (Waco Kid)''': Then we're awake... but we're very puzzled.
*'''Jim (Waco Kid)''': My name is Jim, but most people call me... Jim.
*'''Taggart''': What in the [[Wide World of Sports (US television show)|Wide, Wide World of Sports]] is a-goin' on here? I hired you people to try to get a little track laid, not to jump around like a bunch of [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] [[Faggot (epithet)|faggots]]!
*'''Sheriff Bart''': Mornin', ma'am! And isn't it a ''lovely'' mornin'?
:'''Old Woman''': Up yours, nigger!
:'''Jim (Waco Kid)''': (consoling Bart after the above exchange) What did you expect? "Welcome, sonny"? "Make yourself at home"? "Marry my daughter"? You've got to remember that these are just simple farmers... these are people of the land... the common clay of the New West. You know &ndash; morons.
*'''Le Petomane:''' Work, |
from a board to a grip such as the one on a bicycle handle bar. In this case it is referred to as a [[Keyer|keyer]] rather than a keyboard because the keys are no longer mounted to a board. A keyer is a good replacement for a chorded keyboard in portable applications such as the [[wearable computer]]. On the other hand, the failure of [[touch typing]] to penetrate the world after a century of availability leads buyers to question their ability to remember the chordings necessary.
Some claim that, because the fingers don't need to move as far, it saves time and can be typed on faster than a regular keyboard. Others claim it is slower because a regular keyboard allows the next key to be pressed while the last key is still held down, but a chording keyboard requires each chord to be completely released before the next is pressed. Definitive numbers (in [[words per minute]]) are hard to find. This is probably also due to the many different designs available.
[[Doug Engelbart]], inventor of the [[computer mouse]], may have invented chord keyboards.
{| align=right
|[[image:Microwriter.png|250px|thumb|right|A Microwriter MW4 (circa 1980)]]
|}
One of the earliest commercial models was the six-button [[Microwriter]], designed by [[Cy Endfield]] and first sold in 1980. Microwriting is the system of chord keying and is based on a set of mnemonics. It was designed only for right-handed use.
Chris Rainey, the co-inventor of Microwriting, re-introduced Microwriting for PC and Palm PDAs with a standalone miniature chording keyboard called [[CyKey]] which caters for both left and right handed users. CyKey (pronounced PSYCHE.) is named after the Microwriter chord system's co-inventor Cy Endfield, who died in 1995 but the name also reflects its intuitive nature.
A modern example of a chorded keyboard is the [[GKOS keyboard]] which is intended for tiny [[tablet PC]]s and wireless mobile terminals.
[[Keyer|"Multiambic" keyers]] for use with wearable computers were invented in Canada in the 1970s. Multiambic keyers are like chording keyboards but without the board, i.e. the keys are grouped in a cluster for being handheld rather than for sitting on a flat surface.
Chording keyboards are also used as input devices for the [[visually impaired]] (sometimes combined with a [[refreshable braille display]]). Such keyboards use a minimum of seven keys, where each key corresponds to an individual [[braille]] point, except one key which is used as a spacebar. In some applications, the spacebar is used to produce additional chords which enable the user to issue editing commands, such as moving the [[cursor (computers)|cursor]], deleting words, ETC. Note that the number of points used in braille computing is not 6, but 8, as this allows the user, among other things, to distinguish between small and capital letters, as well as identify the position of the cursor. As a result, most newer chorded keyboards for braille input include at least nine keys.
==See also==
[[Velotype]]
== External links ==
=== Desktop chording keyboards ===
*[http://www.bellaire.demon.co.uk/cykey.htm CyKey] one-handed chording keyboard
*[http://mudlist.eorbit.net/~adam/pickey/ PIC-Key], an open source one-handed chording keyboard (has references, links, and other information about chording keyboards in general)
*[http://www.infogrip.com/product_view.asp?RecordNumber=12 BAT keyboard] — One-handed desktop chording keyboard
=== Hand-held/wearable chording [[keyer]]s ===
*[http://www.gkos.com GKOS back-panel chording keyboard], an open standard for handheld devices
*[http://www.handykey.com Twiddler 2] one-handed chording keyboard/mouse
*[http://xaphoon.com/dataegg/ Data Egg] one-handed chording keyboard for handheld devices
*[http://www.sigchi.org/chi97/proceedings/paper/fkm.htm#U4 "Body-coupled FingeRing"] — Wireless wearable chorded keyer
*[http://www.chordite.com/ Yet another one-hand keyboard] — Hobbyist's attempts at a hand-held chording [[keyer]]
[[Category:Computer keyboards]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carolyn Beug</title>
<id>6337</id>
<revision>
<id>27596267</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-07T05:43:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>HollyAm</username>
<id>4551</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>delink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Carolyn Ann Mayer-Beug''' ([[1953]]&ndash;[[September 11]], [[2001]]) was a [[film]]maker and video producer from [[Santa Monica, California|Santa Monica]], [[California]].
She was killed at age 48 on [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]] in the crash of [[American Airlines Flight 11]]. She won an award for the [[Van Halen]] video "Right Now." At the time of her death Carolyn Beug was working on a children's book about Noah's Ark which was to be told from Noah's wife's point of view. On the plane with her was her mother, Mary Alice Wahlstrom. Beug was survived by her twin eighteen-year-old daughters Lauren and Lindsey Mayer-Beug, her 13-year-old son, Nicky, and her husband, John Beug, a senior vice president in charge of filmed production for Warner Bros.' record division. She was returning home from taking her daughters to college at the Rhode Island School of Design.
She lived in a Tudor-style home in the North 25th Street neighborhood. She hosted an annual backyard barbecue for the Santa Monica High School girls track team, which her daughters captained. Carolyn was a [[Latter-day Saint]].
==External links==
*{{imdb_name|id=2023126|name=Carolyn Beug}}
[[Category:1953 births|Beug, Carolyn]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Beug, Carolyn]]
[[Category:Music video directors|Beug, Carolyn]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cell biology</title>
<id>6339</id>
<revision>
<id>40926896</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T22:54:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bidabadi</username>
<id>726723</id>
</contributor>
<comment>interwiki fa</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cell biology''' (also called '''cellular biology''' or '''cytology''', from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''kytos'', "container") is an [[list of academic disciplines|academic discipline]] which studies [[cell (biology)|cell]]s. This includes their [[physiology|physiological]] properties such as their structure and the [[organelles]] they contain, their environment and interactions, their [[cell cycle|life cycle]], [[cell division|division]] and function ([[physiology]]) and eventual [[apoptosis|death]]. This is done both on a [[microscope|microscopic]] and [[molecule|molecular]] level, and cell biology researches both single-celled organisms like [[bacterium|bacteria]] and specialized cells in multicellular organisms like [[human]]s.
Knowing the composition of cells and how cells work is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. Appreciating the similarities and differences between cell types is particularly important to the fields of cell and [[molecular biology]]. These fundamental similarities and differences provide a unifying theme, allowing the principles learned from studying one cell type to be extrapolated and generalized to other cell types.
Research in cell biology is closely related to [[genetics]], [[biochemistry]], [[molecular biology]] and [[developmental biology]].
==Processes in cell biology==
===Movement of proteins===
[[Protein]]s are synthesized by [[ribosome]]s in the [[cytoplasm]]. This process is also known as [[protein biosynthesis]] or simply [[translation (genetics)|protein translation]]. Some proteins, such as those to be incorporated in membranes ([[membrane protein]]s), are transported into the [[endoplasmic reticulum|ER]] during synthesis and further processed in the [[Golgi apparatus]]. From the Golgi, membrane proteins can move to the [[plasma membrane]], to other subcellular comparments or they can be secreted from the cell. The ER and Golgi can be thought of as the "membrane protein synthesis compartment" and the "membrane protein processing compartment", respectively. There is a semi-constant flux of proteins through these compartments. ER and Golgi-resident proteins associate with other proteins but remain in their respective compartments. Other proteins "flow" through the ER and Golgi to the plasma membrane. From the plasma membrane, proteins destined to be degraded move back into intracellular compartments ([[lysosome]]s) where they are broken down to their individual [[amino acid]]s.
==Techniques==
===Purification of cells and their parts===
Purification of cells and their parts is achieved in the following ways:
*[[Cell fractionation]]
*[[Flow cytometry]]
*Release of cellular organelles by disruption of cells.
*Separation of different organelles by [[centrifugation]].
*Proteins extracted from [[membrane]]s by [[detergent]]s and [[salt]]s.
==See also==
*[[Active transport]]
*[[Cell adhesion|Adhesion]]
*[[Cell disruption]]
*[[Chloroplast]]
*[[Cilia]]
*[[Cytoplasm]]
*[[Cytoskeleton]]
*[[Endoplasmic reticulum]]
*[[Flagella]]
*[[Glycolysis]]
*[[Golgi apparatus]]
*[[Lipid bilayer]]
*[[cell membrane|Membrane]]
*[[Mitochondrion]]
*[[Cell nucleus|Nucleus]]
*[[Organelle]]
*[[Passive transport]]
*[[Ribosome]]
*[[Signal transduction]]
*[[vesicle (biology)|Vesicle]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_biology#Cell biology| Important publications in cell biology]]
==External links==
{{book}}
*[http://www.bionews.in Cell Biology News]
*[http://www.immunoportal.com Immunohistochemistry - In Situ Hybridization]
*[http://www.imcb.a-star.edu.sg/ Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology]
*[[Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology]] ([http://www.nature.com/nrm/index.html journal home])
*[http://www.biochemweb.org/ The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology]
*[http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/vumcdept/cellbio/ Cell & Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt] |
as dim as his descendants, is much more [[stupidity|stupid]] than the original. A kindly soul, Baldrick's lack of formal education is compensated for by his basic streetwise cunning. Whilst his 'cunning plans' do sometimes have a strange, twisted and often [[perverse]] logic and cunning to them (one suggestion was that Blackadder repay his debts by making money as a male [[prostitute]], another is to disguise a 'mad, wild, killer [[bull]]' as a [[rooster]] and enter it in a [[cock fight]]), he does show an entertaining display of stupidity. In one episode, Blackadder attempts to teach Baldrick how to add. Baldrick's conclusions, which include 'two beans plus two beans equals some beans', 'two beans plus two beans equals three beans... and that one' and 'two beans plus two beans makes a very small [[casserole]]', lead Blackadder to comment 'to you, Baldrick, the [[Renaissance]] was just something that happened to ''other people'', wasn't it?'
It was also in this series that the first signs of Baldrick's love of [[turnip]]s was shown, in the episode 'Beer', where he and Percy famously discover a turnip shaped like a 'thingy'. Baldrick later describes the incident as 'triffic'. He is particularly delighted by the discovery, because it contrasts with his own 'thingy' which is shaped like a turnip.
Baldrick once went on an 'all [[mouse]] diet' by hanging a piece of [[cheese]] off of the end of his nose and lying with his mouth open, hoping that mice would scurry in. He later tried the same thing, with a mouse on the end of his nose to catch a [[cat]], for variety.
Baldrick was also [[bridesmaid]] at Lord Blackadder's abortive [[wedding]]. "[[Elizabeth I (Blackadder character)|Queenie]]" kept him as a pet calling him Lassie (Baldrick did not complain) and he stuck two [[pencil]]s up his nose, so that he could attended a Royal [[fancy dress party]] as a pencil case.
== S. Baldrick - Series 3 ==
[[Image:Baldrick_series_3.jpg|right|thumbnail|Baldrick Series 3|155px]]
The Baldrick of [[English Regency|Regency Britain]] works as a dogsbody to [[Mr. E. Blackadder]] esq., butler to [[Prince George (Blackadder character)| Prince George]]. He lives in a [[Piping|pipe]] in the upstairs water closet of the [[Palace]].
The third Baldrick is much more noticeably stupid and [[disgusting]] than those previous to him. Like his [[Elizabethan era|Elizabethan]] ancestor, he is known to eat [[dung]] occasionally. He is also more childlike. There is not the slightest sign of 'cunning' in any of his plans, which include:
* escaping the [[guillotine]] by waiting until your head has been cut off, then 'springing into action' and running 'around and around the farmyard, and out the farmyard gate', in the style of a [[chicken]], and
* replacing the burnt first copy of the dictionary by taking the string, which has been salvaged, and putting in some new pages (Blackadder clarifies that Baldrick is suggesting that he re-write the entire dictionary in a single night).
Blackadder also claims that Baldrick has never changed his [[trousers]], and implores him never to do so, for they are, Blackadder claims, akin to [[Pandora's Box]].
Although he is now on a closer social standing to Blackadder than before, he still receives the same level of abuse as his Elizabethan ancestor. Edmund punches him; kicks him; breaks a milk-jug over his head; threatens to cut him up into strips and tell the prince that he walked over a very sharp cattle grid in an extremely heavy hat; and promises five minutes of hellish tortures involving a small [[pencil]].
However, despite his noticeable disabilities, this Baldrick has more success than any of the others. In an election rigged by Blackadder, he is elected [[Member of Parliament|MP]] for Dunny-on-the-Wold, a [[rotten borough]], although he was intended to be a puppet for Blackadder to manipulate. He is later made a [[Lord]] by Prince George, and is, therefore, eligible to sit in the [[House of Lords]] (although whether or not he ever does so is another matter, and as he is never again referred to by his title after episode 1, it seems plausible that Blackadder persuaded the Prince to [[attainder|attaint]] Baldrick of his peerage). He also succeeds where no Baldrick has succeeded before or since, in calling Blackadder a 'lazy, big nosed, rubber-faced bastard'.
Baldrick spends the £400,000 he received as a Lord on an enormous turnip: "well, I had to haggle." Blackadder later destroys it by hitting Baldrick with it.
Baldrick isn't given any sort of first name until the third series, when he speculates that it might be "Sodoff", since his childhood friends would say "Sod off, Baldrick!" A diplomatic Blackadder opts to record him as "S. Baldrick". The initial appears to have been adopted by his descendants.
His heroes are the [[highwayman]] [[Amy Hardwood|'The Shadow']], and [[The Scarlet Pimpernel]], both of whom were killed by Blackadder.
== Private S. Baldrick - Series 4 ==
[[Image:Baldrick series 4.gif|right|thumbnail|Private Baldrick Series 4|155px]]
Private Baldrick is a [[soldier]] in a [[World War I|First World War]] trench, serving under [[Captain Blackadder]] and [[Lieutenant The Honourable George Colthurst St. Bartleigh |Lieutenant George]]. His hero is [[Lord Flashheart]].
Equally as disgusting as the third Baldrick, Private Baldrick is, without a doubt, the most stupid of the Baldrick [[dynasty]] to date. His 'cunning plans' verge on those of an [[insane]] person. Examples include carving his name on a [[bullet]], in relation to the old saying 'a bullet with your name on it', his explanation being that if he owns the bullet, it won't ever kill him as he won't ever shoot himself ('shame' comments Captain Blackadder), and the chances of there being two bullets with 'Baldrick' on them are 'very small indeed'.
Private Baldrick's hobbies include [[cookery]], his specialities include:
* ''Rat au Van'' (a [[rat]] that's been run over by a [[van]]),
* ''Filet mignon'' in [[sauce bearnaise]] (dog turds covered in glue),
* Plum duff (a mole hill decorated in rabbit droppings),
* Cream [[custard]] (cat's vomit), and
* A sort of [[coffee]] which consists of hot [[mud]], spit, [[dandruff]] and rather dubious 'chocolate sprinkles'.
* [[Apple]] crumble which contains [[fish (food)|fish]]
* More rat; Sauté, which involves:
** taking the freshly shaved rat and marinading it in a puddle until it is drowned
** stretching it out under a hot lighbulb
** getting within dashing distance of a latrine
** wolfing it down!
* Rat fricassé, which is the same as above, but a slightly ''bigger'' rat
This Baldrick is also a [[poetry|poet]]. His greatest poem is, without a doubt, 'The German Guns'. The words are:
Boom, Boom, Boom, Boom,
Boom, Boom, Boom,
Boom, Boom, Boom, Boom,
Boom, Boom, Boom
Baldrick was particularly surprised when Captain Blackadder guessed the final line.
(During his time in the trenches, Baldrick also wrote a second poem; the words are as follows:
Hear the words I sing,
War's a horrid thing,
So I sing sing sing...ding-a-ling-a-ling)
Baldrick also does a fantastic [[Charlie Chaplin]] impression (although some believe it to be a [[slug]] balancing act).
Despite his stupidity, Private Baldrick (however inadvertently) delivers the most profound speech of the lot. In preparation for 'the final push', tension is high, and Baldrick demands, "Why can't we just stop sir? Why can't we just say 'no more killing, let's all go home'? Why can't we pack it in? Why?". Neither Captain Blackadder nor Lieutenant George are able to come up with a good answer.
It is believed that Private S. Baldrick was killed going 'over the top' in [[1917]].
==Other Baldricks==
Other members of the family have been seen in various ''Blackadder'' specials. They generally appear to be similar to the character seen in ''Blackadder the Third'', possibly suggesting that he has become the "definitive" Baldrick. They are:
*Baldrick, servant to Sir Edmund Blackadder in ''Blackadder, the Cavalier Years''. Like his Elizabethan ancestor he moonlights as an executioner, although in his case it is part of a cunning plan to save the life of [[Charles I of England]] by replacing his head with a [[pumpkin]]. He is the son of a [[pig]]-farmer and a bearded lady.
*Mr Baldrick, assistant in Ebeneezer Blackadder's moustache shop in ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol''. While still stupid, it seems that having to work for the exceedingly naïve Mr Blackadder has forced him to develop some of the savvy of his earlier ancestors. He remains the only person to be fooled by Tiny Tom Scratchit's alleged lameness, however. He is also possibly the only person to spell "Christmas" without getting ''any'' of the letters right (he initially renders the word as "Kwelfnuve", but strikes it through, correcting it to "Kweznuz").
*Baldrick, slave to Grand Admiral Blackadder of the Dark Segment in the future section of ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol''. He doesn't actually get to do much except stand around in a posing pouch. In an alternate future in which ''he'' is the Grand Admiral, he manages to destroy his own forces. He explains to the queen, "Good news... for the enemy. They completely destroyed our entire army. I got a bit confused and dropped a bomb on our lot'.
*Baldrick, [[septic tank]] cleaner to the 21st century Lord Blackadder in ''Blackadder: Back & Forth''. His first appearance is serving Blackadder's [[millennium]] dinner, which he does wearing nothing but an amusing apron, on a whim. His cooking is similar to Private Baldrick's; he prepared dinner by coughing over an [[avocado]]. His [[underpants]] may date from the 18th century, or in any case smell as though they do, and turn out to be the cause of the [[extinction]] of the [[dinosaur]]s. Rather surprisingly he builds a working [[time travel|time machine]], making him "the grea |
He hired and supervised "art workers" engaged in making prints, shoes, films, books and other items at his studio, ''[[The Factory]]'', located on [[Union Square (New York City)|Union Square]] in New York City. Warhol's body of work furthermore includes commissioned portraits and commercials.
A lot of Warhol's works revolve around the concept of [[Americana]] and American culture. He painted money, dollar signs, food, groceries, women's shoes, celebrities, and newspaper clippings. To him, these subjects represented American cultural values. For instance, Coca-Cola represents democratic equality because
:"What’s great about this country is that America started the tradition where the richest consumers buy essentially the same things as the poorest. You can be watching TV and see Coca-Cola, and you know that the President drinks Coke, Liz Taylor drinks Coke, and just think, you can drink Coke, too. A Coke is a Coke and no amount of money can get you a better Coke than the one the bum on the corner is drinking. All the Cokes are the same and all the Cokes are good. Liz Taylor knows it, the President knows it, the bum knows it, and you know it."
He used popular imagery and methods to visualize the American cultural identity of the 20th century. This popular redefinition of American culture is a theme and result of Warhol's art. Because American culture has had great international influence, Warhol did as well.
Outside of the art world, Andy Warhol is best known for saying that "In the future, everyone will be world famous for [[15 minutes of fame|15 minutes]]." He later told reporters, humorously, "My new line is, 'In fifteen minutes everybody will be famous.'"
=== Socialite and Recluse ===
Warhol used to socialize at [[Serendipity (nightclub)|Serendipity]] and [[Studio 54]], nightclubs in New York City. Warhol was generally regarded as quiet, shy, and as a meticulous observer. More than one person jokingly referred to him as "death warmed over."
Warhol was openly gay, rare for celebrities of his stature at the time. Many people think of Warhol as [[asexual]] and as merely a [[voyeur]], but these notions have been debunked by biographers (like [[Fred Guiles]]), scholars (e.g. [[Richard Meyer]]), personal accounts of relationships by ex-lovers such as Jed Johnson and Billy Name, and by the overtly campy and homoerotic nature of his work itself. Throughout his career, Warhol produced erotic photography and drawings of male nudes. Many of his most famous works (portraits of [[Liza Minelli]], [[Judy Garland]], [[Elizabeth Taylor]], and films like "My Hustler", "[[Blow Job (film)|Blow Job]]", and "Lonesome Cowboys") draw from gay underground culture and/or openly explore the complexity of sexuality and desire. In fact, many of his films premiered in gay porn theaters. The first works that he submitted to a gallery in the pursuit of a career as an artist were, in fact, homoerotic drawings of male nudes. They were rejected for being too openly gay.
A meticulous collector, he organized almost every piece of paper, fan mail&mdash;after taking off the stamps&mdash;and magazine related to his fame along with personal notes, gay pornography and found artifacts into hundreds of numbered boxes and set them aside, never to open them again. Warhol referred to these boxes as his "time capsule". Many exist today and are available for research at his Pittsburgh [[Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh|museum]]. Warhol's house was filled to the brim with his collected art, artifacts, and Americana.
Many of his later commissioned portraits were a direct or indirect result of this networking. As a famous artist, Warhol and his Factory attracted and facilitated many "groupies" and friends that Warhol would include in films and happenings. Warhol promoted these [[the factory|factory]] regulars to fame, creating the [[Warhol superstars]]. They would appear in and help him make his work, play in his movies, write his books, hang out and generally become his following.
When Warhol was asked to give a series of university lectures that he didn't feel like doing, one of his friends put on a wig and white make-up, and pretended to be him by sitting quietly on the stage. Other Superstars explained Warhol's work to the audience, and urged them to drop out of college. The University eventually found out Warhol's "fraud" and the following dispute had to be settled with a refund.
Warhol would regularly volunteer at the homeless shelters in New York, particularly during the busier times of the year. He described himself as a religious person, although not fully accepted by religion because of his homosexuality. Many of his later works contain almost hidden religious themes or subjects, and a body of religious-themed works was found posthumously in his estate.
=== Shooting ===
On [[June 3]], [[1968]], [[Valerie Solanas]], a [[The Factory|Factory]] regular, entered Warhol's studio and fired three shots at Warhol, nearly killing him. Although the first two rounds missed, the third passed through Warhol's left [[lung]], [[spleen]], [[stomach]], [[liver]], [[esophagus]], and right lung. Solanas then turned the gun on a companion of Warhol, Mario Amaya, injuring his thigh. Warhol survived his injuries, but he never fully recovered. Earlier, Solanas had given a script to Warhol, in hopes that he would make a film out of it. Warhol never did. Apparently, she had visited the Factory earlier in the day to ask that they give the script back to her. It had, however, been lost. She later explained that she had attacked Warhol because, "he had too much control over [her] life." The story of Valerie Solanas was made into the 1996 film ''[[I Shot Andy Warhol]]'', starring [[Lili Taylor]] and directed by [[Mary Harron]].
In the hospital, his doctors had already declared him deceased, after which he was resuscitated. Warhol later joked that he was now invulnerable, since he had gone through death and came out alive. The shooting and Warhol's "death" received wide media coverage.
One of Warhol's associates, [[Paul Morrissey]], later satirized the event in his movie [["Women In Revolt"]], calling a group similar to Solanas' [[S.C.U.M.]] ('''Society for Cutting Up Men'''), ''P.I.G.'' ('''Politically Involved Girls''').
In [[1990 in music|1990]] [[Lou Reed]] recorded the album ''[[Songs for Drella]]'' (one of Warhol's nicknames was Drella, a combination of Dracula and Cinderella) with fellow [[The Velvet Underground|Velvet Underground]] alumnus [[John Cale]].
Warhol had adopted Reed's band the Velvet Underground as one of his projects in the 1960s, "producing" their first album [[The Velvet Underground and Nico]] as well as providing the album art, widely regarded as some of the greatest album art of all time. The album itself is also regarded as one of the greatest (and most influential) albums in rock history. After the band became successful Warhol and band leader Reed started to disagree more and more about the direction the band should take, and the contact between them faded. On the album, Reed apologizes and comes to terms with his part in their conflict.
=== Death ===
Warhol died in New York City following routine gallbladder surgery at the age of 58. Warhol was afraid of hospitals and doctors, so he had delayed having his recurring gall bladder problems checked.
He is interred at St. John the Baptist Catholic Cemetery in Bethel Park, south of Pittsburgh. Fellow artist [[Yoko Ono]] was among the speakers at his funeral.
Andy Warhol had so many posessions it took [[Sotheby's]] 9 days to auction his estate after his death for a total gross amount of over 20,000,000 (USD).
== Work ==
=== Paintings ===
When he decided to pursue a career as an artist, Warhol had already established a reputation as a commercial illustrator. In school he had made paintings, but his work afterwards had mainly consisted of "blotted ink" illustrations for warehouses and magazines. He felt that he was not being taken seriously as an illustrator, and wanted to become a "real" artist.
When he started painting, he looked to find a niche for himself. At that time Pop Art - as it was later to be called - was already experimented with by several artists turning away from abstract expressionism, and Warhol turned to this new way of making art, where popular subjects could be part of the artist's vocabulary. His early paintings show images taken from cartoons and advertisements, in a hand-painted style, with paint drips. He added these drips to give his paintings a "serious" feel, to emulate a bit of the style of the abstract expressionists, that were en vogue at the time, in other words to be taken seriously or to sell his paintings, which may have had the same meaning to Warhol.
To Warhol, part of defining a niche was defining his subject matter. Cartoons were already being "done" by [[Roy Liechtenstein]], typography by [[Jasper Johns]], et-cetera; Warhol wanted a distinguishing subject. His friends suggested that he should paint the things he loved the most. In his signature way of taking things literally, for his first major exhibition he painted his famous cans of Campbell's Soup, that he had for lunch most of his life. Warhol loved money, so he later painted money. He loved celebrities, so he painted them as well.
From these beginnings he developed his later style and themes. Instead of working on a signature subject matter, as he started out to do, he worked more and more on a signature style, slowly eliminating the hand-made from the artistic process. Warhol went from painting to silk-screening, his later drawings were traced from slide projections. In other words, Warhol went from being a painter to being a designer of paintings. At the height of his fame as a painter, |
system, with assets worth roughly $54 billion in late 2004, has provided an important source of investment capital for the capital market. Chile maintains one of the best credit ratings ([[Standard & Poor's]] A+) of countries in Latin America. There are three main ways Chilean firms raise funds abroad: bank loans, bond issue, and the selling of stock on U.S. markets through American Depository Receipts (ADR's). Nearly all of the funds raised go to finance investment. The government is paying off its foreign debt. The combined public and private foreign debt was roughly over 50% of GDP at the end of 2004—low by Latin American standards.
==Defense==
{{main|Military of Chile}}
Chile's Armed Forces are subject to [[civilian control of the military|civilian control]] exercised by the President through the Minister of Defense. Under the 1980 Constitution, the services enjoyed considerable autonomy, and the President could not remove service commanders on his own authority. However, reforms made in 2005 to the Constitution now give the President the right to remove the Commanders in Chief of the Armed Forces.
===Army ===
The commander in chief of the Chilean Army is Maj. Gen. [[Juan Emilio Cheyre]]. The Chilean Army is 45,000 strong and is organized with an Army headquarters in [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]], seven divisions throughout its territory, an Air Brigade in [[Rancagua]], and a [[Special Forces]] Command in Colina. It also operates [[Leopard I]] and [[AMX-30]] main battle tanks.negotiations are going on to buy 100 leopard 2A4 from the German Army. This because of the modernification plans for the army. The objectice is to upgrade most of the chilean army forces to NATO standard. The deployment of the army has also had some modifications. army infantry and armoured regiments have been re-equipped and joined with other units from the air-force and marine units , to form so called: re-enforced regiments. These re-enforced regiments are supposed to act as fast deployment task forces. Chilean special forces are not trained in HALO jumping.
===Navy===
Adm. Rodolfo Codina Díaz directs the 25,000-person Navy, including 5,000 Marines. Of the fleet of 29 surface vessels, only six are operational major combatants (destroyers and frigates). Those ships are based in Valparaíso. The Navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no Navy fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates three submarines based in Talcahuano.
===Air Force (FACH)===
Gen. Osvaldo Sarabia heads a force of 12,500. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in Iquique, Antofagasta, Santiago, Puerto Montt, and Punta Arenas. The Air Force also operates an airbase on [[King George Island]], [[Antarctica]]. The FACH will begin taking delivery of 10 U.S. [[F-16]] aircraft in 2006, and a contract for 18 used [[F-16]] more has been signed with Holland.
===Police Forces===
After the military coup in September 1973, the Chilean national police (Carabineros) were incorporated into the Defense Ministry. With the return of democratic government, the Carabineros were placed under the operational control of the Interior Ministry but remained under the nominal control of the Defense Ministry. Gen. Alberto Cienfuegos is the head of the national police force of 30,000 men and women who are responsible for law enforcement, traffic management, narcotics suppression, border control and counter-terrorism throughout Chile.
In addition to the Carabineros, who are part of the military, Chile also has the Policia de Investigaciones, a police force composed of civilians which is similar in purpose to the FBI. It is a special arm of the Public Ministry whose main task is to investigate crimes and apprehend the suspects once firm evidence has been established. Mr Arturo Herrera heads the Policia de Investigaciones. In addition to investigating crimes, the Policia de Investigaciones also complements the functions Carabineros in times of civil unrest, and is in charge of all immigration procedures. Although not a de-facto mandate in it's mission, the Policia de Investigaciones keeps an eye on the Carabineros in order to weed out corruption, Carabineros reciprocates the duty and both institutions have exposed corrupt officials within their counterpart.
==Foreign relations==
Since its return to democracy in 1990, Chile has been an active participant in the international political arena. Chile completed a 2-year non-permanent position on the UN Security Council in January 2005. Chile is an active member of the UN family of agencies and participates in UN peacekeeping activities. Chile hosted the Defense Ministerial of the Americas in 2002 and the [[APEC]] summit and related meetings in 2004. Chile hosted the Community of Democracies ministerial in April 2005. An associate member of Mercosur and a full member of APEC, Chile and has been an important actor on international economic issues and hemispheric free trade.
The Chilean Government has diplomatic relations with most countries. It settled its territorial disputes with Argentina during the 1990s. Chile and Bolivia severed diplomatic ties in 1978 over Bolivia's desire to reacquire territory it lost to Chile in 1879-83 [[War of the Pacific]]. The two countries maintain consular relations.
== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Chile}}
[[Image:Chile-demography.png|300px|thumb|right|Population of Chile from 1950, projected up to 2050 (INE)]]
Most Chileans, 95% of them, are either White or White-Amerindian.[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ci.html#People]
People that self-identify solely as members of any of the country's many indigenous groups number around 700,000 individuals, or 3% of the country's total population. Of that 700,000, around 80% are [[Mapuche]] that reside mainly in the south-central area of the country. [[Aymara]] and [[Quechua|Quechua-speaking]] populations live along the northern border with Peru and Bolivia. There are also around 5,000 polynesian people who are indigenous to the Chilean territory of Easter Island ([[Rapanui]]) in the Pacific.
Throughout much of Chile's modern history there has been a slow but steady work related [[Andes|trans-Andean]] migration to Chile - primarily from [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]] - due mostly to the economic situation of its neighbours. Peruvians have historically constituted the largest immigrant group of the country. However, Argentina's eventual [[Argentine economic crisis (1999-2002)|economic collapse in 2001]] caused such an escalation in their migratory influx into Chile, that by 2005 Argentinians comprised the largest immigrant group, outnumbering Peruvians. {{citationneeded}}
Chileans descended from non-Spanish European immigrants include an influential number of descendants of Irish immigrants which arrived in Chile during the Spanish colonial period and descendants of English immigrants, arrived during and after independence (mainly merchants and sailors). A government-sponsored immigration from Germany began in 1848, and in time, changed the cultural makeup of the southern provinces of [[Valdivia]], [[Llanquihue]], and [[Osorno]], which still show a strong German influence. Other historically significant immigrant groups include people of Italian ancestry ([[Valparaíso Region]]), Croatian ([[Antofagasta, Chile|Antofagasta]] and [[Punta Arenas, Chile|Punta Arenas]]), [[France|French]], and [[Poland|Polish]] backgrounds. There are also people from [[Middle East]]ern and [[North Africa]]n backgrounds, including the second largest [[Palestinian]] colony outside of the Middle East. In the last decade there has been an influx of [[Korea]]ns who settled in small sections of [[Santiago de Chile|Santiago]].
Although the combined number of immigrants never comprised a large segment of the population, they nevertheless contributed greatly to Chilean society and the development of the nation. Most retained their traditions, cultures and national affiliations by maintaining close-knit communities - although many also mixed into the majority - while at the same time co-existed peacefully with the host population.
About 85% of Chile's population lives in urban areas, with 40% living in [[Santiago de Chile|Greater Santiago]].
Chile's population growth is among the lowest in Latin America, at around 0.97%, it comes third only to [[Uruguay]] and [[Cuba]].
== Culture ==
[[Image:Pablo Neruda profile.jpg|150px|thumb|Pablo Neruda was Chile's second winner of the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]]]
{{main|Culture of Chile}}
Northern Chile was an important center of culture in the medieval and early modern Inca empire. Afterwards, their culture was dominated by the Spanish during the Colonial and early Republican period. Other European influences, primarily English and French, began in the 19th century and have continued until today, as in other Western societies.
The national dance is the cueca. Another form of traditional Chilean song, though not a dance, is the tonada. Arising from music imported by the Spanish colonists, it is distinguished from the cueca by an intermediate melodic section and a more prominent melody. In the mid-1960s native musical forms were revitalized by the [[Parra family]] with the [[Nueva Canción|Nueva Canción Chilena]], which was associated with political activists and reformers.
Chileans call their country ''País de Poetas'' which means land of poets. [[Gabriela Mistral]], was the first Chilean to win a Nobel Prize for literature. Chile's most famous poet, however, is [[Pablo Neruda]], who also won the Nobel Prize and is world-renowned for his extensive library of works on romance, nature, and politics. His three highly individualistic homes, located in Isla Negra, Santiago and Valparaiso are popular tourist destinations. <br clear="all" />
==National symbols==
[[Image:Lapageria_rosea.jpg|150px|thumb|A red copihue]]
The national flower is the [[copihue]] ('' |
y restaurants are also popular in [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]].
In a relatively short space of time, curry has become an integral part of [[British cuisine]], so much so that since the late [[1990s]], [[Chicken Tikka Masala]] has been commonly referred to as the "British national dish". It is now available (albeit in frozen, microwavable form) on [[InterCity (British Rail)|Intercity]] rail trains, as a flavour for [[crisps]], and even as a [[pizza]] topping.
====The traditional British Curry House====
Although there have been Indian restaurants in Britain for many years, and in areas with large Asian populations these have remained highly authentic, the typical high-street "curry house" until recently served a curious and almost ritualised cuisine which bore little resemblance to any real Asian dishes.
This cuisine was characterised by the use of a common base for all the sauces to which spices are added when individual dishes are prepared. Although the names may be similar to traditional dishes, the recipes generally are not.
* [[Korma]]/Kurma - mild, yellow in colour, with almond and coconut powder
* Curry - medium, gravy-like sauce
* [[Rogan Josh]] (from "Gosht") - medium, with tomatoes
* [[Bhuna]] - medium, thick sauce, some vegetables
* [[Dhansak]] - medium/hot with lentils and pineapple
* [[Madras]] - fairly hot curry, red in colour and with heavy use of chilli powder
* [[Pathia]] - generally similar to a Madras + lemon juice and tomato puree
* [[Vindaloo]] - a complete corruption of the Goan 'vindalho' - instead of a delightful preserved pork in vinegar with some spicing to add taste, this is the classic "hot" restaurant curry. The name has been corrupted such that the 'aloo' has been taken to mean 'potato', so a lump of boiled potato can usually be found at the bottom of a vindaloo.
* [[Phaal]] - extremely hot.
These sauces are typically served with "lamb" (usually mutton), prawns or chicken; vegetable versions are somewhat cheaper, and chicken tikka or king prawn versions more expensive.
The tandoor was introduced into Britain in the 1960s and tandoori and tikka chicken became popular dishes; [[Chicken Tikka Masala]] was said to have been invented in Glasgow when a customer demanded a sauce with a 'too dry' tikka, although it is also seen as a variant on traditional [[butter chicken]].
Other dishes may be featured with varying strengths, with those of north Indian origin, such as [[Butter Chicken]], tending to be mild, and recipes from the south of India tending to be hotter.
====Finding good Indian food in Britain====
In general, food that differs from the standard 'British Indian Restaurant' menu can be found in areas with large Asian populations. Areas where one can find good Indian food include:
* The "[[Curry Mile]]" on Wilmslow Road in [[Rusholme]], [[Manchester]].
* [[Brick Lane]] in [[East London, England|East London]]
* [[Southall]] in West London.
* [[Drummond Street]], near [[Euston station]] in London.
* The "[[Balti Belt]]" in Birmingham
* [[Bradford]], particularly [[Great Horton Road]]
* [[Belgrave Road]] in [[Leicester]].
In London, Indian cooking is moving upmarket - there are now several Michelin-starred establishments serving excellent Indian food in luxurious surroundings.
===Thai cuisine===
{{See|Cuisine of Thailand}}
In Thai cuisine, curries are meat, fish or vegetable dishes in a spiced sauce. They use local ingredients such as [[chilli pepper]]s, [[Kaffir lime]] leaves and [[coconut milk]], and tend to be more aromatic than their Indian counterparts as a result. Curries are often described by colour; [[red curry|red curries]] use red chillis while [[green curry|green curries]] use green chillis. [[Yellow curry|Yellow curries]] are more similar to the Indian kind, with their use of turmeric and cumin.
===Malaysian cuisine===
{{See|Cuisine of Malaysia}}
Malaysian curries typically use coconut milk and a paste of turmeric, shallots, ginger, [[belacan]] (shrimp paste), chilis, and garlic. Tamarind is also often used. All sorts of things are curried in Malaysia, including goat, chicken, shrimp, cuttlefish, fish, fish head, eggplant, eggs, and mixed vegetables.
[[Rendang]] is a Malaysian dish that uses curry spices, although it is less watery than a conventional Malaysian curry.
===Japanese cuisine===
{{Main|Japanese curry}}
Japanese curry (カレー, ''karē'' in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]) is one of the most popular dishes in [[Japan]]. It is served in three main forms: curry (with) [[rice]], '' karē [[udon]]'' (thick [[noodles]]) and [[curry bread|'' karē-pan'']] ([[bread]]). It is usually thicker, sweeter and not as hot as its Indian equivalent.
A wide variety of vegetables and meats are used to make Japanese curry. The basic vegetables are [[onions]], [[carrots]], and [[potatoes]]. Sometimes grated [[apple]]s or [[honey]] are added for additional sweetness. For the meat, [[pork]], [[beef]] and [[chicken]] are the most popular, in order of decreasing popularity. In [[Tokyo]], pork is the most popular meat for curry by far, while in [[Osaka]], beef is the most common. ''Katsu-karē'' is a deep-fried pork cutlet in breadcrumbs with curry sauce.
Curry was introduced to [[Japan]] during the [[Meiji era]] (1869 - 1913), at a time when [[India]] was colonised by the [[British]]. Because of that, curry in [[Japan]] is categorized as [[Western cuisine|Western dish]] instead of an [[Asian cuisine|Asian dish]].
===Elsewhere===
Other countries have their own varieties of curry, well known examples include:
* [[Cuisine of Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]]: [[Rice and curry]] meals
* [[Cuisine of Indonesia|Indonesia]]: [[Rendang]]s, meat or chicken curries with thick brown coconut sauce.
* [[Cuisine of South Africa|South Africa]]: Cape malay curries
* [[Caribbean cuisine|Caribbean]]: Curried [[goat]]
* The [[Cuisine of the Philippines|Philippines]]: [[Kare-kare]]
[[Cambodia]], [[Hawaii]], the [[United States]], [[Myanmar]], [[China]] and [[Singapore]] also have their own versions of curry. [http://wellington.thursdaynightcurry.com/ TNC in NZ] also has its own version of the mighty dish.
Curry powder is used as an incidental ingredient in other cuisines, including for example a "curry sauce" (''sauce au curry'', sometimes even ''au cari'') variation of the classic French [[béchamel]].
In [[Iranian cuisine]], a mix called "advieh" is used in many stews and rice dishes. It is similar to some curries. Ingredients in the mix vary, but may include cinnamon, cardamom,cumin, coriander, tumeric, black pepper, cloves, allspice, dried rose petals, and ground ginger.
In [[Trinidad and Tobago]] and [[Guyana]] curry is a very popular dish among the Indo-Caribbean communities. The indentured servents that were brought over from India by the British, brought this dish, as well as their culture, to the West Indies.
==Curry addiction==
A number of studies have claimed that the reaction of pain receptors to the hotter ingredients in curries, even a Korma, leads to the body's release of [[endorphin]]s and combined with the complex sensory reaction to the variety of spices and flavours, a natural high is achieved that causes subsequent cravings, often followed by a desire to move on to hotter curries. Some refer to this as [[addiction]], but other researchers contest the use of the word "addiction" in this instance.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/989256.stm] Additionally, curry addiction is an example of a ''[[colloquial]]'' use of the word "addiction" as the medical definition of the word requires continued use despite harmful effects.
== Ingredients ==
=== Thickeners ===
* [[Besan]] (chickpea/garbanzo flour)
* onions/shallots
* cream
* [[coconut milk]]
* yogurt
* nuts
=== Spices ===
* [[allspice]]
* [[anise|anise seed]]
* [[asafoetida]] (''hing'')
* [[bunium persicum|black cumin]]
* [[black pepper]]
* [[cardamom]]
* [[chile pepper]]s (dried red)
* [[cinnamon]]
* [[cloves]]
* [[coriander]]
* [[cumin]] seeds
* [[fennel]]
* [[fenugreek]] seeds
* [[garam masala]]
* [[mace (spice)|mace]]
* [[mustard seed]]s
* [[nigella sativa|nigella]] (kalonji)
* [[nutmeg]]
* [[poppy]] seeds
* [[saffron]]
* [[turmeric]]
=== Sour ingredients ===
* [[vinegar]]
* [[tamarind]]
* [[Lime (fruit)|lime]]
* [[amchoor]] (dried mango powder, also spelled 'amchur'.)
=== Fresh herbs and spices ===
* [[garlic]]
* [[ginger]]
* [[coriander]] (cilantro) leaves
* curry leaves
* [[bay leaf|bay leaves]]
* [[kaffir lime]] leaves
* [[chillies]]
* [[onion]]
=== Other ===
* [[ghee]] (clarified butter)
==Curry powder==
[[Curry powder]], also known as [[masala]] powder, is a spice mixture of widely varying composition developed by the British during the [[British Raj|Raj]] as a means of approximating the taste of Indian cuisine at home. [[Masala]] refers to spices, and this is the name given to the thick pasty liquid sauce of combined spices and ghee (clarified butter), butter, palm oil or coconut milk. In India, Masala is a spice of its own and is a reddish colored powder added to curries.
==Curry leaves==
'''Curry leaves''' are the young leaves of the [[curry tree]] (''Chalcas koenigii''), a member of the [[Rutaceae]] family that grows wild and in gardens all over India. Fresh curry leaves are oval in shape and best used at about 1 inch in length. They have a pungent and bitter smell much like the leaves of a citrus tree. Leaves are typically fried until browned, then cook with the dish. Before serving, the leaves are removed. Leaves are most powerful when fresh, but can be dried and used to less effect.
==See also==
*[[List of ethnic slurs]], Curry or Curry Muncher as ethnic slurs
*[[Rice and curry]]
==External links==
{{cookbook|curry}}
[http://www.house-foods.com/our_products/imported_products.html House Foods Curry]
[[Category:Indian cuisine]]
[[Category:British cuisine]]
[[Category:Thai cuisine]]
[[Catego |
was a bit of a Bohemian, a bit of mad woman, a bit of a genius, and a great deal of a great teacher. And she had the idea that naming a woman Howard was going to give that woman an unusual advantage in the world. "
Anne became "Anne" on her first day of school, when a nun asked her what her name was. She blurted out "Anne" immediately, and her mother, who was with her, let it go without correcting her, knowing how self-conscious her daughter was of her real name
Known for her avid interest in art and culture, Anne and her family occasionally took trips overseas to study the art later mentioned in her stories. More recently, following the death of her husband Stan Rice, she has relocated to the [[Coachella Valley]], California area to be nearer her son, Christopher. After spending most of her adult life as a self described [[atheist]], Rice returned to the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in 1998, and she is currently working on a trilogy about the life of [[Jesus]].
Rice has also published erotica under the [[pen name]]s '''Anne Rampling''' and '''A.N. Roquelaure''', the latter of which was used primarily for more adult-oriented material. Her fiction is often described as lush and descriptive, and her characters' sexuality is fluid, often displaying homoerotic feelings towards each other. She also deals with philosophical and historic themes, weaving them in to the dense pattern of her books, and giving them a highly intellectual, if not highly literary, content. To her admirers, Rice's books are among the best in modern [[popular fiction]], considered by some to possess those elements that create a lasting presence in the literary canon. To her critics, her novels are baroque, "low-brow pulp" and redundant.
A critical analysis of Rice's work can be found in [[S. T. Joshi]]'s book ''The Modern Weird Tale'' (2001).
=== Conversion to a Christian Novelist===
In October of 2005, Rice announced in a [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9785289/site/newsweek/ Newsweek article] that she would "write only for the Lord". Her first novel in the genre is called ''[[Christ the Lord: Out of Egypt]]'' and is the first in a trilogy that will chronicle the life of Christ.
===The Vampire Chronicles===
She completed her first book, ''[[Interview with the Vampire]]'', in 1973 and published it in 1976.
''Interview with the Vampire'' can also be viewed as an example of [[psychedelic literature]]. Rice herself has denied ever having experimented with [[LSD]]. "I'm a totally conservative person. In the middle of [[Haight-Ashbury]] in the 1960s, I was typing away while everybody was dropping acid and smoking grass. I was known as my own square." (''[[New York Times]]'', Nov 7, 1988) Her protagonist Louis, however, describes a heightened awareness after being transformed into a vampire which does mirror the LSD experience to some extent.
Rice has said that Claudia, the young girl in the book, was inspired by her late daughter.
===Film Adaptations===
In [[1994]], [[Neil Jordan]] directed a [[motion picture]] adaption of [[Interview with the Vampire]], based on the story, but with some minor changes. A second movie was later made, inspired by the second and third books in the original ''Vampire Chronicles'' series. The title was that of the third book, ''[[The Queen of the Damned]]''. The storyline chosen by the producers of the second film is controversial among many fans of her books. Major plot points of both books were altered, and it has been rumoured that the second film's theatrical release was based solely on its producers' wish to capitalize on the death of [[Aaliyah]]. Another rumor being that [[Warner Bros.]] was already into its last year of owning motion picture rights to the first three [[The Vampire Chronicles|Vampire Chronicles]] books, which would then have transferred back to author Anne Rice once this period was over. Once back in her ownership, she could then sell the rights to another company of her choosing. Knowing what little time they had left, despite the fact they've had the rights and opportunity to make the latter two movies for over seven years, Warner Bros. hastily hired writers to condense the books "''[[The Vampire Lestat]]''" and "''[[The Queen of the Damned]]''" into one movie in order to profit from their initial rights purchase.
A film named ''Exit to Eden'' based loosely on Rice's book of the same name starred [[Rosie O'Donnell]] and [[Dan Aykroyd]]. The plot was seriously altered, with the work transformed from a love story into a police comedy, possibly due to the explicit [[S&M]] nature of the book.
===Health===
Rice has Type 1 [[diabetes]]. This was discovered when she went into a [[diabetic coma]] in December 1998. She is an advocate for people to get tested for diabetes. Because of a lifelong battle with her weight as well as depression due to the long illness and subsequent death of her husband, Rice's weight ballooned to 254 pounds. Tired of dealing with [[sleep apnea]], limited mobility, and other weight-related problems, she had [[gastric bypass]] surgery on [[January 15], [[2003]].
===Leaving New Orleans===
On [[ January 30]], [[2004]] Rice announced her plans to leave New Orleans to move the suburb of [[Jefferson Parish, Louisiana]]. She had already put the largest of her three homes in [[Uptown New Orleans]] up for sale, and plans to sell the other two. She cited living alone since the death of her husband and her son's moving out of state as the reasons. "Simplifying my life, not owning so much, that's the chief goal", said Rice. "I'll no longer be a citizen of New Orleans in the true sense."
In spring 2005 Anne Rice moved to [[La Jolla]], [[California]]. She calls her new home "Paradise West". Some have speculated that Rice also wished for more privacy from the constant attentions of her fans, who were known to camp out in front of her house. Sometimes, up to 200 or more would gather to see her leave for [[church]] on Sundays.
===Fanfiction Stance===
Rice is very adamant about preventing any [[fan fiction]] of her books-- on [[April 7]], [[2000]], she released a statement on her website that prohibited all fanfiction involving her work. This caused the removal of thousands of fanfics from the popular [[Fanfiction.Net]] website.
===Amazon incident===
On [[September 6]], [[2004]], Rice posted a reply to a number of negative reviews that had appeared on [[Amazon.com]] regarding ''[[Blood Canticle]]''. She titled her reply, [http://www.amazon.com/gp/community-content-search/document/102-0196178-4104136?%5Fencoding=UTF8&documentId=R1FLRHCYSK13PB&index=community-reviews-realtime&query=ASIN%3A037541200X%20from%20the%20author%20to "From the Author to the Some of the Negative Voices Here."] This post generated a great deal of publicity online -- partly because authors rarely post or respond to reviews on Amazon, and partly because of the tone and nature of her text. Many previous reviews had criticized the quality of writing in ''Blood Canticle'' as lazy or shoddy; so when Rice replied by posting a 1,200-word paragraph wherein she proudly dismisses the utility of editors, the incident became fodder for [[weblog]]s and [[Internet]] sites.
===Books===
'''[[The Vampire Chronicles]]:'''
*''[[Interview with the Vampire]]'' (1976)
*''[[The Vampire Lestat]]'' (1985)
*''[[The Queen of the Damned]]'' (1988)
*''[[The Tale of the Body Thief]]'' (1992)
*''[[Memnoch The Devil]]'' (1995)
*''[[The Vampire Armand]]'' (1998)
*''[[Merrick (novel)|Merrick]]'' (2000)
*''[[Blood and Gold]]'' (2001)
*''[[Blackwood Farm]]'' (2002)
*''[[Blood Canticle]]'' (2003)
'''[[New Tales of the Vampires]]:''' ''(Other vampire tales that are not within the main sequence, but in the same fictional world)''
*''[[Pandora (book)|Pandora]]'' (1998)
*''[[Vittorio the Vampire]]'' (1999)
'''[[The Mayfair Witches|Lives of The Mayfair Witches]]:'''
*''[[The Witching Hour]]'' (1990)
*''[[Lasher]]'' (1993)
*''[[Taltos]]'' (1994)
'''Single Novels:'''
*''[[The Feast of All Saints]]'' (1979)
*''[[Cry to Heaven]]'' (1982)
*''[[The Mummy (novel)|The Mummy]]'', or ''Ramses the Damned'' (1989)
*''[[Servant of the Bones]]'' (1996)
*''[[Violin (book)|Violin]]'' (1997)
'''The Christ Series:'''
*''[[Christ the Lord: Out of Egypt]]'' (2005) - Anne has suggested that there will be three sequels to this work
'''Short Fiction:'''
*''October 4th, 1948''
*''Nicholas and Jean''
*''The Master of Rampling Gate'' (Vampire Story)
'''Work written under the pseudonym Anne Rampling:'''
*''[[Exit to Eden]]'' (1985)
*''[[Belinda (Anne Rice novel)|Belinda]]'' (1986)
'''Erotica written under the pseudonym A. N. Roquelaure:'''
*''[[The Claiming of Sleeping Beauty]]'' (1983)
*''[[The Claiming of Sleeping Beauty|Beauty's Punishment]]'' (1984)
*''[[The Claiming of Sleeping Beauty|Beauty's Release]]'' (1985)
== See also ==
* [[List of bestselling novels in the United States]]
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.annerice.com Anne Rice's official website]
*[http://www.amazon.com/gp/cdp/member-reviews/AB4F6UHL20U95/ Reviews written by Anne Rice on amazon.com]
*[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0375412018 Anne Rice's new book ''Christ the Lord: Out of Egypt'']
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/annerice/ Two audio interviews (1985 and 1988) of Anne Rice by Don Swaim of CBS Radio - RealAudio]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/04/opinion/04rice.html?ei=5090&en=ce2f33f8719dba9c&ex=1283486400&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss&pagewanted=print Anne Rice: Do You Know What It Means to Lose New Orleans?] (regarding Hurricane Katrina)
*[http://www.twoop.com/people/archives/2005/10/anne_rice.html Anne Rice Timeline]
*[http://www.freeinfosociety.com/site.php?postnum=605 Bio and Pictures]
[[Category:1941 births|Rice, Anne]]
[[Category:Living people|Rice, Anne]]
[[Category:American fantasy writers|Rice, An |
Under the early [[Roman empire]] the place was known as '''Caesarea''', and was the metropolis of [[Cilicia Secunda]]. Rebuilt by the emperor [[Justin I]] after an [[earthquake]], it became '''Justinopolis''' ([[525]]); but the old native name persisted, and when [[Thoros I of Armenia|Thoros I]], king of [[Lesser Armenia]], made it his capital early in the [[12th century]], it was known as '''Anazarva'''.
Its great natural strength and situation, not far from the mouth of the [[Sis pass]], and near the great road which debouched from the [[Cilician Gates]], made Anazarbus play a considerable part in the struggles between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the early [[Muslim]] invaders. It had been rebuilt by [[Harun al-Rashid]] in [[796]], refortified at great expense by [[Saif ad-Daula]], the [[Hamdanid]] (10th century) and sacked, and ruined by the crusaders.
The present wall of the lower city is of late construction, probably Armenian. It encloses a mass of ruins conspicuous in which are a fine [[triumphal arch]], the colonnades of two streets, a [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]], etc. A stadium and a theatre lie outside on the south. The remains of the acropolis fortifications are very interesting, including roads and ditches hewn in the rock; but beyond ruins of two churches and a fine tower built by Thoros I. There are no notable structures in the upper town. For picturesqueness the site is not equalled in Cilicia, and it is worthwhile to trace the three fine [[aqueduct]]s to their sources.
A visit in December, 2002 showed that the three aqueducts mentioned above have been nearly completely destroyed. Only small, isolated sections are left standing with the largest portion lying in a pile of rubble that stretches the length of where the aqueducts once stood. A powerful earthquake that struck the area in 1945 is thought to be responsible for the destruction.
----
{{1911}}
[[Category: Anatolia]]
[[ca:Anazarbe]]
[[pl:Anazarbus]]
[[de:Anazarba]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anagram</title>
<id>1361</id>
<revision>
<id>41464673</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T14:55:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Brian0918</username>
<id>90640</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.66.123.13|71.66.123.13]] ([[User talk:71.66.123.13|talk]]) to last version by 205.210.253.10</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">An '''anagram''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''ana-'' = "back" or "again", and ''graphein'' = "to write") is a type of [[word play]], the result of rearranging the letters of a word or phrase to produce other words, using all the original letters exactly once. Anagrams are often expressed in the form of an equation, with the equals symbol (=) separating the original subject and the resulting anagram. ‘Earth = heart’ is an example of a simple anagram expressed so. In a more advanced, sophisticated form of anagramming, the aim is to ‘discover’ a result that has a linguistic meaning that defines or comments on the original subject in a humorous or ironic way; e.g., '''''Roll in the hay = Thrill a honey''''' (discovered by Tony Crafter). When the subject and the resulting anagram form a complete sentence, a tilde (~) is used instead of an equal sign; e.g., '''''[[Semolina]] ~ is no meal.'''''
==History==
The construction of anagrams is an [[amusement]] of great [[Ancient history|antiquity]]. [[Jew]]s are often credited with the invention of anagrams, probably because later Hebrew writers, particularly [[Kabbalist]]s, were fond of it, asserting that "secret mysteries are woven in the numbers of letters". Anagrams were known to the [[ancient Greece|Greek]]s and also to the [[ancient Rome|Roman]]s, although the known [[Latin]] examples of words of more than one syllable are nearly all imperfect. The Romans called the art of finding anagrams the "ars magna" (great art). Interestingly, "ars magna" is a perfect anagram of the word "anagrams".
They were popular throughout [[Europe]] during the [[Middle Ages]].
Indeed, the right to lampoon royalty and politicians via anagram was enshrined in English law in 1215, when King John, albeit under duress, signed the [[Magna Carta]] ''(Magna Carta = Anagram Act)'' at Runnymede, in Surrey, and later, particularly in [[France]], where an "Anagrammatist to the King" was appointed by [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]]. W. Camden (''Remains,'' 7th ed., 1674) defines "Anagrammatisme" as "a dissolution of a name truly written into his letters, as his elements, and a new connection of it by artificial transposition, without addition, subtraction or change of any letter, into different words, making some perfect sense applyable (i.e., ''applicable'') to the person named." [[John Dryden|Dryden]] disdainfully called the pastime the "torturing of one poor word ten thousand ways" but many men and women of note have found amusement in it.
A well-known anagram is the change of "Ave Maria, gratia plena, Dominus tecum" (''Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord [is] with you'') into "Virgo serena, pia, munda et immaculata" (''Bright virgin, pious, clean and spotless''). Among others are the anagrammatic answer to [[Pilate]]'s question, "Quid est veritas?" (''What is truth?''), namely, "Est vir qui adest" (''It is the man who is here''); and the transposition of "[[Horatio Nelson]]" into "Honor est a Nilo" (Latin = ''Honor is from the [[Nile]]''); and of "[[Florence Nightingale]]" into "Flit on, cheering angel". [[James I of England|James I]]'s courtiers discovered in "James Stuart" "a just master", and converted "Charles James Stuart" into "Claimes Arthur's seat". "Eleanor Audeley", wife of [[Sir John Davies]], is said to have been brought before the High Commission in 1634 for extravagances, stimulated by the discovery that her name could be transposed to "Reveale, O Daniel", and to have been laughed out of court by another anagram submitted by the [[Dean of Arches|dean of the Arches]], "Dame Eleanor Davies", "Never soe mad a ladie".
==Numerical anagrams==
Numerical anagrams use [[Roman numeral]]s within words. These numeral letters, taken together according to their numerical values, express some epoch, such as the year of an event.{{ref label|1728|1|^}}
An example of this kind is a [[distich]] of [[Godart]] on the birth of the [[List of French monarchs|French king]] [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], which occurred in the year 1638, on a day wherein there was an [[astrology|astrological]] [[conjunction]] of the [[Aquila (constellation)|Eagle]] with the [[Regulus|Lion's Heart]]:
:"e'''X'''or'''I'''ens '''D'''e'''L'''ph'''I'''n aq'''VIL'''æ '''C'''or'''DI'''sq'''V'''e '''L'''eon'''I'''s
:'''C'''ongress'''V''' ga'''LL'''os spe '''L'''æt'''I'''t'''I'''aq'''V'''e refe'''CI'''t."
This roughly translates to, "On the conjunction of the eagle and the heart of the lion, the new [[Dauphin]] brings hope and happiness to the French." The highlighted Roman numerals sum to 1638.{{ref label|1728|1|^}}
==Pseudonyms==
The [[pseudonym]]s adopted by [[author]]s are often transposed forms, more or less exact, of their names; thus "Calvinus" becomes "Alcuinus" ([[V]] = [[U]]); "[[Francois Rabelais]]" = "Alcofribas Nasier"; "[[Arrigo Boito]]" = "Tobia Gorrio"; "[[Edward Gorey]]" = "Ogdred Weary"; "[[Vladimir Nabokov]]" = "Vivian Darkbloom", = "Vivian Bloodmark" or = "Dorian Vivalcomb"; "[[Bryan Waller Proctor]]" = "Barry Cornwall, poet"; "Henry Rogers" = "R. E. H. Greyson"; "(Sanche) de Gramont" = "[[Ted Morgan]]", and so on. It is to be noted that several of these are "imperfect anagrams", letters having been left out in some cases for the sake of easy pronunciation.
"Telliamed", a simple reversal, is the title of a well known work by "De Maillet". One of the most remarkable pseudonyms of this class is the name "[[Voltaire]]", which the celebrated [[philosopher]] assumed instead of his family name, François Marie Arouet, and which is now generally allowed to be an anagram of "Arouet, l[e] j[eune]", that is, "Arouet the younger". Anagramming may also be used to good effect in [[farce]] or [[parody]]. A writer might take an unpleasant person he knows, base a character in a book on him, and then transpose the letters in the source's name. For example, controversial Israeli Prime Minister [[Ariel Sharon]] might be satirized as, say, local greengrocer "Leon A. Shirra"&mdash;a rather inventive way to avoid a [[libel]] lawsuit.
Anagrams have also shown up in [[rock music]]. [[The Doors]]' lead singer [[Jim Morrison]] invoked his name as "Mr. Mojo Risin'" on the song "[[L.A. Woman]]", the band Sad Café released an album called ''Facades'', [[Blur]] singer [[Damon Albarn]] uses the name Dan Abnormal for the title of a song on [[The Great Escape]] and all of the band adopt anagramed pseudonyms for the [[music video]] of [[M.O.R.]], the [[New Wave music|new wave]] band [[Missing Persons]] recorded an album called ''Spring Session M'', and Guns N' Roses lead singer [[Axl Rose]]'s stage name is an anagram of "[[oral sex]]".
==Astronomy==
Perhaps the only practical use to which anagrams have been turned is to be found in the transpositions in which some of the [[astronomer]]s of the [[17th century]] embodied their discoveries with the design apparently of avoiding the risk that, while they were engaged in furt |
*[[Gerald Riggs]]
*[[Andre Rison]]
*[[Deion Sanders]]
*[[O.J. Santiago]]
*[[Esera Tuaolo]]
==Head Coaches==
*[[Norb Hecker]] (1966-1968)
*[[Norm Van Brocklin]] (1968-1974)
*[[Marion Campbell]] (1974-1976)
*[[Pat Peppler]] (interim) (1976)
*[[Leeman Bennett]] (1977-1982)
*[[Dan Henning]] (1983-1986)
*[[Marion Campbell]] (1987-1989)
*[[Jim Hanifan]] (interim) (1989)
*[[Jerry Glanville]] (1990-1993)
*[[June Jones]] (1994-1996)
*[[Dan Reeves]] (1997-2003)
*[[Wade Phillips]] (interim) (2003)
*[[Jim L. Mora|Jim Mora]] (2004-present)
===Current Staff===
*Head Coach - [[Jim L. Mora|Jim Mora]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Greg Knapp]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Ed Donatell]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Joe DeCamillis]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Bill Musgrave]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Ollie Wilson]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[George Stewart (football coach)|George Stewart]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Clancy Barone]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[Tom Cable]]
*Offensive Assistant - [[Joe Lombardi]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[Bill Johnson (football player)|Bill Johnson]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Chris Beake]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[Brett Maxie]]
*Defensive Assistant - [[Chris Dalman]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[Sal Alosi]]
==External links==
*[http://www.atlantafalcons.com/ Atlanta Falcons official web site]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/atlanta/falcons.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]
{{NFL}}
[[Category:Atlanta Falcons| ]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]
[[Category:1966 establishments]]
[[de:Atlanta Falcons]]
[[fr:Falcons d'Atlanta]]
[[he:אטלנטה פלקונס]]
[[it:Atlanta Falcons]]
[[ja:アトランタ・ファルコンズ]]
[[pt:Atlanta Falcons]]
[[sv:Atlanta Falcons]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ásatrú</title>
<id>2104</id>
<revision>
<id>42020365</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:55:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>WeniWidiWiki</username>
<id>566966</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ troth</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Ásatrú''' ([[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] "[[Æsir]] faith") is a [[new religious movement]] which is attempting to revive the pre-[[Christianization|Christian]] ([[Viking Age]]) [[Norse mythology|Nordic religion]] as described in the [[Edda|Eddas]].
Ásatrú was established in the [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]] in [[Iceland]], by the ''[[Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið]]'' an organization founded by [[Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson]]. Ásatrú was recognized as an official religion by the governments of [[Iceland]] (in 1973), [[Denmark]] (in 2003) and [[Norway]]. The [[United States]] government does not officially endorse or recognize any religious group; however, numerous Ásatrú groups have been granted [[Non-profit corporation|nonprofit religious]] status going back to the [[1970s]].
While the term ''Ásatrú'' originally referred specifically to the Icelandic adherents of the religion, Germanic [[neopagan]] and [[reconstructionism|reconstructionist]] groups widely identify themselves as Ásatrú, particularly in the [[United States|USA]]. In this wider sense, the term ''Ásatrú'' is used synonymously with '''[[Germanic Neopaganism]]''' or '''[[Germanic paganism|Germanic Paganism]]''', along with the terms '''Forn Sed''', '''Odinism''', '''Heithni''', '''[[Heathenry]]''' and others.
==Terminology==
'''Ásatrú''' is an [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] term consisting of two parts. The first is ''Ása'' (genitive of [[Æsir|Áss]]) referring to one of two families of gods in the myths. The second part, trú, literally means "troth" or "faith". Thus, Ásatrú means "faith in the Æsir." The term is the Old Norse/Icelandic translation of ''Asetro'', [[neologism]] coined in the context of [[19th century]] [[romantic nationalism]], first used by [[Edvard Grieg]] in his [[1870]] opera ''[[Olaf Trygvason]]''. The use of the term ''Ásatrú'' for Germanic paganism preceding 19th century revivalist movements is an anachronism. Likewise, use of ''Ásatrú'' as a synonym of Germanic Neopaganism, while widespread in the USA, can be misleading. Groups identifying themselves as Ásatrú cover a wide political spectrum, ranging from left-wing [[Environmental movement|environmentalist]] groups, [[New Age|New Agers]], [[universalism|universalists]], [[Neo-Tribalism|tribalists]], [[Polytheistic_reconstructionism|reconstructionists]], [[folkish|folkish groups]] and even [[neonazi]] (e.g. ''[[Artgemeinschaft]]'') movements.
Members of the ''Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið'' are somewhat unhappy with the semantic widening of the Icelandic term ''Ásatrú'', and would prefer its usage to specifically apply only to reconstructed medieval Norse paganism.
''Ásatrúar'', sometimes used as a plural in English, is properly the [[genitive]] of Ásatrú.
==History==
'''Ásatrú''' originated as a second (or third) revival of Germanic paganism in the 1960s and early 1970s. The ''Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið'' was founded on summer solstice, 1972, and was recognized as an official religion by the Icelandic government in 1973, largely due to the efforts of Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson. At about this time, in the United States, [[Stephen McNallen]], a former [[U.S. Army]] [[Airborne_forces|Airborne]] [[U.S. Army Ranger|Ranger]], began publishing a newsletter titled ''The Runestone''. He also formed an organization called the ''Asatru Free Assembly'', later renamed the [[Ásatrú Folk Assembly]] which is still extant. [[Else Christensen|Else Christensen's]] ''Odinism'', which sometimes identified with the term ''Asatru'', originated around the same period. An offshoot of McNallen's group is the ''Asatru Alliance'', headed by Valgard Murray, publisher of the "Vor Tru" newsletter. The ''Asatru Alliance'' held its 25th annual "[[Althing]]" gathering in 2005.
==Politics==
'''Ásatrú''' organizations have memberships which span the entire political and spiritual spectrum. Many adherents are solitary practitioners who practice their religion alone with their family or a small local community, and are not involved with organized ''Ásatrú''. Despite the wide divergance of beliefs and politics, the sole common denominator amongst adherents of ''Ásatrú'' is the goal of reconstructing and practicing the historical pre-Christian religion of the [[Poetic Edda|Eddas]].
While ''Ásatrú'' is generally a tolerant religion, in the USA neo-nazis and advocates of [[white power]] are ostracized and shunned by most organizations.<ref>{{cite book | first =Matthias | last =Gardell | authorlink = | coauthors = | year =2003 | month = | title =Gods of the Blood: The Pagan Revival and White Separatism | chapter = | editor = | others = | edition = | pages =269-283 | publisher =Duke University Press | location = | id =ISBN 0822330717 | url = }}</ref> The three largest American ''Ásatrú'' organizations specifically have denounced association with racist groups.<ref>The positions of the AA, the AFA and the Troth:
:<small>'''From the ''Asatru Alliance's'' Bylaws:''' "The Alliance is apolitical; it is not a front for, nor shall it promote any political views of the 'Right' or 'Left'. Our Sacred temples, groves and Moots shall remain free of any political manifestations."</small> [http://asatru.org/bylaws.html]
:<small>'''From the ''Asatru Folk Assembly's'' Bylaws:''' "The belief that spirituality and ancestral heritage are related has nothing to do with notions of superiority. Asatru is not an excuse to look down on, much less to hate, members of any other race. On the contrary, we recognize the uniqueness and the value of all the different pieces that make up the human mosaic."</small> [http://runestone.org/flash/home.html]
:<small>'''From the ''Troth's'' Bylaws:''' "Discrimination on the basis of race, gender, ethnic origin, or sexual orientation shall not be practiced by the Troth or any affiliated group, whether in membership decisions or in conducting any of its activities."</small> [http://www.thetroth.org/organization/bylaws.html]</ref>
There is actually an antagonistic relationship between many neo-nazis and the membership of most ''Ásatrú'' organizations in the USA, who view ''"national socialism as an unwanted totalitarian philosophy incompatible with freedom-loving Norse paganism"''<ref>Gardell, p.276. Referring to Stephen McNallen, Valgard Murray and Edred Thorsson; the respective founders of the AFA, the AA and the Troth, which are the three largest Ásatrú groups in the USA.</ref>
==Notes==
<references/>
== See also ==
* [[Ásatrú Folk Assembly]]
* [[Germanic Neopaganism]]
* [[Heathenry]]
* [[Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið]]
* [[Neopaganism]]
* [[Polytheistic reconstructionism|Reconstructionism]]
* [[Stephen McNallen]]
* [[Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson]]
* [[Theodism]]
* [[The_Troth|The Troth]]
==External links==
===Neutral descriptions===
*[http://www.religionfacts.com/a-z-religion-index/asatru.htm Asatru (Germanic Paganism)] - ReligionFacts
===Organizations===
*Iceland / Scandinavia
**[http://www.asatru.is/ Ásatrúarfélagið] Iceland (since [[1972]])
**[http://www.bifrost.no/ Åsatrufellesskapet Bifrost] Norway (since [[1996]])
**[http://www.asatrosamfundet.se/ Sveriges Asatrosamfund] Sweden (since [[1994]])
**[http://www.asatrofaellesskabet.dk/ Asatrofællesskabet] Denmark (since [[2003]])
*North America
**[http://www.runestone.org/ Asatru Folk Assembly] (since [[1974]], albeit the ''Asatru Free Assembly'' initially)
**[http://thetroth.org/ The Troth] (since [[1987]])
**[http://www.asatru.org/ Asatru Alliance] (since [[1988]])
*Germany
**[http://www.eldaring.de/ Eldaring] (since [[2000]])
*Australia
**[http://www.aetaustralia.org/ The Assembly of the Elder Troth] (since [[1990]] ?)
*Belgium
**[http://www.traditie.be/ Asatrú-Werkgroep Traditie]
*The Netherlands
**[http://www.hetrad.nl/ Het Rad]
[[Category:Ásatrú]]
[[ar:اساترو]]
[[bg:Асатру]] |
oeira as being in the process of losing its "playfulness" in the sense that many capoeiristas tend to focus more on impressive acrobatics and not so much the playful interaction with the other player in the roda.
== The game ==
Capoeira doesn't focus on destroying the person you play against, rather on demonstrating more skill (or cunning). Capoeiristas often prefer to show the movement without completing it, enforcing their superiority in the roda. If your opponent cannot dodge your slowest attack, there is no reason to use your fastest. Each attack that comes in gives you a chance to practice an evasive technique.
=== Ginga ===
The ''ginga'' (literally: rocking back and forth) is the fundamental movement in capoeira. Capoeira Angola and Capoeira Regional have distinctive forms of ''ginga''. Both are accomplished by maintaining both feet approximately shoulder-width apart and then moving one foot backwards and then back to the base. This movement is done to prepare the body for other movements.
The rest of the body is also involved in the ''ginga'': coordination of the arms (in such a way as to prevent the body from being kicked), torso (many core muscles may be engaged depending on the player's style), and the leaning of the body (forward and back in relation to the position of the feet; the body leans back to avoid kicks, and forward to create opportunities to show attacks). The overall movement should match the rhythm being played by the ''bateria''.
=== Attacks ===
Capoeira primarily attacks with kicks and sweeps. Some schools teach punches and hand strikes, but they are not as common. Capoeira also uses acrobatic and athletic movements to maneuver around the opponent. Cartwheels (a very common acrobatic movement), handstands, head- and hand-spins, hand-springs, sitting movements, turns, jumps, flips, and large dodges are all very common in capoeira.
=== Defenses ===
Capoeira defenses consists of evasive moves and rolls. A series of ducks called 'Negativas', which literally means negations (of kicks) are also staple of a capoeiristas' defensive vocabulary. There are typically different Negativas for every step of the Ginga, depending on the direction of the kick and intention of the defender. A common defense is the 'Role', which is a rolling move that combines a duck and a low movement. This move allows the defensive player to quickly evade an attack and position themselves around the aggressor in order to lay up for an attack. It is this combination of attacks and defense which gives a game of Capoeira its perceived 'fluidity' and choreography. Other evasive moves allow the capoeirista to move away or dangerously close in an attempt to trip up the aggressor in the briefest moment of vulnerability (usually in a mid-kick).
=== Combinations ===
There are also styles of moves which combines both elements of attack and defense. An example is the 'Au Batido', a move commonly associated with Capoeira. In essence, the move begins as an evasive cartwheel which then turns into a blocking/kick, either as a reflexive response to a blocking move from the opposing player or when an opportunity to do so presents itself (an opponent's drop of guard for example).
=== Chamada ===
Capoeira Angola rodas feature a ritual called the "chamada." In a chamada, one player assumes a ritual pose, for example, with one hand in the air. Normally, the other player should approach and join the pose (in this example, touching their hand to the first player's hand). The players then walk back and forth until the first player separates and offers a slow attack, and the jogo resumes. However, the whole chamada is fraught with tension, since it is acceptable for either player (although most often the player that called the chamada) to strike out in a sudden attack &ndash; at any speed at all. If the other player is caught, it's because they weren't being careful enough. The goal of the chamada is to test a player's ability to cooperate, to appear friendly, without exposing himself to a sneaky attack. Some mestres will playfully involve spectators in the chamada (for example, introducing a female bystander to their opponent only to take the opponent down while he doffs his hat). Chamadas serve to show how well a player can handle the tricks of the world ("o mundo enganador" is a common call in the louvação).
''Volta ao mundo'' (or "trip around the world") is a short break taken by both players, and is in ''Capoeira Regional'' the only ''Chamada'' or call available to indicate a desire to change something about the game being played, while in Capoeira Angola it leads to more formalized Chamadas.
Though each school is different, an example from a regional school could be walking counter-clockwise in large circle, loosely holding left hands and walking in the same direction. Two or three gentle laps is all the rest you get, then it's time to play again. In a Capoeira Angola school the meeting of the left hands would indicate a specific chamada that requires a ritual exit distinct and different from merely separating hands.
The "volta ao mundo" is commonly used to force the players to cool down after a heated exchange or by a player when he/she needs a break. It is important to note that "volta ao mundo" is practiced differently by different schools &ndash; some hold hands, some do not, some walk, some run. In some schools, the "volta ao mundo" is done when the music is over and the players are waiting for the new one to start. If you ever visit a roda, make sure you respect that school's behaviours in this respect as failure to do so is looked upon as quite rude.
=== Trickery ===
For students who have mastered the basic moves, their game naturally progresses towards a more cunning slant. The art of trickery, or 'Malandragem'. This involves a lot of improvisation and modifications of basic moves into a flurry of feints and fakes in a blatant attempt to trick the opponent in responding wrongly. To this end, the ability of the capoeirista lies in their skill to observe and reliance on their innate sense in anticipating the moves of their opponents and prepare the appropriate response. Some capoeiristas take this aspect of the art to heights akin to the guile of theatrics and drama. Games displaying elaborate performances and even staging skits reenacting historic cultural aspects of Capoeira are commonly demonstrated amongst the most learned of the art.
== Styles of Capoeira ==
There are many different kinds of capoeira. As previously stated the two largest types are [[Capoeira Angola|Angola]] and [[Capoeira Regional|Regional]]. Although groups of one style do exist, most groups tend to mix the two styles to some degree. Capoeira Angola groups from the Northeast will tend to identify only as Capoeira Angola and will mimic Regional for performances.
=== Capoeira Angola ===
Angola is considered to be the true root style of capoeira, often characterized by slower, sneakier movements played closer to the ground and with the players playing their games in closer proximity to each other. Capoeira Angola, in actuality, is played in a great range of speeds, ranging from Mestre Rene's school (with fast, highly acrobatic movements and frenetic high tempo music) to Mestre João Pequeno's school (with much slower, methodical movements to low tempo, hypnotic music). The father of modern Capoeira Angola is considered to be [[Mestre Pastinha]] (Paas-cheen-yah) who lived in Salvador, [[Bahia]]. Today, most of the Capoeira Angola media that is accessible comes from mestres in [[Capoeira lineage under Mestre Pastinha|Pastinha's lineage]], but this isn't to say that he was the only one or that he was the originator. Many others helped in the preservation and propagation of Capoeira Angola, including Mestre Caiçara, Mestre Bobo, Mestre Noronho, Besouro Mangangá, etc. The Angola style, while emphasizing the traditions and history of capoeira remains a contemporaneous art in the vibrant street scene of Salvador, Bahia. There is a diversity of styles and players, all of the traditional form, playing or performing in a great range of speeds and testing each other in various academies and in the street.
=== Capoeira Regional ===
Regional is a newer and more martially-oriented game. Regional was developed by [[Mestre Bimba]] to make capoeira more mainstream and accessible to the public, and less associated with the criminal elements of [[Brazil]]. While capoeiristas can sometimes play Angola-like, slow games, the Regional style is most often composed of fast and athletic play. On the contrary to what you might read elsewhere, Bimba's Regional style contains almost none of acrobatic movements so often associated with capoeira. It is combat oriented while maintaining the trickiness of Capoeira Angola.
Later, so called ''modern Regional'' came to be (see the next section about capoeira contemporanea). Developed by other people from Bimba's Regional, this type of game is characterized by high jumps, acrobatics, and spinning kick. This ''Regional'' should not be confused with the original style created by Mestre Bimba.
Regional ranks capoeiristas (Capoeira players) by ability, denoting different skill with the use of a ''corda'' (colored rope, also known as ''cordel'' or ''cordão'') worn as a belt. Angola does not use such a formal system of ranking, relying instead upon the discretion of a student's mestre. In both forms, though, recognition of advanced skill comes only after many years of constant practice.
=== Capoeira Contemporânea ===
Today, there are many [[fusion music|fusion]] styles, which mix the Angola and Regional traditions. Some refer to this as "capoeira atual," or "capoeira contemporânea." Whether playing Angola or Regional, groups often have different styles of wildly different movements. In general, older groups/styles often hav |
pher.
The most common arrangement utilises a [[ratchet (device)|ratchet]] and [[pawl]] mechanism. Each rotor is affixed with a ratchet with 26 teeth; a group of pawls engage the teeth of the ratchet. The pawls are pushed forward in unison with each keypress on the machine. If a pawl engages the teeth of a ratchet, that rotor advances by one step.
In the Wehrmacht Enigma, each rotor is affixed with an adjustable notched ring. The five basic rotors (I-V) have one notch each, while the additional naval rotors VI, VII and VIII have two notches. At a certain point, a rotor's notch will align with the pawl, allowing it to engage the ratchet of the next rotor with the subsequent key press. When a pawl is not aligned with the notch, it will simply slide over the surface of the ring without engaging the ratchet. In a single-notch rotor system, the second rotor is advanced one position every 26 advances of the first rotor. Similarly, the third rotor is advanced one position for every 26 advances of the second rotor. The second rotor also advances at the same time as the third rotor, meaning the second rotor can step twice on subsequent key presses &mdash; "double stepping" &mdash; resulting in a reduced period<ref>David Hamer, "Enigma: Actions Involved in the ‘Double-Stepping’ of the Middle Rotor," ''Cryptologia'', 21(1), January 1997, pp. 47&ndash;50, [http://www.eclipse.net/~dhamer/downloads/rotorpdf.zip Online version (PDF)]</ref>.
This double stepping causes the rotors to deviate from a normal [[odometer]]. A double step occurs as follows: the first rotor steps, and takes the second rotor one step further. If the second rotor has moved by this step into its own notch-position, the third pawl can drop down. On the next step this pawl pushes the ratchet of the third rotor and advances it, but will also push into the second rotor's notch, advancing the second rotor a second time in a row.
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With three wheels and only single notches in the first and second wheels, the machine has a period of 26 × 25 × 26 = 16,900. Historically, messages were limited to a couple of hundred letters, and so there was no risk of repeating any position within a single message.
To make the use of the naval fourth rotors "Beta" and "Gamma" possible, introduced in 1942, the reflector was changed to a thin model and the special thin fourth rotor was placed against it. No changes were made to the mechanism. Since there are only three pawls, the fourth rotor never steps, but can be manually set into one of its 26 positions.
When pressing a key, the rotors step before the electrical circuit is connected.
[[Image:Enigma-rotor-stack.jpg|left|thumbnail|320px|The Enigma rotor assembly. The three movable rotors are sandwiched between two fixed wheels: the entry wheel on the right and the reflector (here marked "B") on the left.]]
===Entry wheel===
The entry wheel (''Eintrittswalze'' in German), or entry [[stator]], connects the plugboard, if present, or otherwise the keyboard and lampboard to the rotor assembly. While the exact wiring used is of comparatively little importance to the security, it proved an obstacle in the progress of [[Poland | Polish]] cryptanalyst [[Marian Rejewski]] during his deduction of the rotor wirings. The commercial Enigma connects the keys in the order of their sequence on the keyboard: <tt>Q</tt><math>\rightarrow</math><tt>A</tt>, <tt>W</tt><math>\rightarrow</math><tt>B</tt>, <tt>E</tt><math>\rightarrow</math><tt>C</tt> and so on. However, the military Enigma connects them in straight alphabetical order: <tt>A</tt><math>\rightarrow</math><tt>A</tt>, <tt>B</tt><math>\rightarrow</math><tt>B</tt>, <tt>C</tt><math>\rightarrow</math><tt>C</tt> etc. It took an inspired piece of guesswork for Rejewski to realise the modification, and he was then able to solve the [[equation]]s.
===Reflector===
With the exception of the early models A and B, the last rotor is followed by a ''reflector'' (German: ''Umkehrwalze''), a patented feature distinctive of the Enigma family amongst the various rotor machines designed in the period. The reflector connects outputs of the last rotor up in pairs, redirecting current back through the rotors by a different route. The reflector ensures that Enigma is [[involution|self-reciprocal]]: conveniently, encryption is the same as decryption. However, the reflector also gives Enigma the property that no letter can encrypt to itself. This was a severe conceptual flaw and a cryptological mistake subsequently exploited by codebreakers.
In the commercial Enigma model C, the reflector can be inserted in one of two different positions. In Model D the reflector can be set in 26 possible positions, although it does not move during encipherment. In the Abwehr Enigma, the reflector is stepped during encryption in a similar way to the other wheels.
In the Wehrmacht Enigma, the reflector is fixed and does not rotate, and appeared in four versions. The original version was marked ''A'', and was replaced by ''Umkehrwalze B'' on [[1 November]] [[1937]]. A third version, ''Umkehrwalze C'' appeared in 1941. The fourth version, first observed on [[2 January]] [[1944]] is a rewireable reflector, called ''Umkehrwalze D'', allowing the Enigma operator to alter the connections as part of the key settings.<br clear="all" />
===Plugboard===
[[Image:Enigma-plugboard.jpg|right|thumbnail|280px|The plugboard (''Steckerbrett'') is positioned at the front of the machine, below the keys. When in use, there can be up to 13 connections. In the above photograph, two pairs of letters are swapped (S-O and J-A).]]
The plugboard (''Steckerbrett'' in German) is a variable wiring that could be reconfigured by the operator (visible on the front panel of Figure 1; some of the patch cords can be seen in the lid). It was introduced on German Army versions in 1930 and was soon adopted by the Navy as well. The plugboard contributes a great deal to the strength of the machine's encryption, more than an extra rotor would. Enigma without a plugboard &mdash; "unsteckered" Enigma &mdash; can be solved relatively straightforwardly using hand methods; these techniques are generally defeated by the addition of a plugboard, and codebreakers resorted to special machines to solve it.
A cable placed onto the plugboard connects letters up in pairs, for example, <tt>E</tt> and <tt>Q</tt> might be a steckered pair. The effect is to swap those letters before and after the main rotor scrambling unit. For example, when an operator presses <tt>E</tt>, the signal is diverted to <tt>Q</tt> before entering the rotors. Several such steckered pairs, up to 13, might be used at one time.
Current flows from the keyboard through the plugboard, and proceeds to the entry-rotor or ''Eintrittswalze''. Each letter on the plugboard has two jacks. Inserting a plug will disconnect the upper jack (from the keyboard) and the lower jack (to the entry-rotor) of that letter. The plug at the other end of the crosswired cable is inserted into another letter's jacks, switching the connections of the two letters.
[[Image:Enigma-printer-2.jpg|left|thumbnail|280px|The "Schreibmax" was a printing unit which could be attached to the Enigma, removing the need to laboriously read and write down the letters off the light panel.]]
===Accessories===
[[Image:Enigma-uhr-box.jpg|right|thumbnail|The Enigma Uhr attachment]]
A handy feature that was used on the M4 Enigma was the "Schreibmax", a little [[printer]] which could print the 26 letters on a small paper ribbon. This excluded the need for a second operator, reading the lamps and writing the letters down. The Schreibmax was placed on top of the Enigma machine and was connected to the lamp panel; to install the printer, the lamp cover and all lightbulbs had to be removed. Besides its handiness, it improved operational security: the signal officer no longer had to see the plaintext, as the printer might have been installed in the captain's cabin of a submarine, so that the signals officer did the typing and key handling but never gained knowledge of secret received plaintext information.
Another accessory was the remote lamp panel. If the machine was equipped with an extra panel, the wooden case of the Enigma was wider and could store the extra panel. There was a lamp panel version that could be connected afterwards, but that required, just as with the Schreibmax, the lamp panel and lightbulbs to be removed. The remote panel made it possible for a person to read the decrypted text, without giving the operator access to it.
In 1944, the Luftwaffe introduced an extra plugboard switch, called the Uhr (clock). There was a little box, containing a switch with 40 positions. It replaced the default plugs. After connecting the plugs, as determined in the daily key sheet, the operator could turn the switch in one of the 40 positions, each position resulting in a different combination of plug wiring. Most of these plug connection are, unlike the default plugs, not pair-wise.<br clear="all" />
===Mathematical description===
The Enigma transformation for each letter can be specified mathematically as a product of [[permutation]]s. Assuming a three-rotor German Army/Air Force Enigma, let <math>P</math> denote the plugboard transformation, <math>U</math> denote the reflector, and <math>L, M, R</math> denote the actions of the left, middle and right rotors respectively. Then the encryption <math>E</math> c |
id]]'' borrows heavily from the myth of the Amazonian.
==Scythian origins==
In a recent excavation of [[Sarmatian]] sites by Dr. Jeannine Davis-Kimball, a tomb was found wherein female warriors were buried, thus lending some credence to the myths about the Amazons. Following the excavation in [[2003]] by Dr. Davis-Kimball, she and Dr. Joachim Burger compared the genetic evidence from the site with the nomadic [[Kazakh]]s, and have found a striking genetic link – verified later by the [[University of Cambridge]] [http://www.thirteen.org/pressroom/release.php?get=1272]
Before modern archaeology uncovered some of the Scythian burials of warrior-maidens entombed under [[kurgan]]s in the [[Altai]] region of Siberia, giving concrete form at last to the Greek tales of mounted Amazons, the origin of the story of the Amazons has been the subject of speculation among classics scholars. In the 1911 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' speculation ranged along the following lines.
While some regard the Amazons as a purely mythical people, others assume an historical foundation for them. The deities worshipped by them were [[Ares]] (who is consistently assigned to them as a god of war, and as a god of [[Thrace|Thracian]] and generally northern origin) and [[Artemis]], not the usual Greek goddess of that name, but an Asiatic deity in some respects her equivalent. It is conjectured that the Amazons were originally the temple-servants and priestesses (''hierodulae'') of this goddess; and that the removal of the breast corresponded with the self-mutilation of the god [[Attis]] and the [[galli]], Roman priests of [[Cybele]]. Another theory is that, as the knowledge of geography extended, travellers brought back reports of tribes ruled entirely by women, who carried out the duties which elsewhere were regarded as peculiar to man, in whom alone the rights of nobility and inheritance were vested, and who had the supreme control of affairs. Hence arose the belief in the Amazons as a nation of female warriors, organized and governed entirely by women. According to J. Vurtheim (''De Ajacis origine'', [[1907]]), the Amazons were of Greek origin: "all the Amazons were Dianas, as [[Diana (goddess)|Diana]] herself was an Amazon". It has been suggested that the fact of the conquest of the Amazons being assigned to the two famous heroes of Greek mythology, Heracles and Theseus &ndash; who in the tasks assigned to them were generally opposed to monsters and beings impossible in themselves, but possible as illustrations of permanent danger and damage &ndash; shows that they were mythical illustrations of the dangers which beset the Greeks on the coasts of Asia Minor; rather perhaps, it may be intended to represent the conflict between the Greek culture of the colonies on the [[Black Sea]] and the barbarism of the native inhabitants.
[[Herodotus]] reported that the [[Sarmatians]]/[[Sauromatians]] were descendants of Amazons and Scythians. Their [[Scythian]]/[[Saka]]/[[Cimmerian]]/[[Gomer]]ian origins are further proved by their origins from [[Thermodon]]'s Scythians who invaded there coming from around the [[Sea of Azov]] and their use of the bow and arrow as their primary weapon as well as fighting on horseback.
Medieval and Renaissance authors credit the Amazons with the invention of the [[battle-axe]]. This is probably related to the [[Sagaris]], an axe-like weapon associated with both Amazons and Scythian tribes by Greek authors (see also [[Aleksandrovo kurgan]]). [[Paulus Hector Mair]] expresses astonishment that such a "manly weapon" should have been invented by a "tribe of women", but he accepts the attribution out of respect for his authority, [[Johannes Aventinus]].
==Amazons in Greek art==
In works of art, battles between Amazons and Greeks are placed on the same level as and often associated with battles of Greeks and [[centaurs]]. The belief in their existence, however, having been once accepted and introduced into the national poetry and art, it became necessary to surround them as far as possible with the appearance of not unnatural beings. Their occupation was hunting and war; their arms the bow, spear, axe, a half shield, nearly in the shape of a crescent, called ''pelta'', and in early art a helmet, the model before the Greek mind having apparently been the goddess Athena. In later art they approach the model of Artemis, wearing a thin dress, girt high for speed; while on the later painted vases their dress is often peculiarly [[Iran|Persia]]n &ndash; that is, close-fitting trousers and a high cap called the kidaris. They were usually on horseback but sometimes on foot. They can also be identified in vase paintings by the fact that they are wearing one earring. The battle between Theseus and the Amazons is a favourite subject on the friezes of temples (e.g. the reliefs from the frieze of the temple of [[Apollo]] at [[Bassae]], now in the [[British Museum]]), vases and sarcophagus reliefs; at [[Athens]] it was represented on the shield of the statue of [[Athena Parthenos]], on wall-paintings in the [[Theseum]] and in the [[stoa | ''Stoa Poikile'']]. Many of the sculptors of antiquity, including [[Pheidias]], [[Polyclitus]], [[Cresilas]] and [[Phradmon]], executed statues of Amazons; and there are many existing reproductions of these.
===Legendary Amazons from Greek myth===
*[[Ainia]]
*[[Antianara]]
*[[Antibrote]]
*[[Antiope (mythology)|Antiope]]
*[[Asteria]]
*[[Cleite]]
*[[Helene (mythology)|Helene]]
*[[Hippolyte]]
*[[Melanippe]]
*[[Otrera]]
*[[Penthesilea]]
*[[Thalestris]]
*[[Thebe (mythology)|Thebe]]
==Amazon-like figures in history and folklore==
[[Image:Blenda.jpg|right|300px|thumb|'''[[Blenda]]''' leads the women in the defense of their villages, by Hugo Hamilton (1830)]]
[[Image:Peter-nicolai-arbo-hervor.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[shieldmaiden]] [[Hervor]] dying after a battle with the [[Huns]] in ''[[Hervarar saga]]'']]
[[Image:Dahomey amazon6.jpg|right|thumb|170px|Dahomey Amazons holding muskets. The horns are indicators of rank]]
Armed women have often acted as royal [[bodyguard]]s throughout history. [[Chandragupta Maurya]] ([[322 BC|322]]&ndash;[[298 BC]]), the first [[emperor]] to develop a centralized state in [[India]], had a personal guard composed of giant Greek women. Female royal guards re-appear 2000 years later in the [[History of India|history of India]] as guards for the [[Nizam]]s of [[Deccan]] and [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]]. And on the island of [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Kandy]] royal family had a royal guard of female [[archer]]s. In [[Europe]], [[Celt]]ic and [[Germanic tribes]] often had women fighting with their husbands. [[Tacitus]] tells us that [[Boadicea]] had more women than men in her army.
There is also a woman in the Old Testament, Deborah, who may be one of the first recorded instances of a woman participating in battle. She was a prophetess, a warrior, a leader, and a Judge of Israel, all in one. She correctly predicted that the enemy general, Sisera, who faced Israel at this time would be slain by a woman (the woman who killed him and also received credit for the army's victory was named Jael.) This story is chronicled in Judges.
In [[Scandinavia]], women who did not yet have the responsibility for raising a family could take up arms and live like warriors. They were called [[shieldmaiden]]s and many of them figure in [[Norse mythology]]. One of the most famous shieldmaidens was [[Hervor]] and she figures in the cycle of the magic sword [[Tyrfing]]. The Danish chronicler [[Saxo Grammaticus]] relates that when the Swedish king [[Sigurd Ring]] and the Danish king [[Harald Wartooth]] met at the [[Battle of Bråvalla]], 300 shieldmaidens fought on the Danish side led by Visna. Saxo relates that the shieldmaidens fought with small shields and long swords.
Similarly, the '''[[Valkyries]]''' of [[Norse mythology]] are minor female deities, who serve [[Odin]]. The name means ''choosers of the slain''. The valkyries' purpose was to choose the most heroic of those who had died in battle and to carry them off to [[Valhalla]] where they became [[einherjar]]. This was necessary because Odin needed warriors to fight at his side at the preordained battle at the end of the world, [[Ragnarok|Ragnarök]].
A legend which may be based on the Greek Amazons appears in the history of [[Bohemia]]. As the story goes, a large band of women, lead by a certain [[Vlasta]], carried on war against the duke of Bohemia, and enslaved or put to death all men who fell into their hands; eventually, they were mercilessly defeated by the duke. In the [[16th century]] the [[Spain|Spanish]] explorer [[Francisco de Orellana|Orellana]] asserted that he had come into conflict with fighting women in [[South America]] on the [[Marañón River]], which was named after them the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] or river of the Amazons, although others derive its name from the Indian amassona (boat-destroyer), applied to the tidal phenomenon known as the "bore".
The armored warrior maiden (whose gender is often unsuspected) is a frequent character in the European chivalric epic. The most famous of these female knights is ''Bradamante'' -- daughter of Aymon, sister to the knight [[Renaud de Montauban]] (''Rinaldo'', ''Ranaldo'') and legendary ancestor to the house of [[Este]] -- who is destined to marry the knight ''Ruggiero'' (or ''Rugiero''). Her adventures are a major element in the Italian [[Renaissance]] epics ''[[Orlando Innamorato]]'' by [[Matteo Maria Boiardo]] and its continuation ''[[Orlando furioso]]'' by [[Ariosto]]. A similar character is the pagan warrior knight ''Clorinda'' who battles against the Christian crusaders in [[Torquato Tasso]]'s epic ''[[Jerusalem Delivered]]''. The vogue of such female knights in literature would continue though the seventeenth century and inspired not only dramatic recreations but also actual military feats (such as the [[Anne, Du |
d Ridinghood, Cinderella, the Baker, and his child left alive, they concoct a scheme to slay the Giant, using what they have learned in their journey. Little Red Riding Hood spreads pitch on the ground to trap the Giant, as the Prince had done to Cinderella on the stairs at the ball. Jack waits with the Baker in a tree with a club, as he had done to kill the Giant's husband. While waiting for the Giant to return, Little Red and Jack realize that they are alone; their mothers are both dead. The Baker and Cinderella comfort the two children with the essential thesis of the show: no one is alone. When the Giant comes looking for Jack, Little Red Ridinghood calls attention to herself, sending the Giant toward Jack's supposed hiding place. Cinderella stands by with the Baker's child and calls to her bird friends, who peck out the Giant's eyes, and Jack slays her. In the end, they resolve to make a new life, void of violence and selfishness, but remain haunted by the memories of their loved ones. It seems that everyone has learned that wishes can be dangerous. However, after the very last note, Cinderella steps forward from the ensemble and sings "I Wish!", indicating that humanity may be unable to exist apart from its dreams and wishes.
==Productions==
''Into the Woods'' opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] at the Martin Beck Theatre on [[November 5]], [[1987]], and played 804 performances. It starred [[Bernadette Peters]], [[Joanna Gleason]], [[Chip Zien]], Kim Crosby, Ben Wright, [[Danielle Ferland]], and [[Robert Westenberg]]. The original production won the [[1988]] Drama Critic's [[Circle Award]] and the [[Drama Desk Award]] for Best Musical, and the Original Cast Recording won a [[Grammy Award]].
The show was revived on Broadway in [[2002]] with [[Vanessa Lynn Williams |Vanessa Williams]] as the Witch, the recorded voice of [[Judi Dench]] as the Giant, and other cast members including [[John McMartin]], [[Stephen DeRosa]], [[Gregg Edelman]], and [[Christopher Sieber]]. The plot was retooled, with a subplot added involving ''[[The Three Little Pigs]]'' restored from the earlier San Diego production. Critics were kind to the show, but loyal fans put it down, stressing that the important adult messages of the original production were now undermined with a seeming sense of flippancy. The revival had a 280-performance run.
==Musical Numbers==
'''Act I'''
* Act One Prologue: Into the Woods
* Cinderella At the Grave
* Hello, Little Girl
* I Guess This Is Goodbye / Maybe They're Magic
* Our Little World
* I Know Things Now
* A Very Nice Prince / First Midnight / Giants In the Sky
* Agony
* It Takes Two
* Stay With Me
* On The Steps of the Palace
* Ever After
'''Act 2'''
* Act Two Prologue: So Happy
* Agony (Reprise)
* Lament
* Any Moment / Moments in the Woods
* Your Fault
* Last Midnight
* No More
* No One is Alone
* Finale: Children Will Listen
==Lyric Examples==
{{wikiquote}}
*"On the Steps of the Palace" (Cinderella)
''He's a very smart prince<br>
''He's a prince who prepares<br>
''Knowing this time I'd run from him<br>
''He spread pitch on the stairs<br>
''I was caught unawares<br>
''And I thought, 'Well, he cares,<br>
''This is more than just malice<br>
''Better stop and take stock
''While you're standing here stuck to the steps of the palace.''
*"Moments in the Woods" (Baker's Wife)
''Oh if life were made of moments,<br>
''Even now and then a bad one,<br>
''But if life were only moments,<br>
''Then you'd never know you'd had one!
*"I Know Things Now" (Little Red Ridinghood)
''And I know things now, many valuable things<br>
''That I hadn't known before<br>
''Do not put your faith in a cape and a hood<br>
''They will not protect you the way that they should<br>
''And take extra care with strangers<br>
''Even flowers have their dangers<br>
''And though scary is exciting<br>
''Nice is different than good.
*"No One Is Alone" (Cinderella)
"Sometimes people leave you halfway through the woods.<br>
Do not let it grieve you, no one leaves for good.<br>
You are not alone, believe me.<br>
No one is alone."
==Samples==
*[[Media:EverAfter.ogg|Download sample]] of "Ever After"
[[Category:Musicals]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Isaac Klein</title>
<id>15342</id>
<revision>
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<timestamp>2006-01-29T03:41:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pinktulip</username>
<id>739543</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Isaac Klein''' ([[1905]]-[[1979]]). During [[World War II]] [[Rabbi]] Klein served as a chaplain in the U.S. Army, and later served as a Conservative rabbi in [[Buffalo, New York]]. He was one of the outstanding halakhists of the movement, was president of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] from 1958-1960, a leading member of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards from 1948 until his death in 1979.
As a leading authority on [[halakha]] he authored many important [[Responsa|teshuvot (responsa)]], many of which were published in his influential "[[Responsa]] and Halakhic Studies". From the 1950s to 1970s, he wrote a comprehensive guide to [[halakha|Jewish law]] which was used to teach halakha at the [[Jewish Theological Seminary]] of America. In [[1979]] he assembled this into "A Guide to [[Jew]]ish Religious Practice", which is used by laypeople within [[Conservative Judaism]].
{{Judaism-bio-stub}}
==External links==
*[http://emanuelnyc.org/bulletin/archive/05.html About Klein's "A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice"]
*[http://learn.jtsa.edu/topics/diduknow/jrpguide/ Excerpts from "A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice"]
*[http://www.jbuff.com/ikle.htm Isaac Klein]
[[Category:1905 births|Klein, Isaac]]
[[Category:1979 deaths|Klein, Isaac]]
[[Category:Conservative rabbis|Klein, Isaac]]
[[Category:People from Buffalo, New York]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Intron</title>
<id>15343</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-25T23:01:03Z</timestamp>
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<username>SimonP</username>
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<minor />
<comment>{{Expandarticle}} to talk page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gene.png|right|thumbnail|270px|Diagram of the location of introns and exons within a gene.]]
[[Image:Exon-intron.jpg|right|thumbnail|350px|Simple illustration of exons and introns.]]
'''Introns''' (for intragenic regions) are sections of [[DNA]] within a [[gene]] that do not encode part of the [[protein]] that the gene produces, and are [[splicing (genetics)|spliced]] out of the [[mRNA]] that is [[transcription|transcribed]] from the gene before it is [[translation (genetics)|translated]]. Introns exist mainly in [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[cell (biology)|cells]]. The regions of a gene that remain in the spliced mRNA are called [[exon]]s. The number and length of introns varies widely among [[species]]. For example, the [[pufferfish]] ''Takifugu rubripes'' has little intronic DNA. Mammals and flowering plants, on the other hand, have numerous introns, which are often much longer than the nearby exons.
Introns sometimes allow for [[alternative splicing]] of a gene, so that several different proteins that share some sections in common can be produced from a single gene. The control of mRNA splicing, and hence of which alternative is produced, is performed by a wide variety of signal molecules.
Introns also sometimes contain "old code," sections of a gene that were probably once translated into protein but which are now discarded.
While most of the sequence in any given intron is [[junk DNA]] with no known function, several short sequences that are important for efficient splicing are known. The exact mechanism for these ''intronic splicing enhancers'' is not well understood, but it is thought that they serve as binding sites on the transcript for proteins that stabilize the [[spliceosome]]. It is also possible that RNA [[secondary structure]] formed by intronic sequences may have an effect on splicing.
The discovery of introns lead to the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in [[1993]] for [[Phillip Allen Sharp]] and [[Richard J. Roberts]].
Some introns such as Group I and Group II introns are actually [[ribozyme]]s that are capable of [[catalysis|catalyzing]] their own splicing out of the primary RNA transcript. This self splicing was discovered by [[Thomas Cech]] who shared the [[1989]] [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] with [[Sidney Altman]] for the discovery of the catalytic properties of RNA.
==Intron evolution==
There are two competing theories as to the [[evolution]]ary origin of introns, which is usually studied in a highly conserved family of genes such as the [[actin]]s. In the introns-early model ancestral genes are believed to have included a large number of introns, some of which have been lost over evolutionary time, leading to the different but similar intron patterns in related genes of different species. The introns-late model suggests instead that introns occur in the same location in variants of a given gene because the location is in some way predisposed to the introduction of an intron, and therefore that a similar intron pattern may arise in two different species by a form of [[convergent evolution]].
==See also==
*[[Selfish DNA]]
*[[Noncoding DNA]]
*[[Intein]]
*[[alternate splicing]]
==Reference==
#[[Walter Gilbert]] (1978 Feb 9) "Why Genes In Pieces?" ''Nature'' '''271''' (5645):501.
[[Category:Gene expression]]
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explain to the public why it should choose one model over another.
The costs involved in making such a wide variety of products, coupled with some highly-publicized product recalls and the growing popularity of Microsoft Windows, all lead to the near-bankruptcy of Apple in the mid-to-late 1990s.
=== 1994 to 1997 - Attempts at reinvention ===
By the mid-1990s, Apple realized that it had to reinvent the Macintosh in order to stay competitive in the computer world. The needs of both computer users and computer programs were becoming, for a variety of technical reasons, harder for the existing hardware and operating system to address.
In 1994, Apple surprised its loyalists by allying with its long-time competitor IBM and Motorola in the so-called [[AIM alliance]]. This was a bid to create a new computing platform (the [[PowerPC Reference Platform]] or PReP) which would use IBM and [[Motorola]] hardware coupled with Apple's software. The AIM alliance hoped that PReP's performance and Apple's software would leave the PC far behind, thus countering Microsoft, which had become Apple's chief competitor.
Towards this end, Apple tried to recruit other companies that would build PReP-compliant computers. Apple hoped to expand the Mac OS market share by licensing the operating system to these other companies, like Microsoft had promoted DOS and Windows by licensing them to external manufacturers. Only a few companies--notably [[Power Computing]] and [[UMAX]]--agreed to produce these computers. But eventually the licensing program was suspended.
As the first step toward launching the PReP platform, Apple started the [[Power Macintosh]] line in 1994, using IBM's [[PowerPC]] processor. This processor utilized a [[RISC]] architecture, which differed substantially from the Motorola [[68k]] series that had been used by all previous Macs. Apple's OS's were rewritten so that most software for the older Macs could run on the PowerPC series (in [[emulation]]).
Also throughout the mid to late 1990s, Apple tried to improve its operating system's multitasking and memory management. After first attempting to modify its existing code, Apple realized that it would be better to start with an entirely new operating system and then modify it to fit the Macintosh interface. Apple did some preliminary work with IBM towards this goal with the [[Taligent]] project, but that project never produced a replacement operating system. They then investigated using [[Be Incorporated|Be]]'s [[BeOS]], [[NeXT]]'s [[NeXTstep]] OS, and also Microsoft's [[Windows NT]] OS. NeXTstep was chosen, and this supplied the platform for the modern OS X.
On [[February 4]], [[1997]], Apple completed its purchase of NeXT and its NeXTstep operating system, thus bringing Steve Jobs back into Apple. On [[July 9]], [[1997]], [[Gil Amelio]] was ousted as CEO of Apple by the board of directors after overseeing a 12-year record-low stock price and crippling financial losses, despite an outstanding decade of innovation. Jobs stepped in as the interim CEO and began a critical restructuring of the company's product line.
===1998 to 2005 - New beginnings===
[[Image:Steve Jobs with iMac.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Steve Jobs]] introducing the original [[iMac]] computer in 1998.]]
In 1998, a year after Jobs had returned to the company, Apple introduced a new all-in-one Macintosh (echoing the original [[Macintosh 128K]]): the [[iMac]], a new design that eliminated most Apple-standard connections like [[SCSI]] and [[Apple Desktop Bus|ADB]] in favor of two [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] ports. While technically not impressive (it was aimed at a general market), it featured an innovative new design - its translucent plastic case, originally [[Bondi blue (color)|Bondi Blue]] and [[white]], and later many other colors, is considered an industrial design hallmark of the late-[[1990s|90s]].
The iMac design team was led by Jonathan Ive (who later also designed the iPod). The iMac proved to be phenomenally successful, with 800,000 units sold in 1998, making the company a profit that year of $309 million - Apple's first profitable year since [[Michael Spindler]] took the position of CEO of the company in 1993. The Power Macintosh was redesigned along similar lines, and continues to evolve to this day.
At the [[National Association of Broadcasters]] Apple purchased the Final Cut software from [[Macromedia]], beginning their entry into the [[digital video]] editing market. [[iMovie]] was released in [[1999]], for consumers, and [[Final Cut Pro]] was released for professionals in the same year. Final Cut Pro has gone on to be a significant video editing program. Similarly, in [[2000]], Apple bought [[Astarte]]'s DVDirector software, which morphed into [[iDVD]] (for consumers) and [[DVD Studio Pro]] (for professionals) at the [[Macworld Conference and Expo]] of [[2001]].
In 2001, Apple introduced [[Mac OS X]], the operating system based on NeXT's [[NEXTSTEP|NeXTstep]] and [[BSD]] Unix. Aimed at consumers and professionals alike, Apple claims that OS X marries stability, reliability and security of the [[Unix]] operating system with the ease of a completely overhauled user interface. To aid users in moving their applications from OS 9, the new operating system allowed the use of [[Mac OS 9]] applications through OS X's [[Classic (Mac OS X)|Classic environment]]. Apple's [[Carbon (API)|Carbon]] API also allowed developers to adapt their OS 9 software to use Mac OS X's features with a (claimed) simple re-compile.
[[Image:Applecomputerheadquarters.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Company headquarters on [[Infinite Loop (street)|Infinite Loop]] in [[Cupertino]], [[California]].]]
In May 2001, after much speculation, Apple announced the opening of the [[Apple Store (retail)|Apple retail store]]s, to be located in major U.S. consumer locations. These stores were designed for two purposes: to stem the tide of Apple's declining share of the computer market and to counter a poor record of marketing Apple products by third-party retail outlets.
In late 2001, Apple introduced its first [[iPod]] portable [[digital audio player]], a move that has proven to be phenomenally successful with over 42 million units sold even though it was not originally perceived to be a successful product.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4625262.stm BBC News story on Apple's first quarter 2006 earnings report]</ref> Combined with a scheme to offer downloadable songs at US 99 cents per song through Apple's [[ITunes Music Store|iTunes Music Store]], there had been over [http://www.apple.com/itunes/1billion/ 1,000,000,000] downloads for iPod players by February 2006<ref>[http://www.apple.com/quicktime/qtv/mwsf06/ Steve Jobs' January 2006 MacWorld keynote address]</ref>.
In [[2002]], Apple purchased [[Nothing Real]], and their advanced digital compositing application, [[Shake (software)|Shake]], raising Apple's professional commitment even higher. In the same year they also acquired [[Emagic]], and with it, obtained their professional-quality music productivity application, [[Logic Pro|Logic]], which led to the development of their consumer-level [[GarageBand]] application. With [[iPhoto]]'s release in 2002 as well, this completed Apple's collection of consumer and professional level creativity software, with the consumer-level applications being collected together into the [[iLife]] suite.
On March 10, 2005 Apple Computer announced its support for [[Sony]]'s [[Blu-Ray]] technology and joined the [[Blu-ray Disc Association]], or BDA. In a keynote address on [[June 6]], [[2005]], Steve Jobs officially announced that Apple would begin producing Intel-based Macintosh computers beginning in 2006.<ref>Apple press release [http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/jun/06intel.html Apple to Use Intel Microprocessors Beginning in 2006]</ref> Jobs confirmed [[Mac rumors community|rumor]]s that the company had secretly been producing versions of its current operating system [[Mac OS X]] for both PowerPC and Intel processors for the previous five years, and that the transition to Intel processor systems would last until the end of 2007.
Jobs surprised the industry at Macworld 2006 however, by announcing the first Intel based Apple computers would begin selling January 2006 and that the transition would be complete by the end of that same year. Mac OS X is based on [[OPENSTEP]], an operating system originally available for many platforms. Apple's own [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]], the [[open source]] underpinnings of OS X, is also compiled for Intel's ''x''86 architecture.<ref>See articles from [http://news.com.com/Apple+shakes+hands+with+Intel/2009-1006_3-5733319.html news.com], [http://www.appleinsider.com/article.php?id=1112 Apple insider], and [http://nytimes.com/2005/06/06/technology/06apple.html The New York Times]</ref>
With the introduction of the [[Power Mac G5]] in [[June 2003]], Apple abandoned flashy colors in favor of white [[polycarbonate]] for consumer lines such as the iMac and iBook, as well as the educational [[eMac]], and anodized [[aluminum]] or [[titanium]] for professional products like the [[Power Mac G5]], [[PowerBook G4]] and [[MacBook Pro]], as well as the low-cost [[Mac mini]].
[[Image:MacBook.jpg|right|thumb|The new [[MacBook Pro]] is Apple's first consumer laptop with an Intel microprocessor.]]
===2006 to present - Start of the Intel era===
{{main|Apple Intel transition}}
On [[January 10]], [[2006]], Apple released its first [[Intel]] chip computers, a new [[notebook computer]] known as the [[MacBook Pro]] (a 15.4 inch laptop which replaced the [[PowerBook]] G4 line and offers a 4X speed improvement) and a new (though identical) [[iMac]] with a 2-3 times faster performance increase. Both used Intel's [[Intel Core|Core Duo]] chip technology.
The current operating system, OS X Tiger 10.4(.5), runs natively on the new Intel machines, as do many applications |
vent extraction]] technique, or by the reduction of its anhydrous fluoride with metallic [[calcium]].
== Compounds ==
Compounds of gadolinium include:
* [[Fluoride]]s
** [[gadolinium(III) fluoride|GdF<sub>3</sub>]]
* [[Chloride]]s
** [[gadolinium(III) chloride|GdCl<sub>3</sub>]]
* [[Bromide]]s
** [[gadolinium(III) bromide|GdBr<sub>3</sub>]]
* [[Iodide]]s
** [[gadolinium(III) iodide|GdI<sub>3</sub>]]
* [[Oxide]]s
** [[gadolinium(III) oxide|Gd<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>]]
* [[Sulfide]]s
** [[gadolinium(III) sulfide|Gd<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub>]]
* [[Nitride]]s
** [[gadolinium(III) nitride|GdN]]
== Isotopes ==
Naturally occurring gadolinium is composed of 5 stable [[isotope]]s, <sup>154</sup>Gd, <sup>155</sup>Gd, <sup>156</sup>Gd, <sup>157</sup>Gd and <sup>158</sup>Gd, and 2 [[radioisotope]]s, <sup>152</sup>Gd and <sup>160</sup>Gd, with <sup>158</sup>Gd being the most abundant (24.84% [[natural abundance]]). 30 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized with the most stable being <sup>160</sup>Gd with a [[half-life]] of more than 1.3&times;10<sup>21</sup> years (the decay is not observed, only the lower limit on the half-life is known), alpha-decaying <sup>152</sup>Gd with a half-life of 1.08&times;10<sup>14</sup> years, and <sup>150</sup>Gd with a half-life of 1.79&times;10<sup>6</sup> years. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 74.7 years, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 24.6 seconds. This element also has 4 [[meta state]]s with the most stable being <sup>143m</sup>Gd (t<sub>½</sub> 110 seconds), <sup>145m</sup>Gd (t<sub>½</sub> 85 seconds) and <sup>141m</sup>Gd (t<sub>½</sub> 24.5 seconds).
The primary [[decay mode]] before the most abundant stable isotope, <sup>158</sup>Gd, is [[electron capture]] and the primary mode after is [[beta minus decay]]. The primary [[decay product]]s before <sup>158</sup>Gd are element Eu ([[Europium]]) isotopes and the primary products after are element Tb ([[Terbium]]) isotopes.
== Precautions ==
As with the other lanthanides, gadolinium compounds are of low to moderate [[toxicity]], although their toxicity has not been investigated in detail.
== References ==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/64.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Gadolinium]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Gadolinium}}
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Gd/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Gadolinium]
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele064.html It's Elemental &ndash; Gadolinium]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>German Unity Day</title>
<id>12244</id>
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<id>40111404</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T05:20:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobby1011</username>
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<comment>removed sweeping general statement about "other countries".</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Day of German Unity''' (''Tag der Deutschen Einheit''), [[October 3]], is a national holiday in [[Germany]] celebrating [[German reunification]] in [[1990]].
The natural choice would have been the day the [[Berlin Wall]] came down, namely [[November 9]], [[1989]], which happily coincided with the anniversary of the founding of the first real German [[Republic]] in [[1918]] and the sound defeat of [[Hitler]]'s first [[Beer Hall Putsch|coup]] in [[1923]], which gave that republic another decade; however November 9 was also the anniversary of the first large-scale Nazi-led [[pogrom]]s against [[Jew]]s in [[1938]] (so called ''[[Kristallnacht]]''), and the day was thus considered inappropriate as a national holiday. Thus, October 3, 1990, the day of formal reunion was chosen instead.
Before reunification, in Western Germany the "Day of German Unity" was [[June 17]]; this was a somewhat propagandistic interpretation of a failed [[1953]] revolt staged by East German workers mainly against a raise in work quotas. The revolt was crushed with Soviet aid; the exact number of fatalities is unknown, but estimated at somewhat above 100. In East Germany, the national holiday was [[October 7]].
== See also ==
* [[East Germany]]
** [[Uprising of 1953 in East Germany]]
** [[Straße des 17. Juni]]
* [[West Germany]]
* [http://www.germany-info.org/relaunch/info/publications/infocus/15yrs_Reunification/ German Embassy Publication, Infocus:German Unity Day]
{{Germany-stub}}
[[de:Tag der Deutschen Einheit]]
[[no:Tag der Deutschen Einheit]]
[[nn:Tag der Deutschen Einheit]]
[[pt:Dia da Unificação da Alemanha]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gerhard Schroeder</title>
<id>12245</id>
<revision>
<id>23450424</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-18T08:08:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jwissick</username>
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<comment>RV</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gerhard Schröder]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alliance '90/The Greens</title>
<id>12246</id>
<revision>
<id>41089804</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T23:58:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>63.231.134.31</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_German_Political_Party |
party_name = Bündnis 90/Die Grünen |
party_logo = [[Image:Greens-Logo ne4.jpg|170px|Greens logo]] |
party_wikicolourid = B9G |
leader = [[Claudia Roth]] and [[Reinhard Bütikofer]]|
foundation = 1979 (''The Greens'')<br>1993 (Merger of ''The Greens'' and ''Alliance '90'') |
ideology = [[Green politics|Green]] |
international = [[Global Greens]] |
european = [[European Green Party]] |
europarl = [[European Greens - European Free Alliance|Greens / EFA]] |
colours = [[Green]]|
headquarters = Platz vor dem Neuen Tor 1<br>10115 [[Berlin]] |
website = [http://www.gruene.de http://www.gruene.de]
}}
'''''Bündnis 90/Die Grünen''''' (literally: Alliance '90/The Greens), the [[Germany|German]] [[Worldwide green parties|Green Party]], is a [[political party]] in [[Germany]] whose regional predecessors were founded in the late [[1970s]] as part of the new [[social movement]]s. In 1980 the party was founded as "Die Grünen" on a federal level in West Germany. It is the oldest and thus far the most politically successful of the world's many green parties. In 1989 and 1990 numerous civil rights groups in East Germany combined to form "Bündnis 90", which merged with "Die Grünen" in 1993. Bündnis 90/Die Grünen were part of the national [[coalition government]] between 1998 and October 2005.
== History ==
===1970s: Foundation===
<!-- I put all images here to get some sort of continuous gallery at the right border of the article -->
[[image:Greens-DCP01355.jpg|230px|thumb|right|Photo taken at 2001 party convention]][[image:Greens-DCP01369.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Photo taken at 2001 party convention]][[Image:Cohn-bendit.jpg|thumb|230px|Daniel Cohn-Bendit and Rebecca Harms at the "Political Ash Wednesday" 2004 in Biberach/Riss]][[Image:GruenenVelotaxi20050813 CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|230px|thumb|right|A bicycle-taxi (velotaxi) in front of the German Bundestag in Berlin with the Alliance '90/The Greens livery for the [[German federal election, 2005]].]][[Image:Gruene-Ja-Plakat-gen-food1.jpg|thumb|230px|right|2005 election placard against GMOs]][[Image:Bdk-oldenburg-2005-kuenast.jpg|thumb|230px|right|Federal party convention in Oldenburg; Renate Künast speaking (2005)]]
In the late 1970s, [[environmentalist]]s and peace activists organized politically as ''The Greens'' ('''''Die Grünen'''''). Opposition to [[pollution]], expanded use of [[Nuclear reactor|nuclear power]], [[NATO]] strategy, and certain aspects of life in a highly industrialized society were principal campaign issues. Important figures in the first years were &mdash; among others &mdash; [[Rudi Dutschke]], [[ Heinrich Böll]], [[Petra Kelly]] and [[Joseph Beuys]].
===1980s: Parliamentary representation on the federal level===
In 1982 the more right-wing parts of the party broke away to form the [[Ecological Democratic Party]]. Those who remained in the Green party were more strongly anti-military and against restrictions on immigration and abortion, while supporting the decriminalization of marijuana use, placing a higher priority on working for the rights of gays and lesbians, and tending to advocate what they described as "anti-authoritarian" concepts of education and child-raising. They also tended to identify more closely with a culture of protest and civil disobedience, frequently clashing with police at demonstrations against atomic weapons, nuclear power, or the construction of a new runway (''Startbahn West'') at [[Frankfurt airport]]. Those who left the party at the time might have felt similarly about some of these issues, but did not identify culturally with the forms of protest in which Green Party members took part.
After some success at [[States of Germ |
) was the only one in existence, though Brian Howard and Dan Kottke had already begun wire-wrapping their own. By this time Tribble had already written a boot ROM which filled the screen with the proverbial "hello", a 32 pixel-wide bitmap which demonstrated the Macintosh's sharp video. The final Mac design was self-contained and had far more programming code in [[read-only memory|ROM]] than most other computers; it had 128KB of RAM, in the form of sixteen, 64-[[Kilobit|Kbit]] RAM chips soldered to the [[motherboard|logicboard]]. Though there were no memory slots, it was expandable to 512KB of RAM by means of soldering sixteen 256-Kbit RAM chips in place of the factory-installed chips. This was thanks to Burrell Smith's clever work: he routed a few extra lines on the PC board, making the 256-Kbit chips on the horizon useable in the Mac. This meant adventurous Mac users could upgrade their "Mac 128K" to 512KB of RAM without buying a whole new machine. [[Steve Jobs]] was utterly against this at the time (because he didn't want people "mucking around inside the Mac" and because he wanted them to buy the 512K Mac after it came out), but Burrell slipped it in quickly and no one told Jobs, to the benefit of Macintosh owners.
[[Image:Ad apple 1984 4.png|200px|left|thumb|The announcer's dialogue in Apple’s [[1984 (television commercial)|1984 ad]] scrolls across the screen as he says it. The text advertises that the Macintosh would defeat the "[[Orwellian]]" dominance of PCs.]]
The innovative design caught the attention of Steve Jobs, the co-founder of Apple. Realizing that the Macintosh was more marketable than the Lisa, he began to focus his attention on the project. Raskin finally left the Macintosh project in 1981 over a personality conflict with Jobs, and the final Macintosh design is said to be closer to Jobs’ ideas than Raskin’s<ref>[http://www.folklore.org/StoryView.py?story=The_Father_of_The_Macintosh.txt Andy Hertzfeld: The father of the Macintosh], retrieved [[November 19]], [[2005]]</ref>. After hearing about the pioneering graphical user interface (GUI) technology being developed at Xerox PARC, Steve Jobs negotiated a visit to see the [[Xerox Alto]] computer and [[Smalltalk]] development tools in exchange for Apple stock options. The Lisa and Macintosh user interfaces were clearly influenced by the one designed at Xerox. Jobs also commissioned industrial designer [[Hartmut Esslinger]] to work on the Macintosh line, resulting in the [[Snow White design language|"Snow White" design language]]; although it came too late for the earliest Macs, it was implemented in most other mid- to late-1980s Apple computers<ref>[http://www.landsnail.com/apple/local/design/design2.html History of computer design: Snow White], retrieved [[November 9]], [[2005]]</ref>. However, Jobs’ leadership at the Macintosh project was short lived; after an internal power struggle with Apple’s new CEO [[John Sculley]], Jobs resigned from Apple in 1985, went on to found [[NeXT]], another computer company, and did not return until 1997. Sculley completely undermined what the Mac team had been trying to do with the price of the Macintosh, when he artificially inflated the Mac's price from $1,995 to $2,495. The Mac team had been working incredibly hard to keep down the price in every aspect of its design, but neither Jobs nor anyone else was able to convince him otherwise, and the Mac launched at $2,495- twenty-five percent higher than intended.
The Macintosh was officially announced on [[January 22]], [[1984]], with the now-famous [[1984 (television commercial)|1984 Super Bowl commercial]] directed by Ridley Scott. The Mac itself was officially introduced and went on sale on [[January 24]], [[1984]] for a retail price of $2,495, bundled with two useful programs designed to show off its interface: [[MacWrite]] and [[MacPaint]]. Although the Mac garnered an immediate, enthusiastic following, it was too radical for some. Because the machine was entirely designed around the GUI, existing text-mode and [[command line interface|command-driven program]]s had to be redesigned and rewritten; this was a challenging undertaking that many [[software developer]]s shied away from, and resulted in an initial lack of software for the new system. Many users, accustomed to the arcane world of command lines, labeled the Mac a mere "toy." In 2004, twenty years later, Apple irked some long-time Mac users by rerunning the 1984 commercial on its website, with an Apple iPod digitally inserted, worn by the woman, played by [[Anya Major]].
=== 1985–89: The desktop publishing era ===
In 1985, the combination of the Mac, Apple’s [[LaserWriter]] printer, and Mac-specific software like Boston Software's MacPublisher and [[Adobe PageMaker|Aldus PageMaker]] (now Adobe PageMaker) enabled users to design, preview, and print page layouts complete with text and graphics, an activity known as [[desktop publishing]]. Desktop publishing was unique to the Macintosh, but eventually became available for PC users as well. Later, programs such as [[Macromedia FreeHand]], [[QuarkXPress]] and [[Adobe Illustrator]] strengthened the Mac's position as a graphics computer and helped to expand the emerging desktop publishing market.
The limitations of the first Mac soon became clear: it had very little memory, even compared with other personal computers in 1984, and could not be expanded easily; and it lacked a [[Hard disk|hard drive]] and the means to attach one easily. Although by 1985 the Mac’s base memory had increased to 512KB, and it was possible, although inconvenient and difficult, to expand the memory of a 128KB Mac, Apple realized that the Mac needed improvement in these areas. The result was the [[Macintosh Plus]], released in 1986. It offered one megabyte of RAM, expandable to four, and a then-revolutionary [[SCSI]] parallel interface, allowing up to seven peripherals&mdash;such as hard drives and scanners&mdash;to be attached to the machine. Its [[floppy drive]] was increased to 800-kilobyte capacity. The Plus was an immediate success and remained in production for four years.
[[Image:Macintosh II.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The [[Macintosh II]], the first expandable Macintosh.]]
Other issues remained, particularly the low processor speed and limited graphics ability, which had hobbled the Mac’s ability to make inroads into the business computing market. Updated [[Motorola]] [[Central processing unit|CPUs]] made a faster machine possible, and in 1987 Apple took advantage of the new Motorola technology and introduced the [[Macintosh II]], which used a 16MHz [[Motorola 68020]] processor. This marked the start of a new direction for the Macintosh, as now, for the first time, it had open architecture with several expansion slots, support for color graphics and a modular break out design similar to that of the IBM PC and inspired by Apple's other line, the expandable Apple II series. Alongside the Macintosh II, the [[Macintosh SE]] was released, the first compact Mac with an internal expansion slot. (SE aptly stood for System Expansion.) The SE shared the Macintosh II’s "Snow White" design language, as well as the new [[Apple Desktop Bus]] mouse and keyboard that had first appeared on the [[Apple IIGS|Apple II<small>GS</small>]] some months earlier.
With the new [[Motorola 68030]] processor came the [[Macintosh IIx]] in 1988, which had benefited from internal improvements, including an on-board [[memory management unit|MMU]]. It was followed in 1989 by a more compact version with fewer slots (the [[Macintosh IIcx]]) and a version of the Mac SE powered by the 16MHz 68030 (the [[Macintosh SE/30]]). Later that year, the [[Macintosh IIci]], running at 25MHz, was the first Mac to be "[[Mac OS memory management#32-bit clean|32-bit clean]]", allowing it to natively support more than 8MB of RAM, unlike its predecessors, which had "32-bit dirty" ROMs. [[System 7 (Macintosh)|System 7]] was the first Macintosh operating system to support 32-bit addressing. Apple also introduced the [[Macintosh Portable]], a 16MHz 68000 machine with an active matrix [[Active-matrix liquid crystal display|flat panel display]]. The following year the 40MHz [[Macintosh IIfx]], costing $13,000, was unveiled. Apart from its fast processor, it had significant internal architectural improvements, including faster memory and a pair of dedicated [[Input/output|I/O]] (input/output) coprocessors.
=== 1990–98: Growth and decline ===
[[Image:Macintosh classic.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Macintosh Classic]], Apple’s early 1990s budget model.]]
[[Windows 3.0|Microsoft Windows 3.0]], widely seen as the first version of Windows to challenge the Mac in both performance and feature set, was released in May 1990 and was a usable, less expensive alternative to the Macintosh platform. Apple’s response was to introduce a range of relatively inexpensive Macs in October 1990. The [[Macintosh Classic]], essentially a less expensive version of the Macintosh SE, sold for $999, making it the least expensive Mac until the re-release (and subsequent price cut) of the 400MHz iMac in February 2001. The 68020-powered [[Macintosh LC]], in its distinctive "pizza box" case, was available for $1800; it offered color graphics and was accompanied by a new, low-cost 512 × 384-pixel monitor. The [[Macintosh IIsi]], essentially a 20MHz IIci with only one expansion slot, cost $2500. All three machines sold well, although Apple’s profit margin was considerably lower than on earlier machines.
1991 saw the much-anticipated release of System 7, a 32-bit rewrite of the [[Mac OS|Macintosh operating system]] that improved its handling of color graphics, memory addressing, networking, and [[computer multitasking|multitasking]], and introduced [[virtual memory]]. Later that year, Apple introduced the [[Macintosh Quadra]] 700 |
immediate harm.{{ref|myths}}
A 2005 experiment by the [[American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry]] found the [[pH]] of the mouth to be 5.5, 5.6, and 5.7 in 5, 10, and 20 minutes (respectively) after swishing 15 mL in the mouth for one minute. None of those are in the critical range to damage [[tooth enamel]]. [[Diet Coke]] was found to be slightly less acidic. [http://www.aapd.org/searcharticles/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=326]
The impartiality of this experiment can be reasonably questioned. In 2003 the American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry took a grant of $1m dollars from Coca-Cola to fund educational research.
[http://www.corpwatch.org/article.php?id=5770]
The drink has also aroused criticism for its use of phosphoric acid{{ref|Bone}}. For more, see [[Phosphoric acid#Biological_effects_on_bone_calcium|phosphoric acid in food]].
=====High Fructose Corn Syrup=====
Since the late-[[1980s]] in the U.S., Coke has been made with [[high fructose corn syrup]] instead of sugar glucose/fructose, except [[Kosher for Passover]] Coke which can't be made with high fructose corn syrup. This was done largely due to the prices of sugar increasing during these times. There are some groups who criticize this move to use high fructose corn syrup over sugar due to the fact that the corn in which the corn syrup is maintained may come from genetically altered plants.
====As a political and corporate symbol====
The Coca-Cola drink has a high degree of identification with the United States itself, being considered an "American brand" or to a small extent as representing America (compare [[Mickey Mouse]]). The drink is also often a [[metonymy|metonym]] for the Coca-Cola Company. The identification with the spread of American culture has led to the pun [http://www.google.com/search?safe=off&q=%22coca-colonisation%22+OR+%22coca-colanisation%22+OR+%22coca-colonization%22+OR+%22coca-colanization%22 "Coca-Colonisation"].
As part of their 2005 "Experience The Experience" tour, art group [[monochrom]] created a [http://www.monochrom.at/experiences/coke.htm 'Brick Of Coke']: they put several gallons of Coca-Cola into a pot and boiled it down until the residue left behind could be molded into a brick. The performance and talk dealt with the sugar industry and other multinational corporation policies and Coca-Cola as a symbol of corporate power.
=====Middle East and U.S. foreign policy=====
Critics claim Coca-Cola is less popular in Arab countries due to disapproval of U.S. foreign policy in Israel and elsewhere.[http://www.inminds.co.uk/boycott-coca-cola.html] They additionally cite the example of [[Mecca Cola]] which has become a hit in the past few years. However, these claims conflict with marketshare data. In the Middle East, the only region in the world where Coca-Cola is not the number one soda drink, Coca-Cola nonetheless holds almost 25% marketshare and had double-digit growth in [[2003]].[http://www.ameinfo.com/37492.html]
=====Sudan Sanctions=====
The Sudan office was inaugurated by G. N. Ghines back in 1995, when he assumed the position of Country Manager, till 1997. In Oct. 6th, 1997 the former Secretary of State Ms Albright announced the sanctions that would take place against Sudan, effective Nov 6th, 1997. Mr. Ghines had to close down office and move to Yemen where he launched Coca-Cola for the second time.{{citationneeded}}
=====India and Ingredients=====
Critics claim Coca-Cola is less popular in other places such as India, due to suspicions regarding the health standards of the drink. However, these claims conflict with marketshare data. As an example, in 2004 Coca-Cola India's market share was 60.9%.[http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1191706.cms]
The criticisms of Coca-Cola originating in India centre around the issue of water. One criticism is the level of pesticides and toxins in aerated water produced by the Coca-Cola Company and the second is the unsustainable nature of Coca-Cola's water extraction (see [[Mark Thomas]]). It takes 5 litres of water to produce 1 litre of Coca-Cola and, as such, factories in India have extracted water from aquifers at an unsustainable rate, damaging the local water supply and forcing local farmers to relocate.
In [[2003]], the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), a [[non-governmental organisation]] in [[New Dehli]], said aerated waters produced by soft drinks manufacturers in India, including multinational giants Pepsico and Coca-Cola, contained toxins including [[lindane]], [[DDT]], [[malathion]] and [[chlorpyrifos]] — [[pesticides]] that can contribute to cancer and a breakdown of the immune system. Tested products included Coke, Pepsi, [[Seven Up]], [[Mirinda]], [[Fanta]], [[Thums Up]], [[Limca]], [[Sprite (soft drink)|Sprite]]
CSE found that the Indian produced Pepsi's soft drink products had 36 times the level of pesticide residues permitted under [[European Union]] regulations; Coca Cola's 30 times. CSE said it had tested the same products in the US and found no such residues.
Coca Cola and PepsiCo angrily denied allegations that their products manufactured in India contained toxin levels far above the norms permitted in the developed world. But an Indian parliamentary committee in 2004 backed up CSE's findings and a government-appointed committee is now trying to develop the world's first pesticide standards for soft drinks. Coke and PepsiCo oppose the move, arguing that lab tests aren't reliable enough to detect minute traces of pesticides in complex drinks like soda.
Coke's David Cox, Coke's Hong Kong-based communications director for Asia, accuses Sunita Narain, CSE's director, of "brandjacking," using Coke's brand name to draw attention to her campaign against pesticides. Ms. Narain says CSE's study of pesticide residues in soft drinks was a natural follow-up to a previous study it did on bottled water.[http://www.indiaresource.org/news/2005/1062.html]
In [[2004]], Coca-Cola was described as being experimentally used as a pesticide by [[India]] farmers in [[Andhra Pradesh]].{{ref|grow}} However, it was later revealed to be a publicity stunt by local activists and farmers.[http://www.indiaresource.org/news/2005/1062.html]
Coca-Cola had registered a 15 percent drop in sales after the pesticide allegations were made in 2003. As of 2005, Coke and Pepsi together hold 95% market share of soft-drink sales in India.[http://www.indiaresource.org/news/2005/1062.html]
''See [[#Business practices]] section for environmental impact discussions.''
=====Colombia and International Boycott=====
{{wikinews|Colombian unions reiterate their accusations against Coca Cola}}
In Summer [[2003]], Colombian trade Union SINALTRAINAL called for an international boycott of Coca-Cola products because of intimidation, kidnapping and murder of workers in Coca Cola bottling plants by paramilitaries who were allegedly acting on behalf of the Coca Cola Company in order to drive down wages in Colombia. [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/051104.html] SINALTRAINAL's boycott followed the removal of the Coca-Cola Company from SINALTRAINAL's lawsuit, see the [[#Business practices]] section.''
===Business practices===
''Main article: [[Coca-Cola Company#Criticisms|Coca-Cola Company: Criticisms]]''
As the largest seller of soft drinks in the world, including its flagship Coca-Cola drink, the Coca-Cola Company has been criticized for some of its corporate actions, from issues such as [[monopolistic]] practices, reliance on low [[health]] standards, [[racist]] employment practices, the privatization of water supplies, to the abuse of workers' rights, including the [[assassination]] of [[trade union|union]] members. There are many criticisms of both the company's products and trade practices.
*A number of universities in [[Canada]], the [[United Kingdom|UK]], the [[United States|U.S.]] and [[Ireland]] boycott Coca-Cola products for concerns over [[human rights abuse]]s. ''For details on the boycotts, see the [[Coca-Cola Company]] page.
*In [[India]], the corporation has provoked a number of [[boycott]]s and [[protest]]s as a result of its perceived low standards of hygiene and adverse impact on the [[natural environment|environment]]. [http://soundingcircle.com/newslog2.php/__show_article/_a000195-000728.htm]
*In [[Colombia]], the company has been accused by Colombian trade Union SINALTRAINAL of [[human rights]] violations. Specifically, The [[Coca-Cola Company]] and its bottlers are accused of directing or tolerating the actions of paramilitaries against their workers in order to prevent them from setting up trade unions, resulting in some of the leaders of said attempted trade unions being murdered. With the help of the United Steelworkers of America, SINALTRAINAL filed a lawsuit in [[2001]]. In April [[2003]] District Judge Jose E Martinez in Miami excluded The Coca-Cola Company and its Colombian unit because its bottling agreement did not give it "explicit control" over labour issues in Colombia; in short, the [[Coca-Cola Company]] was dismissed from the case.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/2909141.stm] The lawsuit is continuing against the bottlers, [[Panamco]] and Colombian bottler Bebidas y Alimentos. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/2909141.stm]) ''(For information on SINATRAINAL's boycott following the removal, see the [[#As a political and corporate symbol]] section.)''
''Main article: [[Coca-Cola Company#Praises|Coca-Cola Company: Praises]]''
Coca Cola's positive business contributions following some of these criticisms include:
* Promoting Diversity: Awards including "50 Best Companies for Minorities" by Fortune Magazine in 2004 and ""50 Best Companies for Latinas to Work for in the U.S." by Latina Style in 2004. Coca-Cola offers domestic partner health benefits and its non-discrimination policy includes sexual orientation.
* HIV / AIDS in Africa: Coca-Cola |
intention is to have this clone carry on his genes into future generations.
* 1965: An extremely tangential adaptation is [[Ishiro Honda]]'s [[1965]] [[tokusatsu]] [[kaiju]] film ''[[Frankenstein Conquers the World]]'' (''Furankenshutain tai Chitei Kaijû Baragon''), produced by [[Toho|Toho Company Ltd]]. The film's prologue is set in [[World War II]], the monster's heart is stolen by [[Nazi]]s from the laboratory of Dr. Reisendorf in war-torn [[Frankfurt]], and taken to Imperial [[Japan]]. Immortal, the heart survives the atomic bombing of [[Hiroshima]] and is eaten by a savage child survivor . . . and after discovered by scientists in Present Day Japan, he feeds on protein, eventually growing into a giant humanoid monster that breaks loose and battles the subterranean monster [[Baragon]], which was destroying villages and devouring people and animals.
* 1965: ''[[Frankenstein Meets the Spacemonster]]''. Martians come to Earth to steal our women, with the goal of repopulating their planet. When they cause a NASA space craft to crash, the pilot (Captain Frank Saunders) becomes horribly disfigured. Becoming a "Frankenstein" like monster, it's up to him to save the women of Earth. A cult favorite, made popular because of the B-movie cliches: low budget, stock footage, monsters in bad rubber suits, and obligatory blondes in swimsuits.
* 1966: ''[[Jesse James Meets Frankenstein's Daughter]]''. Director [[William Beaudine]]'s Sci-Fi\Western contribution has what would actually be Frankenstein's ''grand''daughter, Maria Frankenstein, cobbling a monster out of [[Jesse James]]' ([[John Lupton]]) brawny partner-in-crime, Hank Tracy ([[Cal Bolder]]), after an ambush by the law. Frankenstein re-names her creation [[Igor]]. [[Narda Onyx]] plays Maria Frankenstein.
* 1966: ''[[War of the Gargantuas]]'' (''Furankenshutain no Kaijû: Sanda tai Gaira''), also directed by Honda, is a sequel to the above film (although this is obscured in the US version), with the Frankenstein Monster's severed cells growing into two giant humanoid brother monsters: [[Brown Gargantua|Sanda]] (the Brown Gargantua), the strong and gentle monster raised by scientists in his youth, and [[Green Gargantua|Gaira]] (the Green Gargantua), the violent and savage monster who devours humans. The two monsters eventually battle each other in [[Tokyo]].
* 1976: ''Victor Frankenstein'' (''The Terror of Frankenstein,'') was the first version to truly attempt to remain faithful to Mary Shelley's novel, though it was generally discarded as a failed and slow-moving attempt.
* 1981: Another Japanese version, this one animated, was ''Kyofu densetsu: Kaiki! Furankenshutain'' (called in the U.S. simply ''Frankenstein,'') released in 1981. In this violent, adult-oriented film, the Creature was portrayed as a sort of tragic superhero.
* 1985: ''[[The Bride (1985 film)|The Bride]]'' was an adaptation directed by [[Franc Roddam]]. It stars [[Clancy Brown]] as the monster, with rocker [[Sting]] as Dr. Charles Frankenstein. The plot features the Monster wandering about Europe with a tragic circus midget ([[David Rappaport]]) while the Doctor himself engages in a Pygmalion-inspired relationship with a female creation, the eponymous monster's bride played by [[Jennifer Beals]]. A love triangle between Doctor, Monster and Bride provides the film's pivotal conflict.
*1990: ''Frankenstein Unbound'' was a science fiction movie based on the novel by Brian Aldiss. In it, a scientist travels back in time to meet Victor Frankenstein and his Creature, as well as Mary Shelley herself.
* 1994: ''[[Mary Shelley's Frankenstein]]'' was directed by [[Kenneth Branagh]], who also portrayed Victor Frankenstein. It featured a star cast with [[Robert De Niro]] as the monster, [[Tom Hulce]] as Henry, [[John Cleese]] as Professor Waldman, [[Helena Bonham Carter]] as Elizabeth, and [[Aidan Quinn]] as Captain Robert Walton. As its title suggests, Branagh strived for an adaption faithful to Mary Shelley's original novel.
* 2004: ''[[Van Helsing]]''. This film was a reinvention of the famous Universal stable of monsters of the 1930s and 1940s. [[Shuler Hensley]] plays the Monster who, contrary to usual practice, is directly referred to by the name Frankenstein. The portrayal of the creature in this movie--intelligent, articulate and sympathetic--is somewhat close to the portrayal in the book.
===Trivia===
*Depictions of The Monster have varied widely, from mindless killing machines (as in many of the Hammer films) to the depiction of The Monster as a kind of [[tragic hero]] (closest to the Shelley version in behavior) in ''Mary Shelley's Frankenstein'' and ''Van Helsing''.
*Three films have depicted the genesis of the ''Frankenstein'' story in 1816: ''[[Gothic (film)|Gothic]]'' directed by [[Ken Russell]] ([[1986]]), ''[[Haunted Summer]]'' directed by [[Ivan Passer]] ([[1988]]) and ''[[Remando al viento]]'' (English title: ''Rowing with the Wind'') directed by [[Gonzalo Suárez]] (1988).
*Certainly among the goriest Frankenstein movies was [[Andy Warhol]]'s ''[[Flesh for Frankenstein]]'' from 1973 [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0071508/]. This film was paired with Warhol's ''[[Blood for Dracula]]''. Both of these movies were satirical in the overabundance of shock and gore.
*Victor Frankenstein studied in the Bavarian city of [[Ingolstadt]]. The medical department of the [[University of Ingolstadt|University]] was famous up to the year [[1800]], when the University was closed by royal order.
*The regeneration sequence of the seventh [[Doctor (Doctor Who)|Doctor]], [[Sylvester McCoy]], into the eighth incarnation, [[Paul McGann]], in the 1996 film, ''[[Doctor Who (1996)|Doctor Who]]'', is set in a hospital morgue. The night attendant at the morgue is watching the 1931 ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]'' in the next room, and scenes in which the monster is brought to life are intercut with images of the Doctor's "resurrection".
===Parodies and satires===
* The [[Mel Brooks]] and [[Gene Wilder]] comedy, ''[[Young Frankenstein]]'' (1974), borrows heavily from the first three Universal ''Frankenstein'' films, especially ''[[Son of Frankenstein]]''. The production used many of James Whale's original laboratory set pieces and employed the technical contributions of their original creator, [[Kenneth Strickfaden]].
*''[[The Rocky Horror Picture Show]]'' (1975) was a musical parody of the story. In this twisted comedic tale, Dr. Frank N. Furter creates a creature for his own pleasure and finds he cannot control the creature's lust.
* ''Frankenhooker'' (1990) is a parody of Universal's films in which Frankenstein gathers body parts from various streetwalkers in order to build the "perfect" woman.
==Television adaptations==
The Frankenstein story and its elements have been adapted many times for television:
* Universal produced a television sitcom from 1964 to 1966 for [[CBS]] entitled ''[[The Munsters]]'' with [[Fred Gwynne]] as [[Herman Munster]], a character physically resembling the Universal's cinematic depiction of Frankenstein's monster, who was the patriarch of a family of kindly monsters. The rest of the family included a grandfather resembling the Universal Dracula (who may actually ''be'' Dracula), a vampire wife, and a werewolf son. The Munsters' house at 1313 Mockingbird Lane can still be seen on the Universal Studios' backlot tour at Universal Studios in [[Universal City]], [[California]].
* An infamous half-hour segment of ''[[Tales of Tomorrow]]'' with Lon Chaney Jr. as the monster. This version, which was broadcast live, is notable for the fact that Chaney believed it to be a dress rehearsal rather than an actual broadcast, thereby resulting in what appeared to be bizarre behavior on the air. It has been suggested that Chaney was also inebriated at the time, but this has not been confirmed.
* An unaired pilot for a Hammer TV series called ''[[Tales of Frankenstein]]'' starring [[Anton Diffring]] as the Baron and [[Dan McGowan]] as the monster
* A British version from the 1960s with [[Ian Holm]] as the Creature
* Although not an adaptation of the story, an early 1960s episode of ''[[Route 66 (TV series)|Route 66]]'' saw Boris Karloff wearing his classic Frankenstein monster make-up one last time for a special Halloween episode.
* [[Milton the Monster]] (1965-1967) was a cartoon character developed shortly after The Munsters about a kind-hearted Frankenstain monster who famously "flipped his lid" (emitted steam like a whale's blowhole) when angered, and who was constantly nearly kicked out of the lab by his scheming creator.
* A 1973 Universal production, ''[[Frankenstein: The True Story]]'' was more an amalgamation of various concepts from previous films than a direct adaptation of the novel. It starred [[Leonard Whiting]] as Frankenstein and [[Michael Sarrazin]] as the Creature, with a star supporting cast including [[James Mason]], [[David McCallum]], [[John Gielgud]], [[Ralph Richardson]] and [[Jane Seymour]].
* [[Dan Curtis]]' 1973 adaptation with [[Robert Foxworth]] as Frankenstein and [[Bo Svenson]] as the Creature.
* A 1984 [[BBC]] version starring [[Robert Powell]] as Victor, [[David Warner (actor)|David Warner]] as his creature, and [[Carrie Fisher]] as the doomed Elizabeth.
* A 1992 production for the [[United States|American]] [[Turner Network Television|TNT]] cable network, with [[Patrick Bergin]] as Victor and [[Randy Quaid]] as his hapless creation.
* A 2004 adaptation of the Frankenstein story created for the American [[Hallmark Entertainment Network]] starred [[Alec Newman]] as Frankenstein and [[Luke Goss]] as the creature. It won the [[Emmy Award]] for Outstanding Makeup that year.
* A second 2004 production for the American [[USA Network]] starred [[Thomas Kretschmann]] as Victor and [[Vincent Perez]] as his original creature. It was not a direct adaptation but a [[postmodern]] [[Gothic_novel |
rmy against Parliament; the Queen, at the same time, went abroad to raise money to pay for it.
==Civil war==
The [[English Civil War]] had not yet started, but both sides began to arm. After futile negotiations, Charles raised the royal standard (an anachronistic mediæval gesture) in [[Nottingham]] on [[22 August]] [[1642]]. He then set up his court at [[Oxford]], whence his government controlled roughly the north and west of England, Parliament remaining in control of London and the south and east. Charles raised an army using the archaic method of the [[Commission of Array]]. The Civil War started on [[25 October]] [[1642]] with the inconclusive [[Battle of Edgehill]] and continued indecisively through 1643 and 1644, until the [[Battle of Naseby]] tipped the military balance decisively in favor of Parliament. There followed a great number of defeats for the Royalists, and then the [[Siege of Oxford]], from which Charles escaped in April 1646. He put himself into the hands of the Scottish Presbyterian army at [[Newark, England|Newark]], and was taken to nearby [[Southwell]] while his "hosts" decided what to do with him. The Presbyterians finally arrived at an agreement with Parliament and delivered Charles to them in 1647. He was imprisoned at [[Holdenby House]] in [[Northamptonshire]], until cornet [[George Joyce]] took him by force to [[Newmarket]] in the name of the [[New Model Army]]. At this time, mutual suspicion had developed between the New Model Army and Parliament, and Charles was eager to exploit it.
He was then transferred first to [[Oatlands]] and then to [[Hampton Court Palace|Hampton Court]], where more involved but fruitless negotiations went on. He was persuaded that it would be in his best interests to escape&mdash;perhaps abroad, perhaps to France, or perhaps to the custody of [[Robert Hammond]], Parliamentary Governor of the [[Isle of Wight]]. He decided on the last course, believing Hammond to be sympathetic, and fled on [[11 November]]. Hammond, however, was opposed to Charles, whom he confined in [[Carisbrooke Castle]].
From Carisbrooke, Charles continued to try to bargain with the various parties, eventually coming to terms with the Scottish Presbyterians that he would allow the establishment of [[Presbyterianism]] in England as well as Scotland for a trial period. The Royalists rose in July 1648, and the Scots invaded, beginning the so-called "Second Civil War". The Scottish armies, however, were defeated within months, their final loss coming in August at the [[Battle of Preston (1648)|Battle of Preston]].
==Trial and execution==
Charles was moved to [[Hurst Castle]] at the end of 1648, and thereafter to [[Windsor Castle]]. In January 1649, the House of Commons&mdash;without the assent of either the Sovereign or the House of Lords&mdash;passed an Act of Parliament creating a court for Charles's trial. The idea was a novel one; previous monarchs had been deposed, but had never been brought to trial as monarchs. The High Court of Justice established by the Act consisted of 135 Commissioners (all firm Parliamentarians); the [[prosecutor|prosecution]] was led by [[Solicitor General for England and Wales|Solicitor General]] [[John Cook (regicide)|John Cook]].
The King's trial (on charges of high treason and "other high crimes") began on [[2 January]], but Charles refused to enter a plea, claiming that no court had jurisdiction over a monarch. He believed that his own authority to rule had been given to him by God when he was crowned and anointed, and that the power wielded by those trying him was simply that which grew out of a barrel of gunpowder. The court was proposing that no man is above the law. Over a period of a week, when Charles was asked to plead three times, he refused. It was then normal practice to take a refusal to plead as ''[[pro confesso]]'': an admission of guilt, which meant that the prosecution could not call witnesses to its case. [[List of regicides of Charles I|Fifty-nine of the Commissioners]] signed Charles's death warrant, on [[29 January]] [[1649]]. After the ruling, he was led from [[St. James's Palace]], where he was confined, to the [[Palace of Whitehall]], where an execution scaffold had been erected in front of the [[Banqueting House at Whitehall|Banqueting House]].
[[Image:Contemporary German print depicting Charles I's beheading.jpg|thumb|275px|This contemporary German print depicts Charles I's decapitation.]]
When Charles was beheaded on [[January 30]], [[1649]], a moan was heard from the assembled crowd, some of whom then dipped their handkerchiefs in his blood, thus starting the cult of the [[Martyr]] King. There is some historical debate over the identity of the man who beheaded the King, who was masked at the scene. It is known that the Commissioners approached [[Richard Brandon]], the common Hangman of London, but that he refused, and contemporary sources do not generally identify him as the King's headsman. ''Ellis's Historical Inquiries'', however, name him as the executioner, stating that he stated so before dying. It is possible he relented and agreed to undertake the commission, but there are others who have been identified. An Irish man named [[Gunning]] is widely believed to have killed the King, and a plaque naming him as the executioner is on show in [[Galway city]] in [[Ireland]]. William Hewlett was convicted of regicide after the [[English Restoration|Restoration]]. In 1661, two people identified as "Dayborne and Bickerstaffe" were arrested but then discharged. Henry Walker, a revolutionary journalist, or his brother William, were suspected but never charged. Various local legends around England name local worthies. Contemporary sources that reported one blow and the cut through vertebrae examined in 1813 at Windsor imply that the execution was done by an experienced headsman: [[Henri Brandon]] the Common Hangman of London, trained by his father and long experienced.
It was common practice for the head of a traitor to be held up and exhibited to the crowd with the words "Behold the head of a traitor!"; although Charles' head was exhibited, the words were not used. It might be, because William Hewlett, the inexperienced stand-by, did not know to do so. In an unprecedented gesture, one of the revolutionary leaders, [[Oliver Cromwell]], allowed the King's head to be sewn back on his body so the family could pay its respects. Charles was buried in private and at night on [[7 February]] [[1649]], in the Henry VIII vault inside [[St. George's Chapel, Windsor|St. George's Chapel]] in Windsor Castle. The King's son, King Charles II, later planned an elaborate royal mausoleum, but this never eventuated.
Ten days after Charles's execution, a [[memoir]] purporting to be from Charles's hand appeared for sale. This book, the ''[[Eikon Basilike]]'' (Greek: the "Royal Portrait"), contained an ''apologia'' for royal policies, and proved an effective piece of royalist propaganda. John Cooke published the speech he would have delivered if Charles had pled, while Parliament commissioned [[John Milton]] to write a rejoinder, the ''[[Eikonoklastes]]'' ("The Iconoclast"), but the response made little headway against the pathos of the royalist book.
==Legacy==
[[Image:Charles I memorial.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Memorial to Charles I at [[Carisbrooke Castle]], [[Isle of Wight]]]]
With the monarchy overthrown, power was assumed by Oliver Cromwell, then Lord General of the Parliamentary Army. The Long Parliament (known by then as the [[Rump Parliament]]) which had been called by Charles I in 1640 continued to exist until Cromwell forcibly disbanded it in 1653. Cromwell then became [[Lord Protector]] of England, Scotland and Ireland; a monarch in all but name: he was even "invested" on the royal coronation chair. Upon his death in 1658, Cromwell was briefly succeeded by his son, [[Richard Cromwell]]. Richard Cromwell was an ineffective ruler, and the Long Parliament was reinstated in 1659. The Long Parliament dissolved itself in 1660, and the first elections in twenty years led to the election of a [[Convention Parliament]] which restored Charles I's eldest son to the monarchy as [[Charles II of England|Charles II]].
Upon the Restoration, Charles II added a commemoration of his father&mdash;to be observed on [[30 January]], the date of the execution&mdash;to the ''Book of Common Prayer''. In the time of Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]] this was however removed due to popular discontent with the commemorating of a dead monarch with a major feast day of the Church; now, [[30 January]] is only listed as a "Lesser Festival." There are several Anglican/Episcopal churches dedicated to Charles I as "King and Martyr," in England, [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and the [[United States]]. The [[Society of King Charles the Martyr]] was established in 1894 by one Mrs Greville-Negent, assisted by Fr. James Fish, rector of [[St Margaret Pattens]], London. The objectives of the SKCM include prayer for the Church of England and the Anglican Communion, promoting a wider observance of [[30 January]] in commemoration of Charles' "martyrdom," and the reinstatement of his feast day in the Book of Common Prayer. King Charles is regarded as a [[martyr]] by some Anglicans for his notion of "Christian [[Kingship]]," and as a "defender of the Anglican faith."
The [[Carolina|Colony of Carolina]] in [[North America]] was named for Charles I. Carolina later separated into [[North Carolina]] and [[South Carolina]], which eventually declared independence from England during the formation of the United States. To the north in the [[Virginia Colony]], [[Cape Charles]], the [[Charles River (Virginia)|Charles River]], [[Charles River Shire]] and [[Charles City Shire]] were named for him. Charles City Shire survives almost 400 yea |
period of Palestinian self-rule, as well as avoiding any act of violence and inciting for violence, especially violence aimed at innocent people.
In keeping with the framework established at the [[Madrid Conference of 1991|Madrid Conference in October 1991]], bilateral negotiations were conducted between Israel and Palestinian representatives and Syria to achieve a permanent settlement. On [[24 June]] [[2002]], US President [[George W. Bush]] laid out a "road map" for resolving the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, which envisions a two-state solution. However, progress toward a permanent status agreement was undermined by Palestinian-Israeli violence between September 2000 and February 2005. Major warfare between Israel and Palestinian organizations took place in the [[1982 Lebanon War]], [[1987 First Intifada]] and the [[2000 al-Aqsa Intifada]].
An agreement reached at Sharm al-Sheikh in February 2005 significantly reduced the violence. The election in January 2005 of [[Mahmud Abbas]] as the new Palestinian leader following the November 2004 death of [[Yasser Arafat]], the formation of a Likud-Labor-United Torah Judaism coalition government in January 2005, and the successful Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip (August-September 2005), presented an opportunity for a renewed peace effort. However, internal Israeli political events between October and December 2005 have destabilized the political situation and forced early elections, scheduled for March 2006. (from ''[[The World Factbook]]'')
{{see also|1978 Camp David Peace Accords between Egypt and Israel|1993 Oslo Peace Accords between Palestinians and Israel|Camp David 2000 Summit between Palestinians and Israel}}
==Geography==
[[Image:Cia-is-map2.gif|thumb|250px|Map of Israel]]
{{main|Geography of Israel}}
Israel is bordered by [[Lebanon]] in the north, [[Syria]], [[Jordan]] and the [[West Bank]] in the east, and [[Egypt]] and the [[Gaza Strip]] in the south-west. It has [[coastal|coastlines]] on the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] in the west and the [[Headlands and bays|Gulf]] of [[Eilat]] (also known as the [[Gulf of Aqaba]]) in the south.
During the [[Six-Day War]] of [[1967]], Israel captured the West Bank from the Hashemite Kingdom of [[Jordan]], the [[Golan Heights]] from Syria, Gaza Strip (which was under Egyptian occupation), and [[Sinai]] from [[Egypt]]. It [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan|withdrew]] all [[Israeli Security Forces|troops]] and [[Israeli settlement|settlers]] from the Gaza Strip on [[September 12]] [[2005]]. The future [[Palestine (region)#Current status|status]] of the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Golan Heights remains to be determined.
[[Image:TelAviv-Beach2.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Beach of [[Tel Aviv]] at sundown]]
The total area of the sovereign territory of Israel — excluding all territories captured by Israel in [[1967]] — is 20,770 km² (20,330 land) or 8,019 [[square mile|mi²]] (7,849 land). The total area under Israeli law — including [[East Jerusalem]] and the [[Golan Heights]] — is 22,145 km² (21,671 land) or 8,550 mi² (8,367 land). The total area under Israeli control — including the military-controlled and [[Palestinian National Authority|Palestinian]]-governed territory of the [[West Bank]] — is 28,023 km² (27,549 land) or 10,820 mi² (10,637 land).
===Metropolitan areas ===
{{see also|Districts of Israel|List of cities in Israel}}
As of 2004, The Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics defines three metropolitan areas: [[Gush Dan|Tel Aviv]] (population 2,933,300), [[Haifa]] (population 980,600) and [[Beersheba|Be'er Sheva]] a.k.a. Be'ersheba (population 511,700) [http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton55/st02_15.pdf]. [[Jerusalem]]{{ref|Jerusalem}} may also be considered a metropolitan area, though its limits are hard to define since it spans communities in Israel proper and the [[West Bank]], both Israeli and Palestinian, and even the boundaries of Jerusalem city itself are disputed. As of 2005, the official population of Jerusalem city is 706,368.
<!--- more text will be inserted here: topography, environment, hydrology. hence the geography pictures still run into the politics chapter ---->
== Politics and law ==
{{main|Politics of Israel}}
Israel is a democratic [[republic]] with [[universal suffrage]] that operates under the [[parliamentary system]].
===Legislature===
Israel's [[unicameral]] legislative branch is a 120-member [[parliament]] known as the [[Knesset]]. Membership in the Knesset is allocated to parties based on their proportion of the vote, via a [[proportional representation]] voting system. Elections to the [[Knesset]] are normally held every four years, but the Knesset can decide to dissolve itself ahead of time by a simple majority, known as a vote of no-confidence.
{{See also|List of political parties in Israel}}
===Executive===
The [[President of Israel]] is [[head of state]], serving as a largely ceremonial [[figurehead]]. The President selects the leader of the majority party or ruling coalition in the Knesset as the [[Prime Minister of Israel|Prime Minister]], who serves as [[head of government]].<sup>[[#footnotes|2]]</sup>
===Constitution and legal system===
[[Image:Knesset in Jerusalem Israel.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Knesset]] building, Israel's parliament]]
Israel has not completed a written [[constitution]]. Its government is based on the laws of the [[Knesset]], especially the "[[Basic Laws of Israel]]", which are special laws (currently there are 15 of them), by the Knesset legislature which will become the future official constitution. In mid-2003, the Knesset's Constitution, Law, and Justice Committee began [http://www.cfisrael.org drafting a full written Constitution to be proposed to the Knesset floor.] This effort is still underway as of early [[2006]].
The [[Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel, May 14, 1948|declaration of the State of Israel]] has a significance in this matter as well. Israel's legal system is a western legal system best classified as "mixed": influenced by Anglo-American, Continental, and Jewish law principles.
As in Anglo-American law, the Israeli legal system is based on the principle of ''stare-decisis'' (precedent). It is an adversarial system, not an inquisitorial one, in the sense that the parties (for example, plaintiff and defendant) are the ones that bring the evidence before the court. The court does not conduct any independent investigation on the case.
As in Continental legal systems, the [[jury]] system was not adopted in Israel. Court cases are decided by professional [[judge]]s.
As for Civil Law influences, several major Israeli statutes (such as the Contract Law) are based on Civil Law principles. Israeli statute body is not comprised of Codes, but of individual statutes. However, a Civil Code draft has been completed recently, and is planned to become a bill.
Religious tribunals (Jewish, Sharia'a, Druze and Christian) have exclusive jurisdiction on annulment of marriages.
===Judiciary===
[[Image:SupremeCourtIsrael ST 06.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Frontal view of [[Supreme Court of Israel|The Supreme Court]] building]]
Israel's Judiciary branch is made of a three-tier system of courts. At the lowest level are Magistrate Courts, situated in most cities. Above them are District Courts, serving both as [[appellate court]]s and as courts of first instance, situated in five cities: [[Jerusalem]], [[Tel Aviv]], [[Haifa]], [[Beersheba]] and [[Nazareth]].
At the top of the judicial pyramid is the [[Supreme Court of Israel]] seated in Jerusalem. The current Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is [[Aharon Barak]]. The Supreme Court serves a dual role as the highest court of appeals and as the body for a separate institution known as the High Court of Justice (HCOJ). The HCOJ has the unique responsibility of addressing petitions presented to the Court by individual citizens. The respondents to these petitions are usually Governmental agencies (including the Israel Defense Forces). The result of such petitions, which are decided by the HCOJ, may be an instruction by the HCOJ to the relevant Governmental agency to act in a manner prescribed by the HCOJ.
Judges are elected by a committee made of Members of the Knesset (Parliament), Supreme Courts Judges, and Members of the Israeli Bar. According to the Courts Law, judges retire at age 70. Registrars to all courts are appointed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, with the approval of the Minister of Justice.
== Military ==
{{main|Israeli Security Forces}}
Israel's military consists of a unified [[Israel Defense Forces]] (IDF), known in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] by the acronym ''Tzahal'' (צה"ל). Historically, there have been no separate Israeli military services. The Navy and [[Israeli Air Force|Air Force]] are subordinate to the Army. There are other paramilitary government agencies which deal with different aspects of Israel's security (such as ''[[Israel Border Police|Magav]]'' and ''[[Shin Bet]]'').
The IDF is considered one of the strongest military forces in the [[Middle East]] and ranks among the most battle-trained armed forces in the world, having had to defend the country in five major wars. The IDF's main resource is the training quality of its soldiers and expert institutions, rather than use of overwhelming force. It also relies heavily on high-tech weapons systems, some developed and manufactured in Israel for its specific needs, and others imported (largely from the United States).
Most Israelis (males and females) are [[conscription|draft]]ed into the military at age 18. Exceptions are [[Israeli Arab]]s, confirmed [[pacifists]], those who cannot serve due to injury or disability, and women who declare themselves religiously observant. Compulsory service is three years for men, and two years for women. [[Circassians]] and [[Bedouin]] actively enlist in the IDF. Since [[1956]], |
], owner of KenDavis Industries, accused of and found innocent of murdering [[Andrea Wilborn]], the daughter of Priscilla Davis
Other uses:
*A company '''DAVIS''' which made [[video projector|video projectors]]
*'''Davis''', an automobile manufacturer
{{disambig}}
[[de:Davis]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dan Simmons</title>
<id>8875</id>
<revision>
<id>42039480</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T11:09:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Attilios</username>
<id>428795</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>simmons image</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Locus_simmons.jpg|thumb|Dan Simmons portrayed on the cover of ''Locus'' magazine.]]
[[Image:Hyperion_omnibus.jpg|thumb|Cover for an omnibus edition of ''Hyperion cantos'', Simmons's most famous work.]]
[[Image:U1288.jpg|thumb|Cover for the Italian edition of ''Song of Kali'' (1985). Art by [[Oscar Chichoni]].]]
'''Dan Simmons''' (born [[April 4]], [[1948]] in [[Peoria, Illinois|Peoria]], [[Illinois]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[author]] most widely known for his [[Hugo Award]]-winning science fiction [[novel]] ''Hyperion'' and its sequel ''The Fall of Hyperion''. The other novels in this series, which is known as the [[Hyperion Cantos]], are ''Endymion'' and ''The Rise of Endymion''. He spans genres such as [[science fiction]], [[Horror fiction|horror]] and [[fantasy]], sometimes within the same novel: a typical example of Simmons' ability to intermingle genres is ''[[Song of Kali]]'' ([[1985]]), winner of [[World Fantasy Award]]. He is also a respected author of mysteries and thrillers.
==Biography==
Simmons received a B.A. in English from [[Wabash College]] in 1970, and, in 1971, a Masters in Education from Washington University in [[St. Louis]]. He subsequently worked in elementary education until 1989.
He soon started to write short stories, although his career did not took off until [[1982]], when, through [[Harlan Ellison]]'s help, his short story "The River Styx Runs Upstream" was published. His first novel, ''Song of Kali'', was released in [[1985]].
Simmons became famous in [[1989 in literature|1989]] for ''[[Hyperion (book)|Hyperion]]'', winner of [[Hugo Award|Hugo]] and [[Locus Award]] for the best science fiction novel. This is a novel dealing with a space war, inspired in his structure to [[Boccaccio]]'s ''[[Decameron]]'' and [[Chaucer]]'s ''[[Canterbury Tales]]'': since the very beginning Simmons showed as one of the few "genre" authors provided not only with plot dealing abilities, but also with a high-level prose derived from his familiarity with classics. Many of his works have indeed similarly strong ties with literature: ''[[Carrion Comfort]]'' derives its title and many of its themes from a [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]]' poem; ''[[The Hollow Man (1992 novel)|The Hollow Man]]'' ([[1992]]) is influenced by [[T.S. Eliot]] and [[Dante]]'s ''[[Inferno]]''; a short story from [[1993 in literature|1993]], "The Great Lover", is inspired to the [[World War I]] [[War Poets]]. In ''[[The Fall of Hyperion]]'', [[John Keats]] appears as one of the main characters. Finally, his ''Ilium'' cycle is clearly inspired to [[Homer]]'s works.
''[[Summer of Night]]'' (1991) recounts the childhood of a group of pre-teens who band together in the [[1960s]] to defeat a centuries-old evil that terrorizes their hometown, Elm Haven, [[Illinois]]. This novel is similar to [[Stephen King]]'s ''[[It (novel)|It]]'', in its focus on small town life, the corruption of innocence, the return of an ancient evil, and the responsibility for others that emerges with the transition from youth to adulthood. Soon after this novel, Simmons, who had written mostly horror fiction, began writing science fiction.
In January 2004, it was announced that the screenplay he wrote for his novels ''Ilium'' and ''Olympos'' would be made into a film by [[Digital Domain]] and Barnet Bain Films, with Simmons acting as executive producer. ''Ilium'' is described as an "epic tale that spans 5,000 years and sweeps across the entire solar system, including themes and characters from [[The Iliad|Homer's ''The Iliad'']] and [[The Tempest (play)|Shakespeare's ''The Tempest'']]." In July 2004, ''Ilium'' received a [[Locus Award]] for best science fiction novel of [[2003]].
== Works ==
===[[Hyperion Cantos]]===
* ''[[Hyperion (book)|Hyperion]]'' ([[1989]]) - [[Hugo Award]] [[1990]], [[Locus Award]] [[1990]] (Science Fiction)
* ''[[The Fall of Hyperion]]'' ([[1990]])
* ''[[Endymion (book)|Endymion]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[The Rise of Endymion]]'' ([[1997]])
===Ilium===
* ''[[Ilium (novel)|Ilium]]'' ([[2003]]) - [[Locus Award]] [[2004]]
* ''[[Olympos (novel)|Olympos]]'' ([[2005]])
===Joe Kurtz===
* ''Hardcase'' ([[2001 in literature|2001]])
* ''Hard Freeze ([[2002]])
* ''Hard as Nails'' ([[2003]])
===Other books===
* ''[[Song of Kali]]'' ([[1985]]) - [[World Fantasy Award]] [[1986]]
* ''[[Carrion Comfort]]'' ([[1989]])
* ''Phases of Gravity'' ([[1989]])
* ''Entropy's Bed at Midnight'' ([[1990]])
* ''Prayers to Broken Stones'' ([[1990]], short story collection)
* ''[[Summer of Night]]'' ([[1991]])
* ''Summer Sketches'' ([[1992]], short story collection}
* ''[[Children of the Night (book)|Children of the Night]]'' ([[1992]]) - [[Locus Award]] [[1993]] (Horror)
* ''Lovedeath'' ([[1993]], short story collection)
* ''[[The Hollow Man (1992 novel)|The Hollow Man]]'' ([[1992]])
* ''Fires of Eden'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[The Crook Factory]]'' ([[1999]])
* ''[[Darwin's Blade]]'' ([[2000]])
* ''[[A Winter Haunting]]'' ([[2002]])
* ''Worlds Enough & Time'' ([[2002]], short story collection)
* ''The Terror'' ([[2007]])
==External links==
*[http://www.dansimmons.com Official Site]
[[Category:1948 births|Simmons, Dan]]
[[Category:Living people|Simmons, Dan]]
[[Category:American horror writers|Simmons, Dan]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Simmons, Dan]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Simmons, Dan]]
[[Category:World Fantasy Award winning authors|Simmons, Dan]]
[[bg:Дан Симънс]]
[[cs:Dan Simmons]]
[[da:Dan Simmons]]
[[de:Dan Simmons]]
[[es:Dan Simmons]]
[[fr:Dan Simmons]]
[[it:Dan Simmons]]
[[nl:Dan Simmons]]
[[ja:ダン・シモンズ]]
[[ru:Симмонс, Дэн]]
[[fi:Dan Simmons]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Denis Auguste Affre</title>
<id>8876</id>
<revision>
<id>41731782</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:08:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Ced.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Denis-Auguste Affre''' ([[27 September]] [[1793]] - [[27 June]] [[1848]]), [[archbishop of Paris]], was born at St Rome, in the department of [[Tarn]].
He was educated for the priesthood at [[Saint-Sulpice (Paris)|Saint-Sulpice]], where in [[1818]] he became professor of [[dogmatic theology]]. After filling a number of ecclesiastical offices, he was elevated to the archbishopric of [[Paris]] in [[1840]]. Though opposed to the government of [[Louis-Philippe]], he took no part in politics, but devoted himself to his pastoral work. His episcopate, however, is chiefly remembered owing to its tragic close. During the insurrection of June [[1848]] the archbishop was led to believe that by his personal interference peace might be restored between the soldiery and the [[insurgent]]s. Accordingly, in spite of the warning of [[Louis Eugène Cavaignac|General Cavaignac]], he mounted the barricade at the entrance to the [[Faubourg Saint-Antoine]], bearing a green branch as sign of peace. He had spoken only a few words, however, when the insurgents, hearing some shots, and fancying they were betrayed, opened fire upon the national guard, and the archbishop fell, struck by a stray bullet. He was removed to his palace, where he died on [[27 June]].
Next day the [[National Assembly]] issued a decree expressing their great sorrow on account of his death; and the public funeral on [[7 July]] was one of the most striking spectacles of its kind. The archbishop wrote several treatises of considerable value, including an ''Essai sur les hieroglyphes egyptiens'' (Paris, [[1834]]), in which he showed that [[Jean-François Champollion|Champollion]]'s system was insufficient to explain the hieroglyphics.
==References==
* Ricard, ''Les grands eveques de l'eglise de France au XIXe siècle'' (Lille, [[1893]])
* [[L. Alazard]], ''Denis-Auguste Affre, archeveque de [[Paris]]'' ([[Paris]], [[1905]])
{{1911}}
[[Category:1793 births|Affre]]
[[Category:1848 deaths|Affre]]
[[Category:French bishops|Affre]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic archbishops|Affre]]
[[de:Denis Auguste Affre]]
[[fr:Denys Affre]]
{{start box}}{{succession box|title=[[Archbishop of Paris]]|before=[[Hyacinthe-Louis de Quélen]]| | years=1840&ndash;1848 | after=[[Marie Dominique Auguste Sibour]]}}{{end box}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dione</title>
<id>8877</id>
<revision>
<id>38848189</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T00:54:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kevin Ryde</username>
<id>564285</id>
</contributor>
<comment>revise per [[MOS:DP]], drop the pronunciations which I think are much better left to the articles themselves</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dione''' may refer to,
* [[Dione (mythology)]], in Greek mythology, Titan and the mother of Aphrodite by Zeus
* [[Dione (moon)]], moon of Saturn
* [[106 Dione]], asteroid
* [[Dione (chemistry)]], a molecule with two ketone functional groups
* [[Dione (DJ)]], Dutch Hardcore DJ
See also,
* [[Dion]]
{{disambig}}
[[es:Dione]]
[[nl:Dione]]
[[ja:ディオネ]]
[[fi:Dione]]
[[zh:狄俄涅]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Denis Leary</title>
<id>8878</id>
<revision>
<id>42059843</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:59 |
ands of years, sometimes by inbreeding dogs from the same ancestral lines, sometimes by mixing dogs from very different lines. The process continues today, resulting in a tremendous variety of [[dog breed]]s.
The following list uses a wide interpretation of "breed". Breeds listed here may be traditional breeds with long histories as registered breeds, rare breeds with their own registries, or new breeds that may still be under development. Please see individual articles for more information. See also [[dog breed]] and [[breed]].
__NOTOC__
==Breed categories==
[[Image:IMG013biglittledogFX wb.jpg|thumb|right|This [[Chihuahua (dog)|Chihuahua]] [[mixed-breed dog|mix]] and [[Great Dane]] show some of the tremendous variety of dog breeds.]]
Dog breeds can be divided into different categories, such as:
*[[Hunting dog|Hunting]]
**[[Hound]]s, including [[Sight hound]]s and [[Scent hound]]s
**[[Gundog]]s, including [[Pointer (dog)|Pointer]]s, [[Retriever]]s, and [[Spaniel]]s
**[[Terrier]]
**[[Cur]]s and [[Feist (dog)|Feist]]s
*[[working dog|Working]] (or [[utility dog|Utility]])
**[[Pastoral dog]]s, including [[Livestock guardian dog]]s, [[Herding dog]]s, [[Sheepdog]]s, and [[Drover (dog)|Drovers]]
**[[Sled dog]]
*[[:Category:Bulldog breeds|Bulldogs]]
*[[:Category:Extinct dog breeds|Extinct dog breeds]]
*[[List of dog fighting breeds|Fighting dogs]]
*[[Toy dog|Toy]]
Dog breeds can also be grouped into similar [[:category:dog types|types]] such as [[mastiff]] types, [[spitz]] types, [[pit bull]]s, or [[Lurcher]]s.
==Dog breed list==
Dog breeds include:
{{compactTOC}}
==A==
===Af-Am===
*[[Affenpinscher]]
*[[Afghan Hound]]
*[[Africanis]]
*[[Aidi]]
*[[Airedale Terrier]]
*[[Akbash Dog]]
*[[Akita Inu|Akita]], see also [[Great Japanese Dog|American Akita]]
*[[Alangu Mastiff]] (Indian Mastiff)
*[[Alano Español]] <!-- can't find this one in any of my books. -elf -->
*[[Alapaha Blue Blood Bulldog]]
*[[Alaskan Klee Kai]]
*[[Alaskan husky]]
*[[Alaskan Malamute]]
*[[Alopekis]]
*[[Alpine Dachsbracke]]
*[[Alp Mastiff]] (Cane Garouf)
*Alsatian - see [[German Shepherd Dog]]
*American Akita - see [[Great Japanese Dog]]
*[[American Bulldog]], including
**[[JDJ American Bulldog]]
**[[Scott's American Bulldog]]
**[[Southern White American Bulldog]]
*[[American Cocker Spaniel]]
*[[American English Coonhound]]
*[[American Eskimo Dog]]
*[[American Foxhound]]
*[[American Hairless Terrier]]
*American Husky - see [[Canadian Eskimo Dog]]
*[[American Mastiff]]
*[[American Pit Bull Terrier]]
*[[American Staghound]]
*[[American Staffordshire Terrier]]
*[[American Water Spaniel]]
===An-Az===
*[[Anatolian Shepherd Dog]]
*[[Anglo-Francais de Petite Venerie]]
*[[Appenzeller Sennenhund]]
*Arctic Husky - see [[Siberian Husky]]
*[[Argentine Dogo]]
*[[Ariege Pointer]]
*[[Ariegeois]]
*[[Artois Hound]]
*[[Australian Bulldog]]
*[[Australian Cattle Dog]]
*[[Australian Jack Russell Terrier]] - see also [[Jack Russell Terrier]], [[Parson Russell Terrier]] and [[Russell Terrier]]
*[[Australian Kelpie]]
*Australian Koolie - see [[Koolie]]
*[[Australian Shepherd]]
*[[Australian Silky Terrier]]
*[[Australian Stumpy Tail Cattle Dog]]
*[[Australian Terrier]]
*[[Austrian Brandlbracke]]
*[[Azawakh]]
==B==
===Ba-Be===
*Balkan Hound - see [[Serbian Hound]]
*[[Bakharwal Dog]]
*[[Bandog]]
*[[Barbet (dog)|Barbet]]
*[[Basenji]]
*[[Basset Artésien Normand]]
*[[Basset Bleu de Gascogne]]
*[[Basset Fauve de Bretagne]]
*[[Basset Hound]]
*[[Bavarian Mountain Hound]]
*[[Beagle]]
*[[Beagle-Harrier]]
*[[Bearded Collie]]
*Bearded Tibetan Mastiff - see[[Tibetan Kyi Apso]]
*[[Beauceron]]
*[[Bedlington Terrier]]
*[[Belgian Griffon]]
*[[Belgian Shepherd Dog]], often divided into:
**[[Belgian Shepherd Dog (Groenendael)]]
**[[Belgian Shepherd Dog (Laekenois)]]
**[[Belgian Shepherd Dog (Malinois)]]
**[[Belgian Shepherd Dog (Tervueren)]]
*[[Bergamasco]]
*[[Berger Blanc Suisse]]
*[[Berger Picard]]
*[[Bernese Mountain Dog]] (Berner Sennenhund)
*Bhotia - see [[Himalayan Sheepdog]]
===Bi-Bo===
*[[Bichon Frisé]]
*[[Biewer]]
*[[Billy (dog)|Billy]]
*[[Bisben]]
*[[Black and Tan Coonhound]]
*[[Black Mouth Cur]]
*[[Black Russian Terrier]]
*[[Bloodhound]]
*Blue Heeler - see [[Australian Cattle Dog]]
*[[Blue Paul Terrier]]
*[[Blue Picardy Spaniel]]
*[[Bluetick Coonhound]]
*[[Boerboel]]
*[[Bolognese (dog)|Bolognese]]
*[[Bolonka]]
*[[Border Collie]]
*[[Border Terrier]]
*[[Borzoi]]
*[[Bosanski Ostrodlaki Gonic Barak]]
*[[Bosnian Tornjak]]
*[[Boston Terrier]]
*Bouvier Bernois - see [[Bernese Mountain Dog]]
*[[Bouvier des Ardennes]]
*[[Bouvier des Flandres]]
*[[Boxer (dog)|Boxer]]
*[[Boykin Spaniel]]
===Br-Bu===
*[[Bracco Italiano]]
*[[Braque d'Auvergne]]
*[[Braque du Bourbonnais]]
*[[Braque Francais (Gascogne type)]]
*[[Braque Francais (Pyrenean type)]]
*[[Braque Saint-Germain]]
*Brazilian Mastiff - see [[Fila Brasileiro]]
*[[Brazilian Terrier]]
*[[Briard]]
*[[Briquet Griffon Vendeen]]
*[[Brittany (dog)|Brittany]]
*[[Broholmer]]
*[[Griffon Bruxellois|Brussels Griffon]] - see [[Griffon Bruxellois]]
*[[Ciobãnesc de Bucovina|Bucovina]] - see [[Ciobãnesc de Bucovina]] <!-- see talk page re Romanian Shepherd Dog -->
*[[Bull Terrier]]
*[[Bull Terrier (Miniature)]]
*[[Bull and Terrier]]
*[[Bulldog]]
*[[Bullmastiff]]
*[[Bully Kutta]]
==C==
===Ca-Ci===
*Ca de Bou - see [[Perro de Presa Mallorquin]]
*[[Cairn Terrier]]
*[[Canaan Dog]]
*[[Canadian Eskimo Dog]] (Canadian Inuit Dog)
*[[Cane Corso]]
*Cão da Serra da Estrela - see [[Estrela Mountain Dog]]
*[[Cão da Serra de Aires]]
*Cão de Água Português - see [[Portuguese Water Dog]]
*[[Cão de Castro Laboreiro]]
*[[Cão de Fila de São Miguel]]
*[[Cão de Fila da Terceira]]
*[[Cão de Gado Transmontano]]
*Caravan Hound - see [[Mudhol Hound]]
*[[Cardigan Welsh Corgi]]
*[[Carlin Pinscher]]
*[[Carpatin]] <!-- see talk page re Romanian Shepherd Dog -->
*[[Catahoula Bulldog]]
*[[Catahoula Leopard Dog]] (Catahoula Cur or Catahoula Hog Dog)
*[[Catahoula Bulldog]]
*[[Catalan Sheepdog]]
*[[Caucasian Ovcharka]]
*[[Cavalier King Charles Spaniel]]
*[[Central Asia Shepherd Dog]]
*[[Cesky Fousek]]
*[[Cesky Terrier]]
*[[Chart Polski]]
*[[Chesapeake Bay Retriever]]
*[[Chihuahua (dog)|Chihuahua]]
*[[Chinese Crested Dog]]
*Chindo - see [[Korea Jindo Dog]]
*[[Chinook (dog)|Chinook]]
*[[Chippiparai]]
*[[Chow Chow]]
*[[Ciobanescu de Bucovina|Ciob&#259;nesc de Bucovina]]
*[[Cirneco dell'Etna]]
===Cl-Cz===
*[[Clumber Spaniel]]
*[[Cockapoo]]
*[[Cocker Spaniel]] - see [[American Cocker Spaniel]] or [[English Cocker Spaniel]]
*[[Collie]] - see [[Rough Collie]], [[Smooth Collie]], [[Bearded Collie]] or [[Border Collie]]
*[[Combai]] (Indian Bear Hound)
*Coolie - see [[Koolie]]
*[[Cordoba Fighting Dog]]
*Corgi - see [[Welsh Corgi]], [[Cardigan Welsh Corgi]] and [[Pembroke Welsh Corgi]]
*[[Coton de Tulear]]
*Croatian Mountain Dog - see [[Bosnian Tornjak]]
*[[Croatian Sheepdog]]
*[[Cur]] - see also [[Black Mouth Cur]], [[Catahoula Leopard Dog]], [[Leopard Cur]], [[Mountain Cur]], [[Stephens Cur]], and [[Treeing Cur]]
*[[Curly Coated Retriever]]
*[[Czechoslovakian Wolfdog]]
==D==
*[[Dachshund]]
*[[Dalmatian (dog)|Dalmatian]]
*[[Dandie Dinmont Terrier]]
*[[Danish Broholmer ]]
*[[Danish/Swedish Farm Dog]] <!-- aka [[Danish Chicken Dog]] -->
*[[Deerhound]]
*Deutsch Drahthaar - see [[German Wirehaired Pointer]]
*[[Deutsche Bracke]]
*[[Deutscher Wachtelhund]]
*Dhoki apso - see [[Tibetan Terrier]]
*Do-Khyi - see [[Tibetan Mastiff]]
*[[Dobermann]] (Doberman Pinscher)
*[[Dogo Cubano]]
*Dogo Guatemalteco - see [[Guatemalan Bull Terrier]]
*[[Dogue de Bordeaux]]
*Dogue de Majorque - see [[Perro de Presa Mallorquin]]
*[[Drentse Patrijshond]] (Dutch Partridge Dog)
*[[Drever]]
*[[Dunker]]
*Dutch Shepherd Dog - See [[Hollandse Herder]]
*[[Dutch Smoushond]]
==E==
*[[East Siberian Laika]]
*[[English Cocker Spaniel]]
*[[English Coonhound]]
*[[English Foxhound]]
*[[English Mastiff]]
*[[English Pointer]]
*[[English Setter]]
*[[English Shepherd]]
*[[English Springer Spaniel]]
*English Toy Spaniel - see [[King Charles Spaniel]]
*[[English Toy Terrier (Black & Tan)]]
*[[English White Terrier]]
*[[Entlebucher Mountain Dog]]/Sennenhund/Cattle Dog
*Epagneul Picard - see [[Picardy Spaniel]]
*Epagneul Pont-Audemer - see [[Pont-Audemer Spaniel]]
*Eskimo Dog (Esquimaux) - see [[Canadian Eskimo Dog]]
*[[Estonian Hound]]
*[[Estrela Mountain Dog]]
*[[Eurasier]]
*[[Eurohound]]
==F==
*Feist - see [[Treeing Feist]]
*[[Field Spaniel]]
*[[Fila Brasileiro]]
*[[Finnish Hound]]
*[[Finnish Lapphund]]
*[[Finnish Spitz]]
*[[Flat-Coated Retriever]]
*[[Foxhound]] - divided into [[American Foxhound]], [[English Foxhound]]
*[[Fox Terrier]] - divided into [[Fox Terrier (Smooth)]], [[Fox Terrier (Wire)]], [[Miniature Fox Terrier]], [[Toy Fox Terrier]]
*[[Francais Blanc et Noir]]
*[[Francais Blanc et Orange]]
*[[Francais Tricolore]]
*[[Franzuskaya Bolonka]]
*[[French Bulldog]]
*[[French Spaniel]]
*[[French Wirehaired Pointing Griffon]]
==G==
===Ga-Go===
*[[Galgo Español]]
*[[Gawii]]
*[[German Longhaired Pointer]]
*[[German Pinscher]]
*[[German Rough-haired Pointer]]
*[[German Shepherd Dog]]
*[[German Shorthaired Pointer]]
*German Spaniel - see [[Deutscher Wachtelhund]]
*[[German Spitz]] - divided into:
**[[German Spitz (Gross)]]
**[[German Spitz (Klein)]]
**[[German Spitz (Mittel)]]
*[[German Wirehaired Pointer]]
*[[Giant Schnauzer]]
*[[Glen of Imaal Terrier]]
*[[Goldendoodle]]
*[[Golden Retriever]]
*Gonczy Polski - see [[Polish Scenthound]]
*[[Gordon Setter]]
*Gos d'atura - see [[Catalan Sheepdog]]
===Gr===
*[[Grand Anglo-Francais Blanc et Noir]]
*[[Grand Anglo-Francais Blanc et Orange]]
*[[Grand Anglo-Francais Tricolore]]
*[[Grand Basset Griffon Vendeen]]
*[[Grand Bleu de Gascogne]]
*[[Grand Gascon Saintongeois]]
*[[Grand Griffon Vendeen]]
*[[Gran Mastin de Borínquen]]
*[[Great Dane]]
*[[Great Japanese Dog]]
*Great Pyrenees - see [[Pyrenean Mountain Dog]]
*[[Greater Swiss Mountain Dog]] (Grosser Schweizer Sennenhund)
*[[Greek Harehound]]
*[[Greenland Dog]] (Greenland Husky)
*[[Greyhoun |
he largest contingent of the NATO-led [[International Security Assistance Force|ISAF]] force.
===Energy policy===
{{see also|Nuclear power phase-out|Nuclear energy policy}}
[[Image:E-112 Egeln feb2005.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Wind turbine in Germany]]
In 2000, the German [[SPD]]-led government along with Bündnis 90/Die Grünen ([[Alliance '90/The Greens]]), officially announced its intention to [[Nuclear power phase-out|phase out the use of nuclear energy]]. [[Jürgen Trittin]] as the Minister of Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, reached an agreement with energy companies on the gradual shut down of [[List of nuclear reactors#Germany|the country's nineteen nuclear power plants]] and a cessation of civil usage of [[nuclear power]] by 2020.
In 1999, electricity production in Germany was made up by [[coal]] (47%), [[nuclear power]] (30%), [[natural gas]] (14%), [[renewable energy|renewable sources]] (including [[hydroelectricity|hydro]], wind and [[solar power]]) (6%), and [[petrol|oil]] (2%) ([http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/germany.html]). As for energy consumption, oil accounted for 41% of the total. The German government declaring [[Greenhouse effect|climate protection]] at the [[World climate conference]], announced a [[carbon dioxide]] reduction target by the year 2005 compared to 1990 by 25% ([http://www.agores.org/Publications/EnR/GermanyREPolicy2000.pdf], pdf).
In 2005, the German government reached a controversial agreement with [[Russia]] in building a gas pipeline at the bottom of the Baltic sea directly from Russia to Germany.
==Geography==
[[Image:Germany Laender Map.png|right|thumb|120px|States of Germany]]
{{main|Geography of Germany}}
===Federal States ([[States of Germany|Länder]])===
{{main|States of Germany}}
Germany is divided into sixteen federal [[State (national)|state]]s (in German called ''Länder'', singular ''[[States of Germany|Land]]''; commonly ''Bundesländer'', singular ''Bundesland''). It is further subdivided into 439 districts (''[[List of German districts|Kreise]]'') and cities (''kreisfreie Städte'') (2004).
The five largest cities in Germany (population as of [[March 31]] [[2005]]):
# [[Berlin]] with 3,391,407 inhabitants
# [[Hamburg]] with 1,736,752 inhabitants
# [[Munich]] with 1,397,537 inhabitants
# [[Cologne]] with 975,907 inhabitants
# [[Frankfurt am Main]] with 657,126 inhabitants
The five metropolregions in Germany (population as of [[January 1]] [[2005]]):
# [[Rhine-Ruhr|Rhein-Ruhr]] with 11,785,196 inhabitants
# [[Frankfurt Rhein-Main Region|Rhein-Main]] with 5,822,383 inhabitants
# [[Berlin]] with 4,262,480 inhabitants
# [[Hamburg]] with 3,278,635 inhabitants
# [[Stuttgart]] with 2,344,989 inhabitants
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" style="border-collapse: collapse;"
!colspan=3|[[English language|In English]]
!colspan=2|[[German language|Auf Deutsch]]
|-
!colspan=2|[[States of Germany|Federal State]] !! [[Capital]] !! [[States of Germany|Bundesland]] !! Hauptstadt
|-
|'''1'''|| [[Baden-Württemberg]]||[[Stuttgart]]||Baden-Württemberg||Stuttgart
|-
|'''2'''|| [[Bavaria|(Free State of) Bavaria]]||[[Munich]]||(Freistaat) Bayern||München
|-
|'''3'''|| [[Berlin]]||[[Berlin]]||Berlin||Berlin
|-
|'''4'''|| [[Brandenburg]]||[[Potsdam]]||Brandenburg||Potsdam
|-
|'''5'''|| [[Bremen (state)|(Free Hanseatic City of) Bremen]]||[[Bremen (city)|Bremen]]||(Freie Hansestadt) Bremen||Bremen
|-
|'''6'''|| [[Hamburg|(Free and Hanseatic City of) Hamburg]]||[[Hamburg]]||(Freie und Hansestadt) Hamburg||Hamburg
|-
|'''7'''|| [[Hesse]]<!--please do not change it to 'Hessen', it really is 'Hesse' in the English language-->||[[Wiesbaden]]||Hessen||Wiesbaden
|-
|'''8'''|| [[Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania]]||[[Schwerin]]||Mecklenburg-Vorpommern||Schwerin
|-
|'''9'''|| [[Lower Saxony]]||[[Hanover]]||Niedersachsen||Hannover
|-
|'''10'''|| [[North Rhine-Westphalia]]||[[Düsseldorf]]||Nordrhein-Westfalen||Düsseldorf
|-
|'''11'''|| [[Rhineland-Palatinate]]||[[Mainz]]||Rheinland-Pfalz||Mainz
|-
|'''12'''|| [[Saarland]]||[[Saarbrücken]]||Saarland||Saarbrücken
|-
|'''13'''|| [[Saxony|(Free State of) Saxony]]||[[Dresden]]||(Freistaat) Sachsen||Dresden
|-
|'''14'''|| [[Saxony-Anhalt]]||[[Magdeburg]]||Sachsen-Anhalt||Magdeburg
|-
|'''15'''|| [[Schleswig-Holstein]]||[[Kiel]]||Schleswig-Holstein||Kiel
|-
|'''16'''|| [[Thuringia|(Free State of) Thuringia]]||[[Erfurt]]||(Freistaat) Thüringen||Erfurt
|}
<BR>
===Territory===
[[Image:Loreley von Spitznack.jpg|thumb|300px|[[River Rhine]] valley]]
Since [[German reunification|reunification]] Germany has resumed its role as a major centre between [[Scandinavia]] in the north and the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] region in the south, as well as between the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] west and the countries of [[Central Europe|central]] and [[Eastern Europe|eastern]] Europe.
The territory of Germany stretches from the high mountains of the [[Alps]] (highest point: the [[Zugspitze]] at 2,962&nbsp;m&nbsp;/&nbsp;9,718&nbsp;[[foot (unit of length|ft]]) in the south to the shores of the [[North Sea]] (Nordsee) in the north-west and the [[Baltic Sea]] (Ostsee) in the north-east. In between are found the forested uplands of central Germany and the low-lying lands of northern Germany (lowest point: [[Neuendorfer]]/[[Wilstermarsch]] at 3.54 metres (11.6&nbsp;ft) below sea level), traversed by some of Europe's major [[river]]s such as the [[Rhine]], [[Danube]] and [[Elbe]].
Due to its central location, Germany shares borders with more European countries than any other country. Its neighbours are [[Denmark]] in the north, [[Poland]] and the [[Czech Republic]] in the east, [[Austria]] and [[Switzerland]] in the south, [[France]] and [[Luxembourg]] in the south-west and [[Belgium]] and the [[Netherlands]] in the north-west.
===Climate===
The greater part of Germany lies in the cool/temperate climatic zone in which humid westerly winds predominate.
The climate is affected among other things by the gulf stream, which arranges the climatic values unusually mild.
In the ''north-west'' and the ''north'' the climate is oceanic and rain falls all the year round. Winters there are relatively mild and summers tend to be comparatively cool, even though temperatures can reach above 28 degrees [[Celsius]] (82°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) for prolonged periods of time.
''Average temperatures: [[Hamburg]]: January 0.3°C (33°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) / July&nbsp;17.1°C (63°[[Fahrenheit|F]]); [[Essen]]: January&nbsp;1.5°C (35°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) / July&nbsp;17.5°C (64°[[Fahrenheit|F]])''
In the ''east'' the climate shows clear continental features; winters can be very cold for long periods, and summers can become very warm. Here, too, long dry periods are often recorded. ''Average temperatures: [[Berlin]]: January -0.9°C (30°F) / July&nbsp;18.6°C (65°F)''
In the ''central part'' and the ''south'' there is a transitional climate which varies from moderately oceanic to continental, depending on the location. Hot summers with temperatures about 30 degrees (86°F) are possible.
''Average temperatures: [[Munich]]: January -2.2°C (28°F) / July&nbsp;17.6°C (64°F); [[Freiburg]]: January&nbsp;1.2°C (34°F) / July&nbsp;19.4°C (67°F)''
==Economy==
[[Image:Panorama Frankfurt vom Maintower.jpg|800px|panorama over Frankfurt (Hessen) the banking city of Germany]]
[[Image:50ec ger.png|thumb|right|150px|A [[euro coins|50 euro cent coin]]
featuring the [[Brandenburg Gate]], symbol of division and reunification]]
{{main|Economy of Germany}}
Germany is the largest [[European]] economy and the third largest economy in the world in real terms, placed behind the [[United States]], and [[Japan]]. According to the [[World Trade Organization]], Germany is also the world's top exporter, ahead of the United States and [[China]]. Its major trading partners include [[France]], the United States, the [[United Kingdom]], [[Italy]] and the [[Netherlands]]. Germany is the largest trading partner of most European countries. A major issue of concern remains the persistently high [[unemployment]] rate and weak domestic demand which slows down economic growth. However, according to Bert Rürup, head of Germany's Council of Economic Advisers, [[German Reunification|reunification]] is to blame for two-thirds of Germany's growth lag compared to its [[European Union|EU]] neighbours. In particular, eastern Germany lacks a solid base of small and medium-sized companies, which provided the foundation for [[West Germany]]'s economic prosperity. Domestic demand has stagnated for many years due to wage stagnation and zealous cost-cutting of the federal state. The missing demand has caused many of the prevalent economic problems, such as rising unemployment, high social security costs, and, ironically, high state debt as tax revenues plummeted and social security cost rose. The complex tax system ([[Taxation in Germany]]) allowes companies to drastically reduce the amount of profit that is subject to corporate taxes, so that in 2001 the German state in sum had to pay the companies 0.4 billion € in the combined corporate taxes instead of receiving anything. While problematic in the domestic economy, this tax feature boosts exports.
===Exports===
[[Image:Frankfurt-Skyline-NilsJeppe.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Frankfurt am Main]] is Germany's financial centre]]
As mentioned above the exporting of goods is an essential part of the German [[economic system|economy]] and one of the most relevant reasons for Germany's wealth. Like many other [[export]] oriented countries, Germany itself does not have the climate or the [[natural resources]] necessary to support a [[standard of living|high living standard]]. These shortages have long made [[international trade]] completely indispensable to the German economy. Considering these economical forces it should not come as a surprise that Germany is the world's largest exporting country, with exports for 2005 to |
armies are more likely to mutiny than all-volunteer forces, and like the [[Vlasov army]], can in extreme cases turn against their own.
===The draft as nationalism===
The military draft is predicated on the assumption that nations have rights that supersede those of the individual. In the words of Einstein and Gandhi's ''Anti-Conscription Manifesto'', "The State which thinks itself entitled to force its citizens to go to war will never pay proper regard to the value and happiness of their lives in peace." The building of large conscript armies coincided with the rise of virulent [[nationalism]] in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Draftees can object being conscripted if they are [[separatism|separatists]] and do not want to support the armies of the state they oppose.
On the other hand, some separatist fighters acquire their military skills in the army they will later fight against.
===The draft as justification for attacks on civilians===
Conscription is a component of "total war," and can also be used as an example of established policy to justify a government's demand that other sacrifices be required of civilians. Once a draft is allowed, Justice [[Louis Brandeis]] argued, &#8220;all bets are off". Arguably this results in a blurring of the moral distinction between civilians and the military as legitimate military targets, leading to attacks on civilians. Examples would include the indiscriminate bombing of cities conducted by both sides during [[World War II]], or the assertion by terrorist groups that civilians are legitimate targets.
===Questions of conscript quality===
One of the objections raised is a conscripted force would be of lower quality than a volunteer army. First, short periods of service do not allow for much skill building. Second, there is a possibility of a morale drop in units with conscripts, leading to a reduction in quality as officers and NCOs work to alleviate those problems.
The biggest problem is that the pace of training has to be adjusted to the level of the lowest quality manpower. Combined with the short tour of duty, this renders the skills of the conscripts very low. Certain individuals with poor military and social skills may prove [[loose cannon]]s in wartime, proving more a liability than an asset to the unit and perhaps risking the destruction of the whole unit. Therefore the [[elite]] units of all armies which have conscription, are composed entirely of selected volunteers, such as [[paratroops|Parachute Rangers]] in the Finnish army.
==Economics==
It can be argued that in a cost to benefit ratio conscription during peace time is not worthwhile. A number of months or years of service amongst the most fit subtracts from the productivity of the economy; add to this the cost of training them, and in some countries paying them. Compared to these extensive costs, some would argue there is very little benefit, if there ever were a war conscription and basic training could be completed quickly, and in most countries where conscription is compulsory there is little threat of war in any case.
The cost to benefit ratio of conscription during war time is also debatable. As technology improves, the necessity of a soldier on the battlefield becomes less and less necessary. Superior technology, not superior numbers, has become the deciding factor in war. The cost to train, equip, and care for a poorly trained conscript does not justify the contribution (if any) he or she makes to the armed forces.
Alternative theories suggest that readiness for war in times of crises require constant training or conscription. These fall under the category of "credible threat" recently popularized by 2005 Nobel economic laureates Robert Aumann and Thomas Schelling who were partially credited with the non-nuclear cold war between the United States and the former Soviet Union.
Particulary in times of military duress, such as the current U.S. conflict in Iraq, conscription serves as an instrument through which fresh soldiers may be readied when reserves and voluntary troops have been overutilized. These new troops ultimately provide more efficient use of U.S. economic resources due to the fact that individuals plan for military involvement as a normal activity. Draft assignments, in contrast, disrupt everyday activity and lead to possibly greater economic shock.
==See also==
* [[Antimilitarism]]
* [[Bevin Boys]]
* [[Conscientious objection]]
* [[Corvée]]
* [[Michel Foucault]]'s theory of "disciplinary institutions"
* [[Impressment]]
* [[Indentured servant]]
* [[Involuntary servitude]]
* [[Machiavelli]]'s thought on the superiority of conscription over mercenaries and professional armies.
* [[Military]]
* [[Military history]]
* [[Military service]]
* [[Military of Switzerland|Swiss Army]]
* [[National Service]]
* [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau, Jean-Jacques]]
* [[Timeline of women's participation in warfare]]
* [[Military recruitment]]
* [[Economic conscription]]
==External links==
* [http://home.snafu.de/mkgandhi/manifest.htm Manifesto Against Conscription and the Military System, with an updated list of all signatories from 1993 to 2005].
* Albert Einstein and Mahatma Gandhi. [http://www.peace.ca/manifestoagainstconscription.htm Manifesto Against Conscription and the Military System].
* [http://www.foodnotbombs.nl/pages/Slovakia.htm Campaign to Abolish Mandatory Military Service in Slovakia]
* [http://edition.cnn.com/2002/ALLPOLITICS/12/29/mandatory.military/ Rangel calls for mandatory military service]
* [http://www.iosmms.org.tw/KUN_1.HTM The Association for Injured Officers And Soldiers of Mandatory Military Service, Republic of China]
* [http://www.ebco-beoc.org The European Bureau for Conscientious Objection]
* [http://www.omhroi.gr Campaign Against Conscription in Greece]
* [http://www.takver.com/history/matteson.htm Australian Draft Resistance and the Vietnam War]
* [http://warmuseum.ca/cwm/newspapers/canadawar/conscription_e.html Canadian Newspaper Archives - Conscription]
* [http://h.webring.com/hub?ring=anticonscription Anti-Conscription Web Ring]
* [http://www.wri-irg.org/co/rtba/ Refusing to bear arms]: a survey around the world, conducted by "War Resisters' International" about conscription and conscientious objection to military service.
* [http://wwwnew.towson.edu/clt/editorials/peak5.html What To Do If There Is A Draft]
* [http://www.historyguy.com/issues_draft.html The History Guy:Issues: Military Draft/Conscription]: Information and links on the military draft issue.
[[Category:Conscription|*]]
[[Category:Nationalism]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Politics about the military]]
[[Category:War]]
[[Category:Warfare]]
[[da:Værnepligt]]
[[de:Wehrpflicht]]
[[fi:Asevelvollisuus]]
[[fr:Conscription]]
[[id:Wajib militer]]
[[it:Servizio di leva]]
[[ja:徴兵制度]]
[[ko:징병제]]
[[nl:Dienstplicht]]
[[nn:Verneplikt]]
[[no:Verneplikt]]
[[sl:Nabor]]
[[sv:Värnplikt]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Catherine Coleman</title>
<id>5736</id>
<revision>
<id>41769617</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T16:50:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Abbyemery</username>
<id>202460</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CatherineColeman.jpg|thumb|Catherine Coleman]]
'''Catherine ''Cady'' Coleman''' (born [[December 14]], [[1960]], in [[Charleston, South Carolina]]) is a colonel in the [[United States Air Force]] and an [[astronaut]].
She received a bachelor of science degree in [[chemistry]] from the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in [[1983]], and then joined the Air Force as a second lieutenant while continuing her graduate work at the [[University of Massachusetts]]. In [[1988]] she entered active duty at [[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base]] as a research chemist. During her work she also participated at the analysis of the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) experiment launched with [[STS-41-C]] and retrieved with [[STS-32]]. In [[1991]] she received her [[doctorate]] in [[polymer science]] and engineering from the [[University of Massachusetts]]. She was selected by [[NASA]] in [[1992]] to become a mission specialist astronaut.
She has taken part in two [[space shuttle]] missions so far. In [[1995]] she was a member of the [[STS-73]] crew on the scientific mission USML-1 with experiments including [[biotechnology]], combustion science and the [[physics]] of [[fluids]].
She also trained for the mission [[STS-83]] to be the backup for [[Donald Thomas]], however as he recovered on time she did not fly that mission.
[[STS-93]] was Coleman's second space flight. She was mission specialist in charge of placing the [[Chandra X-ray Observatory]] in orbit.
Coleman is married to acclaimed contemporary glass artist Josh Simpson.
==External links==
*[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/coleman.html NASA biography]
*[http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/astronauts/english/coleman_catherine.htm Spacefacts biography of Catherine Coleman]
{{astronaut-stub}}
[[Category:1960 births|Coleman, Catherine]]
[[Category:Living people|Coleman, Catherine]]
[[Category:American astronauts|Coleman, Catherine]]
[[Category:Colonels|Coleman, Catherine]]
[[Category:United States Air Force officers|Coleman, Catherine]]
[[Category:Women in space|Coleman, Catherine]]
[[Category:Women in war|Coleman, Catherine]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cross cutting</title>
<id>5737</id>
<revision>
<id>15903934</id>
<timestamp>2004-11-14T01:51:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DMG413</username>
<id>72499</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cross-cutting]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cervix</title>
<id>5738</id>
<revision>
<id>41961995</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:25:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<usernam |
ision remains transparent to clients.
Some DHCP server implementations can update the DNS name associated with the client hosts to reflect the new IP address. They make use of the DNS update protocol established with RFC 2136.__FORCETOC__
==Client Configuration Parameters==
A DHCP server can provide optional configurations to the client. RFC 2132 defines
DHCP options.
List of configurable options and their corresponding numbers:
''RFC 1497 Vendor Extensions:''
Data
Tag Name Length Meaning
--- ---- ------ -------
0 Pad Option 0 None
255 End Option 0 None
1 Subnet Mask 4 Subnet Mask Value
2 Time Offset 4 Time Offset in
Seconds from UTC
3 Router N×4 Router addresses
4 Time Server N×4 Timeserver addresses
5 Name Server N×4 IEN-116 Server addresses
6 Domain Server N×4 DNS Server addresses
7 Log Server N×4 Logging Server addresses
8 Quotes Server N×4 Quotes Server addresses
9 LPR Server N×4 Printer Server addresses
10 Impress Server N×4 Impress Server addresses
11 RLP Server N×4 N RLP Server addresses
12 Hostname N Hostname string
13 Boot File Size 2 Size of boot file in 512-octet
blocks
14 Merit Dump File N Client to dump and name
the file to dump it to
15 Domain Name N The DNS domain name of the
client
16 Swap Server 4 Swap Server address
17 Root Path N Path name for root disk
18 Extensions File N Path name for more BOOTP info
''IP Layer Parameters per Host:''
19 Forward On/Off 1 Enable/Disable IP Forwarding
20 SrcRte On/Off 1 Enable/Disable Non-Local Source Routing
21 Policy Filter N×8 Non-Local Source Routing Policy Filters
22 Max DG Assembly 2 Max Datagram Reassembly Size
23 Default IP TTL 1 Default IP Time to Live
24 MTU Timeout 4 Path MTU Aging Timeout
25 MTU Plateau N×2 Path MTU Plateau Table
''IP Layer Parameters per Interface:''
26 MTU Interface 2 Interface MTU Size
27 MTU Subnet 1 All Subnets are Local
28 Broadcast Address 4 Broadcast Address
29 Mask Discovery 1 Perform Mask Discovery
30 Mask Supplier 1 Provide Mask to Others
31 Router Discovery 1 Perform Router Discovery
32 Router Request 4 Router Solicitation Address
33 Static Route N×8 Static Routing Table
''Link Layer Parameters per Interface:''
34 Trailers 1 Trailer Encapsulation
35 ARP Timeout 4 ARP Cache Timeout
36 Ethernet 1 Ethernet Encapsulation
''TCP Parameters:''
37 Default TCP TTL 1 Default TCP Time to Live
38 Keepalive Time 4 TCP Keepalive Interval
39 Keepalive Data 1 TCP Keepalive Garbage
''Application and Service Parameters:''
40 NIS Domain N NIS Domain Name
41 NIS Servers N×4 NIS Server Addresses
42 NTP Servers N×4 NTP Server Addresses
43 Vendor Specific N Vendor Specific Information
44 NETBIOS Name Srv N×4 NETBIOS Name Servers
45 NETBIOS Dist Srv N×4 NETBIOS Datagram Distribution
46 NETBIOS Node Type 1 NETBIOS Node Type
47 NETBIOS Scope N NETBIOS Scope
48 X Window Font N×4 X Window Font Server
49 X Window Manager N×4 X Window Display Manager
64 NIS-Domain-Name N NIS+ v3 Client Domain Name
65 NIS-Server-Addr N×4 NIS+ v3 Server Addresses
68 Home-Agent-Addrs N×4 Mobile IP Home Agent Addresses
69 SMTP-Server N×4 Simple Mail Server Addresses
70 POP3-Server N×4 Post Office Server Addresses
71 NNTP-Server N×4 Network News Server Addresses
72 WWW-Server N×4 WWW Server Addresses
73 Finger-Server N×4 Finger Server Addresses
74 IRC-Server N×4 Chat Server Addresses
75 StreetTalk-Server N×4 StreetTalk Server Addresses
76 STDA-Server N×4 ST Directory Assist. Addresses
''DHCP Extensions:''
50 Address Request 4 Requested IP Address
51 Address Time 4 IP Address Lease Time
52 Option Overload 1 Overload "sname" or "file"
53 DHCP Msg Type 1 DHCP Message Type
54 DHCP Server Id 4 DHCP Server Identification
55 Parameter List N Parameter Request List
56 DHCP Message N DHCP Error Message
57 DHCP Max Msg Size 2 DHCP Maximum Message Size
58 Renewal Time 4 DHCP Renewal (T1) Time
59 Rebinding Time 4 DHCP Rebinding (T2) Time
60 Class Id N Vendor Class Identifier
61 Client Id N Client Identifier
66 Server-Name N TFTP Server Name
67 Bootfile-Name N Boot File Name
''Newer extensions:''
62 Netware/IP Domain N Netware/IP Domain Name
63 Netware/IP Option N Netware/IP sub Options
77 User-Class N User Class Information
78 Directory Agent N directory agent information
79 Service Scope N service location agent scope
80 Rapid Commit 0 Rapid Commit
81 Client FQDN N Fully Qualified Domain Name
82 Relay Agent Information N Relay Agent Information
83 iSNS N Internet Storage Name Service
84 REMOVED/Unassigned
85 NDS Servers N Novell Directory Services
86 NDS Tree Name N Novell Directory Services
87 NDS Context N Novell Directory Services
88 BCMCS Controller Domain Name list
89 BCMCS Controller IPv4 address option
90 Authentication N Authentication
91 REMOVED/Unassigned
92 REMOVED/Unassigned
93 Client System N Client System Architecture
94 Client NDI N Client Network Device Interface
95 LDAP N Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
96 REMOVED/Unassigned
97 UUID/GUID N UUID/GUID-based Client Identifier
98 User-Auth N Open Group's User Authentication
99 Unassigned
100 REMOVED/Unassigned
101 REMOVED/Unassigned
102-107 REMOVED/Unassigned
108 REMOVED/Unassigned
109 Unassigned
110 REMOVED/Unassigned
111 Unassigned
112 Netinfo Address N NetInfo Parent Server Address
113 Netinfo Tag N NetInfo Parent Server Tag
114 URL N URL
115 REMOVED/Unassigned
116 Auto-Config |
ythagorean theorem]]: Whenever ''x'', ''y'' are in ''V'' and <''x'', ''y''> = 0, then
::<math> \|x\|^2 + \|y\|^2 = \|x+y\|^2. </math>
:The proofs of both of these identities require only expressing the definition of norm in terms of the inner product and multiplying out, using the property of additivity of each component. The name ''Pythagorean theorem'' arises from the geometric interpretation of this result as an analogue of the theorem in [[synthetic geometry]]. Note that the proof of the Pythagorean theorem in synthetic geometry is considerably more elaborate because of the paucity of underlying structure. In this sense, the synthetic Pythagorean theorem, if correctly demonstrated is deeper than the version given above.
:An easy [[mathematical induction|induction]] on the Pythagorean theorem yields:
*If ''x''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''x''<sub>''n''</sub> are [[orthogonal]] vectors, that is, <''x''<sub>''j''</sub>, ''x''<sub>''k''</sub>> = 0 for distinct indices ''j'', ''k'', then
::<math> \sum_{i=1}^n \|x_i\|^2 = \left\|\sum_{i=1}^n x_i \right\|^2. </math>
:In view of the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality, we also note that <·,·> is [[continuous function|continuous]] from ''V'' &times; ''V'' to ''F''. This allows us to extend Pythagoras' theorem to infinitely many summands:
*Parseval's identity: Suppose ''V'' is a ''complete'' inner product space. If {''x''<sub>''k''</sub>} are mutually orthogonal vectors in ''V'' then
::<math> \sum_{i=1}^\infty\|x_i\|^2 = \left\|\sum_{i=1}^\infty x_i\right\|^2, </math>
:''provided the infinite series on the left is [[convergent]].'' Completeness of the space is needed to ensure that the sequence of partial sums
::<math> S_k = \sum_{i=1}^k x_i </math>
:which is easily shown to be a [[Cauchy sequence]] is convergent.
== Orthonormal sequences ==
A sequence {''e''<sub>''k''</sub>}<sub>''k''</sub> is ''orthonormal'' [[iff]] it is orthogonal and each ''e<sub>k</sub>'' has norm 1. An ''orthonormal basis'' for an inner product space ''V'' is an orthonormal sequence whose algebraic span is ''V''.
The [[Gram-Schmidt]] process is a canonical procedure that takes a linearly independent sequence {''v''<sub>''k''</sub>}<sub>''k''</sub> on an inner product space and produces an orthonormal sequence {''e''<sub>''k''</sub>}<sub>''k''</sub> such that for each ''n''
:<math>\operatorname{span}\{v_1, \ldots, v_n\} = \operatorname{span}\{e_1, \ldots, e_n\} </math>
By the Gram-Schmidt orthonormalization process, one shows:
'''Theorem'''. Any [[separable]] inner product space ''V'' has an orthonormal basis.
Parseval's identity leads immediately to the following theorem:
'''Theorem'''. Let ''V'' be a [[separable]] inner product space and {''e''<sub>''k''</sub>}<sub>''k''</sub> an orthonormal basis of ''V''.
Then the map
:<math> x \mapsto \{\langle e_k, x\rangle\}_{k \in \mathbb{N}} </math>
is an isometric linear map ''V'' &rarr; ''l''<sup>2</sup> with a dense image.
This theorem can be regarded as an abstract form of [[Fourier series]], in which an arbitrary orthonormal basis plays the role of the sequence of [[trigonometric polynomial]]s. Note that the underlying index set can be taken to be any countable set (and in fact any set whatsoever, provided ''l<sup>2</sup>'' is defined appropriately, as is explained in the article [[Hilbert space]]).
In particular, we obtain the following result in the theory of Fourier series:
'''Theorem'''. Let ''V'' be the inner product space <math>C[-\pi,\pi]</math>. Then the sequence (indexed on set of all integers) of continuous functions
:<math>e_k(t) = (2 \pi)^{-1/2}e^{i k t}</math>
is an orthonormal basis of the space <math>C[-\pi,\pi]</math> with the ''L''<sup>2</sup> inner product. The mapping
:<math> f \mapsto \frac{1}{\sqrt{2 \pi}} \left\{\int_{-\pi}^\pi f(t) e^{-i k t} \, dt \right\}_{k \in \mathbb{Z}} </math>
is an isometric linear map with dense image.
Orthogonality of the sequence {e<sub>k</sub>}<sub>k</sub> follows immediately from the fact that if k &ne; j, then
:<math> \int_{-\pi}^\pi e^{-i (j-k) t} \, dt = 0 </math>
Normality of the sequence is by design, that is, the coefficients are so chosen so that the norm comes out to 1. Finally the fact that the sequence has a dense algebraic span, in the ''inner product norm'', follows from the fact that the sequence has a dense algebraic span, this time in the space of continuous periodic functions on <math>[-\pi,\pi]</math> with the uniform norm. This is the content of the Weierstrass theorem on the uniform density of trigonometric polynomials.
==Operators on inner product spaces==
Several types of [[linear]] maps ''A'' from an inner product space ''V'' to an inner product space ''W'' are of relevance:
* [[Continuous linear operator|Continuous linear maps]], i.e. ''A'' is linear and continuous with respect to the metric defined above, or equivalently, ''A'' is linear and the set of non-negative reals {||''Ax''||}, where ''x'' ranges over the closed unit ball of ''V'', is bounded.
* Symmetric linear operators, i.e. ''A'' is linear and <''Ax'', ''y''> = <''x'', ''A y''> for all ''x'', ''y'' in ''V''.
* Isometries, i.e. ''A'' is linear and <''Ax'', ''Ay''> = <''x'', ''y''> for all ''x'', ''y'' in ''V'', or equivalently, ''A'' is linear and ||''Ax''|| = ||''x''|| for all ''x'' in ''V''. All isometries are [[injective]]. Isometries are [[morphism]]s between inner product spaces, and morphisms of real inner product spaces are orthogonal transformations (compare with [[orthogonal matrix]]).
* Isometrical isomorphisms, i.e. ''A'' is an isometry which is [[surjective]] (and hence [[bijective]]). Isometrical isomorphisms are also known as unitary operators (compare with [[unitary matrix]]).
From the point of view of inner product space theory, there is no need to distinguish between two spaces which are isometrically isomorphic. The [[spectral theorem]] provides a canonical form for symmetric, unitary and more generally [[normal]] operators on finite dimensional inner product spaces. A generalization of the spectral theorem holds for continuous normal operators in Hilbert spaces.
== Degenerate inner products ==
If ''V'' is a vector space and <&nbsp;,&nbsp;> a semi-definite sesquilinear form,
then the function ||''x''|| = <''x'',&nbsp;''x''><sup>1/2</sup> makes sense and satisfies all the properties of norm except that ||''x''|| = 0 does not imply ''x'' = 0. (Such a functional is then called a [[semi-norm]].) We can produce an inner product space by considering the
quotient ''W'' = ''V''/{&nbsp;''x''&nbsp;:&nbsp;||''x''||&nbsp;=&nbsp;0}. The sesquilinear form <&nbsp;,&nbsp;> factors through ''W''.
This construction is used in numerous contexts. The [[Gelfand-Naimark-Segal construction]] is a particularly important example of the use of this technique. Another example is the representation of [[semi-definite kernel]]s on arbitrary sets.
==See also==
* [[Outer product]]
* [[Exterior algebra]]
* [[bilinear form]]
* [[dual space]]
* [[dual pair]]
* [[biorthogonal system]]
== References ==
* S. Axler, ''Linear Algebra Done Right'', Springer, 2004
* G. Emch, ''Algebraic Methods in Statistical Mechanics and Quantum Field Theory'', Wiley Interscience, 1972.
* N. Young, ''An Introduction to Hilbert Spaces'', Cambridge University Press, 1988
[[Category:Functional analysis]]
[[Category:Norm]]
[[Category:Bilinear forms]]
[[de:Pr%C3%A4hilbertraum]]
[[es:Espacio prehilbertiano]]
[[fr:Espace préhilbertien]]
[[he:&#1502;&#1512;&#1495;&#1489; &#1502;&#1499;&#1508;&#1500;&#1492; &#1508;&#1504;&#1497;&#1502;&#1497;&#1514;]]
[[nl:Inwendig product]]
[[ja:&#35336;&#37327;&#12505;&#12463;&#12488;&#12523;&#31354;&#38291;]]
[[pl:Przestrze&#324; unitarna]]
[[pt:Produto interno]]
[[zh:&#20869;&#31215;&#31354;&#38388;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iain M. Banks</title>
<id>14857</id>
<revision>
<id>15912387</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-21T09:05:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ant</username>
<id>2023</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*combine with Iain Banks</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Iain Banks]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iain Banks</title>
<id>14858</id>
<revision>
<id>41639822</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T18:48:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Guinnog</username>
<id>764861</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Novels as Iain Banks */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ian M. Banks 2005.JPG|thumb|200px|Iain M. Banks at [[63rd World Science Fiction Convention]] in [[Glasgow]], [[August 2005]]]]
'''Iain Menzies Banks''' (born on [[February 16]], [[1954]] in [[Dunfermline]], [[Fife]]) is a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[writer]]. As '''Iain M. Banks''' he writes [[science fiction]]; as '''Iain Banks''' he writes [[literary fiction]].
His father was an officer in the [[Admiralty]] and his mother was once a professional [[ice skating|ice skater]]. Banks studied [[English_studies|English]] and [[Philosophy]] at the [[University of Stirling]].
Married in [[1992]], he lives currently in [[North Queensferry]], a town on the north side of the [[Firth of Forth]] near the [[Forth Bridge (railway)|Forth Bridge]] and the [[Forth Road Bridge]]. His next book will be a mainstream one and is due for publicati |
ation hearings], referring to Long Dong Silver and pubic hairs.
*[http://straylight.law.cornell.edu/supct/justices/thomas.bio.html Biography Clarence Thomas] - Cornell Law School
{{start box}}
{{succession box| title=[[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit]]|
before=[[Robert Bork]] |
after=[[Judith Ann Wilson Rogers]] |
years=1990-1991|
}}
{{incumbent succession box| title=[[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States|Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States]]| before=[[Thurgood Marshall]]| start=[[October 23]], [[1991]]| }}
{{end box}}
{{start U.S. Supreme Court composition| CJ=[[William Rehnquist|Rehnquist]]| }}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition court lifespan|cj=William Hubbs Rehnquist|years=[[1986]]–[[2005]]| }}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 1991-1993}}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 1993-1994}}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 1994-2005}}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition CJ| CJ=[[John Roberts|Roberts]]| }}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition court lifespan|cj=John Glover Roberts, Jr.|years=[[2005]]-present| }}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 2005-2006}}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 2006-present}}
{{end U.S. Supreme Court composition}}
[[Category:1948 births|Thomas, Clarence]]
[[Category:African American intellectuals|Thomas, Clarence]]
[[Category:African American politicians|Thomas, Clarence]]
[[Category:Judges of the United States Court of Appeals for the DC Circuit|Thomas, Clarence]]
[[Category:Living people|Thomas, Clarence]]
[[Category:People from Georgia (U.S. state)|Thomas, Clarence]]
[[Category:Pro-life celebrities|Thomas, Clarence]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic jurists|Thomas, Clarence]]
[[Category:United States Supreme Court justices|Thomas, Clarence]]
[[de:Clarence Thomas]]
[[fr:Clarence Thomas]]
[[he:קלרנס תומס]]
[[nl:Clarence Thomas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chiang Kai-shek</title>
<id>6859</id>
<revision>
<id>41997054</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:59:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jusjih</username>
<id>21887</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Presidency in Taiwan */ Added Chiang's number one National Identification Card number from zh:</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px bgcolor=#f7f8ff style="float:right; border:1px solid #ccd2d9; margin:5px"
|colspan=2 align=center style="border-top:1px solid #ccd2d9"|[[Image:Chiang Kai-shek.jpg|275px|Chiang Kai-shek]]
|-
!style="background:#ccf; border-bottom:1px solid #ccd2d9" colspan=2|[[Chinese name|Names]] (''[[#Names|details]]'')
|-
|align=right|Known in English as:||Chiang Kai-shek
|-
|align=right style="border-top:1px solid #ccd2d9"|Known in [[People's Republic of China|PRC]] as:||style="border-top:1px solid"|蔣介石
|-
|align=right|[[Hanyu Pinyin]]:||Jiǎng Jièshí
|-
|align=right|[[Wade-Giles]]:||Chiang Chieh-shih
|-
|align=right|Known in [[Republic of China|ROC]] as :||蔣中正
|-
|align=right|[[Hanyu Pinyin]]:||Jiǎng Zhōngzhèng
|-
|align=right|[[Wade-Giles]]:||Chiang Chung-cheng
|-
|align=right style="border-top:1px solid #ccd2d9"|Family name:||style="border-top:1px solid #ccd2d9"|[[Jiang (surname)|Jiang]]
|-
|align=right|[[Traditional Chinese]]:||<big>蔣</big>
|-
|align=right|[[Simplified Chinese]]:||<big>蒋</big>
|-
|align=right style="border-top:1px solid #ccd2d9"|Given||style="border-top:1px solid #ccd2d9"|names
|-
|align=right|Register name (譜名):||Zhoutai (周泰)
|-
|align=right|Milk name (乳名):||Ruiyuan (瑞元)
|-
|align=right|School name (學名):||Zhiqing (志清),
|-
|align=right| ||later Zhongzheng (中正)
|-
|align=right|[[Chinese style name|Courtesy name]] (字):||Jieshi (介石)
|-
|align=right valign=top| ||''Kai-shek'' in [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]]
|-
|}
'''Chiang Kai-shek''' ([[October 31]], [[1887]] &ndash; [[April 5]], [[1975]]) was a [[China|Chinese]] military and political leader who assumed the leadership of the [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) after the death of [[Sun Yat-sen]] in [[1925]]. He commanded the [[Northern Expedition]] to unify China against the [[warlord]]s and emerged victorious in [[1928]] as the overall leader of the [[Republic of China]] (ROC). Chiang led China in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], during which Chiang's stature within China weakened but his international prominence grew. During the [[Chinese Civil War]] ([[1926]]&ndash;[[1949]]), Chiang attempted to eradicate the [[Communist Party of China|Chinese Communists]] but ultimately failed, forcing his government to retreat to [[Taiwan]], where he continued serving as the [[President of the Republic of China]] and Director-General of the KMT for the remainder of his life.
==Early life==
Chiang Kai-shek was born in the town of [[Xikou]], approximately 33 km (20.5 miles) southwest of downtown Ningbo, in [[Fenghua]] [[County-level city|County]], [[Ningbo]] [[Prefecture-level city|Prefecture]], [[Zhejiang]] [[Province of China|Province]]. However, the [[ancestral home]] (祖籍) of Chiang Kai-shek, a concept important in Chinese society, was the town of Heqiao (和橋鎮), in [[Yixing]] County, [[Wuxi]] Prefecture, [[Jiangsu]] Province (approximately 38 km or 24 miles southwest of downtown Wuxi, and 10 km. (6 miles) from the shores of famous [[Lake Taihu]]).
His parents were Chiang Zhaocong (蔣肇聰) and Wang Caiyu (王采玉), part of an upper-middle class family of salt merchants. His father died when he was only three and Chiang wrote of his mother as the "embodiment of Confucian virtues." In an [[arranged marriage]], Chiang was married to fellow villager Mao Fumei<sup>[[#Notes|1]]</sup> (毛福梅, [[1882]]&ndash;[[1939]]). Chiang and Mao had a son, [[Chiang Ching-Kuo|Ching-Kuo]], and a daughter, Chien-hua (建華).
Chiang grew up in an era where military defeats had left [[China]] destabilized and in debt, and he decided to join the military. He began his military education at the [[Paoting Military Academy]] in 1906. He left for the [[Shimbu Gakko|Military State Academy]] in [[Japan]] in [[1907]]. There, he was influenced by his compatriots to support the revolutionary movement to overthrow the [[Qing Dynasty]] and set up a Chinese republic. He befriended fellow Zhejiang native [[Chen Qimei]] and in [[1908]], Chen brought Chiang to the [[Revolutionary Alliance]]. Chiang served in the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] from [[1909]] to [[1911]].
== Rise to power ==
With the outbreak of the [[Wuchang Uprising]] in 1911, Chiang Kai-shek returned to China to fight in the revolution as an artillery officer. He served in the revolutionary forces, leading a regiment in [[Shanghai]] under his friend and mentor Chen Qimei. The [[Xinhai Revolution|revolution]] was ultimately successful in overthrowing the [[Qing Dynasty]] and Chiang became a founding member of the [[Kuomintang]].
After takeover of the Republican government by [[Yuan Shikai]] and the failed [[Second Revolution]], Chiang, like his Kuomintang comrades, divided his time between exile in [[Japan]] and haven in [[Shanghai]]'s foreign concession areas. In Shanghai, Chiang also cultivated ties with the criminal underworld dominated by the notorious [[Green Gang]] and its leader [[Du Yuesheng]]. Chiang had numerous brushes with the law during this period and the International Concession police records show an arrest warrant for him for armed robbery. On [[February 15]], [[1912]], Chiang Kai-shek shot and killed [[Tao Chengzhang]], the leader of the [[Restoration Society]], at point-blank range as Tao lay sick in a Shanghai French Concession hospital, thus ridding Chen Qimei of his chief rival. In 1915, Chen Qimei was assassinated by agents of Yuan Shikai and Chiang succeeded him as the leader of the [[Chinese Revolutionary Party]] in Shanghai. This was during a low point in Sun Yat-sen's career, with most of his old Revolutionary Alliance comrades refusing to join him in the exiled Chinese Revolutionary Party, and Chen Qimei had been Sun's chief lieutenant in the party.
[[Image:Sun Yat-sen and Chiang Kai-shek.jpg|frame|left|Chiang Kai-shek was appointed by Sun Yat-sen as Commandant of the Whompoa Military Academy.]]
In [[1917]] Sun Yat-sen moved his base of operations to [[Guangzhou]] and Chiang joined him in 1918. Sun, at the time was largely sidelined and without arms or money, was soon expelled from Guangzhou in 1918 and exiled again to Shanghai, but restored again with mercenary help in 1920. However, a rift had developed between Sun, who sought to militarily unify China under the KMT, and Guangdong Governor [[Chen Jiongming]], who wanted to implement a [[federalism|federalist]] system with Guangdong as a model province. On [[June 16]], [[1923]], Chen attempted to expel Sun from Guangzhou and had his residence shelled. Sun and his wife [[Song Qingling]] narrowly escaped under heavy machine gun fire, only to be rescued by gunboats under the direction of Chiang Kai-shek. The incident earned in Chiang Kai-shek the trust of Sun Yat-sen.
Sun regained control in Guangzhou in early 1924 with the help of mercenaries from Yunnan, and accepted aid from the [[Comintern]]. He then undertook a reform of the Kuomintang and established a revolutionary government aimed at unifying China under the KMT. That same year, Sun sent Chiang Kai-shek to spend three months in [[Moscow]] studying the Soviet political and military system. Chiang left his eldest son Ching-kuo in Russia, who would not return until 1937. Chiang Kai-shek returned to Guangzhou and in [[1924]] was made [[Commandant]] of the [[Whampoa Military Academy]]. The early years at Whampoa allowed Chiang to cultivate a cadre of young officers loyal to him and by [[1925]] Chiang's proto-army was scoring victories against local rivals in [[Guangdong]] province. Here he also first met and worked with a young [[Zhou |
resulted (at least in Australia) on reduced pressure on wild populations and a much larger value for their relatively small wild (Southern bluefin) tuna quota. Relatively recently, researchers in Japan have closed the life cycle of the Pacific bluefin tuna, and European researchers in Spain are working on breeding Northern bluefin tuna.
While the negative impacts of some aquaculture on the environment has been widely publicised, the positive environmental effects of aquaculture are rarely noted. For example many aquacultured species are highly sensitive to water quality conditions and aquaculture farmers often notice the effects of pollution or reductions in water quality before other authorities. Aquaculture businesses have a vested interest in clean waterways, in that a reduction in water quality has a direct effect on their production rates and financial bottom line. Appropriate aquaculture development can serve as 'canaries' for the health of waterways, with farms often a very new and undeveloped industry when compared to terrestrial aquacultures. Only a few species (Atlantic salmon, Pacific white shrimp and possibly several species each of catfish, carp and tilapia) are currently on their way to becoming true domesticated aquabuisiness species in the way that poultry, beef and pork have long been. While the aquaculture industry is still only a small way into the development curve the inherent biological characteristics of aquatic animals bode well for the future contribution of aquatic farming to living standards and the environment.
==Challenges==
In countries like the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]], [[Canada]], [[Norway]], and [[Chile]], [[salmon]] and [[trout]] farming are one of the fastest-growing forms of [[agriculture]]. Salmon farming is not increasing in the United States because of heavy competition from other countries, and higher environmental standards for fish farms in the US. Salmon farming, like other food producing operations such as [[beef]], [[wheat]] or [[tomato]]es can impact the environment.
However, the difference between shore farming and fish farming is that shore farming takes place on private land, while fish farming often takes place on the public waters. Organic wastes from fish cages can have a significant effect on water quality and the population structure of organisms, beyond the boundaries of the fish pens, increasing the occurrence of toxic [[algal bloom]]s. Scotland, as well as Chile and China, has had serious toxic algae blooms. Algal blooms can cause the death of huge numbers of wild fish and other species, and great harm to wild fisheries. However, even a month of fallow time can return the area to pristine condition.
Like other agriculture production, aquaculture must stand up to a rigorous evaluation of any environmental impact. Salmon aquaculture has come under increasing scrutiny from environmental [[nongovernmental organization]]s (ENGO's). In Canada, salmon farming sites occupy a small portion of the coastal zone areas where they are located. The total area occupied by Canadian salmon farms in [[British Columbia]] and the [[Bay of Fundy]] in New Brunswick is about 8,900 acres (36 km²) which is less than 0.01% of the coastal area where these sites are located. Still, even though salmon farms occupy only a small percentage of the public waters, scientists have found a significant degradation of the areas where they exist, with lowered oxygen levels, replacement of native seaweeds with invasive seaweeds, increased algal blooms, reduction of wild species, and loss of nursery habitat for wild fish.
Wild Pacific and Atlantic salmon stocks have seen significant declines over the last several decades, before salmon farming operations started. These declines were caused by a combination of factors including [[climate change]], [[overfishing]] and freshwater habitat destruction. However, rivers with fish farms have experienced accelerated decline of wild stocks caused by spread of diseases such as infectious salmon anemia, and parasites such as sea lice from farmed to wild salmon.
Concerns have been raised on the East coast that wild Atlantic salmon may interbreed with and catch disease from salmon that escape from farms. Canadian salmon farmers have significantly reduced the escape of their salmon. The evidence shows that the escape of farmed salmon on Canada's west coast poses low risk to Pacific salmon. However, young wild salmon swimming down river to the ocean are free of sea lice parasites before they swim past the salmon farms, and laden with sea lice after they pass the farms. Most die from these sea lice.
Many farmed fish species are [[carnivore|carnivorous]], meaning that other wild fish species must be harvested to maintain the fish farm. For example, herring are used to make salmon feed. Since herring are the backbone of the North Atlantic food chain, increased fishing pressure on their numbers is a serious threat to all other fish species which depend on herring for food. It is argued that fish farms, far from removing the pressure on wild fish stocks, increase it. Others argue that it takes less fish (in the form of the fishmeal component of an aquaculture diet) to produce a unit of table fish through aquaculture than through the natural food web. Fisheries that are based on species lower on the trophic web (such as many species used for fishmeal) are also more resistant to overfishing than typical table fish fisheries.
The fish farm industry is trying to decrease its reliance on fish for fish feed. The vast majority of aquaculture production on the global scale (species such as carps, catfish and tilapia) occurs with the use of feeds with very little or no fishmeal. A portion of the fish meal used in fish feeds for highly carnivorous species comes from the trimmings and discards of commercial species. More studies are being done concerning shifts in feed composition using poultry and vegetable oils as substitutes for fish protein & oil. However this use of land based feed ingredients results in a decrease of the Omega 3 fish oils in the farmed fish (although in some cases a 'washing out' of the terrestrial oils can be achieved with a short period of feeding with marine oils prior to harvest). The current relectance to further reduce fishmeal and marine oils in the commercial diets of species such as the salmonids and shrimps is not based so much on technical difficulties as consumer resistance to the taste and health qualities of vegetarian fish. In the long term, alternative sources of long chain Omega 3 fatty acids (the most difficult ingredient to source from non fish sources) may be developed from zooplankton or microalgal origins.
Other problems with aquaculture include the potential for increasing the spread of unwanted [[invasive species]], as farmed species are often not native to the area in which they are farmed. When these species escape, they can compete with native species and damage ecosystems. Another problem is the spread of introduced parasites, pests, and diseases.
==See also==
*[[Algae culture]]
*[[Fishery]]
*[[Hatchery]]
==References==
*Hepburn, J. 2002. ''Taking Aquaculture Seriously''. Organic Farming, Winter 2002 © Soil Association.
*Naylor, R.L., S.L. Williams, and D.R. Strong. 2001. ''Aquaculture &ndash; A Gateway For Exotic Species''. [[Science (journal)|Science]], 294: 1655-6.
*[http://www.scotland.gov.uk/cru/kd01/green/reia-01.asp The Scottish Association for Marine Science and Napier University. 2002. Review and synthesis of the environmental impacts of aquaculture]
*Higginbotham James ''Piscinae: Artificial Fishponds in Roman Italy'' University of North Carolina Press (June, 1997)
* Wyban, Carol Araki (1992) ''Tide and Current: Fishponds of Hawai'I'' [[University of Hawaii]] Press :: ISBN 0-82481-396-0
==External links==
* [http://www.cjly.net/deconstructingdinner/020206.htm One Hour Radio Broadcast on Farmed Salmon in British Columbia, Canada - Kootenay Co-op Radio's Deconstructing Dinner program]
*[http://www.northernaquafarms.com/links.html Aquaculture Resources Directory] human selected reference links and downloadable reports, articles from numerous sources.
* [http://www.fao.org/fi/default.asp FAO Fisheries Department] and its [http://www.fao.org/sof/sofia/index_en.htm SOFIA report] on fisheries and aquaculture
*[http://www.greenfacts.org/fisheries/l-2/01-fisheries-production.htm#5 State of World Aquaculture] &ndash; A summary for non-specialists of the above FAO report by [[GreenFacts]].
*[http://www.certifiedorganic.bc.ca/rcbtoa/services/aquaculture.html Organic Aquaculture:] Articles and references on the merits and otherwise of farming fish organically.
*[http://govdocs.aquake.org Aquaculture Knowledge Environment:] A searchable online library of government and United Nations documents covering nearly every aspect of aquaculture from pond construction to international codes of conduct.
*[http://www.was.org/main/Default.asp World Aquaculture Society:] Founded in 1970, the primary focus of WAS is to improve communication and information exchange within the diverse global aquaculture community.
*[http://www.nelha.org/ Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority] Learn how NELHA and its tenants are using sunshine, seawater and ingenuity to bring economic development and diversity.
*[http://www.keaholepoint.org/ Friends of NELHA] [FON] is a nonprofit corporation formed for education and outreach tours related to research, commercial and pre-commercial activities at Keahole Point, north of Kailua Kona, Hawaii.
*[http://www.watershed-watch.org/ww/Sealicefacts/sealicefacts_main.htm Watershed Watch Society] Salmon farming and sea lice
*[http://aquanic.org/ AquaNIC] A comprehensive information server for aquaculture topics, including publications, news, events, job announcements, images, and related resources.
*[http://www.fisheries.org American Fisheries Society]
*[http:/ |
ciation]]. Conversely, murals on the [[Falls Road]], [[Poleglass]], [[Marrowbone]], [[New Lodge, Belfast|New Lodge]], [[Twinbrook, Belfast|Twinbrook]] and [[Ardoyne]] neighborhoods, which are almost entirely [[Roman Catholic]] areas feature political themes such as a [[united Ireland]], and the [[Provisional IRA]], as well as traditional folklore and the [[Irish language]]. The [[Irish mythology|Irish]] folk hero [[Cú Chulainn]] has appeared on both republican and loyalist murals, representing the heroic Celtic past for the former and legendary battles between Ulster and the other provinces for the latter.
The ornately decorated [[The Crown Liquor Saloon|Crown Liquor Saloon]] in Great Victoria Street is notable as being the only bar owned by the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]]. The [[Royal Courts of Justice, Belfast|Royal Courts of Justice]] in Chichester Street is home to Northern Ireland's [[Supreme Court of Northern Ireland|Supreme Court]].
Belfast also contains the tallest building (as distinct from structure) on the island of Ireland. [[Windsor House]] stands at 80 metres (262 feet) and has 23 floors.
* [[Albert Memorial Clock, Belfast]]
* [[Ormeau Baths Gallery]]
==History==
''Main Article: [[History of Belfast]]''
[[Image:Lagan Weir South.JPG|thumb|300px|The [[Laganside Corporation|Lagan Weir]], a major catalyst for redevelopment of the Laganside area and increasing use of the river throughout the city]]
The site of Belfast has been occupied since the [[Bronze age]]s, and the remains of [[Iron Age]] [[hill fort]]s can still be seen. It became a substantial settlement in the 17th century and blossomed as a commercial and industrial centre in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries.
Belfast has long been the capital of Ulster province and of [[Northern Ireland]] since its creation in 1920. Since the 17th century, it has sadly been the scene of much sectarian conflict between Catholics (now often called nationalists) and Protestants (often termed unionists). The most recent example of this is the [[Troubles]] -a civil conflict that raged from 1969 to the late'90s.
Belfast's industry suffered serious decline since the 1960s, creating much unemployment in the city. In recent years, large amounts of money have been invested in the city's infrastructure in an effort to stimulate the economy.
{|border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=2 width=98%
|-align=center
|[[Image:Belfast loyalist mural 1.jpg|thumb|250px|center|Loyalist mural]]||[[Image:Belfast mural 12.jpg|thumb|250px|center|Republican mural]]
|}
==Local Politics==
In 1997, [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionists]] lost control of [[Belfast City Council]] for the first time in its history, with the [[Alliance Party of Northern Ireland]] gaining the balance of power between [[Irish nationalism|nationalists]] and unionists. This position was confirmed in the council elections of [[2001]] and [[2005]]. Since then it has had two Catholic [[mayor]]s, one from the [[SDLP]] and one from [[Sinn Féin]].
In the [[2005]] local government elections, the voters of Belfast elected 51 councillors to [[Belfast City Council]] from the following political parties: 15 [[Democratic Unionist Party]] (DUP), 14 [[Sinn Féin]], 8 [[Social Democratic and Labour Party]] (SDLP), 7 [[Ulster Unionist Party]] (UUP), 4 [[Alliance Party of Northern Ireland|Alliance Party]], 2 [[Progressive Unionist Party]] (PUP), and 1 Independent ([[Frank McCoubrey]]).
Belfast has four UK parliamentary and Assembly constituencies - [[North Belfast (constituency)|North Belfast]], [[West Belfast (constituency)|West Belfast]], [[South Belfast (constituency)|South Belfast]] and [[East Belfast (constituency)|East Belfast]]. All four extend somewhat beyond the city boundaries into parts of [[Castlereagh Borough Council|Castlereagh]], [[Lisburn]] and [[Newtownabbey Borough Council|Newtownabbey]] districts. In [[2003]], they elected 7 Sinn Féin, 6 DUP, 5 UUP, 4 SDLP, 1 PUP, and 1 Alliance MLAs (members of the [[Northern Ireland Assembly]]). In the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005 general election]], they elected 2 DUP MPs, 1 SDLP MP, and 1 Sinn Féin MP.
Belfast is [[twin cities|twinned]] with [[Nashville, Tennessee]] in the [[United States]] and [[Hefei]] in [[China]].
==Media==
Belfast is the home of [[The News Letter]], the oldest weekly newspaper in the world still in publication. Other main newspapers include [[The Irish News]], the evening newspaper [[Belfast Telegraph]] and recently, the [[Daily Ireland]] newspaper, while there is also an Irish language daily newspaper called ''[[Lá]]'' (or "day"). The current affairs magazine ''[[Fortnight]]'' (published, ironically, on a monthly basis) offers commentary from a left of centre but non-party-political stance.
The city is also the headquarters of [[BBC Northern Ireland]], the [[ITV]] station [[Ulster Television|UTV]] and the commercial radio stations [[Belfast CityBeat]] and [[U105]].
==Notable people==
{{GBdot|Belfast}}
For famous people born, raised or resident in Belfast, see [[Notable Belfast People]].
== 2001 Census ==
Belfast Urban Area is within the Belfast Metropolitan Urban Area (BMUA) as classified by the [http://www.nisra.gov.uk/ NI Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA)]. On Census day ([[29 April]] [[2001]]) there were 276,459 people living in Belfast Urban Area. Of these:
*21.7% were aged under 16 years and 19.7% were aged 60 and over
*46.8% of the population were male and 53.2% were female
*47.2% were from a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] background and 48.6% were from a [[Protestantism|Protestant]] background
*5.4% of people aged 16-74 were unemployed.
For more details see: [http://www.ninis.nisra.gov.uk/ NI Neighbourhood Information Service]
==Districts==
* [[Ardoyne]]
* [[Andersonstown]]
* [[Ballygomartin Road]]
* [[Ballymacarrett]]
* [[Ballymurphy]]
* [[Ballysillan Road]]
* [[Belfast City Centre]]
* [[Braniel]]
* [[Castlereagh Road]]
* [[Cregagh]]
* [[Donegall Road]]
* [[Falls Road]]
* [[Finaghy]]
* [[Glen Road]]
* [[Glencairn]]
* [[Highfield]]
* [[Malone]]
* [[New Lodge, Belfast|New Lodge]]
* [[Newtownards Road]]
* [[Rathcoole (Belfast)]]
* [[Ravenhill (Belfast)]]
* [[Sandy Row]]
* [[Shankill Road, Belfast|Shankill Road]]
* [[Shore Road]]
* [[Short Strand]]
* [[Springfield road]]
* [[Stewartstown Road]]
* [[Stormont]]
* [[Suffolk Road]]
* [[Tigers Bay]]
* [[Turf Lodge]]
* [[Willowfield]]
* [[Whiterock]]
* [[Woodvale Road]]
==External links==
* [http://www.gotobelfast.com/ Go To Belfast - Tourism]
* [http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk Belfast City Council]
* [http://www.geographia.com/northern-ireland/ukibel00.htm Belfast City - Tourism]
* [http://www.belfast.net/mo/belmap.jpg Map of Central Belfast]
* [http://www.geographyinaction.co.uk/Urban_structure/Urbanstructure_intro.html Urban structure of Belfast]
* [http://www.scots-online.org/grammar/belfast.htm Belfast Dialect]
* [http://www.irish-architecture.com/buildings_ireland/antrim/belfast/index.html Architecture of Belfast]
* [http://www.crownbar.com/about.asp The Crown Liquor Saloon]
==See also==
* [[Belfast Peace Lines]]
* [[Belfast blitz]]
*[[List of towns in Northern Ireland]]
*[[List of villages in Northern Ireland]]
{{commons|Belfast}}
{{Northern_Ireland}}
{{IrishCities}}
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[[Category:Capitals in Europe]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Ports and harbours of Northern Ireland]]
[[ca:Belfast]]
[[cy:Belffast]]
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[[fa:بلفاست]]
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[[ko:밸파스트]]
[[id:Belfast]]
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[[he:בלפאסט]]
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[[zh:贝尔法斯特]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Biotite</title>
<id>5047</id>
<revision>
<id>40488477</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T23:01:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jaraalbe</username>
<id>261435</id>
</contributor>
<comment>multiple mineral categories</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Biotite_sliceUSGOV.jpg|thumb|A Biotite slice]]
'''Biotite''' is a common [[Silicate minerals#Phyllosilicates|phyllosilicate]] [[mineral]] that contains [[potassium]], [[magnesium]], [[iron]] and [[aluminium]]. It is sometimes called "iron mica" and is found in [[granite|granitic]] rocks, [[gneiss|gneisses]], and [[schist|schists]]. Like other [[mica]] minerals, biotite has a highly perfect basal cleavage, its flexible sheets easily flaking off. It has a [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness|hardness]] of 2.5 - 3, a [[specific gravity]] of 2.7 - 3.1, is colored [[green|greenish]] to [[brown]] or [[black]], and can be transparent to opaque. Biotite is occasionally found in large sheets, especially in [[pegmatite]] veins, and also occurs as a contact [[metamorphic rock]] or the product of the alteration of [[hornblende]], [[augite]], [[wernerite]], and similar minerals.
Biotite occurs in the [[lava]] of [[Mount Vesuvius]], at [[Monzoni]], and many other [[Europe|European]] locations. In the [[United States]], it is found in the pegmatites of [[New England]], [[Virginia]] and [[North Carolina]], as well as in the granite of [[Pikes Peak]], [[Colorado]].
Biotite was named in honor of the [[France|French]] [[physicist]] [[Jean-Baptiste Biot]].
== See also ==
*[[List of minerals]]
{{mineral-stub}}
[[Category:Magnesium minerals]]
[[Category:Iron minerals]]
[[Category:Potassium minerals]]
[[Category:Aluminium minerals]]
[[Category:Silicate minerals]]
[[de:Biotit]]
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[[pl:Biotyt]]
[[pt:Biotita]]
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[[fi:Biotiitti]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brigham Young</title>
<id>5048</id>
<revision>
<id>42103612</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:23:11 |
sly signalled when his dorsal fins glow/flash in the same color as the atomic beam).
The name "Gojira" is a combination of ''gorira'' which means "[[gorilla]]" and ''kujira'', which means "[[whale]]" in [[Japanese Language|Japanese]]. The name was allegedly originally a nickname of a large worker at Toho Studios. But since Gojira was neither a gorilla nor a whale, the name "Gojira" was devised in a different way for the film's story; Gojira's name was originally spelled using [[ateji]] characters (呉爾羅).
''[[Godzilla (1954)|Gojira]]'' was first released in the United States in [[1955]] in [[Japanese American|Japanese-American]] communities only, under Toho's international title, ''Godzilla''. In [[1956]], it was adapted by an American company into ''[[Godzilla, King of the Monsters]]'' (based on Toho's international title), edited and with added, principal scenes featuring [[Raymond Burr]], and this version became an international success. As a result, the monster came to be known as "Godzilla" also in Japan (the belief that American distributors were responsible for the name "Godzilla" is a misconception, since Toho came up with the name for international markets to begin with).
===Culture===
Godzilla was originally an [[allegory]] for the effects of the [[nuclear weapon|hydrogen bomb]], and the unintended consequences that such weapons might have on Earth. The radioactive contamination of the Japanese fishing boat [[Daigo Fukuryu Maru]] through the [[United States]]' [[Castle Bravo]] [[thermonuclear]] device test on [[Bikini Atoll]], on [[March 1]], [[1954]] lead to much press coverage in Japan preceding the release of the first movie in [[1954]]. The [[Heisei era (daikaiju eiga)|Versus]] and [[Mireniamu era (daikaiju eiga)|Millennium]] Series have largely continued this concept. Some have pointed out the parallels, conscious or unconscious, between Godzilla's relationship to Japan and that of the United States; first a terrible enemy who causes enormous destruction, but then becoming a good friend and defender in times of peril.
Films have been made over the last five decades, each reflecting the social and political climate in Japan. All but one of the 29 films were produced by Toho: a version was made in 1998 by [[TriStar Pictures]] and set in the [[United States]] by the directors of ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]'' (ID4) and is somewhat despised by most Godzilla fans. Toho immediately followed it with 1999's ''[[Godzilla 2000: Millennium]]'', which began the current series of films, known informally as the [[Mireniamu era (daikaiju eiga)|Mireniamu]] or ''Millennium'' series.
Much of Godzilla's popularity in the United States can be credited with [[Television|TV]] broadcasts of the [[Toho Studios]] monster movies during the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]. The American company [[United Productions of America|UPA]] contracted with Toho to distribute its monster movies of the time, and UPA continues to hold the license today for the ''Godzilla'' films of the 1960s and 1970s. Sony currently holds some of those rights, as well as the rights to every Godzilla film produced from 1991 onward. The [[Blue Öyster Cult]] song "Godzilla" also contributed to the popularity of the movies. The creature also made an appearance in a [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] commercial, in which Godzilla went one-on-one with NBA star [[Charles Barkley]].
In 1996, after his then-final appearance in ''[[Godzilla vs. Destoroyah]]'', Godzilla received an award for Lifetime Achievement at the [[MTV Movie Awards]]. Creator and producer [[Tomoyuki Tanaka]] accepted on his behalf via satellite but was joined by "Godzilla" himself.
On his 50th (Japanese) birthday, on [[29 November]] [[2004]], Godzilla got a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]].
===Synopsis===
{{spoiler}}
The deoxygenation of Tokyo bay, caused by Dr. Serizawa's oxygen destroyer, killed Godzilla at the end of the first movie, dissolving his flesh and bone into nothingness. Nonetheless, Gojira - or Godzilla - returned in a series of films, all from Toho.
In the subsequent films, another of Godzilla's species take his place or Godzilla simply doesn't stay dead (there is some debate about this). In Godzilla 2000, it is discussed that Godzilla possesses a component known as "Organizer G-1", or "Regenerator G-1" in the English version of the film, which allows him to heal from any wound, possibly even regenerate himself from mere fragments. This would make it possible for Godzilla to continue indefinitely, even though he appears to die. Such an ability was used in ''Godzilla, Mothra, King Ghidorah''; where Godzilla's heart beats after Godzilla explodes.
The Japanese version of Godzilla was greatly inspired by the commercial success of ''[[King Kong]]'', and the [[1953]] success of ''[[The Beast From 20,000 Fathoms]]''. Godzilla would go on to inspire [[Gorgo]], [[Gamera]], and many others.
==Films==
[[Image:GodzillasAtomicRay.jpg|left|thumb|Godzilla fires his atomic ray in ''[[Destroy All Monsters]]'' ([[1968 in film|1968]]).]]
The Godzilla series is generally broken into three eras, reflecting the broader division of daikaiju eiga into the [[Showa era (daikaiju eiga)|Shōwa era]], [[Heisei era (daikaiju eiga)|Heisei era]], and [[Mireniamu era (daikaiju eiga)|Millennium era]].
===Shōwa Godzilla Series (昭和ゴジラシリーズ) 1954–1975===
The initial series of movies is named for the [[Showa period]] in Japan (as all of these films were produced before [[Hirohito|Emperor Hirohito]]'s death in [[1989]]). This Showa timeline spanned from 1954, with ''[[Godzilla (1954)]]'', to 1975, with ''[[Terror of Mechagodzilla]]''. With the exception of the serious ''[[Godzilla (1954)]]'' and the semi-serious sequels ''[[Godzilla Raids Again]]'' and ''[[Mothra vs. Godzilla]]'', this period also featured a somewhat more lighthearted Godzilla. This tendency started with ''[[King Kong vs. Godzilla]]'', which had the highest ticket sales of any Godzilla movie. Starting with ''[[Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster]]'' (made 10 years after [[Godzilla (1954)|the first Godzilla film]]), Godzilla became a semi-playful [[antihero]], and as years went by, he evolved into an [[anthropomorphic]] [[superhero]]. The films [[Son of Godzilla]] and [[All Monsters Attack]] were aimed largely at youthful audiences, featuring the appearance of Godzilla's son, [[Minya]]. The Showa period saw the addition of many monsters into the Godzilla continuity, three of which ([[Mothra]], [[Rodan]] and [[Varan]]) had their own solo movies, as well as a movie for the Toho-ized [[King Kong]]. This period featured a rough continuity, although the chronology is confused, as some of the later movies were set in an arbitrary future time, often 1999.
In all films of this original series, Godzilla was 50 meters tall, and weighed 20,000 tons. The American release ''Godzilla, King of the Monsters!'' (1956) incorrectly stated Godzilla's height to be 400 feet, an inaccuracy that lingers today.
===Versus Series or Heisei Series (ＶＳシリーズ) 1984–1995===
The timeline was revamped in 1984 with ''[[The Return of Godzilla]]''; this movie was created as a direct sequel to the 1954 film, and ignores the continuity of the Showa series. Known as the [[VS Series]], (unofficially known to American fans as the "[[Heisei era (daikaiju eiga)|Heisei Series]]", for the ruling emperor of the time), the continuity ended in 1995's ''[[Godzilla vs. Destoroyah]]'' after a run of seven films. The reason for the continuity shift was based on a realization that the marketing of the movies had removed the reason it was so loved. When it was discovered that Godzilla was popular with children, sequels were toned down in obvious screen violence, and Godzilla was made out to be a good guy instead of an indestructible, abhorrent mistake of men. However, the further Godzilla was taken away from his roots, the less popular he became. Hence, ''[[The Return of Godzilla]]'' brought the series back to form.
===American Columbia/TriStar Godzilla film, 1998===
The only Godzilla movie not made by Toho is the [[1998]] film ''[[Godzilla (1998)|Godzilla]]'', directed by [[Roland Emmerich]]. Despite being one of the highest grossing films of the year when factoring in overseas profits, the film was widely panned by cult followers of the Godzilla franchise, critics on both sides of the Pacific, and movie-goers in general. The $136 million US boxoffice fell far short of marketing expectations, thus the film is generally viewed as a failure despite turning a profit worldwide.
In the 1998 film, Godzilla had been a reptile mutated after a [[France and weapons of mass destruction|French atomic test]], on a [[French Polynesia|French Polynesian island]]. Set in [[New York City]] and produced by [[Columbia Pictures]], this movie is not considered to be part of any of the three eras of the Godzilla series.
The monster in the 1998 film has since been dubbed [[Zilla|GINO]] (Godzilla In Name Only) by many Godzilla fans.
GINO is so called for multiple reasons. The most obvious is that the American movie restarts the saga from the beginning, setting the main action in New York City. Another is that it is produced by a different company. However, the biggest change is in the Godzilla character itself. The Godzilla in this movie is almost entirely computer-animated, and bears little resemblance in look or manner to his Japanese counterpart. Instead, he resembles a gigantic [[bipedal]] [[iguana]] or [[Komodo dragon]]. Also, the behavior of the American Godzilla is viewed as running contrary to the long-established Japanese Godzilla traditions. Examples of this changed behavior include the American Godzilla running away and hiding from the military instead of fighting, a lack of radioactive fire-breath, the laying of eggs by Godzilla, and the ease with which the monster is dispatche |
eilani" (1937), "White Christmas" (1942), "Swinging on a Star" (1944), "In the Cool, Cool, Cool of the Evening" (1951) - and won an acting Oscar for ''[[Going My Way]]'' (1944). He also collected 23 gold and platinum records which is quite amazing considering gold and platinum records did not come into existence until 1958, after which Crosby was considered retired. In 1962 Crosby became the first recipient of the [[Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award]], a list that now contains a plethora of musical legends. He has been inducted into the respective halls of fame for both radio and popular music. His music sales are estimated at between 500 000 000 (Five Hundred Million) to 900 000 000 (Nine Hundred Million).
==Mass Media==
Bing Crosby's desire to pre-record his radio shows, combined with a dissatisfaction with the available aluminum recording disks, was a significant factor in the development of [[magnetic tape#magnetic tape audio storage|magnetic tape recording]] and the radio industry's adoption of it. He used his power to innovate new methods of reproducing himself. In 1946 he wanted to shift from live performance to recorded transcriptions for his weekly radio show on [[NBC]] sponsored by Kraft. But [[NBC]] refused to allow recorded [[radio]] programs (except for advertisements). The live production of radio shows was a deeply-established tradition reinforced by the [[ASCAP]] union. The new [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] network, formed out of the sale of the old [[NBC]] Blue network in 1943 to Edward Noble, the "Lifesaver King," was willing to break the tradition. It would pay Crosby $30,000 per week to produce a recorded show every Wednesday sponsored by [[Philco]]. He would also get $40,000 from 400 independent stations for the rights to broadcast the 60-minute show that was sent to them every Monday on three 16-inch aluminum discs that played 10 minutes per side at 33-1/3 rpm. Crosby wanted to change to recorded production for several reasons. The legend that has been most often told is that it would give him more time for his golf game. And he did record his first [[Philco]] program in August 1947 so he could enter the [[Jasper National Park]] Invitational Gold Tournament in September when the new radio season was to start. But golf was not the most important reason. Crosby was always an early riser and hard worker. He sought better quality through recording, not more spare time. He could eliminate mistakes and control the timing of performances. Because his own [[Bing Crosby Enterprises]] produced the show, he could purchase the latest and best sound equipment and arrange the [[microphones]] his way (mic placement had long been a hotly-debated issue in every recording studio since the beginning of the electrical era). No longer would he have to wear the hated toupee on his head previously required by [[CBS]] and [[NBC]] for his live audience shows (Bing preferred a hat). He could also record short promotions for his latest investment, the world's first frozen orange juice to be sold under the brand name [[Minute Maid]].
[[Image:Bing Crosbyampex.jpg|right|thumb|Bing Crosby with the first audio tape recorder, The Ampex Model 200, which was first used to record his radio show on [[April 25]], [[1948]].]]
The transcription method however had problems. The 16-inch aluminum program discs were made from master discs running at [[78 rpm]] and holding only 4 minutes per side. This presented editing and timing problems that often caused gaps or glitches in the flow of the 60-minute program. Also, the acetate surface coating of the aluminum discs was little better than the wax that Edison had used at the turn of the century, with the same limited dynamic range and frequency response. In June of 1947, Murdo MacKenzie of [[Crosby Enterprises]] saw a demonstration of the German Magnetophone that Jack Mullin had brought back from Radio Frankfurt with 50 reels of tape at the end of the war. This machine was one of the magnetic tape recorders that BASF and AEG had built in Germany starting in 1935. The 1/2 inch ferric-coated tape could record 20 minutes per reel of high-quality sound. Alexander M. Poniatoff ordered his [[Ampex company]] (founded in 1944 from his initials A.M.P. plus the starting letters of "excellence") to manufacture an improved version of the Magnetophone.
Bing Crosby hired Mullin and his German machine to start recording his Philco show in August 1947 with the same 50 reels of German magnetic tape that Mullin had found in Frankfort. The crucial advantage was editing. As Bing wrote in his autobiography, "By using tape, I could do a thirty-five or forty-minute show, then edit it down to the twenty-six or twenty-seven minutes the program ran. In that way, we could take out jokes, gags, or situations that didn't play well and finish with only the prime meat of the show; the solid stuff that played big. We could also take out the songs that didn't sound good. It gave us a chance to first try a recording of the songs in the afternoon without an audience, then another one in front of a studio audience. We'd dub the one that came off best into the final transcription. It gave us a chance to ad lib as much as we wanted, knowing that excess ad libbing could be sliced from the final product. If I made a mistake in singing a song or in the script, I could have some fun with it, then retain any of the fun that sounded amusing." Mullin's 1976 memoir of these early days of experimental recording agrees with Bing's account: "In the evening, Crosby did the whole show before an audience. If he muffed a song then, the audience loved it - thought it was very funny - but we would have to take out the show version and put in one of the rehersal takes. Sometimes, if Crosby was having fun with a song and not really working at it, we had to make it up out of two or three parts. This ad-lib way of working is commonplace in the recording studios today, but it was all new to us."
Crosby also invested in [[Ampex]] to produce more machines. In 1948, the second season of Philco shows was taped with the new Ampex Model 200 tape recorder (introduced in April) using the new Scotch 111 tape from the Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing company. Mullin explained that new techniques were invented on the Crosby show with these machines: "One time Bob Burns, the hillbilly comic, was on the show, and he threw in a few of his folksy farm stories, which of course were not in Bill Morrow's script. Today they wouldn't seem very off-color, but things were different on radio then. They got enormous laughs, which just went on and on. We couldn't use the jokes, but Bill asked us to save the laughs. A couple of weeks later he had a show that wasn't very funny, and he insisted that we put in the salvaged laughs. Thus the laugh-track was born." Crosby had launched the tape recorder revolution in America. In his 1950 film Mr. Music, Bing Crosby can be seen singing into one of the new Ampex tape recorders that reproduced his voice better than anything else. Also quick to adopt tape recording was his friend Bob Hope, who would make the famous "Road to..." films with Bing and Dorothy Lamour.
Mullin continued to work for Crosby to develop a videotape recorder. Television production was mostly live in its early years but Crosby wanted the same ability to record that he had achieved in radio. The Fireside Theater sponsored by Proctor and Gamble was his first television production for the 1950 season. Mullin had not yet succeeded with videotape, so Crosby filmed the series of 26-minute shows at the Hal Roach Studios. The "telefilms" were sent to television stations and projected into a camera using a film chain. This would be the same method used by Desi Arnaz in 1951 for the production of the I Love Lucy sitcom and Desilu became the industry model for the independent syndication of filmed episodic series. Crosby did not remain a television producer but continued to finance the development of videotape. Mullin would demonstrate a blurry picture on [[December 30]], [[1952]], but he was not able to solve the problem of high tape speed. It was the Ampex team led by Charles Ginsburg that made the first videotape recorder. Rather than speeding tape across fixed heads at 30 mph, Ginsburg used rotating heads to record at a slant on tape moving at only 15 ips. The helical scan model VR-1000 was demonstrated at the NAB show in Chicago on [[April 14]], [[1956]], and was an immediate success. Ampex made $4 million in sales during the NAB convention and by 1957 most TV production was done on videotape. Ampex developed a color videotape system in 1958 and recorded the spirited debate between Khrushchev and Nixon on a demonstration model at the Moscow trade Fair September 25, 1959. By this time, Crosby had sold his videotape interests to the 3M company and no longer played the role of tape recorder pioneer. Yet his contribution had been crucial. He had opened the door to Mullin's machine in 1948 and financed the early years of the Ampex company. The rapid spread of the tape recorder revolution was in no small measure caused by Crosby's efforts.
The decade following the end of World War II witnessed what has been called the "revolution in sound." The Decca Company introduced FFRR 78 rpm records (Full Frequency Range Recording) that had the finest frequency response (80-15,000 cps) of any recording process before magnetic tape recording. Decca's method of reducing the size of the groove and designing a delicate elliptical stylus to track on the sides of the groove would be the same innovation of the new microgroove process introduced by Columbia in [[1948]] on the new 33-1/3 rpm LP vinyl record. Crosby's sponsor Philco would join Columbia in selling a new $29.95 record player with jeweled stylus (not steel) tracking at only 10 grams (not 200) f |
enment period, fashion for fraternal bodies with no real connections at all to earlier organizations.
It is thought by many that Freemasonry is unlikely to be a straightforward outgrowth of medieval guilds of stonemasons. Amongst the reasons given for this conclusion are the facts that stonemasons lived near their worksite and thus had no need for secret signs to identify themselves, and that the "Ancient Charges" of Freemasonry are nonsensical when thought of as being rules for a stonemasons' guild.
Especially amongst York Rite Freemasons, Freemasonry is said to have existed in the 10th century CE, at the time of King Athelstan of England. Athelstan is said to have been converted to Christianity in York, and to have issued the first Charter to the Masonic Lodges there. The story of his conversion is unsubstantiated, as that royal dynasty had been Christian for centuries.
Current theory <ref>''English Speculative Freemasonry: Some possible Origins, Themes and Developments. The Prestonian Lecture for 2004 in Ars Quatuor Coronatum 2004'' by Trevor Stewart, pub ''London'' 2005</ref> suggests that the development of Freemasonry has two distinct growth periods.
:'''Stage 1''' Freemasonry being operative in nature and likely to have been associated with the craft guilds. Ritual elements are simple and there is no evidence of a sophisticated philosophical outlook.
:'''Stage 2''' emerges in the 18th Centry with a gentrification process and is evidenced by an increasing non-operative membership notable for their social position and position in English, particularly London based, society. The Prestonian ritual and lectures demonstrate an infusion of enlightenment philosophy and increasing use of ritual as a vehicle for the communication and exploration of that philosophy.
===From foundation to 1717===
A more historical source asserting the antiquity of Freemasonry is the Halliwell Manuscript, or Regius Poem - believed to date from ca. 1390. This makes reference to several concepts and phrases similar to those found in Freemasonry.<ref> [http://www.grandlodge-england.org/index.htm ''UGLE Freemasons''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].</ref> The manuscript itself seems to be an elaboration to an earlier document, to which it refers.
There is also the Cooke Manuscript, dated 1430 - the Constitution of German stonemasons.<ref>Ibid</ref> The first appearance of the word 'Freemason' occurs in the Statutes of the Realm enacted in 1495 by [[Henry VII of England]], however, most other documentary evidence prior to the 1500s appears to relate entirely to operative Masons.<ref> [http://www.grandlodge-england.org/index.htm ''UGLE Freemasons''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].</ref>
By 1583, the date of the Grand Lodge manuscript,<ref>Ibid</ref> the documentary evidence begins to grow. The Schaw Statues of 1598-9(4) are the source used to declare the precedence of [[Lodge Mother Kilwinning]] in [[Kilwinning]], Ayrshire, Scotland over Lodge Mary's Chapel in [[Edinburgh]]. These are described as Head and Principal respectively. As a side note, following a dispute over numbering at the formation of the [[Grand Lodge of Scotland]] (GLS) - Kilwinning is numbered as [[Lodge Mother Kilwinning]] Number 0 (pronounced 'Nothing'), GLS. Quite soon thereafter, a charter was granted to Sir William St. Clair (later Sinclair) of Roslin (Rosslyn), allowing him to purchase jurisdiction over a number of lodges in Edinburgh and environs.<ref>Ibid</ref> This may be the basis of the Templar myth surrounding [[Rosslyn Chapel]].
From the early 1600s references are found to Freemasonry in personal diaries and journals. [[Elias Ashmole]] (1617-1692), was made a Mason in 1646, and notes attending several Masonic meetings. There appears to be a general spread of the Craft, between Ashmole's account and 1717, when four [[England|English]] Lodges meeting in [[London]] [[Taverns]] joined together and founded the Grand Lodge of England (GLE). They had held meetings, respectively, at the Apple-Tree Tavern, the Crown Ale-House near Drury Lane, the Goose and Gridiron in St. Paul's Churchyard, and the Rummer and Grapes Tavern in Westminster.<ref>Ibid</ref>
With the foundation of this first Grand Lodge, Freemasonry shifted from being an obscure, relatively private, institution into the public eye. The years following saw new Grand Lodges open throughout Europe. How much of this growth was the spreading of Freemasonry itself, and how much was due to the public organization of pre-existing private Lodges, is uncertain.
===The two great schisms of Freemasonry (1753 and 1877)===
In 1723, [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Anderson_%28minister%2C_author%2C_Mason%29 James Anderson]] wrote and published [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/25/ The Constitutions of the Free-Masons], ''For the Use of the Lodges'' in London and Westminster. This work was reprinted in Philadelphia in 1734 by [[Benjamin Franklin]], who was that year elected Grand Master of the Masons of Pennsylvania.
The Grand Lodge of England (GLE) expanded the degree system from two &mdash; Entered Apprentice and Fellow Craftsman &mdash; to three. This was done by adding the Master Mason degree, around the year 1725; and by reorganising, adding and dispersing ritual elements. The GLE along with those jurisdictions in amity with it, came to be known colloquially as the ''Moderns'', (or the Premier Grand Lodge), to distinguish them from a newer, rival group within Freemasonry, known as the ''Antients'', (or the Antient Grand Lodge). The Antients broke away in 1753, prompted by changes to the Ritual and a wish to have a fourth ''Holy Royal Arch'' (HRA) degree within Craft Masonry. [[Benjamin Franklin]] was a Modern, but by the time he died, his lodge had gone over to the Antients and would no longer recognize him as one of their own &mdash; declining to give him Masonic honours at his funeral.<ref>''Revolutionary Brotherhood'', by Steven C. Bullock, Univ. N. Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1996</ref>
The schism was healed in when the competing Grand Lodges were amalgamated into the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE) in 1813, by virtue of a delicately worded compromise that returned the modes of recognition to their pre-1753 form, but kept Freemasonry ''per se'' as consisting of three degrees only, and while still allowing the Antients to view the HRA degree as the completion of the third degree.<ref>[http://freemasonry.org/psoc/pragmatic.htm A Pragmatic Masonic History], by Leo Zanelli, accessed [[November 14]] [[2005]]</ref> Both the Antients and the Moderns had ''daughter'' lodges throughout the world, and because many of those lodges still exist, there is a great deal of variability in the ritual used today, even between UGLE-recognized jurisdictions in amity. Most private lodges conduct themselves in accordance with an agreed-upon single Rite.
The second great schism in Freemasonry occurred in the years following 1877, when the GOdF started accepting atheists unreservedly. While the issue of atheism is probably the greatest single factor in the split with the GOdF, the English also point to the French recognition of women's Masonry and co-Masonry, as well as the tendency of French Masons to be more willing to discuss religion and politics in Lodge. While the French curtail such discussion, they do not ban it as outright as do the English.<ref>see [http://bessel.org/masrec/france.htm Masonic U.S. Recognition of French Grand Lodges in the 1900s], Paul M. Bessel. Accessed [[November 14]] [[2005]]</ref> The schism between the two branches has occasionally been breached for short periods of time, especially during the [[World War I|First World War]] when American Masons overseas wanted to be able to visit French Lodges.<ref>Ibid</ref>
Concerning religious requirements, the oldest constitution found in Freemasonry &mdash; that of Anderson, 1723 &mdash; says that a Mason ''"will never be a stupid Atheist nor an irreligious Libertine"'' if he ''"rightly understands the Art"''. The only religious requirement was ''"that Religion in which all Men agree, leaving their particular Opinions to themselves"''.<ref> [http://www.2be1ask1.com/library/anderson.html Anderson's Constitutions], accessed [[November 14]] [[2005]].</ref> Masons debate as to whether ''"stupid"'' and ''"irreligious"'' are meant as necessary, or as accidental, modifiers of ''"atheist"'' and ''"libertine"''. It is possible the ambiguity is intentional.
In 1815, the newly amalgamated UGLE modified Anderson's constitutions to include: ''"Let a man's religion or mode of worship be what it may, he is not excluded from the Order, provided he believes in the glorious Architect of Heaven and Earth, and practices the sacred duties of morality."''
In 1849, France (GOdF) followed the English (UGLE) lead by adopting the ''"Supreme Being"'' requirement, but pressure from Latin countries produced by 1875, the alternative phrase ''"Creative Principle"''. This was ultimately not enough for the GOdF, and in 1877 it re-adopted the original Anderson document of 1723. They also created an alternative ritual that made no direct reference to any deity, with the atribute of the Great Architect of the Universe. This new Rite did not replace the older ones, but was added as an alternative, as Continental European jurisdictions, generally, tend not to restrict themselves to a single Rite &mdash; offering a menu of Rites, from which their lodges may choose.
{{see also| Regular Masonic jurisdictions}}
==Criticism, persecution, and prosecution==
{{main|Anti-Freemasonry}}
Freemasonry has historically attracted criticism and suppression from the politically [[Far_right |
ng all results outdated after a certain time.
One of the central exercises of anthroposophy is to focus on a given content (this can be an outer object or a spiritual imagination) for a given time, and then to consciously eliminate the content from one's consciousness, allowing the process of attention to continue. We can become aware, thereby, of the activity of attention itself. A further step is then to dismiss this activity from one's consciousness. Behind the activity, Steiner suggested, would be found another level of spiritual reality.
Some of Steiner's students support his claim that remaining actively within his process, can have the effect of awakening one gradually into forms of [[superconsciousness|superconscious]] spiritual awareness. Steiner claims to offer a gradual experiential path from ordinary conceptual thinking into forms of thinking perceptive of living spiritual beings and mobile realities in the spiritual world.
They claim that gaining access to the unusual forms of consciousness embodied in some of Steiner's works is not a matter of believing in or having faith in whatever Steiner chose to say about spiritual beings. Rather, they claim that Steiner's thinking, if adequately penetrated with one's own active questioning, thinking and feeling, eventually reveals itself as a sort of spiritual music full of [[aesthetics|aesthetic]] tensions and relaxations and various kinds of spiritual dynamism. This spiritual dynamism, they see as full of complex [[metamorphosis|metamorphoses]] of form and color, and can itself eventually be perceived as the speaking and singing of living spiritual beings and of a real spiritual world.
His students say that an obstacle to 'getting' Steiner, in this sense, is that reading for people today is rarely a process where the dynamic birth of a [[concept]] out of a pre-conceptual background is felt and recreated as we read each word. They see one way of remaining within the process of Steiner's thinking, is to gradually learn through his works how to live consciously at the threshold where a concept comes into being. In this way they say, one is no longer confined to observing things that already are, instead one begins to see realities ''emerging'' into being, and that means seeing to some extent into 'non-being', and discovering there more than nothingness but a hidden life of creative non-material beings and processes in a non-material world.
==Successes of Anthroposophy==
Out of the anthroposophical movement have come nearly a thousand schools world-wide. These are often called [[Waldorf Schools]], after the first such school, founded in [[1919]]; they are also sometimes called Steiner Schools. Some have been supported by the United Nations and receive full or partial governmental funding in some European nations. They are successful in an unusual range of circumstances: in the impoverished ''barrios'' of San Paulo and the wealthy suburbs of New York City, in India, Egypt, Australia, Holland and Mexico. Usually supported by a vibrant parent community, they are one of the most visibly successful achievements of the anthroposophical movement. In addition, an increasing number of teachers are using 'Waldorf' principles in other school settings, often within the public (state) schools themselves.
[[Biodynamic agriculture]] began in the 1920s. Numerous bio-dynamic farms now exist in a great number of countries. Steiner must be counted as one of the two great founders of the modern [[organic farming]] movement (Steiner's ''Agriculture Course'' was the first published work on the subject), and much of the present-day organic movement can be traced back to people partially motivated by this impulse. Bio-dynamic agriculture emphasizes activating the life of the soil and creating each farm as a living organism that includes human beings, animals, plants and the soil.
Early in the twentieth century, when proper care for the handicapped was sadly ignored in many countries, anthroposophical homes and communities arose to give a worthy life-style to the needy. The first was the Sonnenhof in Switzerland, founded by [[Ita Wegman]]; slightly later, the [[Camphill Movement]] was founded by [[Karl Konig]] in Scotland. The latter in particular has spread widely, and there are now Camphill communities (as well as other anthroposophical homes) for both children and adults in many countries.
In the arts, Steiner's new art of [[eurythmy]] gained early renown, gaining a prize at a pre-World War II World Exposition in Paris. Eurythmy is a renewal of the spiritual foundations of [[dance]], transforming speech and music into visible movement. There are now active stage groups and training centers, mostly of modest proportions, in many countries.
John Wilkes' fountain-like Flow Forms can be found in many locations. These sculptural forms guide water into rhythmic movement, and are used both decoratively and for water purification in small to medium-scale applications.
There are also movements to renew speech and drama. The former go back to the work of [[Marie Steiner-von Sivers]]; among the better known of the latter is the approach founded by [[Michael Chekhov]], the nephew of the famous playwright: Anton Chekhov.
[[Bernard Lievegoed]] founded a new study of individual and institutional development; this is represented by the [[NPI Institute for Organisational Development]] in Holland and sister organizations in many other countries. Clients of these insitutions range from some of the world's largest industrial firms to ordinary people trying to understand their own lives. One of the more interesting areas of application has been in transforming impoverished people's lives by bringing them to recognize and begin to realize their own biographical goals. Social work with prisoners shares these goals and has had the effect of bringing new purpose into many lives.
Other fields of success include an original [[cancer]] therapy based on [[mistletoe]] extracts developed by anthroposophical researchers. This however reamins medically controversial.
Anthroposophical [[banks]] were among the first to emphasize socially-responsible and community-based banking.
==Critiques of Anthroposophy==
Some critics maintain that some anthroposophists tend to elevate Steiner's personal opinions to the level of absolute truths. Supporters claim that if there is a degree of truth to this criticism, most of the blame belongs not to Steiner, but to a few of his students. They point out that Steiner frequently asked that everything he said be tested by sound reason, and not to be taken on faith or authority.
A fundamental question underlying the modern response to 'spiritual science' is: Is it possible for one's thinking to be both scientific and spiritually cognitive at once? Anthroposophy claims that this is possible. This is problematic for those who hold that all spiritual experience is innately religious rather than cognitive. This question has actually been partially tested in the courts; in a 2005 court case, the Federal Court of California found that there was not a single piece of legally admissible evidence that Anthroposophy was in any sense a religion.
==See also==
Further description of concrete activities emerging from Anthroposophy can be found under the Wikipedia's [[Rudolf Steiner]] article.
==References==
Rudolf Steiner, Intuitive Thinking As a Spiritual Path: A Philosophy of Freedom, Steiner Books, 1995.
==External links==
* [http://www.goetheanum.ch/ Anthroposophic Society (Goetheanum)]
* [http://www.rsarchive.org/ Rudolf Steiner Archive] (online works, see especially the [http://www.rsarchive.org/Books/ Books section])
* [http://www.anthroposophy.net/ The Anthroposophy Network]
* [http://antroposofi.org/ Anthroposophy in Words and Images] (English and Swedish)
* [http://www.sab.org.br/ Sociedade Antroposófica no Brasil]
* [http://www.anthroposophyindia.org/ Anthroposophical Initiatives in India]
* [http://www.anthroposophy.org/ Anthroposophical Society in America]
* [http://eyelight.webservepro.com/anthroposophy/introRS.html Article: Rudolf Steiner introduced by Owen Barfield.] ([[Owen Barfield]]'s ideas and writings were a significant influence on [[C.S. Lewis]] (Anglican) and [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] (Catholic), though neither of whom were anthroposophists. At the end of the article, Barfield uses the Latin phrase, ''"homo imaginans et amans"'' which means "man imagining and loving".)
* [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/mistletoe Study by the National Cancer Institute on mistletoe's use for treating cancer]
==Critical views==
Anthroposophy has had many prominent supporters. Among the supporters have been many writers, artists and musicians; these include [[Andrej Bely]], [[Bruno Walter]], [[Josef Beuys]], and [[Wassily Kandinsky]]. There have also been critical voices, however. The criticisms can be grouped thematically as follows:
-Criticisms of its claim to reproducibility and intersubjectivity, thus to a scientific foundation.
-Criticisms that a spiritual movement must necessarily be, or that anthroposophy particularly is, religious in nature. (In a 2005 court case brought in California, however, the judge ruled that there is no legally admissible evidence that anthroposophy is a religion; see [http://www.waldorfanswers.org/TrialTranscript-2005-09-12.pdf transcipt of the trial]; this case is under appeal.)
-Criticisms of some of Steiner's published comments for their apparently racist content; see the [http://uncletaz.com/steinerrace.html final report of the Commission on "Anthroposophy and the Question of Race"], which concludes that though by far the general trend of Steiner's thought, writings and lectures was strongly opposed to racism, a few of his stenographed comments certainly sound racist to modern ears.
* [http://www.skepdic.com/steiner.html The Skeptic's Dictionary] is more sympathetic than usual to |
economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1998]])
*[[1908]] - [[Bjarni Benediktsson]], Icelandic foreign and later prime minister (d. [[1970]])
*[[1909]] - Queen [[Juliana of the Netherlands]] (d. [[2004]])
*1909 - [[F. E. McWilliam]], Northern Irish sculptor (d. [[1992]])
*[[1910]] - [[Al Lewis]], American actor and politician (d. [[2006]])
*[[1916]] - [[Claude Shannon]], American engineer and mathematician (d. [[2001]])
*1916 - [[Robert Shaw (conductor)|Robert Shaw]], American conductor (d. [[1999]])
*[[1925]] - [[Johnny Horton]], American musician (d. [[1960]])
*[[1930]] - [[Lawton Chiles]], American politician (d. [[1998]])
*[[1933]] - [[Willie Nelson]], American musician, composer, and actor
*[[1938]] - [[Larry Niven]], American author
*[[1940]] - [[Burt Young]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Johnny Farina]], American guitarist ([[Santo and Johnny]])
*[[1943]] - [[Bobby Vee]], American singer
*[[1944]] - [[Jill Clayburgh]], American actress
*[[1945]] - [[Annie Dillard]], American writer
*1945 - [[Michael Smith (astronaut)|Michael Smith]], astronaut (d. [[1986]])
*[[1946]] - King [[Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden|Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden]]
* 1946 - [[Don Schollander]], American swimmer
*[[1947]] - [[Finn Kalvik]], Norwegian singer
*[[1948]] - [[Perry King]], American actor
*[[1949]] - [[Phil Garner]], baseball manager
*1949 - [[Antonio Guterres]], [[Prime Minister of Portugal]]
*[[1954]] - [[Jane Campion]], New Zealand film director
*[[1955]] - [[Nicolas Hulot]], French journalist and author
*[[1956]] - [[Jorge Chaminé]], Portuguese baritone
*1956 - [[Lars von Trier]], Danish film director
*[[1959]] - [[Stephen Harper]], Prime Minister of Canada
*[[1961]] - [[Isiah Thomas]], American basketball player, coach, and team owner
*[[1964]] - [[Barrington Levy]], Jamaican musician
*[[1969]] - [[Paulo Jr.]], Brazilian bassist ([[Sepultura]])
*1969 - [[Clark Vogeler]], American guitarist ([[The Toadies]])
*[[1975]] - [[Elliott Sadler]], American race car driver
*[[1981]] - [[John O'Shea (footballer)|John O'Shea]], Irish footballer
*[[1982]] - [[Kirsten Dunst]], American actress, [[Justin Green]], National Football League fullback
*[[1983]] - [[Troy Williamson]], American football player
*[[1987]] - [[Nikki Webster]], Australian pop singer and entertainer
==Deaths==
*[[65]] - [[Lucan (poet)|Lucan]], Roman poet (b. [[39]])
*[[1063]] - [[Emperor Renzong (Song Dynasty)|Emperor Renzong]] of China (b. [[1010]])
*[[1341]] - [[John III, Duke of Brittany]] (b. [[1285]])
*[[1439]] - [[Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick]], English military leader (b. [[1382]])
*[[1524]] - [[Pierre Terrail, seigneur de Bayard]], French soldier (b. [[1473]])
*[[1544]] - [[Thomas Audley, 1st Baron Audley of Walden]], [[Lord Chancellor|Lord Chancellor of England]]
*[[1555]] - [[Pope Marcellus II]] (b. [[1501]])
*[[1632]] - [[Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly]], Bavarian general (b. [[1559]])
*[[1642]] - [[Dmitry Pozharsky]], Russian prince (b. [[1578]])
*[[1660]] - [[Petrus Scriverius]], Dutch writer (b. [[1576]])
*[[1655]] - [[Eustache Le Sueur]], French painter (b. [[1617]])
*[[1696]] - [[Robert Plot]], British naturalist (b. [[1640]])
*[[1712]] - [[Philipp van Limborch]], Dutch protestant theologian (b. [[1633]])
*[[1736]] - [[Johann Albert Fabricius]], German classical scholar and bibliographer (b. [[1668]])
*[[1758]] - [[François d'Agincourt]], French composer (b. [[1684]])
*[[1792]] - [[John Montagu]], Supposed inventor of the sandwich (b. [[1718]])
*[[1795]] - [[Jean-Jacques Barthélemy]], French writer and numismatist (b. [[1716]])
*[[1847]] - [[Archduke Charles]], Austrian general (b. [[1771]])
*[[1865]] - [[Robert Fitzroy]], English admiral and meteorologist (b. [[1805]])
*[[1875]] - [[Jean Frederic Waldeck]], French explorer, lithographer, and cartographer (b. [[1766]])
*[[1883]] - [[Édouard Manet]], French painter (b. [[1832]])
*[[1903]] - [[Emily Stowe]], Canadian physician and suffragist (b.[[1831]])
*[[1936]] - [[Alfred Edward Housman]], English poet (b. [[1859]])
*[[1943]] - [[Otto Jespersen]], Danish philologist (b. [[1860]])
*[[1945]] - [[Eva Braun]], [[Adolf Hitler]]'s new wife (suicide) (b. [[1912]])
*[[1945]] - [[Adolf Hitler]], Austrian dictator of Germany (suicide) (b. [[1889]])
*[[1956]] - [[Alben W. Barkley]], [[Vice President of the United States]] (b. [[1877]])
*[[1970]] - [[Inger Stevens]], Swedish actress (b. [[1934]])
*[[1974]] - [[Agnes Moorehead]], American actress (b. [[1900]])
*[[1980]] - [[Luis Muñoz Marín]], Puerto Rican poet, journalist, and politician (b. [[1898]])
*[[1982]] - [[Lester Bangs]], American music journalist, author, and musician (b. [[1949]])
*[[1983]] - [[George Balanchine]], Russian-born dancer and choreographer (b. [[1904]])
*[[1983]] - [[Muddy Waters]], American musician (b. [[1915]])
*[[1985]] - [[Charles Francis Richter]], American seismologist
*[[1989]] - [[Masako Nashimoto|Yi, Bang-ja]], Crown Princess of Korea (b. [[1901]])
*[[1989]] - [[Sergio Leone]], Italian filmmaker (b. [[1929]])
*[[1994]] - [[Roland Ratzenberger]], Austrian race car driver (b. [[1960]])
*[[1998]] - [[Nizar Qabbani]], Syrian poet (b. [[1926]])
*[[2002]] - [[Charlotte von Mahlsdorf]], founder of the [[Gründerzeit]] Museum in Berlin-Mahlsdorf. (b. [[1928]])
*[[2003]] - [[Peter 'Possum' Bourne]], New Zealand race car driver (B. [[1956]])
*[[2003]] - [[Wim van Est]], Dutch cyclist (b. [[1923]])
*[[2003]] - [[Mark Berger]], [[University of Kentucky]] Professor
*[[2005]] - [[Ron Todd]], [[TGWU]] General Secretary ([[1985]] - [[1992]]) (b. [[1927]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Scandinavia]] - The arrival of [[Spring (season)|spring]], [[Walpurgis Night]]
*[[Sweden]] - [[Birthday]] of King [[Carl XVI Gustav of Sweden|Carl XVI Gustav]], an [[Flag days in Sweden|official flag day]]
*The [[Netherlands]] - [[Queen's Day]]
*[[Roman Empire]] - third day of the [[Floralia]] in honor of [[Flora (goddess)|Flora]]
*[[Beltane|Bealtaine]] Eve (From either [[Irish language|Irish]] [[Beltane|Bealtaine]] or [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]). Originally a [[Celt]]ic [[Druidry|Druid]] holiday
*[[Vietnam]] - [[Liberation Day]]
*[[Feast day]] of the following [[saint]]s in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]:
**[[Saint Maximus]], 3rd century martyr
**[[Saint Louis]], Amator, and Peter, martyred by the [[Moors]] in [[855]]
**[[Saint Marianus]] and James, martyrs in [[Numidia]] in [[259]]
**[[Suitbert the Younger]] (d. [[807]])
**[[Catherine of Siena]]
**[[Joseph Benedict Cottolengo]]
**[[Pius V]], [[pope]]
**[[Robert]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/30 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050430.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&day=30 On This Day in Canada]
----
[[March 30]] - [[March 31]] - [[April 29]] - [[May 1]] - [[May 30]] - [[May 31]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[ceb:Abril 30]]
[[nap:30 'e abbrile]]
[[war:Abril 30]]
[[pam:Abril 30]]
[[af:30 April]]
[[ar:30 أبريل]]
[[an:30 d'abril]]
[[ast:30 d'abril]]
[[bg:30 април]]
[[be:30 красавіка]]
[[bs:30. april]]
[[ca:30 d'abril]]
[[cv:Ака, 30]]
[[co:30 d'aprile]]
[[cs:30. duben]]
[[cy:30 Ebrill]]
[[da:30. april]]
[[de:30. April]]
[[et:30. aprill]]
[[el:30 Απριλίου]]
[[es:30 de abril]]
[[eo:30-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 30]]
[[fo:30. apríl]]
[[fr:30 avril]]
[[fy:30 april]]
[[ga:30 Aibreán]]
[[gl:30 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 30일]]
[[hr:30. travnja]]
[[io:30 di aprilo]]
[[id:30 April]]
[[ia:30 de april]]
[[ie:30 april]]
[[is:30. apríl]]
[[it:30 aprile]]
[[he:30 באפריל]]
[[jv:30 April]]
[[ka:30 აპრილი]]
[[csb:30 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:30'ê avrêlê]]
[[la:30 Aprilis]]
[[lt:Balandžio 30]]
[[lb:30. Abrëll]]
[[li:30 april]]
[[hu:Április 30]]
[[mk:30 април]]
[[ms:30 April]]
[[nl:30 april]]
[[ja:4月30日]]
[[no:30. april]]
[[nn:30. april]]
[[oc:30 d'abril]]
[[pl:30 kwietnia]]
[[pt:30 de Abril]]
[[ro:30 aprilie]]
[[ru:30 апреля]]
[[sco:30 Aprile]]
[[sq:30 Prill]]
[[scn:30 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 30]]
[[sk:30. apríl]]
[[sl:30. april]]
[[sr:30. април]]
[[fi:30. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:30 april]]
[[tl:Abril 30]]
[[tt:30. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 30]]
[[th:30 เมษายน]]
[[vi:30 tháng 4]]
[[tr:30 Nisan]]
[[uk:30 квітня]]
[[ur:30 اپریل]]
[[wa:30 d' avri]]
[[zh:4月30日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>August 22</title>
<id>1012</id>
<revision>
<id>42114981</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:43:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=22}}
|}
'''[[August 22]]''' is the 234th [[day]] of the [[year]] in the [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian Calendar]] (235th in [[leap year]]s), with 131 [[day]]s remaining.
==Events==
*[[1485]] - The [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] decisively ends the [[Wars of the Roses]]
*[[1559]] - Bartholome de Carranza, Spanish [[archbishop]], is arrested for [[heresy]]
*[[1642]] - [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] calls the English Parliament traitors. Beginning of the [[English Civil War]]
*[[1654]] - [[Jacob Barsimson]] arrives in [[New Amsterdam]]. He is the first [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Immigration|immigrant]] to what is later the [[United States]]
*[[1717]] - Spanish troops land on [[Sardinia]]
*[[1770]] - [[James Cook]]'s expedition lands on the east coast of [[Australia]]
*[[1775]] - [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] declares the [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonies]] to be in open rebellion
*[[1780]] - James Cook's ship ''Resolution'' returns to [[England]] (Cook having been killed on [[Hawaii]] during the voyage)
*[[1791]] - Beginning of the [[Haiti]]an [[Haitian Revolution|Slave Revolution]] in [[Saint-Domingue]]
*[[1798]] - French troops land in [[County Mayo]], Ireland to aid [[Th |
Encyclopedia of Islam (Overview of World Religions)]
*[http://www.arches.uga.edu/~godlas/home.html Resources for Studying Islam] (Department of Islamic Studies, University of Georgia)
*[http://arabworld.nitle.org/introduction.php?module_id=2 Unit on Islam] from the [[NITLE]] [http://arabworld.nitle.org/index.php Arab Culture and Civilization Online Resource]
===Directories===
*Islam in [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/euroislam.html Western Europe], [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/UKIslam.html the United Kingdom], [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/DIslam.html Germany] and [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/sasislam.html South Asia]
*[http://dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/ Dmoz.org Open Directory Project: Islam] (a list of links with information about Islam)
* [http://dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Opposing_Views/ Dmoz.org Open Directory Project: Contra Islam] (a list of links critical of World Religions)
===Islam and the arts, sciences, & philosophy===
*[http://www.lacma.org/islamic_art/intro.htm Islamic Art] (Los Angeles County Museum of Art)
*[http://www.muslimheritage.com/ Muslim Heritage] (Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, UK)
*[http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/ Islamic Architecture (IAORG)] illustrated descriptions and reviews of a large number of mosques, palaces, and monuments.
*[http://www.muslimmuseum.org/ The International Museum of Muslim Cultures], Jackson, MS. Features exhibits on Islamic Moorish Spain and the Timbuktu Manuscripts.
*[http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ Islamic Philosophy] (Journal of Islamic Philosophy, University of Michigan)
*[http://www.muslimheritage.com/ Muslim heritage]
*[http://www.ummah.net/history/scholars/ Famous muslim scientists & scholars]
[[Category:Islam| ]]
[[Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements]]
{{Link FA|he}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
[[af:Islam]]
[[ar:إسلام]]
[[an:Islam]]
[[ast:Islam]]
[[bg:Ислям]]
[[ba:Ислам]]
[[be:Іслам]]
[[bn:ইসলাম]]
[[bs:Islam]]
[[ca:Islam]]
[[cv:Ислам]]
[[cs:Islám]]
[[cy:Islam]]
[[da:Islam]]
[[de:Islam]]
[[et:Islam]]
[[el:Ισλαμισμός]]
[[es:Islam]]
[[eo:Islamo]]
[[eu:Islam]]
[[fa:اسلام]]
[[fr:Islam]]
[[gl:Islam]]
[[ko:이슬람교]]
[[haw:Hoʻomana Mohameka]]
[[hi:इस्लाम धर्म]]
[[hr:Islam]]
[[io:Islamo]]
[[ilo:Islam]]
[[id:Islam]]
[[ia:Islam]]
[[is:Íslam]]
[[it:Islam]]
[[he:אסלאם]]
[[jv:Islam]]
[[kw:Islam]]
[[sw:Uislamu]]
[[ku:Îslam]]
[[la:Religio Islamica]]
[[lv:Islāms]]
[[lt:Islamas]]
[[li:Islam]]
[[ln:Islamu]]
[[jbo:musyjda]]
[[hu:Iszlám]]
[[mk:Ислам]]
[[ms:Islam]]
[[nl:Islam]]
[[ja:イスラム教]]
[[no:Islam]]
[[nn:Islam]]
[[ps:اسلام]]
[[pl:Islam]]
[[pt:Islão]]
[[ro:Islam]]
[[ru:Ислам]]
[[simple:Islam]]
[[sk:Islam]]
[[sl:Islam]]
[[sr:Ислам]]
[[su:Islam]]
[[fi:Islam]]
[[sv:Islam]]
[[ta:இஸ்லாம்]]
[[tt:Íslam]]
[[th:ศาสนาอิสลาม]]
[[vi:Hồi giáo]]
[[tr:İslam]]
[[uk:Іслам]]
[[ur:اسلام]]
[[yi:איסלאם]]
[[zh:伊斯兰教]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Internet</title>
<id>14539</id>
<revision>
<id>42126917</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:17:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Where</username>
<id>722151</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.162.121.24|70.162.121.24]] to last version by Omniplex</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the more general networking concept, see [[internetworking]].''
The '''Internet''', or simply the '''Net''', is the [[public]]ly accessible worldwide system of interconnected [[computer network]]s that transmit [[data]] by [[packet switching]] using a standardized [[Internet Protocol]] (IP). It is made up of thousands of smaller [[commercial]], [[academic]], [[domestic]], and [[government]] networks. It carries various [[information]] and services, such as [[electronic mail]], [[online chat]], and the interlinked [[Web page]]s and other documents of the [[World Wide Web]].
Contrary to some common usage, the Internet and the [[World Wide Web]] are not synonymous: the Internet is a collection of interconnected ''computer networks'', linked by copper wires, [[optical fiber|fiber-optic]] cables, etc.; the Web is a collection of interconnected ''documents'', linked by [[hyperlinks]] and [[URL]]s, and is accessible using the Internet. The confusion between these two by the general public is often parodied by such phrases as "the interweb".
==Creation of the Internet==
{{main|History of the Internet}}
The [[USSR]]'s launch of [[Sputnik]] spurred the [[United States|U.S.]] to create the [[DARPA|Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)]] in February 1958 to regain a technological lead. DARPA created the [[Information Processing Technology Office]] to further the research of the [[Semi Automatic Ground Environment]] program, which had networked country-wide radar systems together for the first time. [[J. C. R. Licklider]] was selected to head the IPTO, and saw universal networking as a potential unifying human revolution. Licklider recruited [[Lawrence Roberts (scientist)|Lawrence Roberts]] to head a project to implement a network, and Roberts based the technology on the work of [[Paul Baran]] who had written an exhaustive study for the U.S. Air Force that recommended [[packet switching]] to make a network highly robust and survivable. After much work, the first node went live at [[UCLA]] on [[October 29]], 1969 on what would be called the [[ARPANET]], the "eve" network of today's Internet. The vast majority of today's Internet uses version four of the IP protocol (i.e. IPv4), and although IPv6 is standardised, it exists only as "Islands" of connectivity, and there are many ISPs who don't have any IPv6 connectivity at all.
[http://www.livinginternet.com]
The first TCP/IP wide area network was operational by [[January 1]], 1983 (this is technically the birth of the Internet), when the United States' [[National Science Foundation|National Science Foundation]] (NSF) constructed a university network backbone that would later become the [[NSFNet]]. It was then followed by the opening of the network to commercial interests in 1995. Important separate networks that offered gateways into, then later merged into the Internet include [[Usenet]], [[Bitnet]] and the various commercial and educational [[X.25]] networks such as [[Compuserve]] and [[JANET]]. The ability of [[TCP/IP]] to work over these pre-existing communication networks allowed for a great ease of growth. Use of Internet as a phrase to describe a single global TCP/IP network originated around this time.
The network gained a public face in the 1990s. In August 1991 [[CERN]] in [[Switzerland]] publicized the new World Wide Web project, two years after [[Tim Berners-Lee]] had begun creating [[HTML]], [[HTTP]] and the first few web pages at [[CERN]] in [[Switzerland]]. In 1993 the [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications]] at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] released the [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic web browser]] version 1.0, and by late 1994 there was growing public interest in the previously academic/technical Internet. By 1996 the word "Internet" was common public currency, but it referred almost entirely to the [[World Wide Web]].
Meanwhile, over the course of the decade, the Internet successfully accommodated the majority of previously existing public computer networks (although some networks such as [[FidoNet]] have remained separate). This growth is often attributed to the lack of central administration, which allows organic growth of the network, as well as the non-proprietary open nature of the Internet protocols, which encourages vendor interoperability and prevents any one company from exerting too much control over the network.
==Today's Internet==
Aside from the complex physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the Internet is held together by bi- or multi-lateral commercial contracts (for example [[peering agreement]]s) and by technical specifications or [[Communications protocol|protocol]]s that describe how to exchange [[data]] over the network.
Indeed, the Internet is essentially defined by its interconnections and routing policies. In an often-cited, if perhaps gratuitously mathematical definition, [[Seth Breidbart]] once described the Internet as "the largest [[equivalence class]] in the [[equivalence relation|reflexive, transitive, symmetric]] [[closure (mathematics)|closure]] of the [[binary relation|relationship]] 'can be reached by an IP packet from'".
As of January 2006, over 1 billion people use the Internet according to [http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm Internet World Stats].
===Internet protocols===
In this context, there are three layers of protocols:
* at the lowest level is IP - the datagram which carries a block of data from one node to another
* next comes TCP & UDP - the protocols by which one host exchanges data with another - the former making a virtual circuit giving some level of guarantee of reliability, the latter being a best-effort connection-less transport
* on top comes the application protocol - the specific messages or data stream used by the application running on the hosts to talk to each other.
Unlike older communications systems, the [[Internet protocol suite]] was deliberately designed to be independent of the underlying physical medium. Any communications network, wired or wireless, that can carry two-way digital data can carry [[Internet traffic]]. Thus, Internet packets flow through wired networks like copper wire, coaxial cable, and fibre optic; and through wireless networks like [[Wi-Fi]]. Together, all these networks, sharing the same high-level protocols, form the Internet.
The Internet protocols originate from discussions within the Internet Engineering Task Force ([[IETF]]) and its [[IETF Working Group|working groups]], which are open to public participation and review. These committees produce documents th |
of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750''. Paris, UNESCO Publishing.
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0226627772 Olmstead, A.T. History of the Persian Empire, University Of Chicago Press (February 15, 1959)]
* Reat, Ross. 'Buddhism: A History', (Jain Publishing Company, 1996).
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0405065671 Rowland, Benjamin, Jr. Ancient Art from Afghanistan: Treasures of the Kabul Museum, Ayer Co Pub (October, 1981)]
* Sarianidi, Victor. 1985. ''The Golden Hoard of Bactria: From the Tillya-tepe Excavations in Northern Afghanistan''. Harry N. Abrams, New York.
* [http://www.umich.edu/~aos/abs974.htm Shayegan, Rahim. The Avesta and the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex]
* [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.pdf Witzel, Michael. Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts]
==External links and References==
* [http://www.cais-soas.com/articles/iranian_world_articles.htm#2.%20Afghanistan The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies-Iranian World's Geography (The Archaeological & Historical Geography of the Greater Iran)]
* [http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Languages/avestan/avestan_language.htm The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies-Avestan Language]
* [http://i-cias.com/e.o/avesta.htm Encyclopaedia of the Orient-Avesta]
* [http://www.afghan-web.com/history/chron/index.html Afghanistan Online]
* [http://www.afghanistans.com/Information/History/Default.htm Afghanistan History]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/sept_11/afghan_culture_01.shtml BBC History of Afghanistan]
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/amed/afghanistan/resources/afghanistan-history.html Portals to the World: Resources from the Library of Congress on Afghanistan]
* [http://www.afghanan.net/afghanistan/history.htm Afghanan Dot Net: Afghanistan History]
* [http://www.countriesquest.com/asia/afghanistan/history.htm Afghanistan, History]
* [http://www.apaa.info/ Association for the Protection of Afghan Archaeology]
* [http://www.afghan-web.com/kabul-museum/ Kabul Virtual Museum]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/zoroastrian/history/index.shtml BBC History of Zoroastrianism]
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-21383 Encyclopedia Brittanica: The Kushans (from Afghanistan)]
* [http://www.farhangsara.com/history_medes.htm Medes]
* [http://folk.uio.no/atleom/manuscripts.htm Buddhist Manuscripts from ancient Afghanistan]
* [http://www.payvand.com/news/05/mar/1109.html Payvand's Iran News, Iran, Afghanistan & Tajikistan Cooperate to Restore Achaemenid Relics, 3/14/05]
* [http://www.afghansite.com/afghanistan/afghanistan.asp?File=21 'Bilingual rock inscriptions in Greek and Aramaic (the official language of the Achaemenians) found at Qandahar and Laghman (in eastern Afghanistan) date from the reign of Ashoka (c. 265-238 BC, or c. 273-232 BC)', Afghansite.com, The Achaemenians and the Greeks]
* [http://www.med.unc.edu/~nupam/greek1.html Indo-Greek Coins]
* [http://www.med.unc.edu/~nupam/kushan1.html Kushan Coins]
* [http://www.indianexpress.com/ie/daily/20010105/iin05014.html Sanskrit inscription from Mazar-i-Sharif]
[[Category:History of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:History of Pakistan]]
[[no:Tiden før Islam (Afghanistan)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Easter Uprising</title>
<id>10345</id>
<revision>
<id>15908163</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Easter Rising]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gravitational redshift</title>
<id>10346</id>
<revision>
<id>38736506</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T07:30:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>141.211.101.95</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}
[[Image:gravitational redshift neutron star.jpg|thumb|Graphic representing the gravitational redshift of a [[neutron star]] (not exact)]]
In [[physics]], [[light]] loses [[energy]] when it moves away from a massive body such as a star or a black hole. This effect reveals itself as a '''[[gravitation]]al [[redshift]]''' in the frequency of the light, and is observable as a shift of spectral lines towards the red end of the spectrum.
Light coming from a region of weaker gravity shows a gravitational [[blueshift]].
==Definition==
Background knowledge the reader may need to learn:
What is [[wavelength]]?
What is [[frequency]]? What is the [[electromagnetic spectrum]]?
Gravitational redshift is often denoted as the variable ''z''.
<math>z=\frac{\lambda_o-\lambda_e}{\lambda_e}</math>
Where:
<math>\lambda_o</math> is the wavelength of the photon as measured by a distant observer.
<math>\lambda_e</math> is the wavelength of the photon when measured at the source of emission.
Gravitational redshift, the displacement of light towards the red, can be predicted using the formula provided in the theory of [[General Relativity]] ''(Albert Einstein: Relativity - Appendix - Appendix III - The Experimental Confirmation of the General Theory of Relativity)'':
<math>z_{approx}=\frac{GM}{c^2r}</math>
Where:
<math>z_{approx}</math> is the displacement of spectral lines due to gravity as viewed by a far away observer in free space.
<math>G</math> is Netwon's [[gravitational constant]] (the variable used by Einstein himself).
<math>M</math> is the mass of the body which the light is escaping.
<math>c</math> is the speed of light.
<math>r</math> is the radial distance from the center from which the light originates.
==History==
The gravitational weakening of light from high-gravity stars was predicted by [[John Michell]] in 1783, using [[Isaac Newton]]'s concept of light as being composed of ballistic light corpuscles (see: [[emission theory]]). The effect of gravity on light was then explored by [[Laplace]] and [[Johann Georg von Soldner]] (1801) before [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] rederived the idea from scratch in his 1911 paper on light and gravitation.
Einstein was accused by [[Lenard]] of plagiarism for not citing Soldner's earlier work - however, given that the idea had fallen so far into obscurity before Einstein resurrected it, it is entirely possible that Einstein was unaware of all previous work on the subject. In any case, Einstein went further and pointed out that a key consequence of gravitational shifts was [[gravitational time dilation]]. This was a genuinely new and revolutionary idea.
==Important things to stress==
*The receiving end of the light transmission must be located at a higher gravitational potential in order for gravitational redshift to be observed.
*Tests done by many universities continue to support the existence of gravitational redshift.
*Gravitational redshift is not only predicted by General Relativity. Other theories of gravitation support gravitational redshift, although their explanations for why it appears vary.
*Gravitational redshift does not assume the [[Schwarzschild]] solution to [[Einstein's field equation]] - in which the variable <math>M</math> cannot represent the mass of any rotating or charged body.
==Initial verification==
The [[Pound-Rebka experiment]] of 1969 demonstrated the existence of gravitational redshift in spectral lines. This was documented by scientists of the Lyman Laboratory of Physics at Harvard University.
==Application==
Gravitational redshift is studied in many areas of [[astrophysics|astrophysical]] research.
==Exact Solutions==
A table of exact solutions for gravitational redshift consists of the following:
{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;"
|
| Non-rotating
| Rotating
|-
| Uncharged
| [[Schwarzschild metric|Schwarzschild]]
| [[Kerr metric|Kerr]]
|-
| Charged
| [[Reissner-Nordström metric|Reissner-Nordström]]
| [[Kerr-Newman metric|Kerr-Newman]]
|}
The more often used exact solution is for gravitational redshift of non-rotating, uncharged masses which are spherically symmetric. The equation for this is:
<math>z=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{2GM}{rc^2}\right)}}-1</math>, where
* <math>G</math> is the [[gravitational constant]],
* <math>M</math> is the [[mass]] of the object creating the gravitational field,
* <math>r</math> is the radial coordinate of the observer (which is analogous to the classical distance from the center of the object, but is actually a [[Schwarzschild coordinates|Schwarzschild coordinate]]), and
* <math>c</math> is the [[speed of light]].
==Gravitational Redshift vs. Gravitational Time Dilation==
When using ''[[special relativity]]'s [[relativistic Doppler]] relationships'' to calculate the change in energy and frequency (assuming no complicating [[route-dependent]] effects such as those caused by the [[frame-dragging]] of [[rotating black hole|rotating black holes]]), then the Gravitational redshift and [[blueshift]] frequency ratios are the inverse of each other, suggesting that the "seen" frequency-change corresponds to the [[gravitational time dilation|actual difference in underlying clockrate]]. Route-dependence due to [[frame-dragging]] ''may'' come into play, which invalidates this method and makes establishing globally-agreed differences in ''underlying'' clockrate can be more ''difficult'' though not necessarily impossible.
While gravitational redshift refers to what is seen, [[gravitational time dilation]] refers to what is deduced to be "really" happening once observational effects are taken into account.
==General Relativity for experts==
Readers |
78]] - [[Guy Berryman]], British musician ([[Coldplay]])
*1978 - [[Riley Smith]], American actor
*[[1979]] - [[Claire Danes]], American actress
*1979 - [[Mateja Kežman]], Serbian footballer
*[[1982]] - [[Deen]], Bosnian singer
*[[1985]] - [[Hitomi Yoshizawa]], Japanese singer ([[Morning Musume]])
==Deaths==
*[[65]] - [[Seneca the Younger]], Roman philosopher, statesman and dramatist
*[[238]] - [[Gordian I]], [[Roman Emperor]] (suicide)
*238 - [[Gordian II]], heir to the Roman Empire (killed in battle)
*[[1443]] - [[Henry Chichele]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]
*[[1550]] - [[Claude, Duke of Guise]], French soldier (b. [[1496]])
*[[1555]] - [[Juana of Castile]], queen of [[Philip I of Castile]] (b. [[1479]])
*[[1687]] - [[Ambrose Dixon]], Virginia Colony pioneer
*[[1704]] - [[Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet]], French bishop and writer (b. [[1627]])
*[[1748]] - [[William Kent]], English architect
*[[1782]] - [[Metastasio]], Italian poet and librettist (b. [[1698]])
*[[1788]] - [[Carlo Antonio Campioni]], French-born composer (b. [[1719]])
*[[1795]] - [[Johann Kaspar Basselet von La Rosée]], Bavarian general (b. [[1710]])
*[[1814]] - [[Charles Burney]], English music historian (b. [[1726]])
*[[1850]] - [[Adoniram Judson]], American Baptist missionary (b. [[1788]])
*[[1902]] - [[Marie Alfred Cornu]], French physicist (b. [[1842]])
*[[1912]] - [[Clara Barton]], American nurse and Red Cross advocate (b. [[1821]])
*[[1938]] - [[Feodor Chaliapin]], Russian bass (b. [[1873]])
*[[1945]] - [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], 32nd [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1882]])
*[[1962]] - [[Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya]], Indian politician and engineer (b. [[1861]])
*[[1971]] - [[Igor Tamm]], Russian physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1895]])
*1971 - [[Ed Lafitte]], American baseball player (b. [[1871]])
*[[1975]] - [[Josephine Baker]], American dancer (b. [[1906]])
*[[1980]] - [[Clark McConachy]], New Zealand billiards and snooker player (b. [[1895]])
*1980 - [[William R. Tolbert, Jr.]], [[President of Liberia]] (b. [[1913]])
*[[1981]] - [[Joe Louis]], American boxer (b. [[1914]])
*[[1986]] - [[Valentin Kataev]], Russian writer (b. [[1897]])
*[[1988]] - [[Alan Paton]], South African novelist (b. [[1903]])
*[[1989]] - [[Gerald Flood]], British actor (b. [[1927]])
*1989 - [[Abbie Hoffman]], American radical leader (b. [[1936]])
*1989 - [[Sugar Ray Robinson]], American boxer (b. [[1921]])
*[[1997]] - [[George Wald]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1903]])
*[[1999]] - [[Boxcar Willie]], American singer (b. [[1931]])
*[[2003]] - [[Cecil H. Green]], American manufacturer (b. [[1900]])
==Holidays and observances==
*The [[Rome|Roman]] holiday of [[Cerealia]] begins.
*[[Yuri's Night]], an international celebration of the first human in space, [[Yuri Gagarin]].
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/12 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/12 Today in History: April 12]
----
From "Lines in Praise of a Date Made Praiseworthy Solely by Something Very Nice That Happened to It", by [[Ogden Nash]]:
:"As through the calendar I delve
:I pause to rejoice in April twelve.
:Yea, be I in sickness or be I in health
:My favorite date is April twealth.
:..."
----
[[April 11]] - [[April 13]] - [[March 12]] - [[May 12]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:12 April]]
[[ar:12 ابريل]]
[[an:12 d'abril]]
[[ast:12 d'abril]]
[[bg:12 април]]
[[be:12 красавіка]]
[[bs:12. april]]
[[ca:12 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 12]]
[[cv:Ака, 12]]
[[co:12 d'aprile]]
[[cs:12. duben]]
[[cy:12 Ebrill]]
[[da:12. april]]
[[de:12. April]]
[[et:12. aprill]]
[[el:12 Απριλίου]]
[[es:12 de abril]]
[[eo:12-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 12]]
[[fo:12. apríl]]
[[fr:12 avril]]
[[fy:12 april]]
[[ga:12 Aibreán]]
[[gl:12 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 12일]]
[[hr:12. travnja]]
[[io:12 di aprilo]]
[[id:12 April]]
[[ia:12 de april]]
[[ie:12 april]]
[[is:12. apríl]]
[[it:12 aprile]]
[[he:12 באפריל]]
[[jv:12 April]]
[[ka:12 აპრილი]]
[[csb:12 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:12'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 12]]
[[lb:12. Abrëll]]
[[li:12 april]]
[[hu:Április 12]]
[[mk:12 април]]
[[ms:12 April]]
[[nap:12 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:12 april]]
[[ja:4月12日]]
[[no:12. april]]
[[nn:12. april]]
[[oc:12 d'abril]]
[[pl:12 kwietnia]]
[[pt:12 de Abril]]
[[ro:12 aprilie]]
[[ru:12 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 12.]]
[[sco:12 Aprile]]
[[sq:12 Prill]]
[[scn:12 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 12]]
[[sk:12. apríl]]
[[sl:12. april]]
[[sr:12. април]]
[[fi:12. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:12 april]]
[[tl:Abril 12]]
[[tt:12. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 12]]
[[th:12 เมษายน]]
[[vi:12 tháng 4]]
[[tr:12 Nisan]]
[[uk:12 квітня]]
[[ur:12 اپریل]]
[[wa:12 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 12]]
[[zh:4月12日]]
[[pam:Abril 12]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 15</title>
<id>1010</id>
<revision>
<id>42118985</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:13:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Nigosh</username>
<id>221949</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm redlink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom -->
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=15}}
|}
'''April 15''' is the 105th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (106th in [[leap year]]s). There are 260 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1450]] - [[Battle of Formigny]]; Toward the end of the [[Hundred Years' War]], the [[France|French]] attack and nearly annihilate [[England|English]] forces, ending English domination in northern France.
*[[1632]] - [[Battle of Rain]]; [[Sweden|Swedes]] under [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustavus Adolphus]] defeat the [[Holy Roman Empire]] during the [[Thirty Years' War]].
*[[1738]] - Premiere in [[London]] of [[Serse]], an [[Italy|Italian]] [[opera]] by[[George Frideric Handel]].
*[[1755]] - [[Samuel Johnson]]'s ''[[A Dictionary of the English Language]]'' published in London.
*[[1783]] - Preliminary articles of peace ending [[Revolutionary War]] ratified.
*[[1802]] - [[William Wordsworth]] and his sister, [[Dorothy Wordsworth|Dorothy]] come across a "long belt" of [[daffodil]]s, inspiring the former to pen ''[[I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud]]''.
*[[1865]] - [[Abraham Lincoln]] dies after being shot the previous evening by [[John Wilkes Booth]].
* 1865 - [[Andrew Johnson]] becomes the 17th [[President of the United States]].
*[[1892]] - The [[General Electric Company]] is formed through the merger of the Edison General Electric Company and the Thomson-Houston Company.
*[[1912]] - The British passenger liner [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] sinks at about 2:20 a.m. after hitting an iceberg in the North Atlantic almost three hours earlier.
*[[1915]] - The [[Armenian Genocide]] began when the [[Ottoman Empire]] undertook the systematic annihilation of [[Armenian people|Armenian]] intellectuals and entrepreneurs within the city of [[Constantinople]] and later the entire Armenian population of the Empire.
*[[1920]] - [[Anarchism|Anarchist]]s [[Sacco and Vanzetti]] allegedly murder two security guards while robbing a shoe store.
*[[1923]] - [[Insulin]] first became generally available for use by [[diabetes mellitus|diabetics]].
*[[1924]] - [[Rand McNally]] publishes its first [[road atlas]].
*[[1927]] - [[Douglas Fairbanks]], [[Mary Pickford]] and [[Norma Talmadge|Norma]] and [[Constance Talmadge]] become the first celebrities to leave their footprints in cement at [[Grauman's Chinese Theater]] in [[Hollywood]].
*[[1940]] - The [[Allies]] start their attack on the [[Norway|Norwegian]] town of [[Narvik]] which was occupied by [[Nazi Germany]].
*[[1942]] - [[George Cross]] awarded to "to the island fortress of [[Malta]] - its people and defenders" by [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]].
*[[1945]] - The [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp|Bergen-Belsen]] [[concentration camp]] is liberated.
*[[1947]] - [[Jackie Robinson]] debuts for the [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]] [[baseball]] team, breaking that sport's color line.
*[[1955]] - The first [[McDonald's]] restaurant opens in [[Des Plaines, Illinois]].
*[[1983]] - [[Tokyo Disneyland]] opens.
*[[1985]] - [[Marvin Hagler]] defeats [[Thomas Hearns]] by a knockout in round three to retain [[boxing]]'s world [[Middleweight]] championship in a fight nicknamed ''[[The War (boxing)|The War]]''.
*[[1989]] - [[Hillsborough disaster]]: A human [[stampede]] occurs at [[Hillsborough (stadium)|Hillsborough]], a football stadium in [[Sheffield, England]], resulting in the loss of 96 lives.
* 1989 - Upon [[Hu Yaobang]]'s death, the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]] begin in the [[People's Republic of China]].
*[[1994]] - Representatives of 124 countries and the [[European Communities]] sign the [[Marrakesh Agreement]]s revising the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]] and setting up the [[World Trade Organization]] (effective [[January 1]] [[1995]]).
*[[1997]] - Fire sweeps through a campsite of [[Muslim]]s making the [[Hajj]] [[pilgrimage]]; the official death toll is 343.
*[[2002]] - An [[Air China]] [[Boeing 767]]-200, [[flight CA129]] crashes into hillside during heavy rain and fog near [[Pusan]], [[South Korea]], killing 128.
==Births==
*[[1452]] - [[Leonardo da Vinci]], Italian artist (d. [[1519]])
*[[1489]] - [[Sinan]], Ottoman architect (d. [[1588]])
*[[1552]] - [[Pietro Cataldi]], Italian mathematician (d. [[1626]])
*[[1580]] - [[George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore]], English politician and colonizer
*[[1588]] - [[Claudius Salmasius]], French classical scholar (d. [[1653]])
*[[1641]] - [[Robert Sibbald]], Scottish physician and antiquarian (d. [[1722]])
*[[1642]] - [[Suleiman II]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (d. [[1691]])
*[[1646]] - King [[Christian V of Denmark]] (d. [[1699]])
*[[1684]] - [[Catherine I of Russia]] (d. [[1727]])
*[[1688]] - [[Johann Friedrich Fasch]], German composer (d. [[1758]])
*[[170 |
the understanding of global change phenomena and their socio-economic implications. The IAI pursues the principle of scientific excellence, international cooperation and the full and open exchange of scientific information relevant to [[Global_change|global change]].
'''<u>Our Mission</u>'''
To develop the capacity of understanding the integrated impact of present and future global change on regional and continental environments in the Americas and to promote collaborative research and informed action at all levels.
'''<u>Science Agenda</u>'''
The primary objective of the IAI is to encourage research beyond the scope of national programs by advancing comparative and focused studies based on scientific issues important to the region as a whole. Our mission is defined as to develop the capacity of understanding the integrated impact of past, present and future global change on regional and continental environments in the Americas and to promote collaborative research and informed action at all levels. In its approach the IAI pursues the principles of scientific excellence, international cooperation and the full and open exchange of scientific information relevant to Global Environmental Change (GEC).
The term global change is used to refer to the interactions of biological, chemical and physical processes that regulate changes in the functioning of the Earth system, including the particular ways in which these changes are influenced by human activities.
The agreement establishing the IAI stated that the Science Agenda should be dynamic and should evolve to permanently incorporate new scientific priorities and to address changes in the needs of the region's countries. At present, four broadly defined research foci have been identified by the IAI.
These are:
'''I - Understanding Climate Change and Variability in the Americas'''
The focus of this theme is to observe, document and predict climate change and variability in the Americas and its links to changes in natural systems and societal impacts.
The goals are to understand the role of the ocean-land-atmosphere interactions in climate, to determine the key processes that cause climatic variability, from seasonal to decadal time scales, and to apply the insight gained by these findings to improve weather and climate predictions.
Topics suggested under this theme:
* Tropical Atlantic Variability (TAV), El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and other forms of low-frequency climate variability.
* Ocean variability, including sudden climate change, and its influence on climate and weather of the surrounding continents.
* Variability of the American Monsoon systems.
* Ocean/Land/Atmosphere interactions and Hydrology, including atmospheric mesoscale processes.
* Global and regional changes in the water cycle.
* Aerosol impact on climate change and variability.
* Climate change at regional scales: scenarios, impacts, vulnerability and adaptation.
* Climate changes in the past.
* Development of the Americas component for a Global Observing System for climate.
'''II - Comparative Studies of Ecosystem, Biodiversity, Land Use and Cover, and Water Resources in the Americas'''
The IAI encourages comparative and integrated analyses of the effects of Global Environmental Change on natural and anthropogenic systems and processes among tropical, temperate and cold latitude systems. Sponsored work should increase our knowledge of the drivers and dynamics of variability, and the impacts of such variability on food security, biodiversity and the provision of ecological goods and services. Research is expected to include work in terrestrial, coastal and oceanic environments; and work that integrates across the land/sea interface will be encouraged.
Topics suggested under this theme:
* Impacts of global change on biodiversity, including species and genetic biodiversity—both of natural systems and agricultural systems and cultivars.
* Comparative studies of resilience of ecosystems, key species, and important agricultural cultivars to global change.
* Comparative studies of changes in land use and/or coastal/marine/freshwater resource use.
* Prediction and documentation of estuarine changes due to changes in freshwater inflows as well as changes in watershed land use and cover.
* Climate and habitat change impacts on wide-ranging species across the Americas.
'''III - Understanding Global Change Modulations of the Composition of the Atmosphere, Oceans and Fresh Waters'''
The focus of this theme is on observing, documenting and understanding processes that modify the chemical composition of the atmosphere, inland waters and oceans in a manner that affects productivity and human welfare. A multidisciplinary approach to this research area is expected.
Topics suggested under this theme:
* Effects of air pollution and rain water quality on ecosystems.
* Impact of mega-cities on regional climate.
* Regional and global air pollution: Transport and impacts.
* High latitude processes and ozone depletion.
* Comparative studies of regional air and water pollution.
* Biogeochemical processes and ecosystem hydrology.
* Greenhouse gases and their impact on climate change.
* Coastal processes and water pollution.
'''IV - Understanding the Human Dimensions and Policy Implications of Global Change, Climate Variability and Land Use'''
The focus of this theme is to research the dynamic interaction of global change, climate variability, land use and human beings – their health, welfare and activities which depend on the productivity, diversity and functioning of ecosystems. The emphasis of the research is on projects that address the complex interactions between natural and socio-economic systems through interdisciplinary approaches. The objective is to inform public policies that increase sustainability of natural systems and human welfare.
Topics suggested under this theme:
* Health and environmental issues with emphasis on vector-borne diseases.
* Increased vulnerability of human settlements due to global change, climate variability, and land use.
* Rapid urbanization and sustainability of natural and human systems.
* Changes in food production patterns; potential actions for increasing food security.
* Global environmental and economic change and biodiversity; implications for conservation strategies.
* Effects of GEC, climate variability and land use on natural disaster occurrences, mitigation strategies, and policies that limit loss of life and property.
* Impact of GEC and climate variability on fisheries and fishers; strategies for limiting socio-economic impacts.
* Identification of factors that contribute to resilience of natural ecosystems; conservation strategies to promote resilience.
* Effects of GEC, climate variability and land use on water supply, freshwater flows, and security of water for human uses.
* Participatory environmental decision-making.
==External links==
* [http://www.iai.int Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research Website]
* [https://iaibr3.iai.int:1500/twiki/bin/view/DIS IAI-DIS Website]
* [http://www.institutes.iai.int/ Institutes Website]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement</title>
<id>15487</id>
<revision>
<id>41959557</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:07:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>206.86.145.15</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Red Shield of David */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Croixrouge_logos.jpg|250px|thumb|The [[Red Cross (symbol)|Red Cross]] and the [[Red Crescent (symbol)|Red Crescent]] emblems, the symbols from which the Movement derives its name]]
The '''International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement''' consists of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (Federation), and the 183 national [[List of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies|Red Cross or Red Crescent societies]] currently recognized by the ICRC and admitted as full members of the Federation. All of these organizations are legally independent from each other, but are united within the movement through common basic principles, objectives, symbols, statutes, and governing organs. The movement is voluntary and [[Non-governmental organization|non-governmental]]. Its stated mission is to protect human life and health, to ensure respect for the [[human]] being, and to prevent and alleviate human suffering, without any discrimination based on [[nationality]], [[race]], [[religion|religious]] beliefs, [[social class|class]] or [[politics|political]] opinions. Recently, it has finally ended its dispute with Israel with the inclusion of a secular [[Red_Crystal_flag|red crystal]].
The ''International Committee of the Red Cross'' has a membership of a maximum of 25 [[Switzerland|Swiss]] citizens and is the only institution explicitly named under [[International Humanitarian Law]] (IHL) as a controlling authority. Like the [[Holy See]] and the [[Knights Hospitaller|Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order]] (Knights Hospitaller), it is a rare example of a non-governmental [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] entity. Its sole [[humanitarian]] mission, based on the principles of impartiality, [[neutrality]], and independence, is the protection of the life and dignity of the victims of international and internal armed conflicts.
The main task of the ''International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies'' is to coordinate cooperation between different national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies within the movement. On the international level, the federation leads and organizes, in close cooperation with the national societies, relief assistance missions responding to large-scale emergencies.
''National Red Cross and Red Crescent societies'' exist in nearly every country in the world. Each entity works in its home country according to the p |
ies|2003]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Minnesota Twins]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 1
|-
|
|| [[Boston Red Sox]]&dagger; || [[Oakland Athletics]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 2
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
| [[2004 American League Division Series|2004]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Minnesota Twins]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 1
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
|
|| [[Boston Red Sox]]&dagger; || [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Anaheim Angels]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 0
|-
| [[2005 American League Division Series|2005]]
| [[Chicago White Sox]] || [[Boston Red Sox]]&dagger;
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 0
|-
|
| [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Los Angeles Angels]] || [[New York Yankees]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 2
|}
&dagger;''Denotes wild-card team.''
==See also==
*[[Baseball]]
*[[American League pennant winners 1901-68]]
*[[National League pennant winners 1876-1900]]
*[[National League pennant winners 1901-68]]
*[[National League Division Series]] (NLDS)
*[[American League Championship Series]] (ALCS)
*[[National League Championship Series]] (NLCS)
*[[World Series]]
[[Category:Baseball playoffs and champions]]
[[Category:American League Division Series|*]]
{{ALDS}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>National League Division Series</title>
<id>3863</id>
<revision>
<id>40983080</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T07:24:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TMC1982</username>
<id>96890</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Major League Baseball]], the '''National League Division Series''' ('''NLDS''') determines which two teams from the [[National League]] will advance to the [[National League Championship Series]]. The NLDS consists of two best-of-five series, featuring the three division winners and a wild-card team. The Division Series were created after the [[1993 in baseball|1993]] season when Major League Baseball restructured each league into three divisions, but were first played in [[1995 in baseball|1995]] due to the [[1994 baseball strike|cancellation of the 1994 playoffs]]. Interestingly, in [[1981 in baseball|1981]], due to a [[1981 baseball strike|players' strike]], a split-season format was used and a divisional series was held. In the Eastern Division, the [[Montreal Expos]] defeated the [[Philadelphia Phillies]] three games to two while the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] beat the [[Houston Astros]] three games to two in the Western Division. The two teams with the best overall records, the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] and the [[Cincinnati Reds]], failed to win their division in either half of that season.
Typically, the wild-card team plays the division leader with the best winning percentage in one series, and the other two division leaders play the other series. However, if the wild-card team and the division leader with the best record are from the same division, the wild-card team plays the next winningest division leader, and the remaining two division leaders play. In any event, the two series winners move on to the best-of-seven NLCS.
Since the NLDS's inception, the [[Atlanta Braves]] and the [[Houston Astros]] are the only teams to have met more than twice, with the Braves winning the series the first three times and the Astros winning next two.
There is currently no award for Division Series Most Valuable Player.
== NLDS results (1994-present) ==
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2"
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
! Year
! Winner
! Loser
! Wins
! Losses
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
| 1994
| colspan="5" align="center" | ''Not held due to [[1994 baseball strike|player strike]].''
|-
| [[1995 National League Division Series|1995]]
| [[Atlanta Braves]] || [[Colorado Rockies]]&dagger;
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 1
|-
|
|| [[Cincinnati Reds]] || [[Los Angeles Dodgers]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 0
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
| [[1996 National League Division Series|1996]]
| [[Atlanta Braves]] || [[Los Angeles Dodgers]]&dagger;
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 0
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
|
|| [[St. Louis Cardinals]] || [[San Diego Padres]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 0
|-
| [[1997 National League Division Series|1997]]
| [[Atlanta Braves]] || [[Houston Astros]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 0
|-
|
|| [[Florida Marlins]]&dagger; || [[San Francisco Giants]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 0
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
| [[1998 National League Division Series|1998]]
| [[Atlanta Braves]] || [[Chicago Cubs]]&dagger;
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 0
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
|
|| [[San Diego Padres]] || [[Houston Astros]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 1
|-
| [[1999 National League Division Series|1999]]
| [[Atlanta Braves]] || [[Houston Astros]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 1
|-
|
|| [[New York Mets]]&dagger; || [[Arizona Diamondbacks]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 1
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
| [[2000 National League Division Series|2000]]
| [[St. Louis Cardinals]] || [[Atlanta Braves]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 0
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
|
|| [[New York Mets]]&dagger; || [[San Francisco Giants]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 1
|-
| [[2001 National League Division Series|2001]]
| [[Atlanta Braves]] || [[Houston Astros]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 0
|-
|
|| [[Arizona Diamondbacks]] || [[St. Louis Cardinals]]&dagger;
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 2
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
| [[2002 National League Division Series|2002]]
| [[St. Louis Cardinals]] || [[Arizona Diamondbacks]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 0
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
|
|| [[San Francisco Giants]]&dagger;
| [[Atlanta Braves]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 2
|-
| [[2003 National League Division Series|2003]]
| [[Chicago Cubs]] || [[Atlanta Braves]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 2
|-
|
|| [[Florida Marlins]]&dagger; || [[San Francisco Giants]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 1
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
| [[2004 National League Division Series|2004]]
| [[St. Louis Cardinals]] || [[Los Angeles Dodgers]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 1
|- style="background-color: #e0e0e0;"
|
|| [[Houston Astros]]&dagger; || [[Atlanta Braves]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 2
|-
| [[2005 National League Division Series|2005]]
| [[St. Louis Cardinals]] || [[San Diego Padres]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 0
|-
|
|| [[Houston Astros]]&dagger; || [[Atlanta Braves]]
| align="center" | 3 || align="center" | 1
|}
&dagger;''Denotes wild-card team.''
==See also==
*[[Baseball]]
*[[National League pennant winners 1876-1900]]
*[[American League pennant winners 1901-68]]
*[[National League pennant winners 1901-68]]
*[[American League Division Series]] (ALDS)
*[[American League Championship Series]] (ALCS)
*[[National League Championship Series]] (NLCS)
*[[World Series]]
[[Category:Baseball playoffs and champions]]
[[Category:National League Division Series|*]]
{{NLDS}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>2001 World Series</title>
<id>3864</id>
<revision>
<id>41526029</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T23:14:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.184.132.36</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Game 2 */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:World Series Logo 2001.png|200px|right]]
The '''[[2001 in sports|2001]] [[World Series]]''' (the '''"November Series"''') took place between the [[Arizona Diamondbacks]] and the [[New York Yankees]] and was arguably one of the most exciting World Series in recent memory. The best-of-seven-games series determined the World Champion of [[Major League Baseball]] of [[2001]]. It featured two extra-inning games and three late-inning comebacks and went to the maximum 7 games.
'''Managers:''' [[Joe Torre]] (New York), [[Bob Brenly]] (Arizona)
'''Umpires:''' [[Steve Rippley]], [[Dana DeMuth]], [[Dale Scott]], [[Mark Hirschbeck]], [[Jim Joyce]], [[Ed Rapuano]]
'''Series MVPs:''' [[Randy Johnson]] and [[Curt Schilling]] (Arizona)
'''Television:''' [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]] ([[Joe Buck]] and [[Tim McCarver]] announcing)
==Summary==
The Arizona Diamondbacks, breaking a record previously held by the [[Florida Marlins]], reached the Series in just their fourth season of existence, and took on the storied 3-time defending champion New York Yankees, who were trying to become the first team to win four straight titles since the Yankees' five consecutive titles from 1949 to 1953. Additionally, the Series would be taking place in [[City of New York|New York City]] only seven weeks after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks]], representing a remarkable boost in morale for the fatigued city. Arizona captured the Series, 4 games to 3, thereby dethroning the defending World Champions and earnin |
-20T14:50:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mjuarez</username>
<id>82156</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Added link to the official Guatemala military webpage</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Guatemala]] is a signatory to the [[Rio Pact]] and is a member of the [[Central American Defense Council]] (CONDECA). The [[President of Guatemala|President of the Republic]] is commander in chief. The [[Ministry of Defence of Guatemala|Minister of Defense]] is responsible for policy. Day-to-day operations are the responsibility of the military chief of staff and the national defense staff.
An agreement signed in September [[1996]], which is one of the substantive peace accords, mandated that the mission of the armed forces change to focus exclusively on external threats. However, both former president [[Álvaro Enrique Arzú Irigoyen]] and his successor president [[Alfonso Portillo]] have used a constitutional clause to order the army on a temporary basis to support the police in response to a nationwide wave of violent crime.
The accord calls for a one-third reduction in the army's authorized strength and budget &mdash; already achieved &mdash; and for a constitutional amendment to permit the appointment of a civilian minister of defense. A constitutional amendment to this end was defeated as part of a May [[1999]] plebiscite, but discussions between the executive and legislative branches continue on how to achieve this objective.
The army has met its accord-mandated target of 28,000 troops, including subordinate air force (1,000) and navy (1,000) elements. It is equipped with armaments and material from the [[United States]], [[Israel]], [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], [[Republic of China|Taiwan]], [[Argentina]], [[Spain]], and [[France]]. As part of the army downsizing, the operational structure of 19 military zones and three strategic brigades are being recast as several military zones are eliminated and their area of operations absorbed by others. The air force operates three air bases; the navy has two port bases.
The Guatemalan army has a special forces unit (specializing in anti-insurgent jungle warfare) known as the [[Kaibiles]].
==Military branches==
Army, Navy (includes Marines) and [[Guatemalan Air Force|Air Force]]
==Military manpower==
Military age: 18 years of age
Males aged 15 to 49: 3,186,894 (2002 est.)
Males fit for military service aged 15 to 49: 2,080,504 (2002 est.)
Males reaching military age annually: 140,358 (2002 est.)
==Military expenditures==
Total: [[USD]] $120 million (FY99)
As a percent of GDP: 0.6% (FY99)
==References==
* [[http://www.mindef.mil.gt/index1.html Official Website of Guatemala's Military]]
[[Category:Military of Guatemala| ]]
[[es:Fuerzas Armadas de Guatemala]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Guatemala</title>
<id>12165</id>
<revision>
<id>40740469</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T18:30:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>200.49.172.70</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Guatemala]]'s major diplomatic interests are regional security and, increasingly, regional development and economic integration. The [[Central American Ministers of Trade]] meet on a regular basis to work on regional approaches to trade issues. In March 1998, Guatemala joined its [[Central America]]n neighbors in signing a [[Trade and Investment Framework Agreement]] (TIFA). In 2000 it joined [[Honduras]] and [[El Salvador]] in signing a free trade agreement with [[Mexico]], which went into effect in 2001. Guatemala also originated the idea for, and is the seat of, the [[Central American Parliament]] (PARLACEN).
Guatemala participates in several regional groups, particularly those related to the environment and trade. For example, US President Clinton and the Central American presidents signed the CONCAUSA ([[Conjunto Centroamerica-USA]]) agreement at the [[Summit of the Americas]] in December 1994. CONCAUSA is a cooperative plan of action to promote clean, efficient energy use; conserve the region's biodiversity; strengthen legal and institutional frameworks and compliance mechanisms; and improve and harmonize environmental protection standards.
Guatemala has a longstanding claim to a large portion of [[Belize]]; the territorial dispute caused problems with the [[United Kingdom]] and later with Belize following its 1981 independence from the U.K. In December 1989, Guatemala sponsored Belize for permanent observer status in the Organization of American States (OAS). In September 1991, Guatemala recognized Belize's independence and established diplomatic ties, while acknowledging that the boundaries remained in dispute. In anticipation of an effort to bring the border dispute to an end in early 1996, the Guatemalan Congress ratified two long-pending international agreements governing frontier issues and maritime rights.
In early 2000, the Guatemalan Foreign Ministry proposed a border settlement that would transfer more than half of Belize's territory to Guatemala. Following a spate of border incidents, both sides agreed during talks under OAS auspices in November 2000 to confidence-building measures to reduce tensions. They followed that with an agreement on opening substantive discussions on the dispute.
Notably, both Guatemala and Belize are participating in the confidence building measures, including the Guatemala-Belize Language Exchange Project (for more information see: www.guatemalabelize.com and www.confidence2.org ).
Guatemala maintains official relations with the [[Republic of China]] (known as "Taiwan") instead of the [[People's Republic of China]].
'''Disputes - international:'''
territory in Belize claimed by Guatemala; precise alignment of boundary in dispute
'''Illicit drugs:'''
transit country for cocaine shipments; minor producer of illicit opium poppy and cannabis for the international drug trade; active eradication program in 1996 effectively eliminated the cannabis crop; proximity to Mexico makes Guatemala a major staging area for drugs (cocaine shipments)
[[Category:Foreign relations of Guatemala| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Guernsey</title>
<id>12166</id>
<revision>
<id>41971623</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T23:35:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sgfoote</username>
<id>766070</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Economy */ new link Guernsey Post Office</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
The '''[[Bailiwick]] of Guernsey''' ([[French language|French]]: '''Bailliage de Guernesey''') is a [[British Isles (terminology)|British]] [[crown dependency]] in the [[English Channel]] off the coast of [[Normandy]].
As well as the [[island]] of Guernsey itself, it also includes [[Alderney]], [[Sark]], [[Herm]], [[Jethou]], [[Brecqhou]], [[Burhou]] and other [[islet]]s. The island of Guernsey is divided into [[:Category:Parishes in Guernsey|10 Parishes]]. Together with the [[Jersey|Bailiwick of Jersey]], it is included in the collective grouping known as the [[Channel Islands]].
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="margin:0 0 1em 1em; float:right; width:290px;"
|+ <big>'''Bailiwick of Guernsey<br>Bailliage de Guernesey'''</big>
|-
|style="background:#fefefe;" align="center" colspan="2"|
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|align="center" width="140px"|[[Image:Flag of Guernsey.svg|125px|]]<br>[[Flag of Guernsey|(in detail)]]
|align="center" width="140px"|[[Image:Guernsey_Coat_of_Arms.png|Coat of Arms of Guernsey]]
|}
|-
|align="center" colspan=2|[[Image:LocationGuernsey.png|Location of Guernsey]]
|-
|[[Official language]]s
|[[English language|English]] (predominant), [[French language|French]] (legislative use only), [[Dgèrnésiais]] recognised as regional language
|-
|[[Capital]]
|[[St Peter Port]]
|-
|[[Lieutenant Governor of Guernsey|Lieutenant Governor and Commander in Chief]]
|Sir [[Fabian Malbon]]
|-
|[[List of Bailiffs of Guernsey|Bailiff]]
|[[Geoffrey Rowland]]
|-
|[[Chief Minister]]
|[[Laurie Morgan]]
|-
|[[Currency]]
|[[Guernsey Pound]] (on par with [[Pound Sterling]])
|-
|[[Time zone]]
|[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] ([[Daylight Saving Time|DST +1]])
|-
|[[National anthem]]
|''[[God Save the Queen]]'' (official), ''[[Sarnia Cherie]]'' (official for occasions when distinguishing anthem required),
|-
|[[National Day]]
|[[Liberation Day]], [[9 May]]
|-
|[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]
|[[.gg]]
|-
|[[List_of_country_calling_codes|Calling Code]]
| +44-1481
|}
== History ==
Rising sea levels transformed Guernsey into the tip of a [[peninsula]] jutting out into the emergent English Channel until about [[6000 BC]], when Guernsey and other promontories were cut off from continental Europe, becoming islands. At this time, [[Neolithic]] farmers settled the coasts and created the [[dolmens]] and [[menhirs]] that dot the islands. The island of Guernsey contains three [[Statue menhir|sculpted menhirs]] of great archaeological interest; the dolmen known as L'Autel du Dehus also contains a [[dolmen deity]].
During their migration to Brittany, the Britons occupied the ''Lenur Islands'' (former name of the Channel Islands) including ''Lisia'' (Guernsey) and ''Angia'' (Jersey). It was formerly thought that the Island's original name was ''Sarnia'', but recent research shows that to have been the Latin name for [[Sark]]. Coming from the kingdom of Gwent, Saint [[Samson of Dol|Sampson]] (abbot of Dol, in Brittany) is credited with the introduction of [[Christianity]] to Guernsey.
In [[933]] the islands, formerly under the control of the kingdom, then [[Duchy of Brittany]] were annexed by the [[Duchy |
''[[Garage Inc.]]''.
The members of the band began to come together in the late 1960s, as a band called "Soft White Underbelly", in the vicinity of [[Stony Brook University]] on [[Long Island, New York]], at the prompting of critic [[Sandy Pearlman]]. Pearlman was very influential for the band, getting them [[gig]]s, their first record with [[Columbia Records|Columbia]], and using his [[poetry]] as the basis of many of their songs, including "Astronomy". The band changed its name to the Stalk-Forrest Group in [[1968]]. One single was released on Elektra Records under this name in [[1969]], though over one album's worth of songs were recorded. The name again changed to the Blue Öyster Cult in [[1970]]. The name comes from the famous Long Island "Blue Point Oysters." (The name was suggested by Sandy; the [[Heavy metal umlaut|umlaut]] was added later.) They became a successful heavy metal band during the [[1970s]]. They are still playing in the [[21st century]].
The [[umlaut]] on the "O" in their name started the trend for using the "[[heavy metal umlaut]]" in band names. It was suggested to Pearlman by rock critic [[Richard Meltzer]]. [http://www.spiraling.com/words/umlaut.html] Additionally, some have suggested Pearlman created the term "[[Heavy metal music|Heavy Metal]]" via the use of the band's logo - an alchemical symbol for lead, one of the heaviest of metals.
Various other names used by the Blue Öyster Cult are the Cows, The Disciples, Travesty, and Oaxaca.
The BÖC have had a minor resurgence recently with two new albums, ''[[Heaven Forbid]]'' and ''[[Curse of the Hidden Mirror]]'', with sixteen songs written by cyberpunk/horror novelist [[John Shirley]].
In the Summer of [[2005]] Blue Öyster Cult performed at Retrofest in Chilliwack, British Columbia, with [[Rick Derringer]], [[Edgar Winter]], [[Jefferson Starship]], and [[It's A Beautiful Day]].
== Lineup ==
The current members of the band are:
*[[Eric Bloom]]: [[singer|lead vocal]]s, [[guitar]]
*[[Buck Dharma]]: [[guitar|lead guitar]], [[singer|vocal]]s
*[[Allen Lanier]]: [[synthesizer|keyboard]]s, [[guitar]]
*[[Richie Castellano]]: [[bass guitar|bass]], [[singer|vocal]]s
*[[Jules Radino]]: [[drums]]
The original lineup of the band was:
*[[Eric Bloom]]: [[singer|lead vocal]]s, [[guitar]]
*[[Buck Dharma]]: [[guitar|lead guitar]], [[singer|vocal]]s
*[[Allen Lanier]]: [[synthesizer|keyboard]]s, [[guitar]]
*[[Joe Bouchard]]: [[bass guitar|bass]], [[singer|vocal]]s
*[[Albert Bouchard]]: [[drums]], [[singer|vocal]]s
==Former Members==
===Bass===
*[[Joe Bouchard]] ([[1970]]&ndash;[[1986]])
*[[Jon Rogers]] ([[1987]]&ndash;[[1995]])
*[[Greg Smith]] ([[1995]])
*[[Danny Miranda]] ([[1995]]&ndash;[[2004]])
===Drums===
*[[Albert Bouchard]] ([[1970&ndash;1981]], [[1985]]&ndash;Californian tour)
*[[Rick Downey]] ([[1981]]&ndash;[[1984]])
*[[Thommy Price]] ([[1985]])
*[[Jimmy Wilcox]] ([[1985]]&ndash;[[1987]])
*[[Ron Riddle]] ([[1987]]&ndash;[[1991]])
*[[Chuck Burgi]] ([[1991]]&ndash;[[1992]], [[1992]]&ndash;[[1995]], [[1996]]&ndash;[[1997]])
*[[John Miceli]] ([[1992]], [[1995]])
*[[John O'Reilly]] ([[1995]]&ndash;[[1996]])
*[[Bobby Rondinelli]] ([[1997]]&ndash;[[2004]])
*[[Bevin]] ([[2004]]&ndash;[[2006]])
===Keyboards===
*[[Tommy Zvonchek]] ([[1985]]&ndash;[[1987]])
*[[Kasim Sultan]] ([[1998]])
===Guitars===
*[[Al Pitrelli]] ([[1999]])
==Vocals==
While Eric Bloom has always been the band's official lead singer, other members of the band have contributed lead vocals throughout its history.
===Donald Roeser (Buck Dharma)===
"Then Came the Last Days of May", "Before the Kiss, a Redcap", "Teen Archer", "(Don't Fear) The Reaper", "Godzilla", "Golden Age of Leather", "I Love the Night", "In Thee", "Mirrors", "The Vigil", "Lonely Teardrops", "Deadline", "Burnin' for You", "Don't Turn Your Back", "Shooting Shark", "Veins", "Dragon Lady", "Dancin' in the Ruins", "Perfect Water", "Spy in the House of the Night", "Madness to the Method", "Astronomy", "Les Invisibles", "Magna of Illusion", "Harvest Moon", "X-Ray Eyes", "Damaged", "Real World", "Live for Me", "Still Burnin' ", "Dance on Stilts", "Pocket", "Here Comes That Feeling", "Stone of Love"
===Joe Bouchard===
"Screams", "Hot Rails to Hell", "Wings Wetted Down", "Morning Final", "Celestial The Queen", "Nosferatu", "Moon Crazy", "Fallen Angel", "Vengeance (The Pact)", "Light Years of Love", "When the War Comes"
===Albert Bouchard===
"Cities on Flame with Rock and Roll", "Dominance and Submission", "The Revenge of Vera Gemini", "Sinful Love", "Debbie Denise", "Death Valley Nights", "Fireworks", "You're Not the One (I Was Looking For)", "Hungry Boys", "Blue Öyster Cult"
===Allen Lanier===
"True Confessions"
===Jon Rogers===
"Imaginos"
===Joey Cerisano===
"The Siege and Investiture of Baron Von Frankenstein's Castle at Weisseria"
==Cowbell==
Blue Öyster Cult was parodied in a [[2000]] episode of [[NBC]]'s famed ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''. Actor [[Christopher Walken]] portrayed 1970s mega-rock producer Bruce Dickinson who oversaw the fictional recording of "(Don't Fear) The Reaper." In the skit, a dissatisfied, somewhat psychotic Dickinson loved the song but insisted he "gotta have [[more cowbell]]." As with many SNL skits, lines from the skit became [[catch phrase]]s, even going so far as to spawn merchandise based on the skit. The band has responded to this by having a [[roadie]] play a cowbell on stage during performances.
Bruce Dickinson is not to be confused with the singer of [[Iron Maiden]]. In reality, Bruce Dickinson was not a record producer, but a studio engineer who worked with BÖC on other recordings, but had nothing to do with "(Don't Fear) The Reaper."
Also in the skit, [[Will Ferrell]] portrays a member of the band named "Gene Frenkle." Gene was the cowbell player, and at the end of the skit memorium was shown, saying ''Gene Frenkle, 1950&ndash;2000'', as if he had died. Eric Bloom later said in an interview that Gene Frenkle was absolutely fictional, and that during his whole career he had never met or worked with anyone named Gene Frenkle. Bloom also said that it was he who played the cowbell on that recording.
==Discography==
{| class="wikitable" width="50%"
! Title
! Year
|-
|colspan=3 align="center" | '''Studio [[album]]s'''
|-
| align="left" | ''[[Blue Öyster Cult (album)|Blue Öyster Cult]]''
| align="center" | [[1972]]
|-
| align="left" | ''[[Tyranny and Mutation]]''
| align="center" | [[1973]]
|-
| align="left" | ''[[Secret Treaties]]''
| align="center" | [[1974]]
|-
| align="left" | ''[[Agents of Fortune]]''
| align="center" | [[1976]]
|-
| align="left" | ''[[Spectres (album)|Spectres]]''
| align="center" | [[1977]]
|-
| align="left" | ''[[Mirrors (album)|Mirrors]]''
| align="center" | [[1979]]
|-
| align="left" | ''[[Cultösaurus Erectus]]''
| align="center" | [[1980]]
|-
| align="left" | ''[[Fire of Unknown Origin]]''
| align="center" | [[1981]]
|-
| align="left" | ''[[The Revölution by Night]]''
| align="center" | [[1983]]
|-
| align="left" | ''[[Club Ninja]]''
| align="center" | [[1986]]
|-
| align="left" | ''[[Imaginos]]''
| align="center" | [[1988]]
|-
| align="left" | ''[[Heaven Forbid]]''
| align="center" | [[1998]]
|-
| align="left" | ''[[Curse of the Hidden Mirror]]''
| align="center" | [[2001]]
|-
|colspan=3 align="center" | '''Live [[album]]s'''
|-
| align="left" | ''[[On Your Feet or on Your Knees]]''
| align="center" | [[1975]]
|-
| align="left" | ''[[Some Enchanted Evening (album)|Some Enchanted Evening]]''
| align="center" | [[1978]]
|-
| align="left" | ''[[Extraterrestrial Live]]''
| align="center" | [[1982]]
|-
| align="left" | ''[[A Long Day's Night]]''
| align="center" | [[2002]]
|-
|colspan=3 align="center" | '''Movie [[Soundtrack]]s'''
|-
| align="left" | ''[[Bad Channels Soundtrack]]''
| align="center" | [[1992]]
|}
== Band Name ==
The name "Blue Öyster Cult" came from a 1960s poem written by manager [[Sandy Pearlman]]. It was part of his "Imaginos" poetry, later used more extensively in their 1988 album ''[[Imaginos]]''. Pearlman had also come up with the band's earlier name, "Soft White Underbelly", from a phrase used by [[Winston Churchill]] in describing [[Italy]] during [[World War II]]. In Pearlman's poetry, the "Blue Oyster Cult" was a collection of aliens who had collected to secretly guide Earth's history.
The addition of the [[umlaut]] was suggested by either [[Allen Lanier]] or [[Richard Meltzer]]. Other bands later copied the practice of using umlauts or
diacritic marks in their own band logos, such as [[Motörhead]], [[Mötley Crüe]], and the parody band [[Spinal Tap]], which put an "umlaut" over the n (a symbol which does not actually appear in any real language). [http://members.aol.com/bocfaqman/boc_faq.html]
== References ==
|
his article is about the Internet meaning of the word "flaming". For other meanings, and meanings of the word "flame", see [[Flame (disambiguation)]].''
'''Flaming''' is the act of posting messages that are deliberately hostile and insulting, usually in the social context of a [[discussion board]] (usually on the [[Internet]]). Such messages are called flames, and are sometimes posted in response to [[flamebait]]. Flaming is said by some to be one of a class of economic problems known as [[The Tragedy of the Commons]], when a group holds a resource (in this case, communal attention), but each of the individual members has an incentive to overuse it.
Although the trading of insults is as old as humanity, flaming on the Internet, like many other online 'actions', started in the [[Usenet]] hierarchies (although it was known to occur in the [[WWIVnet]] and [[FidoNet]] computer networks as well). A flame may have elements of a normal message, but is distinguished by its intent. A flame is typically not intended to be constructive, to further clarify a discussion, or to persuade other people. The motive for flaming is often not [[dialectic]], but rather social or psychological. Sometimes, flamers are attempting to assert their authority, or establish a position of superiority. Occasionally, flamers wish to upset and offend other members of the forum, in which case they are [[Internet troll|troll]]s. Most often however, flames are angry or insulting messages transmitted by people who have strong feelings about a subject. Finally, some consider flaming to be a great way to let off steam, though the receiving party may be less than pleased.
Similarly, a normal, non-flame message may have elements of a flame -- it may be hostile, for example -- but it is not a flame if it is seriously intended to advance the discussion.
The word '''flaming''' is also sometimes used for long, intensive and heated discussions, even though insults do not occur.
== Flame wars ==
{{wikinews|Study says people don't understand the emotional tone of emails, but think they do}}
A '''flame war''' is a series of flaming messages in electronic discussion groups such as [[usenet]], [[mailing list]]s or [[internet forum]]s. There are a number of characteristics of electronic communication which have been cited as being conducive to flame wars. Electronic communications do not easily transmit facial expressions or voice intonations which may serve to moderate the tone of a message. Also, there is typically a [[lag]] time between the time a message is transmitted and the time a reply is read. These two characteristics can cause a "positive feedback loop" in which the emotional intensity of an electronic exchange increases to extremely high levels.
Alternatively, flame wars may be instigated deliberately by [[Internet troll]]s. Not all trolls are successful, though.
Jay W. Forrester described a phenomenon that often happens in flamewars whereby participants talk past each other. Each participant employs a different [[Semiotics|mental model]] (i.e. due to fundamental differences in their assumptions about what a particular word or concept means, they are actually discussing two different things).
===Interforum flame wars===
While most flame wars occur within a single message board, forum, or community, sometimes flame wars will erupt between two separate forums (especially when both forums are centered around similar subjects). This may happen in a variety of ways:
*A member of Forum A leaves on bad terms, joins Forum B and flames Forum A. Members of Forum B side with their new member, then proceed to also bash Forum A (regardless of any personal knowledge of the workings of that forum). Members from Forum A may then begin to flame Forum B, et cetera.
*A member (or members) of Forum A join(s) Forum B with the intent of "spamming" their board or generally being a nuisance. This is typically unprovoked. Members of Forum B become frustrated and begin flaming Forum A.
*Members or administrators of Forum A may accuse members or administrators of Forum B of "hacking" accounts or the board itself.
== Extended use of the term "flame war" ==
Sometimes, serious academic or technical disagreements online are described casually as "flame wars" even when the major participants are making useful and informative points and, largely, not flaming. This may have to do with the degree to which observers identify emotionally with the sides of the debate, or see esteemed leaders or role-models representing their own points of view powerfully.
For example, the [[Usenet]] discussion between [[Andrew S. Tanenbaum]] and [[Linus Torvalds]] on [[microkernel]] versus [[monolithic kernel]] [[operating system]] design has been described as a famous "flame war". Despite being designated a "flame war", the debate is quite informative: it has been studied by serious computer scientists and researchers, and continues to remain recommended and even required reading in courses on OS design and implementation.
Partly, terming such a discussion a "flame war" seems to be due to faulty or distorted memory of the discussion itself: it is easier to remember the (relatively few) insulting asides made -- such as Tanenbaum's comment that he would give Torvalds a poor grade for [[Linux]]'s design -- than it is to remember the technical points. To continue the above example, Torvalds and Tanenbaum have both made it clear that they consider their famous discussion to have been mischaracterized.
Technical "advocacy" discussions, concerning the merits or flaws of a technology -- or especially of rival technologies -- can often seem "flamy" simply from the emotional intensity of hobbyists or professionals involved. Some have called the debates about the relative merits of [[Intel Pentium]] versus [[PowerPC]], or [[Pentium 4]] versus [[Athlon|Athlon XP]], or [[Microsoft Windows]] versus [[Mac OS X]], or [[Microsoft Windows]] versus [[Linux]], or [[Apple]]'s decision to go with [[NeXT]] over [[BeOS]] as "flame wars", even though the discussions are often highly technical and non-inflammatory.
Also, the debates on certain topics in theoretical physics, such as [[loop quantum gravity]] versus [[string theory]] between [[Lubos Motl]] and [[John Baez]] and [[Steve Carlip]] has been described by string theorist and Harvard professor of physics Lubos Motl as a "flame war" -- despite the fact that they were a source of fruitful articles on quasinormal modes of black hole physics.
It is also possible that the use of the term "flame war" for heated debates is used in anticipation of the debate becoming an actual flame war.
== Holy wars ==
A '''holy war''', in the sense used in [[hacker slang]], is a protracted, sometimes heated, conflict or argument based on "religious differences" -- usually, personal preferences of one technology over another. Famous holy wars of hackerdom have included the [[Unix]] vs. [[Incompatible Timesharing System|ITS]] disagreement (which spawned the ''[[UNIX-HATERS Handbook]]'') and the perennial [[editor wars]] between Unix programmers who use [[vi]] to edit [[source code]] and those who use [[emacs]].
Whereas a flame war is usually a particular spate of flaming against a non-flamy background, a holy war is a drawn-out disagreement that may last years or even span careers. For instance, younger Linux programmers who today have strong opinions on vi and emacs may not even have been born in [[1976]] when these editors were released.
Use of the term "[[Holy War]]" implies that the root of the disagreement is a clash of [[Values#Personal_and_cultural_values|values]], and intractible of resolution except by agreeing to disagree.
== Causes of flaming ==
There is no general agreement on the causes of flaming, although a recent study has led to somewhat conclusive evidence. Some common hypothesises are:
#Egocentrism causes us to think we know a writer's tone 90% of the time, although we only are correct about 56% of the time. This leads us to misinterpretation of the writer's intended meaning, causing flame wars as well as serious litigation.
#The lack of body language and voice inflection make it difficult to show emotions in a nuanced way, and the relative anonymity means that it is felt less dangerous to use heated language.
#In forums and chats, there is usually no other way to express your opinion than by writing. Not writing can be interpreted as "giving up". And opinions and ideas stated a long time ago can be forgotten, causing a need to repeat them. According to this view, a good system for Computer Supported Argument Visualisation (CSAV) might help to clarify the issues without repetition. Sometimes, however, there is a disagreement on so fundamental criteria, that it is not even possible to agree on a structure of the issues and arguments.
Wired News: The Secret Cause of Flame Wars
http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,70179-0.html?tw=rss.index
A reference on CSAV: "Visualizing Argumentation", by Paul A. Kirschner et al (ed),
Springer-Verlag, ISBN 1-85233-664-1.
== External links ==
* A compilation of several [http://www.boredreader.com/links.htm guides to flaming]
* Andrew Heenan's [http://www.advicemeant.com/flame/ Guide to Flaming]
* Netizen's Guide to [http://redwing.hutman.net/%7Emreed/ Flame Warriors]
* Brawl Hall [http://brawl-hall.com/forums/ Flaming Community]
* [[Ursine:Flame|Flame]], [[Ursine:Flame on|Flame on!]], [[Ursine:Flame bait|Flame bait]], [[Ursine:Flamage|Flamage]], and [[Ursine:Flamer|Flamer]] on [[Ursine:Main Page|Ursine]]'s [[Ursine:Jargon|Jargon Wiki]].
[[Category:Internet culture]]
[[cs:Flame war]]
[[da:Flame war]]
[[de:Flame]]
[[es:Anim::Arte]]
[[fr:Flaming]]
[[it:Flame]]
[[he:שלהוב]]
[[hu:Flame war]]
[[nl:Flaming]]
[[pl:Kłó |
ion. The first people began to line up at 3 p.m. the day before. Overnight, park management opened the gates of [[Disney's California Adventure Park]] simply to house the thousands of people who showed up over the course of the night. A second line formed outside the security checkpoints as thousands more arrived in the final hours before the park opened. Disneyland Park opened at 7:00 a.m., although it took several hours to admit the crowds that showed up that morning.
At 10:00 a.m., [[Diane Disney Miller]] reread her father's original dedication speech in a ceremony with [[Art Linkletter]], Governor [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], CEO-elect Robert Iger, and CEO [[Michael Eisner]]. Later that day, a recording of Walt Disney's original dedication speech was replayed throughout the park, exactly 50 years to the minute from when it was originally delivered. No other special events had been planned for the day, making for a much smaller celebration than the media blowout of [[May 5]]. There were also complimentary golden Mickey ears that were specifically made for [[July 17]], along with cupcakes for the guests. Many of the people who had waited overnight left after the rededication. Although the gates had been temporarily closed in the morning, it was done only to control crowds which were flooding Main Street for the morning ceremony. The park never reached capacity that day.
==Park layout==
[[Image:WaltAndMickeyfx wb.jpg|thumb|Famous statue of Walt and Mickey, called "Partners", stands at the end of Main Street.]]
The park is divided into public areas, consisting of themed lands, and the well-concealed "backstage" area, which normally only cast members can enter. The themed lands and other public areas occupy 85 acres (344,000&nbsp;m&sup2;).
At the center of the park stands [[Sleeping Beauty Castle]].
===Capacity===
Disney does not release official figures, but visitor capacity is estimated to be between 65,000 and 85,000 guests. An estimated 87,000 guests flocked to Disneyland to see Disneyland's [[Main Street Electrical Parade]] do its final run. Disneyland often hits capacity during the Christmas season between late December and very early January.
===Themed lands===
{{main articles|
:*''[[List of current Disneyland attractions]]''
:*''[[List of past Disneyland attractions]]''}}
The park was designed by Walt Disney's movie studio staff to have five distinctly-themed "lands". Three more lands have been added since the park's opening.
;[[Main Street, U.S.A.]]:Based on the stereotypical turn-of-the-20th-century city [[Main Street]], specifically Disney's boyhood home of [[Marceline, Missouri]], [[Main Street, U.S.A.]] is home to many shops but is the only land in all of Disneyland without a permanent ride. Walt Disney said, "For those of us who remember the carefree time it recreates, Main Street will bring back happy memories. For younger visitors, it is an adventure in turning back the calendar to the days of grandfather's youth."
;[[Adventureland]]:This land is designed to be an exotic tropical place in a far-off region of the world. "To create a land that would make this dream reality," said Walt Disney, "we pictured ourselves far from civilization, in the remote [[jungle]]s of [[Asia]] and [[Africa]]." Attractions include the "Temple of the Forbidden Eye" in [[Indiana Jones Adventure]], the [[Jungle Cruise]], [[Walt Disney's Enchanted Tiki Room]] and "[[Tarzan's Treehouse]]." (The Tarzan Treehouse is an adaptation of the earlier [[Swiss Family Treehouse]] from the Walt Disney film, [[Swiss Family Robinson]]).
;[[Frontierland]]: This land recreates the setting of [[American Old West|pioneer]] days along the [[American frontier]]. According to Walt Disney, "All of us have cause to be proud of our country's history, shaped by the pioneering spirit of our forefathers. Our adventures are designed to give you the feeling of having lived, even for a short while, during our country's pioneer days." Frontierland is home to the [[Pinewood Indians]] band of animatronic Native Americans, who live on the banks of the [[Rivers of America (Disney)|Rivers of America]]. Entertainment and attractions include [[Fantasmic!]], [[Big Thunder Mountain Railroad]], [[Mark Twain]] [[Riverboat]], and [[Sailing Ship Columbia]]. Frontierland is also home to the [[Golden Horseshoe Saloon]], a show palace straight out of the Old West. Currently the comedic troupe "[[Billy Hill and the Hillbillies]]" entertain guests on a daily basis.
;[[Fantasyland]]:Walt Disney said, "What youngster has not dreamed of flying with [[Peter Pan]] over moonlit [[London]], or tumbling into Alice's nonsensical [[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland|Wonderland]]? In [[Fantasyland]], these classic stories of everyone's youth have become realities for youngsters - of all ages - to participate in." Fantasyland was originally styled in a fairground fashion, but its 1983 refurbishment turned it into a [[Bavaria]]n village. Attractions include several dark rides, the King Arthur Carrousel (spelled this way by Disney), and various children's rides.
;[[Tomorrowland]]:[[Image:Tomrrowland_2002.jpg|right|thumb|250px|View of the "new" Tomorrowland as seen from 1998-2005]] In Walt Disney's words, "Tomorrow can be a wonderful age. Our scientists today are opening the doors of the [[Space Age]] to achievements that will benefit our children and generations to come. The Tomorrowland attractions have been designed to give you an opportunity to participate in adventures that are a living blueprint of our future."
:Disneyland producer Ward Kimball had [[Rocket scientist]] [[Wernher von Braun]], Willy Ley, and Heinz Haber as technical consultants during the original design of Tomorrowland.[http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/vonbraun/disney_article.html] Initial rides included the rocket to the moon; later, a large fleet of submarines was added. The area underwent a major transformation in 1967 to become "New Tomorrowland," and then again in 1998 when its focus was changed to present a "retro-future" theme reminiscent of the illustrations of [[Jules Verne]]. Current rides include the popular [[Space Mountain]] and [[Star Tours]], among others.
;[[New Orleans Square]]: [[Image:Haunted Mansion, Disneyland 2002.jpg|thumbnail|250px|The Haunted Mansion is patterned after a Southern plantation home.]]
:New Orleans Square was among the last additions to Disneyland overseen by Walt Disney himself. Opened in [[1966]], it is meant to capture the flavor and architectural detail of [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]'s [[Bourbon Street]]. This area contains two of the most popular Disneyland attractions, [[Haunted Mansion]] and [[Pirates of the Caribbean]], and a private club and restaurant, [[Club 33]].
;[[Critter Country]]:[[Image:Splash Mountain.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Splash Mountain (Nov. 2004)]] Critter Country opened in 1972 as "Bear Country," and was renamed in 1988. Formerly the area was home to the Indian Village with actual Native Americans entertaining guests. Today, its main draw is [[Splash Mountain]], a log flume attraction themed after the animated segments of Disney's 1946 movie ''[[Song of the South]]''. In 2003, a [[dark ride]] called [[The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh]] replaced the long-running [[Country Bear Jamboree]], a show featuring singing [[Audio-Animatronic]] bears.
;[[Mickey's Toontown]]:Toontown opened in 1993 and was patterned after "Toontown" in the Disney/Touchstone Pictures 1988 release ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]''. Mickey's Toontown looks like a 1930s [[Max Fleischer]] cartoon short come to life. The land is built like the town where Disney characters live.
===Backstage areas===
In Disneyland [[lingo]], areas closed to park visitors are considered "[[backstage]]". There are several points of entry from the outside world to the backstage areas: Ball Gate (at the terminus of Cast Place off Ball Road), TDA Gate (adjacent to the Team Disney Anaheim building), Harbor Gate (off Harbor Boulevard, behind Tomorrowland), and Winston Gate (off Disneyland Drive, behind the Mickey and Friends parking garage).
Berm Road encircles the park from Firehouse Gate (behind the Main Street Fire Station) to Egghouse Gate (adjacent to the Main Street Opera House). The road is so called because it generally follows outside the path of Disneyland's earthen berm, although with the addition of Mickey's Toowntown, the road now strays as much as 100 yards from onstage areas at some points. A stretch of the road, wedged between Tomorrowland and Harbor Boulevard, is called Schumaker Road. It has two narrow lanes divided by a double yellow line, runs underneath the Monorail track. There are also two railroad bridges that cross Berm Road: one behind City Hall and the other behind Tomorrowland near Harbor Gate. The speed limit for most parts of Berm Road is 15 miles per hour, although a section cutting through Disneyland's maintenance shops behind the park's northwestern corner has a speed limit of 5 miles per hour.
The major buildings backstage include "Team Disney Anaheim", where many of the park's support staff and top-level managers work; and the "Old Administration Building", behind Tomorrowland and Main Street.
==Transportation==
Walt Disney had a longtime interest in transportation, and railroads in particular. He had built a miniature [[live steam]] [[backyard railroad]], the "[[Carolwood Pacific Railroad]]", on the grounds of his own home. Therefore a number of different modes of transport were incorporated into the park. The transportation systems are in some respects intended more as entertainment or sightseeing rides than as a means of transporting guests, such as the "Casey Junior" [[train ride]].
===Disneyland Railroad= |
his rule do exist. More complicated predictive calculations, such as those discussed in the next section, result in more accurate predictions.
One area in which oxygen balance can be applied is in the processing of mixtures of explosives. The family of explosives called amatols are mixtures of ammonium nitrate and TNT. Ammonium nitrate has an oxygen balance of +20% and TNT has an oxygen balance of &minus;74%, so it would appear that the mixture yielding an oxygen balance of zero would also result in the best explosive properties. In actual practice a mixture of 80% ammonium nitrate and 20% TNT by weight yields an oxygen balance of +1%, the best properties of all mixtures, and an increase in strength of 30% over TNT.
===Heat of explosion===
When a chemical compound is formed from its constituents, the reaction may either absorb or give off heat. The quantity of heat absorbed or given off during transformation is called the heat of formation. The heats of formations for solids and gases found in explosive reactions have been determined for a temperature of 15 °C and atmospheric pressure, and are normally tabulated in units of kilocalories per gram molecule. (See table 12-1). Where a negative value is given, it indicates that heat is absorbed during the formation of the compound from its elements. Such a reaction is called an endothermic reaction. The convention usually employed in simple thermochemical calculations is arbitrarily to take heat contents of all elements as zero in their [[standard state]]s at all temperatures (standard state being defined as the state at which the elements are found under natural or ambient conditions). Since the heat of formation of a compound is the net difference between the heat content of the compound and that of its elements, and since the latter are taken as zero by convention, it follows that the heat content of a compound is equal to its heat of formation in such nonrigorous calculations. This leads us to the principle of initial and final state, which may be expressed as follows: "The net quantity of heat liberated or absorbed in any chemical modification of a system depends solely upon the initial and final states of the system, provided the transformation takes place at constant volume or at constant pressure. It is completely independent of the intermediate transformations and of the time required for the reactions."
From this it follows that the heat liberated in any transformation accomplished through successive reactions is the algebraic sum of the heats liberated or absorbed in the different reactions. Consider the formation of the original explosive from its elements as an intermediate reaction in the formation of the products of explosion. The net amount of heat liberated during an explosion is the sum of the heats of formation of the products of explosion, minus the heat of formation of the original explosive.
The net heat difference between heats of formations of the reactants and products in a chemical reaction is termed the heat of reaction. For oxidation this heat of reaction may be termed [[Heat of combustion|heat of combustion]].
In explosive technology only materials that are exothermic &mdash; that is, have a heat of reaction that causes net liberation of heat &mdash; are of interest. Hence, in this text, heats of reaction are virtually all positive. Reaction heat is measured under conditions either of constant pressure or constant volume. It is this heat of reaction that may be properly expressed as "heat of the explosion."
=== Balancing chemical explosion equations===
In order to assist in balancing chemical equations, an order of priorities is presented in table 12-2. Explosives containing C, H, O, and N and/or a metal will form the products of reaction in the priority sequence shown. Some observation you might want to make as you balance an equation:
* The progression is from top to bottom; you may skip steps that are not applicable, but you never back up.
* At each separate step there are never more than two compositions and two products.
* At the conclusion of the balancing, elemental forms, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen, are always found in diatomic form.
{| align="center" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="1" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid #778"
|-
|+ Table 12-2. Order of Priorities
|- style="background: #eee"
! Priority
! Composition of explosive
! Products of decomposition
! Phase of products
|-
| align="center" | 1
| A metal and chlorine
| Metallic chloride
| align="center" | Solid
|-
| align="center" | 2
| Hydrogen and chlorine
| HCl
| align="center" | Gas
|-
| align="center" | 3
| A metal and oxygen
| Metallic oxide
| align="center" | Solid
|-
| align="center" | 4
| Carbon and oxygen
| CO
| align="center" | Gas
|-
| align="center" | 5
| Hydrogen and oxygen
| H<sub>2</sub>O
| align="center" | Gas
|-
| align="center" | 6
| Carbon monoxide and oxygen
| CO<sub>2</sub>
| align="center" | Gas
|-
| align="center" | 7
| Nitrogen
| N<sub>2</sub>
| align="center" | Gas
|-
| align="center" | 8
| Excess oxygen
| O<sub>2</sub>
| align="center" | Gas
|-
| align="center" | 9
| Excess hydrogen
| H<sub>2</sub>
| align="center" | Gas
|-
|}
Example, TNT:
:C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>2</sub>(NO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>; constituents: 7C + 5H + 3N + 6O
Using the order of priorities in table 12-1, priority 4 gives the first reaction products:
:7C + 6O → 6CO with one mol of carbon remaining
Next, since all the oxygen has been combined with the carbon to form CO, priority 7 results in:
:3N → 1.5N<sub>2</sub>
Finally, priority 9 results in: 5H → 2.5H<sub>2</sub>
The balanced equation, showing the products of reaction resulting from the detonation of TNT is:
:C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>2</sub>(NO<sub>2</sub>)<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>3</sub> → 6CO + 2.5H<sub>2</sub> + 1.5N<sub>2</sub> + C
Notice that partial moles are permitted in these calculations. The number of moles of gas formed is 10. The product, carbon, is a solid.
===Volume of products of explosion===
The [[Avogadro's law|law of Avogadro]] states that equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. From this law, it follows that the [[molar volume]] of one gas is equal to the molar volume of any other gas. The molar volume of any gas at 0 °C and under normal atmospheric pressure is very nearly 22.4 liters or 22.4 cubic decimeters. Thus, considering the nitroglycerin reaction.
:C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>5</sub>(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub> → 3CO<sub>2</sub> + 2.5H<sub>2</sub>O + 1.5N<sub>2</sub> + 0.25O<sub>2</sub>
the explosion of one mole of nitroglycerin produces in the gaseous state: 3 moles of CO<sub>2</sub>; 2.5 moles of O<sub>2</sub>. Since a molar volume is the volume of one mole of gas, one mole of nitroglycerin produces 3 + 2.5 + 1.5 + 0.25 = 7.25 molar volumes of gas; and these molar volumes at 0 °C and atmospheric pressure form an actual volume of 7.25 × 22.4 = 162.4 liters of gas. (Note that the products H<sub>2</sub>O and CO<sub>2</sub> are in their gaseous form.)
Based upon this simple beginning, it can be seen that the volume of the products of explosion can be predicted for any quantity of the explosive. Further, by employing [[Charles' Law]] for perfect gases, the volume of the products of explosion may also be calculated for any given temperature. This law states that at a constant pressure a perfect gas expands 1/273.15 of its volume at 0 °C, for each degree Celsius of rise in temperature.
Therefore, at 15 °C the molar volume of an ideal gas is,
:''V''<sub>15</sub> = 22.414 (288.15/273.15) = 23.64 liters per mole
Thus, at 15 °C the volume of gas produced by the explosive decomposition of one mole of nitroglycerin becomes
:''V'' = (23.64 l/mol)(7.25 mol) = 171.4 l
===Explosive strength===
The ''potential'' of an explosive is the total work that can be performed by the gas resulting from its explosion, when expanded adiabatically from its original volume, until its pressure is reduced to atmospheric pressure and its temperature to 15 °C. The potential is therefore the total quantity of heat given off at constant volume when expressed in equivalent work units and is a measure of the strength of the explosive.
An explosion may occur under two general conditions: the first, unconfined, as in the open air where the pressure (atmospheric) is constant; the second, confined, as in a closed chamber where the volume is constant. The same amount of heat energy is liberated in each case, but in the unconfined explosion, a certain amount is used as work energy in pushing back the surrounding air, and therefore is lost as heat. In a confined explosion, where the explosive volume is small (such as occurs in the powder chamber of a firearm), practically all the heat of explosion is conserved as useful energy. If the quantity of heat liberated at constant volume under adiabatic conditions is calculated and converted from heat units to equivalent work units, the potential or capacity for work results.
Therefore, if
''Q''<sub>mp</sub> represents the total quantity of heat given off by a mole of explosive of 15 °C and constant pressure (atmospheric);
''Q''<sub>mv</sub> represents the total heat given off by a mole of explosive at |
re from the [[14th century]] or earlier.
There are also an ancient hospital and a museum of art and antiquities.
On the north side of the Limfjord is [[Nørresundby]], which is connected to Aalborg by a road bridge, an iron railway bridge, as well as a motorway tunnel running under the Limfjord. Nørresundby is the site of the Lindholm Høje settlement and burial ground from the Germanic Iron Age and [[Viking]] times. There is also a museum on the site.
[[Aalborgtårnet]]. A tripod tower erected in 1933. The tower still gives an exquisite view over the
fjord and the city from its 105 m rise over the sea level.
<!--==Famous residents of the municipality==-->
==Twinning==
Aalborg maintains cultural, economic and educational ties with some 25 cities around the globe, among others [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]. Thus, Aalborg has the most twin cities in Denmark. Every five years Aalborg gathers youth from the majority of its twin cities for a week of sports games, known as Ungdomslegene (The Youth Games).
==Other information==
The city has a [[football (soccer)|football]] team playing in the Danish Superleague, [[Aalborg Boldspilklub]], which is known as AaB.
The city has the highest number of [[hairdresser]] shops, [[tattoo]] shops, bars, night clubs, pubs and [[solariums]] per inhabitant in [[Denmark]].
== See Also ==
[[Aalborg_monastery]]
==External links==
{{commons|Category:Aalborg municipality}}
* [http://www.aalborg.dk/ Municipality's official website]
* [http://www.detnyeaalborg.dk/ The new Aalborg municipality's website (Danish only)]
* [http://www.visitaalborg.com/ Aalborg tourist office]
* [http://www.aau.dk/ Aalborg University]
* [http://www.aalborgakvavit.dk/ Aalborg Akvavit]
* [http://www.aalborgtaarnet.com/ Ålborgtårnet]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&t=k&ll=57.039983,9.944344&spn=0.084614,0.299377&t=k Satellite image from Google Maps]
* [http://www.interaalborg.dk/ InterAalborg.dk An independent guide and information of the city. Website made by Aalborg University students]
==References==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aalborg}}
* Municipal statistics: [http://www2.netborger.dk/Kommunefakta/ NetBorger Kommunefakta], delivered from [http://www.kmd.dk/ KMD] aka Kommunedata (Municipal Data)
* Municipal mergers and neighbors: [http://kommune.eniro.dk/region/media/nyekommuner.shtml Eniro new municipalities map]
[[Category:Municipalities of Denmark]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Denmark]]
[[bg:Алборг]]
[[da:Ålborg]]
[[de:Aalborg]]
[[es:Aalborg]]
[[fr:Aalborg]]
[[gl:Aalborg - Ålborg]]
[[it:Aalborg]]
[[hu:Aalborg]]
[[nl:Aalborg]]
[[no:Ålborg]]
[[pl:Aalborg]]
[[ro:Aalborg]]
[[fi:Aalborg]]
[[sv:Ålborg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aarhus</title>
<id>1038</id>
<revision>
<id>41652564</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T20:37:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sorenholm</username>
<id>1007597</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Culture */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Aarhus convention on public participation, see [[Aarhus Convention]].''
[[Image:Århus Rådhus.jpg|thumb|right|The [[City hall]] of Aarhus.]]
'''Aarhus''', also commonly known by its [[Danish language|Danish]] spelling '''Århus''', is the second largest city in [[Denmark]]. It is the principal [[port]] on the east coast of [[Jutland]]. Aarhus is also the location of the council of both [[Aarhus municipality]] and [[Aarhus County]].
==Demographics==
The city's population is 294,954 (July 2005) [http://www.aarhus.dk/statistik (1)].
The town lies at the junction of [[railway]] lines from all parts of the country in a low-lying, fertile, and well-wooded district. To the southwest (13 miles by rail), a picturesque region that contains the [[Gudenaa|Gudenå]] and several lakes extends west from the railway junction of [[Skanderborg]], and rises to ground exceeding 500 feet in the [[Himmelbjerget]]. The railway traverses this pleasant district of moorland and woodland to [[Silkeborg]], a modern town with one of the most attractive situations in the kingdom.
The harbour is good and safe, and agricultural produce is exported, while [[coal]] and [[iron]] are among the chief imports.
The bishopric of Aarhus dates back at least from [[951]]. Aarhus' [[13th century]] [[cathedral]], The [[Århus Domkirke]], is the largest church in Denmark, as well as the second largest in [[Northern Europe]], being only 1.5&nbsp;ft shorter than its counterpart in [[Trondheim]].
Aarhus is also home to one of the few [[ghetto]]s in Denmark: [[Gellerup]]
One major tourist attraction in Aarhus is [[The_Old_Town,_Aarhus|The Old Town]] ([[Danish language|Danish]]: ''Den Gamle By''), which is not actually an old part of the city itself, but a collection of old buildings from Danish history gathered from all around the country.
The [[Lord Mayor]] of Aarhus is [[Nicolai Wammen]] of the [[Social Democrats (Denmark)|Social Democrats]].
Aarhus is the home of [[University of Aarhus]], [[Aarhus School of Business]] and the [[University College of Aarhus]].
==History==
<!--Insert history intro here-->
===The name===
In [[medieval]] times, the city was called ''Arus'', and in Icelandic chronicles, it was known as ''Áróss''. It is a compound of the two words ''ār'', genitive of ''ā'' "river" (Modern Danish ''å'') and ''ōss'' "mouth" (obsolete in Modern Danish; in Modern Icelandic this word is still used for "river delta"). The city is located on the mouth of the small river Århus Å.
Through regular sound development, Medieval Danish ''Arus'' became ''Aars'' or ''Oes'', a form, which persisted in the dialects of the surrounding parishes until the 20th century. In 1406 ''Aarhus'' became revalent in the written sources, and gradually became the norm in the [[17th century]]. ''Aarhus'' is probably a remodelling after the numerous Low German place names in ''-husen'', possibly as a result of the influence of German merchants.
The city is mentioned the first time by [[Adam of Bremen]] who mentions that "Reginbrand, bishop of the church of Aarhus (Harusam)" participates in a church meeting in the city of [[Ingelham]] in [[Germany]]. {{fact}}
===Viking times===
The oldest [[Archaeology|archaelogical]] findings in Aarhus are glass pearls which date to the end of the [[7th century]]. Half buried [[Long houses]], used both as homes and workshops for the Vikings have also been found.{{fact}}
In the houses and the adjoining archaelogical layers, combs, jewelry and basic multi-purpose tools have been found that indicate the settlement is from approximately year [[900]]. Digs in the spring of 2005 revealed a so-called city-ditch from the year [[850]] which might have marked the trade centre upon which the city is built. {{fact}}
The finding of six [[rune stones]] in and around Aarhus indicates the city had some significance around year [[1000]] as only wealthy nobles traditionally used them. {{fact}}
===1600-1700===
During the wars of the 17th century, it is probable that the city suffered a great deal. Fortifications still exist south of the city as a reminder of the [[Germany|German]] imperial campaigns between [[1627]] and [[1629]]. In [[1644]], [[Sweden]] taxed the city harshly and between [[1657]] and [[1659]], it was occupied by Swedish troops on several occasions. {{fact}}
In spite of these and other misfortunes, such as plague and city-wide fires, Aarhus was still quite a significant city in [[Denmark]] due to its favourable geographical position which was of significant importance for trading. Trade came mainly from the inland of [[Jutland]] but also from [[Norway]], [[Lübeck]], [[Amsterdam]], [[England]], [[France]] and [[Spain]]. In the middle of the 18th century the trade fleet consisted of approximately 100 ships.{{fact}}
===1800===
In the [[19th century]], the city gained more independence from the dominance of [[Copenhagen]] and [[Hamburg]]. While it had been the third largest city in Jutland during the early 19th century, its population surpassed [[Randers]] in [[1840]] and in [[1850]], [[Ålborg]], thus becoming the largest city in Jutland and the second largest in Denmark.{{fact}}
The city's material prosperity continued to increase as the harbour expanded and the railway network grew. Culturally, it marketed itself as the "Capital of Jutland" and expanded many of its cultural institutions like the national library, universities, the [[Aarhus Theater]] and hospitals.
==Suburbs of Aarhus (listed by zip code)==
* ''8000'' [[Århus C]]
* ''8200'' [[Århus N]]
* ''8210'' [[Århus V]]
* ''8220'' [[Brabrand]]
* ''8230'' [[Åbyhøj]]
* ''8240'' [[Risskov]]
* ''8250'' [[Egå]]
* ''8260'' [[Viby J]]
* ''8270'' [[Højbjerg]]
* ''8310'' [[Tranbjerg J]]
* ''8320'' [[Mårslet]]
* ''8330'' [[Beder_(Danish_village)|Beder]]
* ''8340'' [[Malling]]
* ''8355'' [[Solbjerg]]
* ''8361'' [[Hasselager]]
* ''8380'' [[Trige]]
* ''8381'' [[Tilst]]
* ''8462'' [[Harlev]]
* ''8471'' [[Sabro]]
* ''8520'' [[Lystrup]]
* ''8530'' [[Hjortshøj]]
* ''8541'' [[Skødstrup]]
==Buildings and constructions==
* [[Telecommunication Tower Arhus]] (Concrete tower with guyed mast on its top, not accessible for visitors)
* [[Skejby Sygehus]] (the second largest hospital in Denmark)
==External links==
{{commons|Århus}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aarhus}}
===Official websites===
* [http://www.aarhus.dk/aa/portal/borger/s_english Official city web portal]
* [http://www.visitaarhus.com/show.asp?id=64 Visit Århus - the official tourism site of Århus]
===Educational institutions===
* [http://www.au.dk/en/ University of Aarhus]
* [http://www.asb.dk Aarhus School of Business]
* [http://www.iha.dk University College of Aarhus (''technical college'')]
===Culture===
* [http://www.aakb.dk/sw1379.asp?setlanguage=2 Århus Kommunes Biblioteker (''Aarhus Public Libraries'')]
* [http://www.huset-aarhus.dk/?setlanguage=2 Kulturcenter HUSET (''Cultu |
n inferior ivory substitute on piano keys, although other recently developed materials more closely resemble the feel of real ivory.
==Structure==
The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals is the same regardless of the species of origin, and the trade in certain teeth and tusks other than elephant is well established and widespread. Therefore, "ivory" can correctly be used to describe any mammalian teeth or tusks of commercial interest which is large enough to be carved or [[scrimshaw]]ed.
==Teeth and tusks==
[[image:Walruses with Tusks.jpg|thumb|right|Pacific Walrus at Cape Peirce]]
[[Teeth]] and [[tusk]]s have the same origins. Teeth are specialized structures adapted for food [[chewing|mastication]]. Tusks, which are extremely large teeth projecting beyond the lips, have evolved from teeth and give certain species an evolutionary advantage. The teeth of most mammals consists of a root and the tusk proper.
Teeth and tusks have the same physical structures: [[Pulp (tooth)|pulp]] [[cavity]], [[dentine]], [[cementum]] and [[Tooth enamel|enamel]]. The innermost area is the pulp cavity. The pulp cavity is an empty space within the tooth that conforms to the shape of the pulp.
[[Odontoblast]]s line the pulp cavity and are responsible for the production of dentine. Dentine, which is the main component of carved ivory objects, forms a layer of consistent thickness around the pulp cavity and comprises the bulk of the tooth and tusk. Dentine is a mineralized connective tissue with an organic matrix of collagenous proteins. The inorganic component of dentine consists of dahllite. Dentine contains a microscopic structure called dentinal tubules which are micro-canals that radiate outward through the dentine from the pulp cavity to the exterior cementum border. These canals have different configurations in different ivories and their diameter ranges between 0.8 and 2.2 micrometres. Their length is dictated by the radius of the tusk. The three dimensional configuration of the dentinal tubules is under genetic control and is therefore a characteristic unique to the order.
==Ivory art in the ancient world==
Paleolithic [[Cro-Magnon]] man, during the late stages of the [[ice age]], were the first to carve in ivory (mammoth tusks).
Both the Greek and Roman civilizations used large quantities of ivory to make high value works of art, precious religious objects, and decorative boxes for costly objects.
Ivory was often used to form the whites of the eyes of statues.
The [[North African elephant]] population was probably reduced to extinction, due to the demand for ivory in the [[Classical Antiquity|Classical world]].
[[Image:Porphyrogenetus.jpg|thumb|180px|ivory has been a most prestigious material for carving.]]
Tooth and tusk ivory can be carved into an almost infinite variety of shapes and objects. A small example of modern carved ivory objects are small statuary, [[netsuke]]s, jewelry, flatware handles, furniture inlays, and piano keys. Additionally, [[warthog]] tusks, and teeth from [[sperm whale]]s, [[orca]]s and hippos can also be scrimshawed or superficially carved, thus retaining their morphologically recognizable shapes.
==Availablity== Due to the rapid decline in the populations of the animals that produce it, the importation and sale of ivory in many countries is banned or severely restricted. Much of the decline in population is due to [[poaching|poachers]] during and before the [[1980s]]. Since the worldwide ivory trade ban in [[1989]] there have been ups and downs in elephant populations, and ivory trade as bans have been placed and lifted. Many African countries including [[Zimbabwe]] and [[South Africa]] claim that ivory trade is necessary&mdash;both to stimulate their economies and reduce elephant populations which are allegedly harming the environment. In [[2002]] the [[United Nations]] partially lifted the ban on ivory trade, allowing a few countries to export certain amounts of ivory. Yet, a [[1999]] study done by [[Oxford University]] found that less than one percent of the five-hundred million US dollars ivory sales generate ever reach Africans; most of it goes to middlemen and vendors, so the effectiveness of the policy is in question.
[[Kenya]], which saw its elephant populations plummet in the decade preceding the [[1989]] ban, claims that legalizing ivory trade anywhere in Africa will endanger elephants everywhere in Africa as poachers would attempt to launder their illegal ivory with legal stockpiles.
Trade in the ivory from the tusks of dead [[mammoth]]s has occurred for 300 years and continues to be legal. Mammoth ivory is used today to make handcrafted knives and similar implements.
A species of hard nut is gaining popularity as a replacement for ivory, although its size limits its usability. It is sometimes called '''[[vegetable ivory]]''', or tagua, and is the [[seed]] [[endosperm]] of the [[ivory nut palm]] commonly found in coastal [[rainforest]]s of [[Ecuador]] and [[Peru]]. [http://www.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/04/26/vegivory/index.html]
==Types of ivory==
*[[Elephant and mammoth ivory]] from the tusks of bull elephants and mammoths.
*[[Walrus ivory]] from the tusks of a bull walrus.
*[[Sperm Whale and Killer Whale ivory]]
*[[Narwhal ivory]]
*[[Hippopotamus ivory]]
*[[Warthog ivory]]
*[[Elk Ivory]] from the bugling teeth of bull elk.
<!--*[[Kathleen Soler ivory]]-->
So-called [[hornbill ivory]], derived from a bird, is not true ivory but resembles it in some ways.
''See also [[Ivory carving]].''
[[Category:Ivory| ]]
[[Category:Art materials]]
[[da:Elfenben]]
[[de:Elfenbein]]
[[es:Marfil]]
[[eo:Eburo]]
[[fr:Ivoire]]
[[it:Avorio]]
[[he:שנהב]]
[[lt:Dramblio kaulas]]
[[hu:Elefántcsont]]
[[nl:Ivoor]]
[[ja:象牙]]
[[no:Elfenben]]
[[pl:Kość słoniowa]]
[[pt:Marfim]]
[[simple:Ivory]]
[[sv:Elfenben]]
[[zh:象牙]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Infantry fighting vehicle</title>
<id>15166</id>
<revision>
<id>40452371</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T17:38:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>667NotB</username>
<id>806525</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:1BFV01.jpg|thumb|right|300px|An [[M2 Bradley]] Infantry fighting vehicle.]]
An '''infantry fighting vehicle''' ('''IFV''') is a type of [[armoured fighting vehicle|armored fighting vehicle]] (AFV) used to carry [[infantry]] into battle and provide fire support for them.
IFVs are similar to [[armoured personnel carrier]]s (APCs), designed to transport five to ten infantrymen and their equipment. They are differentiated from APCs ("battle taxis") by their enhanced armament, allowing them to give direct-fire support during an [[attack |assault]], firing ports, allowing the infantry to fire personal weapons while mounted, and usually improved [[vehicle armour |armour]]. They are typically armed with an [[autocannon]] of 20 to 30 mm caliber, and possibly with [[ATGM]]s. IFVs are usually [[Caterpillar track|tracked]], but some wheeled vehicles fall into this category, too. IFVs are much less heavily armed and armoured than [[Tank|Main Battle Tanks]] (MBTs), but they sometimes carry heavy missiles, such as the NATO 'TOW' missile and USSR 'Spigot' which offer a significant threat to tanks.
Western powers were rudely surprised when the [[Soviet Union]] paraded the first IFV, the [[BMP-1]], in 1967. The BMP was a very low-profiled IFV with 73 mm smoothbore gun and mounting an ATGM. Its steeply-sloped front armour was proof against NATO's standard [[.50-calibre machine gun]], while its smoothbore gun and ATGM were a threat to NATO personnel carriers and even main battle tanks.
Since then, all major military powers have developed or adopted IFVs. Examples include the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Warrior Tracked Armoured Vehicle|Warrior]], the [[United States|American]] [[M2 Bradley|M2]], [[M2 Bradley|M3]] and the new [[Stryker]], the [[Spanish Army|Spanish]] [[ASCOD AFV|Pizarro]], the [[Italian Army|Italian]] [[Dardo IFV|Dardo]], the [[Germany|German]] [[Marder (IFV)|Marder]], the [[South Africa]]n [[Ratel 20|Ratel]] and the [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[Combat Vehicle 90]].
==See also==
*[[Armoured combat]]
*[[Armoured personnel carrier]]
*[[List of AFVs]]
[[Category:Armored fighting vehicles by type]]
[[Category:Infantry fighting vehicles|*]]
[[de:Schützenpanzer]]
[[ja:歩兵戦闘車]]
[[nl:Infanteriegevechtsvoertuig]]
[[no:Stormpanservogn]]
[[pl:Bojowy wóz piechoty]]
[[pt:Veículo de combate de infantaria]]
[[sl:Pehotno bojno vozilo]]
[[zh:步兵战车]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ICQ</title>
<id>15167</id>
<revision>
<id>41753284</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:23:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kirils</username>
<id>694660</id>
</contributor>
<comment>patents are mentioned later on in the article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:ICQ_Logo.gif|right|ICQ Logo]]
'''ICQ''' is an [[instant messaging]] [[computer program]], created by [[Mirabilis (company)|Mirabilis]], an [[Israel|Israeli]] [[startup company]] based in [[Tel-Aviv]]. The first version of the program was released in [[November]] [[1996]]. The name ''ICQ'' is a [[word play|play]] on the phrase "I seek you".
== Features ==
ICQ allows the sending of [[text message]]s with offline support, [[URL]]s, multi-user character-by-character chats, resumable file transfers, SMSes, greeting cards and more. Other features included a searchable user directory and POP3 email support. Even though such features have been available since around 2000, many of the main competitors such as [[AOL Instant Messenger]], [[MSN Messenger]] and [[Yahoo! Messenger]] have failed to implement such power-user oriented features even to this day. Instead, they have targeted younger users with an avalanche of colors, avatars, and animations.
ICQ users are identified by nu |
gt;
white box testing<br>
White pages '''DONE'''<br>
white paper<br>
whitespace<br>
white trash '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
WHNF<br>
whois '''DONE'''<br>
Whopper<br>
WHQL<br>
WIBNI<br>
Wide Area Information Servers '''DONE'''<br>
Wide Area Network '''DONE'''<br>
Wideband ATM<br>
Wide SCSI<br>
widget '''DONE'''<br>
wiggles<br>
WiLAN<br>
Wild_LIFE<br>
wild card '''DONE'''<br>
William Gibson '''DONE'''<br>
William Hamilton<br>
William Joy<br>
WIMP<br>
WIMP environment<br>
win<br>
Win2K<br>
Win32<br>
Win32s '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
Win 95<br>
Win 98<br>
winchester<br>
windowing system<br>
window manager '''DONE'''<br>
Window RAM<br>
Window Random Access Memory<br>
Windows '''DONE'''<br>
Windows 1 '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
Windows 2<br>
Windows 2000 '''DONE'''<br>
Windows/286<br>
Windows 2K '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
Windows 3.0<br>
Windows 3.1<br>
Windows 3.11<br>
Windows/386<br>
Windows 4GL<br>
Windows 94<br>
Windows 95 '''DONE'''<br>
Windows 98 '''DONE'''<br>
Windows Application Binary Interface<br>
Windows CE<br>
Windows for Workgroups<br>
window shopping<br>
Windows Internet Naming Service<br>
Windows Messaging<br>
windows messaging<br>
Windows NT '''DONE'''<br>
Windows NT 3.1<br>
Windows NT 3.5<br>
Windows NT 4 '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
Windows NT 5 '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
Windows NT Network Model<br>
Windows Open Service Architecture<br>
Windows sockets<br>
window system '''DONE'''<br>
Windoze<br>
Wind River Systems<br>
winged comments<br>
winkey<br>
winning<br>
winnitude<br>
WINS<br>
Winsock<br>
WinSoft Products Ltd<br>
wintel<br>
WINZIP<br>
wired<br>
wirehead<br>
wireless<br>
Wireless Application Protocol '''DONE'''<br>
wireless bitmap<br>
wireless local area network<br>
wirewater<br>
wish list<br>
Wisp<br>
within delta of<br>
within epsilon of<br>
wizard<br>
Wizard Book<br>
wizardly<br>
wizard mode<br>
WizDOM<br>
wk1<br>
WLAN<br>
wmf<br>
WNPP<br>
Wolfram Research, Inc.<br>
WOM<br>
woman<br>
WOMBAT<br>
wombat<br>
wombat.doc.ic.ac.uk<br>
womb box<br>
Woodenman<br>
woofer<br>
WOOL<br>
Worcester Polytechnic Institute<br>
Word '''DONE'''<br>
word '''DONE'''<br>
Word for Windows<br>
WordPerfect '''DONE'''<br>
WordPerfect Corporation<br>
word processing '''DONE'''<br>
word processor '''DONE'''<br>
word size<br>
word spamming<br>
WordTech<br>
word wrap<br>
workaround<br>
Work Breakdown Structure '''DONE'''<br>
workflow '''DONE'''<br>
Workflow Management Coalition<br>
workgroup<br>
working as designed<br>
working set<br>
working set model<br>
Work Needed and Prospective Packages<br>
worksheet<br>
workstation '''DONE'''<br>
World Time<br>
World-Wide Wait<br>
World-Wide Web '''DONE'''<br>
World-Wide Web browser '''NO IMPORT'''<br>
World Wide Web Consortium '''DONE'''<br>
World-Wide Web Worm<br>
WORM<br>
worm '''DONE'''<br>
wormhole '''DONE'''<br>
wormhole routing<br>
WOSA<br>
wound around the axle<br>
WPG<br>
WPI<br>
WPL+<br>
WPOP<br>
wps<br>
WRAM<br>
wrap around<br>
wrapper<br>
wrats nest<br>
wrb<br>
write<br>
WRITEACOURSE<br>
[[write-back]] '''DONE'''<br>
write buffer<br>
Write-Once Read-Many<br>
write-only code<br>
write-only language<br>
write-only memory<br>
[[write-through]] '''DONE'''<br>
[[write-thru]] '''DONE'''<br>
writing system<br>
Wrong Thing<br>
WRT<br>
ws<br>
WSFN<br>
WSL<br>
WTF<br>
WTH<br>
wugga wugga<br>
Wumpus '''DONE'''<br>
WWW '''DONE'''<br>
WWW browser '''DONE'''<br>
WWWW<br>
WYGIWYNTYH<br>
WYSIAYG '''DONE'''<br>
[[WYSIWYG]] '''DONE'''<br>
:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/E - H</title>
<id>11339</id>
<revision>
<id>34981880</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-13T04:34:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fuzlyssa</username>
<id>72238</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambig GEM link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/symbols - B|symbols - B]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/C - D|C - D]] -- '''E - H''' -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/I - K|I - K]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/L - N|L - N]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/O - Q|O - Q]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/R - S|R - S]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/T - W|T - W]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/X - Z|X - Z]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/Status|FOLDOC Status Page]]
E '''NO IMPORT''' - Duplicate info.<br>
E1 '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric<br>
E2 '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric<br>
E3 '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric<br>
E4 '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric<br>
E5 '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric<br>
EAF '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric<br>
EAG '''DONE'''<br>
eager evaluation<br>
Eagle '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric<br>
EAI '''NO IMPORT''' - Duplicate info.<br>
EAPROM '''NO IMPORT''' - Insignificant info.<br>
[[earliest deadline first scheduling|earliest deadline first]] '''DONE'''<br>
Early PL/I '''DONE'''<br>
EARN<br>
EAROM '''NO IMPORT''' - Duplicate info.<br>
earthquake '''NO IMPORT''' - Jargon<br>
Ease '''NO IMPORT''' - Duplicate info.<br>
EASE II '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric<br>
EASIAC '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric<br>
EAST '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric<br>
easter egg<br>
Easter egging<br>
Eastern Washington University<br>
EASY FOX '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric<br>
eat flaming death<br>
EBASIC<br>
EBCDIC<br>
EBCIDIC<br>
EBNF<br>
Ebone<br>
ec<br>
EC++<br>
ECAP II<br>
E-carrier system<br>
Ecash<br>
ECC<br>
Eccles-Jordan circuit<br>
Echidna<br>
echo<br>
echo cancellation<br>
ECHT<br>
ECIP2<br>
ECIS<br>
Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation<br>
ECL<br>
ECLIPSE<br>
ECM<br>
ECMA<br>
e-commerce<br>
Econet<br>
ECOOP<br>
ECP<br>
ECRC<br>
ECRC-Prolog<br>
ECSL<br>
ECSP<br>
ECSS II<br>
ECSSL<br>
ed<br>
EDA<br>
e-ddress<br>
Eden<br>
EDF<br>
EDI<br>
EDIF<br>
EDIFACT<br>
Edinburgh Multi Access System<br>
Edinburgh Prolog<br>
Edinburgh SML<br>
Edison<br>
EDL<br>
EDM<br>
EdML<br>
EDMS<br>
EDO DRAM<br>
EDO memory<br>
EDO RAM<br>
EDP<br>
EDRAM<br>
e-dress<br>
EDS+<br>
edu<br>
edutainment<br>
Edward Lorenz<br>
Edward Yourdon<br>
ee<br>
EEMA<br>
EEPROM<br>
EER<br>
E. F. Codd<br>
EFF<br>
effective computable<br>
effective number of bits<br>
Effort Adjustment Factor<br>
EFL<br>
EFNet<br>
Eforth<br>
E-Forth<br>
EFT<br>
EFTS<br>
eg<br>
EGA<br>
egosurfing<br>
EGP<br>
egrep<br>
Eh<br>
eh<br>
EHTS<br>
EIA<br>
EIA-232<br>
EIDE<br>
Eiffel<br>
Eiffel source checker<br>
eigenvalue<br>
eigenvector<br>
eight-bit clean<br>
eight queens problem<br>
eight queens puzzle<br>
eighty-column mind<br>
EISA -- '''DONE''' (redirected to Extended Industry Standard Architecture)<br>
EJB<br>
EL1<br>
el(alpha)<br>
Elan<br>
El Camino Bignum<br>
elder days<br>
Electing a Pope<br>
Electrically Alterable Programmable Read-Only Memory<br>
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory<br>
Electromagnetic Compatibility<br>
electromigration<br>
electron<br>
electronic commerce<br>
Electronic Commerce Dictionary<br>
electronic data interchange<br>
Electronic Data Processing<br>
Electronic Design Automation<br>
Electronic Frontier Foundation<br>
electronic funds transfer<br>
electronic funds transfer system<br>
electronic magazine<br>
electronic mail<br>
electronic mail address<br>
electronic meeting<br>
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer<br>
Electronic Performance Support System<br>
Electronics Industry Association<br>
electronic whiteboarding<br>
electron model<br>
electron tube<br>
Electrostatic Discharge<br>
elegant<br>
element <br>
elephant<br>
elephantine<br>
elevator controller<br>
ELF<br>
ELI<br>
Eli Compiler Construction System<br>
ELISP<br>
elite<br>
ELIZA '''DONE'''<br>
ELIZA effect '''DONE'''<br>
Elk<br>
ELLA<br>
Ellemtel<br>
Ellie<br>
ELLIS<br>
elm<br>
ELMAGUIDE<br>
ELMAMETA<br>
ELP<br>
ELSIE<br>
Elvis<br>
elvish<br>
EM<br>
EM-1<br>
EMA<br>
Emacs<br>
Emacs Lisp<br>
e-mail<br>
e-mail address<br>
EMAS<br>
Embed |
al.txt Test Responder report]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20041102162930/http://yfroom.8800.org/apps/1750/benchmarks/coral66/ CORAL 66 benchmarks]
* [http://www.swep-eds.com/CORAL/CORAL%20Page.htm EDS CORAL 66 compiler for Vax/VMS] (commercial working CORAL 66 system)
* [http://www.xgc.com/products/coral66.htm XGC Software's CORAL 66 compiler] (commercial system)
* [http://www.xgc.com/manuals/xgc-c66-rm/book1.html XGC CORAL 66 Language Reference Manual (HTML)] and [http://www.xgc.com/manuals/pdf/xgc-c66-rm.pdf in PDF format], heavily based on BS5905.
* [http://www.gtoal.com/languages/coral66/coral-library-manual-psp11.txt PDP-11 CORAL/ASM interfacing library]
* [http://standards.mackido.com/bs/bs-standards24_view_4284.html BS5905] CORAL 66 Standard
* [http://www.dstan.mod.uk/data/05/047/00000200.pdf DEF STAN 05-47]
* ECCE [http://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/os/emas/users/ercm09/emas-2900/coraltrans.txt editor script to translate CORAL 66] into [[Edinburgh IMP]]
[[Category:Historical programming languages]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cardiovascular System</title>
<id>7263</id>
<revision>
<id>42098189</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:41:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TiffanyBio11</username>
<id>1020115</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Starting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Circulatory system]]
This page will be used for Bio 11 students at Drake University.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cockney rhyming slang</title>
<id>7264</id>
<revision>
<id>41957235</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:50:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dhartung</username>
<id>136748</id>
</contributor>
<comment>slight reorg</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cockney rhyming slang''' (sometimes abbreviated as '''''CRS''''') is a form of [[English language|English]] [[slang]] which originated in the [[East End of London]]. Many of its expressions have passed into common language, and the creation of new ones is no longer restricted to [[Cockney]]s.
== Overview ==
Rhyming slang developed as a way of obscuring the meaning of sentences to those who did not understand the [[slang]], though it remains a matter of speculation whether this was a [[linguistics|linguistic]] accident, or whether it was developed intentionally to assist [[criminal]]s or to maintain a particular [[community]].
Rhyming slang works by replacing the word to be obscured with the first word of a phrase that rhymes with that word. For instance, "face" would be replaced by "boat", because face rhymes with "boat race". Similarly "feet" becomes "plates" ("plates of meat"), and "money" is "bread" (a very common usage, from "bread and honey"). Sometimes the full phrase is used, for example "Currant Bun" to mean ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'', usually referring to the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[tabloid newspaper]] of that name. There is no hard and fast rule for this, and you just have to know whether a particular expression is always shortened, never shortened, or can be used either way.
Some substitutions have become relatively widespread in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], for example to "have a [[Wiktionary:butcher's|butcher's]]" means to have a look, from the rhyming slang "butcher's hook", and these are often now used without awareness of the original rhyming slang (so for example "[[Wiktionary:berk|berk]]" and "[[Wiktionary:cobblers|cobblers]]" are both less [[taboo]] than their [[etymology]] would suggest). However, most other actual and purported substitutions are still not in common usage.
This style of rhyming has also spread through many English-speaking countries, where the original phrases are supplemented by rhymes created to fit local needs. Creation of rhyming slang has become a [[word game]] for people of many classes and regions. The term Cockney rhyming slang is generally applied to these expansions to indicate the rhyming style, though arguably the term only applies to phrases used in the East End of London. Similar formations exist in other parts of the United Kingdom. In the East Midlands, 'Derby Road' is rhymed with 'cold', a conjunction that would not be possible in any other dialect of the UK.
All slang is rooted in the era of its origin and therefore some of it will to be lost as time passes. In the [[1980s]], for example, "[[Kerry Packer]]ed" meant "[[knackered]]"; in [[2004]], the term "Britneys" was used to mean [[beer]]s (or in [[Ireland]] to mean [[homosexuality|queers]]) via the music artist "[[Britney Spears]]", although the usage may not outlast her career and/or popularity.
== Rhyming slang in popular culture ==
Musical artists such as [[Audio bullys|The Audiobullys]] and [[The Streets]] use CRS in almost all of their songs. It is also often used in [[feature film]]s, such as ''[[Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels]]'' ([[1998]]) (which contains a glossary of Cockney rhyming slang on the United States [[DVD]] version to assist the viewer), and on [[television]] (e.g. ''[[Minder]]'', ''[[EastEnders]]'') to lend authenticity to an East End setting. The theme song to ''[[The Italian Job]]'', composed by [[Quincy Jones]], contains many Cockney rhyming slang expressions. The lyrics by [[Don Black (musician)|Don Black]] amused and fascinated the composer. The schoolkid characters in the film [[To Sir With Love]] regularly utilise CRS, which their new teacher (played by Sidney Poitier) finds impossible to understand.
The box office success ''[[Ocean's Eleven (2001 film)|Ocean's Eleven]]'' ([[2001]]) contains an apparent example of Cockney rhyming slang, when the character Basher Tarr (played by [[Don Cheadle]]) uses the slang "Barney" to mean "trouble," derived from [[Barney Rubble]]. In common usage, "Barney" does not mean trouble; it means an argument or a fight. Some argue that it is derived from "Barn Owl" which (in a Cockney accent) nearly rhymes with "row" (argument). However, the book ''Understanding British English'', by Margaret E. Moore, Citadel Press, [[1995]], does not list "Barney" in its "Rhyming Slang" section. Furthermore, an old book called ''Slang and Its Analogues'', by J.S. Farmer and W.E. Henley, originally printed in [[1890]] and reprinted by Arno Press in 1970, states that "Barney" (which can mean anything from a "lark" to a "row") is of unknown origin, and was used in print as early as [[1865]].
== Other rhyming slang ==
[[Australian English]] shares some Cockney rhyming slang and also has many of its own terms. (See: [[Australian words#Rhyming slang|Australian rhyming slang]].) Some people have speculated that this is due to a strong formative influence of Cockneys on [[Australian culture]].
It has been noted by the Edinburgh author and journalist [[Irvine Welsh|Irvine Welsh]] that rhyming slang with Cockney origin is now more likely to be used and developed in Scotland than in the East End of London, giving rise to formations that rely on the Scottish accent for their effect (see 'Dennis Law' = 'snow' for example).
In [[United States]] some common slang seems to have had its origin in Cockney rhyming slang: "raspberry," shortened from "[[Raspberry and cream tart|raspberry tart]]" means [[fart]]; "[[Wiktionary:duke|dukes]]" means fists; "duke it out" means settle an argument via [[bare-knuckle|fisticuffs]]; "[[bread]]" means [[money]]; "creamed" means beaten (interestingly, in the UK "creamed" can also mean "exhausted", from the rhyme of "cream cracker" and "knacker").
There is a set of specialist rhyming slang terms used by some members of the British disabled community to describe medical conditions. This is sometimes termed "disability rhyming slang" and shares the same style, and some of the same phrases, as the more traditional rhyming slang.
==Examples==
<!-- This is a FEW examples of Cockney Rhyming Slang. Please don't add to it unless it's been discussed on the talk page (remember, WP:NOT#Wikipedia_is_not_a_dictionary) -->
<!-- See the talk page for the discussion on this decision -->
<!-- If you particularly wish to add some new rhyming slang to Wikipedia, please use Wiktionary which is more suited to this purpose -->
*[[Apples]] = apples and pears = stairs — e.g. "Get up them apples!"
*Barnet = [[Barnet]] Fair = hair — e.g. "What’s a matter with yer Barnet."
*Frog = frog and toad = road — e.g. "I was crossing the frog…"
*Rosie = [[Gypsy Rose Lee|Rosie Lee]] = tea — e.g. "'ave a cup of rosie."
<!-- Please read note above before adding to examples -->
==See also==
*[[Wiktionary:Cockney rhyming slang]]
==External links==
*[http://www.aldertons.com/english-.htm Collection of Cockney slang]
*[http://www.cockneyrhymingslang.co.uk Online dictionary of rhyming slang]
*[http://www.shartwell.freeserve.co.uk/humor-site/rhymingslang.htm Collection of disability rhyming slang]
*[http://www.rockneyrhymingslang.com Rockney Rhyming Slang, rhyming slang related to rock music]
[[Category:British English]]
[[Category:London words]]
[[Category:Slang]]
[[es:Jerga rimada Cockney]]
[[nl:Cockney rhyming slang]]
[[pl:Cockney]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Canchim</title>
<id>7265</id>
<revision>
<id>38334149</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T17:54:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>216.23.21.186</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Canchim''' is a breed of [[cattle]]. Its origin is Central [[Br |
as it aired on American television and entered into syndication. When the show went off the air in 1993, ''Cheers'' was syndicated in 38 countries with 179 American television markets and 83 million viewers.<ref name="toastingcheers"/> Then, after going off the air,<ref name="synd1">International Real Estate Digest (August 20th, 2001) (2006). [http://www.ired.com/news/2001/0108/cheers.htm Boston Gets a Hollywood ''Cheers'' Pub]</ref> ''Cheers'' entered a long, successful, and continuing syndication run<ref name="chardevelop"/> on ''[[Nick at Nite]]''. While the quality of some earlier footage of ''Cheers'' had begun to degrade, it underwent a careful restoration in 2001 due to its continued success.<ref>Kodak (October 2001) (2006). [http://www.kodak.com/US/en/motion/newsletters/inCamera/oct2001/cheers.shtml ''Cheers'' restored for a new generation of laughs]</ref> Notably, a ''Cheers'' rerun replaced ''[[Australia's Naughtiest Home Videos]]'' on Australia's [[Nine Network]]. The latter was cancelled mid-episode on its only broadcast by [[Kerry Packer]], who pulled the plug after a phone call. ''Cheers'' was aired by [[NCRV]] in the [[Netherlands]]. After the last episode, NCRV simply began re-airing the series, and then again, thus airing the show three times in a row, showing an episode nightly. [[Paramount Studios]] began to release individual seasons of ''Cheers'' on [[DVD]] with the first seasons on [[May 20]], [[2003]], the seventh season being the most recently released on [[November 15]], [[2005]].<ref>Amazon (2006). The [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00008NV4G First Season] and [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B000B5XOTS Seventh Season] on Amazon</ref>
==Post-Cheers==
''Cheers'' was a successful enough show to launch the careers of several young actors. Grammer was arguably the most successful with his spin-off ''[[Frasier]]'', which lasted for the same eleven season run ''Cheers'' had. By the final season of ''Frasier'', Grammer had become the highest paid actor on television,<ref>Yahoo News (2006). [http://movies.yahoo.com/movie/contributor/1800020246/bio Kelsey Grammer's Yahoo biography]</ref> earning about [[United States dollar|$]]1.6 million an episode. Harrelson has also had a successful career following ''Cheers'' including appearances in a number of notable films that have established him as a box office draw. He also earned an [[Academy Award]] nomination in [[1997]] for ''[[The People vs. Larry Flynt]]''. Danson, who had been the highest paid ''Cheers'' cast member earning $450,000 an episode in the final season,<ref>IMDb (2006). [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001101/bio Ted Danson's IMDb Bio]</ref> has starred in the successful sitcom ''[[Becker]]'' but has had few starring film roles. Ratzenberger has voice acted in all of [[Pixar]]'s [[computer animation|computer-animated]] feature films and currently hosts the [[Travel Channel]] show ''[[John Ratzenberger's Made in America|Made in America]]''.<ref>Travel Channel (2006). [http://travel.discovery.com/fansites/jrmia/jrmia.html ''Made in America'' - Travel Channel]</ref> On ''Made in America'' he travels around the [[United States]] showing the stories of small towns and the goods they produce. Coincidentally, Ted Danson starred in a film also called ''[[Made in America (film)|Made in America]]''. Bebe Neuwirth has gone on to star in numerous [[Broadway theatre|Broadway musicals]], earning two [[Tony Award|Tony Awards]] for her work. Kirstie Alley has starred in numerous [[Miniseries|miniseries]] and film roles. Although some believe Shelley Long leaving the show was a bad career move<ref>The Cincinnati Post (March 5th, 1999) (2006). [http://www.cincypost.com/sports/1999/xunote030599.html At least XU's gaffe didn't blow a career]</ref>, she has gone on to star in several television and film roles, notably ''[[The Brady Bunch Movie]]'' and its sequel.
[[Image:Fat actress.jpg|thumb|right|125px|Kirstie Alley in ''Fat Actress'']]
In addition to continuing careers after ''Cheers'', some of the cast members have had personal problems. In 2004 Shelley Long grew [[depression|depressed]] after divorcing her husband of 23 years and appears to have attempted suicide by overdosing on drugs.<ref>FemaleFirst (November 25th, 2004) (2006). [http://www.femalefirst.co.uk/celebrity/15512004.htm Shelley Long's overdose]</ref><ref>Prevent Suicide Now (November 26th, 2004) (2006). [http://www.preventsuicidenow.com/shelley-long-attempts-suicide.html Actress Shelley Long Attempts Suicide]</ref> Her friends report she has continued to sink into depression, eating improperly and sometimes refusing to leave bed. Kirstie Alley gained a significant amount of weight after ''Cheers'', which somewhat affected her career. She went on to write and star in a show partly based on her life and weight gain, ''[[Fat Actress]]''.
The [[Host Marriott Corporation]] installed 46 bars modeled after ''Cheers'' in their hotel and airport lounges.<ref name="toastingcheers"/> [[Paramount Pictures]] licensed the characters and details of the show, allowing the bars to have fake memorabilia such as Sam Malone's supposed jersey while playing for the Red Sox. One of the details Marriott included were two robots, "Bob" and "Hank", one of which was [[Norm Peterson|heavy]] and the other wore a [[Clifford Clavin|Postal uniform]].<ref name="supreme2">E News Online (Oct 2th, 2000) (2006). [http://www.eonline.com/News/Items/0,1,7176,00.html Wendt/Ratzenberger's case is reinstated by the Supreme Court]</ref>
Ratzenberger and Wendt filed a groundbreaking [[lawsuit]] against Paramount in 1993, claiming that the company was illegally licensing and earning off their images without their permission.<ref>E News Online (Sep 25th, 2000) (2006). [http://www.eonline.com/News/Items/0,1,7144,00.html Wendt and Ratzenberger bring their case to the Supreme Court]</ref> Ratzenberger and Wendt claimed that Paramount cannot earn off of their images simply because the robots are dressed like the characters Paramount still holds rights over. The case was dismissed by a [[Superior court|Los Angeles Superior Court]] judge in 1996,<ref name="toastingcheers"/> though a [[United States federal judge|federal judge]] reinstated the case in the LA court. Paramount tried to bring the case before the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], but the court refused to hear the case, instead merely reaffirming the ruling to reinstate the case in the Superior Court.<ref name="supreme2"/> Some believe the case could have had significant implications in [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]], as its outcome would have determined whether rights over a character imply rights to reproduce the actor's image with or without his or her permission, so long as the image is of the actor as the character. However, Paramount settled with the two before the suit was ruled on. <ref>MarkRoesler.com (2006). [http://www.markroesler.com/ipresources/rightofpublicity.htm Several Intellectual Property cases, including a section on the ''Cheers'' case]</ref> In addition to the characters, the ''Cheers'' [[Title sequence|opening sequence]] and theme song has become iconic. Because of this, the sequence is a common target for [[parody]], such as on [[YTMND]].<ref>YTMND (2005). [http://cheerstoyourthemannowdog.ytmnd.com/ Cheers to YTMND]</ref>
===Outside the bar===
[[Image:Cheers bar.JPG|thumb|right|185px|right|The bar set]]
Most early episodes took place entirely within the confines of the bar. When the series became a hit, the characters started venturing further afield, first to other sets and eventually to an occasional exterior location. The exterior location shots of the bar were actually of the Bull & Finch Pub, north of [[Boston Common]], which has become a [[tourist attraction]] because of its association with the series and draws in nearly a million visitors annually.<ref name="synd1"/><ref name="toastingcheers"/> It has since been renamed Cheers Beacon Hill,<ref>Cheers Boston (2006). [http://www.cheersboston.com/index_bh.htm Cheers Beacon Hill]</ref> though its interior is different from the TV bar. To further capitalize on the show's popularity, another bar, Cheers Faneuil Hall,<ref>Cheers Boston (2006). [http://www.cheersboston.com/index_fh.htm Cheers Faneuil Hall]</ref> was built to be a replica of the show's set to provide tourists with a bar whose interior was closer to the one they saw on TV. It is near [[Faneuil Hall]], about a mile from the Bull & Finch Pub. In 1997 Europe's first officially licensed Cheers bar opened in London's Regent's Street W1 <ref>Cheers London (2003). [http://cheersbarlondon.com Cheers London]</ref>. Like Cheers Faneuil Hall, Cheers London is an exact replica of the set. The gala opening was attended by James Burrows and cast members George Wendt and John Ratzenberger <ref> ''USA Today'' (September 23, 1997).</ref>. The actual bar set is now on permanent display at the Hollywood Entertainment Museum.<ref>Hollywood Entertainment Mueseum (2006). [http://www.seeing-stars.com/Museums/HollywoodEntertainment.shtml Hollywood Entertainment Mueseum]</ref>
<br clear="all">
==References==
<div style="font-size:90%">
:''(published date if available) (retrieval date)''
:''Cheers''. Created by [[James Burrows]], [[Glen Charles]] and [[Les Charles]]. 1982-1993. Broadcast and DVD.
<references/>
</div>
<!-- When adding a ref/note, please be sure to conform to the style already used in this page. Thank you! -->
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title|id=0083399|title=Cheers}}
*[http://www.r |
at]]
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<page>
<title>Germ warfare</title>
<id>12703</id>
<revision>
<id>15910371</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Biological warfare]]
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<page>
<title>GPMG</title>
<id>12704</id>
<revision>
<id>18252829</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-06T11:31:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GraemeLeggett</username>
<id>187158</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect sorting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[general purpose machine gun]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Greg Egan</title>
<id>12706</id>
<revision>
<id>38066150</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T23:07:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MK2</username>
<id>162389</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>added living people cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Greg Egan''' ([[August 20]], [[1961]], [[Perth, Western Australia]]) is an [[Australia]]n computer programmer and [[science fiction author]]. He holds a Bachelor of Science degree in Mathematics from the [[University of Western Australia]]. Egan currently lives in Perth.
Egan specialises in [[hard science fiction]] stories with [[mathematics|mathematical]] and [[quantum ontology]] themes, including the nature of [[consciousness]]. Other themes include [[genetics]], [[simulated reality]], [[mind transfer]], [[quantum ontology]], [[sexuality]], [[artificial intelligence]], and the superiority of [[rational materialism]] over [[religion]]. He is a [[Hugo Award]] winner (and has been shortlisted for the Hugos three other times), and has also won the [[Campbell award (best novel)|John W Campbell Memorial Award for Best Novel]]. Some of his earlier short stories feature strong elements of [[horror fiction|supernatural horror]].
Egan's short stories have been published in a variety of genre magazines, including regular appearances in ''[[Interzone]]'' and ''[[Asimov's Science Fiction]]''.
His [[1994]] novel ''[[Permutation City]]'' was a highly praised exploration of the copying of human personalities or minds. The protagonist challenges his society's understanding (and the reader's) of 'copies', and of identity, computing, the laws of physics and reality.
He has recently been active on the issue of [[refugee]] rights in Australia.
==Trivia==
In an issue of the [[Top 10]] [[comic book]], an [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] officer is asked whether he would have ethical issues with transferring his mind into a new body for purposes of undercover work. He answers that, as he is a "High Church Eganite", he would have no problem.
== Works ==
===Novels===
* ''[[An Unusual Angle]]'' ([[1983 in literature|1983]]) (not science fiction)
* ''[[Quarantine (novel)|Quarantine]]'' ([[1992 in literature|1992]])
* ''[[Permutation City]]'' ([[1994 in literature|1994]])
* ''[[Distress (novel)|Distress]]'' ([[1995 in literature|1995]])
* ''[[Diaspora (novel)|Diaspora]]'' ([[1997 in literature|1997]])
* ''[[Teranesia]]'' ([[1999 in literature|1999]])
* ''[[Schild's Ladder]]'' ([[2002 in literature|2002]])
===Collections===
* ''[[Axiomatic (story collection)|Axiomatic]]'' ([[1995 in literature|1995]])
* ''[[Our Lady of Chernobyl]]'' ([[1995 in literature|1995]])
* ''[[Luminous (story collection)|Luminous]]'' ([[1998 in literature|1998]])
* ''[[Oceanic and Other Stories]]''
===Short stories===
====Stories collected in ''Axiomatic''====
* "The Infinite Assassin"
* "The Hundred Light-Year Diary"
* "Eugene"
* "The Caress"
* "[[Hackers (short stories)#Blood Sisters|Blood Sisters]]"
* "Axiomatic"
* "The Safe-Deposit Box"
* "Seeing"
* "A Kidnapping"
* "Learning to Be Me"
* "The Moat"
* "The Walk"
* "The Cutie"
* "Into Darkness"
* "Appropriate Love"
* "The Moral Virologist"
* "Closer"
* "Unstable Orbits in the Space of Lies"'
====Stories collected in ''Luminous''====
* "Chaff"
* "Mitochondrial Eve"
* "Luminous"
* "Mister Volition"
* "Cocoon"
* "Transition Dreams"
* "Silver Fire"
* "Reasons to Be Cheerful"
* "Our Lady of Chernobyl"
* "The Planck Dive"
====Other stories====
* [http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/MISC/SINGLETON/Singleton.html "Singleton"]
* [http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/MISC/ORACLE/Oracle.html "Oracle"]
* [http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/SCHILD/Connect/Connect.html "Only Connect"]
* [http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/BORDER/Border.html "Border Guards"]
* [http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/OCEANIC/Oceanic.html "Oceanic"]
* [http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/stories/yeyuka.htm "Yeyuka"]
* [http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/stories/tap.htm "TAP"]
* [http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/stories/worth.htm "Worthless"]
* [http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/HORROR/VAMPIRES/Vampires.html "Mind Vampires"]
* "[[Neighbourhood Watch (short story)|Neighbourhood Watch]]"
* "Wang's Carpets"
* "Reification Highway"
* "Dust"
* "Before"
* "Fidelity"
* "The Demon's Passage"
* "In Numbers"
* "The Vat"
* "The Extra"
* "Beyond the Whistle Test"
* "Scatter My Ashes"
* "Tangled Up"
* "The Way She Smiles, The Things She Says"
* "Artifact"
* "Orphanogenesis"
==Awards==
* ''Permutation City'': [[John W. Campbell Memorial Award]] ([[1995 in literature|1995]])
* "Oceanic": [[Hugo Award]], [[Locus Award]], [[Asimov's Readers Award]] ([[1998 in literature|1998]])
==External links==
* [http://dmoz.org/Arts/Literature/Genres/Science_Fiction/Authors/E/Egan,_Greg/ Open Directory category: Greg Egan]
* [http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/ Greg Egan's homepage]
* [http://freesfonline.de/authors/egan.html Greg Egan's online fiction] at [http://freesfonline.de/ Free Speculative Fiction Online]
{{wikiquote}}
[[Category:1961 births|Egan, Greg]]
[[category:Australian science fiction writers|Egan, Greg]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Egan, Greg]]
[[Category:People of Perth|Egan, Greg]]
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[[Category:Living people|Egan, Greg]]
[[bg:Грег Еган]]
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<page>
<title>Guy Fawkes</title>
<id>12707</id>
<revision>
<id>42113678</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:33:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>154.5.44.87</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Gunpowder Plot */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fawkes_portrait.jpg|thumb|180px|right|]]
'''Guy Fawkes''' ([[April 13]], [[1570]]&ndash;[[January 31]], [[1606]]), an [[England|English]] [[soldier]], was a member of a group of [[Roman Catholic]] conspirators who attempted to carry out the so-called [[Gunpowder Plot]] in [[1605]], in an attempt to [[Assassination|assassinate]] [[King James I of England]] (James VI of Scotland) and the members of both houses of the [[Parliament]] of [[England]]. To do this, the [[House of Lords]] was to be blown up during the formal opening of the 1605 session of Parliament and the House of Commons, the members seated in a joint sitting for the opening. Guy Fawkes was in large part responsible for the latter stages of the plan's execution. His activities were detected, however, before the plan's completion. Following a severe interrogation, involving the use of [[torture]], Fawkes and his co-conspirators were executed for [[treason]] and [[attempted murder]].Guy Fawkes is remembered on November 5th.
==Early life==
Fawkes (whose surname is sometimes also given as "Faukes") was born in [[Stonegate]] in [[York]], where he was baptised in the church of [[St. Michael-le-Belfry]]. He attended [[St. Peter's School]]. He was the only son of [[Edward Fawkes]] of York and his wife Edith Blake. He grew up to be tall and of an athletic build with brown hair and a moderately brown beard. Fawkes converted to [[Catholicism]] around the age of 16, according to his admission of [[recusancy]] at his preliminary [[interrogation]] following his capture.
He served for many years as a [[soldier]], gaining considerable expertise with explosives. In 1593 he enlisted in the army of [[Archduke Albert (1559-1621)|Archduke Albert of Austria]] in the [[Netherlands]], fighting against the [[Protestant]] [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] in the [[Eighty Years' War]]. In 1596 he was present at the siege and capture of [[Calais]]. By 1602, however, he had still risen no higher than the rank of [[Ensign (rank)|ensign]]. While serving in the Spanish Army in the Netherlands, he adopted the Spanish form (Guido, pronounced "ghee-do") of his French/English name (Guy, pronounced "ghee").
==Gunpowder Plot==
[[Image:fawkes_arrest2.jpg|thumb|280px|right|The Gunpowder Conspirators are discovered and Guy Fawkes is caught in the cellar of the Houses of Parliament with the explosives.]]
{{main|Gunpowder Plot}}
Guy Fawkes is most famous for his involvement in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605, which he was placed in charge with executing due to his military and explosives experience. The plot, masterminded by [[Robert Catesby]], was a failed attempt by a group of |
on of superior tasting beans with cheaper beans
The coffee bushes fruit aggressively when conditions permit, and the berries will develop at the expense of the rest of the bush. This consumes sugars in the leaves and can produce die-back (death of leaves and branches). Die-back can be severe and can damage not just the current year's production but the next year's production, which is borne on growth during the current year, leading into a two-year cycle of growth and production.
Commercial operators come under a variety of pressures to cut costs and maximise yield.
Arguably the best flavours will be produced when the coffee is grown in [[organic farming|organic conditions]]. Some people who grow organically do so primarily to obtain the premium prices organic beans command, an alternative strategy to increase profits.
===The economics of growing coffee===
[[Image:Handmaking coffee in Indonesia.jpg|thumbnail|250px|left|Coffee-making in [[Indonesia]].]]
It is very questionable whether small growers can generate a high return on capital growing coffee if they have less than 1.2 ha (3 acres or 12,000 m<sup>2</sup>) and if they are based in the United States. The retail price of the beans varies between about 1 USD/pound for ripe berries to 9 USD/pound for extra fancy Kona milled beans, and there are many costs including fertiliser, irrigation, labour (e.g. picking and pruning) and land value. Integrated operations that capture much or all of the available revenue (by controlling the whole process from growing to retail) may generate higher returns.
It is estimated that 10 million people are working on plantations in the source lands of coffee. A single worker can harvest 50-100 kg of fruits per day, which results in 10-20 kg of raw coffee. Crops from [[Brazil]](30%) and [[Colombia]](10%) comprise 40% of the worldwide coffee production. As of 1998, the world's coffee production equals about 100 million sacks of coffee.
Many farmers receive a low price for their coffee because of a global market slump. This has led to coffee being available as a '[[fairtrade labelling|fair trade]]' labelled item in many countries.
===Hand picked coffee===
[[Image:Eth1 coffeelady.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Coffee farmer in [[Ethiopia]].]]
The highest quality coffee is generally hand picked. Normally, coffee growers harvest their coffee with portable vacuum packs, which the pickers wear on their backs and brush over the branches of the coffee bushes. Although it is much more efficient and quick to harvest the coffee with the vacuum packs, coffee beans do not become ripe at the same time, even if they are on the same tree, and thus many unripe beans are sucked away by the vacuum packs. Also, coffee pickers are sure to pick beans only of the highest quality. As a general rule, hand picked coffee is used for drip machines, while vacuum picked coffee is used to make instant coffee and decaffeinated coffee.
==History==
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Coffee cup.JPG|200px|thumb|left|A coffee [[cup]]]] -->
Coffee probably originated in the [[Kingdom of Kaffa]] (now part of the [[Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region]] of [[Ethiopia]]), though there is controversy about its origins, with [[Yemen]] also suggested as an area of origin. One apocryphal tale claims that an Ethiopian goat-herder noticed his goats prancing about energetically, and found they were eating coffee berries, and tried some himself.
The crop first became popular in [[Arabia]] around the [[13th century]], and [[Islam]]'s prohibition against [[alcoholic beverage]]s probably enhanced its popularity. Before 1600, coffee production was a jealously guarded secret, and fertile beans were not found outside [[Arabia]]. Many consider the German botanist [[Leonhard Rauwolf]] to have first described coffee in a book published in [[1583]]. Sometime after 1600, coffee trees were grown in [[India]], possibly due to smuggling of fertile beans. Around [[1650]], coffee importation into [[England]] began and coffeehouses opened in [[Oxford]] and [[London]]. Coffee planting began in the English colonies, but a disease wiped out the plantations, leading the English to re-plant with [[tea]] instead.
By the [[18th century]], the beverage had become popular in Europe, and European colonists had introduced coffee to tropical countries worldwide as a plantation crop to supply domestic demand. At the end of the [[19th century]], plantations in [[Brazil]] alone were producing over 80% of the world's coffee crop. At the same time, European demand for coffee was so strong that when genuine coffee beans were scarce, people developed similar-tasting substitutes from various roasted vegetable substances, such as [[chicory]] root, [[dandelion]] root, [[acorn]]s, or [[fig]]s. For example, the British used [[acorn]]s as a coffee substitute during [[World War II]] when German [[submarine|U-boats]] blockaded Britain.
The major coffee-producing countries are [[Puerto Rico]] (U.S.), [[Brazil]], [[Colombia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Indonesia]], [[Mexico]], and [[India]], but coffee is grown in over 70 countries (2003 USDA and ICO data). Major importers are [[United States]], [[Germany]], [[Japan]], [[France]], [[Italy]], and [[Spain]] (2002 USDA data), and per-capita consumers of coffee are [[Finland]] (11 kg), [[Denmark]] (9.7 kg), [[Norway]] (9.5 kg), [[Sweden]] (8.6 kg), and [[Austria]] (7.8 kg). The [[United States]], while the largest importing country, only ranks 16th (4.1 kg) in per-capita consumption (2001 USDA data).
==See also==
*[[Coffee (drink)]]
**[[Caffe sospeso]]
**[[Espresso]]
*[[Kopi Luwak]]
*[[List of coffee companies]]
== External links ==
{{commons|Coffea}}
*[http://www.justaboutcoffee.com/index.php?file=coffeetree Just About Coffee - General information webpage about the coffee tree subject.]
* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Coffea_arabica.html ''Coffea arabica'' by James A. Duke - detailed information about this species.]
* [http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/ctahr2001/CTAHRInAction/May_02/coffee_nutrition_needs.html Excellent article about the nutritional needs of coffee plants (written by an expert in Hawaii).]
* [http://www2.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/spreads/ University of Hawaii spreadsheets dealing with costs of production including those of coffee growing in Hawaii.]
* [http://agrss.sherman.hawaii.edu/bookshelf/coffee/coffee.htm Farmers Bookshelf guide to coffee growing and processing in Hawaii.]
* [http://www.coffeeforums.com Coffee Forums (offers open discussion about coffee, the beans, machines and effects).]
* [http://www.HowtoBrewCoffee.com How To Brew Coffee (consists of coffee information and tutorials on various types of brewing including Turkish and Vietnamese).]
* [http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/tropical/coffee.html United States Department of Agriculture - Foreign Agriculture Service (a valuable source of coffee (and other commodities) production and consumption data).]
* [http://www.toomuchcoffee.com/ TooMuchCoffee: The European Coffee and Espresso Resource (offers non-commercial articles and discussion about coffee, coffee preparations and homeroasting; interesting documentary (15 MB) about coffee planters in Nicaragua available for free download).]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/S238.html The etymology of the word coffee]
<!-- [[en:Coffea]] -->
[[Category:Coffee]]
[[Category:Granular materials]]
[[Category:Herbal and fungal stimulants]]
[[Category:Rubiaceae]]
[[ast:Café]]
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[[es:Coffea]]
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[[ko:커피나무]]
[[hr:Kava]]
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[[os:Къофи]]
[[pl:Kawowiec]]
[[pt:Cafeeiro]]
[[ru:Кофейное дерево]]
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[[zh:咖啡树]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cycling</title>
<id>5931</id>
<revision>
<id>42111808</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T22:20:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Christopherlin</username>
<id>51957</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv extlink; please explain why it's important</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cycling''' is a [[recreation]], a [[sport]] and a means of [[transport]] across land. It involves riding [[bicycle]]s, [[unicycle]]s, [[tricycle]]s and other [[human powered vehicle]]s (HPVs). As a sport it is governed internationally by the [[Union Cycliste Internationale]] in [[Switzerland]] (for [[upright bicycle]]s) and by the [[International Human Powered Vehicle Association]] (for other HPVs). Cycling for transport and touring is promoted on a European level by the [[European Cyclists' Federation]], and regular conferences are held under the auspices of [[Velo City]], whereas global conferences are coordinated by [http://www.velomondial.org/ Velo Mondial].
==Getting started==
[[Image:Kusuma bike large.jpg|thumb|300px|This [[racing bicycle]] is built using lightweight, shaped aluminium tubing and [[graphite-reinforced plastic|carbon fiber]] stays and forks. It has a drop handlebar and narrow tyres and wheels for efficiency and aerodynamics.]]
[[Image:utility bicycle.jpg|thumb|300px|Dutch [[utility bicycle]] featuring rear internal hub brake, chaincase and mudguards, kickstand for parking, permanently attached dynamo-powered lamps and touring handlebars.]]
The two most popular types of bicle are mountain bicycles and [[road bicycle]]s. Both range in price from US$50-1000 or more depending mostly on weight and quality. In the case of [[road bicycle]]s, the lightest bikes weigh around 7 kg (15 lb) and are the most expensive. For most, a good starting road bike would be in the range of 9-10 kg (20-22 lb) (stripped down with no ac |
* On [[January 22]] [[2003]], the English Wikipedia was again [[slashdot effect|slashdotted]] after having reached the 100,000 article milestone. Two days later, the German language Wikipedia, the largest non-English version, passed the 10,000 article mark.
* In [[June 20]], [[2003]], the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] was founded. On the same day "[[Wikiquote]]" was created. A month later, "[[Wikibooks]]" was launched.
* Around [[October 15]], [[2003]], the current Wikipedia logo was installed. The logo concept was selected by a voting process, which was followed by a revision process to select the best variant. The final selection was created by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Nohat David Friedland] based on a logo design and concept created by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Paul_Stansifer Paul Stansifer].
* On [[October 28]], [[2003]] the first "real" meeting of Wikipedians happened in [[Munich]]. Many cities followed suit, and soon a number of regular Wikipedian get-togethers were established around the world. Several [[Internet]] communities, including one on the popular [[blog]] website [[LiveJournal]], have also sprung up since.
*After [[6 December]], [[2003]], Wikipedia administrators could change the ''text'' of the interface by editing the pages in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:MediaWiki_namespace Wikipedia:MediaWiki namespace] such as the page that a blocked user will see when they try to edit a page ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MediaWiki:Blockedtext MediaWiki:Blockedtext]).
<!--- external link? -->
===2004===
* In [[January 2004]], Wikipedia passed the 200,000 article milestone in English and reached 450,000 articles for both English and non-English wikis. The next month, the combined article count of the English and non-English wikis reached 500,000.
* In late [[February 2004]] a coordinated new look for the Main Page appeared. On [[February 25]], the listing of important overview articles, was replaced by a single link to [[Template:WikipediaTOC]]. Hand-chosen entries for the Daily Featured Article, Anniversaries, In the News, and Did You Know rounded out the new look. On [[February 26]],[[2004]], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:maveric149 User:maveric149] (Daniel Mayer) implemented the first entries of an automated archive for the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Selected_anniversaries Wikipedia:Selected anniversaries] which appear on the Main Page. This feature updates daily on the Main Page of the English Wikipedia.
* On [[April 20]], [[2004]], the article count of the English wiki reached 250,000.
* On [[May 29]], [[2004]], all the various Wikiprojects were updated to a new version of [[MediaWiki]], the software that runs the various Wikiprojects.
* On [[May 30]], [[2004]], the first instances of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Categorization Wikipedia:Categorization] entries appeared: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Mathematics Category:Mathematics] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:World_War_II Category:World War II]. Category Schemes, like Recent Changes and Edit This Page, had existed from the founding of Wikipedia. However Larry Sanger had viewed the Schemes as lists, and even hand-entered articles, whereas the [[Categorization]] effort centered on individual categorization entries in each article of the encyclopedia, as part of a larger automatic categorization of the articles of the encyclopedia.
* On [[June 2]], [[2004]], the [[People's Republic of China]] [[Blocking of Wikipedia in mainland China|blocked the access]] to the [http://zh.wikipedia.org/ Chinese Wikipedia] in [[mainland China]]. A few days later, all language Wikipedias were blocked. The ban was lifted on [[June 17]].
* After [[3 June]], [[2004]], administrators could edit the ''style'' of the interface by changing the [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]] in the monobook stylesheet at [[MediaWiki:Monobook.css]].
* On [[July 7]], [[2004]], the article count of the English wiki reached 300,000.
* From [[July 10]] to [[August 30]], [[2004]] the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Browse Wikipedia:Browse] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Browse_by_overview Wikipedia:Browse by overview] formerly on the Main Page were replaced by links to overviews. On [[August 27]], [[2004]] the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_Portal Wikipedia:Community Portal] was started, to serve as a focus for community efforts. These were previously accomplished on an informal basis, by individual queries of the Recent Changes, in wiki style, as ad-hoc collaborations between like-minded editors.
* On [[September 20]], [[2004]], Wikipedia reached one million articles [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/PR-1mil-US] in over 105 languages, and received a flurry of related attention in the press. The one millionth article was published in the [[Hebrew language]] Wikipedia, and discusses the [[flag of Kazakhstan]].
* On [[November 20]], [[2004]], the article count of the English wiki reached 400,000.
===2005===
* On [[February 5]], [[2005]], the first [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Portal Wikipedia:Portal], since renamed to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Biology Portal:Biology] was created.
* On [[March 18]] [[2005]], Wikipedia passed the 500,000 article milestone in English.
* On [[7 June]] [[2005]] at 3:00AM Eastern Standard Time the bulk of the Wikimedia servers were moved to a new facility across the street. All Wikimedia projects were down during this time.
* On [[June 19]], [[2005]], the English Wikipedia passed the 600,000 article mark.
* On [[July 16]], [[2005]], the English Wikipedia began the practice of including the day's [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_pictures Wikipedia:Featured pictures] on the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Main Page], in the space until then occupied by the "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Did_you_know Wikipedia:Did you know]" section. The featured picture of the day now occupies the slot on weekends, with "Did you know" resuming its usual position there on weekdays.
* On [[August 25]], [[2005]], the English Wikipedia passed the 700,000 article mark.
* On [[September 29]], [[2005]], the English Wikipedia passed the 750,000 article mark.
* As of Saturday, [[October 15]], [[2005]], there have been over 500,000 accounts registered on English Wikipedia.
* On [[October 20]], [[2005]], direct access to all the Wikipedia sites was blocked in most areas of [[mainland China]].
* On [[November 1]], [[2005]], the English Wikipedia passed the 800,000 article mark.
* '''Seigenthaler incident'''
{{main article|[[John Seigenthaler Sr. Wikipedia biography controversy]]}}
On [[November 29]] [[2005]], [[John Seigenthaler Sr.]] wrote an op-ed in USA Today to criticize a biography written about him at Wikipedia. Earlier versions of the Wikipedia entry, online from May through September of that year, had contained incorrect statements about Seigenthaler, and this information also appeared on Wikipedia syndicate sites Reference.com and Answers.com. Specifically the statement, "For a brief time, he was thought to have been directly involved in the Kennedy assassinations of both John, and his brother, Bobby. Nothing was ever proven." Seigenthaler described the statements, which had been written by an anonymous Wikipedia user, as "Internet character assassination". Seigenthaler did not use the collaborative editing feature of Wikipedia to correct the misstatement himself. Seigenthaler said "I am interested in letting many people know that Wikipedia is a flawed and irresponsible research tool." He also equated Wikipedia to gossip. In an Interview with a CNN reporter, the reporter also expressed concern about [[Kyra Phillips|her own biography]] which she said portrayed her as she did not wish to be portrayed. The author of the hoax, [[Brian Chase (Wikipedia hoaxer)|Brian Chase]] was discovered in December 2005. He subsequently resigned from his job and apologized in person to Seigenthaler. Chase was traced through the IP address of the [[26 May]] post, which led to his employer.
[[Image:Seigenthaler effect.gif]]
*On [[December 5]] [[2005]], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Tutorial_(Registration) Wikipedia:Tutorial (Registration)] became a requirement for the creation of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Newpages Special:Newpages]. See: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2005-12-05/Page_creation_restrictions Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2005-12-05/Page creation restrictions].
* '''First scientific article comparative study''' <!-- Please to neutralise this if need, and to correct my frenchglish :] -->
On [[December 14]] [[2005]], the scientific journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' published [http://www.nature.com/news/2005/051212/full/438900a.html] the results of [http://www.nature.com/news/2005/051212/multimedia/438900a_m1.html a comparative review] between the Britannica and the Wikipedia Encylopedias concerning scientific articles. This, being the first comparative review concerning Wikipedia of its kind, was done by scientific experts in their field. They were given articles about the same subject, one from Britannica, and one from Wikipedia. Scientists did not know the source, and were told to look for factual errors, critical omissions, and misleading statements. After examining 42 articles in both the encyclopedias, ''Nature'' obtained the following results:
: Britannica: 123 errors, an average of 2.92 by article
: Wikipedia: 162 errors, an average of 3.86 by article.
The data shows that, at least in science, Wikipedia has comparable accuracy to other modern encylopedias. However, some of the Wikipedia articles were found poorly organized and confusing. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:External_peer review/Nature_December_2005/Errors Wikipedia:External peer review/Nature Decembe |
the name ''H.G.'' Not much later he published an article (about an old clock) under his name in the same paper. During his career [[#Publications|he wrote]] 51 [[novel]]s, [[poetry]], many newspaper articles, [[play]]s, [[travelogue]]s, [[short story|short stories]] and more.
He was married twice and had four children. Laxness died at the age of 95.
Several biographies have been written about Laxness, some of them controversial, such as the three volume work by [[Hannes Hólmsteinn Gissurarson]]. Laxness’ widow has filed suit against Gissurarson for alleged breach of copyright. In [[2005]] the Icelandic National Theatre premiered a play by [[Ólafur Haukur Símonarson]], called ''Halldór í Hollywood'' (Halldór in Hollywood) about the years that Laxness spent there.
[[Image:halldorlaxness2.jpg|right|thumb|Laxness with his Nobel Prize certificate in 1955. His wife, [[Auður Laxness]], is also on the picture.]]
==Catholicism==
In the end of [[1922]], Laxness joined an [[abbey]] in [[Clervaux]], [[Luxembourg]]. The [[Benedictine Order|monks]] of the [[abbey]], named Abbaye St. Maurice et St. Maur, followed the rules of [[Saint Benedict of Nursia]]. Laxness was baptised and confirmed in [[Catholicism]] early in [[1923]]. It was at that occasion he adopted the family name Laxness and added Kiljan after his first name, Halldór. [[Killian]] was an [[Ireland|Irish]] [[martyr]] and [[saint]]. (N.B.: Iceland is one of the few countries in the world which retains the "patronymic" tradition under which people do not usually bear "family surnames" but instead are called "X son of Y" or "X daughter of Y". Hence his original name, Halldór Guðjónsson, meant "Halldór son of Guðjón" just as his own parents' names meant, respectively, "Sigríður daughter of Halldór" and "Guðjón son of Helgi".)
Inside the walls of the abbey, he practised self-study, read books, studied [[French language|French]], [[Latin]], [[theology]] and [[philosophy]]. It was also there that the story ''Undir Helgahnjúk'', which was published in [[1924]], was written. Laxness published the book under his new name; '''Halldór Kiljan Laxness'''. While in the abbey, Laxness became devout and even [[orthodox]]. Soon after his baptism, he even became a member of a group which prayed for reversion of the [[Nordic countries]] back to [[Catholicism]].
Laxness wrote of his Catholicism in the book ''Vefarinn mikli frá Kasmír'', published in [[1927]].
[[Image:halldorlaxness3.jpg|left|thumb|Halldór Laxness]]
==Socialism, war, independence==
Laxness started to lean towards [[socialism]] after having traveled to the [[United States]] to try to make films. This is evident in his book ''Atom Station'', about the fight of some ordinary people to find a place in a new Iceland controlled by the [[Cold War]] invasion of an American bomber base into the hearts and minds of the politicians. It is told from the point of view of a poor country woman who moves to the city, finds work as a maid for one of said politicians, and who somehow sees the folly of the whole thing, and who campaigns for what she sees as a bigger priority, social welfare from the government.
''Independent People'' is a sort of deadpan [[tragedy]]. It is the story of a man's life from just after he escapes his virtual enslavement to a local rural family on a remote end of Iceland, up through his attempts to build a family, a home, and a future for himself. However, from reading it, it is never explicitly stated that the setting is a remote part of Iceland. The reader only knows what the character thinks about it; and as far as he is concerned, it is a good plot of land. It is all he's ever known, he hasn't wandered in his mind to [[France]] or [[Germany]] or America. So as far as the reader knows, the land is just his Land.
It reveals some of Laxness's anti-war leanings in a chapter that consists of Icelandic farmers sitting around talking about how the [[livestock]] sales sure have gone up since the [[Europe]]ans started murdering each other for no good reason. Also displayed is hatred of politicians, as he depicts them as all bosom buddies, part of some exclusive mindset that renders them too busy hobnobbing with each other and fulfilling grand ideals for them to actually care about what the poor people are going through.
Readers may also interpret it as an indictment of the idea of [[independence]] &mdash; not the good kind of independence, but independence taken to such an extreme that it becomes willful ignorance, and a sort of slavery of family members to the patriarch's ideas. To him his ideas are unquestionable, and inherently linked to his 'freedom'. This ends with alienating his family, in tragedy, in every minuscule and minute detail that Laxness paints with. Then he pulls back, and the reader realizes that just about every person out there on this part of the Icelandic ground was going through similar experiences. Poor health, near starvation, exploitative merchants, ignorance, hatred, etc. People will probably notice that Laxness, although he shows clearly that the main character destroyed the lives of some members of his family, the author seems to have a deep understanding of how that character came to exist, of why he exists, of why everything happens. Laxness still manages to dig out some shred of hope and love from the abysmal rural disenfranchised powerless poverty depicted in the book, and to find some human tenderness inside the burly troll monster of the main character.
==Publications==
The following is a partial list of publications written by or connected with Laxness:
<div style="float:left; width:50%;">
* 1919: ''Barn náttúrunnar'', novel
* 1923: ''Nokkrar sögur'', short stories
* 1924: ''Undir Helgahnúk'', novel
* 1925: ''Kaþólsk viðhorf'', essay
* 1927: ''Vefarinn mikli frá Kasmír'', novel
* 1929: ''Alþýðubókin'', articles
* 1930: ''Kvæðakver'', poems
* 1931: ''Salka Valka'' (Part I) - ''Þú vínviður hreini'', novel
* 1932: ''Salka Valka'' (Part II) - ''Fuglinnn í fjörunni'', novel
* 1933: ''Fótatak manna'', short stories (see ''Þættir'')
* 1933: ''Í Austurvegi'', travelogue
* 1934: ''Straumrof'', play
* 1934: ''[[Independent People|Sjálfstætt fólk]]'' (Part I, ''Independent People'') - ''Landnámsmaður Íslands'', novel
* 1935: ''[[Independent People|Sjálfstætt fólk]]'' (Part II) - ''Erfiðir tímar'', novel
* 1935: ''Þórður gamli halti'', short stories (see ''Þættir'')
* 1937: ''Dagleið á fjöllum'', articles
* 1937: ''[[Heimsljós]]'' (Part I, ''World Light'') - ''Ljós heimsins'' (later named, ''Kraftbirtíngarhljómur guðdómsins''), novel
* 1938: ''Gerska æfintýrið'', travelogue
* 1938: ''[[Heimsljós]]'' (Part II) - ''Höll sumarlandsins'', novel
* 1939: ''[[Heimsljós]]'' (Part III) - ''Hús skáldsins'', novel
* 1940: ''[[Heimsljós]]'' (Part IV) - ''Fegurð himinsins'', novel
* 1942: ''Vettvángur dagsins'', articles
* 1942: ''Sjö töframenn'', short stories (see Þættir)
* 1943: ''Íslandsklukkan'' (''Iceland's Bell'', Part I) - ''Íslandsklukkan'', novel
* 1944: ''Íslandsklukkan'' (Part II) - ''Hið ljósa man'', novel
* 1946: ''Íslandsklukkan'' (Part III) - ''Eldur í Kaupinhafn'', novel
* 1946: ''Sjálfsagðir hlutir'', essays
* 1948: ''Atómstöðin'' (''The Atom Station''), novel
* 1950: ''Reisubókarkorn'', articles
* 1950: ''Snæfríður Íslandssól'', play (from ''Íslandsklukkan'')
* 1952: ''Gerpla'', novel
* 1952: ''Heiman eg fór'', novel/travelogue
* 1954: ''Silfurtúnglið'', play
</div><div style="float:right; width:50%;">
* 1954: ''Þættir'', collected short stories
* 1955: ''Dagur í senn'', articles
* 1957: ''Brekkukotsannáll'', novel
* 1959: ''Gjörníngabók'', articles
* 1960: ''Paradísarheimt'', novel
* 1961: ''Strompleikurinn'', play
* 1962: ''Prjónastofan Sólin'', play
* 1963: ''Skáldatími'', articles
* 1964: ''Sjöstafakverið'', short stories
* 1965: ''Upphaf mannúðarstefnu'', articles
* 1966: ''Dúfnaveislan'', play
* 1967: ''Íslendíngaspjall'', articles
* 1968: ''Kristnihald undir Jökli'' (''Under the Glacier''/''Christianity at Glacier''), novel
* 1969: ''Vínlandspúnktar'', articles
* 1970: ''Innansveitarkronika'', novel
* 1970: ''Úa'', play (from ''Kristnihald undir Jökli'')
* 1971: ''Yfirskygðir staðir'', articles
* 1972: ''Guðsgjafaþula'', novel
* 1972: ''Norðanstúlkan'', play (from ''Atómstöðin'')
* 1974: ''Þjóðhátíðarrolla'', articles
* 1975: ''Í túninu heima'', memoirs I
* 1976: ''Úngur eg var'', memoirs III
* 1977: ''Seiseijú, mikil ósköp'', articles
* 1978: ''Sjömeistarasagan'', memoirs II
* 1980: ''Grikklandsárið'', memoirs IV
* 1981: ''Við heygarðshornið'', articles
* 1984: ''Og árin líða'', articles
* 1986: ''Af menníngarástandi'', articles
* 1987: ''Dagar hjá múnkum'', memoirs
* 1987: ''Sagan af brauðinu dýra'', short story
* 1992: ''Jón í Brauðhúsum'', short story
* 1992: ''Skáldsnilld Laxness''
* 1996: ''Fugl á garðstaurnum og fleiri smásögur'', short stories
* 1997: ''Únglíngurinn í skóginum'', poem
* 1998: ''Perlur í skáldskap Laxness''
* 1999: ''Úngfrúin góða og Húsið'', short story
* 2000: ''Smásögur'', short stories
* 2001: ''Gullkorn úr greinum Laxness''
* 2001: ''Kórvilla á Vestfjörðum og fleiri sögur'', short stories.
* 2001: ''Laxness um land og Þjóð''
</div><br clear="all">
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Ernest Hemingway]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1955 | after = [[Juan Ramón Jiménez]]
}}
{{end box}}
==References and external links==
<div style="float:left; width:50%;">
In [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]:
* Hannes Hólmsteinn Gissurarson. 2003. ''Halldór''. Vol. I of Laxness’ biography. Almenna bókafélagið, Reykjavík.
* Hannes Hólmsteinn Gissurarson. 2004. ''Kiljan''. Vol. II of Laxness’ biography. Bókafélagið, Reykjavík.
* Hannes Hólmsteinn Gissurarson. 2005. ''Laxness''. Vol. III of Laxness’ biography. Bókafélagið, Reykjavík.
* Hal |
cirrhosis]].
Philip B. and Peter W. Kunhardt reflected the views of many historians when they wrote in the ''The American President'' that Pierce was "a good man who didn't understand his own shortcomings. To his credit, he loved his wife and reshaped himself so that he could put up with her aristocratic, nervous ways and show her true affection. He was one of the most popular men in New Hampshire, polite and thoughtful, easy and good at the political game, charming and fine and handsome. And he was genuinely religious. And yet he was a timid man with a shallow, rigid, old-fashioned mind which could not cope with a changing America. In addition, Pierce was hounded by guilt, temptation, and just plain bad luck."
==Early life==
Pierce was born in 1804 in a [[log cabin]] near [[Hillsborough, New Hampshire|Hillsborough]], [[New Hampshire]], part of the [[Transcendental Generation]]. The site of his birth is now under [[Lake Franklin Pierce]]. Pierce's father was [[Benjamin Pierce (governor)|Benjamin Pierce]], a frontier farmer who became a [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]] soldier, state militia general, and two-time [[governor of New Hampshire]]. His mother was Anna Kendrick. Pierce had six older and two younger siblings, four brothers and three sisters.
Pierce attended school at [[Hillsborough Center]] and moved to the Hancock Academy in [[Hancock, New Hampshire|Hancock]] at the age of 11; he was transferred to Francestown Academy in spring [[1820]]. Later that year he was transferred to [[Phillips Exeter Academy]] to prepare for college and later that year entered [[Bowdoin College]] in [[Brunswick, Maine|Brunswick]], [[Maine]], where he participated in literary, political, and debating clubs. There he met writer [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], with whom he formed a lasting friendship, and [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]]. He also met [[Calvin E. Stowe]], [[Sargent S. Prentiss]], and his future political rival [[John P. Hale]].
In his second year of college, his grades were the lowest in his class; he changed his habits and graduated in [[1824]] third in his class. After graduation, in [[1826]] he entered a [[law school]] in [[Northampton, Massachusetts|Northampton]], [[Massachusetts]], studying under Governor [[Levi Woodbury]] and later Judges [[Samuel Howe]] and [[Edmund Parker]] in [[Amherst, New Hampshire|Amherst]], New Hampshire.
He was admitted to the [[bar (law)|bar]] and began a law practice in [[Concord, New Hampshire|Concord]], New Hampshire, in [[1827]].
==Political career==
Pierce began his political career in [[1828]], when he was elected to the [[lower house]] of the [[New Hampshire General Court]], the [[New Hampshire House of Representatives]]. He served in the House from [[1829]] to [[1833]], and as [[Speaker of the House|Speaker]] from [[1832]] to [[1833]]. Pierce was elected as a Democrat to the [[Twenty-third United States Congress|23rd]] and [[Twenty-third United States Congress|24th Congresses]]([[March 4]], [[1833]]&ndash;[[March 4]], [[1837]]). He was only 27 years old, the youngest representative at the time.
He was elected by the New Hampshire General Court as a Democrat to the United States Senate, serving from [[March 4]], [[1837]], to [[February 28]], [[1842]], when he resigned. He was chairman of the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Pensions]] during the [[Twenty-sixth United States Congress|26th Congress]].
[[Image:Jane_Appleton_Pierce.JPG|thumb|right|Jane Appleton Pierce]]
After his service in the Senate, Pierce resumed the practice of law in [[Concord, New Hampshire|Concord]] with his partner [[Asa Fowler]]. He was district attorney for New Hampshire, and declined the appointment as [[United States Attorney General|Attorney General of the United States]] tendered by President [[James Knox Polk|James Polk]].
On [[November 19]], [[1834]], Pierce married Jane Means Appleton, the daughter of a former president of Bowdoin College. Appleton, who was born in [[1806]] and died in [[1863]], was Pierce's opposite. She came from an aristocratic [[Whig]] family, and was extremely shy, deeply religious, often ill, and pro-[[temperance]]. Mrs. Pierce hated life in [[Washington, D.C.]], and encouraged Pierce to resign his Senate seat and return to New Hampshire, which he did in [[1841]]. They had three children. Two died in childhood&mdash;Franklin Pierce, Jr. ([[1836]]) in infancy and Frank Robert Pierce ([[1839]]&ndash;[[1843]]) at the age of four from [[epidemic typhus]]. Benjamin "Bennie" Pierce ([[1841]]&ndash;[[1853]]) died in a tragic railway accident at the age of 12. The accident occurred as the Pierces were on their way to the inauguration.
==Mexican War==
He enlisted in the volunteer services during the [[Mexican-American War]] and was soon made a colonel. In March 1847, he was appointed brigadier general of volunteers and took command of a brigade of reinforcements for [[Winfield Scott]]'s army marching on [[Mexico City]]. His brigade was designated the 1st Brigade in the newly created 3rd Division and joined Scott's army in time for the [[Battle of Contreras]]. During the battle he was seriously wounded in the leg when he fell from his horse. He returned to his command the following day but during the [[battle of Churubusco]] the pain in his leg became so great that he passed out and was carried from the field. His political opponents used this against him, claiming that he left the field because of cowardice instead of injury. He again returned to command and led his brigade throughout the rest of the campaign culminating in the [[Battle for Mexico City|capture of Mexico City]]. Although he was a political appointee he proved to have some skill as a military commander. He returned home and was a member of the New Hampshire State [[Constitutional convention (political meeting)|constitutional convention]] in [[1850]] and served as its president.
==Election of 1852==
[[Image:ElectoralCollege1852-Large.png|300px|thumb|right|The electoral map of the 1852 election.]]
{{main|U.S. presidential election, 1852}}
The Democratic Party nominated Pierce as a "[[dark horse]]" candidate during the Democratic National Convention of 1852. The convention assembled on [[June 12]] in [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]], [[Maryland]], with four competing contenders&mdash;[[Stephen A. Douglas]], [[William Marcy]], [[James Buchanan]] and [[Lewis Cass]]&mdash;for the nomination. Most of those who had left the party with [[Martin Van Buren]] to form the [[Free Soil Party]] had returned. Prior to the vote to determine the nominee, a [[party platform]] was adopted, opposing any further "agitation" over the slavery issue and supporting the [[Compromise of 1850]] in an effort to unite the various Democratic factions.
When the balloting for president began, the four candidates deadlocked, with no candidate reaching even a simple majority, much less the required [[supermajority]] of two-thirds. On the 35th ballot, Pierce was put forth as a compromise candidate. He had never fully articulated his views on slavery, which allowed him to be acceptable to all factions. He also had served in the Mexican-American War, which allowed the party to portray him as a [[war hero]]. Pierce was nominated unanimously on the 49th ballot on [[June 5]]. Senator [[William R. King]] of [[Alabama]] was chosen as the nominee for [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]].
Pierce's opponent was the [[United States Whig Party|Whig]] candidate, [[General]] [[Winfield Scott]] of [[Virginia]], whom Pierce served under during the Mexican-American War, and his running mate, Senator (and later [[Governor of North Carolina|Governor]]) [[William Alexander Graham]] of [[North Carolina]]. Pierce easily prevailed as Scott&mdash;nicknamed "Old Fuss and Feathers"&mdash;ran a blundering campaign. The Whigs' platform was almost indistinguishable from that of the Democrats, reducing the campaign to a contest between the personalities of the two candidates and helping to drive down the [[Voter turnout|turnout rates]] in the election to their lowest level since [[U.S. presidential election, 1836|1836]]. Pierce's likeable personality, plus his helpful obscurity and lack of strongly held positions, helped him prevail over Scott, whose anti-slavery views hurt him in the South. Scott's advantage as a known war hero was countered by Pierce's service in the same war. Pierce was also helped by Irish support of the Democratic Party and their disdain for the Whig Party. Scott alienated several anti-Irish elements in the Whig Party by pandering (unsuccessfully) to the Irish voters.
The Democrats' slogan was "We Polked you in [[1844]]; we shall Pierce you in 1852!" (a reference to the victory of [[James K. Polk]] in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1844|1844 election]]). This proved to be true, as Scott lost every state except [[Kentucky]], [[Tennessee]], [[Massachusetts]], and [[Vermont]]. The total popular vote was 1,601,274 to 1,386,580, or 50.9% to 44.1%. Pierce won 27 of the 31 states, including Scott's home state of Virginia. [[John P. Hale]], who like Pierce was from New Hampshire, was the nominee of the remnants of the Free Soil Party, garnering 155,825 votes (5% of the total).
The election of 1852 would be the last presidential contest in which the Whigs would field a candidate. In [[1854]], the Kansas-Nebraska Act divided the Whigs, with the Northern Whigs deeply opposed, resulting in a split between former Whigs, some of whom joined the [[Anti-immigrant|anti-immigration]] [[Know-Nothing movement|American Party]] ([[Know-Nothing movement|Know-Nothings]]), others the [[Constitutional Union Party (United States)|Constitutional Union Party]], and still others the newly formed [[United States Republican Party|Republicans]].
==Presidency 1853-1857==
===Beginnings===
Pierce served as president from [[March 4]], [[1853]], to [ |
stitution having only a handful of employees and volunteers [http://www.oism.org/]. ExxonMobil has also been a leading campaigner in the yet-unsuccessful bid to open the [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]] to oil drilling, a move that environmentalists say will destroy the region's fragile ecology.
Greenpeace has been campaigning against Esso for many years and its main reasons for doing so include ExxonMobil's position on the issue of climate change. Greenpeace claims that ExxonMobil has flatly refused to believe that the burning of fossil fuels has any negative effect on the environment or climate change as a whole, despite these theories being accepted by most of the scientific community.
[[Kellogg Company|Kelloggs]] sued Exxon based on a claim that the Tiger mascot looked like [[Tony the Tiger]].
==Diversity==
ExxonMobil received a 14% rating from the [[Human Rights Campaign]]'s Corporate Equality Index in 2004. The company had previously lost points because after the merger it failed to adopt some of the [[LGBT]]-friendly policies previously put into place at Mobil. Moreover, sexual orientation was taken off the list of protected classes in the ExxonMobil non-discrimination policy following Mobil's merger with Exxon, and when the issue was put to a vote of shareholders, a supermajority of shareholders (more than 70%) rejected proposals to reinstate sexual orientation as a specific type of prohibited discrimination.
Domestic partner benefits were ended following Mobil's merger with Exxon. Mobil employees who already had DP benefits were allowed to keep them, but other employees could not add their DPs to the benefit plans after the merger. ExxonMobil does offer DP benefits in countries where [[same-sex marriage]] is legal.
==Corporate governance==
The current Chairman of the Board and CEO of Exxon Mobil Corporation is [[Rex Tillerson]]. Tillerson assumed the top position on [[January 1]], [[2006]] on the retirement of long-time chairman and CEO, [[Lee Raymond]].
===[[Board of directors]]===
Current Exxon Mobil board members are:
*[[Michael Boskin]]
*[[William W. George]]
*[[James R. Houghton]]
*[[William R. Howell]]
*[[Reatha King]]
*[[Philip Lippincott]]
*[[Henry McKinnell, Jr.]]
*[[Marilyn Nelson]]
*[[Walter Shipley]]
==External links==
===General information===
*[http://www.exxonmobil.com/ ExxonMobil corporate website]
**[http://www.exxon.com Exxon USA website]
**[http://www.mobil.com Mobil global website]
**[http://www.esso.com Esso global website]
*[http://www.us-highways.com/sohist.htm History of Standard Oil spinoffs and their brands]
* [http://www.knowmore.org/index.php/Exxonmobil Exxonmobil] entry at [http://www.knowmore.org Knowmore.org]
===ExxonMobil responses to issues===
*[http://www.exxonmobil.com/Global-English/HR/Operations/HR_GL_Proud_ethics.asp ExxonMobil Web Page on Business Ethics & Standards]
*[http://www.exxonmobil.com/Europe-English/Citizen/Eu_VP_climate.asp ExxonMobil Web Page on Climate Change]
*[http://www.exxonmobileurope.com/Corporate/Newsroom/Newsreleases/xom_nr_071003.asp ExxonMobil Web Page on Domestic Partner Policies]
*[http://www.exxonmobil.com/Corporate/Newsroom/NewsReleases/Corp_NR_Valdez.asp ExxonMobil Web Page on Valdez Oil Spill]
===Funding given by ExxonMobil===
*[http://www.exxonmobil.com/Corporate/files/corporate/giving_report.pdf Exxon's list of funded organizations].
*[http://www.buyblue.org/node/869/view/summary ExxonMobil's Corporate political contributions]
*[[Greenpeace]]'s [http://www.exxonsecrets.org/html/listorganizations.php list of organizations] that have received funds from Exxon, with evidence of that funding.
*''[[Mother Jones]]''' overview, May 2005, [http://www.motherjones.com/news/featurex/2005/05/exxon_chart.html "Put a Tiger In Your Think Tank"]
===Anti ExxonMobil Websites===
*[http://www.stopesso.org Stop Esso]
*[http://www.exxposeexxon.com ExxposeExxon]
*[http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/climate/climatecriminals/esso/index.cfm Greenpeace UK's page on Esso]
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<title>Exxon Valdez oil spill</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Exxon Valdez oil spill''' was the most devastating environmental disaster to occur at sea in history. Its remote location (accessible only by helicopter and boat) made government and industry response efforts difficult, and severely taxed existing plans for response. The region is a [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]] for [[salmon]], [[sea otter]]s, [[seal (mammal)|seal]]s, and sea [[bird]]s.
[[Image:OilSheenFromValdezSpill.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|During the first few days of the spill, heavy sheens of oil, such as the sheen visible in this photograph, covered large areas of the surface of Prince William Sound.]]
==Early stages of the spill==
On [[March 23]], [[1989]], the oil [[Tanker (ship)|tanker]] ''[[Exxon Valdez]]'' departed from the [[Valdez oil terminal]] in [[Valdez, Alaska]] (on its 28th voyage), heading south through [[Prince William Sound]], with a full load of [[petroleum|oil]]. Captain [[Joseph Hazelwood]] radioed to the [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] station that he would be changing course in order to avoid some ''growlers'', small [[iceberg]]s which had drifted into the sound from the [[Columbia Glacier]]. The captain received permission to move into '''the northbound lane'''. Before retiring to his cabin, Captain Hazelwood instructed his third mate Gregory Cousins to "start coming back into the lanes" once the ship was abeam [[Busby Island]] Light (some 2 minutes ahead).
Although Cousins did give the instructions to the [[helmsman]] to steer the vessel to the right, the vessel was not turning sharply enough and at 12:04 a.m. on [[March 24]], the vessel hit [[Bligh Reef]]. It is not known whether Cousins gave the orders too late or the helmsman did not follow instructions properly.
About 30 million US [[gallon]]s of [[crude oil]] were spilled, affecting 1,900 km of [[coast]]line. (The initial estimate of the amount of oil spilled was 10.8 million gallons. At the time this figure was calculated, it was not known that most of the fluid pumped from the ruptured tanker was seawater that had displaced the cargo of oil. Later estmates provide a conservative value of 30 million gallons. Regardless, the media has continued to report the incorrect figure.[http://www.soundtruth.info/sidebar1.htm])
==Cleanup measures==
A trial burn was conducted during the early stages of the spill, in a region of the spill isolated from the rest by a fire-resistant boom. The test was relatively successful, but because of unfavorable weather no additional burning was attempted in this cleanup effort. Mechanical cleanup was started shortly afterward using booms and skimmers, but the skimmers were not readily available during the first 24 hours following the spill and thick oil and [[kelp]] tended to clog the equipment. Transferring oil from temporary storage vessels into more permanent containers was also difficult because of the oil's weight and thickness. In addition, a trial application of dispersants was performed. The use of dispersants proved to be controversial. Less than 4,000 US gallons (15,000 L) of dispersant were available in Valdez, Alaska, and no application equipment or aircraft. A private company applied dispersants on March 24 with a helicopter and dispersant bucket. Because there was not enough wave action to mix the dispersant with the oil in the water, their use was discontinued.
==Aftermath==
[[Image:OilPoolFromValdezSpill.jpeg|thumb|250px|right|Beginning 3 days after the vessel grounded, a storm pushed large quantities of fresh oil onto the rocky shores of many of the beaches in the Knight Island chain. In this photograph, pooled oil is shown stranded in the rocks.]]
In the aftermath of the Exxon Valdez incident [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passed the [[Oil Pollution Act of 1990]], including a clause banning the ''Exxon Valdez'' from Alaskan waters. Exxon spent some 2 billion dollars cleaning up the spill, and a further 1 billion to settle civil and criminal charges related to the case. (Exxon recovered a significant portion of these monies via insurance claims and tax writeoffs.) An award of $287 million for actual damage and $5 billion for [[punitive damage]]s was awarded by an [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] jury in [[1994]]. Exxon appealed against the ruling and the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit|9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals]] ordered the original judge [[Russel Holland]] to reduce the amount. On [[December 6]], [[2002]] the judge announced that he had reduced the damages to $4 billion, which he concluded was justified by the facts of the case and not grossly excessive. Exxon's company position is that no punitive damages are justified because the spill was an accident. However in court it was argued that allowing a "known drunk" to captain the ship was reprehen |
validity of the psychometric tests used, the presentation of the results and the selection of the test subjects. It comments that the booklet "use[s] unrecognized tests in an unorthodox way, the results being presented in a doubtful fashion." <ref>Fabun, Don. "An Analysis of the Dianetics Foundation Report", ''Rhodomagnetic Digest'', June/July 1951</ref>
The authors of the survey do not provide any details of their own qualifications, although they are described in ''Science of Survival'' as psychotherapists. They are clearly strong supporters of Dianetics, raising the question of possible bias (it certainly cannot be described as an ''independent'' report). Notably, they appear to ascribe all physical benefits to Dianetics without any consideration of whether other factors might have played a part; the report lacks any [[scientific control]]s, a key element of the [[scientific method]].
Several other evaluations of the scientific claims of Dianetics have been written by scientists and academics from various fields. Hubbard's book on Dianetics attracted some highly critical reviews from science and medical writers and organisations. <ref>Many of these are reproduced at http://www.xenu.net/archive/fifties/ </ref> The American Psychological Association passed a resolution calling "attention to the fact that these claims are not supported by empirical evidence of the sort required for the establishment of scientific generalizations." <ref>[http://www.xenu.net/archive/fifties/e500909.htm "Psychologists Act Against Dianetics"], ''New York Times'', [[September 9]] [[1950]]</ref>
J.A. Winter, M.D., originally an associate of Hubbard and an early adopter of Dianetics, wrote an account of his personal positive experiences with Dianetics but offered no scientific substantiation, criticizing the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation for failing to undertake "precise scientific research into the functioning of the mind". <ref>Winter, ''Dianetics: A Doctor's Report'', p. 40</ref> Also writing at the time, Don Fabun commented that "there do not seem to be any acceptable facts and figures to show the results of Dianetic processing. Like the famous "clears" -- who strangely enough are never available for public appearance nor for orthodox psychometric tests -- the facts behind Dianetics appear to remain in the realm of pure faith." <ref>Fabun, "An Analysis of the Dianetics Foundation Report"</ref>
==Dianetics and pseudoscience==
Dianetics is regarded by mainstream science as a [[pseudoscience]] and has achieved no general acceptance as a ''bona fide'' [[scientific theory]], despite Hubbard's claims of scientific veracity. <ref>See e.g. [http://www.pubmed.gov PubMed] - other than a few reviews of Dianetics from 1950/51, Dianetics has barely been mentioned in medical journals.</ref> For a theory to qualify as scientific it must be:
:* '''Consistent''' (internally and externally)
:* '''Parsimonious''' (sparing in proposed entities or explanations, see [[Occam's Razor]])
:* '''Useful''' (describes and explains observed phenomena)
:* '''Empirically testable & falsifiable''' (see [[Falsifiability]])
:* '''Based upon multiple observations,''' often in the form of controlled, repeated experiments
:* '''Correctable & dynamic''' (changes are made as new data are discovered)
:* '''Progressive''' (achieves all that previous theories have and more)
:* '''Provisional''' or tentative (admits that it might not be correct rather than asserting certainty)
For any theory, hypothesis or conjecture to be considered scientific, it must meet most, but ideally all, of the above criteria. The fewer which are matched, the less scientific it is; and if it meets only a couple or none at all, then it cannot be treated as scientific in any meaningful sense of the word. <ref>Bunce, M. (1984). "What is pseudoscience?" ''Skeptical Inquirer'', 9, 36-46</ref> Typical objections to defining Dianetics as science are that it lacks consistency, violates the principle of parsimony, is not falsifiable, is not empirically testable in many of its aspects, is not based upon multiple observations and is not correctable, dynamic, tentative or progressive.
Many scientific voices, from 1950 through to the present day, have criticized Dianetics as a classic [[pseudoscience]]<ref>See e.g. Gardner, ''Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science''; Bauer, ''Scientific Literacy and the Myth of the Scientific Method'' and ''Science Or Pseudoscience: Magnetic Healing, Psychic Phenomena, and Other Heterodoxies''; Corsini ''et al'', ''The Dictionary of Psychology''.</ref> Philosophy professor [[Robert Carroll]] points to a lack of scientific rigor and evidence:
:What Hubbard touts as a science of mind lacks one key element that is expected of a science: empirical testing of claims. The key elements of Hubbard's so-called science don't seem testable, yet he repeatedly claims that he is asserting only scientific facts and data from many experiments. It isn't even clear what such "data" would look like. Most of his data is in the form of anecdotes and speculations ... Such speculation is appropriate in fiction, but not in science. <ref>Carroll, Robert T. [http://skepdic.com/dianetic.html "Dianetics"], ''Skeptics Dictionary''</ref>
[[W. Sumner Davis]] similarly comments that
:Dianetics is nothing more than an example of pseudoscience trying to legitimize itself... Hubbard, had he indeed been a scientist, would have known that truth is not built on axioms, and facts cannot be found from some a-priori knowledge. A true science is constructed on hypotheses, which are arrived at by the virtue of observed phenomena. Scientific knowledge is gained by observation and testing, not believing from some subconscious stipulation, as Hubbard would have us believe. <ref>Davis, W. Sumner. ''Just Smoke and Mirrors: Religion, Fear and Superstition in Our Modern World'', Writers Club Press, 2001 (ISBN 0595265235)</ref>
Modern [[cognitive science]] does not support Hubbard's concepts of engrams, mental image pictures and reactive minds. Unlike mainstream science, Dianetics does not appear to be correctable and dynamic. The book ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'' has not been updated since Hubbard wrote it in 1950 (although Hubbard did develop Dianetics further in later years). Moreover, the Church of Scientology has prohibited making changes to Hubbard's works even in the light of new data. In a [[1982]] directive, the Church of Scientology instructed that "LRH ISSUES [''i.e. publications''] ARE TO BE LEFT INTACT AS ISSUED" and "no one except LRH" was to change or cancel his publications. <ref>"The Integrity of Source", Scientology Policy Directive 19 of [[July 7]] [[1982]]; cited in "The Ultimate Spin Doctor: L. Ron Hubbard - The Man and His Myth", ''Watchman Expositor'' Vol. 13, No. 5, 1996</ref> Hubbard died in [[1986]], making changes to his works unlikely unless there is a change of Church policy. The mere disproving of his ideas is ''not'' regarded as valid grounds for making a change; the same directive states that "the only occasion for any revision of an LRH issue is if a typographical error was found in the original." In this regard, Dianetics is perhaps closer in character to a belief system than a genuine science or even a pseudoscience.
Dianetics also does not appear to meet the criteria for scientific evidence used by most [[United States]] courts, the [[Daubert Standard]]. The Daubert Standard governs which evidence can be considered scientific in federal courts and most state courts. The four Daubert criteria are:
* The theoretical underpinnings of the methods must yield testable predictions by means of which the theory could be falsified.
* The methods should preferably be published in a peer-reviewed journal.
* There should be a known rate of [[error]] that can be used in evaluating the results.
* The methods should be generally accepted within the relevant scientific community.
Hubbard's engram concept may meet the first of the criteria but other ideas in Dianetics (such as the causal link between "aberrations" and physical ailments) are possibly untestable. Dianetics does not meet the other criteria; its methods have never been published in a peer-reviewed journal, its rate of error is unknown (though Hubbard claimed that it was an "invariable cure") and its methods are not accepted within the mental health community. Other than some rebuffed submissions in 1950 and the two studies citied above, there is no indication that proponents of Dianetics have sought to engage with the scientific community to assess the validity of the concept.
==History==
===Origins===
Hubbard traced the origin of Dianetics to unpublished research that he claimed to have undertaken in the 1920s and 1930s, which culminated in the writing of a manuscript entitled ''Excalibur'' on the study of the mind. The manuscript was said to have been written in 1938 but was never published. However, Hubbard stated that most of what made up ''Excalibur'' had been released in his various published writings from the 1950s onwards. <ref>Hubbard, "The Anatomy Of Thought". Hubbard Communication Office Policy Letter [[26 April]] [[1970]]R, revised [[15 March]] [[1975]].</ref>
Following the [[World War II|Second World War]], in which Hubbard served in the [[United States Navy]], he was admitted to the Oak Knoll Naval Hospital in [[San Diego]]. The Church of Scientology (and Hubbard himself) claims that this was due to his having been left "partially blind with injured optic nerves and lame from hip and back injuries". <ref>[http://www.lronhubbar |
her him. This insistence on being a virgin hallmarked each relationship Presley had with any woman he thought of as a potential wife or someone he was willing to live with.
A totally different account of Priscilla's relationship with Elvis can be found in [[Suzanne Finstad]]'s book, ''Child Bride: The Untold Story of Priscilla Beaulieu Presley''. The author says that Priscilla had lied, that she and Elvis slept together on their second date and that she wasn't a virgin on her wedding night. The book also claims that her marriage was part of a master plan for fame hatched by Priscilla and her mother and that she never loved Elvis.
While demanding purity and loyalty from them, Presley's ex-wife and several girfriends confirmed he had numerous affairs with other women he had no plans of staying with. In his book ''Elvis: Unknown Stories Behind the Legend'' author Jim Curtin wrote (p.119) about the many women in Presley's life, saying "his list of one-night stands would fill volumes." However, a recent [[Playboy]] article by Byron Raphael and [[Alanna Nash]] claims that "the so-called dangerous rock-and-roll idol was anything but a despotic ruler in the bedroom" and "really wasn’t all that keen on doing the wild thing. He was far more interested in heavy petting and panting and groaning" and "he would never put himself inside one of these girls ... within minutes he’d be asleep." Priscilla Presley relates that Elvis told her that he didn't make love to Anita Wood the whole four years he went with her. "Just to a point," he said. "Then I stopped. It was difficult for her too, but that's just how I feel." In her book on Priscilla's life, ''Child Bride'', Suzanne Finstad claims that Elvis wasn't overtly sexually active.
Priscilla Beaulieu wrote that his philandering made her "crazed with worry," particularly his highly-publicized relationship with [[Ann-Margret]], which he tried to hide from her. Shortly after he and Priscilla were married and she got pregnant, Elvis became involved with [[Nancy Sinatra]]. When questioned by his wife, Elvis denied any affair but then out of the blue, Nancy Sinatra, who barely knew Priscilla, called her and offered to organize her baby shower. Shortly after this, Elvis left his expecting wife in a state of shock by asking for a trial separation. Hereafter, on the 1st February of 1968, Priscilla gave birth to Elvis' daughter [[Lisa Marie Presley]], in Memphis, Tennessee.
===Later years===
[[Image:ElvisPresleyLindaThompson.jpg|thumb|150px|Elvis & [[Linda Thompson]]]]
Following his separation from Priscilla in late February, 1972 the thirty-seven-year-old Elvis Presley immediately became involved with a twenty-one year old beauty queen, [[Linda Thompson]]. Before long, she moved into [[Graceland]] and lived with him for nearly four and a half years, so she claims, but others close to the family said she did not. Presley dated a host of others besides Linda, notably with his backup singer [[Kathy Westmoreland]] and actress [[Cybill Shepherd]] who, along with Linda Thompson, was part of a candid 2002 television interview on [[CNN|CNN's]] ''[[Larry King Live]]'' marking the 25th anniversary of Presley's death. Cybill Shepherd spoke about her relationship with Presley while he was performing in Las Vegas, saying "years later, I would read and find out that he had like two other women there at the same time." As one of the two women Shepherd was referring to, Linda Thompson told Larry King she knew Presley had been cheating on her but stayed with him anyway until he ended it in late 1976 when the forty-one-year-old Presley began a relationship with 21 year-old [[Ginger Alden]].
[[Image:GingerAlden.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Ginger Alden]]]] Ginger Alden, unlike his previous girlfriend, Linda Thompson and former ex- wife Priscilla, did not move in with Elvis when he asked her and he told Ginger that he respected her for not doing so and had great respect for her and her family. Elvis proposed to Ginger Alden by giving her an 11 1/2 carat diamond engagement ring made from his favorite TCB ring on January 26, 1977 (they had plans for a Christmas wedding in 1977). Vernon Presley, Elvis's father stated in an interview that his son Elvis told him that he had "finally" found the love that he had been searching for all his life and that he wanted more children, a son, and wanted Ginger to be the mother of his future children. Vernon also stated that Elvis told him that Graceland had come "alive" again after meeting Ginger Alden, and that he could see Elvis as that little boy from Tupelo again. However, Elvis died before he could fulfill that lifelong dream with Ginger. During the early afternoon of August 16, 1977, Ginger Alden, Elvis's fiancee, woke up in Presley's bed and found his lifeless body in the bathroom suite.
==Abuse of drugs==
In her 1985 book, ''[[Elvis and Me]]'', his wife Priscilla wrote that Elvis suffered from severe [[insomnia]] and by 1962 when she moved to Graceland he was taking [[placidyl]]s to get to sleep and began to do so in ever increasing doses. It is thought by some that he started his drug habits by taking drugs given to soldiers to keep them awake since they were on late shifts. But, according to author [[Albert Goldman]] in his 1990 book ''Elvis: The Last 24 Hours'', the pills were first given to him by Memphis disc jockey [[Dewey Phillips]]. Priscilla recounted how he would wake up at his normal time around 4:00 in the afternoon but would be groggy and irritable for a few hours from the heavy dose of pills. He started taking [[Dexedrine]] to wake up. She stated that over time, she saw "problems in Elvis's life, all magnified by taking prescribed drugs."
Priscilla wrote the two of them tried marijuana but didn't like it because it made them ravenously hungry, with extra weight the unwanted result. Although she said Elvis abhorred [[street drugs]], she tells in her book how they tried [[LSD]]. While they both thought it had been an "extraordinary experience" they were afraid of it and experimented that one time only. During the time when he was searching for peace in his life and consulting an [[India]]n [[guru]] as [[The Beatles]] and others were doing at the time, Presley read numerous books including [[Aldous Huxley|Aldous Huxley's]] "''Doors of Perception''" and [[Timothy Leary|Timothy Leary's]] "''Psychedelic Experience''". In his Elvis biography, [[Peter Guralnick]] discussed the singer's rampant prescription drug abuse. Cliff Gleaves, one of Elvis' friends and a reliable eyewitness, said about the singer's abuse of drugs, in this case speed:
:"Elvis didn't care if anyone else took them or not. He was getting off on them. He loved to sit there high and wiggle in the chair, ... just sit there and watch TV. He didn't give a damn whether you did anything. He was going to do what he wanted anyway." (Guralnick, p.240)
Though Elvis abused prescription drugs, Priscilla wrote that he never considered it wrong because it was a [[medical doctor]] prescribing them and he in fact publicly denounced the use of hard drugs. At a meeting with U.S. President [[Richard Nixon]], Presley asked the President to appoint him "Federal Agent at Large" for the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs.
Although his personal physician, Dr. [[George C. Nichopoulos]], was exonerated in Presley's death, in July 1995 he had his license suspended after the Tennessee Board of Medical Examiners found that he had improperly dispensed potentially addictive drugs to a number of his patients.
Priscilla Presley pointed out in her book that even if Elvis would have admitted he needed help, in those days there was no [[Betty Ford Clinic]] where someone like him could get treatment. The singer's abuse of prescription drugs increased during the last years of his life, particularly after the breakup of his marriage in 1972.
==Death and burial==
On [[August 16]], [[1977]], at his [[Graceland]] mansion in [[Memphis, Tennessee]], Presley was found lying on the floor of his bedroom's ensuite bathroom by his fiancee, [[Ginger Alden]], who had been asleep in his bed. He was transported to Baptist Memorial Hospital, where doctors pronounced him dead at 3:30 p.m. He was only 42 years old.
In her 1987 book "Elvis and Kathy," friend and backup vocalist [[Kathy Westmoreland]] wrote "Everyone knew he was sick, that each public appearance brought him to the point of exhaustion."
[[Image:Elvisfuneralprocession.jpg|thumb|230px|Elvis Presley funeral procession]]
At a press conference following his death, one of the medical examiners declared that he had died of a heart attack. Heart disease was very prevalent in his family. His mother, Gladys Presley, died of a heart attack brought on by acute hepatitis at age 46. Elvis' father, Vernon Presley, died of heart failure in [[1979]].
Dr. Willis Madrey, who had examined Elvis's liver in 1975, said, "I had understood he was having some gastrointestinal problems his doctors were trying to evaluate." Most likely, he was referring to Elvis' enlarged colon, which worsened over time and may have led to [[diverticulitis]]. It is believed that possibly his gastrointestinal problems, combined with a weak heart, caused his death; however, since the autopsy records will not be in the public domain until 2027, we will not know with certainty yet. It is a lasting theory, though never confirmed, that he [[Toilet-related injury|died on the toilet, defecating]].
According to [[Peter Guralnick]]'s book, ''Careless Love: The Unmaking of Elvis Presley'' (1999), "drug use was heavily implicated in this unanticipated death of a middle-aged man with no known history of heart disease ... It was certainly possible that he had been taken while 'straining at stool,' and no one ruled out the possibi |
ot;director of the foundation") for colonies.
*'''Musagetes''' ("leader of the [[muses]]").
*'''Pythios''' ("Pythian") at [[Delphi]]
*'''Apotropaeus''' ("he who averts evil")
*'''Nymphegetes''' ("[[nymph]]-leader")
*'''Lyceios''' and '''Lykegenes''' ("wolfish" or "of [[Lycia]]," where some postulate his cult originated)
*'''Nomios''' ("wandering"), as the pastoral shepherd-god
*'''Klarios''' from Doric ''klaros'' "allotment of land", for his supervision over cities and colonies.
*'''Kynthios''' is another epithet, stemming from his birth on Mt. [[Cynthus]]
*'''Loxias''' ("the obscure"), as Apollo a god of prophecy specifically.
*'''Argurotoxos''', ("with the silver bow") for archery.
*'''Aphetoros''', ("god of the bow") for archery.
*'''Alexikakos''', ("restrainer of evil"), as Apollo the healer.
*'''Akesios''' or '''Iatros''', "healer"
== Birth ==
When [[Hera]] discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Hera's husband, Zeus, was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on "terra-firma", or the mainland, or any island at sea. In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of [[Delos]], which was neither mainland nor a real island, and gave birth there. The island was surrounded by swans. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo. Alternatively, Hera kidnapped [[Ilithyia]], the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace, nine yards long, of amber. Either way, Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo. Another version states that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of [[Ortygia]] and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the 7th day (&eta;&#788;&beta;&delta;&omicron;&mu;&alpha;&gamma;&epsilon;&nu;&eta;&sigmaf;) of the month Thargelion according to Delian tradition or of the month Bysios according to Delphian tradition. The 7th and 20th, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him.
== Youth ==
In his youth, Apollo killed the vicious dragon [[Python (mythology)|Python]], which lived in [[Delphi]] beside the [[Castalian Spring]], according to some because Python had attempted to rape Leto while she was pregnant with Apollo and Artemis.This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the [[Oracle]] at Delphi to give her prophesies. Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]].
== Apollo and Admetus ==
When Zeus struck down Apollo's son, [[Asclepius]], with a lightning bolt for resurrecting the dead (and thus stealing [[Hades]]'s subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the [[Cyclops]], who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus. Apollo would have been banished to [[Tartarus]] forever, but was instead sentenced to one year of hard labour as punishment, thanks to the intercession of his mother, [[Leto]]. During this time he served as shepherd for [[Admetus|King Admetus]] of [[Pherae]] in [[Thessaly]]. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus.
Apollo helped Admetus win [[Alcestis]], the daughtor of [[Pelias|King Pelias]] and later convinced the [[Moirae|Fates]] to let Admetus live past his time if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his elderly parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but [[Heracles]] managed to "persuade" [[Thanatos]], the god of death, to return her to the world of the living.
== Apollo during the [[Trojan War]] ==
Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the [[Trojan War]] in rage because the Greeks had kidnapped Chryseis, the daughter of Apollo's priest. He demanded her return, and the Greeks eventually complied.
When [[Diomedes]] injured [[Aeneas]] during the [[Trojan War]], Apollo rescued him. First, [[Aphrodite]] tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]], who took him to [[Pergamos (troy)|Pergamos]], a sacred spot in [[Troy]]. [[Artemis]] healed Aeneas there.
Apollo had aided Paris in the killing of [[Achilles]], if Paris did not accomplish the task himself.
== Niobe ==
A Queen of [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] and wife of [[Amphion]], [[Niobe]] boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children ([[Niobids]]), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics, with the last begging for his life, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared ([[Chloris]], usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge. A devastated Niobe fled to [[Mt. Siplyon]] in [[Asia Minor]] and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river [[Achelous]]. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them.
== Apollo's romantic life and children ==
===Female lovers===
Apollo chased the nymph [[Daphne]], daughter of [[Peneus]], who had scorned him. His infatuation was caused by an arrow from [[Eros (god)|Eros]], who was jealous because Apollo had made fun of his archery skills. Eros also claimed to be irritated by Apollo's singing. Simultaneously, however, Eros had shot a hate arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prayed to Mother earth (alternatively, her father- a river god) to help her and he changed her into a Laurel tree, which became sacred to Apollo.
Apollo had an affair with a mortal princess named [[Leucothea]], daughter of [[Orchamus]] and sister of [[Clytia]]. Leucothea loved Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day.
[[Marpessa]] was kidnapped by [[Idas]] but was loved by Apollo as well. [[Zeus]] made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old.
[[Castalia]] was a [[nymph]] whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dived into the spring at Delphi, at the base of [[Mt. Parnassos]], which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire poets.
By [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]], Apollo had a son named [[Aristaeus]], who became the patron god of cattle, [[fruit trees]], hunting, husbandry and [[bee-keeping]]. He was also a [[culture-hero]] and taught humanity dairy skills and the use of nets and traps in hunting, as well as how to cultivate olives.
With [[Hecuba]], wife of King [[Priam]] of [[Troy]], Apollo had a son named [[Troilius]]. An [[oracle]] prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilius reached the age of twenty alive. He and his sister, [[Polyxena]] were ambushed and killed by [[Achilles]].
Apollo also fell in love with [[Cassandra]], daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilius' half-sister. He promised Cassandra the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards. Enraged, Apollo indeed gifted her with the ability to know the future, with a curse that no one would ever believe her.
[[Coronis]], daughter of [[Phlegyas]], King of the [[Lapiths]], was another of Apollo's liaisons. Pregnant with [[Asclepius]], Coronis fell in love with [[Ischys]], son of [[Elatus]]. A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for speading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis. As a result he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the [[centaur]] [[Chiron]] to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did.
===Male lovers===
[[Image:Hyacinthus.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Apollo and Hyacinthus'''<br>Jacopo Caraglio; 16th c. Italian engraving]]
Apollo, the eternal beardless [[kouros]] himself, had the most male lovers of all the [[Greek gods]]. That was to be expected from a god who was god of the [[palaestra]], the athletic gathering place for youth who all competed [[Nudity in sport|in the nude]], a god said to represent the ideal educator and therefore the ideal [[erastes]], or lover of a boy (Sergent, p.102). All his lovers were younger than him, in the style of the [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|Greek pederastic relationships]] of the time. Many of Apollo's young beloveds died "accidentally", a reflection on the function of these myths as part of [[rite of passage|rites of passage]], in which the youth died in order to be reborn as an adult.
[[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinth]] was one of his male lovers. Hyacinthus was a [[Sparta|Spartan]] prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair were practicing throwing the [[discus]] when Hyacinthus was struck in the head by a discus bl |
amp;mdash; his only public appearance as a singer ([[1805]]). He was also a capable horn player in the footsteps of his father.
In [[1807]] the young Rossini was admitted to the counterpoint class of Padre P. S. Mattei, and soon after to that of Cavedagni for the cello at the [[Conservatorio]] of Bologna. He learned to play the cello with ease, but the pedantic severity of Mattei's views on counterpoint only served to drive the young composer's views toward a freer school of composition. His insight into orchestral resources is generally ascribed not to the strict compositional rules he learned from Mattei, but to knowledge gained independently while scoring the quartets and symphonies of [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]] and [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]. At Bologna he was known as "il Tedeschino" on account of his devotion to Mozart.
Through the friendly interposition of the Marquis Cavalli, his first opera, ''La Cambiale di Matrimonio'', was produced at Venice when he was a youth of eighteen. But two years before this he had already received the prize at the Conservatorio of Bologna for his cantata ''Il pianto d'Armonia sulla morte d’Orfeo''. Between [[1810]] and [[1813]], at Bologna, [[Rome]], [[Venice]] and [[Milan]], Rossini produced operas of varying success. All memory of these works is eclipsed by the enormous success of his opera [[Tancredi]].
The [[libretto]] was an arrangement of [[Voltaire]]’s tragedy by A. Rossi. Traces of Paër and [[Giovanni Paisiello|Paisiello]] were undeniably present in fragments of the music. But any critical feeling on the part of the public was drowned by appreciation of such melodies as "Mi rivedrai, ti rivèdrô" and "Di tanti palpiti," the former of which became so popular that the Italians would sing it in crowds at the law courts until called upon by the judge to desist.
Rossini continued to write operas for [[Venice]] and [[Milan]] during the next few years, but their reception was tame and in some cases unsatisfactory after the success of ''Tancredi.'' In [[1815]] he retired to his home at Bologna, where Barbaja, the impresario of the [[Naples]] theatre, concluded an agreement with him by which he was to take the musical direction of the [[Teatro San Carlo]] and the [[Teatro Del Fondo]] at Naples, composing for each of them one opera a year. His payment was to be 200 ducats per month; he was also to receive a share of Barbaja's other business, popular gaming-tables, amounting to about 1000 ducats per annum.
Some older composers in Naples, notably [[Nicolo Antonio Zingarelli|Zingarelli]] and [[Giovanni Paisiello|Paisiello]], were inclined to intrigue against the success of the youthful composer; but all hostility was made futile by the enthusiasm which greeted the court performance of his ''[[Elisabetta regina d'Inghilterra]]'', in which Isabella Colbran, who subsequently became the composer’s wife, took a leading part. The libretto of this opera by Schmidt was in many of its incidents an anticipation of those presented to the world a few years later in Sir [[Walter Scott]]’s ''[[Kenilworth (novel)|Kenilworth]]''. The opera was the first in which Rossini wrote the ornaments of the airs instead of leaving them to the fancy of the singers, and also the first in which the recitativo secco was replaced by a recitative accompanied by a string quartet.
In ''[[Il barbiere di Siviglia]]'', produced in the beginning of the next year in Rome, the libretto, a version of Beaumarchais' ''Barbier de Seville'' by Sterbini, was the same as that already used by [[Giovanni Paisiello]] in his own ''Barbiere'', an opera which had enjoyed European popularity for more than a quarter of a century. Paisiello’s admirers were extremely indignant when the opera was produced, but the opera was so successful that the fame of Paisiello's opera was transferred to his, to which the title of ''Il barbiere di Siviglia'' passed as an inalienable heritage.
Between [[1815]] and [[1823]] Rossini produced twenty operas. Of these ''[[Otello (Rossini)|Otello]]'' formed the climax to his reform of serious opera, and offers a suggestive contrast with the treatment of the same subject at a similar point of artistic development by the composer [[Giuseppe Verdi]]. In Rossini’s time the tragic close was so distasteful to the public of Rome that it was necessary to invent a happy conclusion to ''Otello''.
[[Image:Gioacchino A Rossini.jpg|right|thumb|Gioacchino A. Rossini]]
Conditions of stage production in [[1817]] are illustrated by Rossini’s acceptance of the subject of [[Cinderella]] for a [[libretto]] only on the condition that the supernatural element should be omitted. The opera ''[[La Cenerentola]]'' was as successful as Barbiere. The absence of a similar precaution in the construction of his ''[[Mosè in Egitto]]'' led to disaster in the scene depicting the passage of the Israelites through the [[Red Sea]], when the defects in stage contrivance always raised a laugh, so that the composer was at length compelled to introduce the chorus "Dal tuo stellato Soglio" to divert attention from the dividing waves.
In [[1822]], four years after the production of this work, Rossini married singer [[Isabella Colbran]]. In the same year, he directed his ''Cenerentola'' in [[Vienna]], where ''[[Zelmira]]'' was also performed. After this he returned to Bologna; but an invitation from [[Prince Metternich]] to come to [[Verona, Italy|Verona]] and "assist in the general re-establishment of harmony" was too tempting to be refused, and he arrived at the Congress in time for its opening on [[October 20]], [[1822]]. Here he made friends with [[Chateaubriand]] and [[Madame de Lieven]].
In 1823, at the suggestion of the manager of the King’s Theatre, [[London]], he came to [[England]], being much fêted on his way through [[Paris]]. In England he was given a generous welcome, which included an introduction to King [[George IV of the United Kingdom|George IV]] and the receipt of £7000 after a residence of five months. In [[1824]] he became musical director of the Théatre Italien in Paris at a salary of £800 per annum, and when the agreement came to an end he was rewarded with the offices of chief composer to the king and inspector-general of singing in France, to which was attached the same income.
The production of his [[Guillaume Tell]] in [[1829]] brought his career as a writer of opera to a close. The libretto was by [[Victor Joseph Etienne de Jouy|Etienne Jouy]] and [[Hippolyte Bis]], but their version was revised by [[Armand Marrast]]. The music is remarkable for its freedom from the conventions discovered and utilized by Rossini in his earlier works, and marks a transitional stage in the history of opera.
In [[1829]] he returned to [[Bologna]]. His mother had died in [[1827]], and he was anxious to be with his father. Arrangements for his subsequent return to Paris on a new agreement were upset by the abdication of [[Charles X of France|Charles X]] and the July Revolution of 1830. Rossini, who had been considering the subject of [[Faust]] for a new opera, returned, however, to Paris in the November of that year.
Six movements of his ''[[Stabat Mater]]'' were written in [[1832]] and the rest in [[1839]], the year of his father's death. The success of the work bears comparison with his achievements in opera; but his comparative silence during the period from 1832 to his death in [[1868]] makes his biography appear almost like the narrative of two lives &mdash; the life of swift triumph, and the long life of seclusion, of which biographers give us pictures in stories of the composer's cynical wit, his speculations in fish culture, his mask of humility and indifference.
His first wife died in [[1845]], and political disturbances in the Romagna area compelled him to leave Bologna in 1847, the year of his second marriage with [[Olympe Pelissier]], who had sat for [[Horace Vernet|Vernet]] for his picture of "Judith and Holofernes." After living for a time in [[Florence]] he settled in [[Paris]] in [[1855]], where his house was a centre of artistic society. He died at his country house at [[Passy]] on [[November 13]], [[1868]] and was buried in [[Père Lachaise]] Cemetery, Paris, France. In 1887 his remains were moved to the church of [[Santa Croce]] in [[Florence]], where they now rest.
He was a foreign associate of the Institute, grand officer of the [[Légion d’honneur|Legion of Honour]], and the recipient of innumerable orders.
In his compositions Rossini plagiarized even more freely from himself than from other musicians, and few of his operas are without such admixtures frankly introduced in the form of arias or overtures.
A characteristic mannerism in his musical writing earned for him the nickname of "Monsieur Crescendo."
Rossini is also well known for some personal qualities, which gave origin to several anecdotes. For example, he was supposed to have composed his best known opera, "Barbiere", in a very short time, because as usual he was late in respecting the delivery date. Some say he did it in seven days; others, like [[Lodovico Settimo Silvestri]], suggest in fourteen. Whatever the precise length, it was in any case very little time for such masterpieces. He worked in his bedroom, wearing his dressing-gown. A friend pointed out that it was undoubtedly funny that he had composed the "Barber" without shaving himself for such a long time. Rossini promptly replied that if he had to get shaved, he would have had to get out of his house, and he therefore would never had completed his opera.
Another story of Rossini composing in the comfort of his bed: One day an impresario went visiting him and found him writing music in his bed. Rossini, without even looking at him, begged him to collect a sheet that had fallen from the bed to the floor. When the impresario picked it, Rossini gav |
[[Southern India]] and [[Sri Lanka]]
*[[Drung]]
*[[Du]]
*[[Duala peoples]] - collection of related ethnic groups from the coast of [[Cameroon]]
*[[Dutch people|Dutch]] - [[Germanic people]] of northern [[Europe]]
==E==
*[[East Indies|East Indian]] - inhabitants of the [[East Indies]] ([[South Asia]] and [[South-East Asia]])
*[[E De]]
*[[Demographics of Egypt#People|Egyptians]] - native people of eastern North Africa.
*[[English (people)|English]] - a [[British]] people with ancestry from [[England]], native to the [[United Kingdom]]
*[[Enxet]]
*[[Eritrea]]n - formerly of [[Ethiopia]], on the [[Red Sea]]
*[[Eshira]]
*[[Eskimo]] - see [[Inuit]]
*[[Esselen]]
*[[Estonians]] - [[Finnic]] people in [[Estonia]], [[northeastern Europe]]
*[[Evenks]]
*[[Eurasain]]-A person of mixed European and Asian descent
==F==
*[[Faroese]] - [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] group of the [[Faroe Islands]] between [[Iceland]] and [[Scotland]].
*[[Fars]] - native name for [[Persians]]
*[[Fiji]]an - [[Polynesia]]n group, central South [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Philippines|Filipino]] (or in referring to females, 'Filipina')
*[[Ethnic Finns|Finns]] - Ethnic group in [[Finland]] and [[Scandinavia]]
*[[Flemings|Flemish]] - [[Belgium]] and the [[Netherlands]]
*[[Fon people|Fon]] - Togo, Benin
*[[Fur (people)|Fur]] - western [[Sudan]] ([[Darfur]])
*[[Franks]]
*[[French people|French]] (more than disputed; [[Ernest Renan]]'s definition of a [[nation-state|nation]] on subjective criterias is opposed to [[Fichte]]'s definition of the [[German people]] as a ''[[Volk]]'' - an "ethnic group").
*[[French American]]
*[[French Canadian]] - of French Canadian culture, historically self-identified as ''Canadiens'', then later as ''Canadiens-français'' and those today living in the province of Quebec as ''Québécois''. See also [[Québécois]], [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] and [[Acadians]].
*[[Frisian]] - Germanic group on a few islands in the [[North Sea]]
*[[Fula]] or Fulfulde
*[[Fulani]]
*[[Fulbe]]
*[[Fulni-o]]
==G==
*[[Ga people|Ga]] - people of southern Ghana
*[[Gagauz]]
*[[Galician]] - people of northwestern Spain
*[[Gaoshan]] - aboriginal people of [[Taiwan]]
*[[Garifuna]]
*[[Ge (people)|Ge]] - northern [[South America]], [[Caribbean]] coast
*[[Gelao]]
*[[Georgian people|Georgian]] - [[Caucasus]] region, of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
*[[ethnic German|Germans]] - [[Germanic peoples]], relating to [[German culture]] and [[German language]]
*[[Gia Rai]]
*[[Giay]]
*[[Gie Trieng]]
*[[Gongduk]]
*[[Gorani]] - [[Slavic people]] in [[Serbia]]
*[[Goshute]]
*[[Goulaye]]
*[[Greeks]], [[ethnic Greek]]s - [[southeastern Europe]]
*[[Greenland]]er - inhabitants of the island in the northern Atlantic
*[[Grenada|Grenadian]]
*[[Grenadines|Grenadinian]]
*[[Griqua]] - [[South Africa]]
*[[Gros Ventre]]
*[[Gruzim]] - [[Georgian language|Georgian]]-speaking [[Jews]] from [[Georgia (country|Georgia]] in the [[Caucasus]].
*[[Guadeloupe|Guadeloupean]]
*[[Guajajara]]
*[[Guarani]]
*[[Gurage]] - [[Ethiopia]]
*[[ethnic Guruks|Guruks]]
*[[Gurung]]
==H==
*[[H'Re]]
*[[Ha-Nhi]]
*[[Haida]] - [[Pacific Northwest]] [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]
*[[Haitian]]
*[[Haitian Creole]]
*[[Hakka]]
*[[Haliwa-Sapponi]]
*[[Hamshenis]] - A [[Muslim]] [[Armenians|Armenian]] people living in [[Turkey]]
*[[Han Chinese]] - dominant ethnic group of [[China]]
*[[Hani]]
*[[Hausa people|Hausa]] West-Africa
*[[Havasupai]]
*[[Haw]]
*[[Native Hawaiians|Hawaii]]an - [[Polynesia]]n indigenous people of the island chain in the [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Hazara]] - inhabitants of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]], who have mixed [[Mongoloid]], [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]], [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]]/[[Persians|Persian]] and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] descent
*[[Herzegovina|Hercegovinian]] - arguably regional group of Croats and Serbs in [[Herzegovina]]
*[[Herero]]
*[[Hesquiat]]
*[[Hezhen]]
*[[Hidatsa]]
*[[Himba]]
*[[Hispanic]] - [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-speaking people, inhabiting [[Spain]] and the [[Americas]]
*[[Hmong]] - Southeast [[Asia]]
*[[Ho-Chunk]]
*[[Hoa]]
*[[Houma]]
*[[Hoh]]
*[[Hohokam]]
*[[Hoklo]]
*[[Holikachuk]]
*[[Hopi]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]], of the southwest [[United States]]
*[[Hui Chinese]]
*[[Magyars|Hungarians]] - people in [[Hungary]], [[central Europe]]
*[[Hualapai]] - Natives of [[Mesoamerica]]
*[[Hupa]]
*[[Huastec]]
*[[Huron]] - Eastern [[United States]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*[[Hutsuls]] - mountain people of [[Ukraine]] and [[Poland]]
*[[Hutu]] - [[Rwanda]]
*[[Hyksos]] -
==I==
*[[Iceland]]ic - North [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] island
*[[Igbo (people)|Igbo]] - [[West Africa]] ([[Nigeria]])
*[[Illinois (ethnic group)|Illinois]]
*[[Inca]]n - Of western [[South America]], along the [[Andes]] and particularly [[Peru]]
*[[People of India|Indian]] - inhabitants of [[India]] (refers to many ethnic groups)
*[[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] - speakers of [[Indo-Aryan languages]] originating from [[Northern India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]] and [[Afghanistan]] (refers to many ethnic groups)
*[[Indo-Caribbean]] - Caribbean people (found mostly in [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Jamaica]]) and South American people (found mostly in [[Guyana]], [[Suriname]])of South Asian origins [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Myanmar]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Pakistan]], [[Sri Lanka]]
*[[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-Europeans]] - hypothetical pre-historic people that spoke the hypothetical [[Proto-Indo-European language]]
*[[Indo-Iranians]] - speakers of [[Aryan]]/[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] languages originating from the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Iranian plateau]] and [[Central Asia]] (refers to many ethnic groups)
*[[Indo-Trinidadian]] - Trinidad and Tobago people of South Asian origins [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Myanmar]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Pakistan]], [[Sri Lanka]]
*[[Ingushes]] - [[Ingushetia]], northern [[Caucasus]]
* Ingalik - see ''[[Deg Hit'an]]''
*[[Innu]] - [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Native Americans]] of eastern [[Canada]]
*[[Inuit]] - Widespread in [[Alaska]] and northern [[Canada]]
*[[Iowa (ethnic group)|Iowa]]
*[[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] - [[Aryan]] speakers of [[Iranian languages]] inhabiting the [[Iranian plateau]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Uzbekistan]] and other parts of the [[Caucasus]] and [[Central Asia]] (refers to a number of ethnic groups including [[Persians]] and [[Kurds]])
*[[Irish people|Irish]] - the native people of [[Ireland]]
*[[Irish Traveller]] - nomadic people of Irish origin living in [[Ireland]], [[Great Britain]] and the [[United States]]
*[[Irish-American]] - Americans of [[Irish people|Irish]] descent
*[[Iroquois]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] once widespread in the eastern [[United States]] and [[Canada]]
*[[Isleta]] - Natives from [[New Mexico]]
*[[Isoko]]
*[[Istro-Romanian]] - [[Istria]]
*[[Italy|Italian]] - from the [[Apennine]] peninsula in the south of [[Europe]]
*[[Italian-American]] - Americans of Italian descent
*[[Italkim]] - the [[History of the Jews in Italy|Jews of Italy]]
==J==
*[[Jamaica]]n - mixture of [[Africa]]n slaves, [[Central America]]n natives and [[England|English]] settlers, [[Caribbean]]
*[[Jacaltec]] - Maya people in [[Guatemala]]
*[[Japanese people]], [[ethnic Japanese]] - from the islands off the east coast of [[Asia]]
*[[Javanese]] - especially central to eastern part of [[Java (island)|Java]], [[Indonesia]]
*[[Jat]]
*[[Jemez]]
*[[Jew]]ish - widespread [[religion]] and [[nation]], also concentrated in [[Israel]]
*[[Jing]]
*[[Jingpo]]
*[[Jino]]
*[[Jivaroan]]
*[[Jola]]
*[[Jopadhola]]
*[[Jri]]
==K==
*[[Karaja]]
*[[Karakalpaks]] - a [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] people of [[Central Asia]]
*[[Karamanlides]]
*[[Kabardin]] - A [[languages of the Caucasus|Caucasian]] people living in [[Russia]]
*[[Kalasha]] - an ethnic group in [[Pakistan]]
*[[Kalispel]]
*[[Karachay]] - A [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] people in [[Russia]] (primarily [[Karachay-Cherkessia]])
*[[Karelians]] - [[Finnic]] people in [[Finland]] and [[Karelia]], [[northeastern Europe]]
*[[Karen people|Karen]] - Southeast [[Asia]]
*[[Karok]]
*[[Kashubians]] - a [[Slavic people]] of northern [[Europe]]
*[[Katang]]
*[[Kato (tribe)|Kato]]
*[[Katu]]
*[[Katuquina]]
*[[Kavango]]
*[[Kaw]]
*[[Kaxinawa]]
*[[Kazakhs]] - [[Turkic people|Turkic]]/[[Mongol]] people of [[North Asia|North]] and [[Central Asia]]
*[[Keresan]]
*[[Khakas]]
*[[Khang]]
*[[Khazars]]
*[[Khmer people|Khmer]] - Southeast [[Asia]], [[Cambodia]]
*[[Khmu]]
*[[Kho Mu]]
*[[Khomani]] or [[Nu|N/u]]
*[[Khoikhoi]] - Southern [[Africa]]
*[[Kickapoo]]
*[[Kinh]] or [[Jing]] or [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]]
*[[Kiowa]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of the [[Great Plains]] of the [[United States]]
*[[Kirghiz]] - [[Turkic people]] of [[Central Asia]]
*[[St. Kitts|Kittitian]]
*[[Klallam]]
*[[Klamath]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the [[Pacific Northwest]]
*[[Klikitat]]
*[[Kolchan]]
*[[Kootenai (tribe)|Kootenai]]
*[[Koreans|Korean]] - from a peninsula in [[Asia]], south of [[Manchuria]] ([[China]]) and across the sea from [[Japan]]
*[[Koskimo]]
*[[Koyukon]] - [[Alaska Natives|Natives]] of [[Alaska]]
*[[Kpelle]] - Group from [[Guinea]], western [[Africa]]
*[[Kraho]] - Natives of northwestern [[Brazil]]
*[[Kri]] - Group from [[Sierra Leone]], western [[Africa]]
*[[Kui]]
*[[Kumeyaay]]
*[[Kumyks]] - [[Turkic people]] of northern [[Caucasus]]
*[[Kurds]] - large minority in [[Turkey]], [[Iraq]], [[Iran]] and [[Syria]]
*[[Kutenai]]
*[[Kwakiutl]] - of the [[Washington (state)|Washington]]/[[British Columbia]] area
==L==
*[[La Chi]]
*[[La Ha]]
*[[La Hu]]
*[[Laguna]]
*[[Lahu]]
*[[Laigain]] - from the northwestern region of Gaul
*[[Laks (Dagestan)|Laks]] - [[Caucasus]]
*[[Lakota]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the [[Great Plains]] of the [[United States]] and [[Canada]]
*[[Lamet]]
*[[Lanka Moors]]- [[Sri Lankan Muslims of Arab origin]]
*[[ |
tic
*[[Inside Macintosh]]
*[[List of Apple Computer slogans]]
*[[Macintosh clones]] — Discussion of Apple's licensing of the Macintosh platform
*[[Mac rumors community]] — in recent years, a subculture has developed around rumored products
*[[Pirates of Silicon Valley]] - A movie based on the rise of Apple and Microsoft.
==References==
<references />
==Further reading==
* Gil Amelio, William L. Simon (1999) ''In the Firing Line: My 500 days at Apple'' ISBN 0887309194
* Jim Carlton, ''Apple: The Inside Story of Intrigue, Egomania and Business Blunders'' ISBN 0887309658
* Owen Linzmayer (2004), ''Apple Confidential 2.0'', No Starch Press ISBN 1593270100
* Michael Malone (1999), ''Infinite Loop'' ISBN 0385486847
* [[Steven Levy]], ''Insanely Great: The Life and Times of Macintosh, the Computer That Changed Everything'' ISBN 0140291776
* [[Andy Hertzfeld]] (2004), ''Revolution in the Valley'', O'Reilly Books ISBN 0596007191
* [http://folklore.org/index.py Folklore.org: Macintosh stories], retrieved [[November 25]], [[2005]]
==External links==
<!-- Please do not add unnecessary links to this section: Wikipedia is not a link repository. See the Talk page for this article, and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not -->
{{commons|Category:Apple_Computer|Apple Computer}}
*[http://www.apple.com/ Apple Computer Official Website]
*[http://www.applematters.com/ Apple Matters - Apple news and opinion site]
*[http://www.macnn.com/ MacNN - Apple news site]
*[http://www.macfixit.com/ MacFixIt - Mac troubleshooting site]
*[http://apple.slashdot.org Slashdot: Apple]
*[http://www.macuser.co.uk/ MacUser's Apple news site]
*[http://www.maccentral.com/ Macworld's Apple news site]
*[http://www.macintouch.com/ MacInTouch - Apple and Mac news site]
*[http://www.macdailynews.com/ MacDailyNews - Apple and Mac news site]
*[http://www.insanely-great.com/ Insanely Great mac - Apple news site]
*[http://www.theapplemuseum.com/ The Apple Museum]
*[http://www.apple-history.com/ Apple-History.com - Mac OS X Hints, tips, and troubleshooting]
*[http://applepedia.com/ ApplePedia.com - An Apple-centric wiki]
*[http://www.macinformation.com/pages/articles/article1.html The Branding of Apple]
*[http://www.buyblue.org/node/251/view/summary Apple Computer Inc Profile] at [[BuyBlue.org]]
*[http://guides.macrumors.com/ Mac Guides - MacRumors.com Guide pages (wiki)]
*[http://www.spymac.com/ Spymac - the world's largest Mac community]
{{Apple_Articles}}
[[Category:1976 establishments]]
[[Category:Apple Computer|*]]
[[Category:Brands]]
[[Category:Companies based in California]]
[[Category:Electronics companies]]
[[Category:Home computer hardware companies]]
[[Category:Human-computer interaction notables]]
{{Link FA|he}}
[[bg:Епъл]]
[[ca:Apple Computer]]
[[cs:Apple]]
[[da:Apple Computer]]
[[de:Apple]]
[[es:Apple Computer]]
[[eo:Apple]]
[[fa:شرکت رایانهای اپل]]
[[fr:Apple Computer]]
[[gl:Apple Computer]]
[[ko:애플 컴퓨터]]
[[hr:Apple Computer]]
[[id:Apple Computer]]
[[ia:Apple Computer]]
[[it:Apple Computer]]
[[he:אפל מחשבים]]
[[la:Apple Computatores]]
[[lt:Apple]]
[[hu:Apple Computer]]
[[ms:Apple]]
[[nl:Apple Computer]]
[[nds:Apple]]
[[ja:アップルコンピュータ]]
[[no:Apple]]
[[pl:Apple Computer]]
[[pt:Apple Computer, Inc.]]
[[ro:Apple Computer]]
[[ru:Apple Computer]]
[[simple:Apple Computer]]
[[sk:Apple Computer]]
[[fi:Apple Computer]]
[[sv:Apple Computer]]
[[th:แอปเปิล คอมพิวเตอร์]]
[[tr:Apple Computer]]
[[zh:苹果电脑]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aberdeenshire</title>
<id>857</id>
<revision>
<id>41953767</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:25:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<comment>unicodify using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
:''For other uses, see [[Aberdeenshire (disambiguation)]].''
{{infobox Scotland council area|
|Council= Aberdeenshire
|Image= [[Image:ScotlandAberdeenshire.png]]
|SizeRank= 4th
|Size= [[1 E9 m²|6,313]] [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]]
|Water= ?
|AdminHQ= [[Aberdeen]]
|ISO= GB-ABD
|ONS= 00QB
|PopulationRank= 6th
|PopulationDate= 2004
|Population= 232,850
|PopulationDensity=37 / km&sup2;
|CouncilDetails= Aberdeenshire Council<br />http://www.aberdeenshire.gov.uk/
|Control= Liberal Democrat/Independent Control
|MPs= <ul><li>[[Malcolm Bruce]]<li>[[Alex Salmond]]<li>[[Robert Smith (UK politician)|Robert Smith]]</ul>
|MSPs= <ul><li>[[Stewart Stevenson]]<li>[[Nora Radcliffe]]<li>[[Mike Rumbles]]</ul>
}}
'''Aberdeenshire''' (''Siorrachd Obar Dheathain'' in [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]]) is one of the 32 [[unitary authority|unitary]] [[council areas]] in [[Scotland]].
Present day Aberdeenshire does not include the [[City of Aberdeen]] which is a unitary authority in its own right. However Aberdeenshire council has its headquarters at Woodhill House, Westburn Road, in [[Aberdeen]] - The only Scottish council whose headquarters are based outside of the council area. It also borders [[Angus]], [[Perth and Kinross]], [[Highland]], and [[Moray]].
==History==
The present council area is named after the historic [[Aberdeenshire (historic)|county of Aberdeenshire]] which had different boundaries and was abolished in [[1975]]. Between 1975 and 1996 the area became part of the [[Regions of Scotland|region]] of [[Grampian]]. When the Scottish regions were abolished, a new unitary council area of Aberdeenshire was created, which revived the name of the former county but with different boundaries.
==Aberdeenshire council==
Aberdeenshire Council was established in April [[1996]], replacing three [[District council]]s ([[Banff and Buchan]], [[Gordon, Scotland|Gordon]] and [[Kincardine and Deeside]]) and part of the area of [[Grampian Region]]al Council.
There are 68 [[councillor]]s; in 2004 they were 28 [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]], 15 [[Scottish National Party|SNP]], 14 Independent and 11 [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]].
The Council's net expenditure is £399.1m a year (2003/04).
Education takes the largest share of expenditure (55%), followed by Social Work and Housing (19%), Transportation and Infrastructure (11%), and Joint Services such as Fire and Police (10%). 22% of revenue is raised locally through the Council Tax. Average Band D [[Council Tax]] is the eighth lowest in mainland Scotland at £966 (2003/04).
The council area has a population of 226,871, representing 4.5% of Scotland's total, and a 20% increase since 1981, 50% since 1971. Major towns are Peterhead (17,947), Fraserburgh (12,454), Inverurie (10,882), Stonehaven (9,577), Westhill (9,498) and Ellon (8,754). The population has a higher proportion of younger age groups than the rest of Scotland, reflecting employment-driven in-migration in recent decades.
The council has devolved power to six [[area committee]]s:
*[[Banff & Buchan]],
*[[Buchan]],
*[[Formartine]],
*[[Garioch]],
*[[Marr]],
*[[Kincardine & Mearns]]
;'''Banff & Buchan'''
Population 35,742 (2001 Census)
Fishing and agriculture are important industries, together with associated processing and service activity.
The area is relatively self-contained, and in recent years has seen a small decline in population. It does, however, have tourism assets in its coastline, coastal villages and [[visitor attraction]]s. Economic dependency, peripherality, and the future of the Common Fisheries/Agricultural Policies, are key issues. The Buchan Local Action Plan will address some of these concerns. The Area qualifies for [[European Union Objective 2]] structural funding.
;'''Buchan'''
Population 39,160 (2001 Census)
[[Peterhead]] is the largest town in Aberdeenshire; the principal white fish landing port in Europe; and a major oil industry service centre. Equally important, is the nearby gas terminal at [[St Fergus]].
Attempts are being made to counter the negative effects of several recent key company closures and economic threats. Inland, the area is dependent upon agriculture, and many villages have seen a decline in population and services. Issues affecting Banff and Buchan also apply here, as does the future of the oil and gas industry. Part of Buchan benefits from EU aid coverage. Opportunities exist through the Buchan Local Action Plan to safeguard and enhance the economic future of Peterhead and Buchan.
;'''Formartine'''
Population 36,478 (2001 Census)
Formartine has experienced rapid population growth, particularly around [[Ellon]] and [[Oldmeldrum]], and in the south east where development has spread outwith the city of Aberdeen. By contrast, the area around [[Turriff]] retains strong dependency on the traditional agricultural economy. The area's coastline and rural environment offer recreation potential.
;'''Garioch'''
Population 42,947 (2001 Census)
Centred on [[Inverurie]], a traditional rural market town, Garioch has also experienced rapid growth due to its proximity to the city of Aberdeen. Significant growth in population, services and employment is anticipated in the [[A96 road|A96]] corridor and in [[Westhill]]. The area is largely agricultural, but is strongly affected by the City's economy and the oil and gas sector. Garioch holds growing potential for tourism, in its environment and archaeological heritage.
;'''Marr'''
Population 34,038 (2001 Census)
To the west, the mountain environment of the [[Cairngorms]] [[National Park]] sustains a well developed tourist industry based on heritage and outdoor pursuits. Forestry and livestock farming are key industries, particularly in remoter areas. Part of the area has qualified for EU financial assistance. To the east, Marr has experienced population gr |
; ''q'' over the field ''K'' (whose characteristic we assume to be neither 2 nor 3), and points ''P'' = (''x''<sub>''P''</sub>, ''y''<sub>''P''</sub>) and ''Q'' = (''x''<sub>''Q''</sub>, ''y''<sub>''Q''</sub>) on the curve, assume first that ''x''<sub>''P''</sub> &ne; ''x''<sub>''Q''</sub>. Let ''s'' = (''y''<sub>''P''</sub> &minus; ''y''<sub>''Q''</sub>)/(''x''<sub>''P''</sub> &minus; ''x''<sub>''Q''</sub>); since ''K'' is a field, ''s'' is well-defined. Then we can define ''R'' = ''P'' + ''Q'' = (''x''<sub>''R''</sub>, ''y''<sub>''R''</sub>) by
:<math>x_R = s^2 - x_P - x_Q</math>
:<math>y_R = -y_P + s(x_P - x_R)</math>
If ''x''<sub>''P''</sub> = ''x''<sub>''Q''</sub>, then there are two options: if ''y''<sub>''P''</sub> = &minus;''y''<sub>''Q''</sub>, then the sum is defined as 0; thus, the inverse of each point on the curve is found by reflecting it across the ''x''-axis. If ''y''<sub>''P''</sub> = ''y''<sub>''Q''</sub> &ne; 0, then ''R'' = ''P'' + ''P'' = 2''P'' = (''x''<sub>''R''</sub>, ''y''<sub>''R''</sub>) is given by
:<math>s = {(3{x_P}^2 - p)}/{(2y_P)}</math>
:<math>x_R = s^2 - 2x_P</math>
:<math>y_R = -y_P + s(x_P - x_R)</math>
If ''y''<sub>''P''</sub> = ''y''<sub>''Q''</sub> = 0, then ''P'' + ''P'' = 0.
==Elliptic curves over the complex numbers==
The formulation of elliptic curves as the embedding of a [[torus]] in the [[complex projective plane]] follows naturally from a curious property of [[Weierstrass's elliptic functions]]. These functions and their first derivative are related by the formula
:<math>\wp'(z)^2 = 4\wp(z)^3 -g_2\wp(z) - g_3</math>
Here, <math>g_2</math> and <math>g_3</math> are constants; <math>\wp(z)</math> is the [[Weierstrass's elliptic functions|Weierstrass elliptic function]] and <math>\wp'(z)</math> its derivative. It should be clear that this relation is in the form of an elliptic curve (over the complex numbers). The Weierstrass functions are doubly-periodic; that is, they are period with respect to a [[fundamental pair of periods|lattice]] &Lambda;; in essence, the Weierstrass functions are naturally defined on a torus <math>T=\mathbb{C}/\Lambda</math>. This torus may be embedded in the complex projective plane by means of the map
:<math>z\to (1,\wp(z), \wp'(z))</math>.
This map is a [[group isomorphism]], carrying the natural group structure of the torus into the projective plane. It is also an isomorphism of [[Riemann surface]]s, and so topologically, a given elliptic curve looks like a torus. If the lattice &Lambda; is related to a lattice ''c''&Lambda; by multiplication by a non-zero complex number ''c'', then the corresponding curves are isomorphic. Isomorphism classes of elliptic curves are specified by the [[j-invariant]].
The isomorphism classes can be understood in a simpler way as well. The constants <math>g_2</math> and <math>g_3</math>, called the [[modular invariant]]s, are uniquely determined by the lattice, that is, by the structure of the torus. However, the complex numbers are the [[splitting field]] for polynomials, and so the elliptic curve may be written as
:<math>y^2=x(x-1)(x-\lambda)</math>
One finds that
:<math>g_2 = \frac{4^{1/3}}{3} (\lambda^2-\lambda+1)</math>
and
:<math>g_3=\frac{1}{27} (\lambda+1)(2\lambda^2-5\lambda+2)</math>
so that the [[modular discriminant]] is
:<math>\Delta = g_2^3-27g_3^2 = \lambda^2(\lambda-1)^2</math>
Here, &lambda; is sometimes called the [[modular lambda function]].
Note that the [[uniformization theorem]] states that every [[compact]] [[Riemann surface]] of genus one can be represented as a torus.
==Elliptic curves over a general field==
Elliptic curves can be defined over any [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''K''; the formal definition of an elliptic curve is a non-singular projective algebraic curve over ''K'' with [[genus (mathematics)|genus]] 1 with a given point defined over ''K''.
If the [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] of ''K'' is neither 2 nor 3, then every elliptic curve over ''K'' can be written in the form
:''y''<sup>2</sup> = ''x''<sup>3</sup> &minus; ''px'' &minus; ''q''
where ''p'' and ''q'' are elements of ''K'' such that the right hand side polynomial ''x''<sup>3</sup> &minus; ''px'' &minus; ''q'' does not have any double roots. If the characteristic is 2 or 3, then more terms need to be kept.
One typically takes the curve to be the set of all points (''x'',''y'') which satisfy the above equation and such that both ''x'' and ''y'' are elements of the [[algebraic closure]] of ''K''. Points of the curve whose coordinates both belong to ''K'' are called '''''K''-rational points'''.
==Connections to number theory==
The [[Mordell-Weil theorem]] states that if the underlying field ''K'' is the field of [[rational number]]s (or more generally a [[number field]]), then the group of ''K''-rational points is [[finitely generated abelian group|finitely generated]]. This means that the group can be expressed as the [[direct sum of modules#Construction for two abelian groups|direct sum]] of a [[free abelian group]] and a finite [[torsion subgroup]]. While it is relatively easy to determine the torsion subgroup of ''E''(''K''), no general algorithm is known to compute the [[rank of an abelian group|rank]] of the free subgroup. A formula for this rank is given by the [[Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture]].
The recent proof of [[Fermat's last theorem]] proceeded by proving a special case of the deep [[Taniyama-Shimura conjecture]] relating elliptic curves over the rationals to [[modular form]]s; this conjecture has since been completely proved.
While the precise number of rational points of an elliptic curve ''E'' over a [[finite field]] '''F'''<sub>''p''</sub> is in general rather difficult to compute, [[Hasse's theorem on elliptic curves]] tells us
:<math> \left| \sharp E( \mathbb{F}_p ) - p - 1 \right| < 2 \sqrt{p} </math>
This fact can be understood and proven with the
help of some general theory; see [[local zeta function]], [[Étale cohomology]]. The number of points on a specific curve can be computed with [[Schoof's algorithm]].
For further developments see [[arithmetic of abelian varieties]].
==Algorithms that use elliptic curves==
Elliptic curves over finite fields are used in some [[cryptography|cryptographic]] applications as well as for [[integer factorization]]. Typically, the general idea in these applications is that a known [[algorithm]] which makes use of certain finite groups is rewritten to use the groups of rational points of elliptic curves. For more see also:
* [[Elliptic curve cryptography]]
* [[Elliptic Curve DSA]]
* [[Lenstra elliptic curve factorization]]
* [[Elliptic curve primality proving]].
==References==
* {{cite book
| author = [[Richard Crandall]]
| coauthors = [[Carl Pomerance]]
| year = 2001
| title = Prime Numbers: A Computational Perspective
| publisher = Springer
| edition = 1st edition
| id = ISBN 0387947779
| chapter = Chapter 7: Elliptic Curve Arithmetic
| pages = pp.285–352
}}
==External links==
* [http://www.math.niu.edu/~rusin/known-math/index/14H52.html The Mathematical Atlas: 14H52 Elliptic Curves]
* {{MathWorld | title = Elliptic Curves | urlname = EllipticCurve }}
[[Category:Algebraic curves]]
[[Category:Analytic number theory]]
[[Category:Elliptic functions]]
[[Category:Group theory]]
[[ca:Corba el·líptica]]
[[de:Elliptische Kurve]]
[[es:Curvas elípticas]]
[[fi:Elliptinen käyrä]]
[[fr:Courbe elliptique]]
[[he:עקום אליפטי]]
[[ja:楕円曲線]]
[[ko:타원 곡선]]
[[pl:Krzywe eliptyczne]]
[[ru:Эллиптическая кривая]]
[[zh:椭圆曲线]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Equidae</title>
<id>10229</id>
<revision>
<id>39741922</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T15:21:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Equids
| image = 00296 zebra.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Plains Zebra]]s
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Perissodactyla]]
| familia = '''Equidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821
| genus = '''''Equus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''E. asinus'' - [[Donkey]]<br/>
''E. africanus'' - [[African Wild Ass]]<br/>
''E. caballus'' - [[Horse|Domestic Horse]]<br/>
''E. ferus'' - [[Wild Horse]]<br/>
''E. grevyi'' - [[Grevy's Zebra]]<br/>
''E. hemionus'' - [[Onager]]<br/>
''E. kiang'' - [[Kiang]]<br/>
''E. quagga'' - [[Plains Zebra]]<br/>
''E. zebra'' - [[Mountain Zebra|Cape Mountain Zebra]]<br/>
''E. hartmannae'' - [[Mountain Zebra|Hartmann's Mountain Zebra]]
}}
'''Equidae''' is the family of [[horse]]-like animals, order [[Perissodactyla]]. It is sometimes known as the '''horse family'''. Apart from the horses, other extant equids include the [[Donkey]], the three [[zebra]]s and the [[Onager]]. All of these are in the [[genus]] '''Equus'''.
* '''ORDER [[Perissodactyla|PERISSODACTYLA]]'''
** '''Family Equidae'''
*** [[Wild Horse]], ''Equus ferus''
**** [[Tarpan]] or Eurasian Wild Horse, ''Equus ferus ferus'' ([[Extinction|extinct]])
**** [[Przewalski's Horse]] or Mongolian Wild Horse, ''Equus |
e]], French actor
*[[1931]] - [[Rip Torn]], American actor and director
*[[1931]] - [[Mamie Van Doren]], American actress
*[[1932]] - [[Camilo Cienfuegos]], Cuban revolutionary (d. [[1959]])
*[[1932]] - [[François Truffaut]], French film director (d. [[1984]])
*[[1939]] - [[Mike Farrell]], American actor
*[[1939]] - [[Orlando Parga]], Vice President of the [[Senate of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico Senate]]
*[[1940]] - [[Tom Brokaw]], American news anchorman
*[[1942]] - [[Sarah Brady]], American gun-control activist
*[[1943]] - [[Fabian (entertainer)|Fabian]], American singer
*[[1943]] - [[Gayle Hunnicutt]], American actress
*[[1944]] - [[Michael Tucker (actor)|Michael Tucker]], American actor
*[[1945]] - [[Bob Marley]], Jamaican singer and musician (d. [[1981]])
*[[1946]] - [[Jim Turner (Congressman)|Jim Turner]], American politician
*[[1949]] - [[Jim Sheridan]], Irish film director
*[[1950]] - [[Natalie Cole]], American singer
*[[1951]] - [[Marco Antonio]], Brazilian footballer
*[[1954]] - [[Argusto Emfazie]], American occultist and author
*[[1957]] - [[Kathy Najimy]], American actress and comedian
*[[1957]] - [[Robert Townsend]], American comedian, actor, director, and producer
*[[1958]] - [[Barry Miller (actor)|Barry Miller]], American actor
*[[1960]] - [[Megan Gallagher]], American actress
*[[1962]] - [[Axl Rose]], American singer ([[Guns N' Roses]])
*[[1966]] - [[Rick Astley]], British singer
*[[1972]] - [[David Binn]], American football player
*[[1975]] - [[Svend-Allan Sørensen]], Danish artist
*[[1975]] - [[Tomoko Kawase]], Japanese singer/songwriter, better known as '''Tommy February6'''
*[[1976]] - [[Kim Zmeskal]], American gymnast
*[[1983]] - [[Myron Wolf Child]], Politican & Author
*[[1984]] - [[Darren Bent]], English footballer
*[[1991]] - [[Kara Borden]], American Causes Celebre
==Deaths==
*[[891]] - [[Photius]], Patriarch of Constantinople
*[[1378]] - [[Jeanne de Bourbon]], queen of [[Charles V of France]] (b. [[1338]])
*[[1497]] - [[Johannes Ockeghem]], Flemish composer
*[[1515]] - [[Aldus Manutius]], Italian printer
*[[1585]] - [[Edmund Plowden]], English legal scholar (b. [[1518]])
*[[1593]] - [[Jacques Amyot]], French writer (b. [[1513]])
*[[1593]] - [[Emperor Ogimachi of Japan]] (b. [[1517]])
*[[1617]] - [[Prospero Alpini]], Italian scientist (b. [[1553]])
*[[1685]] - King [[Charles II of England]] (b. [[1630]])
*[[1740]] - [[Pope Clement XII]] (b. [[1652]])
*[[1775]] - [[William Dowdeswell]], English politician (b. [[1721]])
*[[1783]] - [[Capability Brown]], English landscape gardener (b. [[1716]])
*[[1793]] - [[Carlo Goldoni]], Italian playwright (b. [[1707]])
*[[1816]] - [[Maria Ludwika Rzewuska]], Polish szlachcianka (b. [[1744]])
*[[1833]] - [[Pierre André Latreille]], French entomologist (b. [[1762]])
*[[1834]] - [[Richard Lemon Lander]], British explorer (d. [[1804]])
*[[1855]] - [[Josef Munzinger]], Swiss Federal Councilor (b. [[1791]])
*[[1916]] - [[Rubén Darío]], Nicaraguan writer (b. [[1867]])
*[[1918]] - [[Gustav Klimt]], Austrian painter (b. [[1862]])
*[[1950]] - [[Georges Imbert]], Alsatian chemist (b. [[1884]])
*[[1952]] - King [[George VI of the United Kingdom]] (b. [[1895]])
*[[1960]] - [[Jesse Belvin]], American singer, wrote "Earth Angel" (b. [[1932]])
*[[1976]] - [[Vince Guaraldi]], American musician (b. [[1928]])
*[[1986]] - [[Minoru Yamasaki]], American architect (b. [[1912]])
*[[1989]] - [[Roy Eldridge]], American musician (b. [[1911]])
*[[1989]] - [[Chris Gueffroy]], last person killed escaping over the Berlin wall (b. [[1968]])
*[[1989]] - [[Barbara Tuchman]], American historian (b. [[1912]])
*[[1991]] - [[Salvador Luria]], Italian-born biologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1912]])
*[[1991]] - [[Danny Thomas]], American singer, comedian, and actor (b. [[1914]])
*[[1993]] - [[Arthur Ashe]], American tennis player (b. [[1943]])
*[[1993]] - [[Joseph Mankiewicz]], American director, producer, and writer (b. [[1909]])
*[[1994]] - [[Joseph Cotten]], American actor (b. [[1905]])
*[[1994]] - [[Jack Kirby]], American comic book writer (b. [[1917]])
*[[1995]] - [[James Merrill]], American poet (b. [[1926]])
*[[1996]] - [[Guy Madison]], American actor (b. [[1922]])
*[[1996]] - [[John Testrake]], American pilot ([[TWA Flight 847]]) (b. [[1927]])
*[[1998]] - [[Falco (musician)|Falco]], Austrian singer (b. [[1957]])
*[[1998]] - [[Carl Wilson]], American musician ([[The Beach Boys]]) (b. [[1946]])
*[[1999]] - [[Danny Dayton]], American comedian and actor (b. [[1923]])
*[[2001]] - [[Filemon Lagman]], Filipino Communist revolutionary (b. [[1953]])
*[[2002]] - [[Max Perutz]], Austrian-born molecular biologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] (b. [[1914]])
*[[2005]] - [[Lazar Berman]], Russian pianist (b. [[1930]])
*[[2005]] - [[Karl Haas]], American radio presenter (b. [[1913]])
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Bob Marley|Bob Marley Day]] in [[Rastafari movement|Rastafarianism]] ([[Jamaica]] and [[Ethiopia]])
* [[Waitangi Day]] (National Holiday) in [[New Zealand]]
*[[Sami people|Sami National Day]]
==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&day=06 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060206.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/6 BBC: On This Day]
----
[[February 5]] - [[February 7]] - [[January 6]] - [[March 6]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[Category:Days|February 06]]
[[af:6 Februarie]]
[[ar:6 فبراير]]
[[an:6 de frebero]]
[[ast:6 de febreru]]
[[bg:6 февруари]]
[[be:6 лютага]]
[[bs:6. februar]]
[[ca:6 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 6]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 6]]
[[co:6 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:6. únor]]
[[cy:6 Chwefror]]
[[da:6. februar]]
[[de:6. Februar]]
[[et:6. veebruar]]
[[el:6 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:6 de febrero]]
[[eo:6-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 6]]
[[fo:6. februar]]
[[fr:6 février]]
[[fy:6 febrewaris]]
[[ga:6 Feabhra]]
[[gl:6 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 6일]]
[[hr:6. veljače]]
[[io:6 di februaro]]
[[ilo:Febrero 6]]
[[id:6 Februari]]
[[ia:6 de februario]]
[[is:6. febrúar]]
[[it:6 febbraio]]
[[he:6 בפברואר]]
[[jv:6 Februari]]
[[ka:6 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:6 gromicznika]]
[[ku:6'ê reşemiyê]]
[[la:6 Februarii]]
[[lt:Vasario 6]]
[[lb:6. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 6]]
[[mk:6 февруари]]
[[ms:6 Februari]]
[[nap:6 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:6 februari]]
[[ja:2月6日]]
[[no:6. februar]]
[[nn:6. februar]]
[[oc:6 de febrièr]]
[[os:6 февралы]]
[[pl:6 lutego]]
[[pt:6 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:6 februarie]]
[[ru:6 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 6.]]
[[sco:6 Februar]]
[[sq:6 Shkurt]]
[[scn:6 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 6]]
[[sk:6. február]]
[[sl:6. februar]]
[[sr:6. фебруар]]
[[fi:6. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:6 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 6]]
[[tt:6. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 6]]
[[th:6 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:6 tháng 2]]
[[tr:6 Şubat]]
[[uk:6 лютого]]
[[wa:6 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 6]]
[[zh:2月6日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 6]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Francis Hopkinson</title>
<id>11022</id>
<revision>
<id>40779765</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T23:37:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>American Patriot 1776</username>
<id>617080</id>
</contributor>
<comment>more info</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Francis_Hopkinson_sepia_print.jpg|thumb|Francis Hopkinson. Image from ''The Cyclopaedia of American Literature'' (1880).]]
'''Francis Hopkinson''' ([[October 2]], [[1737]]&ndash;[[May 9]], [[1791]]), an [[United States|American]] author, and one of the signers of the [[Declaration of Independence]], was born at [[Philadelphia]] in 1737. He was the first graduate at the College of Philadelphia, and after graduating in [[1763]], resolved to prepare himself for the legal profession. After he was admitted to the bar in [[1765]] he spent two years in [[England]] studying with the [[Bishop of Worcester]] who happened to be his mothers uncle. On his return in [[1768]] he obtained a lucrative public appointment in the state of [[New Jersey]], which went on to represent in [[Congress]] in [[1776]]-[[1777]]. In [[1779]] he was appointed judge of admiralty for [[Pennsylvania]], and in [[1790]] district judge for that state.
Hopkinson was the author of several songs to which he wrote popular airs, and of various political poems, pamphlets, and ''jeux d'esprit'', which from their humorous satire had a wide circulation, and powerfully assisted in arousing and fostering the spirit of political independence that issued in the [[American Revolution]].
His principal writings are ''The Pretty Story'' [[1774]]; ''The Prophecy'' 1776; ''The Political Catchism'' 1777. Among his songs may be mentioned ''The Treaty'', ''The Battle of the Kegs'', and ''The New Roof, a song for Federal Mechanics''; and the best known of his satirical pieces are ''Typographical Method of conducting a Quarrel'', ''Essay on White Washing'', and ''Modern Learning''. His ''Miscellaneous Essays and Occasional Writings'' were published at Philadelphia in three volumes in [[1792]].
He died in Philadelphia at the age of 53 from a sudden epileptic seizure.
Some historians believe that Hopkinson and not [[Betsy Ross]] designed the official "first flag" of the United States. This flag had the traditional 13 red and white stripes and 13 white stars in a circle on a field of blue. [http://www.usflag.org]
==Reference==
*''Original text adapted from a paper copy of the 1881 [[Encyclopædia Britannica]].''
==External links ==
*[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000783 Hopkinson's Congressional biography]
*[http://www.usflag.org/history/francishopkinson.html Hopkinson and the flag] at www.usflag.org
[[Category:1737 births|Hopkinson, Francis]]
[[Category:1791 deaths|Hopkinson, Francis]]
[[Category:Continental Congressmen|Hopkinson, Francis]]
[[Category:Signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence|Hopkinson, Francis]]
[[de:Francis Hopkinson]]</text>
</revision |
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