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s.ethz.ch/chemglobe/ptoe/ ChemGlobe]
*[http://pearl1.lanl.gov/periodic/default.htm Los Alamos National Laboratory]
*[http://www.chemicalelements.com/ ChemicalElements]
[[Category:Chemical elements| ]]
[[bg:Химичен елемент]]
[[bn:রাসায়নিক মৌল]]
[[ca:Element químic]]
[[cs:Chemický prvek]]
[[da:Grundstof]]
[[de:Chemisches Element]]
[[el:Χημικό στοιχείο]]
[[et:Keemiline element]]
[[es:Elemento químico]]
[[eo:Kemia elemento]]
[[fa:عنصرهای شیمیایی]]
[[fr:Élément chimique]]
[[gl:Elemento químico]]
[[he:יסוד כימי]]
[[hr:Kemijski element]]
[[id:Unsur kimia]]
[[io:Kemia elemento]]
[[it:Elemento chimico]]
[[ka:ქიმიური ელემენტი]]
[[ko:화학 원소]]
[[lv:Ķīmiskais elements]]
[[ms:Unsur kimia]]
[[nl:Scheikundig element]]
[[nds:Chemisch Element]]
[[ja:元素]]
[[no:Grunnstoff]]
[[nn:Grunnstoff]]
[[pl:Pierwiastek chemiczny]]
[[pt:Elemento químico]]
[[ru:Химический элемент]]
[[simple:Element]]
[[sl:Kemijski element]]
[[sr:Хемијски елемент]]
[[su:Unsur kimia]]
[[fi:Alkuaine]]
[[ro:Element chimic]]
[[sv:Grundämne]]
[[th:ธาตุเคมี]]
[[vi:Nguyên tố hóa học]]
[[zh:元素]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chemical substance</title>
<id>5660</id>
<revision>
<id>41755421</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:43:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gwernol</username>
<id>266416</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 41755290 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''chemical substance''' is any [[matter|material]] substance used in or obtained by a process in [[chemistry]]. It can be an element, a compound, or a mixture thereof:
* A '''[[chemical element]]''' is a substance that cannot be divided or changed into different substances by ordinary chemical methods. The smallest particle of such an element is an '''[[atom]]''', which consists of [[electron]]s centered about an [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of [[proton]]s and [[neutron]]s.
* A '''[[chemical compound]]''' is a substance consisting of two or more [[chemical element]]s that are chemically combined in fixed proportions.
* A '''[[molecule]]''' is the smallest particle of an element or compound that retains the chemical characteristics of the element or compound.
* An '''[[ion (physics)|ion]]''' is an [[atom]] or group of atoms with a net electric charge, having lost (''cation'') or gained (''anion'') an [[electron]].
* The term "chemical" may refer to any chemical substance, though a popular meaning is "a product of the chemical industry". As such the term may carry connotations of being "unnatural" and perhaps harmful, even when such fears are unjustified, as with the [[dihydrogen monoxide hoax]].
[[Category:Chemistry]]
[[ar:مادة كيميائية]]
[[cs:Látka]]
[[de:Stoff (Chemie)]]
[[el:Χημική ουσία]]
[[he:כימיקלים]]
[[ja:薬品]]
[[mk:Супстанција]]
[[su:Bahan kimia]]
[[th:สารเคมี]]
[[tl:Sustansyang kimikal]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Centime</title>
<id>5661</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-15T13:10:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Macha</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Centime''' (from Latin ''centesimus'') is [[French language|French]] for "[[Cent (currency)|cent]]", and is used in English as the name of the fraction [[currency]] in several [[Francophone]] [[country|countries]] (including [[Switzerland]], [[Algeria]], [[Belgium]] and [[France]]).
In France the usage of ''centime'' goes back to the introduction of the decimal monetary system under [[Napoleon]]. This system aimed at replacing non-decimal fractions of older coins. A five-centime coin was known as a ''sou'', i.e. a [[Solidus (coin)|solidus]] or [[shilling]].
==Subdivision of euro: cent or centime?==
In the European community ''cent'' is the official name for 1/100 of a [[euro]]. However, in french-speaking countries the word ''centime'' is the one preferentially used. Indeed, the [[Conseil supérieur de la langue française]] of Belgium recommends in 2001 the use of ''centime'', since the word ''cent'' has two meanings ("cent" and "hundred"). An analogous decision is published in [[Journal officiel]] in France (december 2, 1997).
In Latvia this coin is also called ''centime'' (latvian: santīms)
{{money-stub}}
[[de:Centime]]
[[fr:Centime]]
[[it:Centime]]
[[pl:Centym]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Calendar year</title>
<id>5662</id>
<revision>
<id>38308281</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T13:29:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vriullop</username>
<id>750481</id>
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<minor />
<comment>interwiki +ca</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">According to the [[Gregorian calendar]], the '''calendar year''' begins on [[January 1]] and ends on [[December 31]]. Other alignments of the 12-month period can be used for purposes of [[accounting]] (see [[fiscal year]]).
Generally speaking, a calendar year begins on the [[New Year|New Year's day]] of the given calendar system and ends on the day before the following New Year's day.
==See also==
*[[Calendar]]
*[[Year]]
*[[Seasonal year]]
*[[Fiscal year]]
[[Category:Units of time]]
[[ca:Any civil]]
[[et:Kalendriaasta]]
[[th:ปีปฏิทิน]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CFA franc</title>
<id>5663</id>
<revision>
<id>39162795</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T03:13:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naryathegreat</username>
<id>82340</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cfa map.png|frame|right|The countries using the CFA franc]]
The '''CFA franc''' (in [[French language|French]]: ''franc CFA'', or just ''franc'' in everyday conversation if no ambiguity is possible) is a currency used in 12 formerly [[France|French]]-ruled [[African]] countries, as well as in [[Guinea-Bissau]] (former [[Portugal|Portuguese]] colony) and in [[Equatorial Guinea]] (former [[Spain|Spanish]] colony). The [[ISO 4217|ISO currency code]] for the Central African CFA is XAF and for the West African CFA is XOF.
It has a fixed rate compared to the [[euro]]: 100 CFA francs = 0.152449 euro, or 1 euro = 655.957 CFA francs.
==Name==
CFA stood for ''Colonies françaises d'Afrique'' ("French colonies of Africa") between [[1945]] and [[1958]], and then for ''Communauté française d'Afrique'' ("French community of Africa") between [[1958]] (establishment of the [[French Fifth Republic]]) and the independence of these African countries at the beginning of the 1960s. Since the time of their independence, CFA can have two meanings (see Institutions below).
==History==
===Creation===
The CFA franc was created on [[December 26]], [[1945]], along with the [[CFP franc]]. The reason for the creation of these francs was the weakness of the [[French franc]] immediately after the [[World War II|Second World War]]. When France ratified the [[Bretton Woods system|Bretton Woods Agreement]] in December [[1945]], the [[French franc]] was devalued in order to set a [[fixed exchange rate]] with the [[US dollar]]. New currencies were created in the French colonies to spare them the strong devaluation of December [[1945]]. [[René Pleven]], the French minister of finance, was quoted saying: "In a show of her generosity and selflessness, metropolitan France, wishing not to impose on her far-away daughters the consequences of her own poverty, is setting different exchange rates for their currency."
===Exchange rate===
The CFA franc was created with a fixed exchange rate vs. the [[French franc]]. The exchange rate vs. the [[French franc]] was changed only twice: in [[1948]] and in [[1994]].
Exchange rate:
* [[December 26]], [[1945]] to [[October 16]], [[1948]] &ndash; 1 CFA franc = 1.70 FRF (FRF = French franc). This 0.70 FRF premium is the consequence of the creation of the CFA franc which spared the French African colonies the devaluation of December [[1945]] (before December 1945, 1 local franc in these colonies was worth 1 French franc).
* [[October 17]], [[1948]] to [[December 31]], [[1959]] &ndash; 1 CFA franc = 2.00 FRF (the CFA franc had followed the French franc's devaluation vs. the US dollar in January 1948, but on [[October 18]] [[1948]] the French franc devalued again and this time the CFA franc was revalued against the French franc to offset almost all of this new devaluation of the French franc; after October 1948 the CFA was never revalued again vs. the French franc and followed all the successive devaluations of the French franc)
* [[January 1]], [[1960]] to [[January 11]], [[1994]] &ndash; 1 CFA franc = 0.02 FRF ([[January 1]] [[1960]]: the French franc revalued, with 100 'old' francs becoming 1 'new' franc)
* [[January 12]], [[1994]] to [[December 31]], [[1998]] &ndash; 1 CFA franc = 0.01 FRF (sharp devaluation of the CFA franc to help African exports)
* [[January 1]], [[1999]] onward &ndash; 100 CFA franc = 0.152449 euro or 1 euro = 655.957 CFA franc. ([[January 1]], [[1999]]: [[euro]] replaced FRF at the rate of 6.55957 FRF for 1 euro)
The [[1960]] and [[1999]] events are merely changes in the currency in use in France: the relative value of the CFA franc vs. the French franc / euro changed only in [[1948]] and [[1994]].
The value of the CFA franc has been widely criticized as being too high, which many economists believe favors the urban elite of the African countries which can buy manufactured goods cheaply at the expense of the farmers who cannot easily export agricultural products. The devaluation of [[1994]] was an attempt to reduce the value of the CFA franc.
===Countries and other territories===
* 1949: [[French Somaliland]] (Djibouti) leaves
* 1960: [[Guinea]] leaves
* 1962: [[Mali]] leaves
* 1967: [[Réunio |
harvard.edu//full/1857MNRAS..18...47P Magnitudes of Thirty-six of the Minor Planets for the first day of each month of the year 1857], [[Norman Robert Pogson|N. Pogson]], [[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society|MNRAS]] 17 pp 12 [[1856]] -- in which Pogson first introduced his magnitude system
* [http://ukads.nottingham.ac.uk/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1982lbor.book.....A&amp;db_key=AST Landolt-Börnstein: Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology - New Series " Gruppe/Group 6 Astronomy and Astrophysics " Volume 2 Schaifers/Voigt: Astronomy and Astrophysics / Astronomie und Astrophysik " Stars and Star Clusters / Sterne und Sternhaufen] Aller, L. H. et al, ISBN # 3-540-10976-5; 0-387-10976-5 [[1982]] -- modern definition of the zero point for the most common magnitude system
== External links ==
* [http://www.astronomynotes.com/starprop/s4.htm The Magnitude system]
* [http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/stars/magnitudes.html About stellar magnitudes]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/sim-fid.pl Obtain the magnitude of any star from SIMBAD]
[[Category:Observational astronomy]]
[[als:Scheinbare Helligkeit]]
[[bg:Видима величина]]
[[ca:Magnitud aparent]]
[[cs:Hvězdná velikost]]
[[de:Scheinbare Helligkeit]]
[[et:Tähesuurus]]
[[es:Magnitud aparente]]
[[fr:Magnitude apparente]]
[[ko:겉보기 등급]]
[[id:Magnitudo tampak]]
[[it:Magnitudine apparente]]
[[he:בהירות]]
[[hu:Magnitúdó]]
[[nl:Magnitude]]
[[ja:等級 (天文)]]
[[pl:Wielkość gwiazdowa]]
[[ro:Magnitudine aparentă]]
[[ru:Видимая звёздная величина]]
[[sk:Zdanlivá hviezdna veľkosť]]
[[sl:Navidezni sij]]
[[th:โชติมาตรปรากฏ]]
[[vi:Độ sáng biểu kiến]]
[[zh:星等]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Absolute magnitude</title>
<id>1963</id>
<revision>
<id>41786857</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T19:18:17Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TreyHarris</username>
<id>67000</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Computation */ no need for math mode for inline π</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[astronomy]], '''absolute magnitude''' is the [[apparent magnitude]], ''m'', an object would have if it were at a standard [[luminosity distance]] away from us. It allows the overall brightnesses of objects to be compared without regard to distance.
The absolute magnitude uses the same convention as the visual magnitude, with a ~2.512<!--- exact = 100**(1/5) ---> difference in [[brightness]] between step rates (because 2.512<sup>5</sup> ≈ 100). The [[Milky Way]], for example, has an absolute magnitude of about &minus;20.5. So a [[quasar]] at an absolute magnitude of &minus;25.5 is 100 times brighter than our [[galaxy]]. If this particular quasar and our galaxy could be seen side by side at the same distance, the quasar would be 5 magnitudes (or 100 times) brighter than our galaxy.
== Absolute Magnitude for stars and galaxies ('''''M''''') ==
In stellar and galactic astronomy, the standard [[distance]] is 10 [[parsec|parsecs]] (about 32.616 [[light year|light years]], or 3&times;10<sup>14</sup> [[kilometre]]s). A star at ten parsecs has a parallax of 0.1" (100 milli arc seconds).
In defining absolute magnitude it is necessary to specify the type of [[electromagnetic radiation]] being [[measurement|measured]]. When referring to total [[energy]] output, the proper term is '''bolometric magnitude'''. The dimmer an object (at a distance of 10 parsecs) would appear, the higher its absolute magnitude. The lower an object's absolute magnitude, the higher its [[luminosity]]. A [[mathematics|mathematical]] [[equation]] [[Relation (mathematics)|relates]] apparent magnitude with absolute magnitude, via [[parallax]].
Many stars visible to the naked eye have an absolute magnitude which is capable of casting [[shadow]]s from a distance of 10 parsecs; [[Rigel]] (&minus;7.0), [[Deneb]] (&minus;7.2), [[Naos]] (&minus;7.3), and [[Betelgeuse]] (&minus;5.6).
For comparison, [[Sirius]] has an absolute magnitude of 1.4 and the [[Sun]] has an absolute visual magnitude of 4.83 (it actually serves as a reference point).
Absolute magnitudes for stars generally [[range]] from &minus;10 to +17. The absolute magnitude for galaxies can be much lower (brighter). For example, the giant [[elliptical galaxy]] [[Elliptical Galaxy M87|M87]] has an absolute magnitude of &minus;22.
=== Computation ===
You can compute the absolute magnitude <math>M\!\,</math> of a star given its [[apparent magnitude]] <math>m\!\,</math> and [[luminosity distance]] <math>D_L\!\,</math>:
:<math> M = m - 5 (\log_{10}{D_L} - 1)\!\,</math>
where <math>D_L\!\,</math> is the stars luminosity distance in [[parsecs]], which are (&#8776; 3.2616 [[light-year]]s)
For nearby astronomical objects (such as stars in our galaxy) the [[luminosity distance]] ''D<sub>L</sub>'' is almost identical to the real [[distance]] to the object, because spacetime within our galaxy is almost Euclidean. For much more distant objects the Euclidean approximation is not valid, and [[General Relativity]] must be taken into account when calculating the luminosity distance of an object.
In the Euclidean approximation for nearby objects, the absolute magnitude <math>M\!\,</math> of a star can be calculated from its [[apparent magnitude]] and [[parallax]]:
:<math> M = m + 5 (\log_{10}{\pi} + 1)\!\,</math>
where π is the star's parallax in seconds of an arc.
==== Example ====
: [[Rigel]] has a visual magnitude of m<sub>V</sub>=0.18 and distance about 773 light-years.
:: M<sub>V<sub>Rigel</sub></sub> = 0.18 + 5*log<sub>10</sub>(32.616/773) = &minus;6.7
: [[Vega]] has a parallax of 0.133", and an apparent magnitude of +0.03
:: M<sub>V<sub>Vega</sub></sub> = 0.03 + 5*(1 + log<sub>10</sub>(0.133)) = +0.65
: [[Alpha Centauri]] has a [[parallax]] of 0.750" and an apparent magnitude of -0.01
:: M<sub>V<sub>&alpha; Cen</sub></sub> = &minus;0.01 + 5*(1 + log<sub>10</sub>(0.750)) = +4.37
=== Apparent magnitude ===
Given the absolute magnitude <math>M\!\,</math>, for objects within our galaxy you can also calculate the apparent magnitude <math>m\!\,</math> from any distance <math>d\!\,</math>:
:<math> m = M + 5 (\log_{10}{d} - 1)\!\,</math>
For objects at very great distances (outside our galaxy) the [[luminosity distance]] ''D<sub>L</sub>'' must be used instead of ''d''.
== Absolute Magnitude for planets ('''''H''''') ==
For [[planets]], [[comet]]s and [[asteroid]]s a different definition of absolute magnitude is used which is more meaningful for nonstellar objects.
In this case, the absolute magnitude is defined as the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were one [[astronomical unit]] (au) from both the [[Sun]] and the [[Earth]] and at a [[phase angle (astronomy)|phase angle]] of zero degrees. This is a physical impossibility, but it is convenient for purposes of calculation.
To convert a stellar or galactic absolute magnitude into a planetary one, subtract 31.57. This factor also corresponds to the difference between the Sun's [[visual magnitude]] of &minus;26.8 and its (stellar) absolute magnitude of +4.8. Thus, the Milky Way (galactic absolute magnitude &minus;20.5) would have a planetary absolute magnitude of &minus;52.
=== Calculations ===
Formula for H: (Absolute Magnitude)
: <math> H = m_{Sun} - 5 \log_{10}\frac{ \sqrt { a } r}{d_0}\!\,</math>
where <math>m_{Sun}\!\,</math> is the apparent magnitude of the Sun at 1 au (&minus;26.73), <math>a\!\,</math> is the geometric [[albedo]] of the body (a number between 0 and 1), <math>r\!\,</math> is its [[radius]] and <math>d_0\!\,</math> is 1 au (&#8776;149.6 Gm).
==== Example ====
Moon: <math>a_{Moon}\!\,</math> = 0.12, <math>r_{Moon}\!\,</math> = 3476/2 km = 1738 km
: <math> H_{Moon} = m_{Sun} - 5 \log_{10}\frac{ \sqrt { a_{Moon} } r_{Moon}}{d_0} = +0.25\!\,</math>
=== Apparent magnitude ===
The absolute magnitude can be used to help calculate the apparent magnitude of a body under different conditions.
:<math>m = H + 2.5 \log_{10}{(\frac{d_{BS}^2 d_{BO}^2}{p(\chi) d_0^4})}\!\,</math>
where
<math>d_0\!\,</math> is 1 au, <math>\chi\!\,</math> is the [[phase angle (astronomy)|phase angle]], the angle between the Sun-Body and Body-Observer lines; by the [[law of cosines]], we have:
:<math>\cos{\chi} = \frac{ d_{BO}^2 + d_{BS}^2 - d_{OS}^2 } {2 d_{BO} d_{BS}}\!\,</math>
<math>p(\chi)\!\,</math> is the [[phase integral]] (integration of reflected light; a number in the 0 to 1 range)
:Example: (An [[Lambertian_diffuse_lighting_model|ideal diffuse reflecting]] [[sphere]]) - A reasonable first approximation for planetary bodies
<math>p(\chi) = \frac{2}{3} ( (1 - \frac{\chi}{\pi}) \cos{\chi} + (1/\pi) \sin{\chi} )\!\,</math>
: A full-phase diffuse sphere reflects 2/3 as much light as a diffuse disc of the same diameter
: Distances:
:: <math>d_{BO}\!\,</math> is the distance between the observer and the body
:: <math>d_{BS}\!\,</math> is the distance between the Sun and the body
:: <math>d_{OS}\!\,</math> is the distance between the observer and the Sun
==== Example ====
Moon
: <math>H_{Moon}\!\,</math> = +0.25
: <math>d_{OS}\!\,</math> = <math>d_{BS}\!\,</math> = 1 au
: <math>d_{BO}\!\,</math> = 384.5 Mm = 2.57 mau
: How bright is the Moon from Earth?
:: Full Moon: <math>\chi\!\,</math> = 0, (<math>p(\chi |
ons. An '''acceptor''' finite state machine is a quintuple <''&#931;'', ''S'', ''s<sub>0</sub>'', ''&#948;'', ''F''>, where:
*''&#931;'' is the input alphabet (a finite non empty set of symbols).
*''S'' is a finite non empty set of states.
*''s<sub>0</sub>'' is an initial state, an element of ''S''. In a [[Nondeterministic finite state machine]], ''s<sub>0</sub>'' is a set of initial states.
*''&#948;'' is the state transition function: ''&#948;'': ''S'' x ''&#931;'' &#8594; ''S''.
*''F'' is the set of final states, a (possibly empty) subset of S.
A '''transducer''' finite state machine is a sextuple <''&#931;'', ''&#915;'', ''S'', ''s<sub>0</sub>'', ''&#948;'', ''&#969;''>, where:
*''&#931;'' is the input alphabet (a finite non empty set of symbols).
*''&#915;'' is the output alphabet (a finite non empty set of symbols).
*''S'' is a finite non empty set of states.
*''s<sub>0</sub>'' is the initial state, an element of ''S''. In a [[Nondeterministic finite state machine]], ''s<sub>0</sub>'' is a set of initial states.
*''&#948;'' is the state transition function: ''&#948;'': ''S'' x ''&#931;'' &#8594; ''S'' x ''&#915;''.
*''&#969;'' is the output function.
If the output function is a function of a state and input alphabet (''&#969;'': ''S'' x ''&#931;'' &#8594; ''&#915;'' ) that definition corresponds to the '''Mealy model'''. If the output function depends only on a state (''&#969;'': ''S'' &#8594; ''&#915;'' ) that definition corresponds to the '''Moore model'''.
==Optimization==
Optimizing an FSM means finding the machine with the minimum number of states that performs the same function. This problem can be solved using a [[coloring algorithm]].
==Implementation==
===Hardware applications===
[[Image:4 bit counter.png|right|thumbnail|250px|Fig. 6 The [[circuit diagram]] for a 4 bit [[Transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] counter, a type of state machine]]In a [[digital circuit]], a FSM may be built using a [[programmable logic device]], a [[programmable logic controller]], [[logic gate]]s and [[Flip-flop (electronics)|flip flop]]s or [[relay]]s. More specifically, a hardware implementation requires a [[processor register|register]] to store state variables, a block of combinational logic which determines the state transition, and a second block of combinational logic that determines the output of a FSM.
=== Software applications ===
Following concepts are commonly used to build software applications with finite state machines:
*[[event driven finite state machine|event driven FSM]]
*[[virtual finite state machine|virtual FSM (VFSM)]]
==Tools==
{|
| valign="top" |
*[[AT and T FSM Library|AT&T FSM Library]]&trade; [http://www.research.att.com/projects/mohri/fsm/]
*AutoFSM [http://autogen.sourceforge.net/autofsm.html]
*Bandera [http://bandera.projects.cis.ksu.edu/]
*Boost Statechart Library [http://boost-sandbox.sourceforge.net/libs/statechart/doc/index.html]
*CAZE - FSM-based .NET authorization library [http://www.lamarvin.com/caze_default.asp]
*Covered [http://covered.sourceforge.net/]
*Concurrent Hierarchical State Machine [http://homepage.mac.com/pauljlucas/software/chsm/]
*[[DescoGUI]] [http://www.s2.chalmers.se/software/desco/]
*Dynamic Attachment Finite State Machine (DAFSM) [http://dmabco.sourceforge.net/]
*Exorciser [http://www.educeth.ch/informatik/exorciser/]
*Finite State Kernel Creator [http://fskc.sourceforge.net/]
*Finite State Machine Editor [http://fsme.sourceforge.net/]
*Finite State Machine Explorer [http://www.belgarath.org/java/fsme.html]
| valign="top" |
*FIRE Engine, Station and Works [http://www.fastar.org]
*[[FSMGenerator]] [http://fsmgenerator.sourceforge.net/]
*Grail+ [http://www.csd.uwo.ca/Research/grail/]
*[[FSA Utilities]] [http://odur.let.rug.nl/~vannoord/Fsa/]
*Libero [http://www.imatix.com/html/libero/index.htm]
*Java Finite Automata [http://www.ebi.ac.uk/~kirsch/monq-doc/]
*JFLAP [http://www.jflap.org/]
*jrexx-Lab [http://www.karneim.com/jrexx/]
*JSpasm [http://jspasm.sourceforge.net/]
*Kara [http://www.swisseduc.ch/informatik/karatojava/]
*Nunni FSM Generator [http://nunnifsmgen.nunnisoft.ch/en/]
*Petrify [http://www.lsi.upc.edu/~jordicf/petrify/]
*PyFSA [http://osteele.com/software/python/fsa/]
*Qfsm [http://qfsm.sourceforge.net/]
*Quantum-Leaps [http://www.quantum-leaps.com/]
| valign="top" |
*Ragel [http://www.elude.ca/ragel/]
*[[RWTH FSA Toolkit]] [http://www-i6.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/web/Software/index.html]
*[[SCXML]] (State Chart XML) [http://www.w3.org/TR/2005/WD-scxml-20050705/]
*SFST, the Stuttgart Finite State Transducer Tools [http://www.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/projekte/gramotron/SOFTWARE/SFST.html]
*Statestep [http://statestep.com/]
*StateWORKS [http://www.stateworks.com/]
*State Machine Compiler [http://smc.sourceforge.net/]
*SMC - Finite State Machine Compiler (Java, C++) [http://www.objectmentor.com/resources/downloads/index]
*[[Supremica]][http://www.supremica.org/]
*[[UniMod]] [http://unimod.sourceforge.net/]
*visualSTATE [http://www.iar.com]
*WhatOS [http://www.sticlete.com/whatos/]
*Xerox Finite-State Software Tools [http://www.xrce.xerox.com/competencies/content-analysis/fssoft/home.en.html]
*[[XML Transition Network Definition|XTND]] (XML Transition Network Definition) [http://www.w3.org/TR/xtnd]
|}
==References==
*Timothy Kam, ''Synthesis of Finite State Machines: Functional Optimization''. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston 1997, ISBN 0-7923-9842-4
*Tiziano Villa, ''Synthesis of Finite State Machines: Logic Optimization''. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston 1997, ISBN 0-7923-9892-0
*Carroll, J., Long, D. , ''Theory of Finite Automata with an Introduction to Formal Languages''. Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs, 1989.
*Hopcroft, J.E., Ullman, J.D., ''Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages and Computation''. Addison -Wesley, 1979.
*Kohavi, Z., ''Switching and Finite Automata Theory''. McGraw-Hill, 1978.
*Gill, A., ''Introduction to the Theory of Finite-state Machines''. McGraw-Hill, 1962.
*Cassandras, C., Lafortune, S., "Introduction to Discrete Event Systems". Kluwer, 1999, ISBN 0-7923-8609-4.
*Watson, B.W., ''Taxonomies and Toolkits of Regular Language Algorithms''. Ph.D dissertation, Eindhoven University of Technology, Netherlands, 1995, ISBN 90-386-0396-7.
==See also==
*[[Abstract state machine]]
*[[Automata analyzer]]
*[[Coverage analysis]]
*[[Marvin Minsky]]
*[[Petri net]]
*[[Protocol development]]
*[[Pushdown automaton]]
*[[Regular expression]]
*[[Regular grammar]]
*[[Simulation]]
*[[Sequential logic]]
*[[Sparse matrix]]
*[[Supervisory control theory]]
*[[Transition system]]
==External links==
*[http://foldoc.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?query=finite+state+machine Description from the Free On-Line Dictionary of Computing]
*NIST Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures [http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/finiteStateMachine.html entry]
*[http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/HierarchicalStateMachine.htm Hierarchical State Machines]
{{Formal languages and grammars}}
[[Category:Computational models]]
[[Category:Digital electronics]]
[[Category:Formal methods]]
[[bg:Краен автомат]]
[[cs:Konečný automat]]
[[de:Endlicher Automat]]
[[es:Autómata finito]]
[[fr:Automate fini]]
[[he:אוטומט סופי]]
[[it:Automa a stati finiti]]
[[ja:有限オートマトン]]
[[ru:Конечный автомат]]
[[fi:Äärellinen automaatti]]
[[sv:Ändlig automat]]
[[zh:有限状态自Å动机]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Finite state automaton</title>
<id>10932</id>
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<id>15908722</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Finite state machine]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Functional programming</title>
<id>10933</id>
<revision>
<id>41957446</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:52:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Allan McInnes</username>
<id>647621</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>sp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Functional programming''' is a [[programming paradigm]] that treats [[computation]] as the evaluation of [[function (mathematics)|mathematical function]]s. Functional programming emphasizes the definition of [[function (computer science)|function]]s rather than the implementation of [[Finite state machine|state machines]], in contrast to [[procedural programming]], which emphasizes the execution of sequential commands. A purely functional [[Computer program|program]] does not use [[mutation (computer science)|mutation]]: rather than modifying state to produce values (as is done in [[imperative programming]]), it constructs new values from (but does not overwrite) existing values.
There is no uniform agreement on what constitutes functional programming or a functional programming language. Often considered important are [[first-class function]]s (including [[anonymous function]]s), [[Closure (computer science)|closure]]s, and [[recursion]]. Other common features of functional programming languages are [[continuation]]s, [[Hindley-Milner]] type systems, non-strict evaluation (i.e. "laziness") or explicit [[suspension (computer science)|suspension]]s, and [[monads in functional programming|monad]]s. In his influential paper and 1977 [[Turing Award]] lecture [http://www.stanford.edu/class/cs242/readings/backus.pdf Can Programming Be Liberated From the von Neumann Style? A Functional Style and its Algebra of Programs], [[John Backus]] defines functional programs as being built up in a hierarchical way by means of "combining forms" that allow an "algebra of programs"; in modern language, this m |
he anathemas against the Roman Catholic Church in the 1960's by Patriarch [[Athenagoras]].
[[Jew]]s have been present in Greece for the last 2000 years. The earliest reference to a Greek Jew is in an inscription, dated c. 300-250 BCE found in Oropos, a small coastal town between [[Athens]] and [[Boeotia]], and refers to him as "Moschos, son of Moschion the Jew" who was in all likelihood, a slave. The first Greek Jewish population became known as the [[Romaniotes]] and their language became known as [[Yevanic language|Yevanic]] (from the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word for Greece: יון/Yavan). From the 16th century onwards, [[Salonica]], a city in northern Greece, had one of the largest (mostly [[Sephardic]] by then) Jewish communities in the world and a solid rabbinical tradition. On the island of [[Crete]], the Jews played an important part in the transport trade. During [[World War II]], when Greece was occupied by [[Nazi]] [[Germany]], 86% of the Greek Jews were murdered by the invading Axis and only a minority survived and most of them have emigrated to [[Israel]]. Greece's Jewish community today is estimated at 4,500.
== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Greece}}
Greece has produced a vast number of contributors to philosophy, astronomy, science, and the arts. {{see|List of Greeks}}
==See also==
{{portal}}
* [[List of cities in Greece]]
* [[Classics]]
* [[Greek products]]
* [[Economy of Greece]]
* [[Education in Greece]]
* [[List of folk dances sorted by origin#Greece|List of Greek dances]]
* [[List of museums in Greece]]
* [[Greek National Holidays]]
* [[List of research institutes in Greece]]
* [[List of universities in Greece]]
* [[Agriculture in Greece]]
*[[History of Greece]]
**[[Ancient Greece]]
**[[Greek mythology]]
**[[Hellenistic civilization]]
**[[Byzantine Empire]]
**[[Byzantium]]
**[[Ottoman Empire]]
**[[Paliki, Homer's Ithaca]]
**[[Philhellenism]]
* [[Tourism in Greece]]
* [[Greek products]]
* [[Economy of Greece]]
*[[Greek Language]]
*[[Communications in Greece]]
**[[List of Greek language television channels]]
**[[List of radio stations in Greece]]
*[[Greek newspapers]]
*[[Transportation in Greece]]
**[[List of Greek roads]]
**[[Rio-Antirio bridge]]
*[[Foreign relations of Greece]]
*[[Military of Greece]]
*[[Postage stamps and postal history of Greece]]
*[[Conscription in Greece]]
*[[Plateia Syntagmatos]] and [[Vouli ton Ellinon]]
*[[Greeks]]
*[[List of Greeks]]
*[[Greek American]]
*[[Greek Canadians]]
*[[Greek Australian]]
*[[Hellenic National Intelligence Service]]
*[[National Statistical Service of Greece]]
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Greece}}
*[http://www.defencetalk.com/pictures/showgallery.php/cat/4222 Greece Military Pictures at DefenceTalk.com Military Gallery]
*[http://www.hri.org HR-Net (Hellenic Resources Network)/ comprehensive Greek news site]
*[http://www.statistics.gr/ Official Greek Statistics Site]
*[http://www.ask4greece.org Ask for Greece/ A volunteer community for Q&As about Greece]
*[http://www.gnto.gr/?langID=2/ Official Greek Tourist Organisation site]
*[http://www.greece-museums.com Greece Museums/ Museum directory of Greece]
*[http://www.athensvirtualtour.com/ Take a short virtual tour of Athens]
*[http://www.ert.gr/radio/liveradioTritovraxea.asp Radio Greece live]
*[http://www.phigita.net/news/ Greek News]
*[http://www.freeworldmaps.net/europe/greece/map.html Physical map of Greece]
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/Greece/ Open Directory Project: Greece]
*[http://www.olympion.de/greek-embassies-worldwide.html A list of Greek Embassies Worldwide]
*[http://www.geabios.com/html/services/maps/PublicMap.htm?lat=38.33916&lon=23.93902&fov=8.59&title=Greece Satellite images and maps of Greece] from [[GeaBios]] GIS Public Service
===Other official sites===
*[http://www.presidency.gr/en/index.htm President of the Hellenic Republic]
*[http://www.greece.gr/index.htm Greece Now Government sponsored e-zine on Greek life]
*[http://www.primeminister.gr/gr/lang/en/primeminister.asp Prime Minister of Greece]
*[http://www.parliament.gr/english/default.asp Hellenic Parliament]
{{EU_countries}}
{{NATO}}
{{Europe}}
{{Mediterranean}}
[[Category:Greece|Greece]]
[[af:Griekeland]]
[[ar:يونان]]
[[an:Grezia]]
[[roa-rup:Gârţii]]
[[ast:Grecia]]
[[az:Yunanıstan]]
[[bg:Гърция]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hi-lia̍p]]
[[be:Грэцыя]]
[[bn:গ্রীস]]
[[bs:Grčka]]
[[ca:Grècia]]
[[cs:Řecko]]
[[cy:Gwlad Groeg]]
[[da:Grækenland]]
[[de:Griechenland]]
[[et:Kreeka]]
[[el:Ελλάδα]]
[[es:Grecia]]
[[eo:Grekio]]
[[fa:یونان]]
[[fo:Grikkaland]]
[[fr:Grèce]]
[[fy:Grikelân]]
[[ga:An Ghréig]]
[[gd:A' Ghrèig]]
[[gl:Grecia - Ελλάδα]]
[[ko:그리스]]
[[hi:ग्रीस]]
[[hr:Grčka]]
[[io:Grekia]]
[[ilo:Grecia]]
[[id:Yunani]]
[[ia:Grecia]]
[[is:Grikkland]]
[[it:Grecia]]
[[he:יוון]]
[[ka:საბერძნეთი]]
[[kw:Pow Grek]]
[[ku:Yewnanistan]]
[[la:Graecia]]
[[lv:Grieķija]]
[[lt:Graikija]]
[[lb:Griicheland]]
[[li:Griekeland]]
[[hu:Görögország]]
[[mk:Грција]]
[[ms:Yunani]]
[[mo:Гречия]]
[[na:Greece]]
[[nl:Griekenland]]
[[nds:Grekenland]]
[[ja:ギリシャ]]
[[no:Hellas]]
[[nn:Hellas]]
[[oc:Grècia]]
[[os:Греци]]
[[pl:Grecja]]
[[pt:Grécia]]
[[ro:Grecia]]
[[ru:Греция]]
[[sq:Greqia]]
[[scn:Grecia]]
[[simple:Greece]]
[[sk:Grécko]]
[[sl:Grčija]]
[[sr:Грчка]]
[[fi:Kreikka]]
[[sv:Grekland]]
[[tl:Gresya]]
[[th:ประเทศกรีซ]]
[[vi:Hy Lạp]]
[[tpi:Gris]]
[[tr:Yunanistan]]
[[uk:Греція]]
[[zh:希腊]]
[[fiu-vro:Kriika]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Greece/History</title>
<id>12109</id>
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<id>15909815</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Greece]]
:''See also :'' [[Greece]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Greece/Geography</title>
<id>12110</id>
<revision>
<id>15909816</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-13T04:20:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
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<comment>redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Greece]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Greece</title>
<id>12111</id>
<revision>
<id>37327799</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T06:50:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kelly Martin</username>
<id>158241</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Demographics of Greece''' is about the population that has inhabited the Greek peninsula, a region where the [[Greek language]] has been continuously spoken for over 3500 years. The 2001 census of '''[[Greece]]''' reported a population of 10,964,020 people.
==Historical Overview==
[[Greece]] was inhabited as early as the [[Paleolithic]] period and by [[3000 BC]] had become home, in the [[Cycladic civilization|Cycladic Islands]], to a culture whose art remains among the most evocative in world history. Early in the [[2nd millennium BC]], the island of [[Crete]] nurtured the sophisticated maritime empire of the [[Minoans]], whose trade reached from [[Egypt]] to [[Sicily]]. The Minoans were challenged and eventually supplanted by the Mycenaeans of the Greek mainland, who spoke a dialect of ancient Greek.
Prior to the second millennium BC, the Greek peninsula was inhabited by various pre-Hellenic peoples (notably the [[Pelasgians]]). After the invasion of the [[Greek language|Greek-speaking]] peoples, the local populations were displaced or assimilated and the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] civilization was formed. The [[Greek language]] dominated the peninsula, and Greece's mosaic of small city-states became culturally similar. The population estimates on the Greeks during the 5th century BC, is approximately 3 million on the Greek peninsula and 6 million in the entire Mediterranean basin (including all colonies). After [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquests, Greek culture and colonization was expanded in the [[Hellenistic]] Kingdoms of the East. After the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] occupation of Greece, the Greek culture was favoured by the Romans and it continued to dominate on the Eastern part of the Empire and in [[Rome]]. After the foundation of [[Constantinople]] in 330 AD by Constantine the Great, the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] developed independently from the West. It continued the use of [[Koine Greek|Greek]] until it totally displaced [[Latin language|Latin]] from the administration, and the empire became ethnically unified via the official adaption of [[Christianity]]. The most common term used by scholars to refer to that medieval state is '[[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]'. During the long history of the [[Byzantine Greek]] state, the Greek peninsula was occasionally invaded by the following peoples: [[Goths]], [[Avars]], [[Slavs]], [[Normans]], [[Franks]] and other [[Latin peoples|Latins]] who had betrayed the [[Crusades]]. The only group however which planned to established permanent settlements in the region were the Slavs. They settled in isolated valleys of [[Peloponnese]] and [[Thessaly]], establishing communities that were referred by the Byzantines as "Sclavinias". By the 9th century AD, Sclavinias in Greece were largerly eliminated. The populations in central and southern Greece were the subject of population exchanges, army recruitments and Hellenizations, but some Slavic communities managed to survive in rural [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. At the same time a large [[Jewish]] emmigrant community from [[Spain]] established itself in [[Thessaloniki]]. The [[Byzantine Empire]] ultimately fell to [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]] in 15th century. Ottoman colonies were established in the Balkans, notable in Macedonia, Peloponnese and Crete. The Christian subjects of the Sultan had very restricted rights, and during that period m |
<contributor>
<username>Markaci</username>
<id>151070</id>
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<comment>rv [[Special:Contributions/Adamwankenobi|Adamwankenobi]] -> Zundark (rv redirect to [[Nirvana]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Main_Page]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Historical martial arts reconstruction</title>
<id>13990</id>
<revision>
<id>41798066</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:47:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.221.26.232</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>literature</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Historical martial arts reconstruction'''s are attempts at reviving [[martial arts]] with no living tradition. In recent years, with the resurgence of interest in martial arts, schools of fighting long since discontinued have generated enough interest for individuals and organizations to reconstruct them from historical sources.
The reconstruction of a martial art is very difficult indeed, and opinions on how it is best done differ quite a lot. Usually, written material is used, along with paintings and diagrams of movement. This is, however, usually not enough to capture the dynamics of a martial art, and practical experimentation becomes necessary. Normally the people attempting to reconstruct a martial art have experience in some other, similar martial art with a living tradition, and they normally fill in the gaps with this martial art.
Examples of martial arts reconstruction are [[Pankration]] and the various historical [[Historical European Martial Arts|European schools]] of fencing. The term '''Historical fencing''' refers to any fencing system that was in use before the development of the three classical [[fencing]] weapons.
==Literature==
*Brian R. Price, ed. ''Teaching & Interpreting Historical Swordsmanship'', ISBN 1-891448-46-3 (2005)
*Guy Windsor, ''The Swordsman's Companion: A Modern Training Manual for Medieval Longsword'', ISBN 1-891448-41-2 (2004)
==See also==
*[[Historical European Martial Arts]]
*[[German school of swordsmanship]]
*[[Italian school of swordsmanship]]
*[[Destreza|Spanish school of swordsmanship]]
*[[fencing]]
*[[Association for Renaissance Martial Arts]]
==External links==
* [http://www.aemma.org/ Academy of European Medieval Martial Arts (AEMMA)]
* [http://www.ahfi.org/ The Association for Historical Fencing (AHF)]
* [http://www.thearma.org/ The Association for Renaissance Martial Arts (ARMA)]
* [http://www.chicagoswordplayguild.com/ The Chicago Swordplay Guild (CSG)]
* [http://www.chivalrybookshelf.com/ Chivalry Bookshelf]
* [http://www.higginssword.org/ Higgins Armory Sword Guild]
* [http://www.scherma-antica.org/ Italian Historical Fencing Federation]
* [http://www.achillemarozzo.it/ Sala d'Arme Achille Marozzo - Ancient Fencing Art Italian Institute]
[[Category:Fencing]]
[[Category:Historical European martial arts]]
{{martialart-stub}}</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Honeymoon</title>
<id>13991</id>
<revision>
<id>40923123</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T22:27:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BL Lacertae</username>
<id>341494</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>not a stub</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''honeymoon''' is the traditional trip taken by newlyweds to celebrate their [[marriage]], and presumably, [[consummate]] it. Today, honeymoons are often celebrated in places that are secluded, exotic, warm, or otherwise considered special and romantic &mdash; for example, warm, sunny beaches, scenic coastlines, and mountain retreats.
==The origin of the word ''honeymoon''==
{{wiktionarypar|honeymoon}}
The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' offers no [[etymology]] at all, but dates the word back to the 16th century:
:"The first month after marriage, when there is nothing but tenderness and pleasure" ([[Samuel Johnson]]); originally having no reference to the period of a month, but comparing the mutual affection of newly-married persons to the changing moon which is no sooner full than it begins to wane; now, usually, the holiday spent together by a newly-married couple, before settling down at home
One of the oldest citations in the ''OED'' indicates that, while today ''honeymoon'' has a positive meaning, the word was actually a sardonic reference to the inevitable waning of love like a [[moon phase|phase of the moon]]. This, the first literary reference to the honeymoon was penned in 1552, in Richard Huloet's ''Abecedarium Anglico Latinum''. Huleot writes:<blockquote><i>Hony mone, a terme proverbially applied to such as be newe maried, whiche wyll not fall out at the fyrste, but thone loveth the other at the beginnynge excedyngly, the likelyhode of theyr exceadynge love appearing to aswage, ye which time the vulgar people cal the hony mone</i></blockquote>("Honeymoon, a term proverbially applied to the newly-married, who will not fall out (quarrel) at first, but they love the other at the beginning exceedingly, the likelihood of their exceeding love appearing to assuage [any quarrels]; this time is commonly called the honeymoon").
It has also been said that the origins of this word date back to the times of Babylon. In order to increase the virility and fertility of the newlyweds, the father of the bride would provide his son in law with all the [[mead]] (a honey-based drink) he could drink during the first month of the marriage (and therefore "moon").
Another two possible explanations of the word honeymoon are to do with the date that weddings traditionally took place. Weddings once commonly took place upon the Summer [[solstice]] both for religious reasons earlier on and also for the practical reason that it was the time between the main planting and harvesting of crops. As it was at this time of year that honey was first harvested it is possible that this is the source. Another alternative is that "Honey Moon" is a name given to the moon when its path is close to the southern horizon. Its light shines though the haze and dust of our atmosphere giving its light a honey color for the whole month.
[[Category:Wedding]]
[[de:Flitterwochen]]
[[es:Luna de miel]]
[[nl:Huwelijksreis]]
[[ja:新婚旅行]]
[[zh:蜜月]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Harold Kushner</title>
<id>13992</id>
<revision>
<id>39185396</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T08:15:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Defrosted</username>
<id>100483</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Expansion, external link, categories</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Harold Kushner''' is a prominent [[United States|American]] [[rabbi]] aligned with the progressive wing of [[Conservative Judaism]]. Born in [[Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]], Kushner was educated at [[Columbia University]] and later obtained his rabbinical ordination from the [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America|Jewish Theological Seminary]] (JTS) in 1960. The same institution awarded him a doctoral degree in Bible in 1972. Kushner has also studied at the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]], taught at [[Clark University]] and the Rabbinical School of the JTS, and received six [[honorary doctorates]]. He served as the long time congregational rabbi of Temple Israel in [[Natick, Massachusetts]] for twenty-four years and belongs to the [[Rabbinical Assembly]].
He is the author of the immensely popular book on liberal [[theology]], ''When Bad Things Happen to Good People'', which was widely read not just in Jewish circles, but became a best seller due to its adoption by many [[Liberal Christianity|liberal Protestant Christians]] as well. This book deals with questions about [[God]], [[Omnipotence]] and [[Theodicy]].
Kushner has written a number of other popular theological books, such as ''How Good Do We Have to Be?'', ''To Life!'' and many others. In collaboration with the late [[Chaim Potok]], Kushner co-edited ''Etz Hayim: A Torah Commentary'', the new official [[Torah]] commentary of the [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative movement]], which was jointly published in [[2001]] by the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] and the [[Jewish Publication Society]]. His ''Living a Life That Matters'' became a best seller in the fall of 2001. His most recent book, ''The Lord Is My Shepherd'', was a meditation on the [[Psalm 23|twenty-third psalm]] released in 2003.
==External links==
*[http://www.vbs.org/rabbi/hmsinstitute/hmsscholar/Biographies/Rabbi_Harold_S_Kushner.html Biography from Congregation Valley Beth Shalom, Encino CA]
[[nl:Harold Kushner]]
[[Category:Conservative rabbis|Kushner, Harold]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Kushner, Harold]]
[[Category:Columbia alumni|Kushner, Harold]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Homosexuality</title>
<id>13993</id>
<revision>
<id>42148239</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:25:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Naconkantari</username>
<id>676502</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Welovedourdaughterbutshewasevil|Welovedourdaughterbutshewasevil]] ([[User talk:Welovedourdaughterbutshewasevil|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Note:
This is not a list of homosexuals. Please do not add names to this article. Thank you.
-->
{{Sexual orientation}}
Since the first coinage, the word '''homosexuality''' has acquired multiple meanings. In the original sense, it describes a [[sexual orientation]] characterised by lasting [[Aesthetics|aesthetic]] attraction, [[romantic love]], or [[sexual attraction|sexual desire]] exclusively for others of the same [[sex]] or [[gender]].
Homosexuality is usually contrasted with [[heterosexuality]] and [[bisexuality]]. Homosexual |
[[Excise]]. There are seven novels in the series written by Thorndike:
* ''[[Doctor Syn: A Tale of the Romney Marsh]]'' (1915)
* ''[[Doctor Syn on the High Seas]]'' (1935)
* ''[[Doctor Syn Returns]]'' (1936)
* ''[[Further Adventures of Doctor Syn]]'' (1936)
* ''[[Courageous Exploits of Doctor Syn]]'' (1938)
* ''[[Amazing Quest of Doctor Syn]]'' (1939)
* ''[[Shadow of Doctor Syn]]'' (1944)
In 1960 American author [[William Buchanan (author)|William Buchanan]] used the character in his novel '''''Christopher Syn'''''. This is essentially a reworking of ''Further Adventures of Doctor Syn'' with a different conclusion and some conflation and renaming of the supporting characters. ''Christopher Syn'' became the basis for the 1962 Disney production (see below). There was also a book adaptation of the Disney theatrical version. This was titled '''''Doctor Syn, Alias the Scarecrow''''' and was written by [[Vic Crume]].
==Dramatic Adaptations==
Three film adaptations have been made of Dr Syn's exploits. The first, ''Doctor Syn'' featured noted actor [[George Arliss]] in the title role. The second, ''The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh'', was produced as a television [[miniseries]] by [[Walt Disney]] in [[1962]] and starred [[Patrick McGoohan]] of ''[[The Prisoner]]'' fame (it was re-edited and released theatrically two years later with the title, ''Doctor Syn, Alias the Scarecrow''). That same year ''Captain Clegg'' (released as ''[[Night Creatures]]'' in the US) was produced by [[Hammer Film Productions]] with [[horror movie]] actor [[Peter Cushing]] in the lead role. Because Disney had a stronger claim to the copyright, the main character's name was changed to Dr. Blyss.
In [[2001]] the first ever stage adaptation was performed at churches throughout the [[Romney Marsh]], the final night being performed in [[Dymchurch]] itself. The cast combined professional actors such as Daniel Thorndike (the author's son), Michael Fields, Steven Povey and Ben Barton, along with various amateurs from the marshes. Although covered heavily by the press and filmed, pressure from [[Walt Disney]] (who still own all rights) has ensured that this production will never be released on video.
==Cultural Legacy==
The "Days of Syn" festival is held every even-numbered year (e.g. 2004) by the residents of [[Dymchurch]] for fund-raising purposes.
==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0028807|title=Doctor Syn}}
* {{imdb title|id=0056277|title=Captain Clegg}}
* {{imdb title|id=0055929|title=The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh}}
* [http://www.pjfarmer.com/woldnewton/Syn.htm The Life and Times of the Rev. Doctor Christopher Syn] (describes the [[Wold Newton family]] [[meta]]-[[canon (fiction)|canon]] , not the Thorndike canon.)
* [http://www.dymchurchonline.com/doctor_syn/index.php Dymchurch Online] Information about the character, novels and movies, with contact information for the Days of Syn Committee.
[[Category:Fictional pirates|Syn]]
[[Category:Series of books]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dhrystone</title>
<id>8709</id>
<revision>
<id>37330417</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T07:23:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FlaBot</username>
<id>228773</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dhrystone''' is a synthetic [[Benchmark (computing)|benchmark]] program
developed in [[1984]] by Reinhold P. Weicker intended to be representative of
system (integer) programming. The Dhrystone grew to become representative of
general processor (CPU) performance until it was superseeded by the CPU89
benchmark suite from the [[Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation]],
today known as the "[[SPECint]]" suite.
With Dhrystone, Weicker gathered meta-data from a broad range of software -
including programs written in FORTRAN, PL/1, SAL, ALGOL 68, and Pascal. He
then characterized these programs in terms of various common constructs -
procedure calls, pointer indirections, assignments, etc. From this he wrote
the Dhrystone benchmark to correspond to a representative mix. Dhrystone was published in
Ada, with the C version for Unix developed by Rick Richardson ("version 1.1")
greatly contributing to its popularity.
==Dhrystone vs Whetstone ==
The Dhrystone benchmark contains no [[floating point]] operations, thus the
name is a pun on the then-popular [[Whetstone (benchmark)|Whetstone]]
benchmark for floating point operations. The output from the benchmark is the
number of Dhrystones per second (the number of iterations of the main code
loop per second).
Both Whetstone and Dhrystone are ''synthetic'' benchmarks, meaning that they
are simple programs that are carefully designed to statistically mimic some
common set of programs. Whetstone, developed in 1972, originally strived to
mimic typical Algol 60 programs based on measurements from 1970, but
eventually became most popular in its Fortran version. Whetstone thus
reflected the highly numerical orientation of computing in the 1960s.
==Issues addressed by Dhrystone==
Dhrystone's eventual importance as an indicator of general-purpose ("integer")
performance of new computers made it a target for commercial compiler writers.
Various modern compiler techniques (such as dead code elimination) make the
use and design of synthetic benchmarks more difficult. Version 2.0 of the
benchmark, released by Weicker and Richardson in March of 1988, had a number
of changes intended to foil a range of compiler techniques. Yet it was
carefully crafted so as not to change the underlying benchmark. This effort
to foil compilers was only partly successful. Dhrystone 2.1, released in May
of the same year, had some minor changes and remains the current definition of
Dhrystone.
Other than issues related to compiler optimization, various other issues have
been cited with the Dhrystone. Most of these were understood at the time of
its publication in 1984 - including the small code size and small data set
size. More subtle is the slight over-representation of string operations,
which is largely language related: both Ada and Pascal have strings as first
class citizens in the language, whereas C does not, so what was simple
variable assignments in reference benchmarks became buffer copy operations in
the C library.
Dhrystone remains remarkably resilient as a simple benchmark. It is easy to
use, well documented, is fully self-contained, is well understood, and can be made to work on
almost any system. In particular, it has remained in broad use in the
embedded computing world, though the recently developed '''EEMBC''' benchmark suite
is likely to supersede it in that role just as CPU89 did for the general computing and
server markets. Still, 20 years of continued use is quite a testament to
Weicker's careful design and foresight.
==Results ==
Dhrystone tries to represent the result more meaningfully than MIPS (million instructions per second), because MIPS cannot be used across different instruction sets (e.g. RISC vs. CISC) for the same computation requirement from users. Thus, the main score is just Dhrystone loops per second. Another common representation of the Dhrystone benchmark is the DMIP - Dhrystone [[million instructions per second|MIPS]] - obtained when the Dhrystone score
is divided by 1,757 (the number of Dhrystones per second obtained on the [[VAX|VAX 11/780]], nominally a 1 MIPS machine).
==See also ==
[[Benchmark (computing)]]
== References ==
* [http://groups.google.com/groups?q=DMIPS&hl=en&group=comp.benchmarks&rnum=1&selm=tsengDKq856.Gy6%40netcom.com Newsgroup posting for calculation of DMIPS]
* [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=358283 Reinhold P. Weicker, CACM Vol 27, No 10, 10/84]
* http://www.netlib.org/benchmark/dhry-c c version of Dhrystone in a sh file.
[[Category:Computer benchmarks]]
[[de:Dhrystone]]
[[es:Dhrystone]]
[[ja:Dhrystone]]
[[pl:Dhrystones]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Durham University (England)</title>
<id>8710</id>
<revision>
<id>22046869</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-28T19:46:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.251.209.247</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Durham University]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Distilling</title>
<id>8711</id>
<revision>
<id>15906670</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-28T19:18:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rgamble</username>
<id>697</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Info was mostly repeated in Distillation and that's a better title.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Distillation]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dave Winer</title>
<id>8713</id>
<revision>
<id>41637863</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T18:31:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bhouston</username>
<id>319269</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>added general [[Category:Technical evangelists]] cat.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:David Winer.jpg|right|thumb|Dave Winer]]
'''Dave Winer''' (b. [[May 2]], [[1955]] in [[Brooklyn]], [[New York City]], USA) is a software pioneer who created or was a lead contributor to several of the most popular [[XML]] dialects and APIs related to web publishing, including [[RSS (file format)|RSS]] 2.0, [[XML-RPC]], [[OPML]], and the [[MetaWeblog API]]. He's also the author of [http://scripting.com/ Scripting News], one of the first [[weblog]]s.
==Early work==
In [[1979]], after graduating with an MS in computer science from the [[University of Wisconsin-Madison|University of Wisconsin]], Dave Winer became the lead developer for Personal Software. In [[1981]] he left to found Living Videotext, which created [[Outliner|outliners]]: ThinkTank, Ready and MORE.
==Years at UserL |
"Back in the 70s that's all people were doing: getting high, wearing Afros, bell-bottoms and listening to Parliament-Funkadelic. That's why I called my album "[[The Chronic]]" and based my music and the concepts like I did: because his shit was a big influence on my music. Very big"''.[http://www.musicstrands.com/artist/6599/biography]
Funk is a major element of certain artists identified with the [[Jam band]] scene of the late [[1990s]] and [[2000s]].
[[Medeski Martin & Wood]], [[Galactic (band)|Galactic]], [[Soulive]], and [[Karl Denson's Tiny Universe]] all drawing heavily from the funk tradition. Vermont-based Phish went through a period of funky jams which fans refer to as their "cow funk" stage.
Since the mid [[1990s]] the New Funk scene, centered around the [[Deep Funk]] collectors scene, is producing new material influenced by the sounds of rare [[funk 45]]'s. Labels include Desco, Soul Fire, [[Daptone Records|Daptone]], Timmion, Neapolitan, Kay-Dee, and Tramp. Bands include [[Sharon Jones & The Dap-kings|Sharon Jones and the Dap Kings]], The Soul Destroyers, Speedometer, The Poets of Rhythm, The Neapolitans, Quantic Soul Orchestra, The New Mastersounds and Lefties Soul Connection. These labels often release on 45 rpm records. Although specializing in music for rare funk DJ's there is beginning to be cross over into the mainstream such as Sharon Jones' 2005 appearance on [[Late Night with Conan O'Brien]].
Note: Despite its name, [[Grand Funk Railroad]] is ''not'' a funk band; the name is a pun on [[Grand Trunk Railroad]], a Michigan rail line, and it is a straight [[rock and roll|rock]] band. It has though got some funk inspired songs. Also the word "funk" is often used widely to refer to African-American pop music of the [[1970s]] in general. Artists such as [[Stevie Wonder]] and [[Marvin Gaye]] actually recorded few straight funk pieces.
==See also==
* [[list of funk musicians]]
* [[The Funk Brothers]]
* [[African American music]]
* [[Funk (disambiguation)]]
==Further reading==
* {{cite book
| last = Vincent | first = Rickey
| title=Funk: The Music, The People, and The Rhythm of The One
| year=1996
| publisher=St. Martin's Press
| id=ISBN 0-312-13499-1
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Thompson | first = Dave
| title=Funk | year=2001
| publisher=Backbeat Books
| id=ISBN 0-87930-629-7
}}
==External links==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/6music/shows/craig_charles/ Craig Charles Funk Show]: BBC 6 Music funk show
* [http://www.surefunk.com/ Funk Music Resources]: Site dedicated to promoting Funk
[[Category:American styles of music]]
[[Category:Funk]]
[[Category:Soul music]]
[[Category:R&B]]
[[als:Funk (Musik)]]
[[ca:Funk]]
[[de:Funk (Musik)]]
[[es:Funk]]
[[fi:Funk]]
[[fr:Funk]]
[[he:פאנק (Funk)]]
[[it:Funk]]
[[ja:ファンク]]
[[ko:펑키]]
[[nl:Funk]]
[[no:Funk]]
[[pl:Funk]]
[[pt:Funk]]
[[simple:Funk]]
[[sv:Funk]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Frequency</title>
<id>10779</id>
<revision>
<id>41926575</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T17:52:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cburnett</username>
<id>140084</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ Link [[Digital frequency]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Sine waves different frequencies.png|thumb|right|360px|[[Sine]] waves of various frequencies; the lower waves have higher frequencies than those above.]]
'''Frequency''' is the [[measurement]] of the number of times that a repeated event occurs per unit [[time]]. It is also defined as the rate of change of [[phase_(waves) | phase]] of a sinusoidal waveform.
== Measurement ==
To calculate the frequency of an event, the number of occurrences of the event within a fixed time interval are counted, and then divided by the length of the time interval.
In [[SI]] units, the result is measured in [[hertz|hertz (Hz)]], named after the German physicist [[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]. 1 Hz means that an event repeats once per [[second]], 2 Hz is twice per second, and so on. This unit was originally called a cycle per second (cps), which is still used sometimes. Other units that are used to measure frequency include [[revolutions per minute]] (rpm) and [[radians per second]] (rad/s). [[Heart rate]] and musical [[tempo]] are measured in [[beats per minute]] (BPM).
An alternative method to calculate frequency is to measure the time between two consecutive occurrences of the event (the period) and then compute the frequency as the reciprocal of this time:
:<math>f = \frac{1}{T}</math>
where ''T'' is the '''[[period]]'''. A more accurate measurement takes many cycles into account and averages the period between each.
==Frequency of waves==
Measuring the frequency of [[sound]], [[electromagnetic wave]]s (such as [[radio]] or [[light]]), electrical signals, or other waves, the frequency in hertz is the number of cycles of the repetitive waveform per second. If the wave is a [[sound]], frequency is what mainly characterizes its [[Pitch_(music)|pitch]].
Frequency has an inverse relationship to the concept of [[wavelength]]. The [[frequency]] ''f'' is equal to the [[speed]] ''v'' of the [[wave]] [[division (mathematics)|divided]] by the [[wavelength]] &lambda; (lambda) of the wave:
:<math>f = \frac{v}{\lambda}</math>
In the [[special case]] of electromagnetic waves moving through a [[vacuum]], then '''v = c''', where '''c''' is the [[speed of light]] in a vacuum, and this expression becomes:
:<math>f = \frac{c}{\lambda}</math>
'''Note.''' When [[waves]] travel from one [[medium]] to another, their frequency remains exactly the same &mdash; only their [[wavelength]] and/or [[speed]] changes.
== Invariance ==
Apart from its being modified by [[Doppler effect]], frequency is an invariant quantity in the universe. That is, it cannot be changed by any physical process unlike velocity of propagation or wavelength.
== Reference frequencies ==
There are universally agreed [[Frequency reference|reference frequencies]] for the measuring of time. One such method, used in [[atomic clock]]s, is based on the frequency of the [[Caesium]] atom.
==Examples==
*The frequency of the standard pitch A above [[middle C]] is usually defined as [[A440|440 Hz]], that is, 440 cycles per second ({{Audio|Media-440Hz.ogg|Listen}}) and known as concert [[Pitch_(music)|pitch]], to which an [[orchestra]] tunes.
*A baby can hear tones with oscillations up to approximately 20,000 Hz, but these frequencies become more difficult to hear as people age.
*In Europe, the frequency of the [[alternating current]] in [[mains electricity|mains]] is 50 Hz (close to the tone G), however, in North America, the frequency of the [[alternating current]] is 60 Hz (close to the tone B flat — that is, a [[minor third]] above the European frequency). The frequency of the '[[hum]]' in an [[audio recording]] can show where the recording was made — in Europe or in America.
==See also==
{{wiktionary|frequency}}
*[[Digital frequency]]
*[[phase_(waves) | Phase]]
*[[Angular frequency]]
*[[Negative frequency]]
*[[Instantaneous frequency]]
*[[Wave]], [[Wavelength]], [[Amplitude]], [[Cutoff frequency]]
*[[Frequency spectrum]], [[Electromagnetic spectrum]]
*[[Electromagnetic radiation]]
*[[note|Music note]], [[Pitch (music)|Pitch]], [[Cent (music)|Cent]], [[Tuning]], [[Piano key frequencies]]
*[[Simple harmonic motion]]
*[[Fundamental frequency]]
==External links==
*[http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-wavelength.htm Conversion: frequency to wavelength and back]
*[http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-period.htm Conversion: period, cycle duration, periodic time to frequency]
[[Category:Physical quantity]]
[[Category:Sound]]
[[Category:Wave mechanics]]
[[ar:تردد]]
[[bg:Честота]]
[[ca:Freqüència]]
[[cs:Frekvence]]
[[da:Frekvens]]
[[de:Frequenz]]
[[et:Sagedus]]
[[el:Συχνότητα]]
[[es:Frecuencia (física)]]
[[eo:Frekvenco]]
[[fa:بسامد]]
[[fr:Fréquence]]
[[gl:Frecuencia]]
[[ko:진동수]]
[[hr:Frekvencija]]
[[io:Frequeso]]
[[id:Frekuensi]]
[[it:Frequenza]]
[[he:תדירות]]
[[lt:Dažnumas]]
[[hu:Frekvencia]]
[[nl:Frequentie]]
[[ja:周波数]]
[[no:Frekvens]]
[[nn:Frekvens i fysikk]]
[[pl:Częstotliwość]]
[[pt:Frequência]]
[[ro:Frecvenţă]]
[[ru:Частота]]
[[sk:Frekvencia (fyzika)]]
[[sl:Frekvenca]]
[[fi:Taajuus]]
[[sv:Frekvens]]
[[ta:அதிர்வெண்]]
[[th:ความถี่]]
[[vi:Tần số]]
[[tr:Frekans]]
[[zh:頻率]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Film criticism</title>
<id>10780</id>
<revision>
<id>42046864</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:48:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KnightRider</username>
<id>430793</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>warnfile Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Film criticism''' is the analysis and evaluation of [[film]]s, individually and collectively. In general this can be divided into journalistic criticism that appears regularly in [[newspaper]]s and other popular, mass-media outlets and academic criticism by film scholars that is informed by [[film theory]] and published in journals.
==Journalistic criticism==
Film critics working for [[newspaper]]s, [[magazine]]s, [[broadcast media]], and online publications mainly review new releases. Normally they only see any given film once and have only a day or two to formulate opinions. Despite this, critics have an important impact on films, especially those of certain [[film genre|genre]]s. The popularity of mass-marketed [[action film|action]], [[horror film|horror]], and [[comedy film|comedy films]] tend not to be greatly affected by a critic's overall judgment of a film. The plot summary and description of a film that makes up the majority of any film review can have an important impact on whether people decide to see a film. For prestige films with a limited release, such as independent [[drama film|drama]]s, the i |
R/syntax}} +/-]]</sub></span>
|- valign="top"
|'''Kernel type:'''
| [[Monolithic kernel]]
|- valign="top"
|'''[[Software license|License]]:'''
| [[BSD license]]
|- valign="top"
|'''Working state:'''
| Current
|- valign="top"
|'''[[Website]]:'''
| [http://www.freebsd.org/ www.freebsd.org]
|}
'''FreeBSD''' is a [[Unix-like]] [[free software]] [[operating system]] descended from AT&T UNIX via the [[Berkeley Software Distribution]] (BSD) branch through [[386BSD]] and [[Berkeley Software Distribution | 4.4BSD]]. It runs on [[central processing unit|processor]]s compatible with the [[X86|Intel x86 family]], as well as on the [[DEC Alpha]], the [[SPARC|UltraSPARC]] processors by [[Sun Microsystems]], the [[Itanium]] (IA-64), [[AMD64]] and [[PowerPC]] processors. It also runs on the [[PC-9801|PC-98]] architecture. Support for the [[ARM architecture|ARM]] and [[MIPS]] architectures are in development.
FreeBSD is developed together as an entire operating system. The [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]], all of the expected [[userland]] utilities such as the [[Operating system shell|shell]] and the [[device driver]]s are held in the same [[source code]] [[version control system|revision tracking]] tree ([[Concurrent Versions System|CVS]]). This is in contrast to [[Linux]], a similar and more well known free Unix-clone, which is developed as a kernel by one group, userland utilities by others such as the [[GNU]] project, and put together with applications into [[Linux distributions|distributions]] that package all the parts together by others. As an operating system, FreeBSD is generally regarded as quite reliable and robust, and of the operating systems that accurately report [[uptime]] remotely [http://uptime.netcraft.com/up/accuracy.html#whichos], FreeBSD is the most common free operating system listed in Netcraft's list [http://uptime.netcraft.com/up/today/top.avg.html] of the 50 [[web server]]s with longest uptime. A long uptime also indicates that no kernel updates have been deemed necessary, as installing a new [[Kernel (computer science)|kernel]] requires a reboot and resets the uptime counter of the system.
== History and development ==
[[Image:BSD-daemon-rendering.png|thumb|right|100px|[[BSD Daemon]] rendition]]
Initial [[software development|development]] of FreeBSD was started in [[1993]], and took its sources from [[386BSD]]. However, due to concerns about the legality of all the sources used in 386BSD, FreeBSD re-engineered much of the system with the FreeBSD 2.0 release in January of [[1995]] using the 4.4BSD-Lite release from the [[University of California, Berkeley]]. The [http://www.FreeBSD.org/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ FreeBSD Handbook] includes more [http://www.freebsd.org/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/history.html historical information about the genesis of FreeBSD].
Initially FreeBSD employed the [[BSD Daemon]] as its logo, but in 2005 a [http://logo-contest.freebsd.org/ competition] for a new logo was arranged. On [[October 8]] [[2005]], the competition finished leaving the design by Anton K. Gural as the new FreeBSD logo. As always, the BSD Daemon is the FreeBSD Project mascot.
== FreeBSD 5 development and changes ==
The last FreeBSD release before 6.x series is 5.4 [http://www.freebsd.org/releases/5.4R/announce.html] (released on May [[2005]]). FreeBSD [[software developer|developer]]s maintain (at least) two branches of simultaneous development: a ''-STABLE'' branch of FreeBSD, from which releases are cut about once every 4-6 months. The latest ''4-STABLE'' release of FreeBSD is 4.11, this is the last of 4-STABLE releases. The first ''5-STABLE'' release was 5.3. The last ''5-STABLE'' release will be 5.5. The first ''6-STABLE'' release was 6.0.
The development branch, ''-CURRENT'', contains aggressive new kernel and userspace features. If a feature gets stable and mature it is eventually [[backport]]ed ("MFC" - Merge from CURRENT in the FreeBSD developer slang) to the STABLE branch. FreeBSD's development model is described in-depth in
[http://www.freebsd.org/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/dev-model/ an article by Niklas Saers].
The big difference in FreeBSD 5 was a major change in the low-level kernel locking mechanisms to enable better symmetric multiprocessor (SMP) support, releasing much of the kernel from the ''GIANT'' lock, sometimes referred to as ''Big Kernel Lock''. It is now possible for more than one process to execute in kernel mode at the same time.
Other major changes include an ''m'':''n'' threading solution called [[Kernel Scheduled Entities|KSE]] which is now the default threading (pthreads) library, starting with 5.3 (the creation of the 5-STABLE branch). The terminology ''m'':''n'', where ''m'' and ''n'' are small positive integers, implies that ''m'' userland threads correspond to ''n'' kernel threads. Many other new features are [[security]] related. The [[TrustedBSD]] project was formed by [[Robert Watson]] for the express purpose of adding trusted operating system functionality to the FreeBSD operating system. An extensible [[mandatory access control]] framework (the TrustedBSD MAC Framework), filesystem [[Access Control List]]s (ACLs) and the new [[UFS2]] filesystem all came from TrustedBSD. Some of the TrustedBSD functionality has been integrated into the [[NetBSD]] and [[OpenBSD]] operating systems as well.
FreeBSD 5 has also significantly changed the block I/O layer with the introduction of the GEOM modular disk I/O request transformation framework, contributed by Poul-Henning Kamp. GEOM enables the simple creation of many kinds of functionality, such as mirroring (gmirror) and encryption (gbde). The recent release of FreeBSD 5.4 has confirmed the FreeBSD 5.x branch as a highly stable and well-performing release, albeit one with a long gestation period due to the large feature set.
== FreeBSD 6 and 7 ==
FreeBSD 6.0 was released on [[November 4]] [[2005]], and 7.0-CURRENT is under development. These versions continue the work on SMP and threading optimization, as well as additional work in the area of advanced 802.11 functionality, [[TrustedBSD]] security event auditing, etc. The primary release accomplishments of this release include the removal of the Giant lock from VFS, replacement of the libthr library with a better performing implementation of 1:1 threading, and the addition of a [[BSM]] audit implementation, called [[OpenBSM]], created by the TrustedBSD Project which is heavily based upon the BSM implementation found in Apple's Open Source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] which has been released under a [[BSD license|BSD-style license]].
== Ports collection ==
The FreeBSD [[ports collection|Ports Collection]] provides an easy and consistent way of installing software ported to FreeBSD. It uses [[Makefile]]s laid out in a directory hierarchy, so software can be installed and deinstalled with the make command.
When installing an application, very little (if any) user intervention is required after issuing the initial command. In most cases, the application is automatically downloaded from the [[Internet]], patched and configured if necessary, compiled, installed, and registered in the package database. Any dependencies on other applications or libraries a port may have are also installed for the user.
Each port, or software package, is maintained by a "port maintainer", an individual who is responsible for staying current with the latest software developments. Anyone is welcome to become a port maintainer by contributing their favorite piece of software to the collection. One may also choose to adopt and maintain an existing port that has no maintainership.
Due to the size of the Ports Collection, with new software being contributed on a regular basis [http://www.freebsd.org/ports/growth/status.png], many users will never have to look elsewhere for third party applications. As of [[January 12]] [[2006]], there are over 14,000 pieces of software available in the collection.
Precompiled (binary) ports are called "packages", and are available for download.
The pre-compiled packages are generally separated into three sections, one intended for use with the 4.x code branch (4.9-RELEASE, 4.10-RELEASE, 4.11-RELEASE, 4.11-STABLE) another for use with the 5.x branch, and a third for use with the new 6.0-RELEASE branch. In almost all cases, a package created for the 4.x branch of FreeBSD can be installed in versions 5.2.1-RELEASE and beyond without difficulty.
If you know the name of the package you would like to install, the installation can be entirely automated by passing the package name to the ''pkg_add -r'' command. The appropriate package for your release will then be downloaded and installed along with any software dependencies it may have. By default, packages will be downloaded from the main FreeBSD distribution site.
== Linux compatibility ==
FreeBSD provides binary compatibility with several other [[Unix-like]] [[operating systems]], including [[Linux]]. The reasoning behind this is generally attributed to being able to run applications developed for Linux, often commercial, that are only distributed in binary form and thus cannot be ported to FreeBSD without the will of those who control the source code.
In a nutshell, it allows FreeBSD users to run a majority of the applications that are only distributed as Linux binaries. When compared to the vast number of native applications available for FreeBSD using the Ports Collection, these applications are in the minority. Applications used under the Linux compatibility layer include [[StarOffice]], the Linux version of [[Netscape]], [[Adobe Acrobat]], [[RealPlayer]], [[VMware]], [[Oracle_Database|Oracle]], [[WordPerfect]], [[Skype]], [[Doom 3]], [[Quake 4]], the [[Unreal_series#The_Unreal_Tournament_series|Unreal Tournament series]], [[Beonex]] and so on. Generally, there seems to b |
)|African American]], 0.59% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 4.72% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.07% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 16.23% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.99% from two or more races. 30.55% of the population are [[Hispanic American]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
There are 265,649 households out of which 26.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.1% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 10.8% have a female householder with no husband present, and 46.7% are non-families. 32.8% of all households are made up of individuals and 4.6% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.40 and the average family size is 3.14.
In the city the population is spread out with 22.5% under the age of 18, 16.6% from 18 to 24, 37.1% from 25 to 44, 17.1% from 45 to 64, and 6.7% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 30 years. For every 100 females there are 105.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 105.7 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $42,689, and the median income for a family is $54,091. Males have a median income of $35,545 vs. $30,046 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $24,163. 14.4% of the population and 9.1% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 16.5% of those under the age of 18 and 8.7% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. From the year 2000 to 2005, the median house price in Austin grew 34%. In 2005, the median house price for the city is $136,278. Average rents in Austin in 2005 were $622 for a one bedroom apartment, and $805 for a two bedroom apartment [http://www.apartmentratings.com/rate/TX-Austin-Pricing.html].
==People and culture==
[[Image:Sixth Street Austin.jpg|thumb|right|When the sun goes down, the sights and sounds of the pubs, restaurants and nightclubs on 6th street come alive]]
Austin has a vibrant live [[Music of Austin|music scene]] (boasting more music venues per capita than any other U.S. city) revolving around many [[nightclub]]s on [[6th Street (Austin)|6th Street]] and an annual [[film]]/[[music]]/[[multimedia]] festival known as [[South by Southwest]]. The longest-running concert music program on American television, ''[[Austin City Limits]]'', is videotaped on the [[University of Texas at Austin]] campus. ''Austin City Limits'' and [[Waterloo Records]] run the [[Austin City Limits Music Festival]], an annual music and art festival held at [[Zilker Park]] in Austin. Other annual events include [[Eeyore's Birthday Party]] in April and [[Carnaval]] in February.
Austinites take great pride in being eccentric and celebrate the differences between themselves and other U.S. cities. "[[Keep Austin Weird]]" has become a local [[motto]] in recent years, featured on innumerable bumper stickers and t-shirts. This motto has not only been used in promoting Austin's eccentricity and diversity, but is also meant to bolster support of local and independent businesses. Another prime example of Austin's "weirdness" is [[Leslie Cochran]], a [[vagrant]] [[drag queen|transvestite]] who has run for mayor multiple times and, in Cochran's best showing, received 7.77% of the vote in [[2000]].
Famous Austin residents include cyclist [[Lance Armstrong]], businessman [[Michael Dell]], tennis player [[Andy Roddick]], actors [[Sandra Bullock]], [[Matthew McConaughey]] and [[Angela Bettis]], musicians [[Willie Nelson]] and [[Terry Bozzio]], cartoonist and filmmaker [[Mike Judge]], directors [[Terrence Malick]], [[Richard Linklater]] and [[Robert Rodriguez]], and [[science fiction]] writer [[Bruce Sterling]]. Former residents include [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] and [[George W. Bush]]. Austin was also the longtime home of the late blues guitarist [[Stevie Ray Vaughan]]. Rock singer [[Janis Joplin]] lived in Austin for several years and played one of her first gigs at Threadgill's (a local restaurant and bar).
==Architectural landmarks==
[[Image:Moonlight tower.jpg|thumb|60px|A moonlight tower]]
Buildings that comprise Austin's skyline are modest in height and somewhat spread out. The latter characteristic is due to a restriction that preserves the view of the Texas Capitol building from various locations around Austin. Austin's current tallest building, the Frost Bank Tower, opened in 2004 and stands at 515 feet.
The Congress Avenue Bridge houses the world's largest urban bat population, which has become a favorite with locals and tourists alike. In the summer, the colony has up to 1.5 million [[Mexican Free-tailed Bat]]s; in the winter they migrate to Mexico.
The iconic [[Pennybacker Bridge]], also known as the "360 Bridge," crosses Lake Austin to connect north and south [[Texas Loop 360|Loop 360]].
At night, parts of Austin are lit with "artificial moonlight." Several [[moonlight tower]]s, built in the late 19th century and recognized as historic landmarks, illuminate the central part of the city. The towers were prominently featured in the film ''[[Dazed and Confused (movie)|Dazed and Confused]]''. The "Zilker Tree" is a [[Christmas]] "tree" made of large lights strung from the top of the Moonlight Tower that stands in [[Zilker Park]]. The Zilker Tree is lit in early December along with the "Trail of Lights," an Austin Christmas tradition.
==Education==
[[Image:Utcampus_night.jpg|250px|thumb|left|[[University of Texas at Austin|The University of Texas at Austin]]]]
Austin is home to [[University of Texas at Austin|The University of Texas at Austin]], the largest university in the state of Texas and flagship institution of [[University of Texas System|The University of Texas System]], also the largest state system of higher education in Texas. Other institutions of higher learning include [[Austin Community College]], [[Concordia University (Austin)|Concordia University]], [[Huston-Tillotson University]] and [[St. Edward's University]].
Most of the city is covered by the [[Austin Independent School District]]. Parts of Austin are served by other districts, including [[Round Rock Independent School District]], [[Pflugerville Independent School District]], [[Leander Independent School District]], and [[Eanes Independent School District]].
==Media and entertainment==
The University of Texas at Austin has an outstanding [http://rtf.utexas.edu/ Department of Radio-Television-Film] and, partly because of this, Austin has been the location of a number of movies, including ''[[Man of the House (2005 comedy film)|Man of the House]]'', ''[[Secondhand Lions]]'', ''[[Waking Life]]'', ''[[Spy Kids]]'', ''[[Dazed and Confused (movie)|Dazed and Confused]]'', ''[[Office Space]]'', ''[[The Life of David Gale]]'', ''[[Miss Congeniality]]'', ''[[Doubting Thomas]]'' and ''[[Slacker (movie)|Slacker]]''. In order to draw future film projects to the area, the [[Austin Film Society]] has converted several disused buildings from the now-defunct Mueller Airport into a state-of-the-art digital filmmaking center known as [[Austin Studios]]. Among the projects to have used facilities at Austin Studios are music videos by [[The Flaming Lips]], and feature films such as ''[[25th Hour]]'' and ''[[Sin City (film)|Sin City]]''.
Austin is home to several well-known directors, including [[Robert Rodriguez]], [[Richard Linklater]] and [[Tim McCanlies]]. It is also home to several other entertainers including [[Sandra Bullock]], [[Willie Nelson]], [[Shawn Colvin]] and [[Sara Hickman]]. Austin hosts the annual [[Austin Film Festival]], as well as the [[South by Southwest]] festival, which draw films of many different types from all over the world. In 2004 the city was first in ''Moviemaker Magazine's'' annual top ten cities to live and make movies. Austin also hosts the annual [[Austin City Limits Music Festival]], which attracts musical artists from around the world. The 2005 festival included Oasis, Coldplay and Franz Ferdinand.
[[MTV]] taped an [[Austin Season (The Real World)|Austin season]] of its hit [[reality television]] series ''[[The Real World]]'' in 2005.
Austin is also a center for the art of [[magic (illusion)|magic]]. Magician and actor [[Harry Anderson]] once called Austin home. Anderson's long-time collaborator Turk Pipkin is still a local resident. Magician [http://www.petertheadequate.com/ Peter the Adequate], who performs in [[Branson, Missouri]], developed a good deal of his unique style in Austin. Austin is also home to Ron Cartlidge, noted expert on [[Houdini]] and avid magic collector. Cartlidge has documented Houdini's tours in Texas, including two appearances in Austin, in his book ''Houdini's Texas Tours - 1916 &amp; 1923''.
==Sports==
Among the professional sports teams in Austin are the [[Austin Ice Bats]] of the [[Central Hockey League]], the [[Austin Wranglers]] of the [[Arena Football League]], and the [[Austin Toros]] of the [[National Basketball Development League|NBDL]]. The [[Round Rock Express]], affiliated with the [[Houston Astros]], are located in nearby [[Round Rock, Texas]] and play Triple-A baseball in the [[Pacific Coast League]]. Austin is also home to the [[Texas Longhorn Athletics|University of Texas Longhorns]] who recently won the 2005 [[College World Series]] (baseball) and 2005 [[NCAA Division I-A national football championship|National Championship]] in the [[Rose Bowl Game|Rose Bowl]] (football).
==Transportation==
Austin is served by these major highways: [[Interstate 35]]; U.S. Highways [[U.S. Highway 183|183]] and [[U.S. Highway 290|290]]; Texas State Highways [[Texas State Highway 45|45]], [[Texas State Highway 71|71]], [[Texas State Highway 130|130]], [[Texas State Highway Loop 1|Loop 1/MoPac]] and [[Texas State Highway Loop 360|Loop 360]].
[[Capital Metropolitan Transportation Authority]], or Capital Metro, provides p |
0806250283
*David Bevington and Eric Rasmussen, ''Doctor Faustus and Other Plays'', OUP, 1998; ISBN 0192834452
*J. A. Downie and J. T. Parnell, eds., ''Constructing Christopher Marlowe'', Cambridge 2000. ISBN 052157255X
*Constance Kuriyama,''Christopher Marlowe: A Renaissance Life''. Cornell University Press, 2002. ISBN 0801439787
*Charles Nicholl, ''The Reckoning: The Murder of Christopher Marlowe'', Vintage, 2002 (revised edition) ISBN 0099437473
*Alan Shepard, "Marlowe's Soldiers: Rhetorics of Masculinity in the Age of the Armada", Ashgate, 2002. ISBN 075460229
*M. J. Trow, ''Who Killed Kit Marlowe?'', Sutton, 2002; ISBN 0750929634
*[[Anthony Burgess]], ''A Dead Man in Deptford'', Carroll & Graf, 2003. (novel about Marlowe based on the version of events in ''The Reckoning'') ISBN 0786711523
*David Riggs, "The World of Christopher Marlowe", Henry Holt and Co., 2005 ISBN 0805080368
*Louise Walsh "Tamburlaine Must Die", novella based around the build up to Marlowe's death.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
*An [http://search.eb.com/shakespeare/micro/377/43.html article on Marlowe] at Encyclopaedia Britannica's [http://search.eb.com/shakespeare/index2.html Shakespeare and the Globe]
*[http://www.marlowe-society.org The Marlowe Society]
*[http://www.marlovian.com Marlowe Lives!]
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/Texts/Marlowe.html The works of Marlowe at Perseus Project]
*[http://www.classic-literature.co.uk/british-authors/16th-century/christopher-marlowe/ Christopher Marlowe Books]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Christopher_Marlowe|name=Christopher Marlowe}}
*[http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/index.htm Peter Farey's Marlowe Page] includes a factual [http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/biog.htm biography] and reproduces the documents concerning Marlowe as well as his complete works (but also contains material related to the [[Shakespearean authorship]] question)
*[http://www.masoncode.com/Marlowe%20wrote%20Shakespeare's%20Sonnets.htm Peter Bull] presents a case for Marlowe as the true author of Shakespeare's Sonnets.
*[http://www.nakedtheatre.co.uk/ The Opposite of Showbusiness]: a play by [[Jim Grover (playwright)|Jim Grover]] in which it suggested that Marlowe was killed by [[Edward Alleyn]]
[[Category:1564 births|Marlowe, Christopher]]
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[[Category:Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge|Marlowe, Christopher]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cricket (disambiguation)</title>
<id>5772</id>
<revision>
<id>36203288</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-22T09:59:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Visor</username>
<id>261330</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|cricket}}
'''Cricket''' may refer to
*[[Cricket (insect)]]
*[[Cricket (darts)]]
*[[Cri-cri]], Cricket airplane
*[[Cricket (magazine)]]
*[[Plymouth Cricket]], an automobile
*[[Cricket (software)]], software for monitoring trends in time-series data, using [[RRDtool]]
*[[Cricket St Thomas]], a village in Somerset, England
*''[[Chrz&#261;szcz]]'', Jan Brzechwa's poem translated into English by Walter Whipple and called "Cricket"
*[[The Crickets]], a rock and roll band formed by Buddy Holly
*[[Cricket Communications]]
*[[Cricket (roofing)]]
A '''sport''':
*[[Cricket]], general article
**[[Beach cricket]]
**[[Car cricket]]
**[[Club cricket]]
**[[County cricket]]
**[[French cricket]]
**[[First-class cricket]]
**[[Indoor cricket]]
**[[Kwik cricket]]
**[[List A cricket]]
**[[One-day cricket]]
**[[One-day international|One-day international cricket]]
**[[Short form cricket]]
**[[Test cricket]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Carroll OConnor</title>
<id>5773</id>
<revision>
<id>15903967</id>
<timestamp>2003-06-14T01:54:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jtdirl</username>
<id>5511</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Carroll O'Connor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cricket/Fielding positions</title>
<id>5774</id>
<revision>
<id>15903968</id>
<timestamp>2004-10-14T19:50:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jguk 2</username>
<id>104210</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fielding (cricket)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Caving</title>
<id>5776</id>
<revision>
<id>41396718</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T01:30:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>136.227.180.43</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Cave conservation */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cave stream New Zealand.jpg|thumb|300px|Inside the cave at Cave Stream, New Zealand]]
'''Caving''' is the recreational [[sport]] of exploring [[cave]]s.
The challenges of the sport depend on the cave being visited, but often include the negotiation of [[Pitch (vertical space)|pitches]], [[Squeeze (caving)|squeeze]]s, and [[water]]. [[Climbing]] or [[crawling (locomotion)|crawling]] is often necessary, and [[rope]]s are used extensively.
Caving is often undertaken solely for the enjoyment of the activity or for physical exercise, but original exploration, or physical or biological science is an important goal for many cavers. Unexplored cave systems comprise some of the last unexplored regions on [[Earth]] and much effort is put into trying to locate and enter them. In well-explored regions (such as most first-world countries), the most accessible caves have already been explored, and gaining new caves often requires [[Cave digging|digging]] or [[cave diving|diving]].
Caves have been explored out of necessity for thousands of years, but only in the last century or two has the activity become a sport. In recent decades caving has changed considerably due to the availability of modern protective wear and equipment. It has recently come to be known as an "[[extreme sport]]" by some (though not commonly by its practitioners).
Many of the skills of caving can also be used in the sports of [[mine exploration]] and [[urban exploration]].
[[Image:Cavers-MushroomCave-May04-a.jpg|thumb|right|450px|Caving often involves lots of water, mud, and tight places.]]
==Naming issues==
Clay Perry--an American caver of the 1940s--wrote about a group of men and boys who explored and studied caves throughout [[New England]]. This group referred to themselves as ''spelunkers''. This is regarded as the first use of the word in the [[Americas]]. Throughout the 1950s, ''spelunking'' was the general term used for exploring caves in US English. It was used freely, without any positive or negative connotations, although only rarely outside the US.
In the 1960s, the term "spelunking" began to convey the idea of inexperienced cavers, using unreliable light sources and cotton clothing. In 1985, [[Steve Knutson]] (editor of ''American Caving Accidents'') made the following distinction:
:''"...Note that I use the term 'spelunker' to denote someone untrained and unknowledgeable in current exploration techniques, and 'caver' for those who are."''
This sentiment is exemplified by bumper stickers and t-shirts displayed by many cavers: "Cavers rescue spelunkers".
''Potholing'' refers to the act of exploring [[pothole]]s, a word originating in the North of [[England]] for predominantly vertical caves. The term is often used as a synonym for caving, and outside the caving world there is a general impression that potholing is a more "extreme" version of caving.
==Practice and equipment==
[[Helmet]]s are worn to protect the head from bumps and falling rocks. The caver's primary light source is usually mounted on the helmet in order to keep the hands free. Electric lights are most common, with [[halogen lamp]]s being standard and white [[LED]]s as the new competing technology. Many cavers wear two sources of light on their helmet - one as primary and the other as a backup light in case the first fails. [[Carbide]]-based systems are still popular, especially on [[expedition]]s. Spare flashlights are often kept, but it is not recommended to use anything bigger than a mini-mag (a very small version of the popular [[Maglite]] flashlight).
The type of [[clothes]] worn underground varies according to the environment of the cave being explored and the local culture. Typically, the caver will wear a warm base layer that retains its insulating properties when wet, such as a [[fleece]] ("furry") suit or polypropylene underwear, and an oversuit of hard-wearing (e.g., [[cordura]]) and/or waterproof (e.g., [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]]) material. [[Wetsuit]]s are worn if the cave is particularly wet, and lighter clothing may be worn in warm countries if the cave is dry. In tropical caves thin polypropylene clothing is used, to provide abrasion protection whilst remaining as cool as possible.
On the feet [[boots]] are worn (such as [[wellies]]), and often [[neoprene]] socks ("wetsocks"). [[Knee]]-pads (and sometimes [[elbow]]-pads) are popular for protecting joints during crawls. Gloves are almost always worn.
Ropes are used for descending or ascending pitches ("[[Single Rope Technique]]") or for protection. [[Knot]]s |
is 'full of hatred for America'] &mdash; [[18 September]] [[2005]]
===Personal sites===
* [http://www.miketodd.net/other/bhhistory/ Broadcasting House - a potted history]
* [http://www.roger.beckwith.btinternet.co.uk/bh/bh32/bh32_i.htm Broadcasting House in 1932]
* [http://www.htw.info/bbc.html Historical Television Website: ''This is the BBC'']
* [http://www.tv-ark.org.uk TV Ark - The British Television Museum]
* [http://www.globalcitizen.co.uk/about/essays/bbc.doc Essay examining the reasons for and against the licence fee]
* [http://www.thetvroom.com The TV Room]
[[Category:1927 establishments]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>BBC Radio 1</title>
<id>4348</id>
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<id>41700031</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T03:37:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DHowell</username>
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<minor />
<comment>remove redundant parent category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Radio Station
| name = BBC Radio 1
| image = [[Image:BBC Radio 1.png|200px|Radio 1 logo]]
| area = [[UK]] - National [[FM]] & [[Digital Audio Broadcasting|DAB]] <br> [[United States|US]]/[[Canada]] - [[Sirius Satellite Radio]]
| airdate = [[September 30]] [[1967]]
| frequency = 97 [[megahertz|MHz]] - 99 MHz <small>(UK)</small><br>XS11 <small>(Sirius)</small>
| format = Contemporary
| owner = [[BBC]]
| website = [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio1 www.bbc.co.uk/radio1]
}}
'''BBC Radio 1''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[radio station]], specialising in [[popular music]] aimed at the 16-24 age bracket. Radio 1 was launched at 7am on [[September 30]], [[1967]] as a direct response to the popularity of offshore [[pirate radio]] stations such as [[Radio Caroline]].
==History==
The first DJ to broadcast on the new station was [[Tony Blackburn]], whose cheery style won him the prime slot on what became known as the "Radio 1 Breakfast Show". The first words spoken on Radio 1 were "... And, good morning everyone. Welcome to the exciting new sound of Radio 1". The first record played on Radio 1 was ''Flowers in the Rain'' by [[The Move]]. The breakfast programme remains the most prized slot in the Radio 1 schedules, with every change of presenter exciting considerable media interest.
The initial rota of staff included the legendary [[John Peel]] (with the station until his death in October 2004) and a gaggle of others, some hired from pirates, such as [[Ed Stewart]], [[Terry Wogan]], [[Jimmy Young (disc jockey)|Jimmy Young]], [[Dave Cash (disc jockey)|Dave Cash]], [[Kenny Everett]], [[Simon Dee]], [[Pete Murray (disc jockey)|Pete Murray]], and [[Bob Holness]].
Radio 1 initially broadcast on 1214 kHz [[mediumwave]] (or 247 metres as it was referred to at the time) and moved to 1053/1089 kHz (275/285 metres) in [[1978]] (it was the only BBC National station without a dedicated [[FM]] frequency). In the [[1970s]] and early [[1980s]] it was allowed to take over [[BBC Radio 2|Radio 2's]] FM transmitters for a few hours per week, most notably for the Top 40 Singles Chart on Sunday afternoons and for some evening programmes including [[John Peel]]'s show. In [[1988]] the 97–99 MHz frequencies became available when the existing [[police]] communication allocation changed, and Radio 1 acquired them for its own national FM network. Its old mediumwave frequencies were reallocated to commercial stations in [[1994]] (Radio 1's last broadcast on MW was on [[July 1]] that year, with [[Stephen Duffy]]'s "Kiss Me" being the last record played on MW just before 9am). In the [[1990s]] it also began broadcasting on spare audio subcarriers on [[Sky Television plc|Sky Television]]'s analogue satellite service, initially in mono (on [[UK Gold]]) and later in stereo (on [[UK Living]]). Today it can be heard on [[Digital Audio Broadcast|DAB]], [[Freeview]], [[NTL]] and [[Telewest Broadband]] [[cable television]] services, [[Sky Digital]] and the [[Internet]] as well as FM. In July of [[2005]], [[Sirius Satellite Radio]] began [[simulcast|simulcasting]] Radio 1 across the [[United States]] on channel 11, and [[Sirius Canada]] began simulcasting Radio 1 when they launched on [[December 1]], 2005 (also on channel 11). The simulcast is [[timeshift|timeshifted]] five hours to allow US and Canadian listeners in the [[Eastern Time Zone]] to hear Radio 1 at the same time of day as UK listeners.
There were major changes to the station in the mid 1990s by the then controller, [[Matthew Bannister]]. He led a campaign to rid the station of its '[[Smashie and Nicey]]' image and revert it to a youth station catering for the under 25s. Although originally launched as a youth station, by the early 1990s, its loyal listeners (and DJs) had aged with the station over its 25 year history. Bannister had a ruthless purge of the older DJs and banned old music (typically anything recorded before 1990) from the daytime playlist. Listeners rebelled as the first new DJs to be introduced represented a crossover from other parts of the BBC media empire with [[Emma Freud]] and [[Danny Baker]]. Bannister promoted [[Chris Evans (British broadcaster)|Chris Evans]] to the prime morning slot even though Evans' own media interests were in conflict with the public benefit remit of the station. Evans was eventually sacked in [[1997]], and was replaced by [[Mark and Lard]] - [[Mark Radcliffe]] (along with his sidekick [[Marc Riley]]), who was in turn replaced by [[Zoe Ball]] and [[Kevin Greening]] just 6 months later in October 1997. The re-invention of the station happened at a fortuitous time, with the rise of [[Britpop]] in the early 90s - bands like Oasis, Blur and Pulp were both popular and 'credible' at the time and the station's popularity rose with them. As the 90s went on the Britpop boom declined and manufactured chart pop ([[boy bands]] and acts aimed at sub-teenagers) came to dominate the charts Radio 1 found itself again in the position it had been in in the late 80s, where bland playlisted chart music dominated the daytime shows and new genre music occupied the evenings.
Listening figures continued to decline but the station succeeded in its aim to target a younger age group. Eventually, this change in content was reflected by a rise in audience that is continuing to the day. Notably, the station has received praise for shows such as [[The Sunday Surgery]], [[Bobby Friction]] and [[Nihal]], ''The Evening Session'' with [[Steve Lamacq]] and its succesor [[Zane Lowe]]. Its [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio1/ website] has also been well received.
A new evening evening schedule introduced in recently divides up the week by genres; Tuesday is mainly rock-oriented, Wednesday is R&B and hip-hop, Thursday is dance, Friday and Saturday are primarily dance with specialist R&B and reggae shows.
However, the station's two showcase shows, the breakfast show and the [[UK Top 40]] continued to struggle. In 2000, Zoe Ball was replaced in the mornings by friend and fellow [[ladette]] [[Sara Cox]], but despite heavy promotion listening figures for the iconic breakfast show continued to fall. In 2004 Cox was replaced by [[Chris Moyles]]. The new rebranded breakfast show is known as [[The Chris Moyles Show]] and has dramatically increased its audience to challenge [[Today programme|''Today'' programme]] on [[BBC Radio 4|Radio 4]] as the second most popular breakfast show (after [[Terry Wogan]]). The chart show has struggled as single sales in the UK fell and [[Wes Butters]] unsuccesfully replaced long-time host [[Mark Goodier]]. Current hosts [[JK and Joel]] now present only the second most popular radio chart show, but the 'official' Radio 1 chart (compiled by [[The Official UK Charts Company]]) remains the standard measure of Single sales success in the [[UK]].
Many of the DJs either ousted by Bannister or who left during his tenure (such as [[Johnnie Walker (DJ)|Johnnie Walker]] and [[Steve Wright]]) have subsequently joined [[Radio 2]] which has now overtaken Radio 1 as the UK's most popular radio station, using a style that Radio 1 had up until the early 1990s.
==Music==
Radio 1 is notable for the range of music it plays. While most commercial stations concentrate on a particular theme, such as [[1980s]] music or "classic rock", Radio 1 plays a diverse mix of current songs, including [[indie rock|independent]]/alternative, rock, [[house music|house]]/electronica, drum 'n' bass, world, [[pop music|pop]] and [[rapping|rap]].
Due to restrictions on the amount of commercial music that could be played on radio in the UK until 1988 (the so-called "needle time" limitation) the station has recorded a great many live performances and studio sessions over the years, many of which have subsequently (and perhaps ironically) found their way onto commercially-available LPs and CDs. There have also been innumerable [[rockumentary]] shows and interviews. Although this type of programming arose from necessity it has given the station some much-needed diversity. The needletime restrictons meant that the station tended to have a higher level of speech by DJ's. While the station is often criticised for (often banal) "waffling" by presenters, an experimental "more music day" in 1988 was declared |
n and Edward Walter Fryer, a 24 year old [[Canada|Canadian]] pilot. Fryer returned to his wife in Canada prior to Clapton's birth.
Clapton grew up with his [[grandparent]]s, believing they were his parents and that his mother was his older sister. Years later his mother married another Canadian soldier, moved to Canada and left Eric with his grandparents. When Clapton was 9 years old he discovered this family secret, and the experience became a defining moment in his life.
Clapton grew up a self-confessed "nasty kid". In his high school years he attended the [[Hollyfield School]] in [[Surbiton]]. His first job was as a postman. Influenced by the [[blues]] from an early age, at age 13 Clapton recieved an [[Acoustic Guitar]] for his birthday, but he found learning the instrument so difficult he nearly gave up. After high school, Clapton studied [[stained-glass]] design at [[Kingston University|Kingston Art School]] but was later kicked out for playing his guitar during class. Clapton joined his first band at 17 and stayed with this band - the early British R&B outfit [[The Roosters]] - from January through to August [[1963]]. During his time with the band, Clapton frequently jammed in London clubs with future members of the [[Rolling Stones]]. Clapton did a seven-gig stint with Casey Jones and the Engineers, a Top 40 band, in September 1963.
=== The Yardbirds & John Mayall and the Bluesbreakers ===
[[Image:Clapton is God Graffiti.jpg|frame|right|An example of the famous "''Clapton is God''" graffiti craze]]
Clapton joined [[The Yardbirds]], a [[blues]]-influenced [[rock and roll]] band in [[1963]] and stayed with them until [[1965]]. Synthesising influences from Chicago blues and leading blues guitarists such as [[B.B. King]] and [[Freddie King]], Clapton forged a distinctive style and he rapidly became one of the most talked-about guitarists in the British music scene. The band initially played all strict blues covers of [[Chess Records|Chess]]/[[Checker Records|Checker]]/[[Vee-Jay Records|Vee-Jay]] material and began to attract a large cult following when they took over the [[Rolling Stones]]' residency at the [[Crawdaddy Club]] in [[Richmond upon Thames|Richmond]]. They toured Europe with American bluesman [[Sonny Boy Williamson]]; a joint LP under both their names was issued in [[1966]]. In August 1965, the band's first solo album ''[[For Your Love]]'' yielded the eponymous pop hit "''For Your Love''".
Still obstinately dedicated to his roots in blues, Clapton took strong exception to the Yardbirds' new pop-orientated direction, partly because "''For Your Love''" had been written by pop songwriter-for-hire [[Graham Gouldman]], who had also written hits for teen pop outfit [[Herman's Hermits]] and harmony pop band [[The Hollies]]. He reportedly refused to play on the single and quit the band as soon as it had been recorded in 1965. He recommended his friend [[Jimmy Page]] as his replacement, but Page was at that time unwilling to relinquish his lucrative career as a freelance studio musician, so Page in turn recommended Clapton's successor: [[Jeff Beck]] (although Page would also eventually join the band).
After a spell working in a laboring job and months of intensive practice, Clapton joined [[John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers]]. His emotional playing on their hugely influential first album (which features Clapton reading a copy of the ''[[The Beano|Beano]]'' on the cover) established his name as a blues player ''par excellence'', and it inspired a short-lived craze of [[graffiti]] that deified him with the famous slogan "''Clapton is God''".
=== Cream ===
Clapton left the Bluesbreakers in mid-[[1966]] (to be replaced by [[Peter Green (musician)|Peter Green]]) and then formed [[Cream (band)|Cream]], one of the earliest examples of a [[Supergroup (bands)|supergroup]]. Cream was also one of the earliest "power trios", with [[Jack Bruce]] (also of [[Manfred Mann]] and the [[Graham Bond Organisation]]) and [[Ginger Baker]] (another member of the GBO). During his time with Cream, Clapton began to develop as a singer and songwriter, as well as guitarist, though Bruce, one of rock's most powerful singers, took most of the lead vocals and wrote the majority of the material with lyricist [[Pete Brown]]. Debuting at the [[Windsor Jazz and Blues Festival]], Cream established an enduring legend on the high-volume blues jamming and extended solos of their live shows, while their studio work was more sophisticated and original rock.
[[Image:Claptonsixties.jpg|thumb|left|205px|Eric Clapton with his [[Gibson SG]] whilst in supergroup [[Cream (band)|Cream]]]]
In early [[1967]], Clapton's status as Britain's top guitarist was shaken by the arrival of [[Jimi Hendrix]]. Hendrix attended a performance of the newly-formed Cream at the [[London Polytechnic|Central London Polytechnic]] on [[October 1]], 1966, during which Hendrix sat in on a shattering double-timed version of ''Killing Floor''. Clapton immediately realized that he had a new and almost unbeatable competitor, whose dazzling showmanship was matched by his staggering ability as a guitarist. Hendrix's early club performances were avidly attended by top UK stars including Clapton, [[Pete Townshend]] and [[The Beatles]]. Hendrix's arrival had an immediate and major effect on the next phase of Clapton's career.
Cream's repertoire varied from [[Pop music|pop]] soul ("''[[I Feel Free]]''") to lengthy blues-based instrumental jams ("''Spoonful''") and featured Clapton's searing guitar lines, Bruce's soaring vocals and prominent, fluid bass playing, and Baker's powerful, polyrhythmic jazz-influenced drumming.
In a mere three years Cream had immense commercial success, selling 15 million records and playing to standing-room only crowds throughout the U.S. and Europe. They redefined the instrumentalist's role in rock and were one the first bands to emphasize musical virtuosity, skill and flash. Their U.S. hit singles include "''[[Sunshine Of Your Love]]''" (#5, 1968), "''[[White Room]]''" (#6, 1968) and "''[[Crossroads (song)|Crossroads]]''" (#28, 1969) - a live cover version of [[Robert Johnson]]'s "''Cross Road Blues''".
Although Cream was hailed as one of the greatest groups of its day, and the adulation of Clapton as guitar hero reached new heights, the band was destined to be short-lived. The legendary in-fighting between Bruce and Baker and growing tensions between all three members eventually led to Cream's demise. Another significant factor was a strongly critical [[Rolling Stone]] review of a concert of the group's second headlining U.S. tour, which affected Clapton profoundly. By this time he had also fallen deeply under the spell of the music of [[The Band]] after they had released the album ''[[Music From Big Pink]]'' and began to believe that rock music was heading in a new direction. He was so infatuated with them that he even asked to join them, but was turned down.
The valedictory ''Goodbye'' album featured live performances from Cream's farewell performance at the [[Royal Albert Hall]]; it was released shortly after Cream disbanded in [[1968]], and also featured the studio single "''[[Badge (song)|Badge]]''", co-written by Clapton and [[George Harrison]], whom he had met and become friends with after [[the Beatles]] had shared a bill with the Clapton-era Yardbirds at the [[London Palladium]]. (The chorus of "''Badge''" served as the basis for Harrison's later Beatles composition, "''[[Here Comes the Sun]]''", which Harrison reportedly composed in Clapton's back garden.) The close friendship between Clapton and Harrison also resulted in Clapton playing on Harrison's "''[[While My Guitar Gently Weeps]]''" from the Beatles' ''[[The Beatles (album)|White Album]]'' - according to some, a tactic intended to make the other Beatles take Harrison's song more seriously, but whatever the truth, by all accounts the presence of an outsider, especially of Clapton's calibre, had the effect of bringing harmony to the irritable band. At one point during the making of the ''White Album'', Harrison walked out after an argument and in his absence - fearing Harrison had gone for good and concerned that the album could not be completed - [[John Lennon]] proposed that Harrison be replaced by Clapton. In the same year of release as the ''White Album'', Harrison released his solo debut ''[[Wonderwall Music]]'' which became the first of many Harrison solo records to feature Clapton on guitar, who would go largely uncredited due to contractual restraints. The pair would often play live together as each other's guests, right up until Harrison's death in 2001 and the following [[Concert for George|tribute concert]] in his name, for which Clapton was one of the main performers and organizers.
Since their 1968 breakup, Cream briefly reunited in 1993 to perform at the ceremony inducting them into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. A full-scale reunion of the legendary trio took place in May 2005, with Clapton, Bruce and Baker playing 4 sold-out concerts at London's Royal Albert Hall (the scene of their 1968 farewell shows) and 3 more at New York's Madison Square Garden that October. Recordings from the London shows were [[Royal Albert Hall London May 2-3-5-6 2005|released on CD and DVD]] in September 2005.
=== Blind Faith & Delaney and Bonnie and Friends ===
A desultory spell in a second supergroup, the overhyped and shortlived [[Blind Faith]] (1969), which was composed of Cream drummer Baker, [[Steve Winwood]] of [[Traffic (band)|Traffic]] and [[Rick Grech]] of [[Family (band)|Family]], resulted in one patchy LP and one arena-circuit tour. The supergroup debuted before 100,000 fans in London's [[Hyde Park]] on June 7, 1969, and began a sold-out American tour in July before its one and only album had been |
is contemporaries. Prominent mathematical historian [[Eric Temple Bell]] estimated that had Gauss made known all of his discoveries, mathematics would have been advanced by fifty years. (Bell, 1937.)
Another criticism of Gauss is that he did not support the younger mathematicians who followed him. He rarely if ever collaborated with other mathematicians and was considered aloof and austere by many. Though he did take in a few students, Gauss was known to dislike teaching (it is said that he only attended a single scientific conference, which was in [[Berlin]] in 1828). However, several of his students turned out to be influential mathematicians, among them [[Richard Dedekind]] and [[Bernhard Riemann]].
Gauss was deeply religious and conservative. He supported monarchy and opposed [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] whom he saw as an outgrowth of [[revolution]]. <!-- ??? -->
==Commemorations==
From 1989 until the end of 2001, his portrait and a normal distribution curve were featured on the German ten-mark banknote. Germany has issued three stamps honouring Gauss, as well. The stamp pictured above, no. 725, was issued in 1955 on the hundredth anniversary of his death; two other stamps, no. 1246 and 1811, were issued in 1977, the 200th anniversary of his birth.
[[G. Waldo Dunnington]] was a lifelong student of Gauss. He wrote many articles, and a biography: ''Carl Frederick Gauss: Titan of Science.'' This book was reissued in 2003, after having been [[out of print]] for almost 50 years.
[[Gauss (crater)|Gauss crater]] on the [[Moon]] is named in honour of Carl F. Gauss, as is the [[asteroid]] [[1001 Gaussia]].
In Canadian junior high schools, an annual national mathematics competition administered by the [[University of Waterloo]] is named in honour of Gauss.
==See also==
* [[List of topics named after Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
==References==
* {{cite book
| last = Bell | first = E. T.
| chapter = Ch. 14: The Prince of Mathematicians: Gauss
| title = Men of Mathematics: The Lives and Achievements of the Great Mathematicians from Zeno to Poincaré
| location = New York
| publisher = Simon and Schuster
| pages = pp. 218–269
| date = 1986
| id = ISBN 0671464000
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Carl Friedrich Gauss
| url = http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/Vines/2977/gauss/english.html
| accessdate = June
| accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{planetmath reference | id = 5594 | title = Carl Friedrich Gauss }}
* {{cite journal
| last = Dunnington | first = G. Waldo.
| url = http://www.mathsong.com/cfgauss/Dunnington/1927/
| title = The Sesquicentennial of the Birth of Gauss
| journal = Scientific Monthly
| date = May, 1927 | volume = XXIV | pages = 402–414
| accessdate = [[29 June]] | accessyear = [[2005]]
}} Comprehensive biographical article.
* {{cite book
| last = Dunnington
| first = G. Waldo.
| title = Carl Friedrich Gauss: Titan of Science
| publisher = The Mathematical Association of America
| date = June 2003
| id = ISBN 0-88385-547-X
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Gauss
| first = Carl Friedrich
| others = tr. Arthur A. Clarke
| title = [[Disquisitiones Arithmeticae]]
| publisher = Yale University Press
| date = 1965
| id = ISBN 0300094736
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Hall
| first = T.
| title = Carl Friedrich Gauss: A Biography
| location = Cambridge, MA
| publisher = MIT Press
| date = 1970
| id = ISBN 0262080400
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Gauss and His Children
| url = http://www.gausschildren.org
| accessdate = June
| accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Simmons
| first = J.
| title = The Giant Book of Scientists: The 100 Greatest Minds of All Time
| location = Sydney
| publisher = The Book Company
| date = 1996
}}
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Biographies/GaussBio.htm Gauss biography]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Gauss}}
*{{MathGenealogy|id=18231}}
* [http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com/2005/06/carl-friedrich-gauss.html Carl Friedrich Gauss], covers topics in the history of Fermat's Last Theorem from Diophantus of Alexandria to Andrew Wiles.
* [http://www.gauss.info Gauss], general information, submit your site about Gauss.
* Obituary: [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0016//0000080.000.html MNRAS '''16''' (1856) 80]
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gant%27s_Augmentation Gant's Augmentation] of Gauss' Sum Formula
{{featured article}}
[[Category:1777 births|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:1855 deaths|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:18th century mathematicians|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:19th century mathematicians|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:Calculating prodigies|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:Christians in science|Gauss]]
[[Category:Contributors to differential geometry|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:German astronomers|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:German mathematicians|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:German physicists|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:German scientists|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:Number theorists|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cornish language</title>
<id>6130</id>
<revision>
<id>42071508</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:57:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adelphosadelphon</username>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">''For the Cornish-English dialect, see [[West Country dialects]]''
{{Infobox Language
|name=Cornish
|nativename=Kernewek, Kernowek, Curnoack
|familycolor=Indo-European
|states=[[United Kingdom]]
|region=[[Cornwall]]
|speakers=3,500 (estimate)
|fam2=[[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
|fam3=[[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
|fam4=[[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]]
|agency= [[Kesva an Taves Kernewek]]
|iso1=kw|iso2=cor|iso3=cor}}
The '''Cornish language''' (in Cornish: ''Kernowek'', ''Kernewek'', ''Curnoack'') is one of the [[Brythonic]] group of [[Celtic languages]] that includes [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Breton language|Breton]], the extinct [[Cumbric language|Cumbric]] and perhaps the hypothetical [[Ivernic]]. The Celtic languages of [[Scottish Gaelic]], [[Irish language|Irish]] and [[Manx language|Manx]] are part of the separate [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]] group. Cornish shares about 80% basic vocabulary with Breton, 75% with [[Welsh language|Welsh]], 35% with Irish, and 35% with Scottish Gaelic. By comparison, Welsh shares about 70% with Breton. Cornish ceased to function as a community language in the late 18th century, but was revived early in the 20th century. It has been estimated that currently around 3,500 speak Cornish to a basic conversational level, and 300-400 fluently. Perhaps a score or more children and young adults should be considered native speakers of Revived Cornish.
==History==
The proto-Cornish language came into being after the Southwest Britons of [[Somerset]], [[Dorset]], [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]] became geographically separated from the West Britons of later [[Wales]] after the [[Battle of Deorham]] in about 577. The area controlled by the Southwest Britons was progressively reduced by the expansion of [[Wessex]] over the next few centuries. Around 930, [[Cornwall]] was finally conquered by the Saxon king [[Athelstan of England|Athelstan]]. However, the Cornish language continued to flourish well through the Middle Ages, reaching a peak of about 38,000 speakers (estimated by [[Ken George]]) in the 13th century.
[[Image:Kornisch.png|right|thumb|250px|The shifting of the linguistic boundary in Cornwall 1300-1750]]
At the time of the [[Prayer Book Rebellion|Prayer Book rebellion]] of [[1549]], which was a reaction to Parliament passing the first [[Act of Uniformity]], people in many areas of Cornwall did not speak or understand [[English language|English]] (The intention of the Act was to replace worship in Latin with worship in English, which was assumed, by the lawmakers, to be universally spoken throughout England. Instead of simply banning Latin, however, the Act was framed so as to enforce English). In 1549, this imposition of a new language was sometimes a matter of life and death: over 4,000 people who protested against the imposition of an English Prayer book were massacred by the [[Edward VI of England|King]]'s army.
Their leaders were executed and the people suffered numerous reprisals.
The rebels' document claimed they wanted a return to the old religious services and ended 'We the Cornishmen (whereof certain of us understand no English) utterly refuse this new English'. (Altered spelling.) [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset|Edward Seymour]], Duke of [[Somerset]], replied to the Cornishmen, inquiring as to why they should be offended by services in English when they had them in Latin, which they also did not understand. Through many factors, including loss of life and the spread of English the Prayer Book Rebellion proved a turning point for the Cornish language. Indeed, some re |
t blithely orders a reluctant Darling to meet the others.) Blackadder's final line, said before this scene, offered after Baldrick claims to have one last plan to stop them going over the top (at which point a [[Regimental Sergeant Major|RSM]]-type command voice orders the men to "stand ready", then to ascend to the [[Trench warfare|fire step]], then to go "[[over the top]]"): "Well, I am afraid it will have to wait. Whatever it was I am sure it was better than my plan to get out of this by pretending to be mad. I mean, who would have noticed another madman around here? Good luck everyone." is particularly poignant and memorable. "Goodbyeee..." also had no closing titles, simply fading from Blackadder, Baldrick, George and Darling charging across No-Man's Land under fire, to a field of [[poppy|poppies]] in the sunlight, an obvious reference to the poem "[[In Flanders Fields]]". "Goodbyee" was also the title of a popular song during the First World War.
===Specials===
===="Blackadder: The Cavalier Years"====
This takes place at the time of the [[English Civil War]]. It is a short episode, shown as part of [[Comic Relief]]'s [[Red Nose Day]] in 1988.
The Episode begins in November 1648. King [[Charles I of England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]] has already lost the Civil War. Only two men remain loyal to him. Sir Edmund Blackadder, the sole descendant of the Blackadder dynasty at the time and his servant Baldrick, the only son of a pig farmer and a bearded lady (both according to the introduction). They have given refuge to the King in Blackadder Hall. Edmund remains loyal because as a known royalist he sees the King as his only hope of survival and also because of his fear of a hideous age of [[Puritanism]], full of moral prohibitions (as he describes it). During a short absence of Edmund, [[Oliver Cromwell]] himself arrives at Blackadder Hall, accompanied by a number of his [[Roundheads]]. He is personally investigating the King's whereabouts. Baldrick fails to convince him that he has no idea (by claiming he did not know and asking Cromwell later to put down a cup, "because it's the king's"). Between this and the following scene Cromwell discovers and arrests the King.
The second scene takes place in the [[Tower of London]], two weeks later. King Charles' praying is interrupted by two subsequent visits. The first by Cromwell who warns him of his doom and the second by Edmund, disguised as a priest. He informs the King that he is planning his escape. While Edmund is still there the King receives a notice that he has been sentenced to death. (Despite its placement in late November or early December 1648 within the context of this episode, historically King Charles' sentence to death came on [[January 27]], [[1649]]).
As [[January 29]], [[1649]] arrives and his execution approaches, King Charles is again visited by Edmund. Though his plans for an escape haven't materialised he informs the King that there is still some hope. The Parliament has yet to find a man willing to be the King's executioner. Charles, rather philosophically, proclaims that he isn't looking forward to his execution but "It's a question of balance, isn't it? Like so many other things" (Charles, played by [[Stephen Fry]] is very much a pastiche of his modern day namesake the [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince of Wales]]). Edmund proceeds in assuring Charles that no one would dare to become the King's executioner. Just as he says that, the King receives a notice that they found his executioner.
Back at Blackadder Hall, Baldrick is singing as Edmund proclaims his life to be in ruins. While Baldrick informs him that he has accepted a job, Edmund wonders who could be so utterly without heart and soul, so low and degraded as to behead the King of England. As his own words sink in, he proceeds in interrogating Baldrick who admits that it was he who accepted the position. Baldrick explains to the reasonably enraged Edmund that he has a plan to save the King. He presents Edmund with a huge pumpkin, painted to represent a human face. He plans to place it on the King's head and chop it instead. Edmund dismisses the plan as unconvincing as Baldrick will have to hold it in front of the crowd, which is sure to notice. Baldrick, though saddened, says that at least the money, £1000, is good. Edmund's greed awakes at this and he proceeds in taking the money from Baldrick and announcing that he would replace him as the executioner. (Historically King Charles' executioner was Richard Brandon.)
[[January 30]], [[1649]], King Charles' day of execution. King Charles is left alone for a few minutes with his executioner, Edmund in a hood and with a false voice. Edmund takes advantage of these minutes to relieve the King of his money bag. But the King finally recognizes him. He congratulates him for trying to save him even in the last minute and gives him custody of his infant son, the later King [[Charles II of England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]]. (Historically he was 19 years old at the time of his father's death). For lack of a better plan Edmund uses the one Baldrick had suggested. The camera then focuses to Baldrick who is listening at the sounds of the execution. Edmund chops the pumpkin and proclaims that "This is the head of a traitor". Predictably the crowd answers "No, it's not; it's a huge pumpkin with a pathetic moustache drawn on it". Edmund apologises and says he will try again. Baldrick still listens as Edmund beheads Charles and the crowd cheers.
As the last scene begins Edmund and Baldrick have returned to Blackadder Hall. A disgusted Edmund cradles the infant Charles in his hands. Baldrick tries to console him by saying that at least he tried and that now the future of the British monarchy lies fast asleep in his arms in the person of this infant prince. He suggests to his master that he should be ready to escape to France, because as a known loyalist he is in danger of being arrested by the Roundheads and beheaded. Edmund, who apparently had forgotten that he is in a position of danger, immediately rises from his seat, ready to take action. But before he can do anything. Roundheads are already at the Hall's doors demanding his surrender. Edmund explains to Baldrick that there is no choice for a man of honour but to stand and fight, and die in defence of his future sovereign. Fortunately for him, he was never a man of honour. Passing the prince to Baldrick, Edmund proceeds in removing his long black hair, apparently a wig, his false moustache and beard to reveal a Roundhead appearance - short blond hair and a clean-shaven face. Thus unrecognisable, when a Roundhead enters the room he denounces Baldrick as a "royalist scum". The episode ends with Baldrick, still holding the Prince in his arms, being approached by the Roundhead, sword drawn.
:BBC One, Friday [[February 5]], [[1988]], 9.45–10pm
===="Blackadder's Christmas Carol"====
''Main article:'' "[[Blackadder's Christmas Carol]]"
The second special was broadcast in 1988. In a twist on [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'', Ebenezer Blackadder is the "kindest and loveliest" man in England, and could be considered to be the 'white sheep' of the Blackadder Family. One of the ghosts that so effectively convinced Ebenezer Scrooge to change his miserly ways reluctantly displays for this Blackadder the contrary antics of his ancestors and descendants, causing him to proclaim, "Bad guys have all the fun."
:BBC One, Friday [[December 23]], [[1988]], 9.30–10.15pm
===="Blackadder and the King's Birthday"====
A short sketch with Rowan Atkinson as Lord Blackadder and [[Stephen Fry]] as King Charles II was performed at the [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince of Wales]]' 50th Birthday Gala. It was televised on [[ITV]] (in the UK) on [[14 November]] [[1998]].
===="Blackadder: The Army Years"====
The Royal Variety Performance 2000
A short sketch with Rowan Atkinson as the modern-day Lord Edmund Blackadder of Her Royal Highness's regiment of shirkers. The sketch was written and introduced by [[Ben Elton]].
===="Blackadder: Back & Forth"====
''Main article: [[Blackadder: Back & Forth]]''
''Blackadder: Back & Forth'' was originally shown in the [[Millennium Dome]] in 2000, followed by a screening on [[Sky One]] in the same year (and later on BBC1). It is set on the turn of the [[millennium]], and features Lord Blackadder placing a bet with his friends &mdash; modern versions of Queenie ([[Miranda Richardson]]), Melchett ([[Stephen Fry]]), George ([[Hugh Laurie]]) and Darling ([[Tim McInnerny]]) &mdash; that he has built a working [[time machine]]. While this is intended as a clever con trick, the machine, surprisingly, does work, sending Blackadder and Baldrick back to the time of the [[dinosaur]]s.
Attempting to find their way home, they find themselves at the court of Elizabeth I, where they are mistaken for the contemporary versions, and Blackadder takes the opportunity to assault [[William Shakespeare]] ([[Colin Firth]]) "on behalf of every schoolboy and schoolgirl for the next 400 years". They next arrive in Sherwood Forest, where Blackadder, held hostage by [[Robin Hood]] ([[Rik Mayall]]) talks the Merry Men into revolt. They eventually kill Robin and, after spending some time in the forest &mdash; in Edmund's case, with [[Maid Marian]] ([[Kate Moss]]) and in Baldrick's, with Will Scarlett, they return to the machine.
The duo have brief stopovers at the Battle of Waterloo, where they accidentally kill [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Wellington]] ([[Stephen Fry]]), and in [[Roman Britain]], where Centurion Blacaddicus and Legionary Baldricus face the [[Scot]]s, before they finally find their way home, thanks to |
h'', and Gaelic ''Broc''). Arguably, the use of [[periphrastic]] constructions in the English [[verb]] (which is more widespread than in the other [[Germanic languages]]) is traceable to Brythonic influence.
Some researchers argue that English syntax reflects more extensive Brythonic influences. For instance, in English [[tag question|tag questions]], the form of the tag depends on the verb form in the main statement (''aren't I?'', ''isn't he?'', ''won't we?'' etc). The German ''nicht wahr?'' and the French ''n'est ce pas?'', by contrast, are fixed forms which can be used with almost any main statement. It has been claimed that the English system has been borrowed from Brythonic, since Welsh tag questions vary in almost exactly the same way. This view is far from being generally accepted, though, since it is equally possible that the Welsh construction is borrowed from English.
Far more notable, but less well known, are the Brythonic influences on [[Scottish Gaelic]] which are many. Like English, periphrastic constructions have come to the fore, but to a much greater degree. Some important borrowings into Gaidhlig include ''Beinn'' meaning mountain, and anglicised "Ben", probably from the Brythonic ''pen'' meaning "Head".
==External links==
[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=92090 Ethnologue report for Brythonic languages]
==References==
#{{note|capelli}}''[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-48PV5SH-12&_coverDate=05%2F27%2F2003&_alid=339895807&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_qd=1&_cdi=6243&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000049116&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=949111&md5=9edf5ce1c39d4139af4c01733282fa82 A Y Chromosome Census of the British Isles]''; Cristian Capelli, Nicola Redhead, Julia K. Abernethy, Fiona Gratrix, James F. Wilson, Torolf Moen, Tor Hervig, Martin Richards, Michael P. H. Stumpf, Peter A. Underhill, Paul Bradshaw, Alom Shaha, Mark G. Thomas, Neal Bradman, and David B. Goldstein Current Biology, Volume 13, Issue 11, Pages 979-984 (2003). Retrieved [[9 December]] [[2005]].
*''The Celtic Roots of English'' edited by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola and Heli Pitkänen, by Joensuu University.
[[Category:Brythonic languages]]
[[Category:Celtic languages]]
[[als:Brythonisch]]
[[br:Predeneg]]
[[cy:Ieithoedd Brythoneg]]
[[de:Britannische Sprachen]]
[[fr:Langue brittonique]]
[[kw:Brythonek]]
[[nl:Brits]]
[[sv:Brittiska språk]]
[[zh:布立吞亞支]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bronski Beat</title>
<id>4071</id>
<revision>
<id>37112243</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-28T19:45:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pinots</username>
<id>531123</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:bronski-beat.jpg|thumb|125px|right|Bronski Beat]]
'''Bronski Beat''' was a popular British [[Synth pop|synth pop]] trio of the [[1980s]].
At their height, the band comprised of distinctive and diminutive singer [[Jimmy Somerville]], backed by Steve Bronski and Larry Steinbacheck, both of whom played [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]] and [[Percussion_instrument|percussion]].
Formed in [[1983]], their debut hit came the following year - the striking tale of a boy who was cast away by his family and neighbours for being [[gay]]. Called ''Smalltown Boy'', it peaked at Number 3 in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and was accompanied by a memorable video of Somerville leaving home, forlornly eating a [[plum]] on a [[train]], being attacked by a [[homophobic]] gang and being returned to his family by the police.
The song quickly established the trio as an outlet for gay issues &ndash; all three members were gay &ndash; and the follow-up single ''Why?'' pursued the same energetic and electronic formula musically, while the lyrics focussed more centrally and darkly on anti-gay [[prejudice]]. Again, it made the Top 10 in the UK.
At the end of [[1984]], the trio released an album which was provocatively titled ''The Age Of Consent''. The sleeve inside listed the varying [[age of consent|ages of consent]] for [[homosexuality|homosexual]] sex in different nations around the world. At the time, the age of consent for gay men in the UK was 21.
A third single was released from it, again causing controversy. ''It Ain't Necessarily So'', the [[George Gershwin|George]] and [[Ira Gershwin]] classic (from ''[[Porgy and Bess]]'') which questions the authenticity of Biblical tales, reached the UK Top 20. Playing the [[clarinet]] solos in the song was [[Richard Coles]], with whom Somerville would later team up to form [[The Communards]].
In [[1985]], the trio joined up with [[Marc Almond]] to record a version of the [[Donna Summer]] classic ''I Feel Love''. The full version was actually a medley, also incorporating snippets of ''Love to Love You Baby'' and ''Johnny Remember Me''. It reached Number 3 in the UK charts, equalling the feats of ''Smalltown Boy'', and was memorably described by one critic as "the gayest record ever made".
Following the remix album ''Hundreds and Thousands'', Somerville quit the band, stating he wanted a career which was "more political". Presumably this related to internal politics rather than the lyrical direction of the band, as his new project relied almost entirely on unpolitical songs and cover versions &ndash; and they were a huge success in doing so. He teamed up with Coles to form [[The Communards]] and in [[1986]] outsold all other singles in the UK with their version of ''Don't Leave Me This Way''.
Bronski Beat recruited John Foster as Somerville's replacement, a singer of less stage presence, [[charisma]] and a deeper and more unprovocative voice. A very catchy single called ''Hit That Perfect Beat'' managed, amazingly, to equal the two previous biggest hits by reaching Number 3 in the UK charts, but one solitary Top 20 hit followed, plus the listless album ''Truthdare Doubledare'', before the band's demise.
In [[1995]] a comeback album entitled ''Rainbow Nation'' was released. It was composed partly of re-recorded material and partly new, and failed to make an impact.
[[Category:British musical groups]]
[[Category:LGBT musical groups]]
[[Category:New Wave groups]]
[[Category:Synth pop]]
[[de:Bronski Beat]]
[[it:Bronski beat]]
[[nl:Bronski Beat]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Big Country</title>
<id>4072</id>
<revision>
<id>41490347</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T18:43:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mitchberg</username>
<id>223977</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Career */ Kate Bush sang on "The Seer's" title cut.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band |
band_name = Big Country |
image = |
country = [[Scotland]] |
years_active = [[1981]]–[[2000]] |
music_genre = [[Rock (music)|Rock]]<br>[[New Wave music|New Wave]]<br>[[Celtic rock]] |
record_label = [[Phonogram]] & Track-BCR Records |
current_members = [[Stuart Adamson]]<br />[[Bruce Watson]]<br/> Tony Butler<br /> Mark Brzezicki
}}
'''Big Country''' was a [[Rock (music)|rock]] band from [[Dunfermline]], [[Scotland]], popular in the early to mid 1980s, but still releasing material for a [[cult]] following as recently as 2004. Canonically composed of [[Stuart Adamson]] (formerly of [[The Skids]], [[vocals]], [[guitar]], [[piano]]), Mark Brzezicki ([[drums]]), Tony Butler ([[bass guitar]]), and Bruce Watson (guitar), though a variety of other musicians have been in the band during their long wanderings in post-popularity, including [[Pete Wishart]] who joined [[Runrig]] and became prominent in the [[Scottish National Party|SNP]].
== Career ==
Formed initially as a 5-piece band in 1981, their first [[single (music)|single]] was "[[Harvest Home]]", recorded and released in 1982. It was a modest success, reaching #91 on the [[UK singles chart]]. Their next single was 1983's "[[Fields of Fire]]", which reached the UK's Top Ten and was rapidly followed by the album ''[[The Crossing (album)|The Crossing]]''. The album was a crossover hit in the United States, powered by "[[In a Big Country]]", their only stateside hit single. Much of the impetus for its success in the U.S. came from airplay it got on MTV, which at the time was more open to post-punk and new wave acts. The song featured heavily engineered guitar playing, strongly reminiscent of [[bagpipes]]; Adamson and fellow guitarist, Watson, achieved this through the use of the MXR Pitch Transposer 129 Guitar Effect. Also contributing to the band's unique sound was their early virtuoso use of the [[e-bow]], a device which allows a guitar to sound more like strings or synthesizer. ''The Crossing'' sold over a million copies in the UK and obtained [[gold record]] status (sales of over 500,000) in the U.S.
The band released the non-LP [[extended play]] single ''Wonderland'' in 1984 while undergoing a lengthy worldwide tour. The song, generally considered one of their finest, was a Top Ten hit (#8) in the UK but despite heavy [[airplay]] and a positive critical response, was a comparative flop in the U.S., reaching a disappointingly low #86 on the [[Billboard Hot 100]]. It would prove to be the last single by the band to make a U.S. chart appearance. This would be an early indicator of the different commercial reception the band got in the U.S., where their music failed to get airplay on hard rock stations.
Their second album ''[[Steeltown]]'' (1984) was a hit out of the gate, entering the UK album charts at Number 1. The album featured three UK Top 30 hit singles, and received considerable critical acclaim on both sides of the Atlantic, but like ''Wonderland'' (and, in fact, all subsequent releases) it was a huge commercial dis |
ce="preserve">[[Image:LocationAfricaEurasia.png|thumb|300px|right|Africa-Eurasia]]
The [[supercontinent]] of '''Africa-Eurasia''', or '''Afro-Eurasia''', is the world's largest land mass and contains around 85% of the human population. It is typically subdivided into the [[continent|continents]] [[Africa]] and [[Eurasia]] (which is culturally, but not geographically, divided into [[Europe]] and [[Asia]]) by drawing a line at the [[Suez Canal]]. Historians of the [[cultural materialism]] school may subdivide it into Eurasia-[[North Africa]] and [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], based on differing agricultural systems. (See [[Guns, Germs, and Steel]] for example.)
Some geographers and historians have referred to it as '''Eurafrasia''' or '''Afrasia''' (omitting the European [[peninsula]]), although these terms have never come into general use. In [[geopolitics]] the mainland of Africa-Eurasia (excluding islands such as the [[British Isles]], [[Japan]] and [[Madagascar]]) is sometimes it has also been referred as the '''World Island'''.
The [[Old World]] includes Africa-Eurasia and its surrounding islands.
*[[Eurasia]]
**[[Europe]]
**[[West Asia]]
**[[South Asia]]
**[[Central Asia]]
**[[Southeast Asia]]
**[[East Asia]]
**[[North Asia]]
*[[Africa]]
**[[North Africa]] (sometimes moved to the list above)
**[[West Africa]]
**[[Central Africa]]
**[[East Africa]]
**[[Southern Africa]]
{{Continent}}
[[Category:Continents]]
[[cs:Eurafrasie]]
[[de:Afrika-Eurasien]]
[[el:Ευρασία-Αφρική]]
[[es:Eurafrasia]]
[[eo:Afrik-Eŭrazio]]
[[fr:Eurafrasie]]
[[ko:아프리카-유라시아]]
[[hr:Afrika-Euroazija]]
[[it:Eurafrasia]]
[[he:אירואפרסיה]]
[[nl:Afrika-Eurazië]]
[[ja:アフリカ＝ユーラシア大陸]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 11</title>
<id>2395</id>
<revision>
<id>42104673</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:30:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>151.202.68.22</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom -->
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=11}}
|}
'''April 11''' is the 101st day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (102nd in [[leap year]]s). There are 264 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1241]] - [[Batu Khan]] defeats [[Bela IV of Hungary]] at the [[Battle of Muhi]]
*[[1512]] - [[Battle of Ravenna]]
*[[1713]] - [[War of the Spanish Succession]] ([[Queen Anne's War]]): [[Treaty of Utrecht (1713)|Treaty of Utrecht]]
*[[1775]] - Last execution for [[witchcraft]] in [[Germany]]
*[[1803]] - [[France|French]] Foreign Minister [[Charles Talleyrand]] offers to sell all of the [[Louisiana]] Territory to the [[United States]]
*[[1814]] - [[Napoleon]] abdicates and is exiled to [[Elba]].
*[[1827]] - The Greek national assembly at Troezene elected [[John Capodistria|Capo d'Istria]] president of the republic.
*[[1856]] - [[Battle of Rivas]] in the war between the [[Central America|Central American]] coalition and [[filibuster (settler)|filibuster]] [[William Walker (soldier)|William Walker]].
*[[1868]] - The [[Shogunate]] is abolished in [[Japan]]
*[[1876]] - The [[Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks]] is organized
*[[1888]] - The [[Concertgebouw]] in [[Amsterdam]] is inaugurated.
*[[1899]] - [[Spain]] cedes [[Puerto Rico]] to the [[United States]]
*[[1915]] - [[Charlie Chaplin]] releases [[The Tramp]].
*[[1921]] - First sports broadcast on the [[radio]].
*1921 - The [[Emirate of Transjordan]] is created.
*[[1945]] - World War II: [[United States]] forces liberate [[Buchenwald]] [[concentration camp]].
*[[1947]] - [[Jackie Robinson]] is the first [[African American]] to play in a modern-day [[Major League Baseball]] game.
*[[1951]] - [[Korean War]]: [[President of the United States|President]] [[Harry S. Truman]] relieves General [[Douglas MacArthur]] of overall command in [[Korea]].
*[[1961]] - [[Bob Dylan]] makes his singing début in [[New York City]].
*[[1965]] - [[The Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak]]: Fifty-one tornadoes hit in six Midwestern states killing 256 people.
*[[1968]] - [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] signs the [[Civil Rights Act of 1968]], prohibiting discrimination in the sale, rental, and financing of housing.
*1968 - [[Germany|German]] student leader [[Rudi Dutschke]] is shot in [[Berlin]].
*[[1970]] - ''[[Apollo 13]]'' is launched.
*[[1979]] - [[Uganda|Ugandan]] dictator [[Idi Amin]] is deposed.
*[[1981]] - A massive [[Brixton riot (1981)|riot]] in [[Brixton]], [[South London]], results in almost 300 police injuries and 65 serious civilian injuries.
*[[2001]] - The detained crew of a [[United States]] [[EP-3E]] aircraft that landed in [[Hainan]], [[People's Republic of China]] after a collision with an [[Shenyang J-8|F-8]] fighter is released.
*2001 - [[Extreme Championship Wrestling]] Folds
*[[2002]] - The [[Ghriba synagogue bombing]] by [[Al Qaeda]] kills 21 in [[Tunisia]].
*2002 - Eighteen people were killed (by people attached to Hugo Chavez's government) and 150-185 people were injured, some quite seriously, during the April 11 protest march (which saw about two million people marching) against Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez
==Births==
*[[146]] - [[Septimius Severus]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[211]])
*[[1357]] - King [[John I of Portugal]] (d. [[1433]])
*[[1374]] - [[Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March]], heir to the throne of England (d. [[1398]])
*[[1492]] - [[Margaret of Navarre]], queen of [[Henry II of Navarre]] (d. [[1549]])
*[[1592]] - [[John Eliot (statesman)|John Eliot]], English statesman (d. [[1632]])
*[[1705]] - [[William Cookworthy]], English chemist (d. [[1780]])
*[[1721]] - [[David Zeisberger]], Moravian missionary (d. [[1808]])
*[[1722]] - [[Christopher Smart]], English poet (d. [[1771]])
*[[1755]] - [[James Parkinson]], English physician (d. [[1824]])
*[[1769]] - [[Jean Lannes]], French marshal (d. [[1809]])
*[[1798]] - [[Macedonio Melloni]], Italian physicist (d. [[1854]])
*[[1810]] - Sir [[Henry Rawlinson|Henry Creswicke Rawlinson]], English soldier and orientalist (d. [[1895]])
*[[1819]] - [[Charles Hallé]], German pianist and conductor (d. [[1895]])
*[[1825]] - [[Ferdinand Lassalle]], German politician (d. [[1864]])
*[[1869]] - [[Gustav Vigeland]], Norwegian sculptor (d. [[1943]])
*[[1876]] - [[Paul Henry (painter)|Paul Henry]], Northern Irish artist (d. [[1958]])
*[[1883]] - [[Hozumi Shigeto]], Japanese author (d. [[1951]])
*[[1889]] - [[Nick LaRocca]], American musician (d. [[1961]])
*[[1893]] - [[Dean Acheson]], [[U.S. Secretary of State]] (d. [[1971]])
*[[1900]] - [[Sandor Marai]], Hungarian writer (d. [[1989]])
*[[1906]] - [[Dale Messick]], American cartoonist (d. [[2005]])
*[[1908]] - [[Leo Rosten]], American humorist and author (d. [[1997]])
*[[1910]] - [[António de Spínola]], Portuguese General and politician (d. [[1996]])
*[[1911]] - [[Stanislawa Walasiewicz]], Polish-born runner (d. [[1980]])
*[[1913]] - [[Oleg Cassini]], French-born fashion designer
*[[1914]] - [[Robert Stanfield]], Premier of Nova Scotia (d. [[2003]])
*[[1916]] - [[Alberto Ginastera]], Argentine composer (d. [[1983]])
*[[1917]] - [[David Westheimer]], American novelist (d. [[2005]])
*[[1930]] - [[Anton LaVey]], American founder of the Church of Satan (d. [[1997]])
*[[1931]] - [[Johnny Sheffield]], American actor
*[[1932]] - [[Joel Grey]], American singer, actor, and dancer
*[[1935]] - [[Richard Berry]], American singer, and composer (d. [[1997]])
*[[1938]] - [[Kurt Moll]], German bass
*[[1939]] - [[Louise Lasser]], American actress
*[[1944]] - [[John Milius]], American director and writer
*[[1946]] - [[Bob Harris]], British disc jockey and presenter
*[[1947]] - [[Peter Riegert]], American actor
*1947 - [[Meshach Taylor]], American actor
*[[1949]] - [[Bernd Eichinger]], German film producer
*[[1951]] - [[Doris McGowen Beck Angleton]], American socialite (d. [[1997]])
*1951 - [[James Patrick Kelly]], American author
*[[1953]] - [[Andrew Wiles]], British mathematician
*1953 - [[Guy Verhofstadt]], [[Prime Minister of Belgium]]
*[[1955]] - [[Kevin Brady]], American politician
*1955 - [[Michael Callen]], American singer and songwriter (d. [[1993]])
*[[1958]] - [[Stuart Adamson]], British musician ([[Big Country]]) (d. [[2001]])
*[[1959]] - [[Frank C Scott]], Australian photo-journalist
*[[1960]] - [[Jeremy Clarkson]], British journalist
*[[1961]] - [[Doug Hopkins]], American musician
*[[1962]] - [[Vincent Gallo]], American actor
*[[1963]] - [[Chris Ferguson]], American poker player
*[[1966]] - [[Mason Reese]], American actor
*1966 - [[Lisa Stansfield]], English singer
*[[1968]] - [[Sergey Lukyanenko]], Russian author
*[[1970]] - [[Trevor Linden]], Professional Hockey Player
*[[1971]] - [[Oliver Riedel]], German musican ([[Rammstein]])
*[[1972]] - [[Jason Varitek]], baseball player
*[[1974]] - [[Trot Nixon]], baseball player
*[[1975]] - [[Walid Soliman]], Tunisian Author
*[[1979]] - [[Malcolm Christie]], English footballer
*[[1980]] - [[Mark Teixeira]], baseball player
*[[1982]] - [[Ian Bell (cricketer)|Ian Bell]], English cricketer
*[[1987]] - [[Joss Stone]], English singer
==Deaths==
*[[1034]] - [[Romanus III]], [[Byzantine emperor]] (b. [[1028]])
*[[1240]] - [[Llywelyn the Great]], Prince of Gwynedd
*[[1554]] - [[Thomas Wyatt the younger]], English rebel (executed) (b. [[1521]])
*[[1555]] - [[Joanna of Castile]], mother of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1479]])
*[[1612]] - [[Emanuel van Meteren]], Flemish historian (b. [[1535]])
*1612 - [[Edward Wightman]], English Baptist preacher (burned at the stake) (b. [[1566]])
*[[1626]] - [[Marin Getaldić]], Croatian mathematician (b. [[1568]])
*[[1712]] - [[Richard Simon]], French Biblical critic (b. [[1638]])
*[[1723]] - [[John Robinson (1650-1723)|John Robinson]], English diplomat (b. [[1650]])
*[[1798]] - [[Karl Wilhelm Ramler]], German poet (b. [[1725]])
*[[1856]] - [[Juan Santamaría]], national hero of Costa Rica (b. [[1831]])
*[[1861]] - [[Francisco González Bocanegra]], Mexican poet (b. [[1824]])
*[[1873]] - [[Edward Canby]], U. |
aw of Hyaena eximia]]
Hyenas are also born with teeth, which means that sometimes when the cubs play-fight they can accidentally kill each other.
Hyenas produce such nutritious milk that, unlike lions and wild dogs, they can leave their cubs for about a week without feeding them which allows them to follow the herds of wildebeest, thus ensuring they can obtain the best prey.
==Scavenger==
Despite common belief, only some species belonging to this family are [[scavenger]]s: while the brown and the striped hyena derive most of their diets from scavenging, the spotted hyena is not only a real predator, but also the most effective predator on the African savannah. The [[Aardwolf]] usually eat insects like termites.
==Legend==
In some parts of [[Africa]], some men were thought to turn into hyenas at night. (See [[lycanthropy]].) In the former [[Kingdom of Kaffa]] (now part of south-western [[Ethiopia]]), ''qora'' or were-hyenas were outlawed by special laws. Those accused of turning into hyenas at night were bound and presented to a priest of [[Docco]], who would determine if the accused was, in fact, a ''qora''. If found guilty, the individual would be sentenced to slavery, death, or exile. Although only a priest of Docco could make this determination, any person could accuse another of this crime. As G.W.B. Huntingford wrote, "This led to much injustice, and according to old Kafa men the law was often set into motion."[[#Notes|1]]hyenas are the best!
==Classification==
'''Family Hyaenidae'''
* Subfamily [[Hyaeninae]]
**[[Spotted Hyena]] ''Crocuta crocuta''
**[[Brown Hyena]] ''Parahyaena brunnea'' (formerly ''Hyaena brunnea'')
**[[Striped Hyena]] ''Hyaena hyaena''
* Subfamily [[aardwolf|Protelinae]]
** [[Aardwolf]] ''Proteles cristatus''
== Notes ==
# G.W.B. Huntingford, ''The Galla of Ethiopia; The Kingdom of Kafa and Janjero'' (London: International African Institute, 1955), p. 126.
==External links==
*[http://www.wearesites.com/Personal/Hyenas/ Robin M. Weare's Hyena pages]
*[http://nature-wildlife.com/ Nature-Wildlife]
[[Category:Hyenas| ]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]
[[ar:ضبع]]
[[cs:Hyeny]]
[[da:Hyæner]]
[[de:Hyänen]]
[[es:Hiena]]
[[eo:Hieno]]
[[fa:کفتار]]
[[fr:Hyaenidae]]
[[gl:Hiena]]
[[io:Hieno]]
[[it:Hyaenidae]]
[[he:צבועיים]]
[[lt:Hieniniai]]
[[nl:Hyena's]]
[[ja:ハイエナ]]
[[no:Hyenefamilien]]
[[nn:Hyene]]
[[pl:Hienowate]]
[[pt:Hyaenidae]]
[[ru:Гиена]]
[[simple:Hyena]]
[[sv:Hyenor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hyaena</title>
<id>13927</id>
<revision>
<id>32672539</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-25T09:42:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bogdangiusca</username>
<id>9475</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.124.70.134|24.124.70.134]] ([[User talk:24.124.70.134|talk]]) to last version by Conversion script</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hyena]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hershey-Chase experiment</title>
<id>13928</id>
<revision>
<id>39915493</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T20:20:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Acaudel</username>
<id>945053</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>removed inappropriate link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hershey-Chase experiment''' was a series of [[experiment]]s conducted in [[1952]] by [[Alfred Hershey]] and [[Martha Chase]] that identified [[DNA]] to be the [[genetic material]] of [[phage]]s and, ultimately, of all organisms.
A phage is a small [[virus (biology)|virus]] that infects [[bacterium|bacteria]]. It consists of a [[protein]] coat that encloses the genetic material. When a phage infects a bacterium, it inserts its genetic material into the bacterium, while its coat remains outside.
[[Image:Tevenphage.png|thumb|Structural overview of T2 phage]]
In a first experiment, [[T2 phage]]s with radioactive <sup>32</sup>P-labeled DNA infected bacteria. In a second experiment, T2 phages with radioactive <sup>35</sup>S-labeled protein infected bacteria. In both experiments, bacteria were separated from the phage coats by blending followed by [[centrifuge|centrifugation]]. In the first experiment, most radioactivity was found in the infected bacteria, while in the second experiment most radioactivity was found in the phage coat. These experiments demonstrated that DNA is the genetic material of phage and that protein does not transmit genetic information.
Hershey shared the 1969 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] for his “discoveries concerning the genetic structure of viruses”
[[Image:HersheyChaseEx.png|thumb|Overview of the experiment done by Hershey and Chase in 1952]]
==Literature Cited==
Hershey, A.D. and Chase, M. ([[1952]]) ''[http://www.jgp.org/cgi/content/abstract/36/1/39 Independent functions of viral protein and nucleic acid in growth of bacteriophage]''. [[J Gen Physiol.]] 1:39-56.
[[Category:Genetics experiments]]
[[it:Esperimento di Hershey-Chase]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of religions</title>
<id>13929</id>
<revision>
<id>40229651</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T02:45:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Yid613</username>
<id>596948</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History of the [[Abrahamaic Religion|Abrahamaic Religions]] */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''History of religions''' refers to the ''Religiongeschichteschule'', a [[Nineteenth century]] [[Germany|German]] school of thought which was the first to systematically study [[religion]] as a [[society|socio]]-[[culture|cultural]] phenomenon.
==Introduction==
The [[nineteenth century]] saw a dramatic increase in knowledge about other [[cultures]] and religions, and also the establishment of economic and social histories of [[progress]]. The "history of religions" school sought to account for this religious diversity by connecting it with the social and economic situation of a particular group.
Typically religions are divided into stages of progression from more simple to more complex societies, especially from [[polytheistic]] to [[monotheistic]] and from extempore to organised.
Thus, the starting point is the [[tribal band]] whose religion is [[animistic]] and involves [[shaman|shamans]] and [[totems]]. Since the group is tribal, there is no permanent sanctuary. Cultic rites centre on [[identification]] with wild animals and appeasing [[spirits]], often of the hunted.
As society developed into [[Chiefdoms]] and small [[monarchy|kingdoms]], religious rites began to serve different functions. [[Agriculture]] became important and so fertility gods were introduced (often female, as it is the woman who has the power to produce life). The status of the "Big man" (or [[chief]]) was supported with mythic tales of [[heroes]] and [[demigods]], whom he may be descended from.
When these small kingdoms merged into larger groups (often through [[conquest]]), different cults merged. The conquest of one group by another is therefore recorded in an [[Epic poetry|epic]] tale of the conquest of the conquered group's god by the victor's (e.g. some [[Hinduism]] and the Babylonian [[Marduk]]). Another solution was to [[Synchretism|synchretise]] different religious traditions, for example, the [[Ancient Rome|Romans']] identification of their Gods with the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and the Greeks' adoption of [[Anatolia]]n myths and characters.
Finally, the growth of the [[city state]] brought about progression to the most "civilised" level of religion, [[ethical monotheism]]. Students of the history of religions often learnt that this began in [[Egypt]] with [[Akhnaten]] and grew through 7th century BC [[Judaism]], Persian [[Zorastrianism]] and [[Greek Philosophy]] to endow [[Western society]] with the most progressive form of religion. The historical basis of this — that religion moved from polytheism to ethical monotheism — is now doubted, as is the [[ethnocentrism]] that made Western society the most civilised.
Nevertheless, it is still widely held that ethical monotheism (e.g. Judaism, [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], some forms of Hinduism and [[Buddhism]]) was encouraged by the growth of city states. This was partly due to the role of a [[hierarchical society]] with a god-like [[absolute ruler]]. A more powerful social force was the isolation of the individual as he moved from the clan to a more [[cosmopolitan]] lifestyle. Questions of [[justice]] and value that had been previously answered by the family and small tribe were now to be pursued independently. The relative anonymity of the [[city]] afforded the opportunity for not only "sin" but also loneliness. ''Ethical'' monotheism answered society's need for a moral guide and motivation, whilst a unique ''personal God'' who was sovereign over all areas of life answered people's feelings of isolation and powerlessness.
Good examples of this are the prophetic literature of the Jewish Tanakh (Old Testament), especially Isaiah, and the wisdom literature of the ancient near east dealing with apparently unjustified suffering. This includes Job, in the Judaeo-Christian Bible, and "The Dialogue of Pessimism", a Babylonian text.
==History of Polytheistic Paganism==
===Ancient Paganism===
* [[Egyptian mythology| Pharaonic religion]]
*[[Greek religion]]
*[[Roman religion]]
===Modern Polytheism===
*[[History of Santeria]]
==History of Monotheism==
===Indian religions family===
*[[History of Hinduism]]
*[[History of Buddhism]]
===History of the [[Abrahamic religion|Abrahamic Religions]]===
*[[Jewish history|History of Judaism]]
*[[History of Christianity]]
**[[History of Roman Catholicism]]
**[[History of Eastern Orthodox Christianity]]
**[[History of Protestantism]]
*[[History of Islam]]
==H |
ger matrices) would involve the Gauss algorithm. When doing computations by hand, one can often shorten things dramatically by smartly adding multiples of columns or rows to other columns or rows; this does not change the value of the determinant, but may create zero entries which simplifies the subsequent calculations. In this example, adding the second column to the first one is especially useful:
:<math>\begin{bmatrix}0&2&-3\\
0 &1 &3\\
2 &0 &-1\end{bmatrix}</math>
and this determinant can be quickly expanded along the first column:
:{|
|-
|<math>\det(A)\,</math>
|<math>=\,</math>
|<math>(-1)^{3+1}\cdot 2\cdot \det \begin{bmatrix}2&-3\\ 1&3\end{bmatrix}</math>
|-
|
|<math>=\,</math>
|<math>2\cdot(2\cdot3-1\cdot(-3)) = 2\cdot 9 = 18.\,</math>
|}
==Properties==
The determinant is a ''multiplicative map'' in the sense that
:<math>\det(AB) = \det(A)\det(B) \,</math> for all ''n''-by-''n'' matrices <math>A</math> and <math>B</math>.
This is generalized by the [[Cauchy-Binet formula]] to products of non-square matrices.
It is easy to see that <math>\det(rI_n) = r^n \,</math> and thus
:<math>\det(rA) = \det(rI_n \cdot A) = r^n \det(A) \,</math> for all <math>n</math>-by-<math>n</math> matrices <math>A</math> and all [[scalar]]s <math>r</math>.
A matrix over a [[commutative ring]] ''R'' is invertible if and only if its determinant is a [[Unit (ring theory)|unit]] in ''R''. In particular, if ''A'' is a matrix over a [[Field (mathematics)|field]] such as the [[real number|real]] or [[complex number]]s, then ''A'' is invertible if and only if det(''A'') is not zero. In this case we have
:<math>\det(A^{-1}) = \det(A)^{-1}. \,</math>
Expressed differently: the vectors ''v''<sub>1</sub>,...,''v''<sub>''n''</sub> in '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> form a [[basis (linear algebra)|basis]] if and only if det(''v''<sub>1</sub>,...,''v''<sub>''n''</sub>) is non-zero.
A matrix and its [[transpose]] have the same determinant:
:<math>\det(A^\top) = \det(A). \,</math>
The determinants of
a complex matrix and of its [[Complex conjugate|conjugate]] [[transpose]]
are conjugate:
:<math>\det(A^*) = \det(A)^*. \,</math>
(Note the conjugate transpose is identical to the transpose for a real matrix)
If <math>A</math> and <math>B</math> are [[similar]], i.e., if there exists an invertible matrix <math>X</math> such that <math>A</math> = <math>X^{-1} B X</math>, then by the multiplicative property,
:<math>\det(A) = \det(B). \,</math>
This means that the determinant is a [[similarity invariant]]. Because of this, the determinant of some linear transformation ''T'' : ''V'' &rarr; ''V'' for some finite dimensional [[vector space]] ''V'' is independent of the basis for ''V''. The relationship is one-way, however: there exist matrices which have the same determinant but are not similar.
If <math>A</math> is a square <math>n</math>-by-<math>n</math> matrix with [[real number|real]] or [[complex number|complex]] entries and if &lambda;<sub>1</sub>,...,&lambda;<sub>''n''</sub> are the (complex) [[eigenvectors|eigenvalues]] of <math>A</math> listed according to their algebraic multiplicities, then
:<math>\det(A) = \lambda_{1}\lambda_{2} \cdots \lambda_{n}.\,</math>
This follows from the fact that <math>A</math> is always similar to its [[Jordan normal form]], an upper triangular matrix with the eigenvalues on the main diagonal.
From this connection between the determinant and the eigenvalues, one can derive a connection between the [[Trace (linear algebra)|trace function]], the [[exponential function]], and the determinant:
:<math>\det(\exp(A)) = \exp(\operatorname{tr}(A)).</math>
Performing the substitution <math> A \mapsto \ln A </math> in the above equation yields
:<math> \det(A) = e^{\mbox{tr}(\ln A)}. \ </math>
=== Derivative ===
The determinant of real square matrices is a [[polynomial|polynomial function]] from <math>\Bbb{R}^{n \times n}</math> to <math>\Bbb{R}</math>, and as such is everywhere [[derivative|differentiable]]. Its derivative can be expressed using ''[[Jacobi's formula]]'':
: <math>d \,\det(A) = \operatorname{tr}(\operatorname{adj}(A) \,dA)</math>
where adj(''A'') denotes the [[adjugate]] of ''A''. In particular, if ''A'' is invertible, we have
: <math>d \,\det(A) = \det(A) \,\operatorname{tr}(A^{-1} \,dA)</math>
or, more colloquially,
: <math>\det(A + X) - \det(A) \approx \det(A) \,\operatorname{tr}(A^{-1} X)</math>
if the entries in the matrix <math>X</math> are sufficiently small. The special case where <math>A</math> is equal to the identity matrix <math>I</math> yields
: <math>\det(I + X) \approx 1 + \operatorname{tr}(X).</math>
== Generalizations and related functions==
As was pointed out above, it is possible to unambiguously define the determinant of any [[linear transformation|linear map]] ''f'' : ''V'' &rarr; ''V'', if ''V'' is a finite-dimensional vector space.
It makes sense to define the determinant for matrices whose entries come from any commutative [[ring (algebra)|ring]]. The computation rules, the Leibniz formula and the compatibility with [[matrix multiplication]] remain valid, except that now a matrix <math>A</math> is invertible if and only if <math>\det(A)</math> is an invertible element of the ground ring.
Abstractly, one may define the determinant as a certain anti-symmetric [[multilinear map]] as follows: if <math>R</math> is a [[commutative ring]] and <math>M = R^n</math> denotes the [[free module|free ''R''-module]] with <math>n</math> generators, then
:<math>\det: M^n \rightarrow R</math>
is the unique map with the following properties:
* det is <math>R</math>-linear in each of the <math>n</math> arguments.
* det is anti-symmetric, meaning that if two of the <math>n</math> arguments are equal, then the determinant is zero.
* <math>\det(e_1,\ldots,e_n) = 1</math>, where <math>e_i</math> is that element of <math>M</math> which has a 1 in the <math>i</math>-th coordinate and zeros elsewhere.
Linear algebraists prefer to use the multilinear map approach to define determinant, whereas combinatorialists may prefer the Leibniz formula. (Of course, even when using the above abstract approach, one has to use the Leibniz formula to show that such a multilinear map actually exists.)
The [[Pfaffian]] is an analog of the determinant for <math>2n\times 2n</math> antisymmetric matrices. It is a polynomial of degree <math>n</math>, and its square is equal to the determinant of the matrix.
There is no direct generalisation of determinants, or of the notion of volume, to spaces of infinite dimension. There are various approaches possible, including the use of the extension of the [[trace of a matrix]], and [[functional determinant]]s.
== Algorithmic implementation ==
The naive method of implementing an algorithm to compute the determinant is to use Laplace's formula for expansion by cofactors. This approach is extremely inefficient in general, however, as it is [[Big O notation|of order]] ''n''! (''n'' [[factorial]]) for an ''n''&times;''n'' matrix ''M''. An improvement to order ''n''<sup>3</sup> can be achieved by using [[LU decomposition]] to write ''M''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''LU'' for triangular matrices ''L'' and ''U''. Now, det ''M'' = det ''LU'' = det ''L'' det ''U'', and since ''L'' and ''U'' are triangular the determinant of each is simply the product of its diagonal elements. Alternatively one can perform the [[Cholesky decomposition]] and find the determinant in a similar fashion.
== History ==
Historically, determinants were considered before matrices. Originally, a determinant was defined as a property of a [[system of linear equations]]. The determinant "determines" whether the system has a unique solution (which occurs precisely if the determinant is non-zero). In this sense, two-by-two determinants were considered by [[Gerolamo Cardano|Cardano]] at the end of the [[16th century]] and larger ones by [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]] about 100 years later. Following him [[Gabriel Cramer|Cramer]] (1750) added to the theory, treating the subject in relation to sets of equations. The recurrent law was first announced by [[Bezout]] (1764).
It was [[Vandermonde]] (1771) who first recognized determinants as independent functions. [[Laplace]] (1772) gave the general method of expanding a determinant in terms of its
complementary [[minor (matrix)|minor]]s: Vandermonde had already given a
special case. Immediately following, [[Joseph Louis Lagrange|Lagrange]] (1773) treated
determinants of the second and third order. Lagrange was the first
to apply determinants to questions outside [[elimination theory]]; he proved
many special cases of general identities.
[[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] (1801) made the next advance. Like Lagrange, he made much use of determinants in the theory of numbers. He introduced the word '''''determinants''''' (Laplace had used ''resultant''), though not in the present signification, but rather as applied to the [[discriminant]] of a [[algebraic form|quantic]]. Gauss also arrived at the notion of reciprocal (inverse) determinants, and came very near the multiplication theorem.
The next contributor of importance is [[Binet]] (181 |
glish by TOKYOPOP.
===Digimon Chronicle===
''Digimon Chronicle'' was the storyline accompanying the 2004 ''Digimon'' product line. Originally rumoured to be a new, full-blown manga to replace ''V-Tamer 01'', it eventually transpired to be mostly prose text, printed in the booklets which accompanied the "Pendulum" digital pets. These booklets also contained short, non-sequiter six-page mangas. There are four "chapters", one sold with the Pendulum X 1.0, another with the Pendulum X 1.5, another with the Pendulum X 2.0, and the final chapter with the Pendulum X 3.0.
This fiction tells the story of a Digital World controlled by a sentient computer named Yggdrasil. Because Digimon had multiplied so much in the past, Yggdrasil, the host computer, was unable to handle the load and the Digital Hazard occurred. Yggdrasil then created the "New Digital World", consisting of three layers for the past, present, and future - Urd, Versandi, and Skuld, respectively, and then let loose with Project Ark and the X Program to eliminate any Digimon Yggdrasil no longer wanted. However, the Digimon adapted by obtaining a program called the X Antibody, which strengthened them, changed their form, and made them immune to the X Program. Yggdrasil sent in the Royal Knights, thirteen Digimon devoted to keeping order in the Digital World, and at this point Kouta, Yuuji, and Shinji, three humans, somehow found their way into the Digital World and met their partner Digimon, Dorumon for Kouta and Ryuudamon for Yuuji. Kouta and Yuuji resisted Yggdrasil and the Royal Knights, but Shinji apparently sided with Yggdrasil.
===D-Cyber===
The D-Cyber manga is another Chinese Digimon [[manhua]] based on the adventures of Hikaru, Masuken, and Teru. It introduces the concept of X Digimon, but their origin is different from that in the Japanese Digimon Chronicle. In short, an evil [[MetalPhantomon]] seeks to steal the Dragon Spirit from Hikaru's Digimon and use it to revive a powerful evil Digimon. In the end, it takes the power of the three Holy Knights ([[Omegamon]], [[Dukemon]], and [[Magnamon]]) and the power of the three Tamers to put a stop to MetalPhantomon and what he's done.
==Fan Influence==
As ''Digimon'' continues to grow in popularity internationally, the fanbase around the show and manga continues to grow with it in a manner akin to other [[fandom]]s. As with most anime, this includes extensive [[shipping]]. Digimon fanshippers popularized the jargon of their specific brand of shipping by combining the first and last syllables of the relevant characters names, rather than the standard American "/" or "X". This is most often done with the Japanese names rather than the English ones. For example, a relationship between Hikari (Kari) and Takeru (TK) would be Takari; whilst a relationship between Taichi (Tai) and Yamato (Matt) might be called Taito or Yamachi.
Due to the relative quickness and more accurate translation of the dubbing of the third season, American and Japanese fandoms were somewhat aware of each other and contributed to each others fandoms.
Many fandoms sprouted from Digimon, including a popular fandom called "FDD" (Fictional Digimon and Digidestined) that had a large fandom for Digimon from [[1998]] onwards and is still alive today. Their purpose was to create fictional Digimon and Digidestined teams (or now Tamers) and exchange stories, ideas and drawn images. The fandom is still active in select websites. They would create their own Digimon and Digidestined and write stories about their adventures.<!-- Customs included starting new stories, drawing pictures for fellow FDDs, and making websites about their characters.-->
In Latin America, the popular soundtrack was dubbed by [[Mexico]]'s [[Intertrack]].
== Notable people ==
* [[Akiyoshi Hongo]] - Creator of the original Digimon concept
* [[Hiroyuki Kakudo]] - Director of ''Digimon Adventure'' and ''Digimon Adventure 02''
* [[Yukio Kaizawa]] - Director of ''Digimon Tamers'' and ''Digimon Frontier''
* [[Naoyuki Itou]] - Director of ''Digimon Savers''
* [[Chiaki J. Konaka]] - Head writer of ''Digimon Tamers''
* [[Takatori Arisawa]] - Composer of the Japanese versions of ''Digimon Adventure'', ''Digimon Adventure 02'', ''Digimon Tamers'' and ''Digimon Frontier''
* [[Jeff Nimoy]] - US Director of ''Digimon Adventure'' and ''Digimon Adventure 02''
* [[Mary Elizabeth McGlynn]] - US Director of ''Digimon Tamers'' and ''Digimon Frontier''
==See also==
* [[List of Digimon]]
* [[Tamagotchi]]
* [[List of human characters in the Digimon series]]
* [[List of Chosen Digimon]]
* [[Digimon: Digital Monsters (anime)]]
* [[Digimon families]]
==External links==
===English===
*[http://www.digimonccg.com/ Bandai of America's Digimon Site]
*[http://tv.disney.go.com/jetix/digimon/index.html JETIX U.S. ''Digimon Tamers'' website]
*[http://thedigi-zone.com/ The Digi-Zone.com]
*[http://shiningevo.ultimatedigimon.com/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.html Megchan's Digimon Encyclopedia]
*[http://digipedia.db-destiny.net/ Digimon Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.digivice.net/ Patamon's World]
*[http://www.thedigiport.com/ TheDigiPort]
*[http://wiki.digivice.net/index.php?title=Main_Page Wikimon, the Digimon Wiki]
*[http://www.digimonhimitsu.com/ Digimon Himitsu]
*[http://www.withthewill.net/ With the Will Forums]
===Japanese===
*[http://www.toei-anim.co.jp/lineup/tv/digimon/ Toei Animation's Digimon Adventure website]
*[http://www.toei-anim.co.jp/tv/digimon02/ Toei Animation's Digimon Digimon Adventure 02 website]
*[http://www.toei-anim.co.jp/tv/digimon_t/ Toei Animation's Digimon Tamers website]
*[http://www.toei-anim.co.jp/tv/digimon_F/ Toei Animation's Digimon Frontier website]
*[http://www.toei-anim.co.jp/tv/digimon_x/ Toei Animation's Digital Monster X-Evolution website]
*[http://www.toei-anim.co.jp/tv/digimon_s/ Toei Animation's Digimon Savers]
*[http://www.digimon.channel.or.jp/ Bandai of Japan's Digimon website]
{{Digimon}}
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dideoxy sequencing</title>
<id>8836</id>
<revision>
<id>34703423</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-11T03:06:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Petaholmes</username>
<id>59986</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[DNA sequencing]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty</title>
<id>8837</id>
<revision>
<id>41756780</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:55:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cosal</username>
<id>153219</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:David Beatty.jpg|right|thumb|David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty]]
'''David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty''' ([[17 January]] [[1871]] – [[11 March]] [[1936]]), was an [[admiral]] in the [[Royal Navy]].
Born in [[Nantwich]], [[Cheshire]], he joined the Royal Navy in January [[1884]]. He served as a [[midshipman]] on the [[British Mediterranean Fleet| Mediterranean Fleet]] flagship [[HMS Alexandria|HMS ''Alexandria'']] from [[1886]] until [[1888]] when he was transferred to [[HMS Cruiser|HMS ''Cruiser'']]. He was at the gunnery school, [[HMS Excellent|HMS ''Excellent'']] from [[1890]] until [[1892]] when he was promoted to [[lieutenant]]. He was on the [[corvette]] [[HMS Ruby|HMS ''Ruby'']] until [[1893]] when he was transferred to the battleship [[HMS Camperdown (1885)|HMS ''Camperdown'']] until [[1895]]. Ironically he joined the ship shortly after a collision between it and [[HMS Victoria (1887)|HMS ''Victoria'']] had nearly killed his future commander-in-chief at the [[Battle of Jutland]], [[John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe]]. Following ''Camperdown'' he was transferred to the battleship [[HMS Trafalgar (1887)|HMS ''Trafalgar'']]. In [[1897]] he was given his first command, the [[destroyer]] [[HMS Ranger|HMS ''Ranger'']].
Beatty gained recognition in the recapture of the [[Sudan]] ([[1897]]-[[1899]]), where he was selected as second in command by [[Horatio Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Lord Kitchener]] for his [[Khartoum]] expedition. He was promoted to [[commander]] during the expedition, in [[1898]].
He gained further recognition as a member of the British naval brigade during the [[Boxer Rebellion]] ([[1900]]), which he joined from the battleship [[HMS Barfleur|HMS ''Barfleur'']] on the China Station where he was second in command. During the capture of [[Tientsin]] in June he was twice wounded in an arm.
In [[1900]] he married a wealthy heiress, Ethel Tree, the only daughter of department store founder [[Marshall Field]], and this allowed him much independence that poorer officers lacked. She is reputed to have commented after he was threatened with disciplinary action following the straining of his ship's engines "What? Court martial my David? I'll buy them a new ship" [http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,1129148,00.html]. The couple had houses in [[London]], [[Leicestershire]] and [[Scotland]], and circulated in high society, even occasionally dining with the King. Beatty was well known for his flamboyant character, which included wearing a non-standard [[uniform]], which had only six buttons instead of the regulation eight on the jacket, and always wearing his cap at an angle.
He was captain of [[HMS Duke of Wellington|HMS ''Duke of Wellington'']] from [[1900]] to [[1902]] and of the cruisers [[HMS Juno (1895)|HMS ''Juno'']], [[HMS Arrogant|HMS ''Arrogant'']] in [[1903]]-[[1904]] and [[HMS Suffolk|HMS ''Suffolk'']] from [[1904]] until [[1905]]. He then became the naval advisor t |
ill play stickball. Every year at the Choctaw Indian Fair near Philadelphia, Mississippi it can be seen.
==Great Choctaws==
*[[Pushmataha]] was a leader during the removal era.<br>
[[Image:Pushmataha.jpg]]<br>
*[[Mosholatubbee]] was also a leader during the removal era.<br>
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Mush.jpg]] -->
*[[Tulli]] was one of the greatest Choctaw stickball players.
[[Image:Tulli.jpg]] [[Image:Tulli2.jpg]]
*[[Phillip Martin]], chief of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians since [[1979]]. Encouraged outside investment and reduced unemployment to nearly 0% on the reservation.
[[Image:Chief martin.jpg]]
==Bibliography==
*Bushnell, David I. ''Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 48: The Choctaw of Bayou Lacomb, St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana.'' Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1909.
*Byington, Cyrus. ''Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 46: A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language.'' Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1915.
*Carson, James Taylor. ''Searching for the Bright Path: The Mississippi Choctaws from Prehistory to Removal''. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999.
*Galloway, Patricia. ''Choctaw Genesis 1500-1700.'' Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1995.
*Haag, Marcia and Henry Willis. ''Choctaw Language & Culture: Chahta Anumpa.'' Norman, Okla: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001.
*Mould, Tom. ''Choctaw Tales.'' Jackson, Miss: University Press of Mississippi, 2004.
*O'Brien, Greg. ''Choctaws in a Revolutionary Age, 1750-1830''. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002.
*Pesantubbee, Michelene E. ''Choctaw Women in a Chaotic World: The Clash of Cultures in the Colonial Southeast.'' Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico, 2005.
*Swanton, John R. ''Source Material for the Social and Ceremonial Life of the Choctaw Indians.'' Tuscaloosa and London: The University of Alabama Press, 2001.
*Tingle, Tim. ''Walking the Choctaw Road.'' El Paso, Tex: Cinco Puntos Press, 2003.
==See also==
*[[Choctaw mythology]]
*[[Choctaw language]]
*[[Battle of Ackia]]
*[[Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849)|Irish Potato Famine]]
==External links==
*[http://www.choctaw.org/ Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians (official site)]
*[http://www.choctawnation.com/ Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma (official site)]
*[http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/naind/html/na_007300_choctaw.htm "Choctaw" entry at ''Encyclopedia of North American Indians'']
*[http://www.pearlriverresort.com/ Pearl River Resort]
*[http://www.choctawindianfair.com/ Choctaw Indian Fair]
*[http://mshistory.k12.ms.us/features/feature14/choctaw_removal.html Mushulatubbee and Choctaw Removal]
*[http://mshistory.k12.ms.us/features/feature18/pushmataha.html Pushmataha:Choctaw Warrior, Diplomat, and Chief]
[[Category:Native American tribes]]
[[Category:Choctaw|*]]
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<title>Choctaws</title>
<id>7223</id>
<revision>
<id>15905301</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Choctaw]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Calypso</title>
<id>7224</id>
<revision>
<id>39674321</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T02:12:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sir Lewk</username>
<id>173054</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Calypso''' might refer to one of several things:
*[[Kalypso (mythology)|Calypso]] is the name of a sea [[nymph]] in [[Greek mythology]];
*[[Calypso music]] is a style of [[Caribbean]] [[folk music]];
*''[[Calypso (album)|Calypso]]'' is the name of an album sung by [[Harry Belafonte]];
*[[Calypso (moon)|Calypso]] is the name of a [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]];
*[[53 Kalypso]] is the name of an [[asteroid]];
*The ''[[Calypso (ship)|Calypso]]'' was a [[ship]] sailed by [[Jacques-Yves Cousteau]];
*[[HMS Calypso|HMS ''Calypso'']] was the name of a number of ships of the Royal Navy;
*[[John Denver]] wrote and perfomed a song called ''Calypso'' about Jacques-Yves Cousteau;
*[[Suzanne Vega]] also wrote a song "Calypso" in her 1987 album ''[[Solitude Standing]]'';
*''[[Calypso Orchid|Calypso]]'' is a [[genus]] of [[Orchid]]s, containing only one species, the [[Calypso Orchid]];
*[[Calypso (underwater camera)|Calypso]] was the first mass produced underwater [[camera]] designed by [[Jean De Wouters]] and [[Jacques-Yves Cousteau]] in 1957;
*[[Calypso (Twisted Metal)|Calypso]] is the mysterious man who offers competitors in the [[Twisted Metal]] series one wish if they win;
*[[Calypso (ice cream)|Calypso]] is the name of a make of ice-lolly;
*[[Calypso, North Carolina]];
*[[CALIPSO]] is a planned [[NASA]] environmental satellite.
*'''Kalipso''' is a [[Russia]]n make of [[aqualung]].
*[[Calypso (comics)]] is a character in the Marvel Universe.
{{disambig}}
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</page>
<page>
<title>Chemical affinity</title>
<id>7225</id>
<revision>
<id>40750192</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T19:53:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sadi Carnot</username>
<id>726928</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Chemical affinity''' results from electronic properties by which dissimilar substances are capable of forming chemical compounds. Specifically, the term refers to the tendency of an [[atom]] or [[compound]] to combine by [[chemical reaction]] with atoms or compounds of unlike composition.
== History ==
[[Physical chemistry]] was one of the first branches of science to study the "theory of affinity". The name ''affinitas'' was first used in the sense of chemical relation by German philosopher [[Albertus Magnus]] near the year 1250. Later, those as [[Robert Boyle]], [[John Mayow]], [[Johann Glauber]], [[Isaac Newton]], and [[Georg Stahl]] put forward ideas on elective affinity in attempts to explain how [[heat]] is evolved during [[combustion reactions]].<sup>[1]</sup>
The modern term chemical affinity is a somewhat modified variation of its eighteenth-century precursor "elective affinity" or elective attractions, a coinage of the Swedish chemist [[Torbern Olof Bergman]] from his book ''De attractionibus electivis'' (1775). [[Antoine Lavoisier]], in his famed 1790 ''Elements of Chemistry'', refers to Bergmann’s work and discusses the concept of elective affinities or attractions. The term generally relate to the phenomenon whereby certain atoms or molecules have the tendency to aggregate or bond. For example, in the 1919 book ''Chemistry of Human Life'' physician George W. Carey states: ''“Health depends on a proper amount of iron phosphate Fe<sub>3</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub> in the blood, for the molecules of this salt have chemical affinity for oxygen and carry it to all parts of the organism.” '' In this antiquated context, chemical affinity is sometimes found synonymous with the term "magnetic attraction". Many writings, up until about 1925, also refer to a “law of chemical affinity”.
== Related ==
In 1809, based on the work of Bergmann, German scientist and philosopher [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] published the novella [[Elective Affinities]] which extended the chemical term “elective affinities” through storyline to human relationships, both intimate and political.
==References==
*[1] Partington, J.R. (1937). ''A Short History of Chemistry.'' New York: Dover Publications, Inc. [[ISBN|ISBN 0486659771]]
*{{1911}}
== See also ==
*[[Chemistry]]
*[[Chemical reaction]]
*[[Chemical bond]]
*[[Electronegativity]]
*[[Electron affinity]]
*[[Étienne François Geoffroy]] - Geoffroy's 1718 Affinity Table
*[[Valency (chemistry)|Valency]]
[[ar:ألفة كيميائية]]
[[it:affinità chimica]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Captain Vancouver</title>
<id>7226</id>
<revision>
<id>15905304</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[George Vancouver]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Comet Hale-Bopp</title>
<id>7227</id>
<revision>
<id>40309031</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T18:43:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Worldtraveller</username>
<id>93723</id>
</contributor>
<comment>images now have license tags</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Comet |
| name=C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp)
| image=[[Image:Comet Hale-Bopp.jpg|200px|Comet Hale-Bopp, shortly after passing [[perihelion]] in April 1997.]]
| discoverer=[[Alan Hale]] and<br>[[Thomas Bopp]]
| discovery_date=[[1995]]
| designations=The Great Comet of 1997,<br>C/1995 O1
| epoch=2450460.5
| semimajor=186 [[Astronomical Unit|AU]]
| perihelion=0.91 AU
| aphelion=371 AU
| eccentricity=0.995086
| period=2537 [[Julian year (astronomy)|a]]
| inclination= 89.4°
| last_p=[[April 1]], [[1997]]
| next_p=4534
}}
'''Comet Hale-Bopp''' ([[Astronomical naming conventions#Comets|formally designated]] '''C/1995&nbsp;O1''') was probably the most widely observed [[comet]] of the 20th century, and one of the brightest seen for many [[decade]]s. It was visible to the [[naked eye]] for a record 18&nbsp;months, twice as long as the previous record holder, the [[Great Comet of 1811]].
Hale-Bopp was discovered on [[23 July]] [[1995]] at a very large distance f |
mics" and "funnies," which imply an art form not to be taken seriously. Indeed, the distinction of comics as the "ninth art" is prevalent in Francophone scholarship on the form (''le neuvième art''), as is the concept of comics criticism and scholarship itself. Relative to the respective size of their countries, the innumerable authors in the region publish huge numbers of comic books. In [[North America]], the more serious Franco-Belgian comics are often seen as equivalent to [[graphic novel]]s, for various reasons, but whether they are long or short, bound or in magazine format, in [[Europe]] there is no need for a more sophisticated term, as the art's name does not itself imply something frivolous.
In France, most comics are published at the behest of the author, who will work within his self-appointed time frame, so a wait from six months to two years between installments is common. Most books are first published as a hard cover oversized book, usually 48 or 64 pages, with later re-releases in soft cover.
===The British comic===
{{main|British comic}}
Originally the same size as the comic book in the United States, although lacking the glossy cover, the British comic has adopted a magazine size, with ''[[The Beano]]'' and ''[[The Dandy]]'' the last to adopt this size in the 1980s. Although generally referred to as a comic, it can also be referred to as a comic magazine, and has also been known historically as a comic paper. Some comics, such as ''[[Judge Dredd]]'' and other ''[[2000 AD (comic)|2000 AD]]'' titles, have been published in a [[tabloid]] form known as a "programme", or "prog" for short.
Although ''[[Ally Sloper's Half Holiday]]'' (1884), the first comic published in Britain, was marketed at adults, publishers quickly targeted a younger market, which has led to most publications being for children and created an association in the public's mind of comics being somewhat juvenile.
Popular titles within the United Kingdom have included ''[[The Beano]]'', ''[[The Dandy]]'', ''[[Eagle (comic)|The Eagle]]'', ''[[2000 AD (comic)|2000 AD]]'' and ''[[Viz (comic)|Viz]]''. Underground comics and "[[small press]]" titles have also been published within the United Kingdom, notably ''[[Oz (magazine)|Oz]]'' and ''[[Escape Magazine]]''.
The content of ''[[Action (comic)|Action]]'', another title aimed at children and launched in the mid 1970s became the subject of discussion in the [[House of Commons]], and although this was on a smaller scale to such similar investigations in the [[United States]], it also led to a moderation of content published within comics, although such moderation was never formalised to the extent of a creation of any code, and nor was it particularly lasting.
The United Kingdom has also established a healthy market in the reprinting and repackaging of material, notably material originated within the [[United States]]. The lack of reliable supplies of [[American comic books]] led to a variety of black and white reprints, including Marvel's 1950s monster comics, Fawcett's [[Captain Marvel (DC Comics)|Captain Marvel]], and some other characters such as [[Sheena, Queen of the Jungle|Sheena]], [[Mandrake the Magician]] and [[the Phantom]]. Several reprint companies were involved in repackaging American material for the British market, notably the importer and distributor Thorpe & Porter.
Marvel eventually established a UK office, with [[DC Comics]] and [[Dark Horse Comics]] also opening offices for periods in the 1990s. The repackaging of European material has been less frequent, although the [[Tintin]] and [[Asterix]] serials have been successfully translated and repackaged in soft cover books.
====The comic annual====
At [[Christmas]] time publishers will repackage and commission material for comic [[Annual publication|annuals]], hardback A4 books. [[DC Thomson]] also repackage [[The Broons]] and [[Oor Wullie]] strips in softcover A4 books for the festive season.
===Italian comics===
{{main|Italian comics}}
In Italy, comics (known as ''fumetti'') made their debut as humouristic strips at the end of the 19th century, and later evolved in adventure stories inspired by those coming from the U.S. After [[World War II]], however, artists like [[Hugo Pratt]] and [[Guido Crepax]] imposed Italian comics to an international audience. "Author" comics contain often strong erotic contents. Best sellers remain popular comic books [[Diabolik]] or the [[Sergio Bonelli Editore|Bonelli]] line, namely [[Tex Willer]] or [[Dylan Dog]].
Mainstream comics are usually published on a monthly basis, in a black and white digest size format, with about 100-132 pages of story. Collections of classic material for the most famous characters, usually with over 200 pages, are also common. Author comics are published in the French BD format, with an example being Pratt's [[Corto Maltese]].
Italian cartoonists have and receive great influences from other countries including [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Spain]] and [[Argentina]]. Italy is also famous for being one of the foremost producers of [[Walt Disney]] comic stories, particularly. Donald Duck's superhero alter ego, [[Paperinik]], known in English as Superduck, was created in Italy.
===Other European comics===
Although [[Switzerland]] contributes less to the body of work, it is significant that many scholars point to a Francophone Swiss, [[Rodolphe Töpffer]], as the true father of comics. This choice is still controversial, with critics feeling that Töppfer's work is perhaps somewhat unconnected to the genesis of the artform as it is now known in the region.
==The graphic novel==
{{main|Graphic novel}}
The term graphic novel was first coined by Richard Kyle in 1964, mainly as an attempt to distinguish the newly translated works from Europe which were then being published from what Kyle saw as the more juvenile publications common in the United States.
The term was popularized when [[Will Eisner]] used it on the cover of the paperback edition of his work ''[[A Contract with God|A Contract with God, and Other Tenement Stories]]'' (1978). This was a more mature work than many had come to expect from the [[comics]] medium, and the critical and commercial success of A Contract with God helped to establish the term "graphic novel" in common usage.
==Regional categories==
*[[American comic book]]
*[[Argentine comics]]
*[[British comics]]
*[[Canadian comics]]
*[[Chinese comics]]- (LianHuanhua, Manhua)
*[[Indian comics]]
*[[LianHuanHua]] - (Chinese comics, sequential picture books)
*[[Manga]] (Japanese comics)
*[[Manhua]] (Chinese comics)
*[[Manhwa]] (Korean comics)
*[[European comics]]
**[[Franco-Belgian comics]] - ''Bande Dessinée, BD''
**[[Italian comics]] - ''Fumetti''
*[[Brazilian comics]] - ''Histórias em Quadrinhos, HQ''
==Other forms==
*[[Tijuana bible]] (aka 8-pagers)
*[[Underground comics]]
*[[Alternative comics]]
*[[Adult comics]]
*[[Political and religious comics]]
==Genres==
Note: As with film and literature, [[genres]] are rarely pure and often blend. ''[[Frankenstein]]'', for example, is a [[science fiction]]/[[horror fiction|horror]] [[novel]]; ''[[The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.]]'' is a [[Western (genre)|Western]]/[[comedy]] [[TV series]]. Not all [[superhero]] comics are necessarily science fiction; [[Marvel Comics]]' ''[[Daredevil]]'', for example, despite an initial science-fiction premise, may be more usefully classified as a [[Crime fiction|crime]] [[drama]].
*[[Action/adventure]] comics (of which [[superhero]] is a sub-genre)
*[[Adaptation|Adaptations]] of narratives in other media, often movies
*[[Anthromorphic]]/[[funny animal]] comics (see also [[furry]])
*[[Autobiographical comics]]
*[[Crime fiction|Crime]] comics
*[[Drama|Dramatic adventure]] comics
*[[Historical]] comics
*[[Horror fiction|Horror]] comics
*[[Humor]] comics
*[[Journalism|Journalistic]] comics
*[[Religious]] comics
*[[Romance (genre)|Romance]] comics
*[[Satire|Satiric]] comics
*[[Science-fiction]] comics
*[[War (genre)|War]] comics
*[[Western (genre)|Western]] comics
==Some particularly notable comic books==
* ''[[2000 AD (comic)|2000 AD]]'' ([[United Kingdom|British]])
* ''[[Acme Novelty Library]]'' ([[United States]] - [[Fantagraphics]])
* ''[[Akira (film)#Manga|Akira]]'' ([[Japan]]ese)
* ''[[Asterix]]'' ([[France|French]])
* ''[[Batman]]'' ([[United States]] - [[DC Comics]])
* ''[[The Beano]]'' ([[United Kingdom|British]])
* ''[[The Dandy]]'' ([[United Kingdom|British]])
* ''[[Donald Duck]]'' ([[United States]] - [[Dell Comics]], [[Gold Key Comics]])
* ''[[The Fantastic Four]]'' ([[United States]] - [[Marvel Comics]])
* ''[[Green Lantern]]'' ([[United States]] - [[DC Comics]])
* ''[[The Incredible Hulk]]'' ([[United States]] - [[Marvel Comics]])
* ''[[Lone Wolf and Cub]]'' ([[Japan]]ese)
* ''[[Lucky Luke]]'' ([[Belgium]] - [[Dupuis]] and [[Dargaud]])
* ''[[Monica's Gang]]'' (''Turma da Mônica'') ([[Brazil]]ian)
* ''[[Mortadelo y Filemón]]'' ([[Spain]])
* ''[[Mickey Mouse]]'' ([[United States]]-[[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]])
* ''[[RAW (magazine)|''Raw'']]'' ([[United States]] - [[Raw Books]])
* ''[[The Smurfs]]'' ([[Belgium]] - [[Dupuis]])
* ''[[The Amazing Spider-Man]]'' ([[United States]] - [[Marvel Comics]])
* ''[[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|Sandman]]'' ([[United States]] - [[Vertigo (comics)|DC Vertigo Comics]], 1988 World Fantasy Award (unique win for a comic-book series)
* ''[[Spike and Suzy]]'' ([[Belgium|Belgian]] [[Flanders|Flemish]], originally called ''Suske en Wiske'')
* ''[[Superman]]'' ([[United States]] - [[DC Comics]])
* ''[[Tintin]]'' ([[Belgium|Belgian]] - [[Casterman]])
* ''[[Viz (comic)|Viz]]'' ([[United Kingdom|British]])
* ''[[Watchmen]]'' ([[United States]] - [[DC Comics]])
* ''[[Wonder Woman]]'' ([[United States]] - [[DC Comics]])
* ''[[X-Men]]'' ([[United States]] - [[Marvel Comics]])
* ''[[Zap Comix]]'' ([[United Stat |
ly larger than in [[standard English]], the board usually ends up tightly packed in places, and necessarily quite empty in others.
[[Category:Scrabble variants]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chaos</title>
<id>7615</id>
<revision>
<id>41854816</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T04:10:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shiftchange</username>
<id>75349</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>add example</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''Chaos''' derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] Χάος and typically refers to [[unpredictability]]. In the [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] sense, it is the opposite of [[law]] and [[order]]: unrestrictive, both creative and destructive.
The word χάος did not mean "disorder" in classical-period [[ancient Greece]]. It meant "the primal emptiness, [[outer space|space]]". It is derived from the [[Indo-European]] [[root (linguistics)|root]] ''ghn'' or ''ghen'' meaning "gape, be wide open": compare "chasm" (from [[Greek language|Greek]]), and [[Anglo-Saxon]] ''gānian'' (= "yawn"), ''geanian, ginian'' (= "gape wide"); see also [[Old Norse]] [[Ginnungagap|Ginnunga Gap]]. Due to people misunderstanding early Christian uses of the word, the meaning of the word changed to "disorder". (''The Ancient Greek for "disorder" is ταραχη.'').
Mathematically chaos means an aperiodic deterministic behavior which is very sensitive to its initial conditions see [[chaos theory]].
An oft-made assumption is that the metaphysical chaos is [[evil]] and that law is [[goodness and value theory|good]]; however it should be noted these are different concepts, and it is quite possible for chaos to be good and law to be evil. One example of this would be the story of [[Robin Hood]], or the examples of oppressive governments and dictatorships being thrown off by [[freedom fighters]] such as [[Nelson Mandela]]. Chaos and order are often attributed with moral perceptions, however moral perception is order, and thus the notion of applying such a thing to chaos is quite absurd.
Chaos is also used in the [[Bible]] to refer to the earliest conditions of the universe, the unbounded space and formless matter that existed before the creation of the universe.
==See Also==
[[Hesiod's Theogony]]
[[Category:Metaphysics]]
[[Category:Greek mythology]]
[[ca:Caos]]
[[cs:Chaos]]
[[de:Chaos]]
[[el:Χάος]]
[[es:Caos]]
[[fr:Cdhaos]]
[[nl:Chaos]]
[[pl:Chaos]]
[[ru:Хаос]]
[[sv:Kaos]]
[[tr:Kaos]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Canopus (disambiguation)</title>
<id>7616</id>
<revision>
<id>37074084</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-28T12:51:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JASpencer</username>
<id>11096</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Canopus''' may refer to:
* [[Canopus (star)|Canopus]] (or Alpha [[Carina (constellation)|Carinae]]), the brightest star in the southern [[constellation]] of [[Carina (constellation)|Carina]].
* [[Canopus (Egypt)|Canopus]], an [[Ancient Egypt]]ian city in the [[Nile Delta]].
* In the [[Roman Catholic Church]], Canopus is a [[titular see]] of Egypt. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03297b.htm]
* [[Canopus (mythology)|Canopus]], in [[Homer]]ic myth, the pilot of [[Menelaus|King Menelaus]]'s ship.
* [[Canopus (deity)|Canopus]], a deity in [[Lakota mythology]].
* ''[[Canopus (rocket)|Canopus]],'' an [[Argentina|Argentine]] [[sounding rocket]].
* [[Canopus Corporation]], a manufacturer of [[video editing card]]s and [[video editing software]].
* [[HMS Canopus|HMS ''Canopus'']], two ships of the [[Royal Navy]].
* "[[Canopus (nuclear test)|Canopus]]" was the name given to the first test of the [[France|French]] [[hydrogen bomb]], on [[August 24]], [[1968]], with a yield of 2.8 [[megaton|Mt]].
*[[Canopus Lake]], a lake in [[Clarence Fahnestock State Park]] in the USA.
[[Category:Titular Sees]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Canopus]]
[[it:Canopo]]
[[nl:Canopus]]
[[ja:&#12459;&#12494;&#12540;&#12503;&#12473;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Corum</title>
<id>7617</id>
<revision>
<id>39700250</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T06:01:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mikereichold</username>
<id>566926</id>
</contributor>
<comment>RV V</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about [[Michael Moorcock]]'s fantasy hero; for other meanings, see [[Corum (disambiguation)]].''
'''Corum Jhaelen Irsei''' is the name of a fantasy hero in a series of books written by [[Michael Moorcock]]. Corum is an aspect of Moorcock's [[Eternal Champion]] and is, therefore, related to some of his other characters, such as [[Elric of Melniboné]] and [[Hawkmoon]]. His books also draw heavily on ancient Celtic mythology, especially the second trilogy. Corum himself is the last of an ancient race called the Vadhagh, who are slaughtered by the new race of Mabden (humans). He was a prince of his people - Corum Jhaelen Irsei, the Prince in the Scarlet Robe.
Corum is the protagonist of the following Moorcock novels:
* ''The Knight of the Swords'' (1971)
* ''The Queen of the Swords'' (1971)
* ''The King of the Swords'' (1971)
* ''The Bull and the Spear'' (1973)
* ''The Oak and the Ram'' (1973)
* ''The Sword and the Stallion'' (1974)
The first three have been published in the UK under the omnibus title ''Corum'', and the second three under the omnibus title ''The Prince with the Silver Hand''. In the US, the omnibus titles are ''The Swords Trilogy'' and ''The Chronicles of Corum'', respectively.
In 2001 [[Darcsyde Productions]] produced a supplement for use with [[Chaosium]]'s ''[[Stormbringer (role-playing game)|Stormbringer]]'' (aka ''Elric!'') [[role-playing game]] adapting the Corum settings and characters for role-playing.
== Music ==
* The Italian metal band [[Domine]] features Corum in their song ''Prince in the Scarlet Robe'' on their ''Emperor of the Black Runes'' album. They also feature many songs dealing with [[Michael Moorcock]]'s [[Elric]] and Moorcock himself is also specifically thanked and noted as an influence in the liner notes for each of their albums.
* The German metal band [[Blind Guardian]] makes brief reference to Corum in their song ''Damned For All Time'' on their ''Follow the Blind'' album and also in the track ''Imaginations From the Other Side'' from the album of the same name.
[[Category:Eternal Champion]]
[[Category:Series of books]]
[[Category:Michael Moorcock's Multiverse]]
[[Category:Fantasy series]]
[[es:Corum]]
[[ja:紅衣の公子コルム]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cumberland (disambiguation)</title>
<id>7618</id>
<revision>
<id>40277047</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T12:54:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Penrithguy</username>
<id>607059</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Cumberland Ward</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The word '''Cumberland''' may have a variety of possible meanings.
==Places==
In the [[United Kingdom]]:
*[[Cumberland]], one of the 39 [[traditional counties of England]]. [[Cumberland sausages]] originated here. Also see [[Earl of Cumberland]] and [[Duke of Cumberland]].
*[[Cumberland (ward)]] one of the ancient divisions of the county of Cumberland
In [[Canada]]:
*[[Cumberland, British Columbia]]
*[[Cumberland, Ontario]]
*[[Cumberland County, Nova Scotia]]
*[[Cumberland House, Saskatchewan]]
'''Electoral districts'''
*[[Cumberland (N.W.T. electoral district)|Cumberland]] Northwest Territories territorial electoral district
*[[Cumberland (Saskatchewan provincial electoral district)|Cumberland]] Saskatchewan provincial electoral district
*[[Cumberland—Colchester]] Federal electoral district
*[[Cumberland—Colchester North]] Federal electoral district
*[[Cumberland (electoral district)|Cumberland]] Federal electoral district
In the [[United States]]:
*[[Cumberland, Indiana]]
*[[Cumberland, Iowa]]
*[[Cumberland, Kentucky]]
*[[Cumberland, Maine]]
*[[Cumberland, Maryland]]
*[[Cumberland County, New York]]
*[[Cumberland, Ohio]]
*[[Cumberland County, Pennsylvania]]
*[[Cumberland, Rhode Island]]
*[[Cumberland County, Virginia]]
*[[Cumberland, Wisconsin]]
*[[Cumberland Township, Adams County, Pennsylvania]]
*[[Cumberland Township, Greene County, Pennsylvania]]
There is also
*[[Cumberland Center, Maine]]
*[[Cumberland City, Tennessee]]
*[[Cumberland Gap, Tennessee]]
*[[Cumberland Head, New York]]
*[[Cumberland Hill, Rhode Island]]
*[[Cumberland Island|Cumberland Island, Georgia]]
*[[Cumberland Valley Township, Pennsylvania]]
*[[New Cumberland, Pennsylvania]]
*[[New Cumberland, West Virginia]]
There are several places named [[Cumberland County]].
==Other geographical features==
In the United States:
*[[Cumberland Road]] a historical road, also called the Great National Pike and the National Road, was the first [[United States]] federal highway
*[[Cumberland Falls]] on the [[Cumberland River]] in Kentucky
*[[Cumberland Bay State Park]] in New York
*[[Cumberland Gap National Historical Park]] in Kentucky
*[[Cumberland Island National Seashore]] in Georgia
*The [[Cumberland Plateau]] and [[Cumberland Mountains]] in eastern Kentucky and Tennessee and western Virginia
In Canada:
*[[Cumberland Sound]] is an inlet of [[Baffin Island]], [[Canada]].
*[[Cumberland mine]] in [[Nova Scotia]].
In Australia:
* [[South Cumberland Islands National Park]] in Queensland, Australia
* [[County of Cumberland]] covers the Greater [[Sydney]] region.
==Other uses==
*[[Cumberland Blues]] was the name of a [[Grateful Dead]] song about working in the infamous
*[[Cumberland College]] located in [[Williamsburg, Kentucky]] or the [[Cumberland Gap]].
*[[Cumberland Games and Diversions]] is a company dealing with [[adventure ga |
consider d-block elements. All actinides are radioactive.
Only actinium, thorium and uranium occur naturally in the earth's crust. The remaining actinides were synthesized in the 20th cenutry by techniques such as neutron bombardment. The latter half of the series possess exceedingly short [[half-life|half-lives]].
The actinides are typically placed below the main body of the periodic table, in the manner of a footnote. The [[Periodic table (wide)|full-width version of the periodic table]] shows the position of the actinides more clearly.
Note that the [[IUPAC|International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)]] are currently recommending the name '''actinoid''' rather than actinide, as the suffix "-ide" is generally used to indicate [[anions]].
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br/>
{{PeriodicTablesFooter}} [[Category:Periodic table]] <br/>
[[Category:Actinides|*]]
[[ar:أكتينيد]]
[[ca:Actínid]]
[[cs:Aktinoidy]]
[[de:Actinoide]]
[[el:Ακτινίδες]]
[[et:Aktinoidid]]
[[es:Actínido]]
[[eo:Aktinoido]]
[[fr:Actinide]]
[[ko:악티늄족]]
[[hr:Aktinoidi]]
[[is:Aktiníð]]
[[it:Attinidi]]
[[he:אקטיניד]]
[[lt:Aktinoidai]]
[[nl:Actinide]]
[[ja:アクチノイド]]
[[no:Aktinoider]]
[[nn:Aktinid]]
[[pl:Aktynowce]]
[[pt:Actinídio]]
[[ru:Актиноиды]]
[[fi:Aktinoidi]]
[[sv:Aktinid]]
[[th:แอกทิไนด์]]
[[tr:Aktinit]]
[[uk:Актиноїди]]
[[zh:锕系元素]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arthur Miller</title>
<id>2310</id>
<revision>
<id>42078668</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:58:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>153.18.18.157</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the cinematographer, see [[Arthur C. Miller]]
[[Image:Arthur miller.JPG|thumb|Arthur Miller in his later years]]
'''Arthur Asher Miller''' ([[October 17]], [[1915]] – [[February 10]], [[2005]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[playwright]], [[essayist]] and [[author]]. He was a prominent figure in [[American literature]] and [[film|cinema]] for over 61 years, writing a wide variety of [[play]]s. Miller's best-known works were ''[[The Crucible]]'', After the Fall (which won the 1947 Tony Award for best play), and ''[[Death of a Salesman]]'', which are still widely studied and performed worldwide . He was also known for his short-lived marriage to [[Marilyn Monroe]] (1956-1961), who converted to [[Judaism]] for him.
==Biography==
Miller was born into a moderately-wealthy [[Jewish]] family in New York. His father was a clothing manufacturer. His mother was a housewife. His sister, Joan became an actress known as [[Joan Copeland]] and has appeared in some of her brother's plays.
Miller attended P.S. 24 in Harlem from 1920 to 1928, and saw his first play (a [[melodrama]]) in 1923 at the Shubert Theatre. At Abraham Lincoln High School near [[Coney Island]], in [[Brooklyn, New York]], Miller was a talented athlete and mediocre student. He was rejected by both the [[University of Michigan]] and suffered a great deal of [[anti-Semitism]], which would influence his later works. Miller put $13 of every $15 pay check he earned into a college fund and reapplied to the University of Michigan, where he was accepted in 1934.
At Michigan, Miller studied journalism and drama, becoming particularly interested in [[Greek theater|ancient Greek drama]] and the dramas of [[Henrik Ibsen]]. During [[spring break]] in 1936 (his sophomore year), he wrote his first work, ''[[No Villain]]'' (reportedly because of a contest offering a $250 prize, which [[Hopwood Award|Avery Hopwood Award]], the first of two he received. Miller retained strong ties to his alma mater throughout the rest of his life, establishing the Arthur Miller Award in 1985 and Arthur Miller Award for Dramatic Writing in 1999, and lending his name to the Arthur Miller Theatre in the forthcoming In 1938, Miller received his [[bachelor's degree]] in English. In 1940, he married his college sweetheart, Mary Slattery (with whom he had two children, Jane and Robert). He was exempted from military service during [[World War II]] because of a [[American football|football]] injury.
Miller rose to prominence with ''[[All My Sons]]'' in 1947. His 1949 play ''[[Death of a Salesman]]'' won the [[Pulitzer Prize]] and three [[Tony Awards]], as well as the [[New York Drama Critics Circle Award]]. It was the first play ever to win all three. ''[[The Crucible]]'' opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] on [[January 22]], [[1953]]. In 1956, he divorced his wife. In June of the same year, he appeared before the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]], and at the end of the month on [[June 29]], he married [[Marilyn Monroe]], whom he had met eight years earlier through [[Elia Kazan]]. Monroe [[List of converts to Judaism|converted to Judaism]] .
On [[May 31]], [[1957]], Miller was found guilty of [[contempt of Congress]] for refusing to reveal the names of members of a literary circle suspected of Communist affiliation. His conviction was reversed [[August 7]], [[1958]], by the U.S. Court of Appeals. The same year, he published ''Collected Plays''.
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Miller&Monroe.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Monroe and Miller on the set of ''[[The Misfits (film)|The Misfits]]'']] -->
On [[January 24]], [[1961]], Monroe was granted a divorce two months after Miller left her for [[Inge Morath]], whom he married on [[February 17]], [[1962]]. They had met when she and other photographers from the [[Magnum Photos]] agency documented the making of ''The Misfits''. They had two children, Rebecca, born that September, and Daniel. According to biographer [[Martin Gottfried]], Daniel was born with [[Down syndrome|Down Syndrome]]. Miller placed Daniel in an institution in [[Roxbury, Connecticut]], and never visited him. Miller doesn't mention Daniel in ''Timebends'', his 1987 autobiography, and the issue was ignored in the ''[[New York Times]]'' obituary[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/11/theater/11cnd-miller.html?hp=&amp;pagewanted=print&amp;position=] of [[February 11]], [[2005]] (though it was reported in the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' and elsewhere). [[Rebecca Miller]] is a screenwriter, actor and director.
Miller was one of the original founders of [[International PEN]]'s Writers in Prison committee, and in 1965 was elected the organization's president, a position he held for four years [http://mattryan.netfirms.com/MillerBio.htm], [http://av.rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A9ibyK_Qpg5CiAMAXX9rCqMX;_ylu=X3oDMTBvdmM3bGlxBHBndANhdl93ZWJfcmVzdWx0BHNlYwNzcg--/SIG=124m2bp4t/**http%3a//www.thenation.com/docprint.mhtml%3fi=20040112%26s=miller].
In 1985, Miller visited [[Turkey]] and was honored at the American embassy. After his traveling companion [[Harold Pinter]] was thrown out of the country for discussing torture, Miller left in support.
On [[January 30]], [[2002]], Inge Morath died. On [[May 1]] the same year, Miller was awarded Spain's [[Principe de Asturias Prize for Literature]] as "the undisputed master of modern drama". Previous winners include [[Doris Lessing]], [[Günter Grass]] and [[Carlos Fuentes]]. The following year Miller won the [[Jerusalem Prize]].
In December 2004, the 89 year old Miller announced that he had been living with 34 year old artist [[Agnes Barley]] since 2002, and they were planning to marry. Within hours of his death, Barley had moved out of his house on orders of Miller's daughter Rebecca, who disapproved of the relationship.
''See also [[Hollywood Ten]].''
[[Category:1915 births|Miller, Arthur]]
[[Category:2005 deaths|Miller, Arthur]]
[[Category:American writers|Miller, Arthur]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Miller, Arthur]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Angelina Jolie</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:19:17Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* Career */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}
[[Image:Angelina Jolie.jpg|thumb|right|Angelina Jolie at the premiere of ''[[Alexander (film)|Alexander]]''.]]
'''Angelina Jolie''' (born '''Angelina Jolie Voight''' on [[June 4]], [[1975]]) is an [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-winning [[United States|American]] [[actor|actress]].
She is known for her exotic looks, her tumultuous off-screen life, and her humanitarian work with refugees. She has received three [[Golden Globe|Golden Globes]] as well as an [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress]] for her performance in the film ''[[Girl, Interrupted (film)|Girl, Interrupted]]''.
==Biography==
Angelina Jolie was born in [[Los Angeles, California]], to actors [[Jon Voight]] and [[Marcheline Bertrand]]. She is the niece of [[Chip Taylor]] and the god-daughter of [[Jacqueline Bisset]] and [[Maximilian Schell]]. She is also the sister of [[James Haven]]. In a [[2004]] article in ''[[Vogue_%28magazine%29|Vogue]]'' she stated that her mother is from [[Chicago]]. At the ''Premiere Magazine'' "Women in Hollywood" Awards, she said her mother was born in a bowling alley and has stated that because of her name people often assume that her mother is French. Jolie's grandparents were [[French-Canadian]]. Her paternal-grandfather was from [[Czechoslovakia]]. Her mother al |
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<username>Opera hat</username>
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<page>
<title>Flag of the United States</title>
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<comment>/* Standards of respect */ Remove several sentence of what appears to be personal opinion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|thumb|250px|right|[[Image:FIAV 63.png]] Flag ratio: 10:19]]
:'''''"Stars and stripes"''' redirects here. For other uses of the term, see [[Stars and Stripes]].''
: ''This article is about the national flag of the United States. For other flags flown by American ships, see [[American ensign]].''
The '''flag of the United States''' consists of 13 equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing 50 small, white, five-pointed [[pentagram|star]]s arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the [[flag]] represent the [[U.S. state|50 states]] and the 13 stripes represent the [[13 colonies|13 original colonies]]. The [[United States]] flag is commonly called the "'''the Stars and Stripes'''" or "'''Old Glory'''," with the latter nickname coined in 1831 by Captain William Driver, a [[Salem, Massachusetts]] shipmaster.
In [[blazon]]s (a [[vexillology|vexillological]] description using [[flag terminology]]), the U.S. flag is described as "A banner Gules, 6 bars Argent; the canton Azure charged with 50 mullets Argent". This translates to ''A red flag with 6 white horizontal stripes; The top left quarter is blue with 50 white stars''.
==Traditions==
Many institutions, and some homeowners, display the flag year-round, while some reserve flag display for civic holidays like [[Memorial Day]], [[Veteran's Day]], [[Presidents' Day]], [[Flag Day]] and the [[Independence Day (US)|Fourth of July]]. On Memorial Day it is common to place small flags by war memorials and next to the graves of U.S. war dead.
==Symbolism==
To U.S. citizens, their flag symbolizes many things. They have seen it as representing all of the freedoms and rights guaranteed in the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]] and its [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]]. Perhaps most of all they see it as a symbol of individual and personal liberty like those put forth in the U.S. [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]].
The approved method of destroying old and tattered flags consists of burning them in a simple ceremony. The flag is cut into three pieces: first a horizontal cut is made between the seventh and eighth stripes, then a vertical cut separating the star field from the seven shorter stripes. Then the three pieces are typically placed on a [[pyre]] as "[[Taps]]" is played. Burning the flag has also been used as a deliberate act of disrespect ([[flag desecration]]), at times to [[protest]] actions by the [[United States government]], or sometimes in displays of [[anti-Americanism]] overseas. Some groups concerned by these actions have proposed a [[Flag Burning Amendment]] that would give Congress the authority to outlaw burning the flag in disrespect or protest.
===Symbolism of the design===
When the [[Second Continental Congress]] proposed the [[Flag Acts (U.S.)|Flag Resolution]] on [[June 14]], [[1777]], there was no particular symbolism attached to the colors or their arrangement on the flag. However, on [[June 20]], [[1782]], [[Charles Thomson]], the secretary of the Continental Congress, gave a report to the Congress defining the new [[Great Seal of the United States]]. Meanings were attached to the colors (which, contrary to popular misinformation, is not part of any of the rules of [[heraldry]]). Rather, the meanings were a matter of contemporary fashion and personal preference on the part of Mr. Thomson.
:''The colours of the pales are those used in the flag of the United States of America. White signifies purity and innocence. Red hardiness and valour and Blue the colour of the Chief signifies vigilance perseverance and justice.''&nbsp;<sup>[ContCong 22:339]</sup>
Originally, both the number of stripes and the number of stars were supposed to represent the number of states. However, this became unwieldy as states were added to the union. During the debate that eventually resulted in the [[Flag Acts (U.S.)|Flag Act of 1818]], U.S. Naval Captain Samuel C. Reid suggested that the number of stripes be set at thirteen to represent the original 13 colonies and that only the number of stars be set to the number of states. <sup>[USGov 4]</sup>
A book about the flag published by the Congress in [[1977]] gives further symbolism for the flag:
: The star is a symbol of the heavens and the divine goal to which man has aspired from time immemorial; the stripe is symbolic of the rays of light emanating from the sun. <sup>[USFlag.org]</sup>
== Design ==
[[Image:Flag of the United States specification.jpg|378x230px|right|Diagram of the flag's design]]
The basic design of the flag is specified by sections 1 and 2 of Title 4, [[United States Code]]. Executive Order 10834 which may be found as a note to section 1, specifies the proportions of the flag and the arrangement of the stars in the union. [http://assembler.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode04/usc_sec_04_00000001----000-notes.html]. The specification gives the following values:
* Hoist (width) of flag: A = 1.0
* Fly (length) of flag: B = 1.9
* Hoist (width) of Union: C = 0.5385 (7/13)
* Fly (length) of Union: D = 0.76
* E = F = 0.054
* G = H = 0.063
* Diameter of star: K = 0.0616
* Width of stripe: L = 0.0769 (1/13)
Presumably E and F are approximations of 7/130 = 0.053[8461], and G and H are approximations of 0.76/12 = 0.06[3].
According to [[Flags of the World]], the colors are specified by the [[General Services Administration]] "Federal Specification, Flag, National, United States of America and Flag, Union Jack," DDD-F-416E, dated [[November 27]], [[1981]]. It gives the colors by reference to "[[Standard Color Cards of America]]" maintained by the [[Color Association of the United States]], Inc., as:
<br clear="all">
{| width="60%" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-collapse: collapse; white-space: nowrap; text-align: left"
|- style="text-align: center; background: #eee"
!
! Old Glory Blue
! Old Glory Red
! White
|-
| Cable No.
| 70075
| 70180
| 70001
|-
| Approximation to [[Pantone]]
| 281
| 193
| Safe
|}
The current 50-star flag was designed by Robert Heft in 1958 while living with his grandparents in [[Ohio]]. He was 17 years old at the time and did the flag design as a class project. His mother was a seamstress, but forced Heft to do all of the work on his own. He originally received a "B-" for the project. After discussing the grade with his teacher, it was agreed (somewhat jokingly) that if the flag was accepted by Congress, the grade would be reconsidered. Heft's flag design was chosen and adopted by presidential proclamation after [[Alaska]] and before [[Hawaii]] was admitted into the union in [[1959]]. According to Heft, his teacher did keep to their agreement and changed his grade to an "A" for the project.
== Flag etiquette ==
There are certain guidelines for the use and display of the United States flag as outlined in the [[Wikisource:United States Flag Code|United States Flag Code]] of the federal government. These are guidelines, not laws; there is no penalty for failure to comply with them. This etiquette is as applied within U.S. jurisdiction. In other countries and places, local etiquette applies.
===Standards of respect===
* The flag should never be dipped to any person or thing, unless it is the [[ensign]] responding to a salute from a vessel of a foreign ship.
* The flag should be flown upside down only as a distress signal.
* The flag should not be used as a drapery, or for covering a speaker's desk, draping a platform, or for any decoration in general. Bunting of blue, white and red stripes is available for these purposes. The blue stripe of the bunting should be on the top.
* The flag should never be drawn back or bunched up in any way.
* The flag should never be used as a covering for a ceiling.
* The flag should never be used for any advertising purpose. It should not be embroidered, printed, or otherwise impressed on such articles as cushions, handkerchiefs, napkins, boxes, or anything intended to be discarded after temporary use. Advertising signs should not be attached to the staff or halyard.
* The flag should not be used as part of a costume or athletic uniform, except that a flag patch may be used on the uniform of military personnel, firefighters, police officers, and members of patriotic organizations.
* The flag should never have placed on it, or attached to it, any mark, insignia, letter, word, number, figure, or drawing of any kind.
* The flag should never be used as a receptacle for receiving, holding, carrying, or delivering anything.
* The flag should not be draped over the hood, top, sides, or back of a vehicle, railroad train, or boat.
* When the flag is lowered, no part of it should touch the ground or any other object; it should be received by waiting hands and arms. To store the flag it should |
hill, called [[Nunne Chaha]], and on the hill was a house, wherein lived [[Esaugetuh Emissee]] ("master of breath"). He created humanity from the clay on the hill.
===Egyptian===
There were at least three separate [[cosmogeny|cosmogenies]] in [[Egyptian mythology]], corresponding to at least three separate groups of worshippers.
*The [[Ennead]], in which [[Atum]] arose from the primordial waters ([[Neith]]), and [[masturbation|masturbated]] to relieve his loneliness. His [[semen]] and [[breath]] became [[Tefnut]] ([[moisture]]) and [[Shu]] ([[dryness]]), respectively. From Shu and Tefnut, were born [[Geb]] ([[earth]]), and [[Nuit]] ([[sky]]), who were born in a state of permanent copulation. Shu separated them, and their children were Ausare ([[Osiris]]; [[death]]), [[Set (god)|Set]] ([[desert]]), Aset ([[Isis]]; [[life]]), and Nebet Het ([[Nephthys]]; [[fertility|fertile]] [[landform|land]]). Osiris and Isis were a couple, as were Nepthys and Set.
*The [[Ogdoad]], in which [[Ra]] arose, either in an [[egg (biology)|egg]], or a [[blue lotus]], as a result of the creative interaction between the primordial forces of [[Naunet|Nu/Naunet]] ([[water]]), [[Amun]]/[[Amunet]] ([[Air (classical element)|air]]), [[Kuk|Kuk/Kauket]] ([[dark]]ness), and [[Huh (god)|Huh/Hauhet]] ([[eternity]]). Ra then created [[Hathor]], his wife, with whom they had a son, Hor ([[Horus]]; in the form known as ''Horus the Elder''), who was married to Isis. This cosmogeny also includes Anupu ([[Anubis]]) as lord of the dead, amongst others.
*The third group, for whom [[Ptah]] was eternal and everlasting, and he [[speach|spake]] the world and all the gods into existence, in a similar manner to [[Judaism|Judao]]-[[Christianity|Christian]] belief about their concept of [[Yahweh|God]].
Over time, the rival groups gradually merged, Ra and Atum were identified as the same god, making Atum's mysterious creation actually due to the Ogdoad, and Ra having the children Shu and Tefnut, etc. In consequence, Anubis was identified as a son of Osiris, as was Horus. Amun's role was later thought much greater, and for a time, he became chief god, although he eventually became considered a manifestation of Ra.
For a time, Ra and Horus were identified as one another, and when the [[Aten]] [[monotheism]] was unsuccessfully introduced, it was Ra-Horus who was thought of as the Aten, and the consequent cosmogony this inspired. Later, Osiris' cult became more popular, and he became the main god, being identified as a form of Ptah. Eventually, all the gods were thought of as aspects of Osiris, Isis, Horus, or Set (who was by now a villain), indeed, Horus and Osiris had started to become thought of as the same god. [[Ptah]] eventually was identified as [[Osiris]].
===Classical Greek===
[[Plato]], in his dialogue [[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]], describes a creation myth involving a being called the [[demiurge]].
[[Hesiod]], in his [[Theogony]], says that [[Chaos (mythology)|Chaos]] existed in the beginning, and then gave birth to [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] (the Earth), [[Tartarus]] (the Underworld), [[Eros (god)|Eros]] (desire), [[Nyx]] (the darkness of the night) and [[Erebus]] (the darkness of the Underworld). Gaia brought forth [[Uranus (mythology)|Ouranos]], the starry sky, her equal, to cover her, the hills, and the fruitless deep of the Sea, [[Pontus (mythology)|Pontus]], "without sweet union of love," out of her own self. But afterwards, Hesiod tells, she lay with Heaven and bore the World-Ocean [[Oceanus]], [[Coeus]] and [[Crius]] and the [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]]s [[Hyperion (mythology)|Hyperion]] and [[Iapetus (mythology)|Iapetus]], [[Theia]] and [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]], [[Themis]] and [[Mnemosyne]] and [[Phoebe (mythology)|Phoebe]] of the golden crown and lovely [[Tethys (mythology)|Tethys]]. "After them was born [[Cronos]] the wily, youngest and most terrible of her children, and he hated his lusty sire." Cronos, at Gaia's urging, castrates Ouranos. He marries [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]] who bears him [[Hestia]], [[Demeter]], [[Hera]], [[Hades]], [[Poseidon]], and [[Zeus]]. Zeus and his brothers overthrow Cronos and the other Titans, then draw lots to determine what each of them will rule. Zeus draws heaven, Poseidon draws sea, and Hades draws earth.
===Hindu===
:''The Mahaa-[[Vishnu]], into whom all the innumerable [[universe]]s enter and from whom they come forth again simply by His breathing process, is a plenary expansion of [[Krishna]]. Therefore I worship [[Govinda]], Krishna, the cause of all causes.'' (Brahma-samhitaa 5.48)
In [[Hinduism|Hindu]] philosophy, the existence of the universe is governed by the [[Trimurti]] of [[Brahma (god)|Brahma]] (the Creator), [[Vishnu]] (the Sustainer) and [[Shiva]] (the Destroyer). The sequence of [[Avatar]]s of Vishnu- the [[Dasavatara]] ([[Sanskrit]]: Dasa&mdash;ten, Avatara&mdash;incarnation) is generally accepted by most Hindus today as correlating well with Darwin's theory of evolution, the first Avatar generating from the environment of water.
Hindus thus do not see much conflict between creation and evolution. An additional reason for this could also be the Hindu concept of cyclic time, such as [[Ancient Vedic weights and measures#Yugas|yugas]], or days of Brahma in approximately 4.3 billion year cycles (unlike the concept of [[linear time]] in many other religions). In fact, time is represented as ''Kaala Chakra'' &mdash; the Wheel of Time.
In Hinduism, nature and all of God's creations are manifestations of Him. He is within and without his creations, pervading the entire universe and also observing it externally. Hence all animals and humans have a divine element in them that is covered by the ignorance and illusions of material or profane existence.
===[[Hopi]]===
The [[Elders]] say that the first [[Hopi]] had chosen to live in the barren desert so that they would always need to pray for rain. Thus, they would not lose faith in their ceremonies, which maintain their bond with the [[Mother Nature]] and [[Creator]]. They said that the True Hopi people represent the Red race through the authority vested in them by the [[Creator]], [[Maasaw]].
===Hmong===
According to [[Hmong]] tradition, a long time ago the rivers and ocean covered the Earth. A brother and sister were locked in a yellow wooden drum. The Sky People looked out and saw the Earth. Everything was dead. Only a yellow wooden drum was left on the water.
"Punch holes in the Earth so the water will drain away," said the King above the Sky.
The water went down. Finally, the drum bumped against the ground. The brother and sister came out of the drum and looked around. Everything was dead.
"Where are the people?" asked the sister.
But the brother had an idea. "All the people on Earth are gone. Marry me, we can have children."
"I can't marry you, we are brother and sister."
But he asked her again and again and she said, "No."
Finally the brother said, "Let's carry the grindstones up the hill and roll them into the valley. If the stones land on top of each other, then you shall marry me."
The sister rolled her stone and then, as soon as the brother rolled his stone he ran as fast as he could down the hill and stacked the stones on top of each other.
When the sister saw the stones she cried. Finally she said, "I will marry you, because it was meant to be."
A year later the wife gave birth to a baby, but the baby was not a real baby. It had no arms or legs. It was just round like a pumpkin. The husband cut it up and threw the pieces away. One piece fell on the garden and it became the "Vang" clan because "Vang" sounds like the word for "garden" in Hmong. One piece fell on the goat house. Some pieces fell on the leaves and grass and they became the other [[Hmong clans]]. The Nhia, Mhoua, Pao, Ho, Xiong, Vue, and so on.
The next morning the village was full of houses. Everyone came to the husband and wife and said, "Mother and father, come have breakfast with us."
The husband said to his wife, "I asked you to marry me because all the people on Earth were dead. Now these people are our family -- our sons and daughters."
===Inca===
[[Image:Manco-copac-small.png|thumb|200 px|right|Hand drawn image of [[Manco Capac]], founder of the Incan empire and, according to Incan custom, created along with the world.]]
The [[Inca]]n account of creation is known based on what was recorded by priests, from the iconography on Incan pottery and architecture, and the myths and legends which survived amongst the native peoples. According to these accounts, in the most ancient of times the earth was covered in darkness. Then, out of a lake called Collasuyu (modern [[Titicaca]]), the god [[Viracocha|Con Tiqui Viracocha]] emerged, bringing some human beings with him. Then Con Tiqui created the sun ([[Inti]]), the moon and the stars to light the world. It is from Inti that the [[Sapa Inca]], emperor of [[Tawantinsuyu]], is descended. Out of great rocks Con Tiqui fashioned more human beings, including women who were already pregnant. Then he sent these people off into every corner of the world. He kept a male and female with him at [[Cuzco]], the "navel of the world."
Con, the Creator; was in the form of a man without bones. He filled the earth with good things to supply the needs of the first humans. The people, however, forgot Con's goodness to them and rebelled. So he punished them by stopping the rainfall. The miserable people were forced to work hard, drawing what little water they could find from stinking, drying riverbeds. Then a new god, [[Pachacamac]], came and drove Con out, changing his people into monkeys. Pachachamac then took earth and made the ancestors of human beings..
The founder of the first dynasty of the [[kingdom of Cuzco]] was [[Manco Capac]]. In on |
state]] is the basis for the energy captured by photosynthesis to produce ATP and NADPH and the ultimate formation of [[sugar]]s. Energy of the absorbed photons not used to produce chemical energy is eventually given off to the surroundings. Thus, chloroplasts are small [[heat engine]]s operating between the hot light from the sun and the lower ambient molecular [[temperature]]. ([[Solar cell|Photovoltaic]] cells do likewise.)
==See also==
*[[Chloroplast membrane]]
:*[[Inner membrane]]
:*[[Outer membrane]]
*[[Calvin cycle]]
==References==
*{{NCBI-scienceprimer}}
==External links==
*[http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/Chloroplasts.html Chloroplasts] and [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/L/LightReactions.html Photosynthesis: The Role of Light] from [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/ Kimball's Biology Pages]
*[http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/C/chloropl.html Chloroplast, Botany]
*[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=8041699 Use of chloroplast DNA in studying plant phylogeny and evolution]
{{organelles}}
[[Category:Organelles]]
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<page>
<title>Camp David</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-15T15:59:51Z</timestamp>
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<comment>Remove the period from Harry S. Truman since the "S' is his middle name.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Camp David 30-0045a.gif|thumb|200px|right|Main Lodge at Camp David during [[Richard Nixon|Nixon administration]], [[February 9]], [[1971]].]]
The '''Naval Support Facility Thurmont''', popularly known as '''Camp David''', is the rustic 125-acre (0.5&nbsp;km&sup2;) mountain retreat of the [[President of the United States|President]] of the [[United States]]. Camp David is part of the [[Catoctin Mountain Park]] recreational area in [[Frederick County, Maryland|Frederick County]], [[Maryland]], outside [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]].
==Establishment==
Catoctin Mountain Park was originally submarginal land purchased by the [[Federal Government of the United States|U.S. government]] in [[1936]], to be developed into a recreational facility. The purpose of the land was to demonstrate how rough [[terrain]] and [[Soil erosion|eroded soil]] could be turned into productive land.
[[Image:Camp David 24-0145a.gif|thumb|250px|left|[[Anwar Sadat]], [[Jimmy Carter]], and [[Menachem Begin]] meet on the Aspen Lodge patio on [[September 6]], [[1978]].]]
During the [[New Deal]] program of President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], the [[Works Progress Administration]] began the work in the newly created Catoctin Recreational Demonstration Area, joined by the [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] in [[1939]]. Camp Misty Mount was first used by the Maryland League for Crippled Children. After the first year ([[1937]]), the League moved to a second camp, Camp Greentop, because Camp Misty Mount's terrain was difficult to negotiate in a [[wheelchair]]. A third camp, '''Camp Hi-Catoctin''', was completed in the winter of [[1938]]-[[1939]] and was used for three years as a family camp for federal employees.
Roosevelt was accustomed to seeking relief from hot Washington summers and relaxing on weekends aboard the presidential [[yacht]] [[USS Potomac (AG-25)|''Potomac'']] or at his home in [[Hyde Park, New York|Hyde Park]], [[New York]]. In [[1942]], the [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]] became concerned about the President's use of ''Potomac''. [[World War II]] had brought [[U-boat|U-boats]] of the ''[[Kriegsmarine]]'' (German War Navy) close to U.S. coastal waters in the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]]. Roosevelt's health was also a concern. The muggy climate of the Washington area was considered detrimental to his health, affecting his sinuses. A new retreat within a 100 mile (160 km) radius of the capital with cool mountain air was sought.
[[Image:President Reagan and Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher at Camp David 1986.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Margaret Thatcher]] and [[Ronald Reagan]] at Camp David.]]
Several sites were considered but Camp Hi-Catoctin in the Catoctin Recreational Demonstration Area was selected after the President's first visit on [[April 22]], [[1942]]. A camp was already built on the site and the estimated conversion cost was $18,650. It was also almost 10 Fahrenheit degrees (5 Celsius degrees) cooler than Washington. Roosevelt quickly renamed the camp to '''[[Shangri-La]]''' from [[James Hilton]]'s 1933 novel, ''[[Lost Horizon]]''.
==Post-World War II era==
At the close of World War II, there was some debate over the future of Shangri-La. Should it be returned to the [[National Park Service]]? Should it be maintained as a national shrine or monument? Should it be transferred to the Maryland State Forest and Park System as was the original plan of the demonstration area? In a letter to Maryland Governor [[Herbert R. O'Conor]], President [[Harry S Truman]] wrote:
:''I have decided because of the historical events of national and international interest now associated with the Catoctin Recreation Area that this property should be retained by the National Park Service of the Department of the Interior. This action is in accord with the position expressed by the late President Roosevelt before his death''.
[[Image:Camp David 29-0054a.gif|thumb|200px|left|George H.W. Bush meets with his National Security advisors in the Aspen Lodge conference room on [[August 4]], [[1990]].]]
In [[1952]] Truman approved a compromise under which the land north of Maryland Route 77 would remain Catoctin Mountain Park operated by the National Park Service and the land south of Maryland Route 77 would become Cunningham Falls State Park. The official transfer took effect in 1954. President [[Dwight Eisenhower]] renamed the retreat '''Camp David''' for his grandson after he took office in 1953.
==Notable events at Camp David==
Camp David has often been used for formal and informal discussion between [[United States]] and world leaders. Probably most famous is the summit that led to the peace agreement between president [[Anwar Sadat]] of [[Egypt]] and prime minister [[Menachem Begin]] of [[Israel]] that was forged at Camp David in [[1978]] with U.S. President [[Jimmy Carter]], known as the [[Camp David Accords (1978)]], now also called "Camp David I."
[[Image:Camp David 4 p37126-25a-515h.jpg|thumb|200px|right|George W. Bush meets with his advisors at Camp David on [[January 17]], [[2004]], while preparing for his [[State of the Union address]].]]
In [[2000]] there were also the failed discussions on the resolution of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] at the summit meeting between U.S. President [[Bill Clinton]], [[PLO]] Chairman [[Yasser Arafat]] and Israeli prime minister [[Ehud Barak]] known as the [[Camp David 2000 Summit]] or "Camp David II."
==Modern usage==
Camp David continues to serve as the Presidential Retreat today. It is a private, secluded place for recreation, contemplation, rest, and relaxation. Many historical events have occurred at the Presidential Retreat; the planning of the [[Normandy invasion]], Eisenhower-Khrushchev meetings, discussions of the [[Bay of Pigs]], [[Vietnam War]] discussions, and many other meetings with foreign dignitaries and guests. Maintaining the privacy and secluded atmosphere of the retreat is an important role for Catoctin Mountain Park. The Presidential Retreat still remains within park boundaries but is not open to the public. It is a place where Presidents can relax, unwind, or entertain distinguished guests in an informal setting.
==See also==
*[[Chequers]], the official country residence of the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Executive Branch of the United States Government]]
[[Category:Frederick County, Maryland]]
[[Category:Official residences in the United States]]
[[Category:Houses in the United States]]
[[Category:Works Progress Administration]]
[[bg:Кемп Дейвид]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Crux</title>
<id>6359</id>
<revision>
<id>41993821</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:31:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>64.12.116.202</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Crux |
abbreviation = Cru |
genitive = Crucis |
symbology = Cross |
RA = 12 |
dec= &minus;60 |
areatotal = 68 |
arearank = 88th |
numberstars = 4 |
starname = [[Alpha Crucis|Acrux]] (α Cru) |
starmagnitude = 0.87 |
meteorshowers =
*[[Crucids]] |
bordering =
*[[Centaurus]]
*[[Musca]] |
latmax = 20 |
latmin = 90 |
month = May |
notes=}}
{{Redirect|Southern Cross}}
'''Crux''', being [[Latin]] for ''[[cross]]'', commonly known as the '''Southern Cross''' (in contrast to the [[Cygnus (constellation)|Northern Cross]]), is [[List of constellations by area|the smallest]] of the 88 modern [[constellation|constellations]], but nevertheless one of the most distinctive. It is surrounded on three sides by the constellation [[Centaurus]] while to the south lies the ''Fly'' ([[Musca]]). Crux was originally thought of by ancient [[Greece|Greeks]] as part of [[Centaurus]], but was defined as a separate [[asterism (astronomy |
e-holders|Australia, Governor-General]]
[[Category:Governors-General of Australia|*]]
[[Category:Westminster System]]
[[de:Liste der Generalgouverneure Australiens]]
[[es:Gobernador General de Australia]]
[[pl:Gubernatorzy generalni Australii]]
[[zh:澳大利亚总督]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Greek Literature</title>
<id>12604</id>
<revision>
<id>15910277</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-20T21:51:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[Greek literature]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Greek literature]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Go/Strategy and Tactics</title>
<id>12606</id>
<revision>
<id>15910279</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-13T16:11:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<comment>moving to non-subspace page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Go strategy and tactics]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Glasnost</title>
<id>12607</id>
<revision>
<id>38487172</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T17:51:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chlewbot</username>
<id>620581</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: no, ru</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{russianterm|'''гласность'''|glasnost|openness}}
'''Glasnost''' ([[Russian (spelling)|Russian]]: гла́сность, {{Audio|ru-glasnost.ogg|listen}}) was one of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]'s policies introduced to the [[Soviet Union]] in 1985. The term is a Russian word for "publicity", "openness".
==Objectives==
Gorbachev's goal in undertaking glasnost was to pressure conservatives within the [[CPSU|Party]] who opposed his policies of economic restructuring, or [[perestroika]]. Gorbachev hoped that through different ranges of openness, debate and participation, the Soviet people would support and participate in [[perestroika]].
==Areas of concern==
While in the West the notion of "glasnost" is associated with [[freedom of speech]], the main goal of this policy was to make the country's management transparent and open to debate, to change the former situation when major political and management decisions were made by a narrow circle of [[apparatchik]]s or within the [[Politburo]] and were beyond criticism. Through reviewing the past or current mistakes being made, it was hoped that the Soviet people would back reforms such as [[perestroika]].
Glasnost gave new freedoms to the people, such as a greater freedom of speech &mdash; a radical change, as control of speech and suppression of government criticism had previously been a central part of the Soviet system. There was also a greater degree of freedom within the media. In the late 1980's, the Soviet government came under increased criticism, as did Leninist ideology (which Gorbachev had attempted to preserve as the foundation for reform), and members of the Soviet population were more outspoken in their view that the Soviet government had become a failure. Glasnost did indeed provide freedom of expression, far beyond what Gorbachev had intended, and changed citizens' view towards the government, which finally led to the collapse of the Soviet Union.
==Effects==
Relaxation of [[censorship]] resulted in the Communist Party losing its grip on the [[media]]. Before long, much to the embarrassment of the authorities, the media began to expose severe social and economic problems which the Soviet government had long denied and covered up. Long-denied problems such as poor housing, food shortages, [[alcoholism]], widespread pollution, creeping mortality rates and the second-rate position of women, were now receiving increasing attention. Moreover, under glasnost, the people were able to learn significantly more about the horrors committed by the government when [[Joseph Stalin]] was in power. Although [[Nikita Khrushchev]] denounced Stalin's [[personality cult]], information about the true proportions of his atrocities was still suppressed. In all, the very positive view of Soviet life which had long been presented to the public by the official media was being rapidly dismantled, and the negative aspects of life in the Soviet Union were brought into the spotlight. This began to undermine the faith of the public in the Soviet system.
Political openness continued to produce unintended consequenses. In [[election]]s to the regional assemblies of the Soviet Union's [[Republics of the Soviet Union|constituent republics]], [[nationalism|nationalists]] swept the board. As Gorbachev had weakened the system of internal political repression, the ability of the USSR's central Moscow government to impose its will on the USSR's constituent republics had been largely undermined. During the [[1980s]] calls for greater independence from Moscow's rule grew louder. This was especially marked in the [[Baltic Republics]] of [[Estonia]], [[Lithuania]] and [[Latvia]], which had been annexed into the Soviet Union by [[Joseph Stalin]] in [[1940]]. Nationalist feeling also took hold in other Soviet republics such as [[Ukrainian SSR|Ukraine]], [[Georgian SSR|Georgia]] and [[Azerbaijan SSR|Azerbaijan]].
Starting in the mid-1980s, the Baltic states used the reforms provided by glasnost to assert their rights to protect their environment and their historic monuments and, later, their claims to sovereignty and independence. When the Balts withstood outside threats, they exposed an irresolute [[Moscow Kremlin|Kremlin]]. Bolstering separatism in other Soviet republics, the Balts triggered multiple challenges to the [[Soviet Empire]]. Supported by Russian leader [[Boris Yeltsin]], the Baltic republics asserted their sovereignty.
The rise of nationalism under glasnost also reawakened simmering ethnic tensions throughout the union. For example, in February 1988, [[Nagorno-Karabakh]], a predominantly ethnic Armenian region in the Azerbaijan SSR, passed a resolution calling for unification with the [[Armenian SSR]]. Violence against local Azeris was then reported on Soviet television, which provoked massacres of Armenians in the Azerbaijani city of [[Sumgait]].
Whilst thousands of [[political prisoner]]s and many [[dissident]]s were released in the spirit of glasnost, Gorbachev's original goal of using glasnost and perestroika to reform the [[Soviet Union]] was not achieved. In 1991, [[History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)|the Soviet Union was dissolved]] following a [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991|failed coup]] by conservative elements who were opposed to Gorbachev's reforms.
==See also==
* [[Perestroika]]
* [[Demokratizatsiya]]
{{Cold War}}
[[Category:Social justice]]
[[Category:Soviet phraseology]]
[[Category:Soviet internal politics]]
[[da:Glasnost]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Geodesy</title>
<id>12608</id>
<revision>
<id>41913119</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:00:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/160.136.109.105|160.136.109.105]] ([[User talk:160.136.109.105|talk]]) to last version by Chris 73</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''See also the main article on [[history of geodesy]].''
{{mergefrom|geodetic system}}
[[Image:Geodetisch station1855.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Geodetic pillar (1855); Ostend, Belgium]]
[[Image:Litography archive of the Bayerisches Vermessungsamt.jpg|thumb|250px|Archive with [[lithography]] plates for maps of [[Bavaria]] in the ''Landesamt für Vermessung und Geoinformation'' in [[Munich]]]]
'''Geodesy''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/dʒiˈɑdɪsi/}}), also called '''geodetics''', is the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the [[earth]], its [[gravitation]]al field and geodynamic phenomena ([[polar motion]], earth [[tide]]s, and crustal motion) in three-dimensional time varying space.
==Definition ==
Geodesy is primarily concerned with positioning and the gravity field and geometrical aspects of their temporal variations, although it can also include the study of the Earth's [[magnetic field]]. Especially in the [[German language|German]] speaking world, geodesy is divided in [[geomensuration]] ("Erdmessung" or "höhere Geodäsie"), which is concerned with measuring the earth on a global scale, and [[Geophysical survey|surveying]] ("Ingenieurgeodäsie"), which is concerned with measuring parts of the surface.
The shape of the earth is to a large extent the result of its rotation, which causes its equatorial bulge, and the competition of geologic processes such as the collision of plates and of [[Volcano| vulcanism]], resisted by the earth's [[gravity]] field. This applies to the solid surface ([[orogeny]]; few mountains are higher than 10 km, few deep sea trenches deeper than that.) Quite simply, a mountain as tall as, for example, 15 km, would develop so much [[pressure]] at its base, due to gravity, that the rock there would become [[plastic]], and the mountain would slump back to a height of roughly 10 km in a geologically insignificant time. (On Mars, whose surface gravity is much less, the largest volcano, [[Olympus Mons]], is 27 km high at its peak, a height that could not be maintained on Earth.) Gravity similarly affects the liquid surface ([[dynamic sea surface topography]]) and the [[earth's atmosphere]]. For this reason, the study of the Earth's [[gravity field]] is seen as a part of |
[Anabaptist]]s were not so easily silenced. From their interpretation of the Bible, which Zwingli had placed in their hands, they opposed infant baptism and refused to join Zwingli's state church. Zwingli thus persecuted them mercilessly with imprisonment, torture, banishment and death; one of their leaders [[Felix Manz]] was drowned. The war against the Anabaptists was more serious for Zwingli than that against Rome.
In [[St. Gallen]] [[mayor]] [[Vadian]] (Joachim von Watt) worked successfully in Zwingli's interest &mdash; in [[Schaffhausen]], Dr. [[Sebastian Hofmeister]] did the same; in [[Basle]] it was [[Johann Oecolampadius]]. Zwingli himself came to [[Berne]], in January, [[1528]]. The new doctrines were then introduced as sweepingly into Berne as they had been at Zürich, and many places and counties which had previously wavered followed its example. Zwingli could also point to brilliant successes in [[1528]] and [[1529]]. He ensured the predominance of his reforms through the "Christian Civic rights", agreed upon between Zürich and the towns of Constance (1527), Berne and St. Gall (1528), [[Biel/Bienne|Biel]], [[Mulhouse|Mulhausen]], and Schaffhausen (1529).
===Reaction===
[[Image:Zwingli statue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of Zwingli in Zürich]]
Reformation swept across Switzerland. The cantons of [[Canton of Uri|Uri]], [[Canton of Schwyz|Schwyz]], [[Unterwalden]], [[Canton of Lucerne|Lucerne]], [[Canton of Zug|Zug]], and [[Canton of Fribourg|Fribourg]] remained however true to the old Faith, and offered determined opposition to Zwingli. This did not mean that the catholic cantons were wholly satisfied with conditions prevailing in the Catholic church. They strove to abolish abuses, and issued a Concordat of Faith in [[1525]] demanding important reforms, this, however, never found general recognition. From [[21 May]] to [[8 June]], [[1526]], they held a public disputation at Baden, to which they invited Dr. [[Johann Eck]] of [[Ingolstadt]]. Zwingli did not appear.
At [[Baden, Switzerland|Baden]], a famous watering-place, only twelve miles northwest of Zürich, there was a [[Baden im Aargau, conference of|disputation]] between the Old Church representatives and the Zwingli party from [[May 21]] to [[June 8]], [[1526]]. Though not present in person, Zwingli had close connections with those from Zürich who spoke for him, and gave them daily instructions. Of course each side claimed the victory.
To compel the Catholic cantons to accept the new doctrines, Zwingli even urged [[civil war]], drew up a plan of campaign, and succeeded in persuading Zürich to declare war and march against the Catholic territories. The Catholic districts had by then strengthened their position by forming a defensive alliance with [[Austria]] ([[1529]]), the "Christian Union." At this juncture, however, they received no assistance. Berne showed itself more moderate than Zürich, and a treaty of peace was arranged, which, however, was very unfavourable for the Catholics.
===Dictator of Zürich===
In Zürich, Zwingli was now the commanding personality in all ecclesiastical and political questions. He was "mayor, secretary, and council" in one. He and Luther could not agree regarding the doctrine of the Lord's Supper when a disputation was arranged between the two [[Protestant]] leaders at [[Marburg Colloquy|Marburg]] in October, [[1529]].
As a statesman, Zwingli embarked in secular politics with ambitious plans. "Within three years", he wrote, "Italy, Spain and Germany will take our view". By prohibiting any compromises with the Catholic cantons Zwingli may have compelled them to resort to arms. On [[9 October]], [[1531]], they declared war on Zürich, and advanced to Kappel on the frontiers. That day proved to be fateful for Zwingli.
===Civil war and Zwingli's death on the battlefield===
See [[Kappeler Kriege]], [[Reformation in Switzerland]].
The [[Swiss Confederation]] wasn't a centralized state, but many different states or cantons that were only united on a few issues, primarily wanting independence from the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. When the Catholic cantons took steps towards an alliance with [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], Zwingli recommended that the Protestant cantons begin to take military initiatives before it was too late. Zwingli was preparing for war, but his beliefs weren't shared by all of the other Protestant cantons. Instead, the other Protestants took economic measures towards the Catholic cantons. In [[October]] of 1531, the five Catholic cantons joined together for a surprise attack on Zürich. The Protestants were nearly unable to defend themselves because of no advance warning, but when their army gathered together, Zwingli marched out with the first soldiers and was killed in battle. In [[Kappel]], the army of Zürich was defeated, and slightly more than a month later, the [[Peace of Kappel]] was signed.
==Zwingli's successor==
Zwingli's successor, [[Heinrich Bullinger]], was elected on [[December 9]], [[1531]], to be the pastor of the Great Minster at Zürich, a position which he held to the end of his life ([[1575]]). He did not replace Zwingli as the political head man of the canton. The pastor of the Great Minster continued to exert political influence, but the time of [[theocracy]] was past for Zürich.
==Other notables in Swiss Reformation==
* [[Ambrosius Blarer]]
* [[Heinrich Bullinger]]
* [[John Calvin]]
* [[William Farel]]
* [[Johannes Oecolampadius]]
==Literary production==
* Rhymed fables of the ox, c. [[1510]]
* ''De Gestis inter Gallos et Helvetios relatio'', [[1512]]
* ''The Labyrinth'', c. [[1516]]
* ''Vom Erkiesen und Fryheit der Spysen''
* ''Archeteles''
* ''Vermahnung an die zu Schwyz, dass sie sich vor fremden Herren hutend'', [[1522]]
* ''Petition anent the Marriage of Priests, [[Einsiedeln, Switzerland]], July 2, 1522.( This petition was addressed to [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc8.iv.i.ii.html Hugo von Hohenlandenberg],[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc8.iv.ii.iii.html],Bishop of [[Constance]],and was signed by Zwingli and ten other clergymen. cf. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15772a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia] )."Ulrich Zwingli Early Writings",edited by [http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/J/JacksoSM.html Samuel Macauley Jackson], Wipf & Stock, 1999, [http://www.e316.com/shop/_searchisbn.asp?searchisbn=1579102972 ISBN: 1579102972].
* ''De vere et falsa Religione'', [[1525]]
* ''Opera D.H. Zwingli'' (Title in full: ''''Opera D.H. Zwingli vigilantissimi Tigurinae ecclesiae Antistitis, partim quidem ab ipso Latine conscripta, partim vero e vernaculo sermone in Latinum translata: omnia novissime recognita, et multis adiectis, quae hactenus visa non sunt'', published by Zwingli's son-in-law [[Rudolf Gwalter]])
* ''Zwingli's collected works'', (edited by Melchior Schuler and Johannes Schulthess, 8 vols., Zürich, 1828-1842)
* [http://www.unizh.ch/irg/zwi-w.html New critical edition of Zwingli's Collected Works] (In progress, University of Zürich)
* [http://www.johanescalvin.org Zwingli and Today's Christian]
[[Category:1484 births|Zwingli, Huldrych]]
[[Category:1531 deaths|Zwingli, Huldrych]]
[[Category:Reformation|Zwingli, Huldrych]]
[[Category:Reformed theologians|Zwingli, Huldrych]]
[[Category:Protestant Reformers|Zwingli, Huldrych]]
[[Category:Swiss theologians|Zwingli, Huldrych]]
[[Category:Zürich]]
[[als:Zwingli]]
[[cs:Ulrich Zwingli]]
[[de:Ulrich Zwingli]]
[[et:Ulrich Zwingli]]
[[es:Ulrico Zuinglio]]
[[eo:Zvinglo]]
[[fr:Ulrich Zwingli]]
[[ko:울리히 츠빙글리]]
[[ia:Huldrych Zwingli]]
[[it:Ulrico Zwingli]]
[[ka:ცვინგლი, ულრიხ]]
[[nl:Huldrych Zwingli]]
[[ja:フルドリッヒ・ツヴィングリ]]
[[no:Ulrich Zwingli]]
[[pl:Huldrych Zwingli]]
[[pt:Ulrich Zwingli]]
[[ru:Цвингли, Ульрих]]
[[sk:Ulrich Zwingli]]
[[fi:Ulrich Zwingli]]
[[sv:Huldrych Zwingli]]
[[zh:慈運理]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Homeschooling</title>
<id>13603</id>
<revision>
<id>42121846</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T23:37:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Checkerpaw</username>
<id>928596</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Publications */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Young Thomas Edison.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Thomas Edison]] attended compulsory school for only three months, after which he was taught at home by his mother and a tutor.]]
'''Home education''', also called '''homeschooling''' or '''home school''', is an [[alternative education|educational alternative]] in which children are [[education|educated]] at home and in the community, in contrast to a [[compulsory education]] which takes place in an [[institutionalization|institution]] such as a [[public school|publicly-run]] or [[private school|privately-run school]]. Home education methods are similar to those widely used before the popularization of compulsory education in the 19th century. Before this time, the majority of education worldwide was provided at home by family and community members, with only the privileged attending privately-run schools or employing [[tutor]]s, the only available alternatives at the time.
''Homeschooling'', a term widely-used in the [[United States]], was first used in the late 1970's as a complement to the term ''[[unschooling]]'', coined in 1977 by [[United States|American]] [[educator]] [[John Caldwell Holt|John Holt]] in his alternative education magazine ''[[Growing Without Schooling]]''. In the beginning the two terms were used synonymously but eventually their meanings diverged: homeschooling referred to any education that took place outside a compulsory school setting while still using a curriculum (though such curriculum may not be standardized), while unschooling referred to a [[curriculum]]-free philosophy. Homeschooling is also largely in contrast to those who are [[self-taught]] in that the child is still motivated and guided by parents rather th |
nt>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of cryptographers]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Color blindness</title>
<id>7397</id>
<revision>
<id>41940539</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:47:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Arcadian</username>
<id>104523</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fixing typo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Color blindness |
ICD10 = H53.5 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|368.5}} |
}}
'''Color blindness''', or color vision deficiency, in [[human]]s is the inability to perceive differences between some or all [[color]]s that other people can distinguish. It is most often of [[gene]]tic nature, but may also occur because of [[eye]], [[nerve]], or [[brain]] damage, or due to exposure to certain [[chemical]]s. The English chemist [[John Dalton]] in [[1794]] published the first [[science|scientific]] paper on the subject, "Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of colors", after the realization of his own color blindness; because of Dalton's work, the condition is sometimes called '''Daltonism''', although this term is now used for a type of color blindness called ''deuteranopia'' (see below).
Color blindness is usually classed as a [[disability]]; however, in select situations color blind people have advantages over people with normal color vision. Color blind [[hunter]]s are better at picking out prey against a confusing background, and the [[military]] have found that color blind soldiers can sometimes see through [[camouflage]] that fools everyone else. [[Monochromat|Monochromats]] may have a minor advantage in dark vision, but only in the first five minutes of dark adaptation.
[[Image:TestNothingGamma165.png|frame|right|This is a sample image. The pictures below should look similar to people with normal vision (containing numbers, in this case 83), but some of them will not be visible to people with a color vision deficiency. Note, however, that the contrast in these tests is much subtler than commonly seen in other similar tests.]]
==Prevalence==
Color blindness affects a significant number of people, although exact proportions vary among groups. In Australia, for example, approximately 4% of the population suffers from some deficiency in color perception. Isolated communities with a restricted gene pool sometimes produce high proportions of color blindness, including the less usual types. Examples include rural [[Finland]] and some of the [[Scotland|Scottish]] islands.
[[Image:TestProGamma165.png|frame|right|This image contains a two digit number similar to the sample above. Someone who is protanopic might not see this number.]]
==Causes of color blindness==
There are many types of color blindness. The most common varieties are hereditary (genetic) photoreceptor disorders, but it is also possible to acquire color blindness through damage to the retina, optic nerve, or higher brain areas. Higher brain areas implicated in color processing include the parvocellular pathway of the [[lateral geniculate nucleus]] of the [[thalamus]], and [[visual area V4]] of the [[visual cortex]]. Acquired color blindness is generally unlike the more typical genetic disorders. For example, it is possible to acquire color blindness only in a portion of the visual field but maintain normal color vision elsewhere. Some forms of acquired color blindness are reversible. Transient color blindness also occurs (very rarely) in the [[aura]] of some [[migraine]] sufferers.
==Classification of color deficiencies==
[[Image:TestDeuGamma165.png|frame|right|Someone who is deuteranopic might not see this number. Please note that the second digit in this number may be difficult to discern even by those with normal vision.]]
[[Image:TestTriGamma165.png|frame|right|Someone who is tritanopic might not see this number.]]
*Acquired
*Congenital
:*[[Dichromacy]]
::*Protanopia
::*Deuteranopia
::*Tritanopia
:*[[Anomalous trichromacy]]
::*[[Protanomaly]]
::*[[Deuteranomaly]]
::*[[Tritanomaly]]
:*[[Monochromacy]]
::*[[Achromatopsia|Rod monochromacy]]
::*[[Achromatopsia]]
The normal human [[retina]] contains two kinds of light sensitive cells: the [[rod cell]]s ([[Scotopic vision|active in low light]]) and the [[cone cell]]s ([[Photopic vision|active in normal daylight]]). Normally, there are three kinds of cones, each containing a different pigment. The cones are activated when the pigments absorb light. The [[absorption spectrum|absorption spectra]] of the pigments differ; one is maximally sensitive to short wavelengths, one to medium wavelengths, and the third to long wavelengths (their peak sensitivities are in the blue, yellowish-green, and yellow regions of the spectrum, respectively). It is important to realize that the absorption spectra of all three systems cover much of the visible spectrum, so it is incorrect to refer to them as "[[blue]]", "[[green]]" and "[[red]]" receptors, especially because the "red" receptor actually has its peak sensitivity in the [[yellow]]. The sensitivity of normal color vision actually depends on the overlap between the absorption spectra of the three systems: different colors are recognized when the different types of cone are stimulated to different extents. For example, red light stimulates the long wavelength cones much more than either of the others, but the gradual change in hue seen as wavelength reduces is the result of the other two cone systems being increasingly stimulated as well.
The different kinds of color blindness result from one or more of the different cone systems either not functioning at all, or functioning in an unusual way. When one cone system is compromised, [[dichromat|dichromacy]] results. The most frequent forms of human color blindness result from problems with either the middle or long wavelength sensitive cone systems, and involve difficulties in discriminating reds, yellows, and greens from one another. They are collectively referred to as "red-green color blindness", though the term is an over-simplification and somewhat misleading. Other forms of color blindness are much rarer. They include problems in discriminating blues from yellows, and the rarest forms of all, complete color blindness or ''[[monochromat|monochromacy]]'', where one cannot distinguish any color from [[gray (color)|grey]], as in a [[black-and-white]] movie or photograph.
===Red-green color blindness===
====Types of red-green color blindness====
There are several types of red-green color blindness:
* '''Protanopia''': Lacking the long-wavelength sensitive retinal cones, those with this condition are unable to distinguish between colors in the green-yellow-red section of the spectrum. They have a [[neutral point]] at a wavelength of 492 [[nanometre|nm]]&mdash;that is, they cannot discriminate light of this wavelength from white. Their sensitivity to light in the orange and red part of the spectrum is also reduced. Very few people have been found who have one normal eye and one protanopic eye. These ''unilateral dichromats'' report that with only their protanopic eye open, they see wavelengths below the neutral point as blue and those above it as yellow. This is a rare form of color blindness.
* '''Deuteranopia''': Lacking the medium-wavelength cones, those affected are again unable to distinguish between colors in the green-yellow-red section of the spectrum. Their neutral point is at a slightly longer wavelength, 498 nm. This is one of the rarer forms of colorblindness making up about 1% of the male population, also known as ''Daltonism'' after [[John Dalton (scientist)|John Dalton]]. (Dalton's diagnosis was confirmed as deuteranopia in 1995, some 150 years after his death, by [[DNA]] analysis of his preserved eyeball.) Deuteranopic unilateral dichromats report that with only their deuteranopic eye open, they see wavelengths below the neutral point as blue and those above it as yellow.
* '''Protanomaly''': Having a mutated form of the long-wavelength pigment, whose peak sensitivity is at a shorter wavelength than in the normal retina, protanomalous individuals are less sensitive to red light than normal. This means that they are less able to discriminate colors, and they do not see mixed lights as having the same colors as normal observers. They also suffer from a darkening of the red end of the spectrum. This causes reds to reduce in intensity to the point where they can be mistaken for black. Protanomaly is a fairly rare form of color blindness, making up about 1% of the male population.
* '''Deuteranomaly''': Having a mutated form of the medium-wavelength pigment. The medium-wavelength pigment is shifted towards the red end of the spectrum resulting in a reduction in sensitivity to the green area of the spectrum. Unlike protanomaly the intensity of colors is unchanged. This is the most common form of color blindness, making up about 6% of the male population.
====Dichromacy and anomalous trichromacy====
Protanopes and deuteranopes are dichromats; that is, they can match any color they see with some mixture of just two spectral lights (whereas normally humans are [[trichromat]]s and require three lights). Those having protanomaly or deuteranomaly are trichromats, but the color matches they make differ from the normal: In order to match a given spectral yellow light, protanomalous observers need more red light in a red/green mixture than a normal observer, and deuteranomalous observers need more green. They are called '''anomalous trichromats'''.
Protanomaly and deuteranomaly can be readily observed using an instrument called an [[anomaloscope]], which mixes spectral red and green lights in variable proportions, for comparison with a fixed spectral yellow. If this is done in front of a large audience of men, as the proportion of red is increased from a low value, first a s |
ven specific names that indicate the method of cooking, or the particular spices used. There is, however, a particular [[North Indian]] dish which is given the name '''curry''' - this involves [[yoghurt]], [[ghee]] and [[besan]] (see below).
===Tamil cuisine===
{{Main|Tamil cuisine}}
In [[Tamil cuisine]], from which the word originated, curry refers to any dry preparation involving meat or vegetables shallow-fried with dry spices. Curries are named according to what type of food they're made from and then adding the word curry- e.g. [[potato]] curry, [[bean]] curry, [[chicken]] curry or [[goat]] curry.
[[Tamil cuisine|Tamil]] cuisine (from [[Tamil Nadu]]), one of the oldest culinary heritages of the world, is characterized by its aroma and flavor, achieved by a blend and combination of [[spice]]s, including [[Curry Leaves|curry leave]]s, [[tamarind]], [[coriander]], [[ginger]], [[garlic]], [[chili pepper|chili]], [[black pepper|pepper]], [[cinnamon]], [[clove]]s, [[cardamom]], [[cumin]], [[nutmeg]], [[coconut]], and even [[rosewater]]. [[Rice]] is an important constituent of Tamil cuisine, and there are a variety of rice preparations, and food items of rice are available for all the [[meal]]s of the day. [[Lentil]]s, too, are consumed extensively, as accompaniment of rice preparations, as also in the form of independent food preparations of lentils. [[Vegetable]]s and [[dairy]] products too are essential accompaniments. Traditionally, vegetarian foods predominate the menu with a range of non-vegetarian dishes, including sweet water [[fish]] and [[seafood]], cooked with traditional Tamil spices and seasoning.
===Malayali cuisine===
{{Main|Kerala cuisine}}
[[Malayali]] curries of [[Kerala]] typically use shredded coconut paste or coconut milk, curry leaves, and various spices.
[[Kerala]]'s cuisine is linked in all its richness to the history, geography and culture of the land. Most of the non-vegetarian dishes lean heavily on the spicy side. Kerala is know for its traditional 'sadyas', a vegetarian meal served with bolied rice and a host of side-dishes. The sadya is perfectly complemented with the payasam, a sweet dessert native to Kerala. The sadya is, as per custom, served on a banana leaf.
===Punjabi cuisine===
{{Main|Punjabi cuisine}}
Punjabi cuisine (from the [[Punjab region]]) is mainly based upon [[Wheat]], Masalas ([[spice]]), pure [[desi]] [[ghee]], with liberal amounts of [[butter]] and [[cream (food)|cream]].
Though wheat varieties form their [[staple food]], Punjabis do cook [[rice]] on special occasions.
During winter a delicacy, Rao Ki Kheer, is cooked using rice. Rice is cooked for a long time in [[sugar cane]] juice.
Within the [[state]] itself, there are different preferences. People in the area of [[Amritsar]] prefer stuffed [[paratha]]s and milk products. In fact, the area is well known for quality of its milk products. There are certain dishes which are exclusive to Punjab, such as Maha Di Dal and Saron Da Saag (Sarson Ka Saag).
===Other Indian cuisine===
{{Main|Indian cuisine}}
In other varieties of [[Indian cuisine]], '''curry''' is a [[sauce]] - sometimes considered a [[soup]] - made by stirring [[yoghurt]] into a [[roux]] of [[ghee]] (a type of [[clarified butter]]) and [[besan]] ([[chick pea]] [[flour]]). The spices added vary, but usually include [[turmeric]] and [[black mustard]] seed.
===Pakistani cuisine===
{{Main|Cuisine of Pakistan}}
[[Pakistan]]i cuisine is, to some extent, identical to [[North India]]n cuisine, especially in the regions of [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and [[Sindh]]. However, due to its location in the northwest of the [[Indian subcontinent]], there is a lot of regional variation, for example, the western portions of Pakistan have cuisine that is more similar with that of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iran]]. Much of the food is referred to as '''Mughlai cuisine''', especially in the east, and varies from its neighbors in that it is spicier than the cuisine in other parts of the [[Middle East]] and less spicy than that of [[India]]. One could term it a unique blend of Indo-Iranian, but, more realistically, it is perhaps best described as a nation with many different types of foods, the east and, to some extent, the [[North West Frontier Province]] being almost identical to North Indian ([[Punjabi]]) cuisine and the west being more similar to the cuisine of [[Iran]]. Often, both interlap, especially in [[Mughlai cuisine]]. The most prominent Pakistani cuisine, though, is the [[Mughalai]] cuisine which is also prominent throughout northern [[India]].
===Bangladeshi cuisine===
{{Main|Cuisine of Bangladesh}}
[[Bangladesh]]i cuisine has considerable regional variations as would be expected. A staple across the country however is [[rice]] and [[dhal]] (sometimes written as [[dal]]). As a large percentage of the land (over 80% on some occasions) can be under water, either intentionally because of farming practices or due to severe climatological, topographical or geographical conditions, not surprisingly [[fish]] features as the major source of [[protein]] in the Bangladeshi diet.
The staples of Bangladeshi cuisine are [[rice]], ''[[Atta flour|atta]]'' (a special type of [[whole wheat flour]]), and at least five dozen varieties of [[pulses]], the most important of which are ''chana'' ([[bengal gram]];and these are used in different forms, may be whole or after processing them in a mill that removes the skin,eg dhuli moong or dhuli urad.some times mixed with rice and excellent for digestion food called khichri similar to the [[chick pea]] but smaller and more flavorful), ''toor'' ([[pigeon pea]] or red gram), ''[[urad]]'' ([[black gram]]) and ''[[mung bean|mung]]'' (green gram). Pulses are used almost exclusively in the form of [[dal]], except ''chana'', which is often cooked whole for breakfast and is processed into flour (''[[besan]]'').
Bangladeshi cuisine can generally be broken down into two distinct regional styles: [[Dhaka]] and [[Sylhet]]i. The Sylheti style has been popularized in the [[UK]] in the second half of the [[20th century]], where there was a spurt in the development of ''Anglo-Indian cuisine'', as families from the [[Sylhet Division|Sylhet division]] of Bangladesh migrated to London to look for work. The widely popular British curry dish [[chicken tikka masala]] was also produced by Bangladeshi immigrants from [[Sylhet]].
{{See|Bengali cuisine}}
===British cuisine===
{{See also|British cuisine}}
[[Image:Chicken_tikka_jalfrezi.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Chicken tikka jalfrezi, pilau rice and a soothing cucumber rhaita, served up at the Aladin restaurant, Brick Lane, London. <!--''Warning - this dish contains fresh green chilis, but the yogurt in the rhaita softens the bite.''-->
A typical British hybrid, this is a southern Indian dish, cooked in a Bangladeshi restaurant, and adapted to British multi-ethnic tastes. (November 2005)]]
In British cuisine, the word '''curry''' once came solely to denote a sauce-based dish flavoured with [[curry powder]] or a paste variant made with the latter and oils. However, the resurgence of interest in good food preparation in the [[UK]] in recent years has led to much more use of fresh spices such as [[ginger]] and [[garlic]], and preparation of an initial masala from freshly ground dried spices, though pastes and powders are still frequently used when convenience is paramount.
It should be noted that the debasement of the 'British curry' as a dish solely made with 'curry powder' (which, before about the 1970s, only meant one thing, a yellow powder, consisting mostly of ground [[turmeric]] and [[chile powder]], used to create dishes such as '[[Coronation Chicken]]') is a 20th-century phenomenon as was the ubiquitous inclusion of—for some forgotten reason—sultanas in every so-called curry. But many excellent curry recipes are contained in 19th-century cookbooks such as those of [[Mrs Beeton]], although it is unlikely that—unlike latter-day curries—these were consumed by the British working class of the time.
As a side note, the famous '''curry sauce''' (often associated with the city of [[Liverpool]]) that is often served warm as a condiment with other dishes such as [[chips]], was actually popularised by Chinese takeaways, not Indian restaurants, and relies heavily on ground ginger for its flavouring.
British curries are often served in Indian restaurants. Until the early 1970s, more than three quarters of Indian restaurants in Britain were identified as being owned and run by those of [[Pakistan|Pakistani]] origin. Most of these were run by migrants from [[East Pakistan]], which became [[Bangladesh]] in [[1971]]. Until [[1998]], as many as 85% of curry restaurants in the UK were [[Bangladeshi]] restaurants [http://www.curryhouse.co.uk/scene/ethnshow.htm] but in [[2003]], this figure declined to just over 65%.[http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/177_food/page5.shtml] As of [[2005]], the dominance of Bangladeshi restaurants is generally declining in some parts of [[London]] and the further north one travels. The majority in [[Bradford]] and [[Manchester]] being [[Pakistani]], [[Kashmir|Kashmiri]] and [[India|North Indian]]. In [[Glasgow]], there are more restaurants of [[Punjab region|Punjabi]] origin than any other. [http://www.menumagazine.co.uk/book/restauranthistory.html]
Whatever the ethnic origin of a restaurant's ownership the menu will nearly always be influenced by the wider [[Indian subcontinent]] (sometimes including [[Nepal]]ese dishes), and sometimes cuisines from further afield (such as [[Cuisine of Iran|Persian dishes]]). There have also been British influences; two of the most familiar dishes served in British restaurants, [[Chicken Tikka Masala]] and [[Balti (food)|Balti]] (which is a curry designed to be eaten with a large [[naan]]), were invented in the UK (by Bangladeshi chefs). Some British variations on Indian food are now being exported from the UK to India. British-style curr |
Scanners]], Instrumentality & Rediscovery of Man Short Stories by [[Cordwainer Smith]]
*[[Kroenen]], from the ''[[Hellboy]]'' movie
*Supremor, the [[Kree]] Supreme Intelligence, [[Marvel Universe|Marvel Comics]]
<td valign=top>
*[[Motoko Kusanagi]], among others, ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'' [[manga]] and [[anime]]
*[[Master Chief (Halo)|Master Chief]], ''[[Halo (video game series)|Halo]]'' videogame series
*[[Metabarons]], comics
*[[Sergei Molotov|Cyborg Molotov]], ''[[Empire Earth]]'' computer game
*[[Molly Ryan]], Empire Earth
*[[Ziggurat 8]], ''[[Xenosaga]]'' videogames
*Angus Thermopyle, [[The Gap Cycle]]
*[[Mechanikat]], [[Krypto the Superdog]]
*[[Joe Shimamura]], [[Cyborg 009]]
*Antoine, Suspected Cyborg [[Upright Citizens Brigade]]
*The Hacker and the Soldier, respective protagonists of the computer games ''[[System Shock]]'' and ''[[System Shock 2]]'', and several types of enemy
*[[Deus Ex characters#JC Denton|JC Denton]] among others, ''[[Deus Ex]]'' computer game
*The [[Strogg]], ''[[Quake II]]'' and ''[[Quake 4]]'' computer games
*Cyborgs, [[Cyberchase]] cartoon
*[[List of enemies in Doom#Cyberdemon|Cyberdemon]]s, boss enemies in the ''[[Doom]]'' series of first person shooter games
*Psychotron, a part human, part computer killing machine from [[Megadeth]]'s song ''Psychotron''
*The Trans-Human arm of the [[Combine (Half-Life 2)|Combine]], from ''[[Half-Life 2]]''
*[[Adam (Buffyverse)|Adam]] and the Frankendemons, the horrific human/demon/machine hybrids from [[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]] Season 4
*Haberman and Scanners from "[[Scanners Live in Vain]]" by [[Cordwainer Smith]]
*Kiryu, aka [[Mechagodzilla]] 3
*[[Bunnie Rabbot]], in the [[Sonic the Hedgehog]] [[Sonic the Hedgehog (TV series)|SatAM TV series]] and [[Sonic the Hedgehog (Archie)|US comic books]]
*[[Emerl]], ''[[Sonic Battle]]'' videogame
*Vast numbers of individuals from the [[Warhammer 40,000]] universe, given "[[bionic]]s" as replacements for body parts lost to injury or age or merely for enhancement
</tr></td></table>
*[[Dr.crygor]] from [[Wario Ware Inc.]]
*The [[Irkens]] from the nicktoon ''[[Invader Zim]]''
*[[Brotherhood of Nod|Nod]]'s Cyborg unit, [[Command & Conquer: Tiberian Sun]]
*Xan Kriegor and a number of playable characters, [[Unreal Tournament]]
*Simulants from [[Red Dwarf]]
*[[Spartan (comics)|Spartan]] [[Wildstorm|WildStorm Comics]]
==See also==
*[[Android]]
*[[Cybernetics]]
*[[Cyberware]]
*[[Cyborgs in fiction]]
*[[Exocortex]]
*[[Gynoid]]
*[[Monster]]
*[[Robot]]
*[[Transhumanism]]
*[[Waldo]]
*[[Strogg]]
*[[Wetware Hacker]]
==Notes==
# {{note|1}} In ''[[The Terminator]]'' and sequels, the titular assassins (models [[T-800]], [[T-850]], [[T-1000]], and [[T-X]]) appear to be [[artificial life|constructed beings]] rather than [[human]]s with [[bionic]] parts added, and are referred to throughout as both cyborgs and [[robot]]s. The Terminator's status as a [[hybrid (disambiguation)|hybrid]] being is confirmed in ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'', in which he describes himself as a "[http://www.scifiscripts.com/scripts/t2.txt cybernetic organism. Living tissue over a metal endoskeleton.]"
==References==
*Manfred E. Clynes, and Nathan S. Kline, (1960) "Cyborgs and space," ''Astronautics'', September, pp. 26-27 and 74-75; reprinted in Gray, Mentor, and Figueroa-Sarriera, eds., ''The Cyborg Handbook'', New York: Routledge, 1995, pp. 29-34. (hardback: ISBN 0415908485; paperback: ISBN 0415908493)
*''Cyborg: digital destiny and human possibility in the age of the wearable computer'', (2001), Steve Mann with Hal Niedzviecki, ISBN 0385658257 (A paperback version also exists, ISBN 0385658265)
*The Oxford English dictionary. 2nd ed. edited by J.A. Simpson and E.S.C. Weiner.Oxford : Clarendon Press ; Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press, 1989. Vol 4 p. 188.
*The science fiction handbook for readers and writers. By George S. Elrick. Chicago : Chicago Review Press, 1978. p. 77.
*The science fiction encyclopaedia. General editor, Peter Nicholls, associate editor, John Clute, technical editor, Carolyn Eardley, contributing editors, Malcolm Edwards, Brian Stableford. 1st ed. Garden City, N.Y. : Doubleday, 1979. p. 151.
==External links==
*[http://wearcam.org/transvision2004.htm TransVision: Transhumanism Conference, 2004]
*[http://wearcam.org/cyberman.htm Cyberman reviews]
*[http://headlesschicken.ca/cyborgblog Cyborgblog]
*[http://cyborgfantasy.blogspot.com/ Cyborg Fantasies]
*[http://www.ethologic.com/sasha/articles/Cyborgs.rtf Are you a cyborg?] by [[Alexander Chislenko]]
*[http://www.clickz.com/experts/ad/lead_edge/article.php/3468651 Are you ready for the cyborg consumer?]
*[http://future.wikicities.com/wiki/Cyborg Futures wiki, Cyborg]
* [http://www.wetwarehacker.com ''Wetware Technology'']
[[Category:Biotechnology]]
[[Category:Neurotechnology]]
[[Category:Fictional technology]]
[[Category:Humans]]
[[Category:Implants]]
[[Category:Portmanteaus]]
[[Category:Robotics]]
[[cs:Kyborg]]
[[de:Cyborg]]
[[es:Cyborg]]
[[fi:Kyborgi]]
[[fr:Cyborg]]
[[it:Cyborg]]
[[ja:サイボーグ]]
[[nl:Cyborg]]
[[pl:Cyborg]]
[[ru:Киборг]]
[[sv:Cyborg]]
[[zh:生化人]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>CRESU experiment</title>
<id>6839</id>
<revision>
<id>40362155</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:40:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''CRESU experiment''' (meaning Cinétique de Réaction en Ecoulement Supersonique Uniforme, or Reaction Kinetics in Uniform Supersonic Flow) is an [[experiment]] investigating chemical reactions taking place at very low [[temperature]]s.
This is achieved by expanding a mixture of NCNO and a molecular reactant through a nozzle resulting in a [[supersonic]] flow of the gas. This is necessary so that the gas is cooled down to an extremely low temperature. Before it has time to condense into a solid, the NCNO is broken down by a pulsed [[laser]] in to CN and NO [[free radical|radical]]s, of which the CN reacts with the molecular reactant. The rate of reaction is measured using a laser pulse to detect the fluorescence signal - which falls after reaction.
The CRESU apparatus has been used to simulate the conditions in [[interstellar cloud]]s, making us able to perform chemical reactions under conditions very similar to these clouds. Surprisingly, reactions occurred which would have been unexpected under these harsh conditions. This would explain the occurrence of large molecules obsevered in interstellar clouds.
==External links==
* [http://www.chem.bham.ac.uk/irs/research/astrochemistry_cresu.htm Birmingham CRESU site]
[[Category:Interstellar media]]
[[Category:Cryogenics]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cygwin</title>
<id>6840</id>
<revision>
<id>41124365</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T05:05:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Someoneinmyheadbutit'snotme</username>
<id>146367</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Description */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Software |
name = Cygwin |
screenshot = [[Image:Cygwin_X11_rootless_WinXP.png|200px]] |
caption = Running Cygwin under [[Windows XP]] |
developer = [[Red Hat]] and others |
latest_release_version = 2.510.2.2 |
latest_release_date = 2005 |
operating_system = [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] |
genre = [[Emulator]]|
license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] |
website = [http://www.cygwin.com/ www.cygwin.com] |
}}
'''Cygwin''' is a collection of [[free software]] tools originally developed by [[Cygnus Solutions]] to allow various versions of [[Microsoft Windows]] to act somewhat like a [[Unix]] system. It aims mainly at [[porting]] software that runs on [[POSIX]] systems (such as [[Linux]] systems, [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] systems, and Unix systems) to run on Windows with little more than a recompilation. Programs ported with Cygwin work best on [[Windows NT]], [[Windows 2000]], [[Windows XP]], and [[Windows Server 2003]], but some may run acceptably on [[Windows 95]] and [[Windows 98]]. Cygwin is currently maintained by employees of [[Red Hat]] and others.
==Description==
Cygwin consists of a library that implements the POSIX system call [[application programming interface|API]] in terms of [[Win32]] system calls, a [[GNU]] development toolchain (such as [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] and [[GNU Debugger|GDB]]) to allow basic software development tasks, and some application programs equivalent to common programs on the Unix system. It added the [[X Window System]] in [[2001]].
The package also includes a library called [[MinGW]] that works with the native MSVCRT library ([[Windows API]]) included with Windows; MinGW has less RAM and disk overhead, operates under a permissive (non-[[copyleft]]) [[license]], and can link to any software, but it does not implement as much of the POSIX specification as the Cygwin library does.
Cygwin has no direct support for [[Unicode]], nor does it support any character sets except the current Windows and OEM codepages of your system (e.g., for a Russian user, the only codepages available will be [[Windows-1251|CP1251]] and [[Codepage 866|CP866]], but not [[KOI8-R]], [[ISO 8859-5]], [[UTF-8]] or anything else). [[iconv]] is provided, so it is possible to work with files in other encodings, but conversion must be performed manually.
Red Hat normally licenses the Cygwin library under the [[GNU General Public License]] with an exception to allow linking to any [[free software]] whose license conforms to the [[Open Source Definition]]. (Red Hat also sells commercial licenses to those who wish to redistribute programs that use the Cygwin library under [[proprietary software|proprietary]] terms.)
One can subscribe to o |
d]]''
:''[[Jumanji (film)|Jumanji]]''
:''[[Dragonheart]]''
:''[[The X-Files]]''
:''[[Meet Joe Black]]''
:''[[The Green Mile]]''
:''[[The Sixth Sense]]''
===2000s===
:''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]''
:''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]''
:''[[Unbreakable]]''
:''[[Holes]]''
:''[[Pirates of the Caribbean]]''
:[[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy]] (The final ''Lord of the Rings'' film, ''[[The Return of the King]]'', was the first sci-fi, fantasy, or horror film to win an [[Academy Award|Oscar]] for [[Best Picture]].)
:The [[Harry Potter]] films
(There is also at least one fantasy film that would be spoiled if you knew it was fantasy before you saw it.)
==Additional examples==
* ''[[Ancanar]]''
* ''[[Excalibur (movie)|Excalibur]]''
* ''[[Heavy Metal (movie)|Heavy Metal]]''
* ''[[Hexer]]'' (''Wied&#378;min'')
* ''[[Jason & the Argonauts]]''
* ''[[Princess Mononoke]]'' (''Mononoke Hime'')
* ''[[The Company of Wolves]]''
* ''[[The Seventh Voyage of Sinbad]]''
* ''[[The Witches]]''
* ''[[The Black Cauldron]]''
* ''[[Alice in Wonderland (1933 film)]]'' - with Charlotte Henry, W.C. Fields, Cary Grant
* ''[[Alice in Wonderland (1951 film)]]'' - Disney animated film
* ''[[The Last Unicorn]]''
* ''[[The Neverending Story]]''
* ''[[Clash of the Titans]]'' ([[1981]])
* ''[[The Secret of NIMH]]'' ([[1982]])
* ''[[Photographing Fairies]]'' (1997)
* ''[[The Blair Witch Project]]''
==See also==
* [[List of fantasy films]]
==External links==
*[http://www.filmsite.org/fantasyfilms2.html The Greatest Films: Fantasy Films]
*[http://www.enchantedwhispers.com Enchanted Whispers]
[[Category:Fantasy films|*]]
[[Category:Film genres]]
[[es:Cine fantástico]]
[[ja:&#12501;&#12449;&#12531;&#12479;&#12472;&#12540;&#26144;&#30011;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Finite set</title>
<id>11742</id>
<revision>
<id>34235946</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-07T13:02:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>YurikBot</username>
<id>271058</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: fi</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a [[set]] is called '''''finite''''' if and only if there is a [[bijection]] between the set and some set of the form {1, 2, ..., ''n''} where <math>n</math> is a [[natural number]]. (The value ''n''=0 is allowed; that is, the [[empty set]] is finite.) All finite sets are [[countable]] {{ref|ctbl}}, but not all countable sets are finite.
Equivalently, a set is finite if its [[cardinality]], i.e. the number of its elements, is a natural number. For instance, the set of [[integer]]s between -15 and 3 is finite, since it has 17 elements. The set of all [[prime number]]s is not finite. Sets that are not finite are called [[Infinite set|infinite]].
A set is called '''''[[Dedekind-infinite set|Dedekind finite]]''''' if there exists no bijection between the set and any of its proper [[subset]]s. It is a [[theorem]] (assuming the [[axiom of choice]]) that a set is finite if and only if it is Dedekind finite.
==See also==
*[[infinity]]
*[[hereditarily finite set]]
==Note==
#{{note|ctbl}} Some authors use "countable" to mean "countably [[infinite set|infinite]]", and thus do not consider finite sets to be countable.
[[Category:Discrete mathematics]]
[[Category:Set theory]]
[[Category:Mathematical terminology]]
[[nl:Eindig]]
[[pl:Zbiór skończony]]
[[fi:Äärellinen joukko]]
[[uk:Скінченна множина]]
[[zh:有限集合]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Farmer Giles of Ham</title>
<id>11745</id>
<revision>
<id>42092765</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:57:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>EdK</username>
<id>880924</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>spelling Tolkein -> Tolkien</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">"'''Farmer Giles of Ham'''" (written in [[1947]], published in [[1949]]) is a [[short story]] written by [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]. The story describes a series of encounters between Farmer Giles and a wily [[western dragon|dragon]] named Chrysophylax. It is set in a [[fantasy]] [[Britain]] of long ago, which has mythical creatures, medieval knights, and primitive firearms. It is happily anachronistic, and is more like a folk-tale than the sweeping epics which Tolkien is better known for.
The book was originally illustrated by [[Pauline Baynes]].
{{Spoiler}}
Farmer Giles was not a hero. He was fat and red-bearded and enjoyed a slow, comfortable life. One day a rather deaf and short-sighted [[giant (mythology)|giant]] blundered on to his land. Farmer Giles managed to scare him away with a [[blunderbuss]] shot in its general direction. The people of the village cheered: Farmer Giles was a hero.
His reputation spread far and wide across the kingdom. Giles was rewarded by the King of the Middle Kingdom, with a sword named Caudimordax or "Tailbiter", a powerful weapon against dragons.
The giant reports to its monstrous friends that there are no more knights, just stinging flies (actually scrap metal from Giles' blunderbuss), in the Middle Kingdom. This prompts a dragon, Chrysophylax Dives, to investigate the area &mdash; and everyone turns to the accidental hero Farmer Giles to deal with it.
The story makes light of the great dragon-slaying traditions. The knights who are supposed to do the job are useless fops more intent on "precedence and etiquette" than on noticing huge dragon footprints littering the landscape. "Giles" is also an interesting commentary on how people react to danger. Heroes aren't simply called for, they are demanded and hapless farmers can be forced to be heroes.
The Latin names and references imply that Giles is a Briton, a late generation remnant of the old empire after the decline of the western authority of the [[Roman Empire|Romans]]. All the Giles place-names are supposed to occur relatively close to [[Oxford]], along the [[Thames]] or on the route from [[London]] to Oxford.
Among the jokes is a question put to "the four wise clerks of Oxenford"; Tolkien then quotes from the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], on which he had worked. The phrase "wise clerk of Oxenford" is also a reference to [[Chaucer]]'s [[The Clerk's Tale|Clerk]].
"Farmer Giles of Ham" is sometimes published in an omnibus edition with "[[Smith of Wootton Major]]", another Tolkien novella with illustrations by Pauline Baynes.
[[de:Bauer Giles von Ham]]
[[it:Il Cacciatore di Draghi]]
[[es:Egidio%2C_el_Granjero_de_Ham]]
[[ja:&#36786;&#22827;&#12472;&#12515;&#12452;&#12523;&#12474;&#12398;&#20882;&#38522;]]
[[Category:Short stories]]
[[Category:Fictional farmers|Giles of Ham]]
[[Category:Texts by J. R. R. Tolkien]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>List of freshwater aquarium fish species</title>
<id>11748</id>
<revision>
<id>41531749</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T23:56:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ginkgo100</username>
<id>925434</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added Bonytongues to list</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Ichthyology]]
[[Category:Lists of animals]]
[[Category: Fishkeeping]]
A vast number of species of [[fish]] have been successfully kept in the home [[aquarium]]. This list gives only some of the most commonly-kept species.
*[[Live-bearing aquarium fish|Live-bearing]]
**Guppies & Mollies ([[Poecilia]])
***Guppy ([[Poecilia reticulata]])
***Sailfin Molly ([[Poecilia latipinna]])
**Platies & Swordtails ([[Xiphophorus]])
***Southern Platy ([[Xiphophorus maculatus]])
***Variable Platy ([[Xiphophorus variatus]])
***Green Swordtail ([[Xiphoporus helleri]])
*Egg-laying
**Catfish ([[Siluriformes]])
***[[Callichthyidae|Armored Catfish (Callichthyidae)]]
****[[Corydoras|Cory catfish]] (Corydoras sp.)
***Armored Suckermouth Catfish ([[Loricariidae]], aka [[Plecostomus|Plecos]])
****[[Ancistrus dolichopterus|Bristlenose Catfish]]
****Whiptail and twig catfish
*****[[longnose whiptail catfish]]
*****[[regal whiptail catfish]]
*****[[leopard catfish]]
****[[Common Pleco]]s
*****[[Liposarcus pardalis]]
*****[[Liposarcus multiradiatus|Sailfin Catfish]]
*****[[Hypostomus plecostomus|Suckermouth Catfish]]
*****[[Hypostomus punctatus|Suckermouthed Catfish]]
****Dwarf Suckermouth Catfish ([[Otocinclus]])
***[[Kryptopterus bicirrhis|Glass catfish]]
***[[Pangasius hypophthalmus|Iridescent Shark]]
**Characins ([[Characidae]])
***[[Black tetra]]
***[[Paracheirodon axelrodi|Cardinal tetra]]
***[[Astyanax mexicanus|Cave tetra]]
***[[Gasteropelecus sternicla|Common hatchetfish]]
***[[Paracheirodon simulans|Green neon tetra]]
***[[Neon Tetra|Neon tetra]]
***[[Serpae Tetra|Serpae tetra]]
***[[Metynnis argenteus|Silver Dollar]]
**Cichlids ([[Cichlidae]])
***[[Geophagus altifrons|Eartheater Cichlid]]
***[[Cichlasoma meeki|Firemouth Cichlid]]
***[[Cichlasoma octofasciatum|Jack Dempsey]]
***[[Cichlasoma managuense|Managuense Cichlid]]
***[[Aequidens rivulatus|Green Terror]]
***[[Hemichromis bimaculatus|Jewel Cichlid]]
***[[Pterophyllum scalare|Angelfish]]
***[[Symphysodon discus|Discus]]
***[[Electric yellow (fish)|Electric Yellow]]
***[[Protomelas taeniolatus|Red Empress Cichlid]]
***[[Oscar (fish)|Oscar]]
***[[Pseudotropheus estherae|Red Zebra]]
***[[Tilapia buttikoferi|Zebra Tilapia]]
**Cyprinids ([[Cyprinidae]])
***[[Barbus|Barbs]]
****[[Checker barb|Checker Barb]]
****[[Barbus titteya|Cherry Barb]]
****[[Clipper Barb]]
****[[Barbus schuberti|Gold Barb]]
****[[Barbus pentazona|Pentazona Barb]]
****[[Barbus denisonii|Red Line Torpedo Barb]]
****[[Barbus conchonius|Rosy Barb]]
****[[Barbus nigrofasciatus|Black Ruby Barb]]
****[[Barbus brevipinnis|Shortfin Barb]]
****[[Barbus tetrazona|Tiger Barb]]
****[[Barbus ticto|Ticto Barb]]
****[[Barbus schwanefeldi |
tionmembership}}
The membership of the foundation elects a board of directors every November, and candidates for the positions must be members themselves.
==Platforms==
Although originally a GNU/Linux desktop, GNOME now runs on most Unix-like systems ([[Berkeley Software Distribution|*BSD]] variants, [[AIX operating system|AIX]], [[IRIX]], [[HP-UX]]), and in particular it has been adopted by [[Sun Microsystems]] as the standard desktop for its Solaris platform, replacing the ageing [[Common Desktop Environment|CDE]]. It is supplied with most modern desktop [[Linux distribution|GNU/Linux distributions]], and is the default desktop environment for [[Fedora Core]], [[Red Hat Enterprise Linux]] and [[Ubuntu Linux|Ubuntu]].
GNOME is also available in a number of [[LiveCD]] Linux distributions. A LiveCD allows a computer to [[booting|boot]] directly from a [[compact disc]] (CD) without removal or changes to a pre-existing operating system, such as Microsoft Windows. There are GNOME-based LiveCD Linux distributions such as [[Gnoppix]], [[Morphix]] and Ubuntu, and an official GNOME LiveCD is also available for download from the GNOME website.{{ref|gnomelivecd}}
Sun Microsystems has released a business desktop under the name [[Java Desktop System]] &mdash; a [[SUSE]] Linux/Solaris 10 system base with a GNOME desktop. There is also a port of GNOME to [[Cygwin]], allowing it to run on [[Microsoft Windows]].
[[Image:GNOME-Screenshot-2.10-FC4.png|thumb||right|300px|GNOME 2.10 screenshot (on Fedora Core 4) showing [[Rhythmbox]] (music), [[GThumb]] (image manager), [[gedit]] (text editor), and the [[Nautilus file manager]].]]
==Architecture==
The GNOME desktop is built from a large number of different projects. A few of the major ones are listed below:
* [[Bonobo (computing)|Bonobo]] &mdash; a [[compound document]] technology.
* [[D-BUS]] &mdash; interprocess communication system. <!-- is this officially in GNOME now? -->
* [[GConf]] &mdash; for storing application settings.
* [[GNOME VFS]] &mdash; a virtual [[file system]].
* [[GNOME Keyring]] &mdash; for storing [[encryption]] keys and security information.
* [[GNOME Print]] &mdash; for printing documents.
* [[GNOME Translation Project]] &mdash; translate documentation and applications into different languages.
* [[GStreamer]] &mdash; a multimedia framework.
* [[GTK+]] &mdash; a [[widget toolkit]] with several sub-projects.
** [[GLib]] &mdash; convenience functions for programming in C
** [[GObject]] &mdash; a framework for object oriented programming in C.
** [[Accessibility Toolkit|ATK]] &mdash; an [[Computer accessibility|accessibility]] toolkit.
** [[Pango]] &mdash; for the layout and rendering of text in a wide variety of languages.
* [[Cairo (graphics)|Cairo]] &mdash; a sophisticated 2D graphics library.
* [[Human Interface Guidelines]] &mdash; research and documentation by Sun Microsystems on building easy-to-use GNOME applications.
* [[LibXML]] &mdash; an XML library.
* [[Orbit (software)|ORBit]] &mdash; a [[CORBA]] [[Object request broker|ORB]] for [[software componentry]].
* [[Metacity]] &mdash; a [[X window manager|window manager]].
The use of GTK+ as the base widget toolkit allows GNOME to benefit from certain features: theming (the ability to change the look of an application); smooth anti-aliased graphics (with later Cairo-based versions of GTK+); and the opportunity to port the application to other platforms such as Windows and Mac OSX (examples of this include [[GIMP|The Gimp]] and [[Inkscape]]).
==Future developments==
There are many sub-projects under the umbrella of the GNOME project, and not all of them are currently included in GNOME releases. Some are considered purely experimental concepts, or for testing ideas that will one day migrate into stable GNOME applications; others are code that is being polished for direct inclusion. Some examples include:
* [[GNOME Storage]] &mdash; database filing system for GNOME. Compare with [[WinFS]].
* Project Topaz{{ref|topaz}} &mdash; ideas for GNOME version 3.0.
* Project Soylent{{ref|soylent}} &mdash; making "people" and their interactions first-class objects within the GNOME framework.
* [[GTK+|Project Ridley]] &mdash; to consolidate several small undermaintained libraries into GTK+, such as libgnome and libgnomeprint.
* The use of the Mozilla project's [[XUL]] on the GNOME desktop
While not specifically a GNOME project, the [[Tango Desktop Project]] aims to provide a consistent user experience across different desktop environments. For example, GNOME and KDE applications will be visually much closer to help users moving from one desktop environment to another.
Although GNOME applications can be written in many programming languages, the GNOME desktop itself and the applications that are part of a GNOME release are currently written purely in C. There is considerable discussion over the inclusion of applications written in other, higher level, languages such as C#, Python and Java. Although each of these languages is already used to develop GNOME applications, their use in core GNOME applications would force the inclusion of the respective language's [[virtual machine]] with every GNOME installation. This would increase the minimum specification of machine able to run the latest GNOME desktop.
==Freedesktop.org and GNOME==
[[Freedesktop.org]] is a project to assist interoperability and shared technology between the different [[X Window desktop]]s, such as GNOME, [[KDE]] or [[Xfce]]. Although it is not a formal standards organisation, Freedesktop.org defines certain basic features of an X Desktop, including drag and drop between applications, window manager specifications, menu layouts, recent files lists, copy and pasting between applications and a shared [[MIME|MIME type]] database, among other things. Following [[Freedesktop.org]] specifications allows GNOME applications to appear more integrated into other desktops (and vice versa), and encourages cooperation as well as competition.
==Major GNOME Applications==
See [[List of GNOME applications]] for a more complete list. Major applications based on GNOME include the following:
* [[AbiWord]] &mdash; a [[word processor]].
* [[Ekiga]] &mdash; for telephony and [[voice over IP]].
* [[Epiphany (web browser)|Epiphany]] &mdash; a [[web browser]]. Epiphany is the default browser starting with GNOME 2.4.
* [[Evince]] &mdash; a document viewer (PDF, PostScript, and more).
* [[Novell Evolution|Evolution]] &mdash; for contacts/time management and [[e-mail]].
* [[Gaim]] &mdash; an [[instant messenger]].
* [[gedit]] &mdash; a [[text editor]].
* [[GIMP|The GIMP]] &mdash; an advanced [[bitmap graphics editor|image editor]].
* [[Gnumeric]] &mdash; a [[spreadsheet]].
* [[Inkscape]] &mdash; a [[vector graphics|vector]] drawing application.
* [[Nautilus file manager|Nautilus]] &mdash; a [[file manager]].
* [[Rhythmbox]] &mdash; a music-management application similar to [[iTunes]].
* [[Totem (media player)|Totem]] &mdash; a media player.
==Stable releases==
Each of the parts making up the GNOME project (see [[GNOME#Architecture|Architecture]]) has its own version number and release schedule. However, individual module maintainers coordinate their efforts to create a full GNOME stable release on a roughly six-month schedule. The releases listed in the table below are classed as [[Development stage#Stable/Unstable|stable]]. Unstable releases for testers and developers are not listed, nor are bugfix releases for individual modules.
{| class="wikitable"
!Version
!Date
!Information
|-
!align="center"|&nbsp;
|August 1997
|GNOME development announced
|-
!align="center"|1.0
|March 1999
|First major GNOME release
|-
!align="center"|1.0.53
|October 1999
|"October"
|-
!align="center"|1.2
|May 2000
|"Bongo"
|-
!align="center"|1.4
|April 2001
|"Tranquility"
|-
!align="center"|2.0
|June 2002
|Major upgrade based on GTK2. Introduction of the [[Human Interface Guidelines]]
|-
!align="center"|2.2
|February 2003
|Multimedia and file manager improvements
|-
!align="center"|2.4
|September 2003
|[[Epiphany (web browser)|Epiphany]], accessibility support
|-
!align="center"|2.6
|March 2004
|Nautilus changes to a [[spatial file manager]], and a new GTK+ [[file dialog]] is introduced. A short-lived fork of GNOME, [[GoneME]] is created as a response to the changes in this version.
|-
!align="center"|2.8
|September 2004
|Improved removable device support, adds [[Novell Evolution|Evolution]]
|-
!align="center"|2.10
|March 2005
|Lower memory requirements and performance improvements. Adds: new panel applets (modem control, drive mounter and trashcan); and the [[Totem_Media_Player|Totem]] and [[Sound_Juicer|Sound Juicer]] applications
|-
!align="center"|2.12
|September 2005
|Nautilus improvements; improvements in cut/paste between applications and freedesktop.org integration. Adds: [[Evince]] PDF viewer; New default theme: ClearLooks; menu editor; keyring manager and admin tools. Based on GTK+ 2.8 with Cairo support
|}
==Source code==
GNOME releases are made in the form of [[source code]], which is then compiled and integrated with the rest of the system to produce a functioning computer with an easy to use desktop. Most operating system installations use only stable and tested versions of the GNOME desktop, and provide it in the form of easily installed pre-compiled packages.
Those interested in testing, fixing bugs or adding new features can use the latest [[Concurrent Versions System|source code repository]] version of GNOME &mdash; though development code is not recommended for general use as it contains many untested modifications and experimental changes. |
' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
----
'''References:'''
* Berlin, Adele. ''Zephaniah: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary''. The Anchor Bible Volume 25A. Toronto: Doubleday, 1994.
* Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897.
* Faulhaber, M. "Sophonias (Zephaniah)." ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ Catholic Encyclopedia]''. Transcribed by Thomas M. Barrett. 2003.
* Hirsch, Emil G. & Ira Maurice Price. "Zephaniah." ''[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/ JewishEncyclopedia.com]''. 2002.
* LaSor, William Sanford et al. ''Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.
* Sweeney, Marvin A. ''Zephaniah: A Commentary''. Ed. Paul D. Hanson. Minneapolis, Fortress Press, 2003.
----
''Prepared in 2005 for the course BIBL5023 at [[Acadia Divinity College]]''
[[Category:Christian prophets|Zephaniah]]
[[Category:Nevi'im|Zephaniah]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Zephaniah]]
[[Category:Tanakh prophets|Zephaniah]]
[[cs:Kniha Sofonjáš]]
[[de:Zefanja (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre de Sophonie]]
[[ko:스바니야 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Zefanya]]
[[he:צפניה]]
[[jv:Zefanya]]
[[nl:Zefanja]]
[[pl:Księga Sofoniasza]]
[[fi:Sefanjan kirja]]
[[sv:Sefanja]]
[[zh:西番雅書]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Book of Habakkuk</title>
<id>4458</id>
<revision>
<id>36762490</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T07:59:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>IZAK</username>
<id>6549</id>
</contributor>
<comment>remove super categ</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of Nevi'im}}
==The Prophet==
There is not much biographical information on the prophet [[Habakkuk]]; in fact less is known about this prophet than any other. His name comes from the Akkadian word meaning to "embrace" or "wrestle". His name is also mentioned in the apocryphal book <i>[[Bel and the Dragon]]</i>. In the superscription of the Old Greek version Habakkuk is called the son of Joshua of the tribe of Levi. In this book Habakkuk is lifted by an angel to Babylon to provide Daniel with some food while he is in the lion's den.<br>
Due to the liturgical nature of Habakkuk, there have been some scholars who think that Habakkuk may have been a temple prophet. Temple prophets are described in 1 Chronicles 25:1 as using lyres, harps and cymbals. Some feel that this may be echoed in Habakkuk 3:19b.
==Historical Context==
At this time we do not know when Habakkuk lived and preached. However one clue to the date of Habakkuk's work is the reference to the rise and advance of the ''Chaldeans'' in 1:6 -11, which locates it in the last quarter of the 7th century B.C. One possible period might be during the reign of [[Jehoiakim]], who reigned from 609 -598 BC. The reasoning for this date is that during his reign that the Babylonians were growing in power. The Babylonians marched against Jerusalem in 598 where Jehoiakim was killed and there is a sense of an intimate knowledge of the Babylonian brutality in 1:12 -17.
==Overview of Contents==
The book of '''Habakkuk''' is a book of the [[Bible]] [[Old Testament]] and stands eighth in a section known as the 12 Minor Prophets in the Masoretic and Greek texts. It follows Nahum and precedes Zephaniah, who are considered to be his contemporaries.
The book consists of three chapters and the book is neatly divided into three different genres:
*A discussion between God and Habakkuk
**An Oracle of Woe
***A Psalm
A breakdown of the book's structure looks this way:<br>
I. Title (1:1) <br>
II. The Problem of Unpunished wickedness (1:2 – 4)<br>
III. God's first response (1:5 – 11)<br>
IV. The problem of excessive punishment (1:12 – 17)<br>
V. Awaiting an Answer (2:1)<br>
VI. God’s second response (2:2 – 20)<br>
:A. A vision (2:2 -5)<br>
::i. Announcement (2:2 -3)<br>
::ii. Life and Death (2:4 -5)<br>
:B. Taunting woes (2:6 – 20)<br>
::i. The pillager (2: 6 -8)<br>
::ii. The plotter (2:9 – 11)<br>
::iii. The promoter of violence (2:12 -14)<br>
::iv. The debaucher (2:15 -17)<br>
::v. The pagan idolator (2:18 -20)<br>
VII. Habakkuk’s Psalm (3:1 -19)<br>
:A. Musical notes (3:1, 19b)<br>
:B. Petition (3:2)<br>
:C. God’s powerful presence in history (3:3 – 15)<br>
::i. God’s coming (3:3 -7)<br>
::ii. God’s combat (3:8 – 15)<br>
:D. Fear and Faith (3:16 – 19a)<br>
==Themes==
The major theme of Habakkuk is trying to grow from a faith of perplexity and doubt to the height of absolute trust in God. Habakkuk addresses his concerns over the fact that the punishment for Judah's sins is going to be executed by what was thought to be a sinful nation in Habakkuk's eyes.
==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15765 Chavakuk - Habakkuk (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/35_habakkuk.htm ''Habakkuk'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Habakkuk}}
** [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_Habakkuk ''Habakkuk'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
http://www.aboutbibleprophecy.com <br>
http://www.apostolic.net/biblicalstudies/habakkuk
==Sources==
Baker, David W.'' Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah''. (Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press. 1988.)<br>
Clark, David J., Howard A. Hatton. ''A Translator’s Handbook on The Books of Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah''. (New York: United Bible Societies. 1989.)<br>
Gowan, Donald E., ''The Triumph of Faith in Habakkuk''. (Atlanta: John Knox Press. 1976.)<br>
Henderson, Ebenezer. ''The Twelve Minor Prophets''. (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House. 1980.)<br>
Hailey, Homer, ''A Commentary on The Minor Prophets''. (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House. 1972.)<br>
LaSor, William, David Allen Hubbard, Frederic Bush,''Old Testament Survey'' (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans. 1996.)<br>
McComiskey, Thomas Edward, ''The Minor Prophets''. (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House.1993.)<br>
Smith, Ralph L., ''Word Biblical Commentary''. (Waco: Words Books. 1984.)<br>
[[Category:Nevi'im|Habakkuk, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Habakkuk]]
[[cs:Kniha Abakuk]]
[[de:Habakuk (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre de Habacuc]]
[[ko:&#54616;&#48148;&#44985; (&#44396;&#50557;&#49457;&#49436;)]]
[[he:&#1505;&#1508;&#1512; &#1495;&#1489;&#1511;&#1493;&#1511;]]
[[nl:Habakuk]]
[[pl:Księga Habakuka]]
[[ja:&#12495;&#12496;&#12463;&#12463;&#26360;]]
[[pt:Habacuque]]
[[fi:Habakukin kirja]]
[[sv:Habackuk]]
[[zh:哈巴谷書]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Backward compatibility</title>
<id>4459</id>
<revision>
<id>40702071</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T12:13:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Talkie tim</username>
<id>148053</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>reverted edits by [[user:62.49.244.210|62.49.244.210]] to last version by [[user:217.209.46.70|217.209.46.70]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[technology]], especially [[computing]], a product is said to be '''backward compatible''' (or '''downward compatible''') when it is able to take the place of an older product, by interoperating with other products that were designed for the older product.
Backward compatibility is a relationship between two components, rather than being an attribute of just one of them. More generally, the following criteria needs to be met:
* There is a defined functional interface "I".
* There is a server component "S" which provides the functionality of I.
* There is a client component "C" which depends on S via I.
* A new server component "S2" is created which has greater functionality than S and which it exposes via a new interface "I2".
* All the functions of I are also provided by S2. In other words, I is a subset of I2.
When these criteria are met, S2 is backwards compatible with S because it still supports interface I and therefore the client C can be switched over to use S2 and still operate correctly.
''Backward'' compatibility is the special case of compatibility in which the new server has a direct historical ancestral relationship with the old server. If this special relationship does not exist then it not usually spoken of as "backward" compatibility but is instead just "compatible" - a consistent interface allowing interoperability between components and products that were each developed separately.
Data does nothing in the absence of an interpreter, so the notion of compatibility does not apply to document files, it only applies to software. In the case of a program that creates document files, a new version of that program ("v2") is said to be backwards compatible with the old version of the program ("v1") when it can both read and write documents that work with v1. Everything that v1 could do must also be possible with v2, including saving documents that can be read by v1. In that case, if the criteria outlined earlier is applied, the interface "I" supported by both software versions is actually their common document format. The metaphor is completed by observing that S2 is v2 and C is v1. The old version would have performed the roles of both S and C consecutively, because using v1 to open a previously saved document is functionally equivalent to v1 requesting data from an earlier instance of v1 via an interpreter interface I that both reads and writes files.
If a newer software version cannot save files that can be read by the older version it is not backwards compatible with |
ically penniless after a gambling spree. Dostoevsky wrote ''[[The Gambler]]'' simultaneously in order to satisfy an agreement with his publisher [[Stellovsky]] who, if he did not receive a new work, would have claimed the copyrights to all of Dostoyevsky's writing.
Motivated by the dual wish to escape his creditors at home and to visit the casinos abroad, Dostoevsky traveled to Western Europe. There, he attempted to rekindle a love affair with Apollinaria (Polina) Suslova, a young university student with whom he had had an affair several years prior, but she refused his marriage proposal. Dostoevsky was heartbroken, but soon met Anna Grigorevna, a twenty-year-old [[stenographer]] whom he married in [[1867]]. This period resulted in the writing of his greatest books. From [[1873]] to [[1881]] he vindicated his earlier journalistic failures by publishing a monthly journal full of short stories, sketches, and articles on current events &mdash; the ''Writer's Diary''. The journal was an enormous success. Dostoevsky is also to have known to influence and been influenced by famous Russian Philosopher [[Vladimir Sergeyevich Solovyov]], some state Solovyov was the prototype of the character Alyosha Karamozov .
In [[1877]] Dostoevsky gave the keynote [[eulogy]] at the funeral of his friend, the poet [[Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov|Nekrasov]], to much controversy. In [[1880]], shortly before he died, he gave his famous [[Aleksandr Sergeevich Pushkin|Pushkin]] speech at the unveiling of the Pushkin monument in Moscow.
In his later years, Fyodor Dostoevsky lived for a long time at the resort of [[Staraya Russa]] which was closer to [[St Petersburg]] and less expensive than German resorts. He died on [[January 28]] ([[Julian calendar|O.S.]]), [[1881]] of a lung haemorrhage associated with an attack of epilepsy and was interred in [[Tikhvin Cemetery]] at the [[Alexander Nevsky Monastery]], [[St. Petersburg, Russia]]. Forty thousand mourning Russians attended his funeral. [1]
[1] Dostoevsky,Fyodor; Introduction- The Idiot, Wordsworth Ed. Ltd, 1996.
== Works and influence ==
[[Image:450px-Grab-dostojewsky.jpg|thumb|Dostoyevsky's tomb at the [[Alexander Nevsky Monastery]].]]
Dostoevsky's influence cannot be overemphasized&mdash;from [[Herman Hesse]] to [[Marcel Proust]], [[William Faulkner]], [[Albert Camus]], [[Franz Kafka]], [[Henry Miller]], [[Yukio Mishima]], [[Gabriel García Márquez]] and [[Joseph Heller]]&mdash;virtually no great twentieth century writer escaped his long shadow (rare dissenting voices include [[Vladimir Nabokov]], [[Henry James]], [[Joseph Conrad]] and, more ambiguously, [[D.H. Lawrence]]). American novelist [[Ernest Hemingway]] also cited Dostoevsky in his autobiographic books, as a major influence on his work. Essentially a writer of myth (and in this respect sometimes compared to [[Herman Melville]]), Dostoevsky has created an opus of immense vitality and almost hypnotic power characterized by the following traits: feverishly dramatized scenes (conclaves) where his characters are, frequently in scandalous and explosive atmosphere, passionately engaged in Socratic dialogues ''à la Russe''; the quest for God, the problem of Evil and suffering of the innocents haunt the majority of his novels; characters fall into a few distinct categories: humble and self-effacing [[Christianity|Christians]] ([[prince Myshkin]], [[Sonya Marmeladova]], [[Alyosha Karamazov]]), self-destructive [[nihilism|nihilists]] ([[Svidrigailov]], [[Smerdyakov]], [[Stavrogin]], the underground man), cynical debauchers ([[Fyodor Karamazov]]), rebellious intellectuals ([[Raskolnikov]], [[Ivan Karamazov]]); also, his characters are driven by ideas rather than by ordinary biological or social imperatives.
Dostoevsky's novels are compressed in time (many cover only a few days) and this enables the author to get rid of one of the dominant traits of [[realism (arts)|realist]] prose, the corrosion of human life in the process of the time flux &mdash; his characters primarily embody spiritual values, and these are, by definition, timeless. Other obsessive themes include [[suicide]], wounded pride, collapsed family values, spiritual regeneration through suffering (the most important motif), rejection of the West and affirmation of [[Russian Orthodoxy]] and [[Tsarism|Tsarism]]. Literary scholars such as [[Mikhail Bakhtin|Bakhtin]] have characterized his work as '[[polyphonic]]': unlike other novelists, Dostoevsky does not appear to aim for a 'single vision', and beyond simply describing situations from various angles, Dostoevsky engendered fully dramatic novels of ideas where conflicting views and characters are left to develop unevenly into unbearable crescendo.
By common critical consensus one among the handful of universal world authors, along with [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Goethe|Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]], [[Miguel de Cervantes]], [[Victor Hugo]] and a few others, Dostoevsky has decisively influenced twentieth century literature, [[existentialism]] and [[expressionism]] in particular.
== Major works ==
* ''Бедные Люди'' (''[[Poor Folk]]'') ([[1846]])
* ''Двойник: Петербургская Поэма'' (''[[The Double: A Petersburg Poem]]'') ([[1846]])
* ''Неточка Незванова'' (''[[Netochka Nezvanova]]'') ([[1849]])
* ''Село Степанчиково и его обитатели'' (''[[The Village of Stepanchikovo]]'' or ''The Friend of the Family'') ([[1859]])
* ''[[The Insulted and Humiliated]]'' (or ''The Insulted and the Injured'') ([[1861]])
* ''Записки из Подполья'' (''[[The House of the Dead]]'') ([[1862]])
* ''[[A Nasty Story]]'' ([[1862]])
* ''Записки из Подполья'' (''[[Notes from Underground]]'' or ''Letters from the Underworld'') ([[1864]])
* ''Преступление и Наказание'' (''[[Crime and Punishment]]'') ([[1866]])
* ''Игрок '' (''[[The Gambler (novella)|The Gambler]]'') ([[1867]])
* ''Идиот'' (''[[The Idiot (novel)|The Idiot]]'') ([[1868]])
* ''Бесы'' (''[[The Possessed]]'' or ''Demons'' or ''The Devils'') ([[1872]])
* ''Подросток'' (''[[The Raw Youth]]'' or ''The Adolescent'') ([[1875]])
* ''Братья Карамазовы'' (''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'') ([[1880]])
== Short stories ==
Dostoyevsky's short stories are often overshadowed by his epic novels, but are equally powerful.
* "[[White Nights (short story)|White Nights]]" ([[1848]])
* "[[A Christmas Tree and a Wedding]]" ([[1848]])
* "[[An Honest Thief]]" ([[1848]])
* "[[The Dream of a Ridiculous Man]]" ([[1877]])
* "[[The Peasant Marey]]" ([[1876]])
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource|Author:Fyodor_Dostoevsky}}
== Cultural references ==
* The rock band [[British Sea Power]] directly references Dostoevsky in the song "Apologies to Insect Life", which is loosely based on ''Notes from Underground''.
* The band [[Protest the Hero]] has stated that Dostoevesky was the main influence for their concept album ''Kezia''. They have also written and performed a song entitled "I am Dimitri Karamazov and the World Is My Father" on their EP ''A Calculated Use of Sound''.
* [[Brian Griffin]] reads ''Crime and Punishment'' in an episode of ''Family Guy''.
* Sam Weir reads ''Crime and Punishment'' in the episode "Tricks and Treats" on the TV show ''[[Freaks and Geeks]]''.
* ''[[The Machinist]]'' also seems to be influenced by Dostovsky's ''The Double'', in that the main character of the story is both the antagonist and the protagonist. The DVD commentary for ''The Machinist'' names ''The Double'' as a source of inspiration. The main character in ''The Machinist'' is also depicted at one point reading Dostoevsky's ''The Idiot''.
* In the British television series ''[[The Office]]'', season 1 episode 3, [[David Brent]] attempts to boost his ego by displaying a knowledge of Dostoevsky's life and works.
* In [[Woody Allen]]'s feature film ''[[Match Point]]'', the lead character is depicted reading Dostoevsky and often discusses him.
* Indie band [[Kind of Like Spitting]] recorded the song "Dostoyevsky Gets Mugged Outside a Donut Shop in Jersey" for their album ''Old Moon in the Arms of the New''.
* ''[[American Psycho]]'' by [[Bret Easton Ellis]] begins with a quote from ''[[Notes from Underground]]''.
* In ''[[The X-Files]]'' episode "Talitha Cumi," much of the dialogue between the [[Cigarette Smoking Man]] and Jeremiah Smith is based on passages from [[The Grand Inquisitor]] in ''The Brothers Karamazov.
* The British post-punk band Magazine references Dostoyevsky in "Philadelphia" and "Song from Under the Floorboards" on their album ''The Correct Use of Soap''.
* Nietzsche said of Jesus: "it is regrettable that no Dostoevsky lived near him." He also stated that Dostoevsky was the only psychologist from whom he had anything to learn. He said that ''Notes from the Underground'' "cried truth from the blood" and that "finding Dostoevsky by accident was a pivotal point of change in his life"
* [[Martin Scorsese]] drew from Dostoevsky's body of work in specifically ''Crime and Punishment'' and ''Notes from the Underground'' to create the movie ''[[Taxi Driver]]''. [http://www.geocities.com/jnyby83/ScorseseandDostoevsky.html]
* In [[Woody Allen]]'s comedy ''[[Love and Death]]'', Allen and friend casually use the titles of each major Dostoevsky novel to discuss the local news.
* In episode 39 of the tv show ''[[Lost]]'' Locke hands the prisoner [[Brothers Karamazov]] for reading and says that [[Hemingway]] lived in his shadow.
==External links and references==
* [http://www.FyodorDostoevsky.com FyodorDostoevsky.com] - The Definitive Dostoevsky fan site
* [http://Dostoyevsky.thefreelibrary.com/ Fyodor Dostoevsky's brief biography and works]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Fyodor+Dostoyevsky | name=Fyodor Dostoevsky}}
* [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=Dostoyevsky%2c+ Selected Dostoevsky e-texts from Penn Lib |
]
[[Category: Speculative fiction]]
[[Category:Horror|*]]
[[Category:Literary genres]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Holomorphic function</title>
<id>14110</id>
<revision>
<id>38380081</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T23:22:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Duckbill</username>
<id>678615</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Several variables */ disambiguate "disk (mathematics)" (using empty pipe syntax)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Holomorphic functions''' are the central object of study of [[complex analysis]]; they are [[function (mathematics)|functions]] defined on an [[open set|open subset]] of the [[complex number|complex number plane]] '''C''' with values in '''C''' that are complex-differentiable at every point. This is a much stronger condition than [[derivative|real differentiability]] and implies that the function is [[smooth function|infinitely often differentiable]] and can be described by its [[Taylor series]]. The term '''''[[analytic function]]''''' is often used interchangeably with "holomorphic function", although note that the former term has several other meanings. A function that is holomorphic on the whole complex plane is called an [[entire function]]. The phrase "holomorphic at a point ''a''" means not just differentiable at ''a'', but differentiable everywhere within some open disk centered at ''a'' in the complex plane. '''Biholomorphic''' means a holomorphic function with a holomorphic [[inverse function]].
== Definition ==
If ''U'' is an [[open set|open]] subset of '''C''' and ''f'' : ''U'' &rarr; '''C''' is a function, we say that ''f'' is ''complex differentiable'' at the point ''z''<sub>0</sub> of ''U'' if the [[limit (mathematics)|limit]]
:<math>f'(z_0) = \lim_{z \rightarrow z_0} {f(z) - f(z_0) \over z - z_0 } </math>
exists.
The limit here is taken over all [[sequence]]s of ''complex'' numbers approaching ''z''<sub>0</sub>, and for all such sequences the difference quotient has to approach the same number ''f''&nbsp;'(''z''<sub>0</sub>).
Intuitively, if ''f'' is complex differentiable at ''z''<sub>0</sub> and we approach the point ''z''<sub>0</sub> from the direction ''r'', then the images will approach the point ''f''(''z''<sub>0</sub>) from the direction ''f''&nbsp;'(''z''<sub>0</sub>) ''r'', where the last product is the multiplication of complex numbers.
This concept of differentiability shares several properties with [[derivative|real differentiability]]:
it is [[linear transformation|linear]] and obeys the product, quotient and chain rules.
If ''f'' is complex differentiable at ''every'' point ''z''<sub>0</sub> in ''U'', we say that ''f'' is ''holomorphic on U''. We say that ''f'' is holomorphic in the point ''z''<sub>0</sub> if it is holomorphic on some neighborhood of ''z''<sub>0</sub>. We say that ''f'' is holomorphic on some non-open set ''A'' if it is holomorphic in an open set containing ''A''.
An equivalent definition is the following. A complex function <var>f</var>(<var>x</var> + <var>i</var><var>y</var>) = <var>u</var> + <var>i</var><var>v</var> is holomorphic [[iff | if and only if]] it satisfies the [[Cauchy-Riemann equations]] and <var>u</var> and <var>v</var> have continuous first partial derivatives with respect to <var>x</var> and <var>y</var>.
== Examples ==
All [[polynomial]] functions in ''z'' with complex [[coefficient]]s are holomorphic on '''C''',
and so are the [[trigonometric function|trigonometric functions]] of ''z'' and the [[exponential function]].
(The trigonometric functions are in fact closely related to and can be defined via the exponential function using [[Eulers formula in complex analysis|Euler's formula]]).
The principal branch of the [[logarithm]] function is holomorphic on the [[set]] '''C''' - {''z'' &isin; '''R''' : z &le; 0}.
The [[square root]] function can be defined as
:<math>\sqrt{z} = e^{\frac{1}{2}\ln z}</math>
and is therefore holomorphic wherever the logarithm ln(''z'') is. The function 1/''z'' is holomorphic on {''z'' : ''z'' &ne; 0}.
Typical examples of functions which are not holomorphic are [[complex conjugation]] and taking the [[real part]].
== Properties ==
Because complex differentiation is linear and obeys the product, quotient, and chain rules, the sums, products and compositions of holomorphic functions are holomorphic, and the quotient of two holomorphic functions is holomorphic wherever the denominator is non-zero.
Every holomorphic function is infinitely often complex differentiable at every point. It coincides with its own [[Taylor series]] and the Taylor series converges on every open disk that lies completely inside the domain ''U''. The Taylor series may converge on a larger disk; for instance, the Taylor series for the logarithm converges on every disk that does not contain 0, even in the vicinity of the negative real line. See [[holomorphic functions are analytic]] for a proof.
If one identifies '''C''' with '''R'''<sup>2</sup>, then the holomorphic functions coincide with those functions of two real variables which solve the [[Cauchy-Riemann equations]], a set of two partial [[differential equation]]s.
Close to points with non-zero derivative, holomorphic functions are [[conformal map|conformal]] in the sense that they preserve angles and the shape (but not size) of small figures.
[[Cauchy's integral formula]] states that every holomorphic function inside a disk is completely determined by its values on the disk's boundary.
From an algebraic point of view the set of holomorphic functions on an open set is a [[commutative ring]] and a [[complex vector space]]. In fact, it is a [[locally convex topological vector space]], with the seminorms being the suprema on [[compact set|compact subsets]].
==Several variables==
A complex analytic function of [[several complex variables]] is defined to be analytic and holomorphic at a point if it is locally expandable (within a [[polydisk]], a [[cartesian product]] of [[disk (mathematics)|disk]]s, centered at that point) as a convergent power series in the variables. This condition is stronger than the [[Cauchy-Riemann equations]]; in fact it can be stated
as follows:
A function of several complex variables is holomorphic [[if and only if]] it satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations and is locally [[square-integrable]].
==Extension to functional analysis==
The concept of a holomorphic function can be extended to the infinite-dimensional spaces of [[functional analysis]]. The article on the [[Fréchet derivative]] reviews the concept of a holomorphic function on a [[Banach space]].
== Terminology ==
Today, many mathematicians prefer the term "holomorphic function" to "analytic function", as the latter is a more general concept. This is also because an important result in complex analysis is that every holomorphic function is complex analytic, a fact that does not follow directly from the definitions. The term "analytic" is however also in wide use.
The word "holomorphic" derives from the Greek ''holos'' meaning "whole" and ''morphe'' meaning "form" or "appearance".
==See also==
* [[Meromorphic function]]
* [[Entire function]]
* [[Antiholomorphic function]]
[[Category:Complex analysis]]
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<page>
<title>History of Algeria</title>
<id>14113</id>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:30:49Z</timestamp>
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<username>CJLL Wright</username>
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<comment>rvv to last by Descendall</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Algeria}}
This article is an overview of the '''History of Algeria'''. Please refer to the individual sections of the series for more complete commentary.
==Historical setting==
=== Geography ===
In geography, the fertile coastal plain of [[North Africa]], especially west of [[Tunisia]], is often termed the [[Maghreb]].
=== Language and culture ===
Modern [[Algeria]] is mainly Arabic-speaking, but a large minority still speak the indigenous [[Berber]] language, surviving from [[Neolithic]] times. The most significant forces in the country's history have been the spread of [[Islam]], Arabization, [[Ottoman Empire | Ottoman]] and French [[colonization]], and the struggle for independence.
=== Origins and influences ===
[[North Africa]] served as a transit region for people moving towards [[Europe]] or the [[Middle East]]. Thus, the region's inhabitants have been influenced by populations from other areas. Out of this mix developed the [[Berber]] people, whose language and culture, although pushed from coastal areas by conquering and colonizing [[Carthaginians]], [[Ancient Rome | Romans]], and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], dominated most of the land until the spread of [[Islam]] and the coming of the [[Arab]]s.
=== Islamisation ===
The introduction of [[Islam]] and [[Arabic language | Arabic]] had a profound impact on North Africa (or the [[Maghreb]]) beginning in the seventh century. The new religion and language introduced changes in social and economic relations, established links with a rich culture, and provided a powerful idiom |
ey|Turks]] begin fighting in [[Limassol]], [[Cyprus]].
* 1964 - The [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]) breaks off diplomatic relations with [[France]].
* [[1968]] - [[Israel]]i-[[Jordan]]ian border clashes.
* 1968 - [[Madison Square Garden]] III closes and [[Madison Square Garden IV]] opens in [[New York City]].
* [[1971]] - [[United States|US]], [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[Soviet Union|USSR]], others sign [[Seabed Treaty]] outlawing [[nuclear weapon]]s in international waters.
* [[1973]] - [[Vietnam War]]: First release of [[United States|American]] [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] from [[Vietnam]] takes place.
* [[1978]] - [[Censorship]]: [[China]] lifts a ban on works by [[Aristotle]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] and [[Charles Dickens|Dickens]].
* [[1979]] - [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]] seizes power in [[Iran]].
* [[1981]] - 100,000 gallons (380 m&sup3;) of radioactive coolant leak into the containment building of [[TVA]] [[Sequoyah 1]] nuclear plant in [[Tennessee]], contaminating 8 workers.
* [[1983]] - [[President]] [[Ronald Reagan]] declares [[Thomas Edison]]'s birthday [[Inventor's Day|National Inventor's Day]].
* [[1986]] - Rights activist [[Natan Sharansky|Anatoly Sharansky]], released by the [[Soviet Union|USSR]], leaves the country.
* [[1987]] - [[Philippines]] constitution goes into effect.
* [[1990]] - [[James Buster Douglas|James "Buster" Douglas]] KOs [[Michael Tyson|Mike Tyson]] to win [[heavyweight]] [[boxing]] crown.
* 1990 - [[Nelson Mandela]], a political prisoner for 27 years, is freed from [[Victor Verster]] prison outside [[Cape Town]], [[South Africa]].
* [[1991]] - [[UNPO]], the [[Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization]], forms in [[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]].
* [[1999]] - [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]], a planet with an irregular orbit, changes from the eighth to ninth planet furthest from the [[sun]]. It had been the eighth furthest since [[1979]].
* [[2001]] - [[Three Rivers Stadium]] in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]], [[United States]] was imploded to make way for two new professional sports stadiums.
* [[2006]] - [[Michelle Bachelet]] inaugurated as first woman president of [[Chile]].
* 2006 - [[Vice President of the United States|U.S. Vice President]] [[Dick Cheney]] accidentally [[Dick Cheney shooting incident|shoots]] [[Harry Whittington]] in the face while hunting in rural [[Texas]].
==Births==
*[[1377]] - King [[Ladislas of Naples]] (d. [[1414]])
*[[1380]] - [[Gianfrancesco Poggio Bracciolini]], Italian humanist (d. [[1459]])
*[[1466]] - [[Elizabeth of York]], queen of [[Henry VII of England]] (d. [[1503]])
*[[1535]] - [[Pope Gregory XIV]] (d. [[1591]])
*[[1568]] - [[Honoré d'Urfé]], French writer (d. [[1625]])
*[[1649]] - [[William Carstares]], Scottish minister (d. [[1715]])
*[[1657]] - [[Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle]], French scientist and man of letters (d. [[1757]])
*[[1755]] - [[Albert Christoph Dies]], German composer (d. [[1822]])
*[[1764]] - [[Marie-Joseph de Chenier]], French poet (d. [[1811]])
*[[1774]] - [[Hans Jarta]], Swedish political activist (d. [[1847]])
*[[1776]] - [[Joannis Capodistrias]], Greek governor of Troezen (d. [[1836]])
*[[1800]] - [[William Henry Fox Talbot]], English photographer (d. [[1877]])
*[[1802]] - [[Lydia Child]], American novelist and abolitionist (d. [[1880]])
*[[1812]] - [[Alexander Hamilton Stephens]], American Confederate Vice President (d. [[1883]])
*[[1813]] - [[Otto Ludwig]], German writer and critic (d. [[1865]])
*[[1819]] - [[Samuel Parkman Tuckerman]], American composer (d. [[1890]])
*[[1821]] - [[Auguste-Édouard Mariette]], French Egyptologist (d. [[1881]])
*[[1830]] - [[Hans Bronsart von Schellendorf]], musician (d. [[1913]])
*[[1833]] - [[Melville Weston Fuller]], 8th [[Chief Justice of the United States]] (d. [[1910]])
*[[1839]] - [[Willard Gibbs|Josiah Willard Gibbs]], American physicist and chemist (d. [[1903]])
*[[1847]] - [[Thomas Alva Edison]], American inventor and businessman (d. [[1931]])
*[[1860]] - [[Rachilde]], French author (d. [[1953]])
*[[1869]] - [[Helene Kroller-Muller]], Dutch museum founder and patron of the arts (d. [[1939]])
*1869 - [[Else Lasker-Schüler]], German writer (d. [[1945]])
*[[1873]] - [[Feodor Chaliapin]], Russian singer (d. [[1938]])
*[[1874]] - [[Fritz Bennicke Hart]], English-born composer (d. [[1949]])
*1874 - [[Elsa Beskow]], Swedish author (d. [[1953]])
*[[1887]] - [[John van Melle]], South African writer (d. [[1953]])
*[[1891]] - [[Jack Hearne (John William Hearne)|J.W. Hearne]] English cricketer (d. [[1965]])
*[[1894]] - [[Alfonso Leng]], Chilean composer (d. [[1974]])
*[[1898]] - [[Leó Szilárd]], Hungarian-born physicist and peace activist (d. [[1964]])
*[[1900]] - [[Hans-Georg Gadamer]], German philosopher (d. [[2002]])
*[[1902]] - [[Arne Jacobsen]], Danish architect and designer (d. [[1971]])
*[[1903]] - [[Hans Redlich]], Austrian composer (d. [[1968]])
*[[1904]] - Sir [[Keith Holyoake]], [[Prime Minister of New Zealand]] (d. [[1983]])
*[[1908]] - [[Vivian Ernest Fuchs]], English geologist and explorer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1909]] - [[Max Baer]], American boxer and actor (d. [[1959]])
*1909 - [[Joseph Mankiewicz]], American director (d. [[1993]])
*[[1912]] - [[Roy Fuller]], English writer (d. [[1991]])
*[[1914]] - [[Matt Dennis]], American singer
*[[1915]] - [[Patrick Leigh Fermor]], English author
*[[1917]] - [[Sidney Sheldon]], American author
*[[1919]] - [[Eva Gabor]], Hungarian-born actress (d. [[1995]])
*1919 - [[Eddie Robinson (football coach)|Eddie Robinson]], American football coach
*[[1920]] - King [[Farouk I of Egypt]] (d. [[1965]])
*1920 - [[Billy Halop]], American actor (d. [[1976]])
*1920 - [[Daniel "Chappie" James Jr.]], American general
*1920 - [[Paul Peter Piech]], American artist (d. [[1996]])
*[[1921]] - [[Lloyd Bentsen]], American politician
*[[1925]] - [[Peter Berger]], British admiral
*1925 - [[Kim Stanley]], American actress (d. [[2001]])
*[[1926]] - [[Paul Bocuse]], French chef
*1926 - [[Alexander Gibson (conductor)|Alexander Gibson]], British conductor
*1926 - [[Leslie Nielsen]], Canadian actor
*[[1931]] - [[Larry Merchant]], author and boxing commentator
*[[1932]] - [[Jerome Lowenthal]], American pianist
*[[1934]] - [[Mel Carnahan]], American politician (d. [[2000]])
*1934 - [[Tina Louise]], American actress
*1934 - [[Mary Quant]], English fashion designer
*1934 - [[John Surtees]], British race car driver
*[[1935]] - [[Bent Lorentzen (composer)|Bent Lorentzen]], Danish composer
*[[1936]] - [[Burt Reynolds]], American actor
*[[1937]] - [[Bill Lawry]], Australian cricketer
*[[1938]] - [[Bevan Congdon]], New Zealand cricketer
*1938 - [[Simone de Oliveira]], portuguese actress and singer.
*1938 - [[Manuel Noriega]], Panamanian general and dictator
*[[1939]] - [[Gerry Goffin]], American lyricist
*1939 - [[Jane Yolen]], American author
*[[1941]] - [[Sergio Mendes]], Brazilian musician and songwriter
*[[1953]] - [[Philip Anglim]], American actor
*1953 - [[Jeb Bush]], American politician
*[[1956]] - [[Catherine Hickland]], American actress
*1956 - [[Didier Lockwood]], French jazz violinist
*[[1961]] - [[Mary Docter]], American speed skater
*1961 - [[Carey Lowell]], American actress
*[[1962]] - [[Sheryl Crow]], American singer/songwriter, musician
*[[1963]] - [[Diane Franklin]], American actress
*[[1964]] - [[Ken Shamrock]], American martial artist, professional wrestler and American actor
*[[1967]] - [[Hank Gathers]], American basketball player (d. [[1990]])
*[[1969]] - [[Jennifer Aniston]], American actress
*[[1970]] - [[Fredrik Thordendal]], [[Sweden|Swedish]] musician ([[Meshuggah]])
*[[1972]] - [[Brian Daubach]], American baseball player
*[[1973]] - [[Varg Vikernes]], Norwegian musician ([[Burzum]])
*[[1974]] - [[D'Angelo]], American singer
*[[1976]] - [[Brice Beckham]], American actor
*[[1977]] - [[Mike Shinoda]], American singer ([[Linkin Park]])
*[[1979]] - [[Brandy Norwood]], American singer
*[[1980]] - [[Natasha Bobo]], American actress
*1980 - [[Matthew Lawrence]], American actor
*[[1981]] - [[Kelly Rowland]], American singer ([[Destiny's Child]])
<!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. -->
==Deaths==
*[[641]] - [[Heraclius]], Emperor of Byzantium
*[[731]] - [[Pope Gregory II]]
*[[821]] - Saint [[Benedict of Aniane]]
*[[824]] - [[Pope Paschal I]]
*[[1141]] - [[Hugo of St. Victor]], German philosopher and theologian
*[[1160]] - [[Minamoto no Yoshitomo]], Japanese general (b. [[1123]])
*[[1503]] - [[Elizabeth of York]], queen of [[Henry VII of England]] (b. [[1466]])
*[[1626]] - [[Pietro Cataldi]], Italian mathematician (b. [[1552]])
*[[1650]] - [[René Descartes]], French philosopher (b. [[1596]])
*[[1685]] - [[David Teniers III]], Flemish painter (b. [[1638]])
*[[1713]] - [[Jahandar Shah]], Mughal emperor of Indai (b. [[1664]])
*[[1755]] - [[Francesco Scipione, marchese di Maffei]], Italian archaeologist (b. [[1675]])
*[[1762]] - [[Johann Tobias Krebs]], German composer (b. [[1690]])
*[[1763]] - [[William Shenstone]], English poet (b. [[1714]])
*[[1797]] - [[Antoine Dauvergne]], French composer (b. [[1713]])
*[[1829]] - [[Alexandr Griboyedov]], Russian playwright (b. [[1795]])
*[[1862]] - [[Elizabeth Siddal]], British poet and artist (b. [[1829]])
*[[1868]] - [[Léon Foucault]], French astronomer (b. [[1819]])
*[[1879]] - [[Honoré Daumier]], French caricaturist and painter (b. [[1808]])
*[[1917]] - [[Oswaldo Cruz]], Brazilian physician (b. [[1872]])
*[[1931]] - [[Charles Algernon Parsons]], British inventor (b. [[1854]])
*[[1939]] - [[Franz Schmidt]], Austrian composer (b. [[1874]])
*[[1940]] - [[John Buchan]], [[Governor-General of Canada]] (b. [[1875]])
*[[1945]] - [[Al Dubin]], Swiss songwriter (b. [[1891]])
*[[1948]] - [[Sergei Eisenstein]], Latvian film director (b. [[1898]])
*[[1959]] - [[Marshall Teague]], American race car driver (b. [[1922]])
*[[1960]] - [[Ernst von Dohnanyi]], Hungaria |
<revision>
<id>42071297</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:55:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joonasl</username>
<id>253540</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This is the article on the Japanese form of poetry. For the [[BeOS]] open-source re-creation project, see [[Haiku (operating system)]]. For the town in Hawaii, see [[Haiku-Pauwela, Hawaii]].''
'''Haiku''' （俳句）is a mode of [[Japanese poetry]], a late [[19th century]] revision by [[Masaoka Shiki]] of the older ''hokku'' (発句), the opening verse of a linked verse form, ''[[renga|haikai no renga]]'' . A traditional hokku consists of a pattern of approximately 5, 7, and 5 ''[[Mora (linguistics)|morae]]'', phonetic units which only partially correspond to the [[syllable]]s of languages such as [[English language|English]]. It also contains a special ''season'' word (the ''[[kigo]]'') descriptive of the season in which the renga is set. Hokku often combine two (or rarely, three) different elements into a unified sensory impression, with a major grammatical break (''kire'') usually at the end of either the first five or second seven morae. These elements of the older hokku are considered by many to be essential to haiku as well, although not always included by modern writers of Japanese "free-form haiku" and of non-Japanese haiku. [[Senryu]] is a similar poetry form that emphasizes humor instead of seasons.
===Hokku or haiku?===
Hokku were always written in the wider context of ''haikai no renga'', either actually or theoretically (even when printed individually). At the end of the 19th century, [[Masaoka Shiki|Shiki]] separated the opening verse from the linked form and applied the term ''haiku'' to it. Because it was only after this separation that the term became popular, [[scholar]]s agree that it is technically incorrect to label hokku by pre-Shiki writers &quot;haiku&quot;, a common practice in the [[20th century]]. The persistent confusion on the topic is exemplified by David Barnhill's [[anthology]] ''Bashō's Haiku'' ([[2005]]): in spite of the title, Barnhill admits that &quot;the individual poems that Bashō created are, properly speaking, 'hokku'&quot;, and that he used the term ''haiku'' because it seemed more familiar.
In this article, since it is intended to be accurate and objective,
*''hokku'' is used for verses that are written, if only theoretically, as opening verses of ''haikai no renga'';
*''haiku'' is used for verses by Shiki and later writers, written in the form of hokku but independent of ''haikai no renga''.
===Two examples===
Japanese hokku and haiku are traditionally printed in one vertical line, though in handwritten form they may be in any reasonable number of lines.
*An example of classic hokku by Bashō:
:古池や蛙飛込む水の音
:Furu ike ya kawazu tobikomu mizu no oto
:An old pond&mdash;
:The sound of a frog jumping
:into water
*Another Bashō classic:
:初しぐれ猿も小蓑をほしげ也
:Hatsu shigure saru mo komino wo hoshige nari
:The first cold shower;
:Even the monkey seems to want
:A little coat of straw.
(At that time, Japanese rain-gear consisted of a large, round [[hat]] and a shaggy straw [[cloak]].)
==Origin and evolution==
===From renga to haikai===
The exact origin of hokku is still subject to debate, but it is generally agreed that it originated from the classical linked verse form called ''[[renga]]'' (連歌). There are two types of renga:
*The short renga, ''tanrenga'', has a 5-7-5 - 7-7 structure. The first 5-7-5 of a short renga is called ''chōku'' (the longer verse), to which answers the remaining 7-7, ''tanku'' (the shorter verse).
*The long renga, ''chōrenga'', consists of an alternating succession of chōku and tanku, 36 to 100 verses per volume. The first verse of a long renga is a chōku (5-7-5) called ''hokku'' (発句, &quot;the opening verse&quot;), the second is a tanku (7-7) called ''waki'', ... and the last is a tanku called ''ageku''.
In the [[1400s]] a rising [[middle class]] led to the development of a less courtly linked verse called ''haikai no renga'' (俳諧の連歌, &quot;playful linked verse&quot;). ''Haiku'' came into being when the opening verse of ''haikai no renga'' was made an independent poem at the end of the 19th century.
The inventors of ''haikai no renga'' (abbr. ''haikai'') are generally considered to be [[Yamazaki Sōkan]] ([[1465]]&ndash;[[1553]]) and [[Arakida Moritake]] ([[1473]]&ndash;[[1549]]). Later exponents of ''haikai'' were [[Matsunaga Teitoku]] ([[1571]]&ndash;[[1653]]), the founder of the Teimon school, and [[Nishiyama Sōin]] ([[1605]]&ndash;[[1682]]), the founder of the Danrin school. The Teimon school's deliberate colloquialism made ''haikai'' popular, but also made it depend on wordplay. To counter this dependence, the Danrin school explored people's daily life for other sources of playfulness, but often ended up with frivolity.
In the [[1600s]], two masters arose who elevated ''haikai'' and gave it a new popularity. They were [[Matsuo Bashō]] ([[1644]]&ndash;[[1694]]) and [[Onitsura]] ([[1661]]&ndash;[[1738]]). Hokku was only the first verse of ''haikai'', but its position as the opening verse made it the most important, setting the tone for the whole composition. Even though hokku sometimes appeared individually, they were understood to always be in the context of ''haikai'', if only theoretically. Bashō and Onitsura were thus writers of ''haikai'' of which hokku was only a part, though the most important part.
===The time of Bashō===
Bashō's first-known hokku was written when he was eighteen (scholars doubt the authenticity of a supposed earlier hokku written in honor of the Year of the Bird), but it showed little promise, and much of his early verse is little more than the kind of wordplay popular at the time. The verse generally considered to mark his turning point and departure from the Danrin school came in [[1680]], when he wrote of a crow perched on a bare branch. Bashō made his living as a teacher of haikai, as a founder of the Shōfu school, and wrote a number of travel journals incorporating hokku. He was strongly influenced by Zen Buddhism, and is said to have regretted, near the end of his life, devoting more time to haikai than to Buddhist practice.
Onitsura would be far more famous today as a haiku writer contemporary with Bashō, were it not that he, unlike Bashō, had no group of disciples to carry on his teachings. He wrote hokku of high quality and emphasized truth and sincerity in writing. Shōfu, Bashō's school of ''haikai'', was carried on by his disciples Kikaku, Ransetsu, Kyorai, Kyoroku, Shikō, Sampū, Etsujin, Yaha, Hokushi, Jōsō and Bonchō. It became the '' haikai'' standard throughout Japan. Branches founded by his disciples Kikaku (1661-1707) and Ransetsu (1654-1707) still existed in the latter half of the 19th century.
===The time of Buson===
[[Image:YosaBusonGrave.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Grave of Yosa Buson]]
The next famous style of haikai to arise was that of [[Yosa Buson]] ([[1716]]&ndash;[[1783]]) and others such as Gyōdai, Chora, Rankō, Ryōta, Shōha, Taigi, and Kitō, called the Temmei style after the [[Temmei Era]] ([[1781]]&ndash;[[1789]]) in which it was created. Buson was better known in his day as a painter than as a writer of ''haikai'', but today that is reversed. His affection for painting can be seen in the painterly style of his hokku, and in his attempt to deliberately arrange scenes in words. Hokku was not so much a serious matter for Buson as it was for Bashō. The popularity and frequency of haikai gatherings in this period led to greater numbers of verses springing from imagination rather than from actual experience.
No new popular style followed Buson. A very individualistic approach to ''haikai'' appeared, however, in the writer [[Kobayashi Issa]] ([[1763]]&ndash;[[1827]]) whose miserable childhood, [[poverty]], sad life, and devotion to the [[Pure Land]] sect of [[Buddhism]] are clearly present in his hokku.
===The appearance of Shiki===
After Issa, ''haikai'' entered a period of decline in which it reverted to frivolity and uninspired mediocrity. The writers of this period in the 19th century are known by the deprecatory term ''tsukinami'', meaning "monthly," after the monthly or twice-monthly ''haikai'' gatherings of the end of the [[18th century]]. But in regard to this period of ''haikai'', it came to mean &quot;trite&quot; and &quot;hackneyed&quot;.
This was the situation until the appearance of [[Masaoka Shiki]] ([[1867]]&ndash;[[1902]]), a reformer and revisionist who marks the end of hokku in a wider context. Shiki, a prolific writer even though chronically ill during a significant part of his life, not only disliked the ''tsukinami'' writers, but also criticized Bashō. Like the Japanese [[intellectual]] world in general at that time, Shiki was strongly impressed by Western culture. He favored the painterly style of Buson and particularly the European concept of ''plein-air'' [[painting]], which he adapted to create a style of reformed hokku as a kind of nature sketch in words, an approach called ''shasei'', literally &quot;sketching from life&quot;. He popularized his views by verse columns and [[essay]]s in [[newspaper]]s.
All hokku up to the time of Shiki were written in the context of ''haikai'', but Shiki completely separated his new style of verse from wider contexts. Being [[Agnosticism|agnostic]], he also separated it from the influence of Buddhism with which hokku had very often been tinged. And finally, he discarded the term &quot;hokku&quot; and called his revised verse form "haiku". Shiki thus became the first haiku poet. His revisionism brought an end to ''haikai'' and hokku as well as to surviving ''haikai'' schools.
==Modern haiku==
===Hekigotō and Kyoshi===
Shiki's innovative appr |
ke out between other Harriers and [[Dassault Mirage III|Mirage]] fighters of Grupo 8. Both sides refused to fight at the other's best altitude, until the Mirages finally descended to engage. One was shot down, and another was damaged and made for Stanley, where it fell victim to friendly fire from the Argentine defenders.
===Sinking of the Belgrano===
[[Image:The Sun Gotcha.jpg|left|thumb|'''Gotcha''' headline]]
[[Image:ARA Belgrano sinking.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The ARA ''General Belgrano'' sinks]]
On [[May 2]] the [[World War II]]-vintage Argentine light cruiser [[ARA General Belgrano|ARA ''General Belgrano'']] &mdash; formerly the [[USS Phoenix (CL-46)]], a survivor of the 1941 [[Pearl Harbor]] attacks &mdash; was sunk by [[HMS Conqueror (S48)|HMS ''Conqueror'']], using WWII vintage design [[List of torpedoes|Mk 8 mod 4]] [[torpedo]]es. 321 lives were lost, although initial casualty reports were confused. The British newspaper ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'' famously greeted the initial reports of the attack (and the sinking of a small torpedo boat) with the headline '''GOTCHA'''. The edition was first published before news that the ship has actually sunk was known and carried no reports of actual Argentine deaths, it was followed by the more temperate "Did 1,200 Argies drown?". The nuclear-powered ''Conqueror'' was captained by Commander Christopher Wreford-Brown. The loss of ''General Belgrano'' hardened the stance of the Argentine government and also became a [[cause celebre]] for anti-war campaigners (such as Labour MP [[Tam Dalyell]]), who declared that the ship had been sailing away from the Falklands at the time. The vessel was inarguably outside the exclusion zone, and sailing away from the area of conflict. However, during war, under international law, the heading of a [[belligerent]] naval vessel has no bearing on its status. In later years it has been revealed that the information on the position of the ''ARA General Belgrano'' came from a Soviet spy satellite which was tapped by the Norwegian intelligence service station at Fauske in Norway, and then handed over to the British.
The sinking occurred 14 hours after [[List of Presidents of Peru|Constitutional President of the Republic of Peru]] [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry]], had proposed a comprehensive peace plan. At the time, and in response to [[Chile]]'s support of Britain, Belaúnde called for regional unity.
Regardless of controversies over the sinking, it had an important strategic effect. After the loss of ''General Belgrano'', the entire Argentine fleet returned to port and did not leave again for the duration of hostilities. The two destroyers supporting ''General Belgrano'' and the task force built around the aircraft carrier ARA ''Veinticinco de Mayo'' both withdrew from the area, ending the direct threat to the British fleet that their pincer movement had represented. The attack on ''General Belgrano'' was the second time since the end of [[World War II]] that a submarine had fired [[torpedo]]es in wartime and the only time that a nuclear powered submarine has done so.
In [[2005]], [[the Times]] newspaper reported that the British [[historian]] [[Sir Lawrence Freedman]] stated in the second volume of his ''Official History of the Falklands'', his latest work on the Falklands, that intelligence about the Belgrano did not reach senior British commanders and politicians until it was too late. [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/newspaper/0,,170-1670775,00.html] Commander Christopher Wreford-Brown, commanding officer of HMS Conqueror, informed the [[Admiralty]] that the Argentine cruiser had changed course four hours before he attacked the cruiser, but this information was not passed to the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|MoD]] or [[Sandy Woodward|Rear-Admiral John "Sandy" Woodward]] (commander of the RN task force). Thus it appears that neither Margaret Thatcher nor the Cabinet were aware of the Belgrano's change of course before the cruiser was sunk.
===Sinking of HMS ''Sheffield''===
[[Image:Super-Etendard 1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|An Argentine [[Dassault Super Étendard]] that attacked the ''Sheffield'']]<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:sheffield_onfire.jpg|right|framed|HMS Sheffield on fire]] -->
Two days after the ''General Belgrano'' sinking, on [[May 4]], the British lost the [[Type 42]] destroyer [[HMS Sheffield (D80)|HMS ''Sheffield'']] to fire following an [[Exocet missile]] strike. ''Sheffield'' had been ordered forward with two other Type 42s in order to provide a radar and missile "picket" far from the British carriers. After the ships were detected by an Argentine Navy ('''ARA''') [[P-2 Neptune]] patrol aircraft, two ARA [[Dassault Super Étendard]]s were launched, each armed with a single Exocet. Refuelled by a [[C-130 Hercules]] shortly after launch, they went in at low altitude, popped up for a radar check and released the missiles from 20 to 30 miles (30 to 50 km) away. One missed [[HMS Yarmouth (F101)|HMS ''Yarmouth'']], due to her deployment of [[chaff]], but the other hit the ''Sheffield''. The weapon struck with devastating effect, hitting the centre of the ship and starting raging fires which quickly spread, killing 22 sailors and severely injuring 24 others. While fighting the fire, ''Yarmouth'' fired anti-submarine weaponry in response to a possible Argentine submarine attack.
''Sheffield'' was abandoned several hours later, gutted and deformed by her still-burning fires which lingered on for six more days. She finally sank outside the Exclusion Zone on [[May 10]], whilst under tow from the ''Yarmouth'', becoming an official [[war grave]]. Meanwhile the other Type 42s were withdrawn from their precarious position, leaving the British task force open to attack.
The tempo of operations increased throughout the second half of May. UN attempts to mediate a peace were rejected by the British, who felt that any delay would make a campaign impractical in the South Atlantic storms. The destruction of ''Sheffield'' had a profound impact on the British public, bringing home the fact that the "Falklands Crisis", as the BBC News put it, was now an actual shooting war.
===Landing at Port San Carlos===
[[Image:Falkland island san carlos landing.png|thumb|right|250px|San Carlos landing sites]]
[[Image:Falklandsmap san carlos landings.png|thumb|left|150px|Context of landings in the Falklands]]
During the night of [[May 21]] the British made an amphibious landing on beaches near San Carlos Water, on the northern coast of East Falkland, putting the 4000 men of 3 Commando Brigade, including 2nd and 3rd battalions of the Parachute Regiment (2 and 3 Para), ashore from the amphibious ships and the liner Canberra: 2 Para and 40 Commando landing at San Carlos beach; 45 Commando at Ajax bay; 3 Para at [[Port San Carlos]]. By dawn the next day they had established a secure bridgehead from which to conduct offensive operations. From there Brigadier Thompson's plan was to capture Darwin and [[Goose Green]] before turning towards Stanley.
At sea the paucity of British ships' anti-aircraft defences was demonstrated in the sinking of [[HMS Ardent (F184)|HMS ''Ardent'']] on the 21st, [[HMS Antelope (F170)|HMS ''Antelope'']] on the 23rd, and [[MV Atlantic Conveyor|MV ''Atlantic Conveyor'']], with a vital cargo of [[helicopter]]s, runway building equipment and tents on the 25th. The loss of all but one of the Chinook Helicopters being carried by the Atlantic Conveyor was a severe blow from a logistics perspective; the sole surviving [[Chinook]] was called Bravo November. Also lost on this day was [[HMS Coventry (D118)|HMS ''Coventry'']], a sister to [[HMS Sheffield (D80)|HMS ''Sheffield'']], whilst in company with [[HMS Broadsword (F88)|HMS ''Broadsword'']]. [[HMS Argonaut (F56)|HMS ''Argonaut'']] and [[HMS Brilliant (F90)|HMS ''Brilliant'']] were badly damaged. However many British ships escaped terminal damage due to the Argentine pilots' bombing tactics. The topography of San Carlos Water dictated that the pilots were forced to swoop in and launch their bombs from a low altitude at the very last moment. While undoubtedly brave, the late releasing of bombs meant that many never exploded, as there was insufficient time in the air for them to arm themselves. The Argentines lost near twenty aircraft in these attacks, including several [[FMA IA 58 Pucará|Pucarás]].
===Goose Green===
{{main|Battle of Goose Green}}
Starting early on [[May 27]] and through [[May 28]], 2 Para approached and attacked Darwin and Goose Green, which was held by the Argentine 12th Inf Regt. After a tough struggle, which lasted all night and into the next day, seventeen British and 55 Argentine soldiers had been killed, and 1,050 Argentine troops taken prisoner. Due to a gaffe by the [[BBC]], the taking of Goose Green was announced on the [[BBC World Service]] before it had actually happened. It was during this attack that Lt Col [[H. Jones]], the commanding officer of 2 Para was killed. He was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]].
[[Image:Falkland island after goose green.png|thumb|250px|right|East Falkland showing San Carlos bridgehead, Teal Inlet, Mt. Kent and Mt Challenger]]
With the sizeable Argentine force at Goose Green out of the way, British forces were now able to break out of the San Carlos bridgehead. From [[27 May]] men of 45 Cdo and 3 Para started walking across East Falkland towards the coastal settlement of Teal Inlet. Meanwhile 42 Cdo prepared to move by helicopter to Mount Kent. For the next week the SAS and Mountain & Arctic Warfare Cadre (the Special Forces unit of 3 Commando Brigade) waged intense patrol battles with reconnaissance patrols of the 602nd Commando Company. An example was a patrol battle of nineteen men of the Cadre, commanded by Captain Rod Boswell, on the lower slopes of Mount Simon. Late in the afternoon of [[30 May]] a four-man patrol spotted thirtee |
up>−5</sup> newtons per [[square metre]], or 20 micropascals. That is roughly the sound of a [[mosquito]] flying 3 m away.
The reason for using the decibel is that the [[ear]] is capable of detecting a very large range of [[sound pressure]]s. The ratio of the sound ''pressure'' that causes permanent damage from short exposure to the limit that (undamaged) ears can hear is above a [[million]]. Because the ''power'' in a sound wave is proportional to the square of the pressure, the ratio of the maximum power to the minimum power is above one ([[long and short scales|short scale]]) [[trillion]]. To deal with such a range, logarithmic units are useful: the log of a trillion is 12, so this ratio represents a difference of 120 dB.
[[Psychologist]]s have found that our perception of [[loudness]] is roughly logarithmic — see the [[Weber-Fechner law]]. In other words, you have to multiply the sound pressure by the same factor to have the same increase in loudness. This is why the numbers around the volume control dial on a typical [[Electronic amplifier|audio amplifier]] are related not to the voltage amplification, but to its logarithm.
Various [[frequency]] weightings are used to allow the result of an acoustical measurement to be expressed as a single sound level. The weightings approximate the changes in sensitivity of the ear to different frequencies at different levels. The two most commonly used weightings are the A and C weightings; other examples are the B and Z weightings.
Sound levels above 85 dB are considered harmful, while 120 dB is unsafe and 150 dB causes physical damage to the human [[body]]. [[Window]]s break at about 163 dB. [[Jet airplane]]s cause A-weighted levels of about 133 dB at 33 m, or 100 dB at 170 m. [[Eardrum]]s rupture at 190 dB to 198 dB. [[Shock wave]]s and [[sonic boom]]s cause levels of about 200 dB at 330 m. Sound levels of around 200 dB can cause [[death]] to humans and are generated near [[bomb]] [[explosion]]s (e.g., 23 kg of [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]] detonated 3 m away). The [[space shuttle]] generates levels of around 215 dB (or an A-weighted level of about 175 dB at a distance of 17 m). Even louder are [[nuclear bomb]]s, [[earthquake]]s, [[tornado]]es, [[hurricane]]s and [[volcano]]es, all capable of exceeding 240 dB. A more extensive list can be found at [http://www.makeitlouder.com/Decibel%20Level%20Chart.txt makeitlouder.com].
Some other values:
{| class="wikitable"
!dB(SPL)!!Source (with distance)
|-
|250 ||Inside of [[tornado]]; conventional or nuclear bomb explosion at 5 m.
|-
|180 ||[[Rocket]] engine at 30 m; [[blue whale]] humming at 1 m;<br> [[Krakatoa]] explosion at 100 miles (160 km)[http://www.makeitlouder.com/Decibel%20Level%20Chart.txt]
|-
|150 ||[[Jet]] [[engine]] at 30 m
|-
|140 ||[[Rifle]] being fired at 1 m
|-
|130 ||[[Threshold of pain]]; [[train]] horn at 10 m
|-
|120 ||[[Rock and roll|Rock]] [[concert]]; jet aircraft taking off at 100 m
|-
|110 ||Accelerating [[motorcycle]] at 5 m; chainsaw at 1 m
|-
|100 ||[[Jackhammer]] at 2 m; inside [[disco]]
|-
|90 ||Loud [[factory]], heavy [[truck]] at 1 m
|-
|80 ||[[Vacuum cleaner]] at 1 m, curbside of busy street
|-
|70 ||Busy [[traffic]] at 5 m
|-
|60 ||[[Office]] or restaurant inside
|-
|50 ||Quiet [[restaurant]] inside
|-
|40 ||Residential area at [[night]]
|-
|30 ||Theatre, no talking
|-
|10 ||Human breathing at 3 m
|-
|0 ||[[Threshold of human hearing]] (with healthy ears)
|}
Note that the SPL emitted by an object changes with distance from the object. Commonly-quoted measurements of objects like [[jet engine]]s or [[jackhammer]]s are meaningless without distance information. The measurement is not of the object's noise, but of the noise at a point in space near that object. For instance, it is intuitively obvious that the noise level of a [[volcanic eruption]] will be much higher standing inside the crater than it would be measured from 5 kilometers away.
Measurements of ambient noise do not need a distance, since the noise level will be relatively constant at any point in the area (and are usually only rough approximations anyway).
Measurements that refer to the "threshold of pain" or the threshold at which ear damage occurs are measuring the SPL at a point near the ear itself.
Under controlled conditions, in an acoustical laboratory, the trained healthy human ear is able to discern changes in sound levels of 1 dB, when exposed to steady, single frequency ("pure tone") signals in the mid-frequency range. It is widely accepted that the average [[health]]y ear, however, can barely perceive noise level changes of 3 dB.
On this scale, the normal range of human hearing extends from about 0 dB to about 140 dB. 0 dB is the [[threshold]] of hearing in healthy, undamaged human ears at 1 kHz; 0 dB is not an absence of sound, and it is possible for people with exceptionally good hearing to hear sounds at −10 dB. A 3 dB increase in the level of continuous noise doubles the sound power, however experimentation has determined that the frequency response of the human ear results in a perceived doubling of loudness with every 10 dB increase; a 5 dB increase is a readily noticeable change, while a 3 dB increase is barely noticeable to most people.
Sound pressure levels are applicable to the specific position at which they are measured. The levels change with the distance from the source of the sound; in general, the level decreases as the distance from the source increases. If the distance from the source is unknown, it is difficult to estimate the sound pressure level at the source.
==== Frequency weighting ====
{{main|Frequency weighting}}
Since the human ear is not equally sensitive to all the frequencies of sound within the entire spectrum, noise levels at maximum human sensitivity — middle A and its higher [[harmonic]]s (between 2,000 and 4,000 [[hertz]]) — are factored more heavily into sound descriptions using a process called frequency weighting.
The most widely used frequency weighting is the "[[A-weighting]]", which roughly corresponds to the inverse of the 40 dB (at 1 kHz) equal-loudness curve. Using this filter, the sound level [[Measuring instrument|meter]] is less sensitive to very high and very low frequencies. The A weighting parallels the sensitivity of the human ear when it is exposed to normal levels, and frequency weighting C is suitable for use when the ear is exposed to higher sound levels. Other defined frequency weightings, such as B and Z, are rarely used.
Frequency weighted sound levels are still expressed in decibels (with unit symbol dB), although it is common to see the incorrect unit symbols dBA or dB(A) used for A-weighted sound levels.
=== Electronics ===
The decibel is used rather than [[Arithmetic|arithmetic]] ratios or [[percent]]ages because when certain types of [[Electrical network|circuits]], such as amplifiers and [[attenuator]]s, are connected in series, expressions of power level in decibels may be arithmetically added and subtracted. It is also common in disciplines such as audio, in which the properties of the signal are best expressed in logarithms due to the response of the ear.
In [[radio]] electronics, the decibel is used to describe the ratio between two measurements of [[electrical power]]. It can also be combined with a suffix to create an absolute unit of electrical power. For example, it can be combined with "m" for "milliwatt" to produce the "dBm". Zero dBm is one milliwatt, and 1&nbsp;dBm is one decibel greater than 0&nbsp;dBm, or about 1.259&nbsp;mW.
Although decibels were originally used for power ratios, they are commonly used in electronics to describe voltage or current ratios. In a constant resistive load, power is proportional to the square of the voltage or current in the circuit. Therefore, the decibel ratio of two voltages ''V''<sub>1</sub> and ''V''<sub>2</sub> is defined as 20&nbsp;log<sub>10</sub>(''V''<sub>1</sub>/''V''<sub>2</sub>), and similarly for current ratios. Thus, for example, a factor of 2.0 in voltage is equivalent to 6.02&nbsp;dB (not 3.01&nbsp;dB!). Similarly, a ratio of 10 times gives 20&nbsp;dB, and one tenth gives −20&nbsp;dB.
This practice is fully consistent with power-based decibels, provided the circuit [[Electrical resistance|resistance]] remains constant. However, voltage-based decibels are frequently used to express such quantities as the voltage gain of an amplifier, where the two voltages are measured in different circuits which may have very different resistances. For example, a unity-gain [[buffer amplifier]] with a high [[input resistance]] and a low [[output resistance]] may be said to have a "voltage gain of 0 dB", even though it is actually providing a considerable power gain when driving a low-resistance load.
In professional audio, a popular unit is the dBu (see below for all the units). The "u" stands for "unloaded", and was probably chosen to be similar to lowercase "v", as dBv was the older name for the same thing. It was changed to avoid confusion with dBV. This unit (dBu) is an [[root mean square|RMS]] measurement of voltage which uses as its reference 0.775&nbsp;V<sub>RMS</sub>. Chosen for historical reasons, it is the voltage level at which you get 1&nbsp;mW of power in a 600&nbsp;ohm resistor, which used to be the standard impedance in almost all professional audio circuits. <!--what's a "professional audio circuit"?--> <!-- a circuit that uses 600 ohms for everything. :-) they mean stuff for professional audio like recording and live sound. microphones, mixers, etc. i think. -->
Since there may be many different bases for a measurement expressed in decibels, |
bor intensive method is dying, and being replaced by plastic rings or cartridges. After removal from the hive, a clear cover is usually fitted onto the cartridge so customers can see the product.
*'''Raw honey''' Honey as it exists in the beehive or as obtained by extraction, settling or straining without adding heat. Raw honey contains some pollen and may contain small particles of wax. Local raw honey is sought after by [[allergy]] sufferers as the pollen impurities lessen the sensitivity to [[hay fever]].
*'''Chunk honey''' Honey packed in widemouth containers consisting of one or more pieces of comb honey surrounded by extracted liquid honey. This type is preferred in the US South.
*'''Strained Honey''' or '''filtered honey''' Honey which has been passed through a mesh material to remove particulate material (pieces of wax, [[propolis]], other defects) without removing pollen. Preferred by the health food trade - it has a cloudy appearance due to the included pollen, but it also tends to crystallize more quickly than ultrafiltered honey.
*'''Ultrafiltered honey''' Honey processed by very fine filtration under high pressure to remove all extraneous solids and pollen grains. Ultrafiltered honey is very clear and has a longer shelf life, because it crystallizes more slowly. Preferred by the supermarket trade.
===Other descriptions===
*'''Blended honey''' A homogeneous mixture of two or more honeys differing in floral source, color, flavor, density or geographic origin.
*'''Churned honey''' or '''cremed honey''' See [[whipped honey]].
*'''Crystallized honey''' Honey in which some of the glucose content has spontaneously crystallized from solution as the monohydrate. Also called "granulated honey."
*'''Honey fondant''' See [[whipped honey]].
*'''Spun honey''' See [[whipped honey]].
In addition, '''organic honey''' is honey produced, processed, and packaged in accordance with national regulations, and certified as such by some government body or an independent organic farming certification organization.
== See also ==
{{cookbook}}
{{Commons|Honey}}
{{HoneybeeArticles}}
* [[Bangladesh honey]]
* [[Finland honey]]
* [[Glucose]]
* [[Honey flow]]
* [[List of cocktails]]
* [[List of recipes]]
* [[List of honey plants]]
* [[Nectar]]
* [[Pitcairn Island honey]]
* [[Philippines honey]]
* [[Royal jelly]]
* [[apiary|US honey production]]
[[Category:Honey| ]]
{{Link FA|ja}}
{{Link FA|he}}
[[ar:عسل النحل]]
[[bg:Пчелен мед]]
[[be:Мёд]]
[[ca:Mel]]
[[cs:Med]]
[[cy:Mêl]]
[[da:Honning]]
[[de:Honig]]
[[es:Miel]]
[[eo:Mielo]]
[[fr:Miel]]
[[gl:Mel]]
[[id:Madu]]
[[is:Hunang]]
[[it:Miele]]
[[he:דבש]]
[[hu:Méz]]
[[jv:Madu]]
[[lt:Medus]]
[[nl:Honing]]
[[ja:蜂蜜]]
[[no:Honning]]
[[nn:Honning]]
[[oc:Mèl]]
[[pl:Miód]]
[[pt:Mel]]
[[ru:Мёд]]
[[simple:Honey]]
[[sl:Med]]
[[sr:Мед]]
[[fi:Hunaja]]
[[sv:Honung]]
[[ta:தேன்]]
[[tr:Bal]]
[[zh:蜂蜜]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hugh McDuck</title>
<id>14362</id>
<revision>
<id>37486113</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T07:27:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>sequence template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Captain Hugh "Seafoam" McDuck''' is one of [[Walt Disney]]'s [[comic book]] characters. He is one of [[Malcolm McDuck]]'s descendants. He was born in [[Scotland]] in [[1710]]. He settled in [[Glasgow]] in [[1727]] and turned to the sea for a living. He grew successful and obtained his own ship, named "The Golden Goose". He grew wealthy transporting merchandise between [[Britain]] and the [[West Indies]].
In [[1753]] his luck was over. He signed a contract with [[Swindle McSue]] to deliver a chest full of horse radish to [[Jamaica]]. Three weeks later his ship sunk along with the chest before reaching Jamaica. It was sabotaged by Swindle. When Hugh returned to Scotland he found out that his contract had some small print letters that his failing sight didn't allow him to see. The term in small letters said that if Hugh failed to deliver the chest to Jamaica all of his belongings would go to Swindle. Hugh kept just his clothes, his silver watch in his pocket and his golden dentures in his mouth. Swindle wanted them too but Hugh escaped.
The only thing known about his later life is that he died in [[1779]], aged 69. It is presumed he was involved in the [[American Revolutionary War|Anglo-American War]]. His descendants include the brothers [[Quagmire McDuck]] who inherited the silver watch, known by then as "the heirloom watch", and [[Dingus McDuck]].
According to [[Don Rosa]], Seafoam McDuck and Hugh McDuck are the same character; "Seafoam" is just a nickname.
{{sequence|
prev=[[Malcolm McDuck]]|
list=Important members of [[the Clan McDuck]]|
next=[[Dingus McDuck]]
}}
[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|McDuck, Hugh]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|McDuck, Hugh]]
[[Category:Fictional Scots|McDuck, Hugh]]
[[it:Hugh de Paperoni]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Humperdink Duck</title>
<id>14363</id>
<revision>
<id>37223577</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-29T16:07:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>81.228.222.49</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Humperdink Duck''' is a [[fictional character]], presented in [[Walt Disney]]'s [[comic book]]s. He is one of [[Pintail Duck (Disney character)|Pintail Duck]]'s descendants. He was born in the [[United States]]. At some time he moved to [[Duckburg]], [[Calisota]]. He later married [[Elvira Coot]] and started working on her father's farm that later became their own. He became the father of three children:
*[[Quackmore Duck]], born on [[1875]].
*[[Daphne Duck]].
*[[Eider Duck]].
He continued working on his farm at least till the [[1930s]] when he died.
[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Duck, Humperdink]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|Duck, Humperdink]]
[[it:Dabney Duck]]
[[fi:Hepsu Ankka]]
[[sv:Farfar Anka]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Hengest</title>
<id>14365</id>
<revision>
<id>40730520</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T17:02:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ryanmcdaniel</username>
<id>121715</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* In culture */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{selfref|This article is about the ruler of Kent. For the World War II glider, see [[Slingsby Hengist]].}}
'''Hengest''' or '''Hengist''' (d. [[488]]?) was a semi-legendary ruler of [[Kingdom of Kent|Kent]] in southeast [[England]].
The facts of his life are unknown, but according to [[Bede]] (writing nearly 200 years after the events in question), he and his brother [[Horsa]] were [[mercenary|mercenaries]] for the British ruler [[Vortigern]], hired to fight against the [[Picts]]. Following his victories over the Picts, Hengest invited more immigrants from [[Germany]] to settle in [[Britain]] and then rebelled against Vortigern because the Britons refused to make an agreed payment, establishing himself as king in Kent. Both Hengest and Horsa are described as being [[Jutes]], and sons of a Jutish chief named [[Wihtgils]].
The actual historical existence of both Hengest and Horsa has been called into question numerous times, with many historians labeling these two as legendary 'divine twins' or [[culture hero]]es along the order of [[Romulus and Remus|Romulus]] and [[Remus]]. It is perhaps more likely that Hengest, meaning 'Stallion' in [[Old English language|Old English]] (in modern German 'Hengst' is still the word for a stallion), was an honorific for an actual warlord, while Horsa was a later accretion to the story, perhaps as a misreading of a gloss in a manuscript that was written to define the name Hengest as meaning 'horse'.{{Citeneeded}}
Later accounts in the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'', the ''[[Historia Britonum]]'', [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'', and [[Wace]]'s ''[[Roman de Brut]]'' add further details from tradition and legend about Hengest's career. The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' dates his death to 488, but does not provide a cause. According to some tellings of the [[Arthurian legend]], the [[King of the Britons|British king]] [[Uther Pendragon]] killed him.{{Citeneeded}}
==In culture==
''Hengest'' is a character in the ''Fight at Finnsburg'' narrative mentioned in the [[Finnsburg Fragment]] and the ''[[Beowulf]]'' poem. In these texts, Hengest is a [[Daner|Danish]] warrior who takes control of the Danish forces after the prince [[Hnæf]] is killed, and succeeds in killing the [[Frisian]] lord [[Finn (Frisian)|Finn]] in revenge for his lord's death. The events in these accounts had a historical basis, and have been supposed by historians to occur in approximately [[450]] A.D. This makes these events contemporary with the [[Anglo-Saxon]] invasion of England, though what connection (if any) exists between the two Hengests is unknown.
Nevertheless, some have speculated that the two Hengests are one and the same. A point against this theory is the fact that one Hengest is described as a Jute and the other a Dane, though this does not serve as a conclusive disproof, as distinctions between adjacent groups (both Jutes and Danes lived in Denmark) were sometimes vague.
Hengest is also the subject of the [[1620]] play ''Hengist, King of Kent, or The Mayor of Queenborough'' by [[Thomas Middleton]].
==See also==
*[[List of monarchs of Kent]]
==References==
{{Unreferenced}}
# The ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]''
# [[Bede]]'s ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]]''
# The ''[[Historia Britonum]]'', attributed to [[Nennius]]
# [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]''
# [[Wace]]'s ''[[Roman de Brut]]''
{{s-start}}
{{s-new|reason=Conquest}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Kingdom of Kent|K |
] and the [[Society of Inner Light]] of [[Dion Fortune]], continue to exist today. The historical and cultural legacy of the Golden Dawn has been more influential on modern occultism than any other esoteric organization or body of knowledge. Although the original Golden Dawn teachings showed a strong influence of esoteric Christianity, almost every expression of Western occult spirituality and neo-paganism today owes a debt to the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.
===Philosophy===
The primary basis of the Golden Dawn philosophy is an integrated Western Hermeticism, organized into a more or less coherent structure. The Golden Dawn's Hermetic roots came together from the philosophies of the ancient Egyptians and Greeks, with Gnosticism and Neo-Platonism merging in the second and third century; with influence from the Moslem [[Sufi]]s brought to Europe by Crusader orders; the [[Kabbalah|Qabala]] — itself influenced by Neo-Platonism - and alchemy, merging in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The philosophy of the Inner Order, more so than that of the Outer, was also heavily influenced by mystic Christianity and Rosicrucian ideals. By the mid-1800s, the final additions to what we recognize as Western Magic Tradition are complete—the Tarot, Astrology, and [[Talisman]]ic Magic. To this mix the Golden Dawn added [[Enoch]]ian Magic, a system developed in the late 16th century by Dr. [[John Dee]], astrologer and cartographer to Queen Elizabeth I, and the Hindu meditation system of [[Tattvas]], along with the Tantric principles of the [[Chakra]]s.
Before the Golden Dawn, attempts to draw the mass of Western tradition together into a coherent system had been flawed, or incomplete. Barrett and Constant (Levi) had both attempted a system that unified Western tradition. But it would be the Golden Dawn which produced a balanced and harmonious system which included all the disparate elements of Western Esotericism.
At its core, the philosophy of the Golden Dawn is one of perfectible [[humanism]]; that by use of the [[Esotericism|esoteric]] tools and techniques passed down from antiquity, a human being can advance in spiritual knowledge and magical power, and with hard work and discipline, come to control his or her own destiny.
===The Secret Chiefs===
The Order is meant to be the repository of great spiritual knowledge passed down from ancient sources. Though some sources such as [[Imhotep]], [[King Solomon]], [[Hermes Trismegistus]] and [[Christian Rosenkreuz|Christian Rosenkreutz]] are part of the [[legend]]ary history of the Order; the original founders (in particular Mathers) expounded a doctrine of "The Secret Chiefs", who collectively represented the "Third" or highest Order of the Western Magical tradition. Mathers declared these Chiefs of the Order were living human beings, or perhaps "evolved" human beings, that possessed the secrets of immortality, omniscience, and superhuman magical powers. He claimed to be in personal contact with certain of these Chiefs, and based his authority as the indisputable leader of the Order on instructions supposedly handed down from them.
Other Golden Dawn Lodges and Adepts also claimed to be "in contact" with Secret Chiefs, and the original schisms of the Golden Dawn can almost be seen as various "Chiefs" issuing conflicting orders to their contacts. Mathers claimed that he actually met Chiefs in person and that they had physical bodies. Florence Farr believed herself to have psychically contacted a Chief, in a manner similar to what is now called "channeling", and was even authorized by Mathers in 1897 to form a working group, "The Sphere Group", to make further contact with this Chief. Aleister Crowley claimed that a spiritual entity named "Aiwass", who was a Secret Chief, dictated to him in 1904 the ''[[Book of the Law]]'' which was to be the basis of a new Hermetic philosophy. Another faction led by F.W. Felkin, moved their Temple to New Zealand to await the physical arrival of their Chief, who unfortunately never showed up. Generally, each faction refused to acknowledge the authority of another faction's contact with a "Secret Chief."
Many Golden Dawn practitioners today believe that the Secret Chiefs are not necessarily living humans or supernatural beings, but are the symbolic "current" of all the actual and legendary sources of spiritual [[esotericism]]. Any great leader or teacher of a spiritual path or practice that found its way into the teachings of the Order -- and that definition covers a wide range, from paganism to [[Buddhism]] to [[Judeo-Christian|Judeo-Christianity]] -- can be considered as a Secret Chief of the Golden Dawn. They are "secret" not by virtue of being unknown to the outside world, but rather that their knowledge has found its way into the "secrets" of the Order. Their teachings are "secret" because they can only be fully understood by someone who embarks on the path of spiritual advancement and attains Adepthood.
===The Structure of the Order===
The Golden Dawn follows a "fraternal lodge" model similar to [[freemasonry]], with titles, degrees and initiations. The Order purports to be a [[meritocracy]], with advancement based on tests of knowledge and demonstration of skills.
In the Outer Order, both the layout of the Temple and the functions of Officers seem to closely mirror those of the [[Blue Lodge|Blue Lodge of Masonry]]. The names of the Grades, or degrees of initiation, as well as the titles bestowed upon initiates, were taken from old sources such as the German Masonic "Gold und Rosen-kreutzers", and Pianco's 1781 book, ''Der Rosenkreutzer in seiner Blosse''. In the Inner Order, the Rosicrucian drama enacted in the initiation rituals is reminiscent of that in the "Rose Croix" degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry, and is certainly related to the ceremonies of the S.R.I.A. The Grades in the Golden Dawn are based on the symbolism of the Qabalistic Tree of Life.
====The Grades of the Golden Dawn====
''First Order:''
*Introduction—Neophyte 0=0
*Zelator 1=10
*Theoricus 2=9
*Pracitcus 3=8
*Philosophus 4=7
''Second Order:''
*Intermediate—Portal Grade
*Adeptus Minorus 5=6
*Adeptus Majorus 6=5
*Adeptus Exemptus 7=4
''Third Order:''
*Magister Templi 8=3
*Magus 9=2
*Ipsissimus 10=1
The paired numbers attached to the Grades relate to positions on the Tree of Life. The Neophyte Grade of "0=0" indicates no position on the Tree. For the others, the first numeral is the number of steps up from the bottom (Malkuth), and the second numeral is the number of steps down from the top (Kether).
The First Order Grades are related to the four Classical Elements of Earth, Air, Water and Fire, respectively. The Aspirant to a Grade receives instruction on the metaphysical meaning of each of these Elements, and must pass a written examination and demonstrate certain skills to receive Admission to that Grade.
The Portal Grade is the initiation for admittance to the Second Order. In most Lodges, the Circle of existing Adepts must consent to allow an Aspirant to join the Second Order.
The Second Order is not, properly, part of the "Golden Dawn", but a separate Order in its own right, known as the R.R. et A.C. The Second Order directed the teachings of the First Order, and was the governing force behind the First Order.
After passing the Portal, the Aspirant begins to be instructed in the techniques of practical Magic. When another examination is passed, and the other Adepts consent, the Aspirant attains the Grade of Adeptus Minor 5=6. (In the original Order, there were four sub-Grades of instruction for the Adeptus Minor, again relating to the four Outer Order grades.)
A member of the Second Order has the power and authority to initiate aspirants to the First Order, though usually not without the permission of the Chiefs of his or her Lodge.
===Light in Extension===
The original Golden Dawn left behind a legacy that continues to inspire students of the esoteric arts to this day. Modern neo-pagan practices such as "circle casting", use of the pentagram, hexagram and other geometric forms as sacred symbols, "out-of-body" experiences, the Tarot cards, talismans, astrology and many others, can find their roots in the Golden Dawn. While the Order may not have originated all these forms, they synthesized them into a coherent body of work that continues to appeal to occultists and esoteric scholars more than 100 years later. The Light of the Golden Dawn continues to be extended to this day.
''"Let us work, therefore, my brethren, and effect righteousness, because the Night cometh when no man shall labour... May the Light which is behind the Veil shine through you from your Throne in the East on the Fratres and Sorores of the Order and lead them to the perfect day, when the glory of this world passes and a great Light shines over the splendid sea."'' -- S.L. MacGregor Mathers
==Notes==
*{{fnb|1}} Golden Dawn researcher R.A. Gilbert has found evidence which suggests that Westcott was instrumental in developing the Order's rituals from the Cipher Manuscript. See Gilbert's article, ''From Cipher to Enigma: The Role of William Wynn Westcott in the Creation of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn'', from Carroll Runyon's book ''Secrets of the Golden Dawn Cypher Manuscripts''
==See also==
*[[Argentinum Astrum]] (A.A.)
*[[Hermeticism]]
*[[Magic (paranormal)]]
*[[Tattva vision]]
==References==
* Colquhoun, Ithell. ''Sword of Wisdom: Macgregor Mathers and the Golden Dawn''. (Neville Spearman, [[1975]]) ISBN 0854350926.
* Greer, Mary K. ''Women of the Golden Dawn''. (Park Street, [[1994]]) ISBN 0892815167.
* Gilbert, Robert A. ''The Golden Dawn: Twilight of the Magicians''. The Aquarian Press, [[1983]]. ISBN 0850302781.
* Gilbert, |
] visited Gibraltar, which angered [[Francisco Franco|General Franco]], who renewed its [[Disputed status of Gibraltar|claim]] to sovereignty, which had not been actively pursued for over 150 years. This led to the closure of the Spanish [[consulate]] and to the imposition of restrictions on freedom of movement between Gibraltar and Spain. By the 1960s, motor vehicles were being restricted or banned from crossing the border, while only Spanish nationals employed on the Rock being allowed to enter Gibraltar. For about 30 years, the land border was closed (from the Spanish side), to try to isolate the territory.
*1955 - Spain joined [[United Nations]].
:At the United Nations, Spain reactivated its claim, arguing that the principle of [[Territorial integrity|territorial integrity]], not [[Self-determination|self-determination]], applied in the case of the decolonization of Gibraltar, and that the United Kingdom should cede sovereignty of the Rock to Spain (what the Spanish Government named "retrocession"). Madrid gained diplomatic support from countries in [[Latin America]], with the [[UN General Assembly]] passing resolutions (2231 (XXI), "Question of Gibraltar" {{ref|un2231}} and 2353 (XXII), "Question of Gibraltar" {{ref|un2353}}) urging United Kingdom and Spain to overcome their differences, respecting the "interests" of the people of Gibraltar. The latter resolution, which explicitly accepts the Spanish position on the territorial integrity, was supported by 73 countries (mainly Latin American, Arab, African and Easter European countries), rejected by 19 (United Kingdom and the countries of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]]), while 27 countries abstained (Western Europe and the United States). For its part, United Kingdom stated that it would respect the "wishes" of the people of Gibraltar, and that there would be no change of sovereignty against their democratically expressed wishes. Resolution 2353 keeps on being the official position of the United Nations on the "question of Gibraltar", since no new resolution has been issued on the question since then.
:A group of six Gibraltarian lawyers and businessmen, calling themselves ''palomos'' or 'doves', advocated a political settlement with Spain {{ref|incipe}} in a letter published in the ''Gibraltar Chronicle'', and met with Spanish Foreign Office officials (a meeting was even held with the very Spanish Foreign Office Minister) to try and bring this about {{ref|Jackson4}}. This provoked widespread public hostility in Gibraltar (with attacks to their homes and properties {{ref|doves}} and civil unrest). Even now, the 'doves' have not been "forgiven" and are still called traitors.
*1965 April - The British Government published a White Paper dealing with the question of Gibraltar and the Treaty of Utrecht.
*1966 - In response, the Spanish Foreign Office Minister [[Fernando Castiella]], published and presented to the Spanish Courts the "Spanish Red Book" (named so because of its cover; its reference is "Negociaciones sobre Gibraltar. Documentos presentados a las Cortes Españolas por el Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores", Madrid, 1967)
*1967 - A [[referendum]] was held on [[10 September]], in which Gibraltar's voters were asked whether they wished to either pass under Spanish sovereignty, or remain under British sovereignty, with institutions of self-government.
: The Spanish claim had little chance of being accepted by Gibraltarians, even having promised that Gibraltarians could keep their British citizenship and the town would retain a special status within Spain. At that time, such a claim was being made by an extreme right-wing dictatorship which had arisen from a bloody civil war (neutral but aligned with the [[Axis Powers]] in the Second World War) which did not allow its own citizens the civil liberties that the British government guaranteed to the Gibraltarians. Furthermore, the Spanish economy, though beginning to grow, was still very backward (especially compared to the living standard the Gibraltarians had achieved), while at the same time working class people across the frontier were living in a state of great poverty. The idea of Spain participating in any way the sovereignty of the Rock was (and remains) unacceptable to Gibraltarian public opinion.
: Not surprisingly, Gibraltarians ignored Spanish pressure and voted overwhelmingly by 12,138 to 44 to remain under British sovereignty. Although the Spanish government got a diplomatic triumph in the United Nations (since the resolution 2353 states that ''the holding of the referendum [...] to be a contravention of the provisions of General Assembly resolution 2231 (XXI)''), it had no effect in the political evolution of Gibraltar.
: Another result of the Spanish campaign was the emergence of a movement for the integration of Gibraltar with the United Kingdom. In February, the [[Integration with Britain Party]], hitherto a “pressure group”, formed itself into a political party under the leadership of [[Bob Peliza]].
*1969 [[May 30]] - A new constitution for Gibraltar was introduced by the United Kingdom Parliament, under the initiative of the British Government (Gibraltar Constitutional Order, of [[30 May]] [[1969]]). Under it, Gibraltar attained full internal self-government, with an elected House of Assembly. The preamble to the Constitution stated that:
:''"Her Majesty's Government will never enter into arrangements under which the people of Gibraltar would pass under the sovereignty of another state against their freely and democratically expressed wishes."''
*[[1969]] [[June 8]] - In response, Spain closed the border with Gibraltar, and severed all communication links. The closure affected both sides of the border. Gibraltarians with families in Spain had to go by ferry to [[Tangier]], [[Morocco]], and from there to the Spanish port of [[Algeciras]], while many Spanish workers (by then about 4,800; sixteen years before, about 12,500 Spanish workmen entered Gibraltar every day {{ref|spaniards}}{{ref|Jackson5}}) lost their jobs in Gibraltar.
: The closing of the border was a severe shock for the Gibraltarians, who became aware that across the frontier there was a hostile and threatening foreign power. The closure of the fence would last thirteen years and was considered the Gibraltarians as the last in a series of sieges held by Spain to attempt to secure the surrender of the town.
*1969 - Major [[Robert Peliza|Robert (later Sir Robert) Peliza]] of the [[Integration with Britain Party]] (IWBP) was elected Chief Minister.
*1972 - Joshua Hassan of the [[Association for the Advancement of Civil Rights]] (AACR) was returned to power.
*1973 - Gibraltar joined the [[European Economic Community]] alongside the United Kingdom.
*1975 - The British [[Foreign Office]] Minister [[Roy Hattersley]] ruled out integration with the UK, and stated that any constitutional change would have to involve a 'Spanish dimension'. This position was reaffirmed the following year when the British government rejected the House of Assembly's proposals for constitutional reform. The IWBP broke up and was succeeded by the Democratic Party of British Gibraltar (DPBG), led first by Maurice Xiberras, formerly of the IWBP, and subsequently by Peter Isola.
*1975 - Spanish dictator General [[Francisco Franco]] died, but this situation with regard to Gibraltar remained unchanged, with the border not partially reopened until 1982 (fully in 1985).
*[[1980]] [[July]] - The new Anglican [[Diocese of Europe]] was formed, with the former Diocese of Gibraltar and the Jurisdiction of North and Central Europe. The new diocese became the 44th Diocese of the Church of England. Gibraltar's Holy Trinity Church was consecrated as diocese Cathedral.
*1981 - The [[British Nationality Act 1981]] effectively made Gibraltar a ''Dependent Territory'' and removed the right of entry into the UK of British Dependent Territory Citizens. After a short campaign Gibraltarians were offered full British citizenship. The act was ratified in 1983.
*[[1982]] [[December 15]] - The re-opening of the border was delayed in the wake of the war between United Kingdom and [[Argentina]] over the [[Falkland Islands]]. The re-opening was only partial, as only pedestrians, resident in Gibraltar or Spanish nationals were allowed to cross the border by Spain. Only one visit a day was allowed.
*1984 - Spain sought to join the [[European Communities]] (it did it in 1986). Under the Brussels Agreement {{ref|brussels}} ([[27 November]] [[1984]]) signed between the governments of the United Kingdom and Spain, the former agreed to enter into discussions with Spain over Gibraltar, including sovereignty. The border was fully reopened.
*[[1987]] [[December 2]] - A proposal for joint control of Gibraltar's airport with Spain {{ref|airport}} led to widespread opposition locally. Chief Minister Sir Joshua Hassan resigned at the end of that year, to be succeeded by [[Adolfo Canepa]].
*1988 - [[Gibraltar Socialist Labour Party]] (GSLP) leader [[Joe Bossano]] was elected as Chief Minister, and firmly ruled out any discussions with Spain over sovereignty.
*1988 - The [[Special Air Service]] of the [[British Army]] shot dead three unarmed members of the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] walking towards the frontier, claiming they were making "suspicious movements". A subsequent search led to the discovery of a car containing a large amount of [[Semtex]] explosive in Spain, which they had planned to use to bomb the 'Changing of the Guard' ceremony a few days later.
*1996 - In an election, [[Joe Bossano]] was replaced by [[Peter Caruana]] of the [[Gibraltar Social-Democrats]] (GSD), who while favouring dialogue with Spain, also ruled out any deals on sovereignty.
*1991 - The [[British Army]] effectively withdrew from Gibraltar, leaving only the locally recruited [[R |
&mdash; discussed later) show that Native American Indians are primarily descendants of East Asians and they conclude that the hemispheric model is incorrect.
The locations of the cities mentioned in the ''Book of Mormon'' are not identifiable. Several groups of Mormon apologists (including FAIR and FARMS) have proposed that the city [[Zarahemla]] is located somewhere within [[Central America]] because of the description given in [http://scriptures.lds.org/alma/22/27#27 Alma 22:27]. This approach, often referred to as the "Limited Geography Model," argues for a more limited view of the Book of Mormon, suggesting that the book is a history of only a small group of Native Americans in [[Central America]]. This theory, presented by Joseph Smith and others as early as 1842, has been gaining substantial support recently because it more accurately represents the descriptions given within the text itself. For instance, the populations and civilizations described in the Book of Mormon were too small to fill entire continents; moreover, there is much evidence that one common assumption of the past (that Book of Mormon civilizations were alone in America) is probably incorrect.
===Critics' views===
Some Mormon and non-Mormon scholars claim to have found [[archaeology|archaeological]], cultural and [[linguistics|linguistic]] evidence that the book was an ancient record, these conclusions however are not accepted by the majority of scholars. These scholars point to the available history of the four major civilizations in Meso-America in the Book of Mormon time period ([[Maya]], [[Mixtec]], [[Zapotec]] and [[Aztec]]) where there is archaeological data and some recorded history. Each of these was very advanced in language, writing, mathematics and astronomy. Furthermore, ample evidence has been uncovered of the types of plants, animals and implements available to the early inhabitants. The Book of Mormon clearly makes multiple reference to plants and animals, many of which do not match the time period.
====Some Logical Errors used in arguments====
Critics argue that the Book of Mormon itself contains logical inconsistencies. The two most often discussed relate to poor wording and to the plants, animals and implements mentioned in the Book of Mormon. As with most religious arguments, these arguments will never reach a satisfactory agreement between both parties, and both are presented here for your consideration.
Further arguments can be inspected online from [http://www.utlm.org/ Utah Lighthouse Ministries] - a group critical of Mormonism.
====="Poor Choice of Wording"=====
A defensive argument offered is that the authors and/or translator(s) of the Book of Mormon used the wrong words to describe unfamiliar items. Critics argue that the language used in the Book of Mormon is reminiscent of the 1611 King James Version of the Bible rather than the English of the time. It is also argued that there is a logical fallacy in that the seer stones used to translate the Book of Mormon should have avoided such poor choices in words and that the defense to this argument, that Joseph Smith was the "weak link" in the translation chain destroys the infallibility of the prophet.
Members of the church argue against this, stating that the Book of Mormon is translation literature, and Joseph Smith was inspired to write in words and a format he was used to, (since revelation comes to your mind and then the Holy Ghost manifests the truth of the thing to you) which happened to be the King James Version of the Bible. It is also argued that the very few examples of poor wording are said to be spurious at best. Furthermore, it is argued that Joseph Smith was never held up to be infallible: just as Jonah ran away from his preaching duties, while being referred to as a prophet in the Bible, Joseph Smith was subject to all the faults of men.
====="Plants and animals" [http://www.infidels.org/news/atheism/logic.html 1]=====
Critics of the church state that there is no evidence of these plants, animals or implements found, therefore disproving the Book of Mormon.
It is argued that this statement falls into a logical fallacy known as ''argumentum ad ignorantiam'' (argument from ignorance) and takes form as either one of the following cases:
*'B' has not been proven false, therefore 'B' is true. or
*'B' has not been proven true, therefore 'B' is false.
Simply noting the wording used in the book versus what has been uncovered in digs, does not suffice as proof. As is well proven in other sections, much of Meso-America has an unbroken archaeological record, and some advanced written history, mathematics and astronomy. The Mayan civilization, for example, was in many ways more advanced than any old world civilization &#8212; including the travellers.
If the Book of Mormon is based on historical fact, then the plants, animals and implements would have had to have been introduced, lost, and then re-introduced after the "re-discovery" of the new world by the Spaniards. To avoid the pitfalls of the aforementioned logical fallacy, the petitioner must rely on the unbroken archeological record. Since the record is regarded as being complete and descriptive as to exposing the plants, animals and implements of the time, the fact that the introduction, loss and re-introduction is missing makes the case that those three actions did not take place &#8212; one need not worry about the fate of individual items. The Book of Mormon covers perhaps less than 2 millennia. The Meso-American record dates as far back as 30,000 years.
To learn more about logical fallacies, read the section on [[Logical Fallacy]].
====Native American Language====
Another argument deals with the language to have been used by the indigenous inhabitants of the new world. Most Mormon and non-Mormon scholars believe that other groups of people lived in the ancient Americas. It was commonplace in 1800's America for people to assume the strange tongues spoken by the inhabitants were related to someting equally cryptic: Hebrew. Here is a [http://www.utlm.org/onlineresources/bomindianorigins.htm link] to a website that lists in compact form 30 books written prior to 1830 which advanced this theory to early 1800's America. It is conceivably an easy theory to accept, as the spoken Native languages are not related to languages in Europe or Asia. For further explanation, visit the following link from Indiana University: [http://www.cogsci.indiana.edu/farg/rehling/nativeAm/ling.html Native American Languages] and for more on the structure and syntax, visit this link: [http://www.indians.org/welker/americas.htm Native American Syntax] It is important to mention that expatriated Hebrew-speaking Jews do not typically speak Hebrew outside of closed groups or religious ceremonies. Reasons given for this have typically centered around the persecution Jews have received over the millennia. Most are at the very least bi-lingual and engage others in the local language. Therefore, exposure to Hebrew as a conversational language in 1800's America would have been quite rare.
Evidence has been provided that many native inhabitants migrated south from the Siberian-Alaskan entry point over roughly 30,000 years. The groups became fractured enough to develop similarly derived, but differently practiced cultures. In addition, the evidence of Atlantic travel to the Americas with groups, such as the [[Olmecs]], may have introduced African and other language and cultural traits to the Americas. In terms of evidence of advanced thinking, Meso-American cultures developed written language roughly the same time the ancestors of Europe did, yet with no demonstrable connection. This is not to say they were alone; the [[Iroquois]] of North America also had advanced writing and language, different yet again. In line with the argument offered in this section, the Hebrew and Egyptian languages at the time of the arrival of the travellers were both quite advanced. To accept that the Book of Mormon is fact, one would have to accept that a culture and its descendants ''lost'' knowledge and ability, or accept they and their culture were destroyed by the Lamanites as stated by the Book of Mormon.
====LDS Funded Archeology====
<!--Section needs citation clean-up-in progress-->
Returning to the arguments concerning archeological findings, it is incorrect to assume that the LDS has never tried to prove the historicity. In 1951 Thomas Ferguson, a devoted LDS member, petitioned Mormon President David O. McKay to financially back the founding of the ''New World Archeological Foundation'' (hereafter NWAF). Ferguson requested at first a 5 year funding grant to dig throughout Meso-America for evidence of the veracity of the Book of Mormon claims. His persistence paid off and the first five years were funded from 1955 to 1959. At the end of this period, additional funding was granted and continues to this day.
In a 1961 newsletter Ferguson predicted that although nothing had been found, the Book of Mormon cities would be found in 10 years. Eleven years later in 1972 LDS member Hal Hougey wrote Ferguson questioning the progress given the stated timetable in which the cities would be found. Replying to Hougey as well as secular and non-secular requests, Ferguson wrote in a letter dated [[5 June]] [[1972]]: "Ten years have passed... I had sincerely hoped that Book-of-Mormon''(sic)'' cities would be positively identified within 10 years &mdash; and time has proved me wrong in my anticipation." To date, the NWAF has been continuously unlucky. However, given the light of the logical fallacy presented earlier, this is not a proper argument that the Book of Mormon is false or true.
During the period of 1959-1961, NWAF colleague '''Dee Green''' was editor of the ''BYU Archeological Society Newsletter'' and had an article from it |
uage. See [[Monotonic orthography]] for the simplified modern set, and [[Polytonic orthography]] for the traditional set.
==Examples==
===Some common words and phrases===
*Greek (man): Έλληνας, IPA /{{IPA|ˈe̞liˌnas}}/
*Greek (woman): Ελληνίδα /{{IPA|ˌe̞liˈniða}}/
*Greek (language): Ελληνικά /{{IPA|e̞ˌliniˈka}}/
*hello: γεια /{{IPA|ʝa}}/ (informal, literally "health"), you say this only to people that you know well. When you address a stranger you should use the more formal "good morning": καλημέρα /{{IPA|ˌkaliˈmɛɾa}}/
*good-bye: αντίο /{{IPA|aˈdiˌo̞}}/ (formal), γεια /{{IPA|ʝa}}/ (informal)
*please: παρακαλώ /{{IPA|paˌɾakaˈlo̞}}/
*I would like ____ please: θα ήθελα ____ παρακαλώ /{{IPA|θa ˈiθe̞ˌla ____ paˌɾakaˈlo̞}}/
*sorry: συγγνώμη /{{IPA|ˌsiˈɣno̞mi}}/
*thank you: ευχαριστώ /{{IPA|e̞ˌfxaɾiˈsto̞}}/
*that/this: αυτό /{{IPA|ˌaˈfto̞}}/
*how much?: πόσο; /{{IPA|ˈpo̞ˌso̞}}/
*how much does it cost?: πόσο κοστίζει; /{{IPA|ˈpo̞ˌso̞ ˌko̞ˈstizi}}/
*yes: ναι /{{IPA|ne̞}}/
*no: όχι /{{IPA|ˈo̞ˌçi}}/
*I don't understand: δεν καταλαβαίνω /{{IPA|ðe̞ŋ gaˌtalaˈve̞no̞}}/ (''[[sandhi]]'' - see above) or /{{IPA|ðe̞ŋ kaˌtalaˈve̞no̞}}/
*I don't know: δεν ξέρω /{{IPA|ðe̞ŋ ˈgze̞ˌɾo̞}}/ (''[[sandhi]]'' - see above) or /{{IPA|ðe̞ŋ ˈkse̞ˌɾo̞}}/
*where's the bathroom?: πού είναι η τουαλέτα; /{{IPA|pu ˈiˌne̞ i ˌtuaˈlɛta}}/
*generic toast: εις υγείαν! /{{IPA|is iˈʝiˌan}}/
*juice: χυμός /{{IPA|ˌçiˈmo̞s}}/
*water: νερό /{{IPA|ˌne̞ˈɾo̞}}/
*wine: κρασί /{{IPA|ˌkɾaˈsi}}/
*beer: μπύρα /{{IPA|ˈbiˌɾa}}/
*milk: γάλα /{{IPA|ˈɣaˌla}}/
*Do you speak English?: Μιλάτε Αγγλικά; /{{IPA|miˈlaˌte̞ ˌaŋgliˈka}}/
*I love you: σ’ αγαπώ /{{IPA|ˌsaɣaˈpo̞}}/
*Help!: Βοήθεια! /{{IPA|vo̞ˈiθiˌa}}/
==References==
*Herbert Weir Smyth, ''Greek Grammar'', Harvard University Press, 1956 (revised edition), ISBN 0674362500. The standard grammar of ''classical'' Greek.
*W. Sidney Allen, ''Vox Graeca - a guide to the pronunciation of classical Greek''. Cambridge University Press, 1968-74. ISBN 052120626X
*Geoffrey Horrocks, ''Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers'' (Longman Linguistics Library). Addison Wesley Publishing Company, 1997. ISBN 0582307090. From Mycenean to modern.
*Robert Browning, ''Medieval and Modern Greek'', Cambridge University Press, 2nd edition 1983, ISBN: 0521299780.
*Brian Newton, ''The Generative Interpretation of Dialect: A Study of Modern Greek Phonology'', Cambridge University Press, 1972, ISBN 0521084970.
*Crosby and Schaeffer, ''An Introduction to Greek'', Allyn and Bacon, Inc. 1928. A school grammar of anchient Greek
*David Holton ''et al.'', ''Greek: A Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Language'', Routledge, 1997, ISBN: 041510002X. A reference grammar of ''modern'' Greek.
*Dionysius of Thrace, [http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/graeca/Chronologia/S_ante02/DionysiosThrax/dio_tech.html "Art of Grammar"], "Τέχνη γραμματική", c.100 BC
==See also==
*[[List of Greek words with English derivatives]]
*[[Greek dialects]]
*[[Greeklish]]
==External links==
===General background===
{{InterWiki|code=el}}
{{Wikibookspar||Modern Greek}}
*[http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~bjoseph/articles/gmodern.htm Modern Greek], ''Encyclopedia of the World's Major Languages'', Brian Joseph
*[http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~bjoseph/articles/gancient.htm Ancient Greek], ''Encyclopedia of the World's Major Languages'', Brian Joseph
*[http://www.bartleby.com/65/gr/Greeklan.html Greek Language], Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia.
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus Project] has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including dictionaries.
*[http://greek-language.com The Greek Language and Linguistics Gateway] Useful information on the history of the Greek language, application of modern Linguistics to the study of Greek, and tools for learning Greek.
===Language learning===
*[http://zeus.pi-schools.gr/dimotiko/ Online pdf versions of the books used in Elementary School. Useful for beginners]
*[http://www.explorecrete.com/various/greek-numbers.htm Learn how to count in Greek]
*[http://www.explorecrete.com/various/Greek-Alphabet.htm Flash presentation with the sound of the letters of the Greek Alphabet]
*[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/gr.htm Free online resources for learners (both Ancient and Modern Greek)]
*[http://www.explorecrete.com/various/greek-language.htm Learn basic Greek words and phrases] and the speeches of Xenophon Zolotas, Dr. Soukakos, Athnassopoulos and Kalaras
*[http://www.xanthi.ilsp.gr/filog/ Learn Greek - Official site of the Greek Institute of language and speech processing]
*[http://didymos.kypros.org/LearnGreek/ Learn Greek Online], free modern Greek course with realaudio files.
*[http://www.applelanguages.com/en/learn/greek.php Greek courses]
*[http://www.textkit.com/ Learn Ancient Greek] at Textkit. Free downloadable Ancient Greek grammars and readers.
==Literature==
*[http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/NewLiteratur/Literature.htm Page about modern Greek Literature]
===Typography===
*[http://www.ecclesia.gr/greek/help.htm#english Athena], [[public domain]] [[Polytonic orthography|polytonic]] Greek [[typeface|font]]
*[http://www.sil.org/~gaultney/gentium/ Gentium &mdash; a typeface for the nations], a freely available font including polytonic Greek support
*[http://www.lorem-ipsum.info/_greek Generator for Greek typographical filler text]
===Lexica===
*[http://www.translatum.gr Translatum - The Greek Translation Vortal]. An extended list of searchable and downloadable Greek dictionaries.
*[http://www.kypros.org/cgi-bin/lexicon Modern Greek&ndash;English, English&ndash;Modern Greek dictionary]. (Basic dictionary)
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/resolveform Ancient Greek Dictionary], the complete Liddell-Scott dictionary, including search within English definitions.
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Greek-english/ Greek&ndash;English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition.
*[http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/Woodhouse/ Woodhouse English-Greek dictionary], scanned images from S.C. Woodhouse's 1910 dictionary.
===Spell checkers===
*[http://www.phigita.net/spell-check/ Greek Spell Checker] helps ensure correct spelling.
==Special characters==
{{SpecialChars}}
{{Official EU languages}}
[[Category:Greek letters]]
[[Category:Hellenic languages and dialects|*]]
[[Category:Languages of Albania]]
[[Category:Languages of Cyprus]]
[[Category:Languages of Egypt]]
[[Category:Languages of Georgia]]
[[Category:Languages of Greece]]
[[Category:Languages of Ukraine]]
[[Category:Languages of Turkey]]
[[Category:Languages of Italy]]
[[Category:Fusional languages]]
[[Category:Ancient languages]]
[[af:Grieks (taal)]]
[[als:Griechische Sprache]]
[[ar:لغة يونانية]]
[[ast:Griegu]]
[[bg:Гръцки език]]
[[be:Грэцкая мова]]
[[br:Gresianeg]]
[[ca:Grec]]
[[cs:Řečtina]]
[[da:Græsk (sprog)]]
[[de:Griechische Sprache]]
[[et:Kreeka keel]]
[[el:Ελληνική γλώσσα]]
[[es:Idioma griego]]
[[eo:Greka lingvo]]
[[eu:Greko]]
[[fr:Grec]]
[[ga:Gréigis]]
[[gl:Grego antigo]]
[[ko:그리스어]]
[[id:Bahasa Yunani]]
[[ia:Lingua grec]]
[[is:Gríska]]
[[it:Lingua greca]]
[[he:יוונית]]
[[ka:ბერძნული ენა]]
[[kw:Grew]]
[[la:Lingua Graeca]]
[[lv:Jaungrieķu valoda]]
[[lt:Graikų kalba]]
[[lb:Griichesch]]
[[li:Nuigrieks]]
[[hu:Görög nyelv]]
[[mk:Грчки јазик]]
[[ms:Bahasa Greek]]
[[nl:Grieks]]
[[nds:Greeksche Spraak]]
[[ja:ギリシア語]]
[[no:Gresk språk]]
[[nn:Gresk språk]]
[[oc:Grègo]]
[[pl:Język grecki]]
[[pt:Língua grega]]
[[ro:Limba greacă]]
[[ru:Греческий язык]]
[[simple:Greek language]]
[[sl:Grščina]]
[[sr:Грчки језик]]
[[tr:Yunanca]]
[[fi:Kreikan kieli]]
[[sv:Grekiska]]
[[tl:Wikang Griyego]]
[[th:ภาษากรีก]]
[[vi:Tiếng Hy Lạp]]
[[zh:希腊语]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Golem</title>
<id>11888</id>
<revision>
<id>41395072</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T01:18:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ashmoo</username>
<id>194089</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Books, films and TV */ Pls only include details that are relevant to the golem.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|[[Golem (ILP)|Golem]] is also the name of an [[inductive logic programming]] system. [[Golem (Pokémon)|Golem]] is also a rock-type [[Pokémon]]. }}
In [[Jewish folklore]], a '''golem''' (גולם, sometimes [as in Yiddish] pronounced ''goilem'') is an animated being which is crafted from inanimate material. In modern [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] the word ''golem'' denotes "fool", "silly", or even "stupid", "clue-less", and "dumb", and literally means "cocoon". The name appears to derive from the word ''gelem'' (גלם), which means "raw material".
==History==
===Origins of the word===
The word ''golem'' is used in the [[Bible]] to refer to an embryonic or incomplete substance: [[Psalms|Psalm]] 139:16 uses the word "<b>g</b>a<b>l</b>'<b>m</b>i", meaning "my unshaped form" (in Hebrew, root words are defined by sequences of consonants, ie. <b>glm</b>). The [[Mishnah]] uses the term for an uncultivated person ("Ten characteristics are in a learned person, and ten in an uncultivated one", [[Pirkei Avoth]] 5:7). Similarly, Golems are used today primarily in [[metaphor]] either as brainless lunks or as entities serving man under controlled conditions but enemies in others. Similarly, it is a [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] slang insult for someone who is clumsy or slow.
===Earliest stories===
The earliest stories of golems date to early Judaism. [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] is described in the Talmud (Tractate [[Sanhedrin]] 38b) as initially created as a golem when his dust was "kneaded into a shapeless hunk". Like Adam (whose name literally means "red [clay],") all golems are created from [[mud]]. The |
urrency for 700 years, only gradually being superseded by [[Italian]] currencies (particularly that of Venice) after [[1204]]. The wealth of the empire was unmatched by any state in [[Europe]], and its capital was one of the wealthiest cities in the world. This economic wealth was helped enormously by the fact that Byzantium was the most important western terminal of the [[Silk Road]]. It was also the single most important commercial center of Europe for much of the Medieval era, which status it held until Venice began to overtake Constantinople during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries .
The economic foundation of the empire was trade. Constantinople was located on important east-west and north-south trade routes. Trebizond was an important port in the eastern trade. The exact routes varied over the years with wars and the political situation. Imports and exports were uniformly taxed at ten percent.
Raw silk was bought from China and India and made up into fine brocades and cloth-of-gold that commanded high prices through the world. Silk processing was an imperial monopoly, only processed in imperial factories, and sold to authorized buyers. Later, silk worms were smuggled into the Empire and the overland silk trade became less important. Other exports included gold jewelry, enameled work, and fine carvings in ivory and semi-precious stone. In other parts of the empire, wine was made and exported to the north. Furs, slaves, timber, metals, and amber were imported from the north, and dried fish from the south.
Commercial life in the Byzantine empire was extensively and minutely regulated by the state. Interest rates, profits, and prices were set by law, and enforced through a system of guilds. There was always full employment: It was very difficult to fire an employee, and any able-bodied man who was "idle" was required to take a public-works job.
The sack of Constantinople by Latin crusaders in 1204 was an economic catastrophe. As one [[Crusader]], [[Geoffrey of Villehardouin]], wrote of the sack of the Byzantine Capital in 1204,
"... Never, since the world was created, had so much booty been won in any city."
By the early thirteenth century, the Crusaders had altered the trade routes to the advantage of the Italian city-states. Although the Palaeologues took back Constantinople in [[1261]], the empire's economy never entirely recovered. Territorial gains by the Turks in Asia Minor forced Constantinople to look elsewhere for its food supply. For political and military reasons the weakened empire was forced to grant concessions to Italian traders, reducing tax revenues. Furthermore, the Italians had acquired silk worms, reducing the value of the imperial monopoly. For the last two centuries of its existence, the ever declining territories and revenues of the Byzantine Empire were never enough to pay for the cost of its defence. This situation greatly contributed to the eventual collapse of the empire.
===Science and law===
:''See also [[Byzantine medicine]]'' and ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis|Byzantine Law]]''
Byzantium played an important role in the transmission of classical knowledge to the Islamic world and to [[Renaissance Italy]]. Its rich historiographical tradition preserved ancient knowledge upon which splendid art, architecture, literature and technological achievements were built. It is not an altogether unfounded assumption that the Renaissance could not have flourished were it not for the groundwork laid in Byzantium, and the flock of Greek scholars to the West after the fall of the Empire.
In regards to [[The Rule of Law]], The Emperor Justinian's formation of a new code of Law, or [[Corpus Juris Civilis]] and the revisions it constantly underwent (most notably in the Macedonian Dynasty), had a clear effect on the evolution of Law as a Science. The Codex itself compiled all previous 'Statutes' of Roman Emperors, paved the way for a more developed system of Appeals Courts and a system of [[Maritime Law]] that we can still see the influence of today. In this Byzantium contributed towards the evolution of Law as a Science that arguably has had a greater effect upon legal systems of today than its direct predecessor, [[Roman Law]].
===Religion===
The Byzantine Empire was the empire that introduced the widespread adoption of Christianity to Europe — arguably one of the central aspects of a modern Europe’s identity. This is embodied in the Byzantine version of Christianity, which spread Orthodoxy and eventually led to the creation of the so-called "[[Byzantine commonwealth]]" (a term coined by 20th-century historians) throughout Eastern Europe. Early Byzantine missionary work spread [[Orthodox Christianity]] to various [[Slavic peoples]], where it still predominates, especially in today's [[Bulgaria]], (fY) [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Russia]], [[Serbia]] and [[Ukraine]]; of course, it has also remained the religion of the [[Greeks]]. Less well known in the West is the influence of the Byzantine religious sensibility on the millions of Christians in [[Ethiopia]], the [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic]] Christians of [[Egypt]], and the Christians of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Armenia]],though they all belong to the Orthodox Faith.
[[Robert Byron]], one of the first 20th century Philhellenes, argued that the greatness of Byzantium lay in what he described as "the Triple Fusion": that of a Roman body, a Greek mind and an oriental, mystical soul.
===Art, architecture, and literature ===
:''See also [[Byzantine music]]''
[[Byzantine Art]] and [[Byzantine Architecture]] were largely based around the Christian story and its heralds, and the importance of icons in Orthodox society. In terms of architecture, Byzantines emphasized the Dome, the arch and the Grecian cross lay out. It is evidenced today in countless examples of old Byzantine Churches with their traditional mosaics depicting Saints and figures from the Bible. Its impact was such that it spawned a [[Neo-Byzantine]] architectural revival in later years. Byzantine Art was also important in this respect, its impact on [[Orthodoxy]] can be witnessed across southeast Europe, Russia, the Holy Land and parts of the Middle East, but also in those areas of Turkey where it was allowed to survive.
The finest Byzantine literary works were Hymns and devotionals, especially those of... The other area where the Byzantines excelled was in practical writing. While rarely works of genius, a series of competent, diligent writers, both male and female, produced many works of practical value in the fields of public administration, military affairs, and the practical sciences. The early theological work of the Byzantines was important in the development of western thought. Historiography influenced later Russian chroniclers.
Most of the writing was in classical Greek. Vernacular literature developed much more slowly than in the west. There was little fiction, the best-known work being the epic poem [[Digenis Acritas]], written in something approaching the vernacular. Much of the writing of the day was history, theology, biography, and hagiography. Many letters have survived, some work-a-day correspondence, a few minor masterpieces, as well as a few large encyclopedic works, such as the huge [[Suda]]. Perhaps the Byzantine empire's greatest contribution to literature was their careful preservation of the best works of the ancient world, as well as compilations of works on certain subjects, with certain revisions, most specifically in the fields of [[medicine]] and [[history]].
===Civil service and the government===
The Byzantine State differed from other States of its day in that it emphasized the importance of a rigid, semi-professional Civil Service rather than direct rule, and the appointment of the Monarch. The Civil Administration can largely be divided into three groups, the Palatine Administration, the Provincial Government and the Central Civil Service. Within this context, the system can be divided into two further sub-groupings, Judicial Officers and Financial Officers who were spread across the 13 permanent Departments of State (in the Central Civil Service).
In this it can be said it anticipates the systems of many modern Nation States, and, despite the occasionally [[Derogatory use of "Byzantine"|derogatory use of the word "Byzantine"]], it had a distinct ability for reinventing itself in accordance with the Empire's situation. In this it was far more stable than other European systems of government at the time, and contributed clearly towards the evolution of [[Political Science]] and the system of Government.
==See also==
*[[Western Roman Empire]]
*[[List of Byzantine Empire-related topics]]
*[[Roman Empire]]
*[[Roman Emperors]]
*[[Byzantine Emperors]]
*[[History of Greece]]
*[[History of the Ottoman Empire]]
*[[History of the Balkans]]
*[[History of Europe]]
*[[History of the Middle East]]
*[[History of Rome]]
*[[Latin Empire]]
*[[Lombards]]
*[[Empire of Nicaea]]
*[[Empire of Trebizond]]
*[[Despotate of Epirus]]
*[[Despotate of Morea]]
*[[Byzantine currency]]
*[[Byzantine art]]
*[[Byzantine architecture]]
*[[Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy]]
*[[Byzantine army]]
*[[Byzantine battle tactics]]
*[[Byzantine navy]]
*[[Comnenus]]
*[[Palaeologus]]
*[[Eastern Orthodox Church Calendar]]
*[[Derogatory use of Byzantine]]
==External links==
{{commons|Byzantine Empire}}
*[http://www.orthodoxnews.netfirms.com/137/How.htm Christian Hellenism and How the Byzantines Saw Themselves]
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/ Byzantium: Byzantine studies on the Internet]
*[http://www.romanity.org/htm/fox.01.en.what_if_anything_is_a_byzantine.01.htm What, If Anything, Is A Byzantine? by Prof. Clifton R. Fox]
*[http://orthodoxempire.lx.ro Orthodox Empire]
*[http://www.anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers/ 12 Byzantine Rulers] by Lars Brownworth of the pri |
of 1755]]. <br> ''After the earthquake had destroyed three-fourths of Lisbon, the sages of that country could think of no means more effectual to prevent utter ruin than to give the people a beautiful ''[[auto-da-fe]]''; for it had been decided by the University of Coimbra, that the burning of a few people alive by a slow fire, and with great ceremony, is an infallible secret to hinder the earth from quaking.'' (later on, after the executions) ''The same day the earth sustained a most violent concussion.''
* The Old Woman describes the violent state of affairs in Morocco during her time of enslavement there. <br> ''The slaves, my companions, those who had taken them, soldiers, sailors, blacks, whites, mulattoes, and at last my captain, all were killed, and I remained dying on a heap of dead. Such scenes as these were transacted on a daily basis throughout an extent of three hundred leagues, and yet they never missed the five prayers a day ordained by Muhammad.''
* The Dervish and an unnamed old man dispense their ''laissez faire'' views of human relations to the nearly enlightened Candide. <br> ''In the neighborhood there lived a very famous Dervish who was esteemed the best philosopher in all Turkey, and they went to consult him. Pangloss was the speaker. "Master," said he, "we come to beg you to tell why so strange an animal as man was made." "With what meddlest thou?" said the Dervish; "is it thy business?" "But, reverend father," said Candide, "there is horrible evil in this world." "What signifies it," said the Dervish, "whether there be evil or good? When his highness sends a ship to Egypt, does he trouble his head whether the mice on board are at their ease or not?" "What, then, must we do?" said Pangloss. "Hold your tongue," answered the Dervish. "I was in hopes," said Pangloss, "that I should reason with you a little about causes and effects, about the best of possible worlds, the origin of evil, the nature of the soul, and the preestablished harmony." At these words, the Dervish shut the door in their faces. <br> During this conversation, the news was spread that two Viziers and the Mufti had been strangled at Constantinople, and that several of their friends had been impaled. This catastrophe made a great noise for some hours. Pangloss, Candide and Martin, returning to the little farm, saw a good old man taking the fresh air at his door under an orange bower. Pangloss, who was as inquisitive as he was argumentative, asked the old man what was the name of the strangled Mufti. "I do not know," answered the worthy man, "and I have not known the name of any Mufti, nor of any Vizier. I am entirely ignorant of the event you mention; I presume in general that they who meddle with the administration of public affairs die sometimes miserably, and that they deserve it; but I never trouble my head about what is transacting at Constantinople; I content myself with sending there for sale the fruits of the garden I cultivate." <br> (The men go back to the old man's house and have a wonderful meal.) <br> "You must have a vast and magnificent estate," said Candide to the Turk. "I have only twenty acres [81,000 m&sup2;]," replied the old man; "I and my children cultivate them; our labor preserves us from three great evils - weariness, vice, and want."''
* Candide is with Pococurante (literally 'small care') in the Venetian study. "Oh, here is a copy of Cicero", said Candide. "Now this great man I suppose you're never tired of reading." "I never read him at all", replied the Venetian. "I might like his philosophical works better, but when I saw that he had doubts about everything, I concluded that I knew as much as he did, and that I needed no help to be ignorant." (Cicero was a Roman lawyer, elocutionist, politician and philosopher of the first century B.C.. Since the sixteenth century "advanced" opinion dismissed him as a windbag, so Pococurante dismisses him.)
* Candide is discussing with his friend Martin whether people in England are as foolish as the French. Martin replies that indeed, this was so, but that the English were foolish in a different way: "Vous savez que ces deux nations sont en guerre pour quelques arpents de neige vers le Canada, et qu'elles dépensent pour cette belle guerre beaucoup plus que tout le Canada ne vaut" ("You know that these two nations are at war over a few acres of snow near Canada, and that they are spending on this beautiful little war more than all of Canada is worth"); see: [[A_few_acres_of_snow]]
* Candide reaches a sort of enlightenment and concurs with Martin. <br> "''Let us work," said Martin, "without disputing; it is the only way to render life tolerable."'' (Whenever Pangloss starts prattling on about some quatsch, Candide's response is:) ''"All that is very well," answered Candide, "but let us cultivate our garden."''
==Characters==
* [[Candide (character)|Candide]], the protagonist
* [[Cunégonde]], Candide's love interest
* [[Pangloss|Dr. Pangloss]], Candide's tutor
* [[Cacambo]], Candide's valet
* [[Martin (Candide)|Martin]], Candide's travelling companion
* [[Paquette]], maid for Cunegonde's family
* Cunegonde's brother
* The old woman
==Trivia==
Candide makes a passing reference to the fictional Pope Urban X as the father of a character. According to an endnote which first appears in a [[1829]] edition, Voltaire used "extreme discretion" in ascribing an illegitimate daughter to a fictional Pope instead of a real one. The last pontiff to bear the name Urban was [[Pope Urban VIII]].
Voltaire knew everyone who was known at the time and quite possibly knew [[Adam Smith]] author of ''The Wealth of Nations''. If not, Voltaire anticipates him (by 17 years) with the observation of the usefulness of the production of pins, which is the centerpiece example of Adam Smith's great book. See (XXV) Pococurante's reply to Martin regarding the value "of four score volumes of the Academy of Science". He says:"...if only one of those rakers of rubish had shown how to make pins...". The [[Industrial Revolution]] is usually pegged at beginning 1750, which is arbitrary but useful. ''Candide'', 1759. ''The Wealth of Nations'', 1776. Did Voltaire get the idea from Adam Smith or did he see for himself the usefulness of industry? The difference in living standard between the Continent and England was observable by travelers like Voltaire; England at this time was way ahead.
==See also==
*[[panglossianism]]
*[[dystopia]]
*[[Leonard Bernstein]] based an [[operetta]] ([[1956]]) on Voltaire's story; see [[Candide (operetta)]].
==External links==
*Online Text
**French text from University of Virginia: [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/browse-mixed-french?id=VolCand&tag=public&images=images/modeng&data=/lv1/Archive/french-parsed]
**[http://www.voltaire.ox.ac.uk/e-texts/www_cwvolt/cw_texts/cw_48010C_candide/48010C_toc.html English translation at the Voltaire Foundation, University of Oxford]
**[http://www.elook.org/literature/voltaire/candide/ Candide by Voltaire - electronic text]
*Other Information
**A letter written by [[Voltaire]] to the ''Journal encyclopédique'' in which the author denies being the author of Candide: [http://humanities.uchicago.edu/homes/VSA/Candide/Candide.letter.html]
** Bibliography of electronic and illustrated editions as well as of parodies and imitations: [http://ub-dok.uni-trier.de/candide.htm]
**[http://www.biblioweb.org/-VOLTAIRE-.html Links to analysis and Plot overview] (in French)
{{philos-novel-stub}}
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[[Category:French novels]]
[[Category:Utopian novels]]
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[[Category:Philosophical novels]]
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<page>
<title>Chapterhouse Dune</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:54:03Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* Daniel and Marty */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{DuneSeries}}
[[Image:ChapterhouseDune.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Chapterhouse: Dune]]
'''''Chapterhouse Dune''''' is a [[science fiction]] novel by [[Frank Herbert]], last in the series of six Dune novels. It is also known variously as '''''Chapterhouse: Dune''''', '''''Chapter House Dune''''' and '''''Chapter House: Dune'''''.
The [[Bene Gesserit]] still find themselves questioning the [[Golden Path]] of humanity set by the [[Leto Atreides II|God Emperor]]. Now they must survive the [[Honored Matres]], whose reckless conquest of the Old Empire threatens humanity's survival. The Sisters must reassess their timeless methods: does ultimate survival go beyond calculated manipulation? Is there greater purpose to life than consolidating power?
{{spoiler}}
==Synopsis==
===Introduction===
This situation is desperate for the Bene Gesserit as they find themselves the targets of the [[Honored Matres]], whose conquest of the Old Empire is almost complete. The Matres are seeking to assimilate the technology and developed methods of the Bene Gesserit, their "last enemy in the million planets" (i.e. the Old Empire before the Scattering). Given the strength and record of the Matres, the Bene Gesserit need a plan.
In charge of this plan is Darwi Odrade, successor of Taraza. Her prescient visions show an unknown axeman stalking her--an adequate analogy to the Bene Gesserit situation.
The Bene Gesserit are also creating a new [[Arrakis|Dune]] on the planet Chapte |
social conflict for a doctrine of [[progress]], and attempted to chart a course that would manipulate these forces to lead to various improved outcomes. [[Karl Marx]]'s doctrine of "historical inevitabilities" and [[historical materialism]] is one of the more influential reactions to this side of Hegel's thought. Significantly, [[Marx's theory of alienation]] comes full circle to the thought of the Hegelian right, arguing among other things that [[capitalism]] disrupts the rooted nature of traditional relationships between workers and their work.
Hegelian historicism is related to his ideas on the means by which human societies progress, specifically the [[Hegelian dialectic | dialectic]] and his conception of logic as reflecting the inner essential nature of reality. Hegel attributes the change to the "modern" need to interact with the world, where as ancient philosophers were self-contained, and medieval philosophers were monks. In his History of Philosophy Hegel writes:
:In modern times things are very different; now we no longer see philosophic individuals who constitute a class by themselves. With the present day all difference has disappeared; philosophers are not monks, for we find them generally in connection with the world, participating with others in some common work or calling. They live, not independently, but in the relation of citizens, or they occupy public offices and take part in the life of the state. Certainly they may be private persons, but if so, their position as such does not in any way isolate them from their other relationship. They are involved in present conditions, in the world and its work and progress. Thus their philosophy is only by the way, a sort of luxury and superfluity. This difference is really to be found in the manner in which outward conditions have taken shape after the building up of the inward world of religion. In modern times, namely, on account of the reconciliation of the worldly principle with itself, the external world is at rest, is brought into order &mdash; worldly relationships, conditions, modes of life, have become constituted and organized in a manner which is conformable to nature and rational. We see a universal, comprehensible connection, and with that individuality likewise attains another character and nature, for it is no longer the plastic individuality of the ancients. This connection is of such power that every individuality is under its dominion, and yet at the same time can construct for itself an inward world.
This view &mdash; that entanglement in society creates an indissoluble bond with expression &mdash; would be an influential question in philosophy going forward, namely, the requirements for individuality. It would be taken up by [[Nietzsche]], [[John Dewey]] and [[Michel Foucault]] directly, as well as in the work of numerous artists and authors. There have been various responses to Hegel's challenge. The Romantic period focused on the ability of individual genius to transcend time and place, and use the materials from their heritage to fashion works which were beyond determination. The modern would advance versions of John Locke's infinite malleability of the human animal. Post-structuralism would argue that since history is not present, but only the image of history, that while an individual era or power structure might focus on a particular history, that the contradictions within the story would hinder the very purposes that the history was constructed to advance.
=== Anthropological Historicism ===
Within [[anthropology]] and other sciences which study the past, historicism has a different meaning. It is associated with the work of [[Franz Boas]]. His theory took the [[diffusionist]] concept that there were a few "cradles of civilization" which grew outwards in circles, and merged it with the idea that societies would adapt to their circumstances, which is called [[historical particularism]]. The school of historicism grew up in response to unilinear theories that social development reflected adaptive fitness, and therefore existed on a spectrum. While these theories were espoused by [[Charles Darwin]] and many of his students, historicism was neither anti-selection, nor anti-evolution. However, it attacked the notion that there was one normative spectrum of development, instead focusing on how local conditions would create adaptations to the local environment. What was adaptive for one region might not be so for another.
The primary method of historicism was emprical, namely that there were so many requisite inputs into a society or event, that only by focusing on the data available could a theory of the source be determined. In this view, grand theories are unprovable, and instead intensive field work would determine the most likely explanation and history of a culture. Hence, historicism. Boas would later teach at [[Columbia University]] and this would produce a school of thought based on his ideas.
This view would produce a wide range of definition of what, exactly, constituted culture and history, but in each case the only means of explaining it was in terms of the historical particulars of the culture itself.
=== Popper's attack on historicism ===
[[Karl Popper]] used the term ''historicism'' in his influential books ''The Poverty of Historicism'' and [[The Open Society and Its Enemies]], to mean: "an approach to the social sciences which assumes that ''historical prediction'' is their primary aim, and which assumes that this aim is attainable by discovering the 'rhythms' or the 'patterns', the 'laws' or the 'trends' that underlie the evolution of history" (p. 3 of ''The Poverty of Historicism'', italics in original). Karl Popper wrote with reference to [[Hegel]]'s theory of [[history]], which he criticized extensively. However, there is wide dispute as to whether Popper's description of "historicism" is an accurate description of Hegel, or more a reflection of his own philosophical antagonists, including [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] thought, then widely held as posing a challenge to the philosophical basis of the [[Western world|West]], as well as theories such as [[Spengler]]'s which drew predictions about the future course of events from the past.
In [[The Open Society and Its Enemies]], Popper attacks "historicism" and its proponents, among whom as well as Hegel he identifies and singles out [[Plato]] and [[Marx]] &mdash; calling them all "enemies of the open society". The objection he makes is that historicist positions, by claiming that there is an inevitable and [[determinism|deterministic]] pattern to [[history]], abrogate the [[democracy|democratic]] responsibility of each one of us to make our own free contributions to the evolution of [[society]], and hence lead to [[totalitarianism]].
=== New Historicism ===
''Main Article [[New Historicism]]''
Since the 1950's, when [[Lacan]] and [[Foucault]] argued that each epoch has its own knowledge system, which individuals are inexorably entangled with, many [[post-structuralist | post-structuralists]] have used ''historicism'' to describe the view that all questions must be settled within the cultural and social context that they are raised in, answers cannot be found by appeal to an external truth, but only within the confines of the norms and forms that phrase the question. This version of historicism holds that there are only the raw texts, markings and artifacts that exist in the present, and the conventions used to decode them. This school of thought sometimes goes by the name of ''[[New Historicism]]''.
The same label, ''new historicism'' is also employed for a school of literary scholarship which interprets a [[poem]], [[drama]], etc. as an expression of the power-structures of the surrounding society. [[Stephen Greenblatt]] is an example of this school.
=== Modern historicism ===
Within the context of 20th century philosophy, the conflict over whether ahistorical and immanent methodologies were sufficient to understand meaning &mdash; that is to say, what you see is what you get positivism &mdash; or whether context, background and culture are important beyond the mere need to decode words, phrases and references. While post-structural historicism is relativist in its orientation, that is, it sees each culture as its own frame of reference, a large number of thinkers have embraced the need for historical context, not because culture is self-referential, but because there is no more compressed means of conveying all of the relevant information except through history. This view is often seen as being rooted in the work of [[Bennedetto Croce]]. Recent philosophers in this tradition include [[Thomas Kuhn]].
=== Biblical historicism ===
In [[Christianity | Christian]] circles, the term ''historicism'' refers to the confessional [[Protestantism | Protestant]] form of prophetical interpretation which holds that the fulfilment of [[Bible | biblical]] [[prophecy]] has taken place throughout history and continues to take place today; as opposed to other methods which limit the time-frame of prophecy-fulfillment to the past or to the future. The historicist method is what led reformers throughout Europe to declare that the pope was the man of sin sitting on the seven hills of Rome. Examples of famous Christians and sects declaring the pope to be the antichrist include the Waldensians, Albigenses, Lollards, Lutherans, Calvinists, Hussians, and a host of individuals, including the father of the modern English Bible William Tyndale and even articles of faith such as the Westminster Confession of Faith. Protestant sites that continue to declare the pope as the antichrist using the historicist method include those listed below under the External links.
== See also ==
* [[sociocultural evolution]]
== References ==
* [[Hans-Georg | Gadamer ]] ''Truth and |
quot;[[Church of the Magnificat]]"
* [[Jean-Gaston Tremblay]] (Gregory XVII), succeeded Clement XV in [[1968]] in [[Canada]]; not to be confused with the Canadian politician [[Gaston Tremblay]]
====[[Conclavist]] movements====
These antipopes are (for the most part) not self-proclaimed in the strictest sense but organized and held elections of 'faithful' Catholics. The verifiable smallest of these '[[Conclave]]s' was attended by only 6 electors, the size of the largest is not known but claimed to be at least larger than the conclave which elected [[Pope Pius XII]].
* [[David Bawden]] (Michael I), self-proclaimed in [[1990]] in [[Kansas]], [[United States|United States of America]] ("conclave" of 6 electors)
* [[Victor von Pentz]] (Linus II), either self-proclaimed in [[1994]] in [[Hertfordshire]], [[United Kingdom]] or elected by several Sedevacantists in [[Assisi]] (disputed)
* [[Lucian Pulvermacher]] (Pius XIII), self-proclaimed in [[1998]] in [[Montana]], [[United States|United States of America]], Pope of the self-proclaimed "[[true Catholic Church]]". Claims to have been elected by a conclave of a secret number but at least 61 electors.
* [[Reinaldus Michael Benjamins]] (Antipope Gregory XIX) self-proclaimed in [[2001]] in [[New York]], [[United States of America]].
====Independents and Antipopes of other groups====
* [[Gino Frediani]] (Emmanuel I), self-proclaimed from [[1973]]&ndash;[[1984]] in [[Italy]], Pope of the "[[New Church of the Holy Heart of Jesus]]"
* [[Valeriano Vestini]] (Valeriano I), self-proclaimed in [[1990]] in [[Province of Chieti|Chieti]], [[Italy]]
* [[Maurice Archieri|Maurice Archieri of Le Perreux]] ([[Antipope Peter II|Peter II]]) of Le Perreux, self-proclaimed in [[1995]] in [[France]]
* [[Julius Tischler]] ([[Antipope Peter II|Peter II]]) of [[Germany]]
* [[Pierre Henri Bubois]] ([[Antipope Peter II|Peter II]]) of [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]]
* [[Chester Olszewski]] ([[Antipope Peter II|Peter II]]), self-proclaimed in [[1980]] of [[Pennsylvania]], [[United States|USA]]
* [[William Kamm]] ([[Antipope Peter II|Peter II]]) of [[Australia]], Pope of the "Order of Saint Charbel" movement.
==See also==
* [[Antipopes in fiction]]
* [[Sedevacantism]]
* [[List of popes]]
*Trentidines recognise the Roman pope, but dispute theology. Notable among these is [[Michael Cox]], of Cree, Birr, Co. Offaly, who infamously ordained [[Sinead O'Conner]] and Bishop [[Pat Buckley]] and conducts weddings of those the regular church refuses to entertain.
==Sources and References==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01582a.htm Catholic Encyclopaedia- article Antipope]
*[http://media.isnet.org/kristen/Ensiklopedia/AntiPope.html The Pope Encyclopaedia - article Antipope]
[[Category:Antipopes| ]]
[[Category:Ecclesiastical titles]]
[[Category:History of the Papacy]]
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[[bg:Антипапа]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Aquaculture</title>
<id>1634</id>
<revision>
<id>41943492</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:09:56Z</timestamp>
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<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{globalize|January 2006}}
'''Aquaculture''' is the cultivation of the natural produce of water (such as fish or shellfish, algae and other aquatic plants). [[Mariculture]] is specifically [[ocean|marine]] aquaculture, and thus is a subset of aquaculture. Some examples of aquaculture include raising [[catfish]] and [[tilapia]] in freshwater ponds, growing [[pearl|cultured pearls]], and farming [[salmon]] in net-pens set out in a bay. [[Fish farming]] is a common type.
== History ==
The practice of aquaculture is very ancient and found in many cultures.
Aquaculture was used in [[China]] circa [[2500 BC]]. When the waters lowered after river floods, some fishes, namely [[Common carp|carps]], were held in artificial lakes. Their brood were later fed using [[nymph (biology)|nymph]]s and feces from [[silkworm]]s used for silk production.
The Hawaiian people practiced aquaculture by constructing [[fish pond]]s (see [[Hawaiian aquaculture]]). A remarkable example from [[ancient Hawaii]] is the construction of a fish pond, dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. According to legend, it was constructed by the mythical [[Menehune]].
The Romans were quite adept in breeding fish in ponds. In Europe it became common again in monasteries during the [[Middle Ages]], since fish was scarce and thus expensive. Transportation improvements in the 19th century made fish easily available and inexpensive, even far from the seas, causing a decline in aquaculture.
The current boom in aquaculture started in the 1960s as prices for fish began to climb. Wild fish capture was reaching its peak and the human population was continuing to rise. Today, commercial aquaculture exists on a unprecedented, huge scale. In the 1980s open-netcage salmon farming was also expanding; this particular type of aquaculture technology is still a minor part of the production of farmed finfish worldwide, but evidence of its negative impact on wild stocks, which started coming to light in the late 1990s, has caused it to be a major cause of controversy.[http://www.davidsuzuki.org/Oceans/Aquaculture/Salmon/]
==Benefits==
Aquaculture has been one of the fastest growing segments of global [[food]] production in recent decades, and has been hailed as an answer to the limits of wild fish stock harvest.
Fish and other aquacultured species are generally very efficient converters of feedstuffs into high quality protein when compared to other farmed animals. For example a catfish may take 6 kg of feed (wet weight to wet weight) to produce 1 kg of catfish whereas a chicken might take 10 kg and a pig 30 kg. This is possible primarily because aquaculture species are cold-blooded (or more corectly - poikilothermic), and hence do not waste energy on heating, and because the physics of the aquatic environmment require little energy for movement. Fish and other aquacultured species also tend to be comprised of a higher percentage of edible weight than terrestrial species.
Farming of high value (and often overexploited) species can reduce presure on wild stocks.
There are inumerable aquatic species farmed in small quantities around the world. Major aquaculture industries around the world include (Apology: latin names are from top of head and may be mis-spelled):
'''Atlantic salmon (''Salmo salar'') and Rainbow trout (''Oncorhynchus mykiss'').''' Also smaller volumes of a variety of other salmonids. Originally developed in Norway, Denmark (Rainbow trout although it is an American species) and Scotland, now farmed in significant quatities in Europe, Canada, Chile and Australia (Tasmania). First or Second in the world for production value.
'''Tropical shrimp; Mostly Black tiger shrimp (''Penaeus monodon'') and increasingly White shrimp (''Litopenaeus vannemi'').''' Techniques originally developed in Japan and Taiwan. Mostly farmed through tropical and sub-tropical Asia and South America. First or Second in the world for production value.
'''Carps; European carp, Chinese carps (Grass, Silver and Black) and Indian major carps''' are easily the largest global aquaculture industry by volume of production but are low in value. Major producers are China, India, Southeat Asia and Europe. China's reported production figures are considered contentious by some authorities. Value of production is also debatable according to whether value is calculated at border (exchange rate) prices or PPP (Purchasing Power Parity) prices. Nonetheless, carps are major contributors of high quality protein to the diets of poorer people around the world.
'''Seaweeds; Many species.''' Huge volumes, low value. Mostly farmed in Asia; particuarly Japan, Korea and China.
'''Catfish; Major species are Vietmanese basa (), Channel catfish and African and Asian walking catfish (''Clarias'' sp.).''' Mostly farmed in Asia and the Southern United States.
'''Tilapia; Nile tilapia and a few other species'''. Very well suited species to subsistance farming although arguably not well suited to large aquabusiness due to finicky breeding biology and low flesh recovery (Although becoming a very successful import in the US and Europe). Mostly farmed in Asia, South America and Africa.
'''Oysters; [[Pacific oyster]] (''Crassostrea gigas''), American oyster (''Crassostrea virginica''), Flat oyster (''Ostrea edulis'')''' and others. Mostly farmed in Asia, US, Australia-New Zealand and Europe. Flat oyster was once a huge industry and low cost/very high quality food for the masses in Europe but collapsed under mortalities brought about by the parasite ''Bonamia''.
'''Mussels; Blue mussel (''Mytilus edulis''), Green mussels (''Perna'' sp.)''' Mostly farmed in Europe, Asia, New Zealand and South America.
These industries are often based in developing countries, and can contribute greatly to food security/quality and income there. Of those industries above, all but Tropical shrimp and salmonids have a low -evel environmental impact. The environmental footprint of the Tropical shrimp and salmonid industries is improving.
[[Tuna]] farming in [[Australia]] has seen financial success. Tuna farming at present is really a fattening enterprise, where wild bred juvenile tuna are captured and grown in pens to a larger size and better flesh quality. Having the fish confined in pens also means that harvests can be timed to suit the market. This practice has |
ng the Restitution of Gibraltar), with the Consent of my Parliament''" {{ref|lettergeorgei}}. However, the British Parliament never endorsed such promise.
*1727 February-June - Second of the sieges by Spain tried to recapture Gibraltar (Thirteenth Siege of Gibraltar). Depending on the sources, Spanish troops were between 12,000 and 25,000. British defenders were 1,500 at the beginning of the siege, increasing up to about 5,000. After a five-month siege with several unsuccessful and costly attempts, Spanish troops give up and retire.
*1729 - At the end of the Anglo-Spanish War of 1727-1729, the Treaty of Seville confirming all previous treaties (including the Treaty of Utrecht) allowed Great Britain to keep [[Menorca]] and Gibraltar.
*1730 - A Belgian Engineer, the Marquis of Verboom, Chief Engineer of the Spanish Royal Engineer Corps, who has taken part in the 1727 siege, arrived in San Roque commissioned by the Spanish government to design a line of fortifications across the isthmus. Fort San Felipe and Fort Santa Barbara are built. The fortifications, known to the British as the Spanish Lines, and to Spain as ''La Línea de Contravalación'' were the origin of modern-day town of [[La Línea de la Concepción]].
* [[1776]] [[February 23]] - One of the heaviest storms ever recorded in Gibraltar. The lower part of the town was flooded. Linewall was breached along 100 m.
*1779 June - In the midst of the [[American Revolutionary War]], Spain declared war against Great Britain (France had done it the year before)
[[Image:The Siege and Relief of Gibraltar.jpg|thumb|left|350px|The Siege and Relief of Gibraltar, [[13 September]] [[1782]]. By John Singleton Copley (1738-1815)]]
*1779 July - Start of the '''Great Siege of Gibraltar''' (fourteenth and last military siege). This was an action by French and Spanish forces to wrest control of Gibraltar from the established British Garrison. The garrison, led by [[George Augustus Eliott, 1st Baron Heathfield of Gibraltar|George Augustus Eliott, later 1st Baron Heathfield of Gibraltar]], survived all attacks and a blockade of supplies.
*1782 [[September 13]] - Start of an assault involving 100,000 men, 48 ships and 450 cannon. The British garrison survived.
*1783 February. By now the siege was over, and George Augustus Eliott was awarded the [[Knight of the Bath]] and was created 1st Baron Heathfield of Gibraltar. The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaties of Versailles]] reaffirmed previous treaties.
:In 1782, work on the [[Great Siege Tunnels]] started. The tunnels became a great and complex system of underground fortifications which nowadays criss-crosses the inside of the Rock. Once the Siege was over, the fortifications were rebuilt and, in the following century, the walls were lined with [[Portland limestone]]. Such stone gives the walls their present white appearance.
* 1802 - Several mutinies among some regiments garrisoned in Gibraltar.
* 1803 June - [[Horatio Nelson|Admiral Nelson]] arrived in Gibraltar as Commander-in-Chief Mediterranean.
* 1804 - Great epidemic of "Malignant Fever" broke out. Although traditionally labelled as "Yellow Fever" now it is thought to have been [[typhus]].
* 1805 January - The great epidemic ended. Over a third of the civilian population (5,946 people) died.
* [[1805]] [[October 21]] - [[Battle of Trafalgar]].
* [[1805]] [[October 28]] - [[HMS Victory]] was towed into Gibraltar bringing Nelson's body aboard. The Trafalgar Cemetery still exists today in Gibraltar.
*1806 - Gibraltar was made a Catholic [[Apostolic Vicariate]] (until then Gibraltar belonged to the [[Episcopal see|See]] of [[Cadiz]]). Since 1840 the vicar is always a titular [[bishop]]. {{ref|catholic}}
*1810 - Britain and Spain became allies against Napoleon.
*1810 February - The Governor of Gibraltar removed the Spanish forts of San Felipe and Santa Barbara, located on the northern boundary of the neutral ground. Fearing that the forts might fall into French hands, [[Colin Campbell (Gibraltar Governor)|Lieutenant General Sir Colin Campbell]] instructed Royal Engineers to blow the forts up. Such a task was carried out on [[February 14]] together with the demolition of the rest of fortifications of the Spanish Lines.
: According to George Hills {{ref|Hills4}}, there are no primary sources that could explain whether such a demolition was requested or authorized by any Spanish or British authority. According to him, over the time, three different theories has been handled: (a) Campbell ordered the demolition on his own responsibility (b) under instructions from the British Government (c) upon request of Spanish [[Francisco Javier Castaños|General Castaños]], who was at the time in Cádiz. Spanish authors from 1840 have usually favoured theory (b) while British ones have supported (c). As long as there is no contemporary source or dispatch on the topic, Hills does not personally discard (a) considering it the most likely possibility.
* During the [[Peninsular War]], contingents from the Gibraltar Garrison were sent to aid Spanish resistance to the French at Cádiz and [[Tarifa]].
===Until the Second World War===
[[Image:Tipos de Gibraltar.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Characters of Gibraltar (R.P. Napper, 1863; private collection)]]
*1814 - Outbreak of malignant fever.
*1817 - The first civil judge was established.
*[[1822]] [[August 21]] - The [[Anglican]] Diocese of Gibraltar was founded by Letters Patent and took over the pastoral care of the chaplaincies and congregations from Portugal to the Caspian Sea.
*1830 - Gibraltar became a [[British Crown Colony]].
:[[Royal Gibraltar Police|Gibraltar Police Force]] was established.
*1869 - The [[Suez Canal]] was opened. It heavily increased the strategic value of the Rock in the route from the United Kingdom to India.
*1894 - The construction of the dockyards started.
*[[1908]] [[August 5]] - The British Ambassador in Madrid informed the Spanish Minister of State 'as an act of courtesy', of the British Government's intention to build a fence along the line of British sentries on the isthmus to prevent smuggling and reduce sentry duty. According to the British government, the fence was erected inside British territory. Spain does not recognize the fence as the valid border, since it claims the fence was build on Spanish soil. Even though Spain, the [[United Kingdom]] and Gibraltar are all part of the [[European Union]], the border fence is still relevant today since Gibraltar is outside the [[customs union]]. The border crossing is open 24-hours a day as required by EU law.
*1921 - Gibraltar was granted a City Council status in recognition for its contribution to the British war efforts in the [[First World War]]. The council had a small minority of elected persons. First elections held in Gibraltar.
===Second World War and after===
The history of Gibraltar from the Second World War is characterized by two main elements: the increasing autonomy and self-governing achieved by Gibraltarians and the re-emergence of the Spanish claim, especially during the years of the [[Francisco Franco|Francoist]] dictatorship.
[[Image:Gibralter2.jpg|thumb|250px|Map of Gibraltar in 1939. Published by Illustrated London News]]
*1939-1945 - During the [[Second World War]] the civilian residents of Gibraltar were evacuated, and the Rock was again turned into a fortress. Control of Gibraltar gave the [[Allied Powers]] control of the entry to the [[Mediterranean Sea]] (the other side of the Strait being Spanish territory, and thus neutral). The Rock was a key part of the Allied supply lines to [[Malta]] and North Africa and base of the British Navy Force H, and the horse [[racecourse]] near the fence was converted into an [[airport]]. The repatriation of the civilians started in 1944 and proceeded for some six years. However most of the population had returned by 1946.
*:[[1940]] [[July 4]] - French bombers, based in French Morocco, carried out a retailatory air raid over Gibraltar as a reprisal for the [[Destruction of the French Fleet at Mers-el-Kebir|destruction of the French fleet at Mers-el-Kebir, Algeria,]] by the Force H (about 1,300 French sailors were killed and about 350 were wounded in the action against the French fleet). No great effect took place.
*:1941 - Germany planned to occupy Gibraltar (and presumably hand it over to Spain) in "Operation Felix" which was due to start on [[10 January]] [[1941]] {{ref|felix}}. It was cancelled because the Spanish government were reluctant to let the [[Wehrmacht]] enter Spain and then attack against the Rock, its civilians or the British Army from Spanish soil, because [[Francisco Franco|Franco]] feared that it may have been impossible to remove the Wehrmacht afterwards. In any case, [[Hitler]] was too busy elsewhere in Europe to give this much priority.
*:1940-1943 - Gibraltar harbour was attacked many times by [[Italian commando frogmen#Earlier history : Decima Flottiglia MAS|Italian commando frogmen]].
*:1942 September - A small group of Gibraltarians, who remained in the town serving in the British Army, joined a mechanic official, [[Albert Risso]], to create 'The Gibraltarians Association', the starting point of what be named the [[Association for the Advancement of Civil Rights]] (officially established in December that year), the first political party in Gibraltar. [[Joshua Hassan]] (a young lawyer then, later Sir and Chief Minister) was among the leading members of such association. The AACR was the dominant party in the Gibraltar politics for the last third of the 20th Century.
*:[[1942]] [[8 November]] - [[Operation Torch]] launched with support from Gibraltar.
*1946 - The United Kingdom inscribed Gibraltar in the list of [[Non-Self-Governing Territories]] kept by the UN Special Committee on Decolonization .
*1950 - Gibraltar's first Legislative Council was opened.
*1954 - This was the 250th anniversary of its capture. [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II] |
hnical skill, such as a [[hardware hacker]], or [[reality hacker]]. However, for some the word has a negative connotation and refers to a person who "[[Hack (technology slang)|hack]]s" or uses [[kludge]]s to accomplish programming tasks that are ugly, inelegant, and inefficient. The negative form of the noun "hack" is even used among users of the positive sense of "hacker".
==Definitions of hack==
{{main|Hacker definition controversy}}
The word ''hack'' has several definitions, according to the
[http://www.ibiblio.org/webster/cgi-bin/headword_search.pl?query=hack&=Submit dictionary]. One is "''to cut irregularly, without skill or definite purpose''." Newspaper journalists are sometimes called "''hacks''", which could potentially be construed as a reference to an old style method of copy
editing involving an encyclopedia, a manual typewriter, a pair of
scissors and a roll of scotch tape. Cutting (one synonym for "''hack''") and pasting blocks of text or software source code in order to factor and reorganize an essay or program are activities familiar to writers and computer programmers alike. When typing on an old fashioned mechanical typewriter, a phalanx of typebars chops against the ribbon, paper, and platten, making a characteristic "''hacking''" noise.
Another speculation is that the word "''hacker''" is an humorously ironic conflation of elegant and well spoken eloquent prosody, to "''a raspy, chopping, cough''." When a person doesn't know how to pronounce a word, they will sometimes fill in with a, ''hcahw'', coughing sound. Reporters are known to attempt writing about a subject they do not completely comprehend, don't get the facts or story straight, and thus sometimes "''hack the story to pieces''". So, perhaps to some, a neophyte programmer is thereby termed a "''hacker''", and that would explain why one sense of the word "''hack''" is given as "''A quick and inelegant, though functional solution to a programming problem''."
== Categories of hacker ==
[[Image:glider.JPG|right|A glider from [[Conway's Game of Life]].]]
The hacker community (the set of people who would describe themselves as hackers, or who would be described by others as hackers) falls into at least four partially overlapping categories. Sometimes people in these categories are called a different name, such as "cracker" instead of hacker.
=== Hacker: Highly skilled programmer ===
The positive usage of ''hacker'' is one who knows a (sometimes specified) set of programming interfaces well enough to write software rapidly and expertly. This type of hacker is well-respected, although the term still carries some of the meaning of ''hack'', developing programs without adequate planning. This ''[[zugzwang]]'' gives freedom and the ability to be creative against methodical careful progress. At their best, hackers can be very productive. The technical downside of hacker productivity is often in maintainability, documentation, and completion. Very talented hackers may become bored with a project once they have figured out all of the hard parts, and be unwilling to finish off the "details". This attitude can cause friction in environments where other programmers are expected to pick up the half finished work, decipher the structures and ideas, and bullet-proof the code. In other cases, where a hacker is willing to maintain their own code, a company may be unable to find anyone else who is capable or willing to dig through code to maintain the program if the original programmer moves on to a new job.
Additionally, there is sometimes a social downside associated with hacking. The stereotype of a hacker as having gained technical ability at a cost in social ability may have an uncomfortable amount of factual foundation in many individuals. While not universal, nor even restricted to hackers, the obsessive/compulsive nature, difficulty in relating to other individuals, and often abrasive personalities of some hackers makes some of them difficult to work with or to organize into teams; [[Richard Stallman]] (RMS) is a good example of this. Some within the hacker community have speculated that some mild form of [[autism]] might be involved in the case of some hackers. In one more pronounced example of such, [[Bram Cohen]], developer of [[BitTorrent]], has been diagnosed as having [[Asperger's syndrome]]. However, no formal studies of autistic tendencies in hackers have been done.
=== Hacker: Computer and network security ===
{{main|Hacker (computer security)}}
A ''hacker'' is one who exploits systems or gains unauthorized access through clever tactics and detailed knowledge, that is, through the use of a [[hack]]. However, because most hacks do not exploit systems or gain unauthorized access, most people who have enough technical skill to produce clever hacks consider the use of the word ''hacker'' in this sense to be bigotry. Malicious hackers in this sense are often called [[black hat hacker]]s, but it is more appropriate to call them [[Security cracking|crackers]](from criminal hacker) as this is a term which distinguishes the exploitation of security weaknesses from hacking in general. The opposite term of black hat is [[white hat]], are ethical hackers those who attempt to break into systems or networks in order to help the owners of the system by making them aware of security flaws, or to perform some other altruistic activity. Other hackers often viewed negatively include [[phreaking|phreaker]]s and [[software cracker]]s.
=== Hacker: Hardware modifier ===
Another type of hacker is one who creates novel hardware modifications. At the most basic end of this spectrum are those who make frequent changes to the hardware in their computers using standard components, or make semi-cosmetic themed modifications to the appearance of the machine. This type of Hacker modifes his/her computer for performance needs and/or attractiveness. These changes often include adding memory, storage or LEDs and cold cathode tubes for light effects. These people often show off their talents in contests, and many enjoy [[LAN party|LAN parties]]. At the more advanced end of the hardware hackers are those who modify hardware (not limited to computers) to expand capabilities; this group blurs into the culture of hobbyist [[inventor|inventors]] and professional electronics engineering. An example of such modification includes the addition of [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] [[Internet]] capabilities to a number of [[vending machine]]s and [[Coffee]] makers during the late 1980's and early 1990's.
Hackers who have the ability to write circuit-level code, [[Device driver|device drivers]], [[firmware]], low-level networking, (and even more impressively, using these techniques to make devices do things outside of their spec sheets), are typically in very high regard among hacker communities. This is primarily due to the difficulty and enormous complexity of this type of work, and the electrical engineering knowledge required to do so. Such hackers are rare, and almost always considered to be wizards or gurus of a very high degree.
=== Hacker stereotypes ===
There are theoretical types of hackers who are considered to posses an atypical level of skill beyond that of other meanings of the positive form of "hacker", which include the '''Guru''' and the '''Wizard'''.
In some portions of the computer community, a Wizard is one who can do anything a hacker can, but elegantly; while a Guru not only can do so elegantly, but instruct those who do not know how. In other portions, a Guru is one with a very broad degree of expertise, while a Wizard is expert in a very narrow field, distinctions seemingly more at home in a [[Role-playing game|RPG]] world, and not often heard in actual conversation.
==Recognized hackers==
Due to the overlapping nature of the hacker concept space, many of these individuals could be included in more than one category. See also [[Hacker (computer security)]], which has a list of people in that category, including criminal or unethical hackers.
===Recognized programmers===
*[[Linus Torvalds]], who was a computer science student at the University of Helsinki when he began writing the Linux kernel in 1991.
*[[Mel Kaye]], a near-legendary figure and the archetypal Real Programmer[http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/R/Real-Programmer.html]. He was credited with doing "the bulk of the programming" for the Royal McBee LGP-30 drum-memory computer in the 1950s. Ed Nather, another hacker, published the "Story of Mel" in the 1980s, which is now regarded as one of the most famous pieces of hacker folklore.
*[[Dan Bernstein]], the author of qmail and djbdns, also a mathematician and cryptographer.
*[[John Carmack]], a widely recognized and influential game programmer. Through his work, he has made significant contributions to the field of 3D computer graphics and his games have sold in the millions. In 1999, Carmack appeared as number 10 in TIME's list of the 50 most influential people in technology.
*[[Bill Gates]], the co-founder of Microsoft, and created the original Microsoft BASIC in 8 weeks [1]. He is currently most famous for having headed the Forbes list of the world's richest for many years.
*[[Bill Gosper]], mathematician and programmer, and contemporary of Richard Greenblatt.
*[[Richard Greenblatt (programmer)|Richard Greenblatt]], primary designer of the MIT [[Lisp machine]] and pioneer of computerized [[chess]].
*[[Bill Joy]], the co-founder of Sun Microsystems and author of many fundamental UNIX utilities.
*[[Rasmus Lerdorf]], the creator of the PHP Programming language.
*[[John McCarthy]], the inventor of the Lisp programming language. Also coined the term "Artificial Intelligence".
*[[Rob Pike]], a software engineer and author. He is |
Oakland, including most of:
**Claremont Hills - Roughly bounded by Tunnel Road and the Claremont Hotel.
*[[Downtown Berkeley, California|Downtown Berkeley]] - Roughly bounded by Martin Luther King Jr Way, Hearst Avenue, Oxford Street, and Dwight Way.
*[[Elmwood, Berkeley, California|Elmwood]] - Roughly bounded by Dwight Way, Telegraph Avenue and the Oakland city limits.
*[[North Berkeley, Berkeley, California|North Berkeley]] - Roughly bounded by Hearst Avenue and Eunice Street.
*[[Northbrae, Berkeley, California|Northbrae]] - Roughly bounded by Solano Avenue on the north, Hopkins and Eunice Streets on the south, the Albany city limits on the west, and Spruce Street on the east.
*[[Northside, Berkeley, California|Northside]] - Roughly bordered by Hearst Avenue and Cedar Street.
*[[Panoramic Hill (East Bay, California)|Panoramic Hill]] - Bounded by Piedmont Avenue, the Clark Kerr Campus and the main University of California campus. The eastern half of this neighborhood is in the City of Oakland.
*[[South Berkeley, Berkeley, California|South Berkeley]] - Roughly bounded by Telegraph Avenue, Dwight Way, and the Oakland city limits.
**[[Harmon Tract]] - Centered on the intersection of Sacramento Street and Harmon Street.
**[[Lorin District]] - Centered on the intersection of Alcatraz Avenue and Adeline Street.
*[[Southside, Berkeley, California|Southside]] - Between Bancroft Way and Dwight Way.
*[[Thousand Oaks, Berkeley, California|Thousand Oaks]] - Roughly bounded by Solano Avenue, The Alameda, and Arlington Avenue
*The University of California, Berkeley campus
*[[West Berkeley, Berkeley, California|West Berkeley]] - Roughly bounded by [[San Francisco Bay]] on the west, and San Pablo Avenue or Sacramento Street on the east.
**[[Berkeley Marina]]
**[[Oceanview]] - Located around the Fourth Street shopping district; roughly bounded by Gilman Street on the north, University Avenue on the south, San Pablo Avenue on the east, and the [[San Francisco Bay]] on the west.
*[[Westbrae, Berkeley, California|Westbrae]] - Centered on the intersection of Santa Fe Avenue and Gilman Street.
===Points of interest===
[[Image:Sather-Tower.jpg|thumbnail|[[Sather Tower|The Campanile]].]]
*[[Berkeley Repertory Theatre]]
*[[Cloyne Court Hotel]], a member of the [[University Students' Cooperative Association]]
*[[Hearst Greek Theatre]]
*[[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]]
*[[Regional Parks Botanic Garden]]
*[[University of California, Berkeley]]
*[[University of California Botanical Garden]]
*[[Berkeley Rose Garden]]
Other notable places include:
*The Campanile belltower ([[Sather Tower]]) in the [[University of California, Berkeley]] campus.
*[[Telegraph Avenue]], along with [[People's Park]], known as a center of counterculture activity during the 1960s-70s.
*[[Chez Panisse]], the birthplace of California cuisine.
*The [[Claremont Resort]]. (On the border between Berkeley and Oakland.)
*[[Berkeley High School (California)|Berkeley High School]] (the city's only public high school), is considered a [http://www.berkeleyheritage.com/berkeley_landmarks/berkeley_highschool.html Landmark].
*The [[Berkeley Community Theatre]], a well-known concert hall.
*[[924 Gilman Street|924 Gilman]], an all-ages [[punk rock]] music club where Berkeley natives [[Green Day]], [[Rancid]] and [[AFI]] started out.
*[[The Freight and Salvage]], a [[folk music|folk]], traditional, and [[world music]] club in West Berkeley.
*[[Cheese Board Collective|The Cheese Board]], a [[collective]] bakery, cheese shop, and pizzeria.
===Landmarks and Historic Districts===
165 buildings in Berkeley are designated as local landmarks or local structures of merit. Of these, 49 are listed in the National Register of Historic Places, and one is listed as a State Historic Landmark. [[National Historic Landmarks]] include:
*Berkeley City Hall, now Old City Hall - John Bakewell Jr. & Arthur M. Brown Jr. (1907)
*Berkeley Women’s City Club, now Berkeley City Club - [[Julia Morgan]] (1929–30)
*Church of the Good Shepherd, Episcopal - Charles L. Bugbee (1878)
*First Church of Christ, Scientist - [[Bernard Maybeck]] (1910)
*St. John’s Presbyterian Church, now Julia Morgan Center for the Arts - [[Julia Morgan]] (1908, 1910)
*William R. Thorsen House, now Sigma Phi Society Chapter House - [[Charles Sumner Greene]] & [[Henry Mather Greene]] (1908–10)
Historic Districts listed in the National Registrar of Historic Places:
*Berkeley Historic Civic Center District - Roughly bounded by McKinney Avenue, Addison Street, Shattuck Avenue, and Kittredge Street (99 acres, 7 buildings, 1 structure; added 1998).
*George C. Edwards Stadium - Located at intersection of Bancroft Way and Fulton Street on University of California, Berkeley campus (80 acres, 3 buildings, 4 structures, 3 objects; added 1993).
*Panoramic Hill, also known as University Terrace - Located at Panoramic Way, Canyon Road, Mosswood Road, Orchard Lane, and Arden Road (123 acres, 61 buildings, 16 structures, 1 object; added 2005).
*State Asylum for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind, also known as California Schools for the Deaf and Blind, now Clark Kerr Campus - Bounded by Dwight Way, the City line, Derby Street, and Warring Street (500 acres, 20 buildings; added 1982).
City-designated Historic Districts:
*Civic Center Historic District - Between Center Street & Allston Way, Milvia Street & Martin Luther King, Jr. Way
*Delaware Street Historic District - 800 Block of Delaware Street & 1801 Fifth Street
*La Loma Park Historic District - La Loma Avenue between La Vereda Road & Buena Vista Way
*Ocean View Sisterna Historic District - Sisterna Tract Block 106, bounded by Fifth Street to the west, Addison Street to the north, Sixth Street to the east, and Allston Way to the south
See [[List of Berkeley Landmarks, Structures of Merit, and Historic Districts]]
==Trivia==
*Due to the generally liberal to radical views of the Berkeley public, the city is sometimes mockingly referred to as the People's Republic of Berkeley (and have led some to deride it as "Berzerkley"). This reputation, along with its generally temperate weather, high rates of tourism, and large student population have attracted large populations of [[transient]] people, many of whom are [[homeless]]. As a result, and because of the city's proximity to high-poverty areas in neighboring [[Oakland, California]], crime rates per capita are often among the top in the state.
*Berkeley's police department, under its first chief [[August Vollmer]] early in the 20th century, was the first in the U.S. to require that officers have a college degree. This department developed the [[lie detector]] test, and was one of the first to use fingerprints and radios. In [[1973]], Berkeley's city council enacted its well-known Berkeley [[Marijuana]] Initiative. The act ordered Berkeley police to make "no arrests and issue no citations for violations of marijuana laws."
*In [[1986]] Berkeley officially became a [[Nuclear Free Zone]] after a local vote, disallowing the operation of [[nuclear reactor]]s within city limits and preventing work from being done on [[nuclear weapon]]s within its borders. This is somewhat ironic, given Berkeley's past: the [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]] played a major role in the development of nuclear weapons in the [[Manhattan Project]], and a nuclear research center, [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]]), is located in the hills above the city. Street signs posted at the city borders declaring its Nuclear Free Zone status are the most noticeable effect of the measure. The University once housed a small research [[nuclear reactor|reactor]], which was decommissioned in the 1990s, though the University denies that this had anything to do with the Act.
* Berkeley celebrates "Indigenous People's Day" rather than [[Columbus Day]].
*In 1989, Berkeley banned the use of [[polystyrene]] packaging for keeping [[McDonald's]] hamburgers warm. This was one of the earliest events in the [[Plastic recycling|plastics]] [[recycling]] movement in the U.S.
*The City of Berkeley is home to a number of well-known artists, architects, composers, writers and thinkers: [[Fritjof Capra]], [[Susan Griffin]], [[Christopher Alexander]], [[Rita Moreno]], [[Michael Parenti]], [[Michael Lerner]], [[Michael Chabon]], and others. The city also has more independent publishers per capita than any other city in the country, and more bookstores per capita. Additionally, many famous bands have originated in Berkeley, including [[Operation Ivy (band)|Operation Ivy]] and [[Green Day]]. Berkeley, being one of the birthplaces of underground and independent comics, is also noted as a haven for cartoonists, including [[Dan Clowes]] and [[Adrian Tomine]].
*Berkeley has become known as a [[gourmet food]] center. Even by the standards of the [[Bay Area]] it has an exceptional number of specialty food shops and restaurants, the [http://www.berkeleybowl.com/ Berkeley Bowl Supermarket], and a Berkeley restaurant, [[Chez Panisse]], is regarded as the birthplace of [[California cuisine]]. Its proprietor, [[Alice Waters]], has been called "the mother of American cooking." Among the shops, [http://cheeseboardcollective.coop/ The Cheese Board Collective] is a well-known, cooperatively-run bakery and cheese shop.
*Since the [[1970s]], the [[Bay Area Rapid Transit]] system (BART), a [[metro]] train system, has linked Berkeley to [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] and the other cities of the Bay Area. Berkeley has nevertheless maintained its own character. Originally the planners of BART proposed an above-ground route through Berkeley, but Berkeley residents voted for a tunnel route instead, whose extra cost was funded by a [[bond]] issue. Consequently, BART runs entirely in tunnel through Berkeley, but above ground in the neighboring city of [[Albany, California|Albany]].
*The city is also the birthplace of th |
, [http://www.unicef.org/crc/index_30229.html Convention of the Rights of the Child - FAQ]: "The Convention on the Rights of the Child is the most widely and rapidly ratified human rights treaty in history. Only two countries, Somalia and the United States, have not ratified this celebrated agreement. Somalia is currently unable to proceed to ratification as it has no recognized government. By signing the Convention, the United States has signalled its intention to ratify—but has yet to do so."
# {{note|poll1}} Angus Reid Consultants, [http://www.angus-reid.com/polls/index.cfm/fuseaction/viewItem/itemID/9305 "Italians Opposed to Death Penalty"] (Opinion poll published in October 2005)
# {{note|poll2}} Death Penalty Information Center, [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?did=209&scid=23 "Public Opinion About the Death Penalty"]
# {{note|poll3}} Death Penalty Information Center, [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?scid=23&did=1029 "GALLUP POLL: Public Divided Between Death Penalty and Life Imprisonment Without Parole"] (June 2004)
# {{note|poll4}} Death Penalty Information Center, [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?did=209&scid=23#alt "Public Opinion About the Death Penalty"]
# {{note|poll5}} Harris Poll, [http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=431 "More Than Two-Thirds of Americans Continue to Support the Death Penalty"] (January 2004)
</div>
==External links==
* [http://encarta.msn.com/media_461543496/Capital_Punishment_Worldwide.html Country by country list of legal position of Death Penalty from Encarta]
*[http://usliberals.about.com/od/deathpenalty/i/DeathPenalty.htm About.com's Pros & Cons of the Death Penalty and Capital Punishment]
* [http://www.clarkprosecutor.org/html/links/dplinks.htm 1000+ Death Penalty links all in one place]
===Resources opposing capital punishment===
* [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/ The Death Penalty Information Center]: Statistical information and studies
* [http://www.texasmoratorium.org/ Texas Moratorium Network]: Advocacy group seeking a moratorium on executions in Texas
* [http://www.amnesty.org/deathpenalty Amnesty International]: Human Rights organisation
* [http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/human_rights/adp/ European Union] - Information on anti-death penalty policies
* [http://www.pfadp.org People of Faith Against the Death Penalty]: Southern US-based advocacy group
* [http://www.reprieve.org/ Reprieve.org]: United States based volunteer program for foreign lawyers, students, and others to work at death penalty defense offices
* [http://people.freenet.de/dpinfo/quotes.htm Death Penalty Quotes]: Offers thoughts grouped by profession
* [http://www.usccb.org/sdwp/national/deathpenalty/ United States Conference of Catholic Bishops]: details the Catholic Campaign to End the Use of the Death Penalty
* [http://www.cuadp.org/michhist.pdf/ Michigan's Capital Punishment History]
* [http://www.nodeathpenalty.org/ Campaign to End the Death Penalty]
* [http://www.aclu.org/DeathPenalty/DeathPenaltyMain.cfm American Civil Liberties Union]: Demanding a Moratorium on the Death Penalty
* [http://asiadeathpenalty.blogspot.com/ Asia Death Penalty blog]: information about the death penalty across Asia
* [http://www.cuadp.org/ Citizens United for Alternatives to the Death Penalty]: information, education and creative, direct action protest to end the death penalty
===Resources favoring capital punishment===
* [http://www.prodeathpenalty.com/ Pro Death Penalty.com]
* [http://www.wesleylowe.com/cp.html Pro Death Penalty Resource Page]
* [http://www.clarkprosecutor.org/html/death/death.htm Clark County, Indiana, Prosecutor's Page on capital punishment]
* [http://calebadams.org/ Execution of Caleb Adams]: Caleb Adams was publicly executed in Windham, Connecticut, USA, on [[November 29]], [[1803]] for the brutal murder of six-year-old Oliver Woodworth.
===Religious views on the death penalty===
*[http://www.deathpenaltyreligious.org/education/perspectives/dalailama.html The Dalai Lama] - Message Supporting the Moratorium on the Death Penalty
* [http://www.engaged-zen.org/articles/Damien_P_Horigan-Buddhism_Capital_Punishment.html Buddhism & Capital Punishment] from The Engaged Zen Society
* [http://www.ou.org/torah/savannah/5760/behaalotcha60.htm Orthodox Union website: Rabbi Yosef Edelstein: Parshat Beha'alotcha: A Few Reflections on Capital Punishment]
* [http://www.jewishjournal.com/old/deathpenalty2.3.10.0.htm Jews and the Death Penalty - by Naomi Pfefferman (Jewish Journal)]
* [http://priestsforlife.org/deathpenalty/index.htm Priests for Life] - Lists several Catholic links
[[Category:Capital punishment]]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Criminal law]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[bg:Смъртно наказание]]
[[zh-min-nan:Sí-hêng]]
[[ca:Pena de mort]]
[[cs:Trest smrti]]
[[da:Dødsstraf]]
[[de:Todesstrafe]]
[[et:Surmanuhtlus]]
[[es:Pena capital]]
[[eo:Mortpuno]]
[[fr:Peine de mort]]
[[ko:사형]]
[[id:Hukuman mati]]
[[it:Pena di morte]]
[[he:עונש מוות]]
[[lv:Nāvessods]]
[[hu:Halálbüntetés]]
[[nl:Doodstraf]]
[[ja:死刑]]
[[no:Dødsstraff]]
[[pl:Kara śmierci]]
[[pt:Pena de morte]]
[[ru:Смертная казнь]]
[[sk:Trest smrti]]
[[sl:Smrtna kazen]]
[[fi:Kuolemanrangaistus]]
[[sv:Dödsstraff]]
[[vi:Tử hình]]
[[zh:死刑]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cultural movement</title>
<id>5903</id>
<revision>
<id>41572349</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T05:48:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tyrenius</username>
<id>393711</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Cultural movements */ See Postmodern art</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''cultural movement''' is a change in the way a number of different disciplines approach their work. This embodies all [[art]] forms, the [[science]]s, and [[philosophies]]. Long ago, different nations or regions of the world would go through their own independent sequence of movements in culture, but as world communications have accelerated this geographical distinction has become less noteworthy. When cultural movements go through revolutions from one to the next, genres tend to get attacked and mixed up, and often new genres are generated and old ones fade. These changes are often reactions against the prior cultural form, which typically has grown stale and repetitive. An obsession emerges among the mainstream with the new movement, and the old one falls into neglect - sometimes it dies out entirely, but often it chugs along favored in a few disciplines and occasionally making reappearances (sometimes prefixed with "neo-").
There is continual argument over the precise definition of each of these periods, and one historian might group them differently, or choose different names or descriptions. As well, even though in many cases the popular change from one to the next can be swift and sudden, the beginning and end of movements are somewhat subjective, as the movements did not spring fresh into existence out of the blue and did not come to an abrupt end and lose total support, as would be suggested by a date range. Thus use of the term "period" is somewhat deceptive. "Period" also suggests a linearity of development, whereas it has not been uncommon for two or more distinctive cultural approaches to be active at the same time. Historians will be able to find distinctive traces of a cultural movement before its accepted beginning, and there will always be new creations in old forms. So it can be more useful to think in terms of broad "movements" that have rough beginnings and endings. Yet for historical perspective, some rough date ranges will be provided for each to indicate the "height" or accepted timespan of the movement.
<!-- NOTE: I'm including the sub-sections (the isms) *only* for organizational purposes since in most cases Wikipedia does not have articles on the various sections/periods/movements/whatever. Similarly for calling out the different cultural forms - art, architecture, philosophy, etc. I also think it is worthwhile to include short descriptions of each movement for similar reasons. The purpose of this page is to help get these areas of Wikipedia filled in - hopefully by folks more knowledgeable in the particular topics than I! -->
==Cultural movements==
* [[Graeco-Roman]]
** The [[ancient Greece|Greek]] culture marked a departure from the other Mediterranean cultures that preceded and surrounded it. The [[ancient Rome|Romans]] adopted Greek and other styles, and spread the result throughout Europe and the middle east. Together, Greek and Roman thought in philosophy, religion, science, history, and all forms of thought can be viewed as a central underpinning of Western culture, and is therefore termed the "Classical period" by some. Others might divide it into the [[Hellenistic]] period and the Roman period, or might choose other finer divisions.
:: See: [[Classical architecture]] &mdash; [[Classical sculpture]] &mdash; [[Architecture of Ancient Greece|Greek architecture]] &mdash; [[Hellenistic architecture]] &mdash; [[Ionic order|Ionic]] &mdash; [[Doric order|Doric]] &mdash; [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] &mdash; [[Stoicism]] &mdash; [[Cynicism]] &mdash; [[Epicurean]] &mdash; [[Roman architecture]] &mdash; [[Early Christian]] &mdash; [[Neoplatonism]]
* [[Romanesque]] (11th & 12th centuries)==
** A style (esp. architectural) similar in form and materials to Roman styles. Romanesque seems to be the first pan-European style since Roman Imperial Architecture and examples are found in every part of the continent.
:: See: [[Romanesque architecture]] &mdash; [[Ottonian Art]]
* [[Gothic art|Gothic]]
: <!-- description goes here -->
:: See: [[Gothic architecture]] &mdash; [[Gregorian chant]] &mdash; [[Neoplatonism]]
* [[No |
er equipment used by skaters includes pads called butt pads or crash pads that are inserted into the pants or stockings and provide relief from the pain of hard falls, especially when learning new jumps. Another piece of equipment is the guard, which is put on the blade when the skater must walk in his or her skates when not on the ice. The guard protects the blade from dirt or material on the ground that may dull the blade. Soft blade covers called soakers are used to absorb condensation and protect the blades from rust when the skates are not being worn.
Clothing worn while ice skating includes dresses and skirts for women. For competition, these pieces of clothing can be heavily beaded or trimmed, and cost up to thousands of dollars if designed by a top level dress-maker. For practice, figure skaters of both sexes usually wear [[leggings]] or tight fitting, flexible pants. Tights are also worn with dresses and skirts and underneath leggings for extra warmth and aesthetic qualities. Women generally wear flesh-colored leggings under dresses and skirts; the costumes are thus less revealing than they at first appear. Competition outfits for skaters of both sexes, especially in ice dance, are often theatrical and revealing, in spite of repeated attempts to ban clothing that gives the impression of "excessive " or that is otherwise inappropriate for athletic competition.
Some rinks use harness systems to help skaters learn jumps faster in a controlled manner. The rink installs a heavy-duty cable that is securely attached to two walls of the rink. A set of pulleys ride on the cable. The skater wears a vest or belt that has a cable or rope attached to it. That cable/rope is threaded through the movable pulley on the cable above. The coach holds the other end of the cable and lifts the skater by pulling the cable/rope. The skater can then practice the jump, with the coach assisting with the completion.
==Disciplines==
[[Image:Sonja henie 1924.jpg|thumb|Sonja Henie, Singles Women]]
[[Image:Ulrich Salchow.jpg|thumb|Ulrich Salchow, Singles Men]]
[[Image:Marigold IceUnity.jpg|thumb|right|250 px|Synchronized skating.]]
International competitions in figure skating comprise the following disciplines:
* Singles competition for men and women (who are referred to as "ladies" in the official terminology of the sport). Singles skaters must perform [[figure skating jump|jumps]], [[figure skating spin|spins]], and step sequences in their programs.
*[[Pair skating]] for teams consisting of a lady and a man. Pairs perform singles elements in unison as well as pair-specific elements such as throw jumps, in which the male skater 'throws' the female into a jump; lifts, in which the female is held above the male's head in a number of different grips and positions; pair spins, in which both skaters spin together about a common axis; and death spirals, where the man in a pivot swings the lady around him on a deep edge in a position low to the ice.
*[[Ice dancing]], again for couples consisting of a lady and a man skating together. Ice dance differs from pairs in focusing on difficult steps performed in close dance holds exactly to the beat of the music rather than acrobatic jumps, throws, and lifts. In addition to free dances to music of their own choice, ice dancers must perform compulsory dances with fixed steps and patterns to standard [[ballroom dance]] rhythms. In spite of the lack of obvious "tricks", ice dance is considered by many to be the most technical and detailed of the skating disciplines.
*[[Synchronized skating]], for mixed-gender groups of 12 to 20 skaters. This discipline resembles a group form of ice dance with additional emphasis on precise formations of the group as a whole and complex transitions between formations.
Other disciplines of skating include:
*[[Compulsory figures]], in which skaters use their blades to draw circles, figure 8s, and similar shapes in ice, and are judged on the accuracy and clarity of the figures and the cleanness and exact placement of the various turns on the circles. Figures were formerly included as a component of singles competitions but were eliminated from those events in 1990. Today figures are rarely taught or performed. The [[United States]] was the last country to retain a separate test and competitive structure for compulsory figures, but the last national-level figures championship was held in 1999.
*[[Moves in the field]] (known in the UK as field moves), which have replaced compulsory figures as a discipline to teach the same turns and edge skills in the context of fluid free skating movements instead of being constrained to artificially precise circles.
*Fours, a discipline that is to pairs as pairs is to singles. A fours team consists of two men and two women who perform singles and pairs elements in unison as well as unique elements that involve all four skaters.
*Theatre on ice, also known as [[ballet on ice]] in Europe. This is a form of group skating that is less structured than synchronized skating and allows the use of props and theatrical costuming.
*[[Adagio skating]], a form of pair skating most commonly seen in ice shows, where the skaters perform many spectacular acrobatic lifts but few or none of the singles elements which competitive pairs must perform.
*[[Special figures]], the tracing of elaborate original designs on the ice, common in the early days of skating.
==Jumps==
Jumps involve the skater leaping into the air and rotating rapidly to land after completing one or more rotations. There are many types of jumps, identified by the way the skater takes off and lands, as well as by the number of rotations that are completed.
Most skaters rotate all their jumps in the counterclockwise direction. Some prefer to rotate clockwise, and a very small number of skaters can perform jumps in both directions. For clarity, all jumps will be described for the counterclockwise skater.
There are six major jumps in figure skating. All six are landed on a right back outside edge (with counterclockwise rotation, for single and multi-revolution jumps), but have different takeoffs, by which they may be distinguished. The two categories of jumps are toe jumps and edge jumps. (Descriptions below are for counterclockwise rotation skaters; reverse for clockwise rotation jumps.)
Toe jumps are launched by tapping the toe pick of one skate into the ice, and include (in order of difficulty from easiest to hardest):
# [[Toe loop jump|Toe loop]]s take off from the back outside edge of the right foot and are launched by the left toe pick (toe walleys are similar, but take off from the back inside edge of the right foot);
# [[Toe walley]], some people mistakenly refer to a toe loop done from the outside three turn entrance with a change of foot as a toe walley; a true toe walley takes off from a back inside edge, not an outside edge;
# [[Flip jump|Flip]]s, which take off from the back inside edge of the left foot and are launched by the right toe pick;
# [[Lutz jump|Lutz]]es, which take off from the back outside edge of the left foot and are launched by the right toe pick.
Edge jumps use no toe assist, and include:
# [[Salchow jump|Salchow]]s, which take off from a left back inside edge. Swinging the opposite leg around helps launch the jump;
# [[Loop jump|Loop]]s (also known as Rittberger jumps) take off from a right back outside edge and land on the same edge;
# [[Axel jump|Axel]]s, which are the only jump to take off from a forward edge (the left outside edge). Because they take off from a forward edge, they include one-half extra rotations and are usually considered the hardest jump of the six. The similar jump with only half a rotation is called a [[waltz jump]] and is typically the first jump a skater learns.
The number of rotations performed in the air for each jump determines whether the jump is a single, double, triple, or quad. Most elite male skaters perform triples and quads as their main jumps, while most elite female skaters perform all the triples except the axel, which is usually double. Only a handful of female skaters have successfully landed triple axels in competition.
One variation, known as the ''Tano'', is far more difficult than a normal jump because the jumper keeps one arm raised above his or her head while jumping. The name is derived from [[Brian Boitano]], who made a triple lutz with an upraised arm his signature jump.
There are also a number of other jumps which are usually performed only as single jumps and are typically used as transitional movements or highlights in step sequences. These include:
#[[Loop jump|Half Loop]]s, which take off from a right back outside edge like a loop, but land on the left back inside edge;
#[[Half Flip]], a half-rotation jump with a flip entrance, typically landed on the left toe pick and right forward inside edge for a counterclockwise jump.
#[[Walley jump]]s, which takes off from a right back inside edge. It is debatably more difficult than the axel, because the flow of the inside edge is clockwise and opposes the counterclockwise rotation in the air;
#[[Split jump]]s, which are half-rotation jumps based on a flip, lutz, or loop entrance;
# [[Waltz jump]] The similar [[Axel jump]] with only half a rotation is called a is typically the first jump a skater learns
#[[Axel jump|Inside axel]]s, one-and-a-half-rotation jumps that take off from the right forward inside edge;
#[[Axel jump|One-foot axel]]s, one-and-a-half-rotation jumps with a regular axel takeoff from the left forward outside edge, but landing on the left back inside edge.
In addition to jumps performed singly, jumps may also be performed in combination or in sequence.
For a set of jumps to be considered a combination, each jump must take off from the landing edge of the previous jump, with no steps, turns, or change of edge in between jumps. This limits all jumps ex |
hony the Great]]
[[de:Antonius der Große]]
[[es:Antonio Abad]]
[[fr:Antoine le Grand]]
[[it:Sant'Antonio Abate]]
[[nap:Sant'Antonio Abate]]
[[nl:Antonius van Egypte]]
[[nn:Antonius den store]]
[[no:Antonius den store]]
[[pl:Antoni Wielki]]
[[pt:Antão do Deserto]]
[[ru:Антоний Великий]]
[[sr:Преподобни Антоније Велики]]
[[sv:Antonios Eremiten]]
[[uk:Святий Антоній]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Archdiocese for the Military Services</title>
<id>3247</id>
<revision>
<id>27447807</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-05T14:48:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wesley</username>
<id>63</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merging</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese for the Military Services]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Archeopteryx</title>
<id>3248</id>
<revision>
<id>15901607</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Archaeopteryx]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amblypoda</title>
<id>3250</id>
<revision>
<id>37344563</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T10:58:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdr</username>
<id>55814</id>
</contributor>
<comment>no taxobox for invalid taxa</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Amblypoda''' is a taxonomic hypothesis uniting a group of extinct, herbivorous [[mammal]]s. They were considered a suborder of the primitive [[ungulate]] mammals, and have since been shown to represent a [[polyphyletic]] group.
==Characteristics==
The Amblypoda take their name from their short and stumpy feet, which were furnished with five toes each, and supported massive pillar-like limbs. The brain-cavity was extremely small and insignificant in comparison to the bodily mass, which was equal to that of the largest [[rhinoceros|rhinoceroses]]. These animals are, in fact, descendants of the small ancestral ungulates which retained all the primitive characteristics of the latter accompanied by a huge increase in body size.
The Amblypoda are confined to the [[Eocene]] period, and occur both in [[North America]] and [[Europe]]. The cheek teeth are short crowned ([[brachyodont]]), with the tubercles more-or-less completely fused into transverse ridges, or cross-crests ([[lophodont]] type); and the total number of teeth is in one case the typical 44, but in another is less. The [[vertebra]] of the neck unite on nearly flat surfaces, the [[humerus]] has lost the foramen, or perforation, at the lower end, and the third trochanter to the [[femur]] may also be wanting. In the fore-limb the upper and lower series of [[carpal]] (finger) bones scarcely alternate, but in the hind-foot the astragalus overlaps the cuboid, while the [[fibula]], which is quite distinct from the [[tibia]] (as is the [[radius (bone)|radius]] from the [[ulna]] in the fore-limb), articulates with both astragalus and calcaneum.
==Types of amblypods==
The most generalized type is ''[[Coryphodon]]'', representing the family [[Coryphodontidae]], from the lower Eocene of Europe and North America, in which there were 44 teeth, and no horn-like excrescences on the long skull, while the femur had a third trochanter. The canines are somewhat elongated, and were followed by a short gap in each jaw, and the cheek-teeth were adapted for succulent food. The length of the body reached about six feet in some cases.
In the middle Eocene formations of North America occurs the more specialized ''[[Uintatherium]]'' (or ''Dinoceras''), typifying the family [[Uintatheriidae]]. Uintatheres were huge creatures with long narrow skulls, of which the elongated facial portion carried three pairs of bony horn-cores, probably covered with short horns in life, the hind-pair being much the largest. The dental formula is i. 0/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/3·4, m. 3/3; the upper canines being long sabre-like weapons, protected by a descending flange on each side of the lower front jaw.
In the basal Eocene of North America, the Amblypoda were represented by extremely primitive, five-toed, small ungulates such as ''[[Periptychus]]'' and ''[[Pantolambda]]'', each of these typifying a family. The full typical series of 44 teeth was developed in each, but whereas in the [[Periptychidae]] the upper molars were [[bunodont]] and [[tritubercular]], in the [[Pantolambdidae]] they have assumed a [[selenodont]] structure. [[Creodonta|Creodont]] characters are displayed in the skeleton.
==Current taxonomy of animals once classified in amblypoda==
Few authorities recognize Amblypoda in modern classifications. The following mammals were once considered part of this group:
*Order [[Pholidota]] ([[pangolin]]s)
*Order [[Pantodonta]]
**Family [[Wangliidae]]
**Family [[Harpyodidae]]
**Family [[Bemalambdidae]]
**Family [[Pastoralodontidae]]
**Family [[Titanoideidae]]
**Family [[Pantolambdidae]] (including ''[[Pantolambda]]'')
**Family [[Barylambdidae]]
**Family [[Cyriacotheriidae]]
**Family [[Pantolambdodontidae]]
**Family [[Coryphodontidae]] (including ''[[Coryphodon]]'')
*Order [[Dinocerata]]
**Family [[Uintatheriidae]] (includes ''[[Uintatherium]]'', ''Eobasileus'', ''Tetheopsis'', etc. ''[[Gobiatherium]]'' is sometimes placed in its won family)
*Order [[Condylartha]]
**Family [[Hyopsodontidae]]
**Family [[Mioclaenidae]]
**Family [[Phenacodontidae]]
**Family [[Periptychidae]] (including ''[[Periptychus]]'')
**Family [[Peligrotheriidae]]
**Family [[Didolodontidae]]
[[Category:Prehistoric mammals]]
[[Category:Eocene mammals]]
[[Category:Eocene extinctions]]
==References==
*{{1911}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amblygonite</title>
<id>3251</id>
<revision>
<id>38160098</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-04T16:30:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jaraalbe</username>
<id>261435</id>
</contributor>
<comment>aluminium mineral category</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Amblygonite''' is a fluorophosphate mineral, (Li,Na)AlPO<sub>4</sub>(F,OH), composed of [[lithium]], [[sodium]], [[aluminium]], [[phosphate]], [[fluoride]] and [[hydroxide]]. The mineral occurs in pegmatite deposites and is easily mistaken for [[albite]] and other [[feldspar]]s. Its density, cleavage and flame test for lithium are diagnostic. Geologic occrrence is in [[granite]] [[pegmatite]]s, high-temperature [[tin]] veins, and greisens. Amblygonite occurs with [[spodumene]], [[apatite]], [[lepidolite]], [[tourmaline]], and other lithium-bearing minerals in pegmatite veins. It contains about 10% lithium, and has been utilized as a source of lithium. The chief commercial sources have historically been the deposits of California and France.
== Properties ==
{| BORDER="0" WIDTH="596"
|-
| WIDTH="172" BGCOLOR="#FFCCCC" | [[Crystal structure|Crystallographic system]]
| WIDTH="410" | Triclinic
|-
| WIDTH="172" BGCOLOR="#FFCCCC" | Form
| WIDTH="410" | Prismatic to columnar
|-
| WIDTH="172" BGCOLOR="#FFCCCC" | Twinning
| WIDTH="410" | Microscopic polysynthetic twinning common
|-
| WIDTH="172" BGCOLOR="#FFCCCC" | Colors
| WIDTH="410" | Generally white or creamy, but can also be colorless or pale yellow, green, blue, beige, gray or pink.
|-
| WIDTH="172" BGCOLOR="#FFCCCC" | Luster
| WIDTH="410" | Vitreous to pearly
|-
| WIDTH="172" BGCOLOR="#FFCCCC" | [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness|Hardness]]
| WIDTH="410" | 5.5 - 6
|-
| WIDTH="172" BGCOLOR="#FFCCCC" | [[Specific gravity]]
| WIDTH="410" | 2.98 - 3.11
|-
| WIDTH="172" BGCOLOR="#FFCCCC" | [[Refractive index]]
| WIDTH="410" | n<SUB>a</SUB>=1.577 - 1.591 n<SUB>b</SUB>=1.592 - 1.605 n<SUB>c</SUB>=1.596 - 1.613
|-
| WIDTH="172" BGCOLOR="#FFCCCC" | Cleavage
| WIDTH="410" | [100] Perfect, [110] Good, [011] Distinct
|-
| WIDTH="172" BGCOLOR="#FFCCCC" | Fracture
| WIDTH="410" | Irregular/Uneven,Sub-Conchoidal
|}
==History==
The mineral was first discovered in [[Saxony]] by A. Breithaupt in [[1817]], and named by him from the Greek ''amblus'', blunt, and ''gouia'', angle, because of the obtuse angle between the cleavages. Later it was found at Montebras, Creuse, [[France]], and at Hebron in [[Maine]]; and because of slight differences in optical character and chemical composition the names montebrasite and hebronite have been applied to the mineral from these localities. It has been discovered in considerable quantity at Pala in San Diego county, [[California]]; Caceres, [[Spain]]; and the [[Black Hills]] of [[South Dakota]].
==References==
*Dana's Manual of Mineralogy ISBN 0471032883
*[http://www.mindat.org/min-305.html mindat.org]
*[http://www.minerals.net/mineral/sulfides/arsenopy/arsenopy.htm Minerals.net]
*[http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/phosphat/amblygon/amblygon.htm Mineral Galleries]
[[Category:Sodium minerals]]
[[Category:Lithium minerals]]
[[Category:Aluminium minerals]]
[[Category:Hydroxide minerals]]
[[Category:Phosphate minerals]]
[[cs:Amblygonit]]
[[nl:Amblygoniet]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Amygdalin</title>
<id>3252</id>
<revision>
<id>41512456</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:35:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up and bulleting external links using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Amygdalin.png|right|thumb| |
he largest proven oil reserves in the world and has the highest population among nations in Africa, with one of the fastest-growing economies in the world. It is believed that with the country's rapidly expanding economy and increasing actions against corruption, Nigeria's status as Africa's economic powerhouse will soon be firmly established.
==Demographics==
Africans may be grouped according to whether they live north or south of the [[Sahara Desert]]; these groups are called [[North African]]s and [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]ns, respectively. [[Afro-Asiatic]] speaking peoples predominate in North Africa, while Sub-Saharan Africa is dominated by a number of populations grouped according to their language --[[Niger-Congo]] predominantly in West Africa, [[Nilo-Saharan]] in the Eastern highlands and [[Khoisan]] in the south.
Speakers of [[Bantu languages]] (part of the Niger-Congo family) are the majority in southern, central and east Africa proper; but there are also several Nilotic groups in East Africa, and a few remaining [[Indigenous peoples of Africa|indigenous]] Khoisan ('[[San]]' or '[[Bushmen]]') and Pygmy peoples in southern and central Africa, respectively. Bantu-speaking Africans also predominate in Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, and are found in parts of southern Cameroon and southern Somalia. In the [[Kalahari Desert]] of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as the Bushmen (also "San", closely related to, but distinct from "[[Khoikhoi|Hottentots]]") have long been present. The San are physically distinct from other Africans and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. [[Pygmies]] are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of central Africa.
The peoples of [[North Africa]] comprise two main groups; [[Berber]] and [[Arabic]]-speaking peoples in the west, and [[Demographics_of_Egypt#People|Egyptians]] in the east. The Arabs who arrived in the 7th century introduced the [[Arabic language]] and [[Islam]] to North Africa. The Semitic [[Phoenicia]]ns, and the European [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] settled in North Africa as well. Berbers still make up the majority in [[Morocco]], while they are a significant minority within [[Algeria]]. They are also present in [[Tunisia]] and [[Libya]]. The [[Tuareg]] and other often-nomadic peoples are the principal inhabitants of the Saharan interior of North Africa. [[Nubians]] are a [[Nilo-Saharan]]-speaking group (though many also speak Arabic), who developed an ancient civilization in Northeast Africa.
During the past century or so, small but economically important colonies of [[Demographics_of_Lebanon#The_Lebanese_Diaspora|Lebanese]] and [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] have also developed in the larger coastal cities of [[West Africa|West]] and [[East Africa]], respectively.
Some [[Ethiopia]]n and Eritrean groups (like the [[Amhara]] and [[Tigray]]ans, collectively known as "[[Habesha]]") have [[Semitic]] (Sabaean) ancestry. The Somalis as a people originated in the [[Ethiopian Highlands]], but most Somali clans can trace some Arab ancestry as well. [[Sudan]] and [[Mauritania]] are divided between a mostly Arabized north and a native African south (although the "Arabs" of Sudan clearly have a predominantly native African ancestry themselves). Some areas of East Africa, particularly the island of [[Zanzibar]] and the Kenyan island of Lamu, received Arab Muslim and [[Southwest Asia]]n settlers and merchants throughout the [[Middle Ages]] and in antiquity.
Beginning in the [[16th century]], Europeans such as the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and [[The Netherlands|Dutch]] began to establish [[trading post]]s and [[Fortification|forts]] along the coasts of western and southern Africa. Eventually, a large number of Dutch, augmented by French [[Huguenots]] and [[German people|Germans]] settled in what is today [[South Africa]]. Their descendants, the [[Afrikaners]] and the [[Coloureds]], are the largest European-descended groups in Africa today. In the [[19th century]], a second phase of colonization brought a large number of French and [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] settlers to Africa. The Portuguese settled mainly in Angola, but also in Mozambique. The French settled in large numbers in [[Algeria]] where they became known collectively as ''[[Pied-noir|pieds-noirs]]'', and on a smaller scale in other areas of North and West Africa as well as in Madagascar. The British settled chiefly in South Africa as well as the colony of [[Rhodesia]], and in the highlands of what is now [[Kenya]]. Germans settled in what is now [[Tanzania]] and [[Namibia]], and there is still a population of German-speaking white Namibians. Smaller numbers of European soldiers, businessmen, and officials also established themselves in administrative centers such as [[Nairobi]] and [[Dakar]]. Decolonization during the 1960s often resulted in the mass emigration of European-descended settlers out of Africa &mdash; especially from Algeria, Angola, Kenya and Rhodesia (now [[Zimbabwe]]). However, in South Africa and Namibia, the white minority remained politically dominant after independence from Europe, and a significant population of white Africans remained in these two countries even after [[liberal democracy|democracy]] was finally instituted at the end of the [[Cold War]]. South Africa has also become the preferred destination of white Anglo-Zimbabweans, and of migrants from all over southern Africa.
European colonization also brought sizeable groups of [[Asians]], particularly people from the [[Indian subcontinent]], to British colonies. Large [[Indian diaspora|Indian communities]] are found in South Africa, and smaller ones are present in Kenya, Tanzania, and some other southern and east African countries. A fairly large Indian community in [[Uganda]] was expelled by the dictator [[Idi Amin]] in 1972, though many have since returned. The islands in the [[Indian Ocean]] are also populated primarily by people of Asian origin, often mixed with Africans and Europeans. The [[Malagasy]] people of [[Madagascar]] are a [[Malay people]], but those along the coast are generally mixed with Bantu, Arab, Indian and European origins. Malay and Indian ancestries are also important components in the group of people known in South Africa as [[Coloureds]] (people with origins in two or more races and continents).
==Languages==
[[Image:African language families.png|right|300px|thumb|Map showing the distribution of African language families and some major African languages. [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] extends from the [[Sahel]] to [[Southwest Asia]]. [[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo]] is divided to show the size of the [[Bantu languages|Bantu sub-family]].]]
''Main article: [[African languages]]''
By most estimates Africa contains well over a thousand [[language]]s. There are four major [[language family|language families]] native to Africa.
* The [[Afro-Asiatic languages|''Afro-Asiatic'']] languages are a language family of about 240 languages and 285 million people widespread throughout North Africa, [[East Africa]], the Sahel, and [[Southwest Asia]].
* The [[Nilo-Saharan languages|''Nilo-Saharan'']] language family consists of more than a hundred languages spoken by 30 million people. Nilo-Saharan languages are mainly spoken in [[Chad]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]], and northern [[Tanzania]].
* The [[Niger-Congo languages|''Niger-Congo'']] language family covers much of Sub-Saharan Africa and is probably the largest language family in the world in terms of different languages. A substantial number of them are the [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] languages spoken in much of sub-Saharan Africa.
* The [[Khoisan languages|''Khoisan'']] languages number about 50 and are spoken in Southern Africa by approximately 120 000 people. Many of the Khoisan languages are [[endangered language|endangered]]. The [[Khoikhoi|Khoi]] and [[Bushmen|San]] peoples are considered the original inhabitants of this part of Africa.
With a few notable exceptions in [[East Africa]], nearly all African countries have adopted [[official language]]s that originated outside the continent and spread through [[colonialism]] or [[human migration]]. For example, in numerous countries [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]] are used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the media. [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Afrikaans]] and [[Malagasy]] are other examples of originally non-African languages that are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private spheres.
==Culture==
Africa has a number of overlapping cultures. The most conventional distinction is that between sub-Saharan Africa and the northern countries from [[Egypt]] to [[Morocco]], who largely associate themselves with [[Arab]]ic culture. In this comparison, the nations to the south of the [[Sahara]] are considered to consist of many cultural areas, in particular that of the [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] linguistic group.
Divisions may also be made between [[Francophone Africa]] and the rest of Africa, in particular the former British colonies of [[southern Africa|southern]] and [[East Africa]]. Another cultural fault-line is that between those Africans living traditional lifestyles and those who are essentially modern. The traditionalists are sometimes subdivided into [[pastoralism|pastoralists]] and [[agriculture|agriculturalists]].
[[African art]] reflects the diversity of African cultures. The oldest existing art from Africa are 6000-year old carvings found in [[Niger]], while the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] in [[Egypt]] was the world's tallest architectural accomplishment for four thousand years until the creation of the [[Eiffel Tower]]. The Ethiopian complex of [[monolithic church]]es at [[Lalibela]], of which the [[Church of St. George]] is representativ |
' binarySearch(a, value, left, right)
'''if''' right < left
'''return''' ''not found''
mid := floor((left+right)/2)
'''if''' a[mid] = value
'''return''' mid
'''if''' value < a[mid]
'''return''' binarySearch(a, value, left, mid-1)
'''else
'''return''' binarySearch(a, value, mid+1, right)
Because the calls are [[tail-recursive]], this can be rewritten as a loop, making the algorithm [[in-place algorithm|in-place]]:
'''function''' binarySearch(a, value, left, right)
'''while''' left &le; right
mid := floor((left+right)/2)
'''if''' a[mid] = value
'''return''' mid
'''if''' value < a[mid]
right := mid-1
'''else
left := mid+1
'''return''' ''not found''
In both cases, the algorithm terminates because on each recursive call or iteration, the range of indexes <code>right</code> minus <code>left</code> always gets smaller, and so must eventually become negative.
Binary search is a [[logarithmic algorithm]] and executes in [[big O notation|O]](log n) time. Specifically, <math>1 + /log_2N</math> iterations are needed to return an answer. It is considerably faster than a [[linear search]]. It can be implemented using [[recursion]] or [[iteration]], as shown above, although in many languages it is more elegantly expressed recursively.
== Examples ==
An example of binary search in action is a simple guessing game in which a player has to guess a positive integer selected by another player between 1 and ''N'', using only questions answered with yes or no. Supposing ''N'' is 16 and the number 11 is selected, the game might proceed as follows.
* Is the number greater than 8? (Yes)
* Is the number greater than 12? (No)
* Is the number greater than 10? (Yes)
* Is the number greater than 11? (No)
Therefore, the number must be 11. At each step, we choose a number right in the middle of the range of possible values for the number. For example, once we know the number is greater than 8, but less than or equal to 12, we know to choose a number in the middle of the range [9, 12] (either 10 or 11 will do).
At most <math>\lceil\log_2 N\rceil</math> questions are required to determine the number, since each question halves the search space. Note that one less question (iteration) is required than for the general algorithm, since the number is constrained to a particular range.
Even if the number we're guessing can be arbitrarily large, in which case there is no upper bound ''N'', we can still find the number in at most <math>2\lceil \log_2 k \rceil</math> steps (where k is the (unknown) selected number) by first finding an upper bound by repeated doubling. For example, if the number were 11, we could use the following sequence of guesses to find it:
* Is the number greater than 1? (Yes)
* Is the number greater than 2? (Yes)
* Is the number greater than 4? (Yes)
* Is the number greater than 8? (Yes)
* Is the number greater than 16? (No, N=16, proceed as above)
( We know the number greater than 8 )
* Is the number greater than 12? (No)
* Is the number greater than 10? (Yes)
* Is the number greater than 11? (No)
As one simple application, in [[revision control]] systems, it is possible to use a binary search to see in which revision a piece of content was added to a file. We simply do a binary search through the entire version history; if the content is not present in a particular version, it appeared later, while if it is present it appeared at that version or sooner. This is far quicker than checking every difference.
== Language support ==
Many standard libraries provide a way to do binary search. [[C programming language|C]] provides <code>bsearch</code> in its standard library. [[C++]]'s [[Standard Template Library|STL]] provides [[algorithm function]]s <code>[[lower_bound]]</code> and <code>[[upper_bound]]</code>. [[Java programming language|Java]] offers an overloaded <code>binarySearch()</code> method for the class {{Javadoc:SE|package=java.util|java/util|Arrays}}.
==Applications to [[computational complexity theory|complexity theory]]==
Even if we do not know a fixed range the number ''k'' falls in, we can still determine its value by asking <math>2\lceil\log_2k\rceil</math> simple yes/no questions of the form "Is ''k'' greater than ''x''?" for some number ''x''. As a simple consequence of this, if you can answer the question "Is this integer property ''k'' greater than a given value?" in some amount of time then you can find the value of that property in the same amount of time with an added factor of log ''k''. This is called a ''[[reduction (complexity)|reduction]]'', and it is because of this kind of reduction that most complexity theorists concentrate on [[decision problem]]s, algorithms that produce a simple yes/no answer.
For example, suppose we could answer "Does this ''n'' x ''n'' matrix have [[determinant]] larger than ''k''?" in O(''n''<sup>2</sup>) time. Then, by using binary search, we could find the (ceiling of the) determinant itself in O(''n''<sup>2</sup>log ''d'') time, where ''d'' is the determinant; notice that ''d'' is not the size of the input, but the size of the output.
==See also==
*[[Uniform binary search]]
* [[Big O notation]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/binarySearch.html NIST Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: binary search]
* Tim Bray. [http://www.tbray.org/ongoing/When/200x/2003/03/22/Binary On the Goodness of Binary Search]. A short essay on the advantages of binary search and some Java sample code.
* [http://www.sparknotes.com/cs/searching/binarysearch/ Sparknotes: Binary search]. Simplified overview of binary search.
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BinarySearch.html Mathworld: Binary search]
* [http://blogs.netindonesia.net/adrian/articles/6288.aspx Binary Search Implementation in Visual Basic .NET (partially in English)]
== References ==
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Section 6.2.1: Searching an Ordered Table, pp.409&ndash;426.
[[Category:Search algorithms]]
[[de:Binäre Suche]]
[[es:Búsqueda binaria]]
[[fr:Dichotomie]]
[[it:Ricerca dicotomica]]
[[he:חיפוש בינארי]]
[[ja:二分探索]]
[[pt:Pesquisa binária]]
[[ru:Двоичный поиск]]
[[sk:Binárne vyhľadávanie]]
[[fi:Puolitushaku]]
[[uk:Двійковий пошук]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Belle & Sebastian</title>
<id>4267</id>
<revision>
<id>42158844</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:14:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>12.5.52.165</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>subject verb agreement (m)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4|a band named Belle & Sebastian|for the TV and anime series|Belle et Sébastien}}
{{Infobox_band |
| band_name = Belle & Sebastian|
| image = [[Image:BelleAndSebastian.jpg|220px]]|
| years_active = 1996&ndash;present|
| origin = [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]|
| music_genre = [[Indie (music)|Indie]]|
| record_label = [[Rough Trade Records]]<br />[[Jeepster Records]]|
| current_members = Stuart Murdoch<br />Stevie Jackson<br />Chris Geddes<br />Sarah Martin<br />Mick Cooke<br />Bobby Kildea<br />Richard Colburn|
|}}
'''Belle & Sebastian''' are a band formed in [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland|Scotland]] in January [[1996]]. After releasing a number of albums and EPs on [[Jeepster Records]], they are now signed to [[Rough Trade Records]] in the United Kingdom and [[Matador Records]] in the United States.
While commonly filed under "[[twee pop]]", a description the band has rejected, Belle & Sebastian have much in common with influential [[Indie (music)|indie]] bands such as [[The Smiths]] and [[Felt (band)|Felt]], and also take in other influences, such as northern soul and funk, that are not usually associated with twee.
==Lineup==
The current members of the band are:
*[[Stuart Murdoch (musician)|Stuart Murdoch]]: 1996&ndash;present (vocals, guitar and keyboards)
*[[Stevie Jackson]]: 1996&ndash;present (vocals and guitar)
*[[Chris Geddes]]: 1996&ndash;present (keyboards)
*[[Richard Colburn]]: 1996&ndash;present (drums)
*[[Sarah Martin (musician)|Sarah Martin]]: 1996&ndash;present (violin and vocals)
*[[Mick Cooke]]: 1998&ndash;present (trumpet and bass)
*[[Bobby Kildea]]: 2001&ndash;present (guitar and bass)
Past members include:
*[[Isobel Campbell]]: 1996&ndash;2002 (vocals and cello)
*[[Stuart David]]: 1996&ndash;2000 (bass)
==History==
The band formed under the aegis of a training scheme and music business course. Built mostly around the creative mind of [[Stuart Murdoch (musician)|Stuart Murdoch]], their first album, ''[[Tigermilk]]'', was recorded as part of the course and released on the independent [[Electric Honey (label)|Electric Honey]] label.
Signing to the slightly larger Jeepster, they released the album ''[[If You're Feeling Sinister]]'' in [[1996]] and a sequence of [[EP (format)|EPs]] through [[1997]]. The group's third album, ''[[The Boy with the Arab Strap]]'' ([[1998]]), was a top-20 hit in the UK. The band was then proclaimed Best Newcomer at the [[1999]] [[Brit Awards]]. 1999 was also the year of the [[Bowlie Weekender]], a music festival curated by the band.
In July [[2002]] they announced the switch to [[Rough Trade Records]] (in the United States, the band were on [[Matador Records]] until the jump to Rough Trade, then returned to the Matador roster in late [[2005]]). The [[2003]] album ''[[Dear Catastrophe Waitress]]'' was shortlisted for the |
applications quickly, while another might play popular video games more smoothly. Furthermore, designers have been known to add special features to their products, whether in hardware or software, features which permit a specific benchmark to execute quickly but which do not offer similar advantages to other, more general computational tasks. Naïve users are apt to be unaware of such deceptive tricks.
The general scheme of optimization is to find the costs of the different parts of the computer. In a balanced computer system, the data rate will be constant for all parts of the system, and cost will be allocated proportionally to assure this. The exact form of the computer system will depend on the constraints and goals it was optimized for.
== Virtual memory ==
Another common problem involves [[virtual memory]].
Historically, [[random access memory]] has been thousands of times more expensive than rotating mechanical storage, i.e. hard drives in a modern computer.
For businesses, and many general computing tasks, it is a good compromise to never let the computer run out of memory, an event which would halt the program, and greatly inconvenience the user.
Instead of halting the program, many computer systems save less-frequently used blocks of memory to the rotating mechanical storage.
In essence, the mechanical storage becomes main memory.
However, mechanical storage is thousands of times slower than electronic memory.
==Reconfigurable computing==
Current research in [[reconfigurable computing]] is an attempt to break the structural limits of conventional processing architectures. A reconfigurable computing system [[compiler|compiles]] program source code to an intermediate code suitable for programming runtime reconfigurable [[FPGA|field-programmable gate arrays]], enabling a software design to be implemented directly in hardware. Since many different hardware-implemented programs can potentially perform in parallel, a reconfigurable computing system can be considered an advanced [[parallel computing|parallel processing architecture]]. Reconfigurable computing could also be categorized as [[computing in memory]], which is inspired by the function of the neuronal brain, where the processor and the memory cannot be distinguished from each other.
==See also==
* [[Computer hardware]]
* [[CPU design]]
* [[Orthogonal instruction set]]
* [[:Category:computer architecture|List of computer architecture topics]]
== References==
* [http://portal.acm.org/toc.cfm?id=SERIES416&type=series&coll=GUIDE&dl=GUIDE&CFID=41492512&CFTOKEN=82922478 ISCA: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Computer Architecture]
* [http://www.microarch.org/ Micro: IEEE/ACM International Symposium on Microarchitecture]
* [http://www.hpcaconf.org/ HPCA: International Symposium on High Performance Computer Architecture]
* [http://portal.acm.org/toc.cfm?id=SERIES311&type=series&coll=GUIDE&dl=GUIDE&CFID=41492415&CFTOKEN=3676847 ASPLOS: International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems]
* [http://www.acm.org/tocs/ ACM Transactions on Computer Systems]
* [http://www.computer.org/ IEEE Computer Society]
* [http://www.mdronline.com/mpr/ Microprocessor Report]
==External links==
* http://www.aceshardware.com
* http://www.anandtech.com
* http://www.dansdata.com
* http://www.barefeats.com
* http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~arch/www
[[Category:Computer architecture| ]]
[[bg:Компютърна архитектура]]
[[bn:কম্পিউটার স্থাপত্য]]
[[bs:Računarska arhitektura]]
[[de:Rechnerarchitektur]]
[[es:Arquitectura de computadores]]
[[fr:Architecture informatique]]
[[hu:Architektúra]]
[[ja:コンピュータ・アーキテクチャ]]
[[pl:Architektura komputera]]
[[pt:Arquitectura de computadores]]
[[th:สถาปัตยกรรมคอมพิวเตอร์]]
[[uk:Архітектура ЕОМ]]
[[zh:计算机系统结构]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Color space encoding</title>
<id>6510</id>
<revision>
<id>15904645</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-05T23:59:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdr</username>
<id>55814</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Redirect to color space instead</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Color space]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computational complexity</title>
<id>6511</id>
<revision>
<id>15904646</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computational complexity theory]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Coercion</title>
<id>6512</id>
<revision>
<id>39500389</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T23:09:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Infinity0</username>
<id>411742</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Ideological coercion */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
----
{{abuse}}
'''Coercion''' is the practice of compelling a person to act by employing [[threat]] of harm (e.g., by physical force). Often, it involves inflicting some ''actual'' harm in order to make the threat [[credible]], but it is the threat of (further) harm which brings about [[cooperation]] of the person being coerced.
The term usually has a [[pejorative]] connotation, implying that such threat or harm is [[ethics|unethical]]. However, coercion may also be used in defense, against one who has initiated coercion. It is directly related to [[appeal to the stick]] (a form of [[Logical argument|argument]] in [[logic]]).
As opposition to coercion is central to the philosophy of [[libertarianism]], libertarians present specific definitions of coercion. They typically define it as any use of physical force, the threat of such, or deception (fraud) that alters the way an individual would use his person or property if those elements were not present. It is regarded that any actions that is not subject to the influence of any of these elements is voluntary.
==Overview==
Any person’s set of feasible choices is obtained from the combination of two elements: the ‘’initial endowment’’ (the perceived initial state of the world, which the chosen actions are going to affect) and the ‘’transformation rules’’ (which state how any chosen action will change the initial endowment, according to the person’s perception).
It follows that coercion could in principle take place by purposely manipulating either the transformation rules or the initial endowment (or both). In practice, however, the detailed choice reaction of a victim to a change in initial endowment is generally unpredictable. Hence effective coercion can only be carried out through manipulation of the transformation rules. This is done by the credible ‘’threat’’ of some injury, conditional on the victim’s choice. Often, it involves the ''actual'' inflicting of injury in order to make the threat [[credible]], but it is the threat of (further) injury which brings about the change in transformation rules.
Coercion does not remove entirely the victim’s ability to choose, nor does it necessarily affect his or her ranking of potential alternatives. As Roman jurists used to say, ‘’coactus volui, tamen volui’’ (I willed under coercion, but still I willed). In the terminology of [[rational choice]] theory, coercion does not remove a person’s [[objective function]], but only affects the [[constraints]] under which such function is maximised. Yet, the purpose of coercion is to substitute one’s aims to those of the victim. For this reason, many social philosophers have considered coercion as the polar opposite to [[freedom]].
One must however distinguish various forms of coercion: first on the basis of the ‘’kind of injury’’ threatened, secondly according to its ‘’aims’’ and ‘’scope’’, and finally according to its ‘’effects’’, from which its legal, social, and ethical implications mostly depend.
==Means==
Looking at the content of the threat, one can distinguish between physical, psychological and economic coercion.
===Physical coercion===
Physical coercion is the most commonly considered form, where the content of the conditional threat is the use of force against the person, the dear ones or the property of the victim, An oft-used example is "putting a gun to someone's head" to compel action. Armed forces in many countries use [[firing squad]]s to maintain [[discipline]].
However, there also are non-physical forms of coercion, where the threatened injury does not immediately imply the use of force.
===Psychological coercion===
In psychological coercion, the threatened injury regards the victim’s relationships with other people. The most obvious example is ‘’[[blackmail]]’’, where the threat consists of the dissemination of damaging information. But many other cases are possible, including purposeful threats of rejection from or disapproval by a peers group, or even mere anger or displeasure by a loved one. Another instance is [[coercive persuasion]].
Psychological coercion – along with the other varieties - was extensively and systematically used by the government of the [[People’s Republic of China]] during the “Thought Reform” campaign of [[1951]]-[[1952]]. The process – carried out partly at “revolutionary universities” and partly within prisons – was investigated and reported upon by [[Robert Jay Lifton]], then Research Professor of Psychiatry at Yale University: see Lifton (1961). The techniques used by the Chinese authorities included standard [[group psychotherapy]], aimed at forcing the victims (who were generally intellectuals) to produce detailed and sincere ideological “confessions”. For instance, a professor of [[formal logic]] called Chin Yueh-lin – who was then regarded as China’s leading authority on his subject – was induced to write: “The new philosophy [of [[Marxism-Leninism]]], being scientific, |
arms, but is restricted to doing so within the [[Penalty area (football)|penalty area]] (also known as the "box" or "18 yard box") in front of his own goal.
The basic equipment players are required to wear includes a shirt (or jersey), shorts, socks (or stockings), footwear and adequate shin guards. Players are forbidden to wear or use anything that is dangerous to themselves or another player (including jewellery or watches).
A number of players may be replaced by [[substitute (football)|substitute]]s during the course of the game. The maximum substitutions permitted in international games and in national level leagues are three, though substitution numbers may be varied in other leagues. The usual reasons for a player's replacement include injury, tiredness, ineffectiveness, a tactical switch, or to waste a little time at the end of a finely poised game. In standard adult matches, a player who has been substituted may not take further part in the match.
=== Officials ===
A game is presided over by a [[Referee (football)|referee]], who has "full authority to enforce the Laws of the Game in connection with the match to which he has been appointed" (Law 5), and whose decisions regarding facts connected with play are final. The referee is assisted by two [[assistant referee]]s (formerly called linesmen). In many high-level games there is also a [[fourth official]], who assists the referee and may replace another official should the need arise.
=== Playing field ===
[[Image:Football pitch metric.png|right|510px|thumb|Standard pitch measurements ([[:Image:Football pitch.png|Large version]]) ([[:Image:Football pitch small.png|Imperial version]])]]
{{main|Football (soccer) field}}
The length of the field (pitch) for international adult matches should be in the range 90-120m (100-130 yards) and the width should be in the range 45-90m (50-100 yards).The pitch must be rectangular, with the length of the touch line longer than the width of the goal line.
The longer boundary lines are ''touch lines'', while the shorter boundaries (on which the goals are placed) are ''goal lines''. On the goal line at each end of the field is a goal. The inner edges of the goal posts must be 7.32m (8 yards) apart, and the lower edge of the crossbar must be 2.44m (8 feet) above the ground. Nets are usually placed behind the goal, though are not required by the Laws.
In front of each goal is an area of the field known as the [[penalty area]] (colloquially "penalty box", "18 yard box" or simply "the box"). This area consists of the area formed by the goal-line, two lines starting on the goal-line 16.5m (18 yards) from the goalposts and extending 18 yards into the pitch from the goal-line, and a line joining these. This area has a number of important functions, the most prominent being to denote where the goalkeeper may handle the ball and where a foul by a defender which would usually punished by a direct free kick becomes punishable by a [[penalty kick (football)|penalty kick]].
The field has other field markings and defined areas; these are described in the main article above.
=== Duration ===
====Standard durations====
A standard adult football match consists of two periods (known as halves) of 45 minutes each. There is usually a 15-minute break between halves, known as half time. The end of the match is known as full-time.
====Time added on====
The referee is the official timekeeper for the match, and it is part of his duties to make allowance for time lost through substitutions, injured players requiring attention, cautions and dismissals, sundry time wasting, etc. When making such an allowance for time lost, the referee is often said to be "adding time on"; the added time is commonly referred to as ''stoppage time'' or ''injury time''. The amount of time is at the sole discretion of the referee, and the referee alone signals when the match has been completed. There are no other timekeepers, although assistant referees carry a watch and may provide a second opinion if requested by the referee. In matches where a fourth official is appointed, towards the end of the half the referee will signal how many minutes remain to be played, and the fourth official then signals this to players and spectators by holding up a board showing this number.
Note that there is often semantic debate as to whether the referee is "adding on" time to the end of a half, or rather treating time during stoppages as though it never existed as part of the match time; this distinction has little bearing on the practical conduct of a game, however it may be noted that the pre-[[1997]] wording of the laws stated that the referee "shall ... allow the full or agreed time ''adding thereto'' all time lost through injury or accident" (Law V), and later FIFA guidelines regarding the annotation of goal scoring times suggested that time is indeed "added-on" to the end of the agreed half period.
====Extra time and shootouts====
If tied at the end of regulation time, in some competitions the game may go into extra time, which consists of two further 15-minute periods. If the score is still tied after extra time, some competitions allow the use of [[penalty shootout (football)|penalty shootouts]] (known officially in the Laws of the Game as "kicks from the penalty mark") to determine which team will progress to the next stage of the tournament. Note that goals scored during extra time periods count towards the final score of the game, unlike kicks from the penalty mark which are only used to decide the team that progresses to the next part of the tournament (with goals scored not making up part of the final score).
Competitions utilising two-leg stages (i.e. where each round involves the two teams playing each other twice) may utilise the so-called [[away goals rule]] to attempt to determine which team progresses in the event of the teams being equal on wins; however, should results still be equal following this calculation kicks from the penalty mark are usually required. Other competitions may require a tied game to be replayed.
====Golden and silver goal experiments====
{{main articles|[[Golden goal]] and [[Silver goal]]}}
In the late [[1990s]], the IFAB experimented with ways of making matches more likely to end without requiring [[kicks from the penalty mark]], which were often seen as an undesirable way to end a match.
These involved rules ending a game in extra time early, either when the first goal in extra time was scored ([[golden goal]]), or at the end of the first period of extra time if one team was by then leading ([[silver goal]]). Both these experiments have been discontinued by IFAB.
=== Starts and re-starts ===
Each playing period in football commences with a [[kick-off (football)|kick-off]], which is a set kick from the centre-spot by one team. At kick-off all players are required to be in their half of the field, and all players of the non-kicking team must also remain outside the centre-circle, until the ball is kicked and moved. Kick-offs are also used to restart play following a goal.
From the initial kick-off of a period until the end of that period, the ball is "in play" at all times until the end of the playing period, except when the ball leaves the field of play or play is stopped by the referee; in these cases play is re-started by one of the following eight methods:
[[Image:Directfreekick.jpg|right|300px|thumb|A [[direct free kick]] taken by the blue-white team.]]
* [[Kick-off (football)|Kick-off]]: following a goal by the opposing team, or to begin each period of play. ([http://www.fifa.com/en/laws/Laws8_01.htm Law 8]).
* [[Throw-in]]: when the ball has wholly crossed the touchline; awarded to opposing team to that which last touched the ball. ([http://www.fifa.com/en/laws/Laws15_01.htm Law 15]).
* [[Goal kick]]: when the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by an attacker; awarded to defending team. ([http://www.fifa.com/en/laws/Laws16_01.htm Law 16]).
* [[Corner kick]]: when the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by a defender; awarded to attacking team. ([http://www.fifa.com/en/laws/Laws17_01.htm Law 17]).
* [[Indirect free kick]]: awarded to the opposing team following "non-penal" fouls, certain technical infringements, or when play is stopped to caution/send-off an opponent without a specific foul having occurred. ([http://www.fifa.com/en/laws/Laws13_01.htm Law 13]).
* [[Direct free kick]]: awarded to fouled team following certain listed "penal" fouls. ([http://www.fifa.com/en/laws/Laws13_01.htm Law 13]).
* [[Penalty kick (football)|Penalty kick]]: awarded to fouled team following "penal" foul having occurred in their opponent's penalty area. ([http://www.fifa.com/en/laws/Laws14_01.htm Law 14]).
* [[Dropped-ball]]: occurs when the referee has stopped play for any other reason (e.g. a serious injury to a player, interference by an external party, or a ball becoming defective). ([http://www.fifa.com/en/laws/Laws8_03.htm Law 8]).
===Fouls and misconduct===
{{main articles|[[Foul (football)]] and [[Misconduct (football)]]}}
A [[foul (football)|foul]] occurs when a player (not a substitute) commits a specific offence listed in the Laws of the Game when the ball is in play. The offences that constitute a foul are listed in Law 12. "Penal fouls", for example handling the ball, tripping an opponent, pushing an opponent, etc, are punishable by a [[direct free kick]] or [[penalty kick (football)|penalty kick]] depending on where the offence occurred. Other fouls are punishable by an [[indirect free kick]].
[[Misconduct (football)|Misconduct]] may occur at any time, and may be committed by both players and substitutes. Whilst the offences tha |
>. Grothendieck saw that it would be possible to use Serre's idea to define a cohomology theory which he suspected would be the Weil cohomology. To define this cohomology theory, Grothendieck needed to replace the usual, topological notion of an open covering with one that would use étale coverings instead. Grothendieck also saw how to phrase the definition of covering abstractly; this is where the definition of a Grothendieck topology comes from.
== Definition ==
The classical definition of a sheaf begins with a topological space ''X''. A sheaf associates information to the open sets of ''X''. This information can be phrased abstractly by letting ''O''(''X'') be the category whose objects are the open sets of ''X'' and whose morphisms are open immersions. Then a presheaf on ''X'' is a contravariant functor from ''O''(''X'') to the category of sets, and a sheaf is a presheaf which satisfies the [[gluing axiom]]. The gluing axiom is phrased in terms of pointwise covering, i.e., {''U<sub>i</sub>''} covers ''U'' if and only if &cup;<sub>i</sub> ''U<sub>i</sub>'' = ''U''.
A Grothendieck topology encodes the information about covering without any reference to the space itself. The notion of covering is replaced by the notion of a [[sieve (category theory)|sieve]]. A '''sieve''' is a [[subfunctor]] of a functor of the form Hom(&minus;, ''c'') for some object ''c''; in other words, if ''S'' is a sieve, then ''S''(''c''&prime;) &sube; Hom(''c''&prime;, ''c'') for some object ''c'', and for any morphism ''f'', ''S''(''f'') is the restriction of Hom(''f'', ''c''), the pullback by ''f''. In the case of ''O''(''X''), a sieve represents a collection of open sets contained in a larger open set. Each sieve corresponds to a possible way of covering ''U''. For example, if ''S'' is a sieve on an open set ''U'', then ''S''(''V'') is a subset of Hom(''V'', ''U''), which has only one element, the open immersion ''V'' &rarr; ''U''. ''S''(''V'') will contain this map if and only if ''V'' is one of the sets that ''S'' uses to cover ''U''.
A Grothendieck topology ''J'' on a category ''C'' is defined by giving, for each object ''c'' of ''C'', a collection ''J''(''c'') of sieves on ''c'', subject to certain conditions. These sieves are called '''covering sieves'''. Continuing the previous example, a sieve ''S'' on an open set ''U'' in ''O''(''X'') will be a covering sieve if and only if the union of all the open sets ''V'' for which ''S''(''V'') is nonempty equals ''U''; in other words, if and only if ''S'' gives us a collection of open sets which cover ''U'' in the classical sense.
The conditions we impose on a '''Grothendieck topology''' are:
# (Base change) Let ''S'' be a covering sieve on ''X'', and let ''f'': ''Y'' &rarr; ''X''. Let ''f''<sup>&lowast;</sup>''S'' be the [[fibered product]] ''S'' &times;<sub>Hom(&minus;, ''X'')</sub> Hom(&minus;, ''Y'') together with its natural embedding in Hom(&minus;, ''Y''); equivalently, for each object ''Z'' of ''C'', ''f''<sup>&lowast;</sup>''S''(''Z'') = { ''g'': ''Z'' &rarr; ''Y'' | ''fg'' &isin; ''S''(''Z'') }. Then ''f''<sup>&lowast;</sup>''S'', the '''pullback of''' ''S'' '''along''' ''f'', is a covering sieve.
# (Local character) Let ''S'' be a covering sieve on ''X'', and let ''T'' be any sieve on ''X''. Suppose that for each object ''Y'' of ''C'' and each arrow ''f'': ''Y'' &rarr; ''X'' in ''S''(''Y''), the pullback sieve ''f''<sup>&lowast;</sup>''T'' is a covering sieve on ''Y''. Then ''T'' is a covering sieve on ''X''.
# (Identity) Hom(&minus;, ''X'') is a covering sieve on ''X'' for any object ''X'' in ''C''.
The base change axiom corresponds to the idea that if {''U<sub>i</sub>''} covers ''U'', then {''U<sub>i</sub>'' &cap; ''V''} should cover ''U'' &cap; ''V''. The local character axiom corresponds to the idea that if {''U<sub>i</sub>''} covers ''U'' and {''V<sub>ij</sub>''}<sub>''j &isin; J<sub>i</sub>''</sub> covers ''U<sub>i</sub>'' for each ''i'', then the collection {''V<sub>ij</sub>''} for all ''i'' and ''j'' should cover ''U''. Lastly, the identity axiom corresponds to the idea that any set is covered by all its possible subsets.
In fact, it is possible to put these axioms in another form where their geometric character is more apparent. Assume that the underlying category ''C'' has fibered products. Instead of specifying sieves, we can specify that certain collections of maps with a common codomain should cover their codomain. These collections are called '''covering families'''. If the collection of all covering families satisfies certain axioms, then we say that they form a '''Grothendieck pretopology'''. These axioms are:
# (Stability under base change) For all objects ''X'' of ''C'', all morphisms ''Y'' &rarr; ''X'', and all covering families {''X''<sub>&alpha;</sub> &rarr; ''X''}, the family {''X''<sub>&alpha;</sub> &times;<sub>''X''</sub> ''Y'' &rarr; ''Y''} is a covering family.
# (Stability under composition) If {''X''<sub>&alpha;</sub> &rarr; ''X''} is a covering family, and if for all &alpha;, {''X''<sub>&beta;&alpha;</sub> &rarr; ''X''<sub>&alpha;</sub>} is a covering family, then the family of composites {''X''<sub>&beta;&alpha;</sub> &rarr; ''X''<sub>&alpha;</sub> &rarr; ''X''} is a covering family.
# (Isomorphisms) If ''f'': ''Y'' &rarr; ''X'' is an isomorphism, then {''f''} is a covering family.
Assuming that ''C'' has fibered products, each topology is a pretopology, where each covering family is the set of all arrows in a particular sieve. Even if ''C'' does not have fibered products, each pretopology defines a topology, though it is possible for several different pretopologies to define the same topology.
== Sites and sheaves ==
Let ''C'' be a category and let ''J'' be a Grothendieck topology on ''C''. The pair (''C'', ''J'') is called a '''site'''.
A '''presheaf''' on a category is a contravariant functor from ''C'' to the category of all sets. Note that for this definition ''C'' is not required to have a topology. A sheaf on a site, however, should allow gluing, just like sheaves in classical topology. Consequently, we define a sheaf on a site to be a presheaf ''F'' such that for all objects ''X'' and all covering sieves ''S'' on ''X'', the natural map Hom(Hom(&minus;, ''X''), ''F'') &rarr; Hom(''S'', ''F'') induced by the inclusion of ''S'' into Hom(&minus;, ''X'') is a bijection. Halfway in between a presheaf and a sheaf is the notion of a '''separated presheaf''', where the natural map above is required to be only an injection, not a bijection, for all sieves ''S''.
Using the [[Yoneda lemma]], it is possible to show that a presheaf on the category ''O''(''X'') is a sheaf on the topology defined above if and only if it is a sheaf in the classical sense.
Sheaves on a pretopology have a particularly simple description: For each covering family {''X''<sub>&alpha;</sub> &rarr; ''X''}, the diagram
:<math>F(X)\to \prod_{\alpha\in A} F(X_\alpha) {\to\atop\to} \prod_{\alpha,\beta \in A} F(X_\alpha\times_X X_\beta)</math>
must be an [[equalizer]]. For a separated presheaf, the first arrow need only be injective.
Similarly, one can define presheaves and sheaves of [[abelian group]]s, [[ring (mathematics)|ring]]s, [[module (mathematics)|module]]s, and so on. One can require either that a presheaf ''F'' is a contravariant functor to the category of abelian groups (or rings, or modules, etc.), or that ''F'' be an abelian group (ring, module, etc.) object in the category of all contravariant functors from ''C'' to the category of sets. These two definitions are equivalent.
[[Category:Topos theory]]
[[Category:Sheaf theory]]
[[es:Topología de Grothendieck]]
[[ko:그로텐디크 위상]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gung Fu</title>
<id>12912</id>
<revision>
<id>31391393</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-14T23:09:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SaraVon</username>
<id>84545</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>remove double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chinese martial arts]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Greens</title>
<id>12913</id>
<revision>
<id>39219751</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T16:41:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sango123</username>
<id>223113</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>spacing</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the political category. For the vegetables, see [[Leaf vegetable]].''
{{Greens}}
'''Greens''' are people who support some or all of the goals of a [[Worldwide green parties|Green Party]] without necessarily working with or voting for that or any party. Most of them consider themselves to be part at least of a global [[Green movement]]. A potential [[basis of unity]] for Greens could be Green values (as made explicit in the [[Four Pillars]] and other documents), but even these aren't shared by all people who consider themselves Greens.
Historically, "being green" developed as a political [[identity]] together with the blooming of the [[peace movement]], the [[ecology movement]] (see [[preventive paradigm]]), and the [[feminism|feminist movement]] in the late [[1970s]], the time the first green parties on a local level were founded.
==Different kinds of Greens==
A small sample of the factions or tendencies that exist on the movement's fringe &mdash; some on |
v]] and [[Prague]]) have Soviet-era escalators up to approximately 100 m (330ft) long. Those at the [[Nám&#283;stí Míru]] station in Prague were rebuilt to the same length in [[1998]]&ndash;9 by [[ThyssenKrupp]]. The longest in the world are at [[Park Pobedy]] station on the [[Moscow Metro]]. Opened in 2003, these escalators have 740 steps each, and are over 120 metres long, making them the longest single-section escalators on earth.
== Etymology ==
''Escalator'' was originally a combination of the word 'scala', which is Latin for steps, and the word 'elevator', which had already been invented.
The [[verb]] form of the word is (to) ''escalate'' and is commonly applied to the use of increased force in warfare.
The word ''Escalator'' started out as a trademark of the Otis Elevator Company. Otis, however, failed to police its usage sufficiently, so ''escalator'' became a generic term in 1950. But until then, other manufacturers had to market their escalators under different names. The Peelle Company called theirs a '''''Motorstair''''', and [[Westinghouse_Electric_Corporation_%281886%29|Westinghouse]] called their model an '''''Electric Stairway'''''. The Haughton Elevator company (now part of [[Schindler Group]]) referred to their product as simply '''''Moving Stairs'''''.
== See also ==
{{Commons|Moving sidewalk}}
* [[Central-Mid-Levels escalator]] ([[Hong Kong]])
* [[People mover]]
* [[Slidewalk]]
* [[Vermaport]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.theelevatormuseum.org/f/f_4.htm Moving Stairways/Escalators at www.theelevatormuseum.org]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3001182.stm Walkway propels Paris metro into future], a BBC article on the high-speed travelator at [[Gare Montparnasse]] station in [[Paris]]. (provided by [http://www.cnim.com CNIM])
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3221621.stm Briton dies in Rome station accident], BBC
* [http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2005/03/02/man_is_strangled_after_clothing_snags_in_mbta_escalator/ Man is strangled after clothing snags in MBTA escalator], news article about Francisco Portillo's death, with mention of other escalator accidents
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/local/facts/metro120598.htm Escalator troubles rooted in Metro's original design]
<!-- Old language links from [[Moving sidewalk]] (merged in): [[da:Rullende_fortov]] [[de:Fahrsteig]] [[nl:Loopband]] [[ja:&#12458;&#12540;&#12488;&#12454;&#12457;&#12540;&#12463;]] -->
[[category:Vertical transportation devices]]
[[cs:Eskalátor]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tiān-thui]]
[[de:Fahrtreppe]]
[[eo:Rulŝtuparo]]
[[fr:Escalier mécanique]]
[[he:דרגנוע]]
[[nl:Roltrap]]
[[ja:エスカレータ]]
[[pl:Schody ruchome]]
[[pt:Escada rolante]]
[[ru:Травалатор]]
[[fi:Liukuportaat]]
[[sv:Rulltrappa]]
[[zh:電動扶梯]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>European Convention on Nationality</title>
<id>10080</id>
<revision>
<id>38793931</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T18:26:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>206.167.123.9</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''European Convention on Nationality''' ([[European Treaty Series|E.T.S.]] No. 166, done at Strasbourg, [[6 November]], [[1997]]) is a comprehensive convention dealing with the law of [[nationality]].
Common practice among states at the beginning of the [[20th century]] was that a woman was to have the nationality of her husband; thus upon marrying a foreigner she would automatically acquire the nationality of her husband, and lose her own nationality. Even once the nationality of a married woman was made no longer dependent on the nationality of her husband, legal provisions were still retained automatically [[Naturalization|naturalising]] married women, and sometimes married men as well. This could lead to a number of problems, including loss of the spouses' original nationality, the spouse losing the right to [[consular assistance]] (since consular assistance cannot be provided to nationals under the jurisdiction of a foreign state of which they are also nationals), and becoming subject to military service obligations. It provides that neither marriage nor dissolution of marriage shall automatically affect the nationality of either spouse (article 4d).
Article 5 provides that no [[discrimination]] shall exist in a state's internal nationality law on the grounds of "sex, religion, race, colour or national or ethnic origin". It also provides that a state shall not discriminate amongst its nationals on the basis of whether they are naturalised or native born nationals.
Article 6 relates to the acquisition of nationality. It provides for nationality to be acquired at birth by descent from either parent to those born within the territory of the state. (States may exclude partially or fully children born abroad). It also provides for nationality by virtue of birth in the territory of state; however, states may limit this to only children who would be otherwise stateless. It requires the possibility of [[naturalisation]], and provides that the period of residence required for eligibility cannot be more than ten years lawful and habitual residence. It also requires to "facilitate" the acquisition of nationality by certain persons, including spouses of nationals, children of its nationals born abroad, children one of whose parents has acquired the nationality, children adopted by a national, persons lawfully and habitually resident for a period before the age of eighteen, and stateless persons and [[refugee]]s lawfully and habitually resident on its territory.
Article 7 regulates the involuntary loss of nationality. It provides that states may deprive their nationals of their nationality in only the cases of voluntary acquisition of another nationality, fraud or failure to provide relevant information when acquiring nationality, voluntary military service in a foreign military force, or adoption as a child by foreign nationals. It also provides for the possibility of loss of nationality for nationals habitually residing abroad. Finally it provides loss of nationality for "conduct seriously prejudicial to the vital interests of the State Party".
Article 8 provides nationals with the right to renounce their nationality, providing they do not thereby become stateless. States may however restrict this right with respect to nationals residing abroad.
==External links==
* [http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/166.htm European Convention on Nationality]
[[Category:Human migration]]
[[Category:Nationality law]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>English spelling</title>
<id>10081</id>
<revision>
<id>42161242</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:40:48Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.113.4.149</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* The state of English spelling */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''English spelling''' (or [[orthography]]), although largely [[phonemic]], has more complicated rules than many other spelling systems used by languages written in [[alphabet]]ic scripts and contains many inconsistencies between spelling and [[pronunciation]], necessitating [[rote learning]] for anyone learning to read or write English.
Throughout the [[history of the English language]], these inconsistencies have gradually increased in number. There are a number of contributing factors. First, gradual changes in pronunciation, such as the [[Great Vowel Shift]], account for many irregularities. Second, relatively recent [[loan word]]s from other languages generally carry their original spellings, which are often not [[phonetic]] in English. Inconsistencies in the [[Romanization]] of languages using alphabets not derived from the [[Latin alphabet]] (e.g., [[Chinese language|Chinese]]) has further complicated this problem. Third, some [[Prescription and description|prescriptionists]] have had partial success in their attempts to normalize the English language, forcing a change in spelling but not in pronunciation.
== History of the English spelling system ==
The regular spelling system of [[Old English language|Old English]] was swept away by the [[Norman Conquest]], and English itself was eclipsed by [[French language|French]] for three centuries, eventually emerging with its spelling much influenced by French. English had also borrowed large numbers of words from French, which for reasons of prestige and familiarity kept their French spellings. The spelling of [[Middle English]], such as in the writings of [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], is very irregular and inconsistent, with the same word being spelled differently, sometimes even in the same sentence.
The pronunciation {{IPA|/ʌ/}} (normally spelled ''u'') of written ''o'' in ''son'', ''love'', ''come'', etc. is due to Norman spelling conventions prohibiting writing of ''u'' before ''v'', ''m'', ''n'' due to the graphical confusion that would result. (''v'', ''u'', ''n'' were identically written with two [[minim (palaeography)|minim]]s in Norman handwriting; ''w'' was written as two ''u'' letters; ''m'' was written with three [[minim (palaeography)|minims]], hence ''mm'' looked like ''vun'', ''nvu'', ''uvu'', etc.) Similarly, spelling conventions also prohibited final ''v''. Hence the identical spellings of the three different vowel sounds in ''love'', ''grove'' and ''prove'' are due to ambiguity in the [[Middle English]] spelling system, not sound change.
There was also a series of linguistic sound changes towards the end of this period, including the [[Great Vowel Shift]], which resulted in "igh" in "night" changing from a pure vowel followed by a [[voiceless palatal fricative|palatal]]/[[voiceless velar fricative|velar]] [[fricative consonant|fricative]] to a diphthong. These changes for the most part did not detract from the rule-governed nature of the spelling system; but in |
hole cards
plus the four community cards in any combination, with the low board card wild.
=== Six-pack ===
At showdown, each player will have two hole cards, and there will be six
community cards on the board arranged in a circle (something like the even-hour
marks on a clock).
The rounds go like this: each player is dealt two hole cards, followed by the
first betting round.
Then two of the board cards at opposite sides of the circle (call them 12
o'clock and 6 o'clock) are dealt, followed by a second betting round.
Two more opposite community cards are dealt (2 o'clock and 8 o'clock),
followed by a third betting round.
Finally, the 4 o'clock and 10 o'clock cards are dealt followed by a fourth
and final betting round, and showdown.
At showdown, each player makes a hand by combining his two cards with any
three ''consecutive'' cards of the board.
That is, he can use 12, 2, and 4; or 2, 4, and 6; or 6, 8, and 10; etc.
So cards dealt to opposite sides of the circle will never appear in the same
final hand.
With exactly two hole cards, there are only six possible choices for which
hand to play.
The game can be modified a bit by dealing three hole cards, where each player
is required to use exactly two of them plus three consecutive board cards.
===Bel-Aire===
Each player is dealt four cards. The board holds three rows of cards, the top with four cards, the middle with three, the bottom with two. Each player will use exactly two cards out of their hand and one from each row. There is a round of betting after the hands are dealt and after each row is revealed.
=='''[[Horseshoes_(poker)|Horseshoes]]'''==
Each player is dealt two cards. One community card is revealed, then two more community cards are revealed. Lastly, one hole card may be traded for a new card from the deck. Betting rounds occur inbetween cards being dealt. The biggest difference between this game and other poker variants is that the winner of each round is not the one with the highest hand, but with the second-highest hand.
== Ad hoc variants ==
'''Spit In The Ocean''' is a stud variant where cards are dealt as normal. However, at any time during the deal one player can call "spit", whereupon the next card is turned face up and played as a community card. (This variant is mentioned in the [[Ray Stevens]] song "Shriner's Convention".)
[[Category:Poker variants]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Condensed matter physics</title>
<id>5387</id>
<revision>
<id>33558970</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-02T04:46:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Srleffler</username>
<id>252195</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Commons cat link.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Solid state physics}}
'''Condensed matter physics''' is the field of [[physics]] that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of [[matter]]. In particular, it is concerned with the "condensed" [[phase (matter)|phases]] that appear whenever the number of constituents in a system is extremely large and the interactions between the constituents are strong. The most familiar examples of condensed phases are [[solid]]s and [[liquid]]s, which arise from the [[electric force]] between [[atom]]s. More exotic condensed phases include the [[superfluid]] and the [[Bose-Einstein condensate]] found in certain atomic systems at very low [[temperature]]s, the [[superconductivity|superconducting]] phase exhibited by [[conduction electron]]s in certain materials, and the [[ferromagnet]]ic and [[antiferromagnet]]ic phases of [[spin (physics)|spin]]s on [[crystal lattice|atomic lattices]].
Condensed matter physics is by far the largest field of contemporary physics. By one estimate, one third of all American [[physicist]]s identify themselves as condensed matter physicists. Historically, condensed matter physics grew out of [[solid-state physics]], which is now considered one of its main subfields. The term "condensed matter physics" was apparently coined by [[Philip Warren Anderson|Philip Anderson]] when he renamed his research group - previously "solid-state theory" - in [[1967]]. In [[1978]], the Division of Solid State Physics at the [[American Physical Society]] was renamed as the Division of Condensed Matter Physics.
One of the reasons for calling the field "condensed matter physics" is that many of the concepts and techniques developed for studying solids actually apply to fluid systems. For instance, the conduction electrons in an [[electrical conductor]] form a type of quantum fluid with essentially the same properties as fluids made up of atoms. In fact, the phenomenon of [[superconductivity]], in which the electrons condense into a new fluid phase in which they can flow without dissipation, is very closely analogous to the superfluid phase found in [[helium 3]] at low temperatures.
Condensed matter physics is also closely related to the field of [[materials science]]. In this context, condensed matter physicists research [[nanotechnology]], i.e. the ability to mass produce atomic-scale machines, which was first publicly envisioned by [[Richard Feynman]].
== Topics in condensed matter physics ==
* '''[[Phase (matter)|Phase]]s'''
** ''Generic phases'' - [[Gas]]; [[Liquid]]; [[Solid]]
** ''Low temperature phases'' - [[Bose-Einstein condensate]]; [[Fermi gas]]; [[Fermi liquid]]; [[Fermionic condensate]]; [[Luttinger liquid]]; [[Superfluid]]; [[Supersolid]]
** ''Phase phenomena'' - [[Order parameter]]; [[Phase transition]]; [[Cooling curve]]
* '''[[Crystal lattice|Crystalline solids]]'''
** ''Types'' - [[Insulator]]; [[Metal]]; [[Semiconductor]]; [[Semimetal]]; [[Quasicrystals]]
** ''Electronic properties'' - [[Band gap]]; [[Bloch wave]]; [[Conduction band]]; [[Effective mass]]; [[Electrical conduction]]; [[Electron hole]]; [[Valence band]]
** ''Electronic phenomena'' - [[Kondo effect]]; [[Plasmon]]; [[Quantum Hall effect]]; [[Superconductivity]]; [[Wigner crystal]]; [[Thermoelectricity]]
** ''Lattice phenomena'' - [[Antiferromagnet]]; [[Ferroelectric effect]]; [[Ferromagnet]]; [[Magnon]]; [[Phonon]]; [[Spin glass]]; [[Topological defect]]
* '''[[Soft matter]]'''
** ''Types'' - [[Amorphous solid]]; [[Granular matter]]; [[Liquid crystal]]; [[Polymer]];
* '''[[Nanotechnology]]'''
** ''Nanoelectromechanical Systems ([[NEMS]])''
** ''Magnetic Resonance Force Microscopy''
** ''Heat Transport in Nanoscale Systems''
** ''Spin Transport''
==See also==
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<title>Cultural anthropology</title>
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<comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Cultural anthropology''', also called '''social anthropology''' or '''socio-cultural anthropology''', forms one of four commonly-recognized fields of [[anthropology]], the holistic study of humanity. It is the branch of anthropology that has developed and promoted "culture" as a meaningful scientific concept; it is also the branch of anthropology that studies cultural variation among humans. The anthropological concept of "culture" reflects in part a reaction against earlier Western [[discourse]]s based on an opposition between "[[culture]]" and "[[nature]]", according to which some human beings lived in a "state of nature". Anthropologists argue that culture ''is'' "human nature," and that all people have a capacity to classify experiences, encode classifications symbolically, and teach such abstractions to others.
Since humans acquire culture through learning, people living in different places or different circumstances may develop different cultures. Anthropologists have also pointed out that through culture people can adapt to their environment in non-genetic ways, so people living in different environments will often have different cultures. Much of anthropological theory has originated in an appreciation of and interest in the tension between the local (particular cultures) and the global (a universal human nature, or the web of connections between people in distinct places/circumstances).
== A brief history ==
Modern socio-cultural anthropology has its origins in [[19th century]] "[[ethnology]]", which involves the organized comparison of human societies. Scholars like [[Edward Burnett Tylor|E.B. Tylor]] and [[James Frazer|J.G. Frazer]] in [[England]] worked mostly with materials collected by others &#8211; usually missionaries, explorers, or colonial officials &#8211; this earned them their current sobriquet of "arm-chair anthropologists". Ethnologists had an especial interest in why people living in different parts of the world sometimes had similar [[belief]]s and practices. In addressing this question, ethnologists in the [[19th century]] divided into two schools of thought. Some, like [[Grafton Elliot Smith]], argued that different groups must somehow have learned from one another, however indirectly; in other words, they argued that cultural traits spread from one place to another, or "[[Diffusion (anthropology)|diffused]]". Other |
Manx]], a [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic language]], provides the main evidence of this; earlier evidence suggests that a [[Welsh language | Welsh]]-speaking people lived there. One big historical argument addresses whether the present Manx language survived from pre-Norse days, or whether it reflects a linguistic reintroduction after the Norse invasion.
Evidence may yet be forthcoming to shed further light on this area of debate from the study of the landscape, place names and land tenure.
Tradition attributes the island's conversion to Christianity to St Maughold (Maccul), an Irish missionary who gives his name to a parish. The island's name derives from ''[[Manannan | Mannanan]]'', the Brythonic and Gaelic equivalent of [[Poseidon|Neptune]].
==Scandinavian dominance==
During the period of Scandinavian domination there are two main epochs -- one before the conquest of Man by [[Godred Crovan]] in [[1079]], and the other after it. Warfare and unsettled rule characterise the earlier epoch; the later saw comparatively more peace.
Between about A.D. 800 and 815 the Vikings came to Man chiefly for plunder; between about 850 and 990, when they settled in it, the island fell under the rule of the Scandinavian kings of [[Dublin]]; and between 990 and 1079, it became subject to the powerful [[Earl of Orkney | earl]]s of [[Orkney]].
There was a mint producing coins on Man between c.1025 and c.1065. These Manx coins were minted from an imported type 2 [[Hiberno-Norse]] penny die from [[Dublin]]. Hiberno-Norse coins were first minted under Sihtric, king of Dublin. This illustrates that Man may have in fact been under the thumb of Dublin at this time.
The conqueror Godred Crovan was evidently a remarkable man, though little information about him is attainable. According to the ''Chronicon Manniae'' he subdued Dublin, and a great part of [[Leinster]], and held the Scots in such subjection that no one who built a vessel dared to insert more than three bolts. The memory of such a ruler would be likely to survive in tradition, and it seems probable therefore that he is the person commemorated in Manx legend under the name of King Gorse or Orry. The islands which were under his rule were called the ''Sullr-eyjar'' (Sudreys or the south isles, in contradistinction to the ''Norsr-eyjar'', or the "north isles," i.e. the Orkneys and [[Shetland Islands|Shetlands]], and they consisted of the [[Hebrides]], and of all the smaller western islands of [[Scotland]], with Man. At a later date his successors took the title of ''Rex Manniae et Insularum'' ([[List of Kings of the Isle of Man and the Isles|King of Man and the Isles]]).
[[Olaf I of the Isle of Man | Olaf]], Godred's son, exercised considerable power, and according to the Chronicle, maintained such close alliance with the kings of Ireland and Scotland that no one ventured to disturb the Isles during his time (1113 - 1152). His son, [[Godred V of the Isle of Man| Godred]] (reigned [[1153]] - [[1158]]), who for a short period ruled over Dublin also, as a result of a quarrel with [[Somerled]], the ruler of [[Argyll]], in 1156, lost the smaller islands off the coast of Argyll. An independent sovereignty thus appeared between the two divisions of his kingdom.
In the 1130s the Church sent a small mission to establish the first [[bishopric]] on the Isle of Man, and appointed [[Wimund (bishop)|Wimund]] as the first Bishop. He soon after gave up his role as fisher of men, and became the hunter of men, embarking with a band of followers on a career of murder and looting throughout Scotland and the surrounding islands.
Early in the 13th century, when [[Ragnald of the Isle of Man | Reginald of Man]] (reigned 1187 - 1229) did homage to King [[John of England]] (reigned 1199 - 1216), we hear for the first time of English intervention in the affairs of Man. But a period of Scots domination would precede the establishment of full English control. During the whole of the Scandinavian period the isles remained nominally under the suzerainty of the kings of [[Norway]], but the Norwegians only occasionally asserted it with any vigour. [[Harald I of Norway | Harold Haarfager]] did so first about [[885]], then came [[Magnus III of Norway | Magnus Barfod]] about [[1100]]: both of these conquered the isles. From the middle of the 12th century till [[1217]] the suzerainty, because Norway had become a prey to civil dissensions, had remained of a very shadowy character. But after that date it became a reality and Norway consequently came into collision with the growing power of [[Scotland]].
===Scottish interludes===
Finally, in 1261, [[Alexander III of Scotland]] sent envoys to Norway to negotiate for the cession of the isles, but their efforts led to no result. He therefore initiated hostilities which terminated in the complete defeat of the Norwegian fleet at [[Battle of Largs | Largs]] in 1263. [[Magnus III of the Isle of Man | Magnus]], king of Man and the Isles (reigned 1252 - 1265), who had fought on the Norwegian side, had to surrender all the islands over which he had ruled, except Man, for which he did homage. Two years later Magnus died and in 1266 King [[Magnus VI of Norway]] ceded the islands, including Man, to Scotland in the [[1266 Treaty of Perth|Treaty of Perth]] in consideration of the sum of 4000 [[Mark (money)|marks]] (known as "merks" in Scotland) and an annuity of 100 marks. But Scotland's rule over Man did not become firmly established till [[1275]], when the Manx suffered defeat in a decisive battle at [[Ronaldsway]], near [[Castletown]].
==English dominance==
In 1290 we find king [[Edward I of England]] in possession of Man, and it remained in English hands till 1313, when [[Robert I of Scotland | Robert Bruce]] took it after besieging Castle Rushen for five weeks. Then, till 1346, when the battle of Nevilles Cross decided the long struggle between England and Scotland in England's favor, there followed a confused period when Man sometimes experienced English rule and sometimes Scottish.
About 1333 King [[Edward III of England]] granted Man to [[William Montacute, 1st Earl of Salisbury|William de Montacute]], 3rd [[Baron]] Montacute, (later the 1st [[Earl of Salisbury]]), as his absolute possession, without reserving any service to be rendered to him. In 1392 his son sold the island with the crown to Sir [[William Le Scrop of the Isle of Man | William Le Scroope]]. In 1399 King [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]] brought about the beheading of Le Scroope, who had taken the side of [[Richard II of England|Richard II]]. The island then came into the possession of the crown, which granted it to [[Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland]], but following his attainder, Henry IV, in 1406, made a grant of it, with the patronage of the bishopric, to Sir [[John I Stanley of the Isle of Man|John Stanley]], his heirs and assigns, on the service of rendering two falcons on paying homage and two falcons to all future kings of England on their coronation.
With the accession of the Stanleys to the throne there begins a better epoch in Manx history. Though the island's new rulers rarely visited its shores, they placed it under responsible governors, who, in the main, seem to have treated it with justice. Of the thirteen members of the family who ruled in Man, the second [[John II Stanley of the Isle of Man | Sir John Stanley]] (1414 - 1432), James, the 7th earl (1627 - 1651), and the 10th earl of the same name (1702 - 1736) had the most important influence on it. The first curbed the power of the spiritual barons, introduced trial by jury, instead of trial by battle, and ordered the laws to be written. The second, known as the Great Stanley, and his wife, Charlotte de la Tremoille (or Tremouille), are probably the most striking figures in Manx history. In 1643 [[Charles I of England | Charles I]] ordered him to go to Man, where the people, who were no doubt influenced by what was taking place in England, threatened to revolt. But his arrival, with English soldiers, soon put a stop to anything of this kind. He conciliated the people by his affability, brought in Englishmen to teach various handicrafts and tried to help the farmers by improving the breed of Manx horses, and, at the same time, he restricted the exactions of the Church. But the Manx people never had less liberty than under his rule. They were heavily taxed; troops were quartered upon them; and they also had the more lasting grievance of being compelled to accept leases for three lives instead of holding their land by the straw tenure which they considered to be equivalent to a customary inheritance. Six months after the death of King Charles ([[30 January]] [[1649]]) Stanley received a summons from General Ireton to surrender the island, which he haughtily declined. In August 1651 he went to England with some of his troops, among whom were 300 Manxmen, to join King [[Charles II of England | Charles II]], and he and they shared in the decisive defeat of the Royalists at [[Battle of Worcester|Worcester]]. He was captured and confined in Chester Castle, and, after being tried by court martial, was executed at [[Wigan]].
Soon after his death the Manx Militia, under the command of William Christian (known by his [[Manx language|Manx]] name of [[Illiam Dhone]]), rose against the Countess and captured all the insular forts except Rushen and Peel. They were then joined by a parliamentary force under Colonel Duckenfield, to whom the Countess surrendered after a brief resistance. Fairfax had been appointed Lord of Man and the Isles in September, so that Man continued under a monarchical government and remained in the same relation to England as before.
The restoration of Stanley government in [[1660]] therefore caused as little friction and alteration as its temporary cessation had. One of the first acts of the new lord, Charles (the 8th earl), was to order Christian to be tried. He was found guilt |
les in the manner of Bach's ''Well-Tempered Clavier'' was perpetuated by [[Paul Hindemith]] in his [[Ludus Tonalis|''Ludus Tonalis'']], [[Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji|Kaikhosru Sorabji]] in a number of his works including the [[Opus clavicembalisticum]], and [[Dmitri Shostakovich]] in his [[24 Preludes and Fugues (Shostakovich)|''Preludes and Fugues'']], opus 87 (which, like the ''Well-Tempered Clavier'', contains a prelude and fugue in each key, be it ordered along the cycle of fifths rather than chromatically). [[Benjamin Britten]] composed a fugue for orchestra in his ''[[The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra]]'', consisting of subject entries by each instrument once. [[Leonard Bernstein]] wrote a "Cool Fugue" as part of his musical ''[[West Side Story]]'', and the musical comedy composer [[Frank Loesser]] included a ''Fugue for Tinhorns'' in his musical ''[[Guys and Dolls]]''. Jazz musician [[Alec Templeton]] even wrote a fugue (recorded subsequently by [[Benny Goodman]]): Bach Goes to Town. György Ligeti wrote a Fugue for his "Requiem" (1966), which consists of a 5 part fugue in which each part (S,M,A,T,B) is subsequently divided in four voices that make a canon.
20th Century fugue writing explored many of the directions implied by Beethoven's [[Grosse Fuge]], and what came to be termed [[free counterpoint]] as well as [[dissonant counterpoint]]. Fugal technique as described by Marpurg became part of the theoretical basis for Schoenberg's [[twelve-tone technique]].
==Perceptions and aesthetics==
Fugue is the most complex of contrapuntal forms and, as such, gifted composers have used it to express the profound. The complexity of fugue has foiled lesser composers who have produced only the banal. In the words of the Austrian musicologist [[Erwin Ratz]] (1951, p. 259), "fugal technique significantly burdens the shaping of musical ideas, and it was given only to the greatest geniuses, such as Bach and Beethoven, to breathe life into such an unwieldy form and make it the bearer of the highest thoughts."
In presenting Bach's fugues as among the greatest of contrapuntal works, Peter Kivy (1990) points out (p. 206) that "counterpoint itself, since time out of mind, has been associated in the thinking of musicians with the profound and the serious" and argues (p. 210) that "there seems to be some rational justification for their doing so." Because of the way fugue is often taught, the form can be seen as dry and filled with laborious technical exercises. The term "school fugue" is used for a very strict form of the fugue that was created to facilitate teaching. The works of the Austrian composer [[Simon Sechter]], who was a teacher of [[Franz Schubert|Schubert]] and [[Anton Bruckner|Bruckner]], include several thousand fugues, but they are not found in the standard repertory, not because they are fugues but because of Sechter's limitations as a musical artist.
Others, such as Alfred Mann, argued that fugue writing, by focusing the compositional process actually improves or disciplines the composer towards musical ideas. This is related to the idea that restrictions create freedom for the composer, by directing their efforts. He also points out that fugue writing has its roots in improvisation, and was, during the baroque, practiced as an improvisatory art.
The fugue is perceived, then, not merely as itself, but in relation to the idea of the fugue, and the greatest of examples from the Baroque era forward. As a musical idea with a history, which includes its use in liturgical music of Christianity, a device in teaching composition, a favored form by one of the greatest, if not the greatest, composer of [[European classical music|classical music]], and as a form which can be thought of as distinctly antique - there are a whole range of expectations brought to bear on any piece of music labelled "fugue".
==References==
* Kivy, Peter (1990). ''Music Alone: Philosophical Reflections on the Purely Musical Experience''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2331-7.
* Ratz, Erwin (1951). ''Einführung in die Musikalische Formenlehre: Über Formprinzipien in den Inventionen J. S. Bachs und ihre Bedeutung für die Kompositionstechnik Beethovens'' {"Introduction to Musical Form: On the Principles of Form in J. S. Bach's Inventions and their Import for Beethoven's Compositional Technique", first edition with supplementary volume. Vienna: Österreichischer Bundesverlag für Unterricht, Wissenschaft und Kunst.
==External links==
* [http://www.kunstderfuge.com/theory.htm Theory on fugues]
* Fugues of the Well-Tempered Clavier [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc.html Shockwave] or [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc/wtc.html html]
* [http://www.hannotte.net/Fugues.htm Fugues and Fugue Sets]
* A book of interest, in which the main characters play several fugues, is "An Equal Music" by Vikram Seth
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<page>
<title>Fugue state</title>
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<comment>/* In fiction */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''For its use in music, see [[fugue (music)]].''
The ''[[Merck Manual]]'' <ref name="Merck">[[Merck Manual]] [[1999]] section 15 (Psychiatric Disorders), chapter 188 (Dissociative Disorders)</ref> defines ''Dissociative Fugue'' as:
: One or more episodes of amnesia in which the inability to recall some or all of one's past and either the loss of one's identity or the formation of a new identity occur with sudden, unexpected, purposeful travel away from home.
In support of this definition, the ''Merck Manual'' <ref name="Merck"/> further defines [[Dissociative amnesia]] as:
: An inability to recall important personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature, that is too extensive to be explained by normal forgetfulness.
In the field of [[psychology]], a '''fugue state''' is usually defined by the term ''[[dissociation|dissociative]] fugue'' and from the definitions above it is [[etiology|etiologically]] related to dissociative amnesia (which in popular culture is usually simply called ''[[amnesia]]'', the state where someone completely forgets who they are).
A ''fugue state'' is therefore similar in nature to the concept of ''[[dissociative identity disorder]] (DID)'' (formerly called ''multiple-personality disorder'') although DID is widely understood to have its conception in a long-term life event (such as a traumatic childhood), where sufficient time is given for alternate personality representations to form and take hold. Sudden neurological damage would thus seem to fit more closely the onset of a fugue state.
As the person experiencing a ''fugue state'' may have recently suffered an amnesic onset&#8212;perhaps a head trauma, or the reappearance of an event or person representing an earlier life trauma&#8212;the emergence of a "new" personality seems to be for some, a logical apprehension of the situation.
Interestingly, in music the word ''fugue'' implies multiple instruments (voices) that introduce the melody (personality traits) sequentially (thus suggesting [[motion]]), possibly later playing simultaneously with combinations of counter-melodies (counter-traits). There is almost certainly a [[linguistic]] relationship between these ideas (most likely the psychological notion was so named after the musical notion).
Therefore, the terminology ''fugue state'' may carry a slight linguistic distinction from ''dissociative fugue'', the former implying a greater degree of ''motion''. For the purposes of this article then, ''fugue state'' would be the situation of ''acting out'' a ''dissociative fugue''.
==Prevalence and onset==
It has been estimated that approximately 0.2 percent of the population experiences dissociative fugue, although prevalence increases significantly following a stressful life event, such as wartime experience or some other disaster<ref name="Merck"/>. Other life stressors may trigger a fugue state, such as financial difficulties, personal problems or legal issues. Unlike a [[dissociative identity disorder]], a fugue is usually considered to be a malingering disorder, resolving to remove the experiencer from responsibility for their actions, or from situations imposed upon them by others. In this sense, fugues seem to be the result of a repressed wish-fulfillment. Similar to dissociative amnesia, the fugue state usually affects personal memories from the past, rather than encyclopedic or abstract knowledge. A fugue state therefore does not imply any overt seeming or "crazy" behaviour.
==Prognosis==
Fugues are usually brief and self-limiting, often ending after a short duration by their very nature, in particular once the stressor that caused the fugue has been sufficiently removed. A person may simply "wake up" from their fugue activity and find themself surrounded by seemingly unknown people in an unfamiliar surrounding, wondering why or how they got there.
Most people who suffer dissociative fugues regain most or all of their prior memories, although attempts to restore "intra-fugue" memories (those that occurred during the fugue state) are almost always unsuccessful. Since fugues are usually brief, people tend to suffer few after-effects, although with longer more complex fugues, people may have trouble adjusting to their past life, particularly dependent on their int |
space and time, this is necessary to preserve the conservation of [[angular momentum]] observed by [[Johannes Kepler]]. However, it is in direct conflict with Einstein's theory of [[special relativity]] which places an upper limit&mdash;the [[speed of light]] in vacuum&mdash;on the velocity at which signals can be transmitted.
===Disagreement with observation===
*Newton's theory does not fully explain the [[precession]] of the [[perihelion]] of the [[orbit]] of the [[planet]] [[Mercury (planet) | Mercury]]. There is a 43 [[arcsecond]] per century discrepancy between the Newtonian prediction (resulting from the gravitational tugs of the other planets) and the observed precession{{fn|3}}.
*The predicted deflection of light by gravity using Newton's theory is only half the deflection actually observed. [[General relativity#Bending of light|General relativity]] is in closer agreement with the observations.
*The observed fact that gravitational and inertial masses are the same for all bodies is unexplained within Newton's system. [[General relativity]] takes this as a postulate. See [[equivalence principle]].
===Newton's reservations===
While Newton was able to formulate his law of gravity in his monumental work, he was deeply uncomfortable with the notion of "action at a distance" which his equations implied. He never, in his words, "assigned the cause of this power". In all other cases, he used the phenomenon of motion to explain the origin of various forces acting on bodies, but in the case of gravity, he was unable to experimentally identify the motion that produces the force of gravity. Moreover, he refused to even offer a hypothesis as to the cause of this force on grounds that to do so was contrary to sound science.
He lamented the fact that "philosophers have hitherto attempted the search of nature in vain" for the source of the gravitational force, as he was convinced "by many reasons" that there were "causes hitherto unknown" that were fundamental to all the "phenomena of nature". These fundamental phenomena are still under investigation and, though hypotheses abound, the definitive answer is yet to be found. While it is true that Einstein's hypotheses are successful in explaining the effects of gravitational forces more precisely than Newton's in certain cases, he too never assigned the cause of this power in his theories. It is said that in Einstein's equations, "matter tells space how to curve, and space tells matter how to move", but this new idea, completely foreign to the world of Newton, did not enable Einstein to assign the "cause of this power" to curved space any more than the Law of Universal Gravitation enabled Newton to assign its cause. In Newton's own words:
:''I have not yet been able to discover the cause of these properties of gravity from phenomena and I feign no hypotheses... It is enough that gravity does really exist and acts according to the laws I have explained, and that it abundantly serves to account for all the motions of celestial bodies. That one body may act upon another at a distance through a vacuum without the mediation of anything else, by and through which their action and force may be conveyed from one another, is to me so great an absurdity that, I believe, no man who has in philosophic matters a competent faculty of thinking could ever fall into it.''
If science is eventually able to discover the cause of the gravitational force, Newton's wish could eventually be fulfilled as well.
It should be noted that the word "cause" here is not being used in the same sense as "cause and effect" or "the defendant caused the victim to die". Rather, when Newton uses the word "cause," he (apparently) is referring to an "explanation". In other words, a phrase like "Newtonian gravity is the cause of planetary motion" means simply that Newtonian gravity explains the motion of the planets. See [[Causality]] and [[Causality (physics)]].
==Einstein's theory of gravitation==
[[Albert Einstein|Einstein's]] theory of gravitation answered the problems with Newton's theory noted above. In a revolutionary move, his theory of [[general relativity]] ([[1915]]) stated that the presence of [[mass]], [[energy]], and [[momentum]] causes [[spacetime]] to become [[curvature|curved]]. Because of this curvature, the paths that objects in [[inertia|inertial motion]] follow can "deviate" or change direction over time. This deviation appears to us as an acceleration towards massive objects, which Newton characterized as being gravity. In general relativity however, this acceleration or [[free-fall]] is actually inertial motion. So in a gravitational field it is relative, a matter of relativity, whether objects are falling at the same rate due to their being in inertial motion or whether the observer is the one being accelerated. (This identification of free fall and inertia is known as the [[Equivalence principle]].)
The relationship between the presence of mass/energy/momentum and the curvature of spacetime is given by the [[Einstein field equations]]. The actual shapes of spacetime are described by [[Exact solutions of Einstein's field equations|solutions of the Einstein field equations]]. In particular, the [[Schwarzschild solution]] ([[1916]]) describes the gravitational field around a spherically symmetric massive object. The geodesics of the Schwarzschild solution describe the observed behavior of objects being acted on gravitationally, including the anomalous perihelion precession of Mercury and the bending of light as it passes the Sun.
Today General Relativity is accepted as the standard description of gravitational phenomena. ([[#Alternative theories|Alternative theories]] of gravitation exist but are more complicated than General Relativity.) For weak gravitational fields and bodies moving at slow speeds at small distances, Einstein's General Relativity gives almost exactly the same predictions as Newton's law of gravitation.
===Experimental tests===
General Relativity is consistent with all currently available measurements of large-scale phenomena. [[Arthur Eddington]] found observational evidence for the bending of light passing the Sun as predicted by general relativity in [[1919]]. Subsequent observations have confirmed Eddington's results, and observations of a [[pulsar]] which is [[occultation|occulted]] by the Sun every year have permitted this confirmation to be done to a high degree of accuracy. There have also in the years since 1919 been numerous other [[tests of general relativity]], all of which have confirmed Einstein's theory. Crucial experiments that justified the adoption of General Relativity over Newtonian gravity were the [[classical tests of general relativity|classical tests]]: the [[gravitational redshift]], the [[gravitational lens|deflection of light rays]] by the Sun, and the [[precession]] of the orbit of Mercury.
More recent experimental confirmations of General Relativity were the (indirect) deduction of gravitational waves being emitted from orbiting [[binary star]]s, the existence of [[neutron star]]s and black holes, [[gravitational lensing]], and the convergence of measurements in observational [[cosmology]] to an ''approximately'' flat model of the observable [[Universe]], with a matter density parameter of approximately 30% of the [[critical density]] and a [[cosmological constant]] of approximately 70% of the critical density.
The [[equivalence principle]], the postulate of general relativity that presumes that inertial mass and gravitational mass are the same, is also under test. Past, present, and future tests are discussed in the [[equivalence principle]] article.
Even to this day, scientists try to challenge General Relativity with more and more precise ''direct'' experiments. The goal of these tests is to shed light on the yet unknown relationship between [[#Gravity and Quantum Mechanics|gravity and quantum mechanics]]. [[space probe|Space probes]] are used to either make very sensitive measurements over large distances, or to bring the instruments into an environment that is much more controlled than it could be on Earth. For example, in [[2004]] a dedicated [[satellite]] for gravity experiments, called [[Gravity Probe B]], was launched to test general relativity's predicted [[frame-dragging]] effect, among others. Also, land-based experiments like [[LIGO]] and a host of "bar detectors" are trying to detect gravitational waves directly. A space-based hunt for gravitational waves, [[LISA (astronomy)|LISA]], is in its early stages. It should be sensitive to low frequency gravitational waves from many sources, perhaps including the [[Big Bang]].
Einstein's theory of relativity predicts that the [[speed of gravity]] (defined as the speed at which changes in location of a mass are propagated to other masses) should be the speed of light. In 2002, the Fomalont-[[Sergei Kopeikin|Kopeikin]] experiment produced measurements of the speed of gravity which matched this prediction. However, this experiment has not yet been widely peer-reviewed, and is facing criticism from those who claim that Fomalont-Kopeikin did nothing more than measure the speed of light in a convoluted manner.
The [[Pioneer anomaly]] is an empirical observation that the positions of the [[Pioneer 10]] and [[Pioneer 11]] [[space probe]]s differ very slightly from what would be expected according to known effects (gravitational or otherwise). The possibility of new physics has not been ruled out, despite very thorough investigation in search of a more prosaic explanation.
==Comparison with electromagnetic force==
The gravitational attraction between [[proton]]s is approximately a factor of 10<sup>36</sup> weaker than the [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic]] repulsion. This factor is indep |
(d. [[1995]])
*1923 - [[Nguyen Van Thieu]], President of South Vietnam (d. [[2001]])
*[[1926]] - [[Roger Corman]], American film director, producer, and writer
*[[1929]] - [[Ivar Giaever]], Norwegian physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1929 - [[Nigel Hawthorne]], British actor (d. [[2001]])
*1929 - [[Hugo Claus]], Belgian writer
*[[1931]] - [[Boris Strugatsky]], Russian author (d. [[1991]])
*[[1933]] - [[Larry Felser]], American sports columnist and writer
*[[1934]] - [[Frank Gorshin]], American actor (d. [[2005]])
*1934 - [[Roman Herzog]], German politician
*[[1935]] - [[Peter Grant]], British rock manager, actor ([[Led Zeppelin]],[[Bad Company]]) (d. [[1995]])
*[[1937]] - [[Colin Powell]], U.S. Secretary of State ([[2000]]-[[2004]])
*[[1941]] - [[Michael Moriarty]], American actor and political activist
*[[1942]] - [[Peter Greenaway]], Welsh film director
*[[1943]] - [[Max Gail]], American actor
*[[1944]] - [[Pedro Rossello]], former Governor of Puerto Rico
*[[1945]] - [[Tommy Smith]], English footballer
*[[1946]] - [[Jane Asher]], British actress, writer
*[[1947]] - [[Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo]], 14th [[President of the Philippines]]
*[[1949]] - [[Judith Resnik]], astronaut (d. [[1986]])
*[[1950]] - [[Agnetha Fältskog]], Swedish singer ([[ABBA]])
*[[1955]] - [[Janice Long]], English broadcaster
*[[1961]] - [[Lisa Zane]], American actress
*[[1962]] - [[Lana Clarkson]], American actress (d. [[2003]])
*[[1965]] - [[Mike McCready]], American musician ([[Pearl Jam]])
*[[1973]] - [[Pharrell Williams]], American musician and producer ([[The Neptunes]])
*[[1976]] - [[Fernando Morientes]], Spanish footballer
*[[1978]] - [[Stephen Jackson]], American basketball player
*1978 - [[Franziska van Almsick]], German swimmer
*[[1991]] - Peter McDonald, Australian Actor/Artist.
==Deaths==
*[[1168]] - [[Robert de Beaumont, 2nd Earl of Leicester]] (b. [[1104]])
*[[1419]] - [[Vincent Ferrer]], Spanish missionary and saint (b. [[1350]])
*[[1605]] - [[Adam Loftus (Archbishop)|Adam Loftus]], English Catholic archbishop
*[[1617]] - [[Alonso Lobo]], Spanish composer
*[[1676]] - [[John Winthrop, the Younger]], Governor of Connecticut (b. [[1606]])
*[[1693]] - [[Anne, Duchess of Montpensier]], French writer (b. [[1627]])
*[[1695]] - [[George Savile, 1st Marquess of Halifax]], English writer and statesman (b. [[1633]])
*[[1697]] - King [[Charles XI of Sweden]] (b. [[1655]])
*[[1717]] - [[Jean Jouvenet]], French painter (b. [[1647]])
*[[1735]] - [[William Derham]], English minister and writer (b. [[1657]])
*1735 - [[Samuel Wesley (poet)|Samuel Wesley]], English poet and religious leader (b. [[1662]])
*[[1765]] - [[Edward Young]], English poet (b. [[1683]])
*[[1794]] - [[Georges Danton]], French Revolutionary leader (b. [[1759]])
*[[1923]] - [[George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon]], English financier of Egyptian excavations (b. [[1866]])
*[[1928]] - [[Roy Kilner]], English cricketer (b. [[1890]])
*[[1964]] - [[General]] [[Douglas MacArthur]], U.S. general (b. [[1880]])
*[[1967]] - [[Hermann Joseph Muller]], American geneticist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1890]])
*1967 - [[Mischa Elman]], Ukrainian-born violinist (b. [[1891]])
*[[1970]] - [[Alfred Henry Sturtevant]], American geneticist (b. [[1891]])
*[[1972]] - [[Brian Donlevy]], American actor (b. [[1901]])
*[[1975]] - [[Chiang Kai-shek]], Chinese nationalist leader (b. [[1887]])
*[[1976]] - [[Howard Hughes]], American aviation pioneer, film director, and eccentric (b. [[1905]])
*1976 - [[Wilder Penfield]], Canadian surgeon (b. [[1891]])
*[[1982]] - [[Abe Fortas]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice (b. [[1910]])
*[[1983]] - [[Danny Rapp]], American musician ([[Danny & the Juniors]]) (b. [[1941]])
*[[1991]] - [[John Tower]], U.S. Senator from Texas (b. [[1925]])
*1991 - [[Sonny Carter]], astronaut (b. [[1947]])
*[[1992]] - [[Molly Picon]], French actress (b. [[1898]])
*1992 - [[Sam Walton]], American retailer (b. [[1918]])
*[[1994]] - [[Kurt Cobain]], American musician (b. [[1967]])
*[[1997]] - [[Allen Ginsberg]], American poet (b. [[1926]])
*[[1998]] - [[Cozy Powell]], British musician (b. [[1947]])
*[[2000]] - [[Lee Petty]], American race car driver (b. [[1914]])
*[[2001]] - [[Brother Theodore]], German-born comedian (b. [[1906]])
*[[2002]] - [[Layne Staley]], American musician ([[Alice in Chains]]) (b. [[1967]])
*[[2004]] - [[Heiner Zieschang]], German mathematician (b. [[1936]])
*[[2005]] - [[Saul Bellow]], Canadian-born writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1915]])
*2005 - [[Dale Messick]], American comic strip artist (b. [[1906]])
*2005 - [[Debralee Scott]], American actress (b. [[1953]])
==Holidays and observances==
* [[Mauritius]]: Ougadi
* [[Qingming Festival]] in the [[Chinese calendar]]
* [[Arbor Day]] in [[South Korea]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/5 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/5 Today in History: April 5]
-----
[[April 4]] - [[April 6]] - [[March 5]] - [[May 5]] &ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[af:5 April]]
[[ar:5 إبريل]]
[[an:5 d'abril]]
[[ast:5 d'abril]]
[[bg:5 април]]
[[be:5 красавіка]]
[[bs:5. april]]
[[ca:5 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 5]]
[[cv:Ака, 5]]
[[co:5 d'aprile]]
[[cs:5. duben]]
[[cy:5 Ebrill]]
[[da:5. april]]
[[de:5. April]]
[[et:5. aprill]]
[[el:5 Απριλίου]]
[[es:5 de abril]]
[[eo:5-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 5]]
[[fo:5. apríl]]
[[fr:5 avril]]
[[fy:5 april]]
[[ga:5 Aibreán]]
[[gl:5 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 5일]]
[[hr:5. travnja]]
[[io:5 di aprilo]]
[[ilo:Abril 5]]
[[id:5 April]]
[[ia:5 de april]]
[[ie:5 april]]
[[is:5. apríl]]
[[it:5 aprile]]
[[he:5 באפריל]]
[[jv:5 April]]
[[ka:5 აპრილი]]
[[csb:5 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:5'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 5]]
[[lb:5. Abrëll]]
[[li:5 april]]
[[hu:Április 5]]
[[mk:5 април]]
[[ms:5 April]]
[[nap:5 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:5 april]]
[[ja:4月5日]]
[[no:5. april]]
[[nn:5. april]]
[[oc:5 d'abril]]
[[pl:5 kwietnia]]
[[pt:5 de Abril]]
[[ro:5 aprilie]]
[[ru:5 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 5.]]
[[sco:5 Aprile]]
[[sq:5 Prill]]
[[scn:5 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 5]]
[[sk:5. apríl]]
[[sl:5. april]]
[[sr:5. април]]
[[fi:5. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:5 april]]
[[tl:Abril 5]]
[[tt:5. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 5]]
[[th:5 เมษายน]]
[[vi:5 tháng 4]]
[[tr:5 Nisan]]
[[uk:5 квітня]]
[[ur:5 اپریل]]
[[wa:5 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 5]]
[[zh:4月5日]]
[[pam:Abril 5]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>April 20</title>
<id>2195</id>
<revision>
<id>41993548</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:28:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CJLL Wright</username>
<id>259138</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm vanity, to last by CJLL Wright</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom -->
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=20}}
|}
'''[[April 20]]''' is the 110th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (111th in [[leap year]]s). There are 255 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1653]] - [[Oliver Cromwell]] dissolves the [[Rump Parliament]].
*[[1657]] - [[Jew]]s of [[New Amsterdam]] (later [[New York City]]) granted freedom of religion.
*[[1689]] - The former King [[James II of England]], now deposed, lays siege to [[Derry]].
*[[1770]] - Lieutenant [[James Cook]]'s expedition (first voyage) makes first sighting of eastern [[Australia]]n coastline, naming the spot Cape Hicks. His logbook recorded the date as [[April 19]], but the 20th was the actual calendar date.
*[[1775]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: [[Great Britain|British]] troops begin siege of [[Boston, Massachusetts]]
*[[1792]] - [[France]] declares war on [[Austria]].
*[[1836]] - [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passes an act creating the [[Wisconsin Territory]].
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Robert E. Lee]] resigns his commission in the [[United States Army]] in order to command the forces of the state of [[Virginia]].
*[[1862]] - The first [[pasteurization]] test completed by [[Louis Pasteur]] and [[Claude Bernard]].
*[[1884]] - [[Pope Leo XIII]] publishes the [[encyclical]], ''[[Humanum Genus]]''.
*[[1902]] - [[Pierre Curie|Pierre]] and [[Maria Sklodowska-Curie|Marie Curie]] refine [[radium]] chloride.
*[[1908]] - Opening day of competition of the [[New South Wales Rugby League]].
*[[1912]] - Opening day for [[baseball]] [[stadium]]s [[Tiger Stadium]] in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], [[Michigan]], and [[Fenway Park]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]].
*[[1914]] - Seventeen men, women, and children die in the [[Ludlow Massacre]] during a bitter [[Colorado]] coal-miner's strike.
*[[1918]] - [[Manfred von Richthofen]], aka The Red Baron, shoots down his 79th and 80th victims marking his final victories before his death the following day.
*[[1926]] - [[Western Electric]] and [[Warner Bros.]] announce [[Vitaphone]], a process to add sound to film.
*[[1945]] - [[United_States|US]] troops capture [[Leipzig]], [[Germany]], only to later cede the city to the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1953]] - [[Project BLUEBIRD]] turns into [[Project MKULTRA]].
*[[1967]] - A [[Swiss Britannia]] turboprop crashes at [[Toronto]], [[Canada]], killing 126.
*[[1968]] - A [[South African Airways]] [[Boeing]] 707 crashes during takeoff at [[Windhoek]], [[South-West Africa]], killing 122.
*[[1968]] - [[Pierre Trudeau]] succeeds [[Lester B. Pearson]] as [[Prime Minister of Canada]].
*[[1968]] - English politician [[Enoch Powell]] makes his controversial [[Rivers of Blood Speech]].
*[[1972]] - [[Apollo 16]] lands on the [[Moon]].
*[[1978]] - [[Korean Air Flight 902]] shot down by [[Soviet Union|Soviets]].
*[[1979]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Jimmy Carter]] is attacked by a [[Swamp Rabbit]] while on vacation in [[Plains, Georgia]].
*[[1985]] - [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms|ATF]] raid on [[The Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord]] compound in northern [[Arkansa |
"[[Dungeon Master]]" (or "DM") in ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]''.
Being the GM requires extra commitment and responsibility than simply playing the game. While the basic roles of Game Masters - rules help, moderation, and storytelling - are the same across any platform, differing rule sets make the specific duties of the GM unique to that system.
==Tabletop role-playing==
In a [[Tabletop role-playing game]], the gamemaster prepares the game session for the players and the characters they play (known as [[player character]]s or PCs). The GM describes the events and decides on the outcomes of players' decisions. The gamemaster also keeps track of [[non-player character]]s (NPCs) and [[random encounter]]s, as well as of the general state of the game world.
The game session (or "[[adventure (role-playing games)|adventure]]") can be metaphorically described as a [[play]], in which the players are the lead [[actor]]s, and the GM provides the [[stage]], the [[scenery]], the basic [[plot]] on which the [[improvisation]]al script is built, as well as all the [[bit part]]s and [[supporting character]]s.
GMs may choose to run a game based on a [[campaign setting|published game world]], with the maps and history already in place; such game worlds often have pre-written adventures. Alternately, the GM may [[Conworld|build their own world]] and script their own [[Adventure (role-playing games)|adventures]].
GMs may run their game as frequently or infrequently as they wish; some gamers meet once a week or once a month, others only two or three times a year. A GM can easily run one-shot, unconnected adventures each time their gaming group convenes; in this case there is no connected plot, and the players can choose to play different characters in each session. However, a devoted gamemaster can string many such adventures into a ''[[campaign setting|campaign]]'', in which the same heroes fight many different monsters and a few recurring villains, gaining treasure, reputation and power as they go. Such campaigns can last for years, even decades, earning a great deal of loyalty from their players, even as some players join or leave the game along the way.
A good gamemaster draws the players into the adventure, making it enjoyable for everyone. Good gamemasters have quick minds, sharp wits, and rich imaginations. Gamemasters must also maintain [[game balance]]: hideously overpowered monsters ''or'' players are no fun.
Just as there are good GMs, bad GMs also exist. One of these is the rare but well-known type known as the "killer GM". This type of gamemaster enjoys killing the PCs, meaning that the imaginary character "dies" in the same way a character in a novel might -- they cannot go forward in the story, short of in-game mechanics like magical resurrection. The GM might get satisfaction out of creating monsters with very powerful game statistics, or designing fiendish traps that are virtually impossible for the characters to escape, but such a GM is likely to have trouble keeping players coming back for more adventures.
On the other end of the spectrum, there are GMs who try to fulfill all of the desires of their players by giving the PCs an easy time of acquiring experience and treasure. These easy GMs are often called "Monty Haul" GMs, a reference to the game show host [[Monty Hall]].
Long-time role-players joke about their experiences with bad GMs (for example, see this list of [http://www.duke.edu/web/DRAGO/humor/GMList.html "The 28 Types of Game Masters"]).
===An example of a GM's duties, set in a fantasy universe===
Days or weeks (or, in a worst case scenario, minutes) before a game session, the GM decides on the plot of the [[Adventure (RPG)|adventure]] which the players are to face.
Choosing a monster that will be tough but not deadly for the current power level of the characters played by the gamers in her group, she decides that the heroes are going to rescue a young prince kidnapped by an ogre. She makes a map of the ogre's lair, makes notes about the ogre's game statistics, and decides whether there are any other challenges (such as terrain or weather) that the party must face. She creates a memorable NPC, the prince's hideous and hysterical nanny.
On game day, the players gather around a table at the GM's house. The GM reminds the players of the game's setting and picks up the story where they left off, with the characters travelling on the road after their last adventure. She describes the woebegone nanny's appearance as she runs up to the PCs on the road and begs them to help save the prince.
As she knows that the PCs consider themselves to be good and noble heroes, the GM can expect them to agree to aid the nanny. Since the trail will be cold before they can return her to town, they must bring her along as they try to follow the tracks of the ogre. The GM asks them to use dice to test whether they succeed at using their tracking skill.
The GM also uses whatever acting abilities she possesses to "act out" the character of the nanny, wailing and fearful and clumsy, making sure that the heroes don't get the advantage of surprise. This also leads the PCs to interact with the NPC, "acting out" their own parts as they try to convince her to be quiet. This helps to create a deeper role-playing experience, where the player, instead of saying, "My character tells her to be quiet," or even "I tell her to be quiet," is led into role-playing with the GM:
:Player (as Hero): "Please, please ma'am, you have to settle down, we don't want the monster to come after you too, do we?"
:GM (as Nanny): "Oh, but my boy, my POOR BOY! That precious little MAN, he's going to be EATEN UP!"
:Player (as Hero): "''Please'', lady, you've got to be quiet!"
In a straightfoward adventure, the tracks lead to an abandoned watchtower, and the fighters in the party engage in combat with the waiting ogre -- again decided by dice-rolling supervised by the GM. A good GM will ensure that this part of the game is kept quick and lively, with decisive rulings, fast-paced game turns, and energetic descriptions of the ogre's actions and the results of the players' decisions.
Meanwhile, the nimble burglar in the party climbs up the back of the tower, frees the prince from his ropes, and lowers him to the ground -- again, the GM determines how difficult these actions are and requires dice-based skill checks of some kind.
If she wanted a less straightforward plot, the GM might decide that there ''was'' no prince -- that the nanny was merely a human or shapechanged accomplice of the ogre, sent to lure unwary adventurers off the road so they could be robbed, killed, and eaten. In this case, the GM would be challenging the ability of the players to see through subterfuge and solve puzzles.
Either way, if the GM has chosen the level of difficulty well, the characters will have a good test of their abilities and wits. They will take a few injuries and be unsure of success, but with some good planning, teamwork, and bravery, will most likely overcome whatever obstacle the GM has placed in their path.
At the end of the session, the GM sometimes offers rewards: the characters may discover the ogre's treasure hoard in the tower. Based on how well they completed the adventure, the GM may give the players various types of "[[experience point|points]]", which vary in meaning depending on the game system. Often, they can be used to improve the character before the next adventure, preparing them to face even tougher foes.
==Gamemasters in online games==
A gamemaster's duties in an [[online game]] are unlike those of a traditional gamemaster in a [[tabletop role-playing game]]. A gamemaster in such a game acts less like a traditional gamemaster than an [[System administrator|administrator]] in an [[online community]]. A GM in such a game is either an experienced volunteer player or an employee who enforces the game rules, banishing spammers, [[Player versus player#Player killing|player killer]]s and [[cheating|cheaters]]. For their task they use special characters with special abilities like teleporting to players, summoning items and browsing the player logs to help them in their moderating tasks. Gamemasters in [[MUD]]s are often called "wizards". Gamemasters in [[MMORPG]]s are usually employees of the game's host or developers of the game themselves.
The now defunct [[America Online]] Online Gaming Forum used to use volunteers selected by application from its user base. These people were simply referred to as OGFs by other members, and their screennames were indicative of their position (i.e. OGF Moose, etc.). While membership in the Online Gaming Forum had only one real requirement (that is, be a member of AOL), OGFs were given powers quite similar to AOL "Guides" and could call them in at will to TOS and/or ban users as they saw appropriate.
Note that a few games, notably ''[[Neverwinter Nights]]'' and ''[[Vampire: The Masquerade - Redemption]]'', are [[computer game]] adaptations of tabletop RPGs that are played online with one player acting as a traditional gamemaster.
===The Allerian Empire===
[[The Allerian Empire]], a [[message board role-playing game]], has a Game Master Council. The GMC is a quorum of administrators each responsible for a certain geographic region of the game, usually a single city and the surrounding countryside. It is the GM’s calling to creativity to draw players to their cities by creating a fully developed 'personality' for the city. To aid in this assignment, GMs are given a tool box of resources: The ability to develop and control non-player characters, or [[non-player character| NPC]]s, and other non-player aspects of the game including locations, items, and backdrops; a codex of their assigned city which |
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Condorcet method]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cassandra</title>
<id>6526</id>
<revision>
<id>41521249</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T22:40:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pgk</username>
<id>460581</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.252.167.160|64.252.167.160]] ([[User talk:64.252.167.160|talk]]) to last version by DanielCD</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
[[Image:Cassandra1.jpg|thumb|200px|Painting by [[Evelyn De Morgan]].]]
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Cassandra''' ("she who entangles men") (also known as '''Alexandra''') was a daughter of King [[Priam]] of [[Troy]] and his queen [[Hecuba]], who captured the eye of [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] and was granted the ability to see the future. However, when she did not return his love, Apollo placed a curse on her so that no one would ever believe her predictions.
==History==
In an alternative version, she spent a night at Apollo's temple with her twin brother, at which time the temple snakes licked her ears clean so that she was able to see the future. This is a recurring theme in Greek mythology, though sometimes it brings an ability to understand the language of animals rather than an ability to know the future.
Apollo loved Cassandra, and when she did not return his love, he cursed her so that her former gift would become a source of endless pain and frustration. In some versions of the myth, this is symbolised by the god spitting into her mouth; in other Greek myths, this act was sufficient to remove the gift so recently given by Apollo, but Cassandra's case varies. From the play ''Agamemnon'', it appears that she made a promise to Apollo to become his consort, but broke it, thus incurring his wrath.
When Cassandra foresees the destruction of Troy (she warns the Trojans about the [[Trojan Horse]], the death of [[Agamemnon]], and her own demise), she is unable to do anything to forestall these events. Her family believes she is mad, and, according to some versions, kept her locked up because of this. From her appearances in various plays, it seems that the incarceration drove her truly mad, at least by the time of Troy's destruction.
[[Coroebus]] and [[Othronus]] came to the aid of Troy out of love for Cassandra. Cassandra was also the first to see the body of her brother [[Hector]] being brought back to the city.
After the [[Trojan War]], she sought shelter in the temple of [[Athena]], where she was raped by [[Ajax the lesser]]. Cassandra is then taken as a concubine and [[sexual slavery|sex slave]] by King [[Agamemnon]] of [[Mycenae]]. Unbeknownst to Agamemnon, while he was away at war, his wife, [[Clytemnestra]], had begun an affair with [[Aegisthus]]. Upon Agamemnon and Cassandra's arrival in Mycenae, Clytemnestra asks her husband to walk across a purple carpet. He initially refuses, but gives in and enters, ignoring Cassandra's warnings. Clytemnestra and Aegisthus then murder both Agamemnon and Cassandra. Some sources mention that Cassandra and Agamemnon have twin boys [[Teledamus]] and Pelops, both of whom are killed by Aegisthus.
[[Homer]]. ''[[Iliad]]'' XXIV, 697-706; [[Homer]]. ''[[Odyssey]]'' XI, 405-434; [[Aeschylus]]. ''[[Agamemnon]]''; ''[[Euripides]]''. ''[[Trojan Women]]''; ''[[Euripides]]''. ''[[Electra]]''; [[Apollodorus]]. ''[[Bibliotheke]]'' III, xii, 5; [[Apollodorus]]. ''[[Epitome]]'' V, 17-22; VI, 23; [[Virgil]]. ''[[Aeneid]]'' II, 246-
==Jonah==
In the Bible, the Prophet [[Jonah]] is the exact reverse of Cassandra: His prophecy is believed by everyone, but does not come true because the Ninevites repented, and thus God chose not to implement the judgement that the prophecy was about, as Jonah had feared.
==Modern adaptations==
A modern psychological perspective on Cassandra is presented by [[Eric Shanower]] in ''Age of Bronze: Sacrifice''. In this version, Cassandra, as a child, is [[Child molestation|molested]] by a man pretending to be a god. His warning "No one will believe you!" is one often spoken by abusers to their child victims.
A similar situation occurred in Lindsay Clarke's novel ''The Return from Troy'' (presented as a reawakened memory), where a priest of Apollo forced himself upon Cassandra and was stopped only when she spat in his mouth. When the priest used his benevolent reputation to convince Priam that he was innocent of her wild claims, Cassandra subsequently went insane.
==Modern usage==
In more modern literature, Cassandra has often served as a model for [[tragedy]] and [[Romance]], and has given rise to the archetypical character of someone whose prophetic insight is obscured by insanity, turning their revelations into riddles or disjointed statements that are not fully comprehended until after the fact. One notable example is the character of [[River Tam]] from the science fiction series ''Firefly''.
The word Cassandra has become widely used. In modern usage, however, a "Cassandra" tends to describe someone who makes false predictions which are believed.
The [[Cassandra Syndrome]] is used to describe someone who believes that he or she can see the future but cannot do anything about it. Fictional character Dr. Kathryn Railly explores this syndrome and those who suffer from it in '[[Twelve Monkeys]]''.
==Further reading==
{{Commons|Cassandra}}
* Shanower, Eric. ''Age Of Bronze Volume 2: Sacrifice.'' Image Comics (2005). ISBN 1582403996.
* Clarke, Lindsay. ''The Return from Troy.'' HarperCollins (2005). ISBN 000715027X.
Fiction: Marion Zimmer Bradley's ''The Firebrand'' ISBN: 0451459245
[[Category:Trojans]]
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[[Category:Greek mythological people]]
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[[zh:卡珊德拉]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Canadian cities</title>
<id>6528</id>
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<id>15904663</id>
<timestamp>2002-12-26T20:32:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Aldie</username>
<id>901</id>
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<comment>#REDIRECT [[List_of_cities_in_Canada]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List_of_cities_in_Canada]]</text>
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<title>Canadian provinces and territories</title>
<id>6529</id>
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<id>15904664</id>
<timestamp>2004-07-31T04:50:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The Tom</username>
<id>12499</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Provinces and territories of Canada]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Couplet</title>
<id>6530</id>
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<id>40817695</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T05:12:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>209.90.162.63</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''couplet''' is a pair of lines of [[verse]] that form a unit. Most '''couplets''' [[rhyme]] ''aa'', but this is not a requirement.
Poetry in rhyming couplets is one of the simplest [[rhyme scheme]]s:
''aa bb cc dd ee ff''... etc.
'''Example (J. Kilmer - Trees):'''
I THINK that I shall never see ''a''
A poem as lovely as a tree. ''a''
A tree whose hungry mouth is prest ''b''
Against the sweet earth's flowing breast; ''b''
This scheme was used in [[Chaucer]]'s [[The Canterbury Tales]] in the [[14th century]] and became popular again in the [[eighteenth century]] with poets such as [[Dryden]] and [[Alexander Pope]]. [[Kural]]s, which form a subclass of the [[Venpa]] class of [[Tamil language | Tamil]] poetry, are couplets. [[Tirukkural]] is a popular book written in [[Kural | Kural Venpa]] form. Couplets with a meter of [[iambic pentameter]] are called ''heroic couplets''.
Couplets can also play a role in more complex rhyme schemes. For example, Shakespearean [[sonnet]]s end with a couplet.
As examples of couplets are the [http://www.gallup.unm.edu/~smarandache/dis-prd.htm paradoxist distich], the [http://www.gallup.unm.edu/~smarandache/dis-taut.htm tautological distich] and the [http://www.gallup.unm.edu/~smarandache/dis-dual.htm dualistic distich].
[[Category:Poetic form]]
[[fr:Couplet]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Chinese Cuisine</title>
<id>6531</id>
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<timestamp>2005-06-26T20:54:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joy</username>
<id>20318</id>
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<minor />
<comment>updated to avoid double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chinese cuisine]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Charlotte Brontë</title>
<id>6532</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-28T14:19:43Z</timestamp>
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<username>Shanes</username>
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<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/142.227.13.1|142.227.13.1]] ([[User talk:142.227.13.1|talk]]) to last version by Ceyockey</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CBRichmond.jpg|thumb|right|Charlotte Brontë by George Richmond, 1850]]
'''Charlotte Brontë''' {{IPA|/b&#633;&#593;nti/}} ([[April 21]], [[1816]] &ndash; [[March 31]], [[1855]]) was an [[England|English]] [[novelist]], the eldest of the trio of [[Brontë]] sisters whose [[novel]]s have become enduring classics of [[English literature]].
Brontë was born at [[Thornton, Bradford|Thornt |
rent languages by different names (see also [[Names of European cities in different languages]]). The names derive from either German, French or Latin.
{| class="wikitable"
! Language !! Name !! Pronunciation in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
|-
| [[German language|German]]
| Aachen
|{{IPA|[ˈaːxən]}}
|-
| [[Ripuarian]]||''Oche''|| {{IPA|[ˈoːxə]}}
|-
| [[Anglicisation|Anglicized]] version of the German|| Aachen || {{IPA|[ˈɑːkən]}}
|-
| [[French language|French]]|| Aix-la-Chapelle
|{{IPA|[ɛkslaʃapɛl]}}
|-
| [[Catalan language|Catalan]]
| Aquisgrà
|{{IPA|[ɐkizˈɣɾa]}}
|-
| [[Chinese language|Chinese (Simplified)]]
| 亚琛
|{{IPA|[ya shen]}}
|-
| [[Czech language|Czech]]
| Cáchy
|{{IPA|[ˈtsaːxɪ]}}
|-
| [[Polish language|Polish]]
| Akwizgran
| &nbsp;
|-
| [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
| Aken
|{{IPA|[ˈaːkən]}}
|-
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| Aquisgrán
|{{IPA|[akisˈɣɾan]}}
|-
| [[Italian language|Italian]]
| Aquisgrana
|{{IPA|[ˌakwisˈgɾaːna]}}
|-
| [[Latin]]
| Aquīsgrānum
|{{IPA|[ˌakwiːsˈgɾaːnum]}}
|-
| [[Serbian]]
| Ahen/Ахен
|{{IPA|[,ahen]}}
|}
==External links==
{{commons|Aachen}}
*[http://www.aachen.de/ City of Aachen] (partly available in English)
*[http://www.aseag.de/ ASEAG (public bus transport)] (in German)
*[http://www-zhv.rwth-aachen.de/zentral/english_index.htm RWTH Aachen] (University of Technology Aachen)
*[http://www.fh-aachen.de/ Fachhochschule Aachen] (Aachen University of Applied Sciences)
*[http://wikoelsch.dergruenepunk.de/index.php/Aachen Aachen in the Ripuarian Wiki Project]
*[http://www.googleearthhacks.com/dlfile11927/Aachen,-Germany,-Image-overlays.htm Google Earth placemark with official image overlays]
*[http://www.noctes-gallicanae.org/Charlemagne/Annales/Pepin_le_Bref.htm Einhard's Annals:] first mention of ''Aquis villa'', 765
*[http://www.citymayors.com/cityhalls/aachen_cityhall.html Article on Aachen's historic buildings]
----
{{Germany districts north rhine-westphalia}}
----
[[Category:Aachen|*]]
[[Category:Cities in North Rhine-Westphalia]]
[[Category:Matter of France]]
[[Category:Spa towns]]
[[ar:آخن]]
[[bg:Ахен]]
[[ca:Aquisgrà]]
[[cs:Cáchy]]
[[da:Aachen]]
[[de:Aachen]]
[[eo:Aachen]]
[[es:Aquisgrán]]
[[et:Aachen]]
[[fa:آخن]]
[[fi:Aachen]]
[[fr:Aix-la-Chapelle]]
[[he:אאכן]]
[[ia:Aachen]]
[[it:Aquisgrana]]
[[ja:アーヘン]]
[[ko:아헨]]
[[la:Aquisgranum]]
[[li:Aoke]]
[[nl:Aken (stad)]]
[[no:Aachen]]
[[pl:Akwizgran]]
[[pt:Aachen]]
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[[ru:Аахен]]
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[[sk:Aachen]]
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[[wa:Åxhe]]
[[zh:阿亨]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Agapetus II</title>
<id>1522</id>
<revision>
<id>15899990</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Agapetus II]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Agate</title>
<id>1523</id>
<revision>
<id>38274250</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T06:35:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pschemp</username>
<id>110252</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Contagion]] to [[Disease]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the French rocket, see [[Agate (rocket)]]''; for the [[font]] also known as "ruby", see [[Ruby character]].
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=0 width=250 valign=top style="margin-left:1em"
|----- align=center bgcolor="#9966FF"
!colspan=2 align=center|Agate
|----- align=center
!colspan=2|[[image:mossagate.pebble.750pix.jpg|thumb|center|250px|Moss agate pebble, one inch long (2.5 cm).]]
|----- align=center bgcolor="#9966FF"
!colspan=2|General
|-----
|Category||[[Mineral]]
|-----
|[[Chemical formula]]|| Silica, SiO<sub>2</sub>
|----- align="center" bgcolor="#9966FF"
!colspan=2|Identification
|-----
| Colour || White to grey, light blue, orange to red, black.
|-----
| [[Crystal habit]] || [[Cryptocrystal]]line silica
|-----
| [[Crystal structure|Crystal system]] || [[Hexagonal]]
|-----
| [[Cleavage (crystal)|Cleavage]]||None
|-----
| [[Fracture]]|| [[Conchoidal]] with very sharp edges.
|-----
| [[Mohs Scale]] hardness || 7
|-----
| Luster|| Waxy
|-----
| [[Refractive index]]|| Translucent to transparent
|-----
| [[Pleochroism]]|| None
|-----
| [[Streak]]|| None
|-----
| [[Specific gravity]]|| 2.6
|-----
| [[Fusibility]]|| ?
|-----
| [[Solubility]]|| ?
|----- align="center" bgcolor="#9966FF"
!colspan=2|Major varieties
|-----
!colspan=2|None
|}
'''Agate''' is a term applied not to a distinct [[mineral]] species, but to an aggregate of various forms of [[silicon dioxide|silica]], chiefly [[chalcedony]].
According to [[Theophrastus]], the agate (achates) was named from the river Achates, now the [[Drillo]], in [[Sicily]], where the stone was first found.
== Formation and characteristics ==
Most agates occur as nodules in eruptive rocks or ancient [[lava]]s where they represent cavities originally produced by the disengagement of vapour in the molten mass which were then filled, wholly or partially, by siliceous matter deposited in regular layers upon the walls. Such agates, when cut transversely, exhibit a succession of parallel lines, often of extreme tenuity, giving a banded appearance to the section. Such stones are known as banded agate, riband agate and striped agate.
In the formation of an ordinary agate, it is probable that waters containing silica in solution -- derived, perhaps, from the decomposition of some of the silicates in the lava itself -- percolated through the rock and deposited a siliceous coating on the interior of the vapour-vesicles. Variations in the character of the solution or in the conditions of deposit may cause corresponding variation in the successive layers, so that bands of chalcedony often alternate with layers of crystalline [[quartz]]. Several vapour-vesicles may unite while the rock is [[Viscosity|viscous]], and thus form a large cavity which may become the home of an agate of exceptional size; thus a [[Brazil|Brazilian]] [[geode]] lined with [[amethyst]] and weighing 35 tons was exhibited at the [[Dusseldorf Exhibition]] of [[1902]].
The first deposit on the wall of a cavity, forming the "skin" of the agate, is generally a dark greenish mineral substance, like [[celadonite]], [[delessite]] or "[[green earth]]," which are rich in [[iron]] probably derived from the decomposition of the [[augite]] in the mother-rock. This green silicate may give rise by alteration to a brown [[oxide]] of iron ([[limonite]]), producing a rusty appearance on the outside of the agate-nodule. The outer surface of an agate, freed from its matrix, is often pitted and rough, apparently in consequence of the removal of the original coating. The first layer spread over the wall of the cavity has been called the "priming," and upon this base zeolitic minerals may be deposited.
[[Image:Agate banded 750pix.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Banded agate. The specimen is one inch (2.5 cm) wide.]]
Many agates are hollow, since deposition has not proceeded far enough to fill the cavity, and in such cases the last deposit commonly consists of quartz, often amethyst, having the apices of the [[crystal]]s directed towards the free space so as to form a crystal-lined cavity, or geode.
On the disintegration of the matrix in which the agates are embedded, they are set free. Being a siliceous material, which is extremely resistant to the action of air and water, they remain as nodules in the [[soil]] and [[gravel]], or become rolled as pebbles in streams.
== Types of agate ==
A [[Mexico|Mexican]] agate, showing only a single [[eye]], has received the name of "[[cyclops (rock)|cyclops]] agate." Included matter of a green, golden, red, black or other colour or combinations embedded in the chalcedony and disposed in filaments and other forms suggestive of vegetable growth, gives rise to dendritic or [[moss agate]] (named varieties include Maury Mountain, Richardson Ranch, Sheep Creek and others).
'''Dendritic''' agates have beautiful fern like patterns on them formed due to the presence of manganese and iron ions. Other types of included matter deposited during agate-building include sagenitic growths (radial mineral crystals) and chunks of entrapped detritus (such as sand, ash, or mud). Occasionally agate fills a void left by decomposed vegatative material such as a tree limb or root and is called limb cast agate due to its appearance.
Turritella agate is formed from [[fossil]] Turritella shells silicified in a chalcedony base. Turritella are spiral marine [[gastropod]]s having elongated, spiral shells composed of many whorls. Similarly, [[coral]], [[petrified wood]] and other organic remains or porous rocks can also become agatized. Agatized coral is often referred to as [[Petoskey stone|Petoskey]] agate or stone.
Certain stones, when examined in thin sections by transmitted light, show a diffraction spectrum due to the extreme delicacy of the successive bands, whence they are termed [[rainbow agates]]. Often agate coexists with layers or masses of opal, jasper or crystaline quartz due to ambient variations during the formation process.
Other forms of agate include carnelian agate (usually exhibiting redish hues), Botswana agate, blue lace agate, plume agate (such as Carey, Graveyard Point, Sage, St. Johns, Teeter Ranch and others), tube agate (with visible flow channels), fortification agate (which exhibit little or no layered structure), fire agate (which seems glow internally like an opal) and Mexican crazy-lace agate (which exhibits an often brightly colored, complex banded pattern).
== Agate beliefs ==
[[Image:Agatebots.jpg|thumb|right|Fa |
speeding car to get away from it. This is how a person suffering from phobia might feel.
People with phobias have especially powerful imaginations, so they vividly anticipate terrifying consequences from encountering such feared objects as knives, bridges, blood, enclosed places, or certain animals. These individuals recognize that their fears are excessive and unreasonable but are generally unable to control their anxiety.
In addition to specific phobias, such as fears of knives, rats or spiders, there is another category of phobias known as social phobias. Individuals with this disorder experience intense fear of being negatively evaluated by others or of being publicly embarrassed because of impulsive acts. Almost everyone experiences "stage fright" when speaking or performing in front of a group. But people with social phobias become so anxious that performance is out of the question. In fact, their fear of public scrutiny and potential humiliaton becomes so pervasive that normal life is impossible (den Boer 2000; Margolis & Swartz, 2001). Another social phobia is [[love-shyness]], which most adversely affects certain men. Those afflicted find themselves unable to initiate intimate adult relationships (Gilmartin 1987).
==Obsessive-compulsive disorder==
{{main|Obsessive-compulsive disorder}}
Obsessive compulsive disorder is a type of anxiety disorder characterized by obsessions and/or compulsions. Obsessions are distressing, repetitive thoughts or images that the individual often realizes are senseless. Compulsions are repetitive behaviors that the person feels forced or compelled into doing, in order to relieve anxiety. One example would be the obsession of extreme cleanliness and fear of contamination, which may lead to the compulsion of having to wash one's hands hundreds of times a day. Another example may be the obsession that one's door is unlocked, which may lead to the constant checking and rechecking of doors.
==Treatment overview==
Mainstream treatment for anxiety consists of the prescription of [[anxiolytic]] agents and/or referral to a [[Cognitive therapy|cognitive-behavioral]] therapist. There are indications that a combination of the two can be more effective than either one alone.
===Prescription medication===
The acute symptoms of anxiety are most often controlled with anxiolytic agents such as [[benzodiazepine]]s. [[Diazepam]] (valium) was one of the first such drugs. Today we see a wide range of anti-anxiety agents that are based on benzodiazepines, although only two have been approved for panic attacks, [[Clonazepam|Klonopin]] and [[Alprazolam|Xanax]]. All benzodiazepines are physically addictive, and extended use should be carefully monitored by a physician, preferably a psychiatrist. It is very important that once placed on a regimen of regular benzodiazepine use, the user should not abruptly discontinue the medication.
Some of the [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor|SSRI]]s (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) have been used with varying degrees of success to treat patients with chronic anxiety, the best results seen with those who exhibit symptoms of clinical depression and non-specific anxiety or general anxiety disorder concurrently. [[Beta blockers]] are also sometimes used to treat the somatic symptoms associated with anxiety, especially the shakiness of "stage fright."
Many scientists believe that the benzodiazepines and other antianxiety drugs are greatly overprescribed and potentially addictive. See, for example, [[Fred Leavitt]]'s ''The REAL Drug Abusers'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2003). The addicitive nature of the benzodiazepine class became apparent in the mid 1960's when Valium (Diazepam), the first drug in the class to win FDA approval, resulted in thousands of people who quickly showed the classic symptoms of addiction when used for more than a week or two consistently.
The most addictive of the benzodiazepines appears to be [[Alprazolam|Xanax]] due to its rapid onset and short half life in the blood stream. Xanax also has the dubious distinction of being the only benzodiazepine that often requires hospitalization for discontinuation as a precaution against dangerous and sometimes fatal seizures as part of the detoxification process. No other medications in this class have shown this fatal side effect, although abrupt discontinuation of virtually any benzodiazepine can result in cravings, stomach pains, cramps, increased anxiety, insomnia and other signs of withdrawal.
===Cognitive-behavioral therapy ===
[[Cognitive-behavioral therapy]] (CBT) is the most popular and effective form of [[psychotherapy]] used to treat anxiety. The goal of the cognitive-behavioral therapist is to decrease avoidance behaviors and help the patient develop coping skills. This
may entail:
* Challenging false or self-defeating beliefs.
* Developing a positive self-talk skill.
* Developing negative thought replacement.
* Systematic [[desensitization]], also called ''exposure'' (used for [[agoraphobia]] and [[OCD]] mainly).
* Providing knowledge that will help the patient cope. (For example, someone who suffers from panic may be informed that fast, prolonged, heart palpitations are in themselves harmless).
Unlike prescription medication, the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy depends on various subjective factors, such as therapist competence. In addition to conventional therapy, there are at-home cognitive-behavioral programs sufferers can use as part of their treatment.
===Other coping strategies===
A variety of over the counter supplements and medications are also used for their alleged anti-anxiety properties, however there is little scientific evidence to back up these claims. [[Kava Kava]] is a popular herbal treatment; small doses either taken regularly through the day or when early symptoms are noticed by the patient. [[Valerian root]] is also reputed to have anti-anxiety and sedative properties, as are [[passion fruit]], [[passion flower]], [[St. John's wort]], [[hops]], and [[chamomile]].
Popular nutritional supplements for dealing with anxiety include [[magnesium]] and [[B vitamins|B-complex]] vitamins.
Self help and relaxation techniques also play an important role in relieving anxiety symptoms. Self help includes:
* Proper diet - This includes reduction in consumption of caffeine, sugar, and generally an improvement of eating habits. Caffeine reduction should be gradual. Some anxiety sufferers report considerable reductions in their anxiety just from taking these measures.
* Exercise - Some exercise is thought to relieve stress. Anxiety sufferers should note that rapid heart palpitations during exercise can trigger a panic attack, so it is probably better to gradually develop an exercise routine while on a cognitive-behavioral program.
* Laughing
* Breathing techniques and proper breathing - A diaphragmic breathing technique is often recommended (as opposed to chest breathing).
* Proper sleep.
* Relaxation techniques - A state of relaxation can be achieved with the help of relaxation tapes, [[Yoga]] or [[relaxation therapy]].
* Stress management.- This may entail changes in lifestyle and time management. There are a number of books specialized in stress management.
* Panic attack coping strategies - Specific strategies for dealing with panic episodes have been proposed, such as slow abdominal breathing and use of reassuring self-talk.
* Search for meaning and purpose - Some experts have indicated that residual generalized anxiety can be the result of a sort of "[[boredom]]" about existence. They recommend looking for an occupation the sufferer finds meaningful.
[[Alcoholic beverage|Alcoholic drinks]] are probably the most widely used substance for the alleviation of anxiety. Anxiety sufferers are cautioned that alcohol is also a powerful depressant and has a plethora of dangerous and uncomfortable side effects in addition to being highly addictive.
==Anxiety in palliative care==
Some research has strongly suggested that treating anxiety in [[cancer]] patients improves their quality of life. The treatment generally consists of counselling, relaxation techniques or pharmacologically with benzodiazepines.
==Anxiety and alternative medicine==
A 2002 [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] [http://nccam.nih.gov/news/camsurvey.htm survey (see table 3 on page 9)] found that [[complementary and alternative methods]] were used to treat anxiety/[[clinical depression|depression]] by 4.5 percent of U.S. adults who used CAM.
==Existential anxiety==
Theologians like [[Paul Tillich]] and psychologists like [[Sigmund Freud]] have characterized anxiety as the reaction to what Tillich called, "The trauma of nonbeing." That is, the human comes to realize that there is a point at which they might cease to be (die), and their encounter with reality becomes characterized by anxiety. [[Religion]], according to both Tillich and Freud, then becomes a carefully-crafted coping mechanism in response to this anxiety.
==Test anxiety==
Test anxiety is the uneasiness, apprehension, or nervousness felt by students who have a fear of failing an exam. Students suffering from test anxiety may experience any of the following: the association of grades with personal worth, embarrassment by a teacher, taking a class that is beyond their ability, fear of alienation from parents or friends, time pressures, or feeling a loss of control. Emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and physical components can all be present in test anxiety. Sweating, dizziness, headaches, racing heartbeats, nausea, fidgeting, and drumming on a desk are all common. An optimal level of arousal is necessary to best complete a task such as an exam; however, when the anxiety or level of arousal exceeds that optimum, it results in a decline in performance.
==See also==
* [[Angst]]
* [[Social anxiety]]
== References ==
* Bourne, E. J. ''Anx |
[[Alamanni]] (Ammianus, XXVIII, 5, 8-15). At this time, the Burgundians were possibly living in the [[Vistula]] basin, according to the mid-6th century historian of the [[Goths]], [[Jordanes]]. Sometime after their war against the Alamanni, the Burgundians were beaten in battle by [[Fastida]], king of the [[Gepids]] and were overwhelmed, almost annihilated.
Approximately four decades later, the Burgundians appear again. Following [[Stilicho]]’s withdrawal of troops to fight [[Alaric I]] the [[Visigoth]] in AD [[406]]-[[408]], the northern tribes crossed the Rhine and entered the Empire in the ''[[Völkerwanderung]]'', or Germanic migrations. Among them were the [[Alans]], [[Vandals]], the [[Suevi]], and possibly the Burgundians. The Burgundians migrated westwards and settled in the [[Rhine Valley]].
There was, it seems at times a friendly relationship between the [[Huns]] and the Burgundians. It was a Hunnish custom for females to have their skull artificially elongated by tight binding of the skull when the child was an infant. Germanic graves are sometimes found with Hunnish ornaments but also with skulls of females that have been treated in this way; west of the [[Rhine]] only Burgundian graves contain a large number of such skulls. (Werner, 1953)
===Religion===
Somewhere in the east the Burgundians had been converted to the [[Arianism|Arian]] form of Christianity, which proved a source of suspicion and distrust between the Burgundians and the Catholic Western Roman Empire. Divisions were evidently healed or healing circa AD 500, however, as [[Gundobad]], one of the last Burgundian kings, maintained a close personal friendship with [[Avitus of Vienne|Avitus]], the Catholic bishop of [[Vienne, Isère|Vienne]]. Moreover, Gundobad's son and successor, [[Sigismund of Burgundy|Sigismund]], was himself a Catholic, and there is evidence that many of the Burgundian people had converted by this time as well, including several female members of the ruling family.
===Early Relationship with the Romans===
Initially, the Burgundians seem to have had a stormy relationship with the Romans. They were used by the Empire to fend off other tribes, but also raided the border regions and expanded their influence when possible.
==The Burgundian Kingdoms==
===The First Kingdom===
In [[411]], the Burgundian king [[Gunther|Gundahar]] or ''Gundicar'' set up a puppet emperor, [[Jovinus]], in cooperation with [[Goar]], king of the [[Alans]]. With the authority of the [[Gallo-Roman culture|Gallic emperor]] that he controlled, Gundahar settled on the left (Roman) bank of the Rhine, between the river [[Lauter]] and the [[Nahe]], seizing [[Worms, Germany|Worms]], [[Speier]], and [[Strasbourg]]. Apparently as part of a truce, the Emperor [[Honorius]] later officially "granted" them the land. (Prosper, a. 386)
Despite their new status as ''[[foederati]]'', Burgundian raids into Roman Upper [[Gallia Belgica]] became intolerable and were ruthlessly brought to an end in [[436]], when the Roman general [[Flavius_Aëtius|Aëtius]] called in [[Hun]] mercenaries who overwhelmed the Rhineland kingdom (with its capital at the old Celtic Roman settlement of Borbetomagus/Worms) in [[437]]. Gundahar was killed in the fighting, reportedly along with the majority of the Burgundian tribe. (Prosper; ''Chronica Gallica 452''; Hydatius; and Sidonius Apollinaris)
The destruction of Worms and the Burgundian kingdom by the Huns became the subject of heroic legends that were afterwards incorporated in the ''[[Nibelungenlied]]''&mdash;on which [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]] based his [[Ring Cycle]]&mdash;where King Gunther (Gundahar) and Queen [[Brünnehilde|Brünhild]] hold their court at Worms, and [[Siegfried]] comes to woo Kriemhild. (In Old Norse sources the names are ''Gunnar'', ''Brynhild'', and ''Gudrún'' as normally rendered in English.) In fact, the ''Atli'' of the ''Nibelungenlied'' is based on [[Attila the Hun]].
===The Second Kingdom===
For reasons not cited in the sources, the Burgundians were granted ''foederati'' status a second time, and in [[443]] were resettled by Aëtius in the region of ''Sapaudia''. (''Chronica Gallica 452'') Though ''Sapaudia'' does not correspond to any modern-day regiod, the Burgundians probably lived near ''Lugdenensis'', known today as [[Lyon]]. (Wood 1994, Gregory II, 9) A new king [[Gundioc]], or ''Gunderic'', presumed to be Gundahar's son, appears to have reigned from his father's death. (Drew, p. 1) In all, eight Burgundian kings of the house of Gundahar ruled until the kingdom was overrun by the Franks in 534.
As allies of Rome in its last decades, the Burgundians fought alongside [[Flavius_Aëtius|Aëtius]] and a confederation of Visigoths and others in the final defeat of [[Attila the Hun|Attila]] at the [[Battle of Chalons]] (also called "The Battle of the Catalaunian Fields") in [[451]]. The alliance between Burgundians and Visigoths seems to have been strong, as Gundioc and his brother Chilperic I accompanied [[Theodoric II]] to Spain to fight the Sueves in [[455]]. (Jordanes, ''Getica'', 231)
====Aspirations to the Empire====
Also in 455, an ambiguous reference ''infidoque tibi Burdundio ductu'' ([[Sidonius Apollinaris]] in ''Panegyr. Avit''. 442.) implicates an unnamed treacherous Burgundian leader in the murder of the emperor [[Petronius Maximus]] in the chaos preceding the sack of Rome by the Vandals. The Patrician [[Ricimer]] is also blamed; this event marks the first indication of the link between the Burgundians and Ricimer, who was probably Gundioc's brother-in-law and [[Gundobad]]'s uncle. (John Malalas, 374)
The Burgundians, apparently confident in their growing power, negotiated in [[456]] a territorial expansion and power sharing arrangement with the local Roman senators. (Marius of Avenches)
In [[457]], Ricimer overthrew another emperor, [[Avitus]], raising [[Majorian]] to the throne. This new emperor proved unhelpful to Ricimer and the Burgundians. The year after his ascension, Majorian stripped the Burgundians of the lands they had acquired two years earlier. After showing further signs of independence, he was murdered by Ricimer in [[461]].
Ten years later, in [[472]], Ricimer&ndash;who was by now the son-in-law of the Western Emperor Anthemius&ndash;was plotting with Gundobad to kill his father-in-law; Gundobad beheaded the emperor (apparently personally). (''Chronica Gallica 511''; John of Antioch, fr. 209; Jordanes, ''Getica'', 239) Ricimer then appointed [[Olybrius]]; both died, surprisingly of natural causes, within a few months. Gundobad seems then to have succeeded his uncle as Patrician and king-maker, and raised [[Glycerius]] to the throne. (Marius of Avenches; John of Antioch, fr. 209)
In [[474]], Burgundian influence over the empire seems to have ended. Glycerius was deposed in favor of [[Julius Nepos]], and Gundobad returned to Burgundy, presumably at the death of his father Gundioc. At this time or shortly afterward, the Burgundian kingdom was divided between Gundobad and his brothers, Godigisel, Chilperic II, and Gundomar I. (Gregory, II, 28)
====Consolidation of the Kingdom====
According to [[Gregory of Tours]], the years following Gundobad's return to Burgundy saw a bloody consolidation of power. Gregory states that Gundobad murdered his brother Chilperic, drowning his wife and exiling their daughters (one of whom was to become the wife of [[Clovis]] the [[Frank]], and was reputedly responsible for his conversion). (Gregory, II, 28)<sup id="fn_1_back">[[#fn_1|1]]</sup> This is contested, by e.g. Bury, who points out problems in much of Gregory's chronology for the events.
C.[[500]], when Gundobad and Clovis were at war, Gundobad appears to have been betrayed by his brother Godegisel, who joined the Franks; together Godegisel's and Clovis' forces "crushed the army of Gundobad." (Marius a. 500; Gregory, II, 32) Gundobad was temporarily holed up in Avignon, but was able to re-muster his army and sacked Vienne, where Godegisel and many of his followers were put to death. From this point, Gundobad appears to have been the sole king of Burgundy. (e.g., Gregory, II, 33) This would imply that his brother Gundomar was already dead, though there are no specific mentions of the event in the sources.
Either Gundobad and Clovis reconciled their differences, or Gundobad was forced into some sort of vassalage by Clovis' earlier victory, as the Burgundian king appears to have assisted the Franks in [[507]] in their victory over [[Alaric II]] the Visigoth.
During the upheaval, sometime between [[483]]-[[501]], Gundobad began to set forth the ''Lex Gundobada'' (see below), issuing roughly the first half, which drew upon the ''Lex Visigothorum''. (Drew, p. 1) Following his consolidation of power, between 501 and his death in [[516]], Gundobad issued the second half of his law, which was more originally Burgundian.
===The Fall of the Second Kingdom===
The Burgundians were extending their power over southeastern [[Gaul]]; that is, northern [[Italy]], western [[Switzerland]], and southeastern [[France]]. In 493 [[Clovis I|Clovis]], king of the Franks, married the Burgundian princess Clotilda, daughter of Chilperic.
At first allies with [[Clovis I|Clovis]]' [[Franks]] against the [[Visigoths]] in the early [[6th century]], the Burgundians were eventually conquered by the Franks in [[534]]&nbsp;CE. The Burgundian kingdom was made part of the [[Merovingian]] kingdoms, and the Burgundians themselves were by and large absorbed as well.
==The Burgundian Laws==
The Burgundians left three [[legal code]]s, among the earliest from any of the Germanic tribes.
The '''[[Lex Gundobada|Liber Consitutionum sive Lex Gundobada]]''' (''The Book of the Constitution following the Law of Gundobad''), also known as the ''Lex Burgundionum'', or more simply the '''Lex Gundobada''' or the ''Liber'', was issued in several |
republic lies in the Sahara. The only important rivers, the Logone and Chari (Shari), are located in the southwest and flow into Lake Chad. The lake doubles in size during the rainy season.
==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Chad}}
Chad's primarily [[agricultural]] economy is being boosted by major [[petroleum|oil]]field and pipeline developments that began in 2000. Over 80% of Chad's population continues to rely on [[subsistence farming]] and [[stock raising]] for its livelihood. Cotton, cattle, and [[gum arabic]] have, until recently, provided the bulk of Chad's export earnings, but Chad began to export oil in 2003 from three oilfields near [[Doba]]. It has been estimated that income from oil increased Chad's per capita GDP by 40% in [[2004]], and may double it in [[2005]].
Chad's economy has long been handicapped by its landlocked position, poor internal communications, high energy costs, scarce water resources and a history of instability. Until now, Chad has relied on foreign assistance and foreign capital for most public and private sector investment projects but oil income will transform government finances.
A consortium, led by [[ExxonMobil]] (US), and with the participation of [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]] (US) and [[Petronas]] ([[Malaysia]]), invested $3.7 billion to develop oil reserves estimated at 1 billion barrels (0.2 km&sup3;) in southern Chad, and Chad became an oil-producing country in [[2003]], with the completion of a pipeline (financed in part by the [[World Bank]]) linking its southern oilfields to terminals on the Atlantic coast via neighbouring [[Cameroon]]. Chad hopes to avoid the waste and corruption experienced in some other African oil-producing countries; as a condition of its assistance, the World Bank has insisted on a new law which requires that 80% of oil revenues will be spent on development projects. However, in January 2006 the World Back suspended its loan program to Chad, in reaction to the Chadian decision to "relax" laws governing the spending of oil money. Chad's response is that the World Bank is using Chad as a test subject for different management styles.
Provided stability is maintained, the outlook for Chad's economy is now better than it has ever been. It is known that further reserves of oil exist within the country, in addition to the oilfields that are already being exploited.
==Demography==
{{main|Demographics of Chad}}
There are more than 200 ethnic groups in Chad. Those in the north and east are generally [[Muslim]]; most southerners are [[Christianity|Christian]]s or [[animist]]s, although such a north/south division glosses over the complex and nuanced tribal and religious relationships in Chad. Through their long religious and commercial relationships with [[Sudan]] and [[Egypt]], many of the peoples in Chad's eastern and central regions have become more or less [[Arab]]ized, speaking Chadian Arabic (see below) (although typically not literal Arabic) and engaging in many other Arab cultural practices as well. More than three-quarters of the Chadian population is rural.
==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Chad}}
Chad is a very culturally diverse nation. Among the manifestations of this diversity is the extremely large number of languages spoken there. Although the only official languages in Chad are [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[French language|French]], there are also more than 100 tribal languages spoken and a dialect of Arabic known as Chadian Arabic is the closest thing the country has to a national trade language. Chadian Arabic is a mix of "literal" Arabic, French and local dialects. It differs from the country's official language, literal Arabic, and, while literal Arabic speakers can often understand Chad Arabic, the inverse is not true. Government schools are taught in the official languages, with French typically the language of instruction. Few Chadians other than the educated/traveled elite speak literal Arabic.
The largest ethnic group in Chad, the Christian/animist [[Sara people]]s living in the south, only makes up 20% of the population. In central Chad, people are mostly nomadic and pastoralist. The mountainous north has a sparse, mostly [[Muslim]] population of mixed backgrounds. Each society in Chad (smaller than the groups described above) has developed their own religion, music, and folklore.
The largest Christian churches are the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the
[[Assemblees Chretiennes du Tchad]], the [[Association of Baptist Churches of Chad|Eglise Baptiste du Tchad]] and the [[Eglises Evangeliques au Tchad]].
{{seealso|music of Chad}} [[List of African writers (by country)#Chad|List of writers from Chad]], [[Day (language)]]
==Miscellaneous topics==
*[[Association of Baptist Churches of Chad]]
*[[Communications in Chad]]
*[[Darfur conflict]]
*[[Foreign relations of Chad]]
*[[Holidays in Chad]]
*[[Islam in Chad]]
*[[Languages of Chad]]
*[[Military of Chad]]
*[[Transportation in Chad]]
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Chad}}
===Government===
*[http://www.primature-tchad.com/ Official site of the government] (in French)
===News===
*[http://allafrica.com/chad/ AllAfrica.com - ''Chad''] news headline links
*[http://www.africatime.com/tchad/ News and links]
===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1068700.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Chad'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cd.html CIA World Factbook - ''Chad'']
* [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/cd/ US State Department - ''Chad''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
*[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/CHADEXTN/0,,menuPK:349901~pagePK:141132~piPK:141109~theSitePK:349862,00.html World Bank -- Chad Summary Data, Statistics & Sources]
*[http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?CCODE=TCD&PTYPE=CP World Bank -- Chad Data Profile]
===Directories===
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Chad.html Columbia University Libraries - ''Chad''] directory category of the WWW-VL
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Chad/ Open Directory Project - ''Chad''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/chad.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Chad''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Chad/ Yahoo! - ''Chad''] directory category
===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}
===Other===
*[http://www.ryanspencerreed.com/ Ryan Spencer Reed] photojournalist's images of Sudan's displaced in Eastern Chad
{{Africa}}
[[Category:Chad| ]]
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[am:ቻድ]]
[[ang:Chad]]
[[ar:تشاد]]
[[an:Chad]]
[[ast:Chad]]
[[bg:Чад]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tchad]]
[[bn:চাদ]]
[[bs:Čad]]
[[ca:Txad]]
[[cs:Čad]]
[[da:Tchad]]
[[de:Tschad]]
[[et:Tšaad]]
[[el:Τσαντ]]
[[es:Chad]]
[[eo:Ĉado]]
[[eu:Txad]]
[[fr:Tchad]]
[[gl:Chad - Tchad]]
[[ko:차드]]
[[ht:Tchad]]
[[hr:Čad]]
[[io:Chad]]
[[id:Chad]]
[[ia:Tchad]]
[[is:Tsjad]]
[[it:Ciad]]
[[he:צ'אד]]
[[sw:Chad]]
[[ku:Çad]]
[[la:Tzadia]]
[[lv:Čada]]
[[lt:Čadas]]
[[hu:Csád]]
[[ms:Chad]]
[[na:Chad]]
[[nl:Tsjaad]]
[[nds:Tschad]]
[[ja:チャド]]
[[no:Tsjad]]
[[nn:Tsjad]]
[[pl:Czad (państwo)]]
[[pt:Chade]]
[[ro:Ciad]]
[[rm:Tschad]]
[[ru:Чад]]
[[sco:Chad]]
[[sq:Çadi]]
[[scn:Ciad]]
[[simple:Chad]]
[[sk:Čad]]
[[sl:Čad]]
[[sr:Чад]]
[[fi:Tšad]]
[[sv:Tchad]]
[[tl:Chad]]
[[th:สาธารณรัฐชาด]]
[[tr:Çad]]
[[uk:Чад]]
[[zh:乍得]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chile</title>
<id>5489</id>
<revision>
<id>42141616</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:24:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.247.100.116</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4|the country in South America|the spicy fruit of the plant ''Capsicum''|Chile pepper}}
{{Infobox Country |<!-- If editing infobox, please update [[Template:Country infox data Chile]] also -->
native_name = República de Chile|
common_name = Chile |
image_flag = Flag of Chile.svg |
image_coat = Chile COA.jpg |
image_map = LocationChile.png |
national_motto = ''Por la Razón o la Fuerza''<br>([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: "By right or might") |
national_anthem = ''[[National anthem of Chile|Himno Nacional]]'' |
official_languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]] |
capital = [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]]<sup>1</sup> |
latd=33|latm=26|latNS=S|longd=70|longm=40|longEW=W|
government_type = [[Republic|Democratic republic]] |
leader_titles = • [[President of Chile|President]] |
leader_names = [[Ricardo Lagos]] |
largest_city = [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]] |
area = 756,950 |
areami² = 292,183 |<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
area_rank = 38th |
area_magnitude = 1 E11 |
percent_water = 1.07%<sup>2</sup> |
population_estimate = 16,136,137 |
population_estimate_year = June 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 60th |
population_census = 15,116,435 |
population_census_year = 2002 |
population_density = 21 |
population_densitymi² = 54 |<!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
population_density_rank = 153rd |
HDI = 0.854 |
HDI_rank = 37th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |
GDP_PPP = $180.6 billion |
GDP_PPP_rank = 46th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $11,300 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 59th |
GDP_year = 2005 |
GDP = 120,500 million |
GDP_per_capita = $7,300 |
Exports_2005 = 39.536,07 US$ |
Imports_2005 = 30.300,13 US$ |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.854 |
HDI_rank = 37th |
HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font> |
sovereignty_type = [[History of Chile|Independence]] |
established_events = • Initiated<br> • Declared <br> • Recognized |
established_dates = From [[Spain]]<br>[[September 18]], [[1810]]<br>[[February 12]], [[1818]]<br>[[April 25]] [[1844]] |
currency = [[Chilean peso|Peso]] |
currency_code = CLP |
time_zone = — |
utc_offset = -4 |
time_zone_DST = — |
utc_offset_DST = -3 |
cctld = [[.cl]] |
calling_code = 56 |
footnotes = <sup> |
''[[Seinfeld]]'' is on [[CTV]] and on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]], for instance, the cable, satellite, or other broadcast distributor must send the CTV feed on ABC's channel, even where the ABC version is somehow different, particularly a different episode. The goal of this policy is to create a market in which Canadian networks can realize revenue through advertising sales in spite of their inability to match the rates that the much larger American networks can afford to pay for syndicated programming. But this also means that, because Canadian broadcasters often purchase rights to fewer episodes of a syndicated program than do American broadcasters, Canadian viewers watching American networks have access to less episodes of many syndicated programs -- and see more reruns -- than do many American viewers watching the same American networks. This policy is also why Canadian viewers do not see American advertisements during the [[Super Bowl]], even when tuning into one of the many American networks carried on Canadian televisions.
==Controversial decisions==
Since 2004, the CRTC has been involved in several controversial decisions:
* '''[[CHOI]]''': The CRTC announced it would not renew the licence of the popular [[CHOI]] radio station in Quebec, after having previously sanctioned the station for failing to uphold its promise of performance and then, during the years following, receiving about 50 complaints about offensive behaviour by radio jockeys which similarly contravened CRTC rules on broadcast hate speech. Many thousands of the station's fans marched in the streets and on [[Parliament Hill]] against the decision, and the parent company of CHOI, Genex Corp., appeled the CRTC decision unsuccessfully to the Federal Court of Canada.
* '''[[RAI]]''': This [[Italy|Italian]] station was denied a broadcast license on the grounds that it would compete with [[Telelatino]], a Canadian-run station which already produces shows in Italian. Many Italian-Canadians who either preferred RAI or could not receive Telelatino were, however, using [[satellite television|satellite]] viewing cards obtained via the US in order to watch RAI, even though these cards were either [[grey market]] or [[black market]], according to different analyses (see below). Following a subsequent review of the CRTC's policy on third-language foreign service, the service was approved in early 2005, but other foreign channels - for instance, those broadcasting in Spanish and therefore also competing with Telelatino's Spanish-/Italian-language broadcasts - remain affected by the policy, which seeks to promote the Canadian production of content.
* '''[[Al Jazeera]]''': Despite concerns over possible [[anti-Semitic]] incitement on this station, it was approved by the CRTC as an optional cable and satellite offering, but on the condition that any carrier distributing it must edit out any instances of illegal hate speech. Cable companies declared that these restrictions would make it too expensive to carry Al Jazeera. Although no cable company released data as to what such a monitoring service would cost, the end-result was that no cable company elected to carry the station, either, leaving many Arabic-speaking Canadians subscribed to grey-/black-market dishes. The [[Canadian Jewish Congress]] has expressed its opinion that the restrictions on Al Jazeera are appropriate, while the Canadian [[B'nai Brith]] is opposed to any approval of Al Jazeera in Canada.
* '''[[Fox News]]''': Until 2004, the CRTC's apparent reluctance to grant a digital licence to Fox News under the same policy which made it difficult for RAI to enter the country - same-genre competition from foreign services - had angered many [[conservative]] Canadians, who believed the network was deliberately being kept out due to its perceived [[conservative bias]], particularly given the long-standing availability of services such as [[CNN]] and [[BBC World]] in Canada. On [[November 18]], 2004, however, the CRTC approved an application by Fox News to offer its services to Canadians. Fox commenced broadcasting in Canada shortly thereafter.
* '''[[Satellite radio]]''': In [[June 2005]], the CRTC outraged some Canadian [[cultural nationalism|cultural nationalists]] and [[labour union]]s by licencing two companies, [[Canadian Satellite Radio]] and [[Sirius Canada]] to offer satellite radio services in Canada. The two companies are in partnership with [[United States|American]] firms [[XM Satellite Radio]] and [[Sirius Satellite Radio]] respectively, and in accordance with the CRTC decision will only need to offer ten percent Canadian content. The CRTC contends that this low level of Canadian content, particularly when compared to the 35 percent rule on local radio stations, was necessary because unlicenced U.S. receivers were already flooding into the country, so that enforcing a ban on these receivers would be nearly impossible (see below). This explanation did not satisfy cultural nationalists, who demanded that the [[Cabinet of Canada|federal cabinet]] overturn the decision and mandate a minimum of 35 percent Canadian content. Supporters of the decision argue that satellite radio can only be feasibly set up as a continental system, and trying to impose 35 percent Canadian content across North America is quite unrealistic. They also argue that satellite radio will boost Canadian culture by giving vital exposure to independent artists, instead of just concentrating on the country's stars, and point to the CRTC's successful extraction of promises to program 10 percent Canadian content on satellite services already operational in the United States as important concessions. [http://news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&u=/cpress/20050627/ca_pr_on_en/satellite_radio_3] On the other hand some consumers and financial analysts believe that any Canadian content conditions are unnecessarily strict and might hamper the ability of Canadians to legally listen to many of the services currently provided by both providers.
Despite popular perception that the CRTC banned [[Sirius Canada]] from broadcasting [[Howard Stern]]'s program, this is not the case. Sirius Canada in fact ''chose'' not to air Stern based on the ''possibility'' of a future issue with the CRTC.
==Reception of non-Canadian services==
While an exact number has not been determined, thousands of Canadians have purchased and used what they contend to be [[grey market]] radio and television services, licenced in the [[United States]] but not in Canada. Users of these unlicenced services contend that they are not directly breaking any laws by simply using the equipment. The equipment is usually purchased from an [[United States|American]] supplier (although some merchants have attempted to set up shop in Canada) and the services are billed to an American postal address. The advent of [[online billing]] and the easy availability of [[credit card]] services has made it relatively easy for almost anyone to maintain an account in good standing, regardless of where they actually live.
Under the Radiocommunication Act s. 4(1), radio or television equipment or service not specifically authorized for use in Canada falls into a [[black market]] category, contravening Canadian law. Until 2004, some debate ensued as to whether the purchase and tuning of equipment to receive unscrambled or lawfully paid-for programming not licensed by the CRTC in fact constituted black-market activity which was certainly illegal or merely grey-market which was possibly illegal; amendments to the Radiocommunication Act in 2004 resolved this debate. The implication of this illegality is that law enforcement agencies tasked with upholding the Radiocommunication Act, such as the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]], have the right not only to act against merchants vending unauthorized services within Canada, but also to identify, seize, and prosecute the use of illegal equipment itself. To date, however, no cable or satellite provider or any other party with standing to do so has pressed charges against individual users, only against retailers selling access to unlicensed services commercially. Canadian [[credit card]] companies have also reportedly come under pressure to refuse to process payments to American satellite providers made by Canadians claiming American residency for subscription purposes.
Satellite radio poses a more complicated problem for the CRTC. While an unlicenced satellite dish can often be identified easily, satellite radio receivers are much more compact and can rarely be easily identified. Some observers argued that this influenced the CRTC's June 2005 decision to ease Canadian content restrictions on satellite radio (see above).
==Structure==
The CRTC is run by up to 13 full-time (including the chairperson, the vice-chairperson of broadcasting, and the vice-chairperson of telecommunications) and 6 part-time commissioners appointed by the Cabinet for renewable terms of up to 5 years. Only full-time commissioners can participate in the decision-making process for telecommunications and all commissioners are involved in broadcasting decisions. The current chairman is [[Charles Dalfen]].
==See also==
* [[Category 1 channels (Canada)|Category 1 channels]]
* [[Category 2 channels (Canada)|Category 2 channels]]
==External links==
*[http://www.crtc.gc.ca CRTC]
[[Category:Canadian media regulation]]
[[Category:Canadian federal departments and agencies]]
[[Category:Communications in Canada]]
[[Category:Communications authorities]]
[[Category:1968 establishments]]
[[fr:Conseil de la radiodiffusion et des télécommunications canadiennes]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Con</title>
<id>5986</id>
<revision>
<id>35061273</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-13T21:09:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>82.128.187.86</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Minor: Removed quotation marks arou |
e-ing them. Another strategy is to horde low value dominos and try to use up a particular number which you have the double for. Once you know that there are no longer three free dominos to complete the chickie, you control when the round ends by playing the chickie. This is especially good when you also have that number as your last domino. It also pays to keep the double blank since it adds no value to your score. Like poker, watching for looks of desperation on your opponents faces can clue you in to who has the big doubles.
===Forty-two===
A [[trick-taking game]] like [[contract bridge|bridge]], but played with dominoes, originating in Texas. Popular in [[Texas]] and other [[Southern United States|southern states]]. See [[42 (dominoes)]].
==More Dominos==
With bigger domino sets, it is possible to have more players. Double 9s is good for 4 to 6 players and each player would start with 7 dominos in their hand.
Double 12s is good for up to 10 players, each with 7 dominos. If you have fewer players and more dominos, start with more dominos in each players hand, but leave enough dominos in the bone pile to draw from. When using double 12s, make sure you have plenty of playing room as it can spread out considerably.
Double 6s = 7 rounds, double 9s = 10 rounds, double 12s = 13 rounds.
== The origin of dominoes==
Dominoes are descendants of dice. The two ends on each of the original [[Chinese dominoes]] represented one of the 21 combinations that can occur with the throw of two dice. Modern western dominoes, however, have blank ends on them as well and so the number of dominoes is generally 28. Dominoes were apparently unknown in Europe until the [[18th century]] and may have been invented in their modern form in [[Italy]]. The dark spots on light faces apparently reminded people of masquerade masks with eyeholes (called ''dominoes'') and thus gave the playing pieces their name. Chinese dominoes do not have blanks, but some whole tiles are duplicated.
==Other uses of dominoes==
[[Image:Albert Anker 001.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Albert Anker]]: Girl with dominoes, 2nd half of 19th century]]
Other than playing games of strategy, another common pastime using domino tiles is to stand them on edge in long lines, then topple the first tile, which falls on and topples the second, etc., resulting in all of the tiles falling. Arrangements of thousands of tiles have been made that have taken several minutes to fall. By analogy, similar phenomena of chains of small events each causing similar events leading to eventual catastrophe are called [[domino effect]]s.
The [[Netherlands]] has hosted an annual domino toppling exhibition called [[Domino Day]] since [[1986]]. The event held on [[November 18]], [[2005]] knocked over 4,155,476 dominoes.
==See also==
*[[Chinese dominoes]]
*[[Pub games]]
==References==
*''Hoyle's Rules of Games 3rd Ed''. (2001). Hoyle, Edmond, Mott-Smith, Geoffrey, & Morehead, Philip, & Morehead, A. H. (Eds). Signet. ISBN 0451204840
''This article incorporates text from the [[public domain]] [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]].''
==External links==
{{commonscat|Dominoes}}
*[http://www.domino-games.com/ Domino-Games.com]
*[http://www.dominospiel.de/index.php?lang=EN Fédération Internationale de Domino (FIDO)]
*[http://www.dominodomain.com/ World record holder domino toppling: Weijers Domino Productions]
*[http://www.xs4all.nl/~spaanszt/Domino_Plaza.html Domino Plaza]
*[http://www.xs4all.nl/~spaanszt/Domino/Books.html Domino Plaza's list of books about Dominoes]
*[http://www.gamecabinet.com/rules/DominoGames.html Dominoes at the Game Cabinet]. Includes a short history of dominoes.
*[http://www.worlddomino.com/ Championship Domino Tournament] Includes tournament and game (All Fives) rules.
*[http://www.pagat.com/tile/wdom/mextrain.html Mexican Train] rules
*[http://www.pagat.com/tile/wdom/index.html Western Domino Games]
*[http://www.phelios.com/pc/dominoes.html dominoes]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Combinatorics/DominoCovering.shtml Dominoes on a Chessboard]
[[Category:1911 Britannica]]
[[Category:Tile-based games]]
[[Category:Polyforms]]
[[Category:Pub games]]
[[da:Domino]]
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[[es:Dominó]]
[[eo:Domeno (ludo)]]
[[fr:Domino (jeu)]]
[[he:דומינו]]
[[hu:Dominó]]
[[nl:Domino]]
[[ja:ドミノ]]
[[pl:Domino]]
[[pt:Dominó]]
[[ru:Домино]]
[[sv:Domino]]
[[zh:骨牌]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dissociation constant</title>
<id>8263</id>
<revision>
<id>41089669</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T23:57:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.146.124.224</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* p''K'' */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[chemistry]] and [[biochemistry]], a '''dissociation constant''' or an '''ionization constant''' is a specific type of [[equilibrium constant]] used for reversible reactions or processes. That means that it refers to the extent to which a [[Complex_(chemistry)|complex]], [[molecule]], or [[salt]] separates or splits into smaller molecules, ions, or [[Radical_(chemistry)|radicals]] in a reversible manner. The dissociation constant is represented by the symbol ''K''<sub>d</sub>.
Given the reaction
:A<sub>x</sub>B<sub>y</sub> <=> xA + yB
It is given by the expression
:<math>K_d = \frac{[A]^x \times [B]^y}{[A_x B_y]}</math>
Where [A], [B], and [A<sub>x</sub>B<sub>y</sub>] indicate the concentrations of A, B, and A<sub>x</sub>B<sub>y</sub>, respectively.
== p''K'' ==
The '''p''K'' value''' is defined as:
:<math>\!\, pK = -\log{K_d}</math>
where K<sub>d</sub> is the dissociation constant.
As a frequently used special case, the dissociation constant of [[water]] is often expressed as K<sub>w</sub>:
<math>K_w = {[H^+] \cdot [OH^-] \over [H_2O]}</math>
The value of K<sub>w</sub> varies with temperature, as shown in the table below. This variation must be taken into account when making precise measurements of quantities such as [[pH]].
{| class='prettytable'
!- valign="bottom" align="left" | '''Water temperature'''
| valign="bottom" align="left" | '''K<sub>d</sub>/10<sup>-14</sup>'''
| valign="bottom" align="left" | '''pK<sub>d</sub>'''
|-----
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 0°C
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 0.1
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 14.92
|-----
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 10°C
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 0.3
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 14.52
|-----
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 18°C
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 0.7
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 14.16
|-----
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 25°C
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 1.2
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 13.92
|-----
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 30°C
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 1.8
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 13.75
|-----
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 50°C
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 8.0
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 13.10
|-----
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 60°C
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 12.6
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 12.90
|-----
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 70°C
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 21.2
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 12.67
|-----
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 80°C
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 35
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 12.46
|-----
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 90°C
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 53
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 12.28
|-----
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 100°C
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 73
| valign="bottom" align="left" | 12.14
|}
== Acid base reactions ==
For the [[deprotonation]] of [[acid]]s, ''K'' is known as ''K''<sub>a</sub>, the [[acid dissociation constant]]. Stronger acids, for example [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]] or [[phosphoric acid]], have larger dissociation constants; weaker acids, like [[acetic acid]], have smaller dissociation constants. A molecule can have several acid dissociation constants. In this regard, that is depending on the number of the protons they can give up, we define [[monoprotic]], [[diprotic]] and [[triprotic]] acids. The first (e.g. [[acetic acid]] or [[ammonium]]) have only one dissociable group, the second ([[carbonic acid]], [[bicarbonate]], [[glycine]]) have two dissociable groups and the third (e.g. [[phosphoric acid]]) have three dissociable groups. In the case of multiple p''K'' values they are designated by indices: p''K''<sub>1</sub>, p''K''<sub>2</sub>, p''K''<sub>3</sub> and so on. For amino acids, the p''K''<sub>1</sub> constant refers to its [[carboxyl]] (-COOH) group, p''K''<sub>2</sub> refers to its [[amino]] (-NH<sub>3</sub>) group and the p''K''<sub>3</sub> is the p''K'' value of its side chain.
<math>H_3 B \Longleftrightarrow\ H ^ + + H_2 B ^ - \qquad K_1 = {[H ^ +] \cdot [H_2 B ^ -] \over [H_3 B]} \qquad pK_1 = - log K_1 </math>
<math>H_2 B ^ - \Longleftrightarrow\ H ^ + + H B ^ {-2} \qquad K_2 = {[H ^ +] \cdot [H B ^{-2} ] \over [H_2 B^ -]} \qquad pK_2 = - log K_2 </math>
<math>H B |
tures who worshipped sun gods. These cultures believed that their sun god was born on December 21st, the shortest day of the year, and that the days grew longer as their god aged. Other cultures believed that their deity died on this day, only to return for another cycle.
It is alleged that, according to [[Celtic Mythology]], the sun god was crucified on the winter solstice, and three days later, as the days grew longer again, he rose from the dead. It is said that this was the origin of the [[Celtic cross]], symbolising the crucified sun god, thus making it a few thousand years older than Christianity. Nevertheless, there is no record of the Celts actually ever practicing crucifixion or stories of any crucifixion of a "Celtic Sun God" before 19th century source. Crosses and circles are found worldwide as solar symbol, whether or not a particular culture practiced crucifixion.
The context in which Christianity, and thus Christmas, formed was during the Roman Empire. The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] honored [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]], the ancient god of agriculture, each year beginning on [[December 17]]. In a festival called [[Saturnalia]], they glorified past days when the god Saturn ruled. This festival lasted for seven days and included the [[winter solstice]], which according to the [[Julian calendar]], fell on [[December 25]]. During Saturnalia the Romans feasted, postponed all business and warfare, exchanged gifts, and temporarily freed their slaves. Such traditions resemble those of Christmas and are used to establish a link between the two holidays. These and other winter festivities continued through [[January 1]], the festival of [[Kalends]], when Romans marked the day of the [[new moon]] and the first day of the month as well as the beginning of the religious year. As [[Isaac Asimov]] comments in his ''Guide to the Bible'', "[C]onverts could join Christianity without giving up their Saturnalian happiness. It was only necessary for them to joyfully greet the birth of the Son rather than the Sun."
According to the ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', Christmas is not included in Irenaeus's nor Tertullian's list of Christian feasts, the earliest known lists of Christian feasts. The earliest evidence of celebration is from [[Alexandria]], in about 200, when [[Clement of Alexandria]] says that certain [[Egyptian]] theologians "over curiously" assign not just the year but also the actual day of Christ's birth as 25 Pachon ([[May 20]]) in the twenty-eighth year of Augustus.{{ref|Note4}} By the time of the [[Council of Nicaea]] in 325, the Alexandrian church had fixed a ''dies Nativitatis et Epiphaniae''. The December feast reached Egypt in the fifth century. In Jerusalem, the fourth century [[pilgrim]] [[Egeria (nun)|Egeria]] from [[Bordeaux]] witnessed the Feast of the Presentation, forty days after [[January 6]], which must have been the date of the Nativity there. At [[Antioch]], probably in 386, St. [[John Chrysostom]] urged the community to unite in celebrating Christ's birth on [[December 25]], a part of the community having already kept it on that day for at least ten years.
In the [[Roman Empire]], the celebrations of [[Saturn]] during the week of the solstice, with their climax on December 25th, were the main social event. In order to make it easier for the Romans to convert to Christianity without missing out on their festivities, [[Pope Julius I]] ordered in 350 that the birth of Christ be celebrated on the same date.
Some scholars maintain that [[December 25]] was only adopted in the 4th century as a Christian holiday after [[Constantine I (emperor)|Roman Emperor Constantine]] converted to Christianity to encourage a common religious festival for both Christians and [[Paganism|pagans]]. Perusal of historical records indicates that the first mention of such a feast in Constantinople was not until 379, under [[Gregory Nazianzus]]. In Rome, it can only be confirmed as being mentioned in a document from approximately 350 but without any mention of sanction by Emperor Constantine.
An alternative theory asserts that the date of Christmas is based on the date of [[Good Friday]], the day Jesus died. Since the exact date of Jesus' death is not stated in the Gospels, early Christians sought to calculate it, and arrived at either [[March 25]] or [[April 6]]. To then calculate the date of Jesus' birth, they followed the ancient idea that Old Testament prophets died at an "integral age" — either an anniversary of their birth or of their conception. They reasoned that Jesus died on an anniversary of the Incarnation (his conception), so the date of his birth would have been nine months after the date of Good Friday — either December 25 or January 6. Thus, rather than the date of Christmas being appropriated from pagans by Christians, the opposite is held to have occurred. [See Duchesne (1902) and Talley (1986).]
Another extremely popular cult of Persian origin, in those days was that of [[mitra|Mithras]]. The similarities between Jesus and Mithras are many. Mithras was born on December 25th of virgin birth, the son of the primary Persian deity, Ahura-Mazda. His birth was witnessed by shepherds and magi. He was reputed to have raised the dead, healed the sick and cast out demons. He had a Lord's Supper. His day of worship was Sunday. He was killed and resurrected, returned to heaven on the spring equinox after a last meal with his 12 disciples (representing the signs of the zodiac), eating "mizd" - a piece of bread marked with a cross (an almost universal symbol of the sun). The Mithraic cult peaked around the year 300 AD when it became the official religion of the empire. At that time, in every town and city, in every military garrison and outpost from Syria to the Scottish frontier, was to be found a Mithraeum and officiating priests of the cult. This is not to suggest that the Mithraic cult was the only factor in this syncretization, many pagan gods had similar aspects of mythology (e.g. resurrection, virgin mother etc).
Early Christians chiefly celebrated the [[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]], when the baby Jesus was visited by the [[Magi]] (and this is still a primary time for celebration in [[Argentina]], [[Spain]] and [[Armenia]]). Historians are unsure exactly when Christians first began celebrating the [[Nativity of Christ]]. At times it was forbidden by [[Protestant]] churches until after the 1800s because of its association with Catholicism.
Some Christmas traditions, particularly those in [[Scandinavia]], have their origin in the Germanic [[Yule]] celebration. Christmas is still known as ''Yule'' (or: Jul) in Scandinavian countries.
===When was the original Christmas?===
{{seealso|Chronology of Jesus}}
According to one tradition, Jesus was born during [[Hanukkah]] (25 [[Kislev]] into the beginning of [[Tevet]]). Under the old [[Julian calendar]], the popular choice of [[5 BC]] for the year of Jesus' birth would place 25 Kislev at [[November 25]].
Early Christians sought to calculate the date of Christ's birth based on the idea that [[Old Testament]] [[prophet]]s died either on an anniversary of their birth or of their conception. They reasoned that Jesus died on an anniversary of his conception, so the date of his birth was nine months after the date of Good Friday, either [[December 25]] or [[January 6]]. <!--The celebration of solstice is much older than 2,000 years; it certainly wasn't taken from the Christians.-->
[[Hippolytus (writer)|St. Hippolytus]], who was already knowledgeably defending the faith in writing at the start of the third century, said that Christ was born Wednesday, [[December 25]], in the 42nd year of [[Augustus]]' reign (see his ''Commentary on Daniel'', circa 204, Bk. 4, Ch. 23).
Additional calculations are made based on the six-year [[almanac]] of [[priest]]ly [[Job rotation|rotations]], found among the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]]. Some believe that this almanac lists the week when [[John the Baptist]]'s father served as a [[high priest]]. As it is implied that John the Baptist could only have been conceived during that particular week, and as his conception is believed to be tied to that of Jesus, it is claimed that an approximate date of [[December 25]] can be arrived at for the birth of Jesus. However, most scholars (e.g. ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' in sources) believe this calculation to be unreliable as it is based on a string of assumptions.
The apparition of the angel [[Gabriel]] to [[Zacharias|Zechariah]], announcing that he was to be the father of [[John the Baptist]], was believed to have occurred on [[Yom Kippur]]. This was due to a belief (not included in the [[Gospel]] account) that Zechariah was a high priest and that his vision occurred during the high priest's annual entry into the [[Holy of Holies]]. If John's conception occurred on Yom Kippur in late September, then his birth would have been in late June. If John's birth was on the date ascribed by tradition, [[June 24]], then the [[Annunciation]] to the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]], said by the Gospel account to have occurred three month's before John's birth, would have been in late March. (Tradition fixed it on [[March 25]].) The birth of Jesus would then have been on [[December 25]], nine months after his conception. As with the previous theory, proponents of this theory hold that Christmas was a date of significance to Christians before it was a date of significance to pagans.
==Dates of celebration==
[[Image:Christmas.house.arp.750pix.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|A house decorated for Christmas in Yate, England]]
Christmas is now celebrated on [[December 25]] in Roman Catholic, [[Protestant]], and some Eastern Orthodox churches, such as the Greek, Bulgarian and Romanian Orthodox Church. The majority of [[Eastern Orthodox]] churches celebrate Christmas on [[January 7]]. This date results from their having accepted neither the reforms of the [[Grego |
* The [[atoms]] of a given [[element]] are different than those of any other [[element]].
* [[Atoms]] of one [[element]] can combine with [[atoms]] of other elements to form [[compounds]]. A given [[compound]] always has the same relative numbers of types of [[atoms]].
* [[Atoms]] are indivisible in chemical processes. [[Atoms]] are not created nor destroyed in [[chemical reactions]]. A chemical reaction simply changes the way [[atoms]] are grouped together.
==See also==
* [[Atom]]
* [[Atomism]]
* [[History of thermodynamics]]
* [[Kinetic theory]]
* [[Quantum Mechanics - simplified|Development of Quantum Theory]]
===Related lists===
* [[Timeline of chemical element discovery]]
* [[Timeline of quantum mechanics, molecular physics, atomic physics, nuclear physics, and particle physics]]
* [[Timeline of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and random processes]]
[[Category:Atomic physics| ]]
[[Category:Statistical mechanics]]
[[Category:Chemistry theories]]
[[Category:Foundational quantum physics]]
<!-- [[Category:Albert Einstein]] this field doesn't belong to Einstein -->
[[ar:نظرية ذرية]]
[[fr:Théorie atomique]]
[[ko:원자론]]
[[he:התורה האטומית]]
[[nn:Atomteori]]
[[zh:原子論]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Asshole</title>
<id>2845</id>
<revision>
<id>42071016</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:52:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zsinj</username>
<id>597658</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/208.34.239.69|208.34.239.69]] to last version by Wayward</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar3|arsehole|asshole|asshat}}
:''This article is about the word "''asshole''". For the card game sometimes known as "Asshole", see [[President (game)]]. For the chemical compound, see [[Arsole]].''
'''Asshole''' or '''arsehole''' (outside of [[North America]]) is a [[slang]] term referring to the [[anus]]. The word is mainly used as a [[profanity]] towards someone the speaker does not like or to express deep contempt for someone whose behavior is hurtful, self-centered or particularly abrasive. Usually, the person to whom this term is directed is a male. It may also sometimes be used to describe people who are viewed as "stupid" or "useless."
This word or its literal translation is found in colloquial speech in a number of [[culture]]s (in both [[English language|English]] and other [[language]]s). This is due to the fact that it describes an [[organ (anatomy)|organ]] of [[defecation|elimination]] that is considered a [[taboo]] region (belonging to the [[intimate parts]]) of the body in many [[society|societies]].
The English word ''ass'' (meaning [[donkey]], derived from the same root as its zoological name ''Equus '''asinus''''') may also be used as a term of contempt, referring to a silly or stupid person. In [[North America]], the words ''arse'' and ''ass'' have become [[synonym]]ous; however in the rest of the world, ''ass'' still only refers to the donkey, rather than the ''arse'' ([[buttock]]s). It is worth noting that some varieties of English [[rhotic and non-rhotic accents|drop the letter "R"]], leading to practically identical pronunciations of ''ass'' and ''arse''.
Until the early 1990s, the word was considered one of a number of words that could not be uttered on commercial television in the United States. Comedian [[Andrew Dice Clay]] caused a major shock when he uttered the word during a televised awards show in the 1980s. By 1994, however, the word had become less vulgar, and was often featured in dialogue on the long-running television series ''[[NYPD Blue]]''; it has yet to become anything close to commonplace on network TV, however. It is important to note that while the word ''ass'' has found a place on broadcast television, ''asshole'' is not used, probably due to its more vulgar connotation.
In 1993, actor [[Denis Leary]] enjoyed some success with a comedic song called "Asshole" which opened his stage play ''[[No Cure For Cancer]]'' and was featured in a [[music video]] [http://www.milkandcookies.com/links/38718/]. It topped the [[Triple J Hottest 100, 1993]] in Australia and subsequently reached #2 on the charts in that country in 1994. Alternative rock artist [[Beck]] has written and recorded a song called "Asshole," one of his most acclaimed compositions. The British ska-punk band [[Snuff (band)|Snuff]] also have a song named "Arsehole".
'''Asshat''' is a slightly more trendy and less severe variation of ''asshole'', graphically describing someone who has his "head up his ass" (i.e., not knowing what's going on), or a variation of "butthead". In the former sense, it is suggested that one is wearing one's ass for a hat, or alternately, a hat for one's ass (Some people view it as that from the waist up, you are a hat for your own ass.). A more modern usage of ''asshat'' describes a person doing something stupid, and can apply to anyone: "The boss is up to asshattery because he broke the computer even though he knew he was doing the wrong thing." This meaning was popularized by [[Something Awful]] character [[Jeff K.]]
The word is popular in many online communities, serving as a more palatable version of its antecedent. According to [[Google]]'s Usenet statistics, the word only saw a token appearance every day or two starting in July, 1999, but following a slow rise in 2002, it entered popular usage in May, 2003.
As it continued to grow in [[popularity]], asshat began to be used by online gamers, in first person shooter and massive multiplayer role playing games. It was a commonplace word on servers where [[vulgar]] language was not allowed.
The insult "assclown" is used in a similar fashion, although it is not as common. "Assclown" has become well known among fans of the [[World Wrestling Entertainment|WWE]] due to wrestler [[Chris Jericho]] using it during his promos, especially his "Highlight Reel"; the term was also famously used in the film ''[[Office Space]]'' to describe singer-songwriter [[Michael Bolton]].
[[Category:Profanity]]
[[Category:Pejorative terms for people]]
[[Category:Comedy songs]]
[[Category:1993 songs]]
[[Category:1994 singles]]
[[zh:傻屄]]
[[de:Arschloch]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ai</title>
<id>2846</id>
<revision>
<id>41470870</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T15:54:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Janihan</username>
<id>763121</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* People and types of people */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}}
'''Ai''' (as a word, proper name and acronym) can refer to many things.
== Technology ==
''does not include companies or organizations''
* [[Artificial intelligence]] (AI), intelligence exhibited by any manufactured system, likely the most common usage
* [[Adobe Illustrator]] (.ai)(AI), as the file extension for the native file format and abbreviation of this application
== Digraph ==
:In English, ai makes the IPA [ei] sound as in '''pain'''.
:In Spanish, ai makes the IPA [ai] sound as in the English '''I'''.
== Television and Film ==
''does not include companies or organizations''
* ''[[A.I. (film)]]'', a 2001 film directed by Steven Spielberg
* ''[[American Idol]]'' (AI), the American television series
* ''[[Australian Idol]]'' (AI), the Australian television series
== Medicine ==
* [[Aortic insufficiency]] (AI), a symptom of a heart disorder
* [[Aromatase inhibitor]] (AI), one of a class of drugs used to treat cancer, in particular breast cancer
* [[Artificial insemination]] (AI), the insertion of male sperm into the female reproductive tract using artificial means other than sexual intercourse
*[[Amelogenesis imperfecta]] (AI), a genetic disorder affecting tooth development
== Geography ==
* [[Ai (Bible)]], a place mentioned in the Bible, likely identical to the archaeological site of Et-Tell
* [[Anguilla]] (AI), as the [[ISO 3166-1|ISO]] 2-letter [[country code]]
* [[Appenzell Innerrhoden]] (AI), a Swiss canton
== People and types of people ==
* [[Emperor Ai of Han]] (27 BC–1 BC)
* [[Ai (poet)]] (born 1947), American poet
* [[AI (singer)]] (born 1981), a Japanese [[Hip hop music|hip hop]] singer
* [[Ai Kago]] (born 1988), a Japanese singer
* [[Ai Otsuka]] (born 1982), popular Japanese singer
* [[Ai Takahashi]] (born 1986), a Japanese singer
* [[Allen Iverson]] (born 1975) (AI), an NBA basketball player
==Manga==
* "Ai Amano", the main character in the manga series ''[[Video Girl Ai]]''
* "[[Princess Ai]]" character based on [[Courtney Love]] in the Manga of the same name.
== Organizations ==
* '''[[Air India]]''' (AI) ([[IATA airline designator]])
* [[Amnesty International]] (AI), an international non-governmental organization
* [[The Art Institutes]] (AI), a system of educational institutions
== Other ==
* [[Ai (animal)]], a three-toed [[sloth]]
* [[Ai (chimpanzee)]], a female chimp famous for showing surprising numerical capability.
* [[Air interdiction]] (AI), a military capability
* ''[[Annals of Inisfallen]] (AI)'', a chronicle of the medieval history of Ireland
* [[Aoi Mac Ollamain]] (Ai), the Celtic god of poetry as an alternative first name and name abbreviation
* ''[[Artificial Intelligence (series)]]'' (AI), a musical album series by Warp Records
* [[Love]] (Ai) in the sense of "universal love" as developed by the Chinese philosopher [[Mozi]]
* [[American Idiot]] (AI), 2004 album by the band [[Green Day]]
* [[Alexis I. duPont High School]], referred to as AI
== See also ==
{{Wiktionarypar2|AI|ai}}
* '''[[Ay]]''', a pharaoh of Ancient Egypt (which can also appear as '''Ai''')
* '''[[Ái]]''', the husband of Edda and putative ancestor of the thralls or serfs in the Norse eddic poem ''Rígthula''
* '''[ |
of both men seem to have regarded the other as having copied their man’s idea and copied it wrongly. The Stephenson lamp (with no gauze around the [[flame]]) gave a brighter light and was popular with the pitmen. The Davy lamp was simpler and cheaper to make and was popular with the mineowners.
There were supposed safety arguments on both sides: in principle, a poorly maintained (or badly designed) Davy lamp could overheat the gauze if it met a high concentration of methane. A more serious objection to the Stephenson lamp was that it stopped being a safety lamp if the glass was broken. In the long term, the Davy lamp (or at least the principle of a gauze enclosure round the flame) won out.
The introduction of the Davy lamp actually led to an increase in accidents in mines as the availability of the lamp encouraged the working of mines that had previously been closed for safety reasons. [http://www.bopcris.ac.uk/bopall/ref4654.html]
{{ArtificialLightSources}}
[[Category:Lighting]]
[[Category:Mining]]
[[Category:English inventions]]
[[nl:Davylamp]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Docklands Light Railway</title>
<id>8827</id>
<revision>
<id>42079497</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:05:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox TfL line|
Line=Docklands Light Railway|
ColourName=double turquoise stripe|
TextColour=White|
YearOpened=1987|
DeepOrSurface=Primarily elevated|
RollingStock=DLR B Stock|
StationsServed=38|
LengthKm=31|
LengthMiles=19|
AnnualPassengers=60,000,000|
Depots=Poplar<br />Beckton|
}}
The '''Docklands Light Railway''' ('''DLR''') is a [[light rail|light-rail]] [[public transport]] [[metro]] for the redeveloped [[Docklands]] area of eastern [[London]], [[England]]. The DLR is separate from the [[London Underground]], having separate tracks and [[rolling stock]]. The two systems are, however, integrated wherever they meet, and share a single ticketing system. The DLR appears on the London Underground’s [[Tube map]].
All the trains are computer-controlled and have no driver. However, a passenger service agent (PSA) on each train is responsible for patrolling the train, checking tickets, making announcements, and controlling the doors. PSAs can also take control of the train in case of computer failure or emergency.
Operation and maintenance of the DLR has been a private franchise since [[1992]]. The current franchise, due to expire in April [[2006]], belongs to Serco Docklands Ltd, a company jointly formed by [[Serco]] and the former DLR management team. Re-franchising is currently being undertaken with Serco and French transport group [[Keolis]] named as the two bidders who have been invited to submit best and final offers for the new seven year franchise. [[First Group]] and [[Transdev]] had pre-qualified to bid, but did not make the shortlist. Final bids were to be submitted by [[27 September]] [[2005]], and on the [[22 November]] [[2005]] [[Transport for London]] announced that Serco had been selected as the preferred bidder <ref name="sercopreff">Docklands Light Railway (2005). ''[http://pressroom.dlr.co.uk/latest_news/details.asp?id=101 Serco named preferred bidder for new £400m franchise]''. Retrieved [[February 26]] [[2006]].</ref>.
==Development==
[[image:Towergateway.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Tower Gateway station was the DLR’s original link to central London.]]
=== Initial system ===
The Docklands Light Railway was conceived in the late 1980s by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] (LDDC) to aid the regeneration of the docks of East London, which had been derelict since the 1960s. As originally conceived, the system was to be entirely above ground and consist of three branches, with their termini at [[Tower Gateway DLR station|Tower Gateway]], [[Stratford station|Stratford]], and [[Island Gardens DLR station]].
The initial idea was a system using modern [[tram]]-derived light-rail vehicles, with overhead current collection, manual driving, and some elements of street level running. The LDDC, however, wanted to showcase cutting-edge technology and disliked the overhead wires, and so chose an automatically driven system with [[third rail|third-rail]] current collection, but still using tram-derived vehicles. Most of the tracks were elevated, either on new lightweight concrete viaduct structures or on disused railway viaducts, with some use of disused surface level railway right of way. The system was opened by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] on [[31 July]] [[1987]], with the passenger service starting a month later on the [[31 August]].
As opened the system was still lightweight, with stations and trains only a single articulated vehicle long. The three branches together totalled 13 [[Kilometre|km]] <ref name="facts">Docklands Light Railway (2005). ''[http://www.tfl.gov.uk/dlr/about/facts.shtml Facts]''. Retrieved [[February 26]] [[2006]].</ref>, were connected by a flat triangular junction near Poplar, and services were operated between all three terminals.
===First extensions===
[[Image:Tower Gateway DLR station 3.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The view from [[Tower Gateway DLR station|Tower Gateway]] looking east shows [[Fenchurch Street railway station|Fenchurch Street]] approach tracks to the left, the original DLR line in the centre, and DLR train emerging from the tunnel to [[Bank and Monument stations|Bank]] to the right.]]
The initial system proved too lightweight for its job, as the Dockland area developed rapidly into a major financial centre and employment zone. Additionally, the Tower Gateway terminus, situated as it is at the very edge of the [[City of London]] financial district, attracted criticism for its poor connections.
In response to this, all stations and trains were extended to two-unit lengths, and the system was extended into the heart of the City of London with a tunnel into [[Bank and Monument stations|Bank underground station]], which opened in [[1991]]. This extension diverged from the initial western branch, leaving [[Tower Gateway DLR station|Tower Gateway station]] on a limb. It also rendered the initial car fleet obsolete, as their construction was not suitable for use underground ''(see Rolling Stock, below)''.
At the same time, the unserved areas in the east of the [[Docklands]] area needed better transport connections to encourage development there. This resulted in a fourth branch being constructed from [[Poplar DLR station|Poplar]] via [[Canning Town station|Canning Town transport interchange]] to [[Beckton DLR station|Beckton]], running along the north side of the [[Royal Docks]] complex. As part of this extension, one side of the original flat triangular junction was replaced with a [[grade separation|grade separated]] junction west of Poplar, and a new grade separated junction was created at the divergence of the Stratford and Beckton lines east of Poplar. Poplar station was rebuilt to provide cross-platform interchange between the Stratford and Beckton lines.
The growth of the [[Canary Wharf]] office complex required the redevelopment of [[Canary Wharf DLR station]] from a small wayside station, to a large complex with six platforms serving three rail tracks, within a large overall roof and fully integrated into the malls below the office towers.
Once Canary Wharf became a major financial employment centre, demands came to improve transport connections with residential areas to the south-east of London. This was met by an extension of the DLR from [[Island Gardens DLR station|Island Gardens]] in tunnel under the [[River Thames]] to [[Greenwich station|Greenwich]] and then on a new elevated route paralleling [[River Ravensbourne|Deptford Creek]] to an interchange at the major rail junction of [[Lewisham station|Lewisham]]. Besides providing two new rail interchanges (at Greenwich and Lewisham), this branch also serves the tourist area of Greenwich with a new station at [[Cutty Sark DLR station|Cutty Sark]].
A new eastbound branch from Canning Town to [[King George V station|King George V]], serving the [[London City Airport]], opened on [[2 December]], [[2005]]. It runs along the southern side of the [[Royal Docks]] complex (the Beckton branch runs along the north side).
=== Current system ===
[[image:dlr.canary.wharf.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Docklands Light Railway train enters the [[Canary Wharf]] interchange station from the south.]]
The Docklands Light Railway now includes 31 [[Kilometre|km]] of track <ref name="facts">Docklands Light Railway (2005). ''[http://www.tfl.gov.uk/dlr/about/facts.shtml Facts]''. Retrieved [[February 26]] [[2006]].</ref>. There are five branches: to [[Lewisham station|Lewisham]] in the south, [[Stratford station|Stratford]] in the north, [[Beckton DLR station|Beckton]] and [[King George V DLR station|King George V]] in the east and another leading into Central London (splitting to serve two nearby termini, [[Bank and Monument stations|Bank]] and [[Tower Gateway DLR station|Tower Gateway]]). Although the system allows many different combinations of routings, at present the following four routes are operated in normal service:
* Bank to Lewisham
* Tower Gateway to Beckton
* Stratford to Lewisham
* Bank to King George V
Some trains on the Stratford line turn back at [[Crossharbour and London Arena DLR station|Crossharbour and London Arena]] rather than continuing to Lewisham.
There are also occasional trains from [[Tower Gateway DLR station|Tower Gateway]] to [[Crossharbour and London Arena DLR station|Crossharbour]] and [[Lewisham station|Lewisham]].
The northern and southern branches terminate at the National Rail (mainline) stations at Stratford and Lewisham respectively. |
086</id>
</contributor>
<comment>drop the hated horiz. line</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">"'''High anxiety'''" is a non-technical term referring to a state of extreme [[fear]] or apprehension. See [[anxiety]] and [[phobia]].
Despite its common usage, this is not a technical medical term. High or extreme anxiety can be associated with an [[anxiety disorder]] or it can be a perfectly normal response to environmental stimuli. Somebody who is about to sit for an important exam or undergo a driving test will often be in a state of "high anxiety".
'''''[[High Anxiety]]''''' is also the name of a film by [[Mel Brooks]], and a song performed (by Brooks) within the film.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>H</title>
<id>13478</id>
<revision>
<id>42126979</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:17:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>67.188.172.165</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{AZ|uc=H|lc=h}}'''H''' is the eighth letter of the Latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]]. Its name in [[English language|English]] is ''aitch''.
In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], this symbol is used to represent two sounds. Its lowercase form, {{IPA|[h]}}, represents the [[voiceless glottal fricative]], and its small capital form, {{IPA|[ʜ]}}, represents the [[voiceless epiglottal fricative]].
==History==
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;text-align:center;"
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
! Egyptian hieroglyph "fence"
! Proto-Semitic {{IPA|ħ}}
! Phoenician {{IPA|ħ}}
! Etruscan H
! Greek (H)eta
|-----
|<hiero>N24</hiero>
|[[Image:Proto-semiticH-01.png]]
|[[Image:PhoenicianH-01.png]]
|[[Image:EtruscanH-01.png]]
|[[Image:GreekH-01.png]]
|}
The Semitic letter &#1495; (''kh''êt) probably represented the [[voiceless pharyngeal fricative]] ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/&#295;/}}). The form of the letter probably stood for a "fence". The early [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] H stood for {{IPA|/h/}}, but later on, this letter, ''[[eta]]'' (&Eta;, &eta;), became a long vowel, {{IPA|/&#603;:/}}. (In Modern Greek, this [[phoneme]] fell together with {{IPA|/i/}}, similar to the [[English language|English]] development where EA {{IPA|/&#603;:/}} and EE {{IPA|/e:/}} came to be both pronounced {{IPA|/i:/}}.)
In [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] and [[Latin]], the sound value {{IPA|/h/}} was maintained, but all Romance languages lost the sound &mdash; [[Romanian language|Romanian]] later re-borrowed the {{IPA|/h/}} phoneme from its neighbouring Slavic languages, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] developed a secondary {{IPA|/h/}} from F, then lost it again, and [[Spanish language|Castilian]] {{IPA|/x/}} has developed an {{IPA|[h]}} [[allophone]] in some Spanish-speaking countries. In German, ''h'' is typically used as a vowel lengthener, as well as the phoneme {{IPA|/h/}}. This may be because {{IPA|/h/}} was sometimes lost between vowels in German, but it may also have to do with the fact that Romance lost {{IPA|/h/}}. Hence, H is used in many spelling systems in [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] and [[trigraph (orthography)|trigraphs]], such as ''ch'' in Spanish and English {{IPA|/t&#643;/}}, French {{IPA|/&#643;/}} from {{IPA|/t&#643;/}}, Italian {{IPA|/k/}}, German {{IPA|/x/}}.
==Usage in English==
===Name of the letter===
The English name of the letter is generally pronounced {{IPA|/eɪtʃ/}} and spelled '''aitch'''. Pronunciation {{IPA|/heɪtʃ/}} (and hence spelling '''haitch''') is usually considered to be [[Phonological history of English consonants#H-adding|h-adding]] and hence nonstandard. However it is standard in [[Hiberno-English]], and among [[Saint-Léonard (borough)|Saint-Léonard]] Italians in [[Montreal]]. It is common in [[Australian English]], often identified with those educated by Irish emigrants in [[Roman Catholic]] schools. In [[Northern Ireland]] it is a [[shibboleth]] as [[Protestant]] schools teach ''aitch'' and Catholics ''haitch''. The pronunciation affects the choice of indefinite article before [[initialism]]s beginning with H: for example "an HTML page" or "a HTML page".
It is often assumed that the pronunciation {{IPA|/eɪtʃ/}} is a result of [[Phonological history of English consonants#H-dropping|h-dropping]], but in fact the original name of the letter was {{IPA|/aha/}}; this became {{IPA|/aka/}} in Latin, passed into English ''via'' Old French {{IPA|/atʃ/}}, and by Middle English was pronounced {{IPA|/aːtʃ/}}. The pronunciation {{IPA|/heɪtʃ/}} is a [[hypercorrection]] formed by analogy with the names of the other letters of the alphabet, most of which include the sound they represent.
===Value===
H occurs as a single-letter grapheme (with value {{IPA|/h/}} or [[silent letter|silent]]) and in the 2-letter graphemes ''ch''({{IPA|/tʃ/}}), ''gh'' (either silent or {{IPA|/g/}}, {{IPA|/f/}}) , ''ph'' ([[Greek language|Greek]] words with {{IPA|/f/}}), ''rh'' (Greek words with {{IPA|/r/}}), ''sh'' ({{IPA|/ʃ/}}), ''th'' (either {{IPA|/θ/}} or {{IPA|/ð/}}), ''wh'' (either {{IPA|/w/}} or {{IPA|/ʍ/}}: see [[English consonant cluster reductions#Wine-whine_merger|wine-whine merger]]). In [[transliteration]]s from [[Russian language|Russian]], ''zh'' may occur for {{IPA|/ʒ/}}.
H is silent in some words of [[Romance language|Romance]] origin:
*Initially in ''heir'', ''honest'', ''honour'', ''hour''; for [[American English]] usually also ''herb'', and sometimes ''homage''.
*For some speakers, also in an initial unstressed syllable, as "an historic occasion"; to retain the "an" and pronounce the H may be considered affected.
*After ''ex'' when x has value {{IPA|/gz/}}, as ''exhaust''.
*For many speakers, between two vowels, as ''annihilate'', ''vehicle''.
*At the end of a word, as ''cheetah'', ''verandah''.
==Usage in French==
In the French language, the name of the letter is pronounced {{IPA|/a&#643;/}}.
The French language classifies words that begin with this letter in two ways that must be learned to use French properly, even though it is a silent letter either way. The ''h muet'', or "mute ''h''", is considered as though the letter were not there at all, so masculine nouns get the article ''le'' replaced by the sequence ''l'''. Similarly, words such as ''un'', whose pronunciation would [[elision|elide]] onto the following word would do so for a word with ''h muet''.
For example ''Le'' plus ''Hébergement (accommodation)'' becomes ''L'Hébergement''.
The other way is called ''h aspiré'', or "aspirated ''h''" (though it is still not aspirated) and is treated as a phantom consonant. Hence masculine nouns get the ''le'', separated from the noun with a bit of a glottal stop. There is no elision with such a word; the preceding word is kept separate by similar means.
Most words that begin with an ''h muet'' (or "a" ''h muet'', interestingly) come from Latin (''honneur'') or from Greek through Latin (''hécatombe''), whereas most words beginning with an ''h aspiré'' come from Germanic (''harpe'') or non-Indo-European (''harem'', ''hamac'') languages. As is generally the case with French, there are numerous exceptions. In some cases, an ''h muet'' was added to disambiguate the {{IPA|[v]}} and semivowel {{IPA|[&#613;]}} pronunciations: ''huit'' (from ''uit'', ultimately from Latin ''octo''), ''huître'' (from ''uistre'', ultimately from Greek through Latin ''ostrea'').
Some of these distinctions have been preserved in English through Anglo-French: ''an honour'' vs. ''a harp''.
Dictionaries mark those words that have this second kind of ''h'' with a preceding mark, either an [[asterisk]], a [[dagger (typography)|dagger]], or a little circle lower than a degree-symbol.
==Usage in German==
In the German language, the name of the letter is pronounced /haː/.
In the [[German language]], this letter is used in the digraph "ch" and the trigraph "sch" to indicate completely different sounds. Following a vowel, it often silently indicates that the vowel is long: In the word "erhöhen", only the first <nowiki><h></nowiki> is pronounced as /h/. This is the origin of the spelling (or pronunciation) of the English ejaculation "Eh?" which is not at all like an English pronunciation of the letter "e".
A century ago, there was a [[spelling reform]] which eliminated the silent <nowiki><h></nowiki> in all instances of <nowiki><th></nowiki> in native German words such as ''Thee'' or ''Neanderthal''. Due to opposition by monarchists, the word ''Thron'' "throne" was exempted from this and left with <nowiki><th></nowiki>.
==Codes for computing==
{{Letter
|NATO=Hotel
|Morse=····
|B1=●
|B2=●
|B3=○
|B4=○
|B5=●
|B6=○
}}
In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] H is codepoint U+0048 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] h is U+0068.
The [[ASCII]] code for capital H is 72 and for lowercase h is 104; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01001000 and 01101000, correspondingly.
The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital H is 200 and for lowercase h is 136.
The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are "<tt>&amp;#72;</tt>" and "<tt>&amp;#104;</tt>" for upper and lower case respectively.
==Meanings for H==
* In [[astronomy]],
** H stands for an April 16 through 30 discovery, in the provisional designation of a comet (e.g. [[C/1874 H1]], Comet Coggia) or asteroid (e.g. [[(4662) 1984 HL]]).
* In [[biochemistry]], H is the symbol for [[histidine]].
* In [[chemistry]], H is the symbol for [[hydrogen]].
* In [[computing]]:
** [[^H]] is often used jokingly to indicate the intended deletion of the previous letter (see also [[W]]) |
ms, especially the C64 and Amiga series, retained a cult following among their users for years after its demise.
===Post-Commodore International, Ltd.===
Following its liquidation, Commodore's former assets went their separate ways, with none of Commodore's successors repeating Commodore's early success.
Commodore UK was the only subsidiary to survive the bankruptcy and even placed a bid to buy out the rest of the operation, or at least the former parent company. For a time it was considered the front runner in the bid, and numerous reports, all false, surfaced during the [[1994]]-[[1995]] time frame that Commodore UK had made the purchase. Commodore UK stayed in business by selling old inventory and making computer speakers and some other types of computer peripherals. However, Commodore UK lost its financial backing after several larger companies, including [[Gateway Computers]] and [[Dell Inc.]], became interested, primarily for Commodore's 47 patents relating to the Amiga. Ultimately, the successful bidder was [[Germany|German]] PC conglomerate [[Escom]], and Commodore UK was absorbed into Escom in mid-[[1995]].
Escom paid US$14 million for Commodore International, primarily for the Commodore brand name. It separated the Commodore and Amiga operations into separate divisions and quickly started using the brand name on a line of PCs sold in [[Europe]]. However, it quickly started losing money, went bankrupt on [[July 15]], [[1996]], and was liquidated.
In September [[1997]], the Commodore brand name was acquired by Dutch computer maker [[Tulip Computers NV]]. Tulip's ownership was little more than the answer to a trivia question until [[July 11]], [[2003]], when Tulip announced it would re-launch the Commodore name, including new Commodore 64-related products, and threatened legal action against commercial Web sites that used the computer's name without a license. On [[18 June]] [[2004]], Tulip introduced the website CommodoreWorld.com (see external links, below), run by its new daughter company '''Commodore International BV'''.
The Commodore brand name resurfaced in late [[2003]] on an inexpensive portable [[MP3]] player made in [[China]] by [[Tai Guen Enterprise]], sold mostly in [[Europe]]. However, the device's connection to Tulip, the legal owners of the name, is unclear.
In July of [[2004]], Tulip announced a new series of products using the Commodore name: fPET, a flash memory-based USB Key drive; mPET, a flash-based MP3 Player and digital recorder; eVIC, a 20 GB music player; and the C64 DTV.
In late [[2004]] Tulip sold the Commodore name to [http://www.commodoreworld.com/corporate/ Yeahronimo Media Ventures] for &#8364;22 million [http://www.theregister.com/2004/12/29/tulip_sells_commodore/]. The sale was completed in March [[2005]] after months of negotiations.
The Commodore Semiconductor Group (formerly MOS Technology, Inc.) was bought by its former management and in [[1995]], resumed operations under the name '''GMT Microelectronics''', utilizing a troubled facility in [[Norristown, Pennsylvania]] that Commodore had closed in [[1992]]. By [[1999]] it had $21 million in revenues and 183 employees. However, in [[2001]] the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] shut the plant down. GMT ceased operations and was liquidated.
Ownership of the Amiga line passed through several owners, from Escom of Germany in [[1995]], and then to U.S. PC clone maker [[Gateway Computers|Gateway]] in [[1997]], before being licensed to '''Amiga, Inc.''', a company founded by former Gateway employees Bill McEwen and Fleecy Moss in [[2000]].
== Product line ==
===Computers, 8-bit===
''(listed chronologically)''
*[[Commodore PET|Commodore PET/CBM]] range
*[[Commodore VIC-20]] - aka VC-20
*[[Commodore CBM-II]] range - aka B-range aka 600/700 range
*[[Commodore 64]] - incl C64C
*[[Commodore SX-64]] - all-in-one [[portable computer|portable]] C64 incl screen and disk drive
*[[Commodore 16]] - incl C116, incompatible with C64
*[[Commodore Plus/4]] - compatible with C16
*[[Commodore LCD]] - [[liquid crystal display|LCD]]-equipped [[laptop computer|laptop]] (never released)
*[[Commodore 128]] - incl 128D and 128DCR
*[[Commodore 65]] - C64 successor (never released)
===Computers, 16/32-bit===
*[[Commodore 900]] (never released)
*[[Commodore Amiga]] range
*[[IBM PC compatible|IBM PC clone]]s - Commodore Colt, PC1, PC10, PC20, PC30, PC40, <tt>...</tt>, 486SX-LTC
===Peripherals===
''(listed by model number; [[IEEE-488]] devices primarily used with PET/CBM range systems)''
*[[Commodore 1350]] - [[Computer mouse|Mouse]] (joystick emulation only, thus unable to track differing speeds)
*[[Commodore 1351]] - Mouse (for use with [[GEOS (8-bit operating system)|GEOS]] and point'n'click apps; analog input, allowing it to track differing speeds)
*[[Commodore 1520]] - Small serial [[plotter]].
*[[Datassette|Commodore 1530]] - Data [[compact audio cassette|cassette]] recorder (aka C2N)
*[[Commodore 1531]] - Data cassette recorder (like 1530 but for C16 & Plus/4)
*[[Commodore 1540]] - 5&frac14;" [[Floppy disk]] drive for use with the VIC-20
*[[Commodore 1541]] - 5&frac14;" Floppy disk drive (incl 1541C and 1541-II) for use with the C64 and later
*[[Commodore 1551]] - 5&frac14;" Floppy disk drive (for C16 & Plus/4; connects to cartridge port)
<!--*[[Commodore 1561]] - 3&frac12;" Floppy disk drive (external, battery-powered, intended for CLCD; never released)--><!--should we really include unreleased peripherals? --Wernher-->
*[[Commodore 1570]] - 5&frac14;" Floppy disk drive (primarily for C128), single sided
*[[Commodore 1571]] - 5&frac14;" Floppy disk drive (primarily for C128), double sided
*[[Commodore 1581]] - 3&frac12;" Floppy disk drive
*[[Commodore 1701|Commodore 1701/1702]] - [[Composite video]] and [[S-Video|Y/C (chroma/luma)]] monitor
*[[Commodore REU|Commodore 1700/1750/1764]] - RAM Expansion Unit (REU) for C64/128, with 128/512/256 KB (in that order)
*[[Commodore 1801|Commodore 1801/1802]] - Composite video and Y/C monitor
*[[Commodore 1901|Commodore 1901/1902/2002]] - Composite, Y/C, and [[RGB]] monitor
*[[Commodore 2031|Commodore 2031/4031]] - 5&frac14;" Floppy disk drive with [[IEEE-488]] interface
*[[Commodore 2031|Commodore 2031LP]] - 5&frac14;" Floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface (PET/CBM version of Commodore 1541)
*[[Commodore 4040]] - 5&frac14;" Dual floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface
*[[Commodore 8050|Commodore 8050/8250/8250LP]] - 5&frac14;" Dual "quad" density floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface
*[[Commodore 8280]] - 8" Floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface
*[[Commodore 9060|Commodore 9060/9090]] - [[Hard disk]] drive with 5 [[megabyte|MB]]/10 MB capacity and IEEE-488 interface
*[[Commodore 8050|Commodore SFD-1001]] - 5&frac14;" Double sided, quad density floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface
<!--
*[[Commodore 4510]]
-->
===Software===
*[[AmigaOS]] - Operating system for the Amiga range; multitasking, microkernel, GUI
*[[Amiga UNIX]] - Operating system for the Amiga, based on UNIX [[System V Release 4|SVR4]]
*[[Commodore BASIC]] - BASIC interpreter for the 8-bit range, ROM resident; based on [[Microsoft BASIC]]
*[[Commodore DOS]] - Disk operating system for the 8-bit range; embedded in disk drive ROMs
*[[KERNAL]] - Core OS routines for the 8-bit range; ROM resident
*[[Simons' BASIC]] - BASIC extension for the C64; cartridge-based
*[[Super Expander]] - BASIC and memory extension for the VIC-20; cartridge-based
*[[Super Expander 64]] - BASIC extension for the C64
==External links==
{{commons|Commodore International}}
*[http://www.commodore.ca/history/company/chronology_portcommodore.htm Chronological History of Commodore Computer] &ndash; by Larry Anderson
*[http://zimmers.net/commie/docs/cbm-products.txt The Canonical List of Commodore Products] &ndash; by Jim Brain, maintained by Bo Zimmerman
*[http://www.floodgap.com/retrobits/ckb/ Commodore Knowledge Base] &ndash; including Secret Weapons of Commodore
*[http://www.commodorebook.com On the Edge: The Spectacular Rise and Fall of Commodore] &ndash; a book by Brian Bagnall that tells the story of Commodore through first-hand accounts by former Commodore engineers and managers.
*[http://www.commodoreworld.com CommodoreWorld] &ndash; website dedicated to Commodore branded hardware.
*[http://www.devili.iki.fi/Computers/Commodore/ Service Manuals] &ndash; and more
<!--
Aargh! the following link is now dead and the contents of the site have been moved to fee-based site http://www.jonesencyclo.com/. --Wernher
*[http://www.digitalcentury.com/encyclo/update/commodr.html A short history of the company]
-->
[[Category:Commodore International|*]]
[[Category:Defunct computer companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Home computer hardware companies]]
[[Category:Electronics companies of Canada]]
[[Category:Computer hardware companies]]
[[Category:Defunct computer hardware companies]]
[[da:Commodore International]]
[[de:Commodore International]]
[[es:Commodore International]]
[[fr:Commodore International]]
[[hr:Commodore]]
[[it:Commodore International]]
[[hu:Commodore Business Machines]]
[[nl:Commodore (bedrijf)]]
[[ja:コモドール]]
[[pl:Commodore International]]
[[ru:Commodore]]
[[sl:Commodore]]
[[fi:Commodore]]
[[sv:Commodore Business Machines]]
[[tr:Commodore International]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Commodore (rank)</title>
<id>7581</id>
<revision>
<id>40362371</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:42:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Please see "[[Commodore]]" for other uses of this term''
'''Commodore''' is a |
a second aircraft which was later sold for airline service. It has accommodation for 259 passengers with a maximum weight of 132,000 kg and two [[General Electric CF6-50|General Electric CF6-50A]] engines of 220 kN thrust.
* '''A300B2''' The first production version. Powered by CF6 or [[Pratt & Whitney JT9D]] engines of between 227 and 236 kN thrust, it entered service with [[Air France]] in May 1974.
* '''A300B4''' The major production version. Features a center fuel tank for increased fuel capacity (47,500 kg). Produced in two versions. -100 with a Max Take Off weight of 157,500 kg and the -200 with a Max Take Off weight of 165,000 kg. Production of the B2 and B4 totaled 248.
* '''A300FFCC''' The first 2-man crew airliner. First saw service with [[Garuda]] and [[Varig]]
* '''A300B10 ''''''([[A310]])''' Introduced a shorter fuselage, a new, higher [[aspect ratio (wing)|aspect ratio]] wing, smaller tail and two crew operation. It is available in standard -200 and the extended range -300 with 9,600 km range in both passenger and full cargo versions. It is also available as a military tanker/transport serving the [[Luftwaffe]]. Sales to date total 260.
* '''A300C4''' Convertible freighter version, with a large cargo door on the port side.
* '''A300-600''' The current version is the same length as the B2 and B4 but has increased space because it uses the A310 rear fuselage and tail. It has higher power [[General Electric CF6-80|CF6-80]] or [[Pratt & Whitney PW4000]] engines and entered service in 1988. It is available in both passenger and freight versions, and forms the basis of the [[Airbus Beluga]]. A total of 330 A300-600s have been sold.
* '''A300-600R''' : The increased range -600, achieved by an additional trim fuel tank in the tail.
* '''A300-600 Convertible''' Passenger/cargo version.
==Incidents==
On [[July 3]], [[1988]], [[Iran Air]], [[Iran Air Flight 655 | Flight 655]] was shot down by the [[USS Vincennes (CG-49) | USS Vincennes]] in the [[Persian Gulf]] after being mistaken for an attacking [[Iran | Iranian]] [[F-14 Tomcat]], killing all 290 civilian passengers and crew. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/flight801/stories/july88crash.htm]
On [[September 26]], [[1997]], [[Garuda Indonesia]] [[Garuda Indonesia Flight 152 |Flight 152]] crashed while landing at [[Medan, Indonesia]] killing 234 aboard.
On [[November 12]], [[2001]], [[American Airlines]], [[American Airlines Flight 587 | Flight 587]] crashed into the [[Belle Harbor, Queens|Belle Harbor]] neighborhood of [[Queens, NY|Queens]], [[New York]] shortly after takeoff from [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]]. All 260 people on board were killed. The official [[NTSB]] report of [[October 26]], [[2004]] stated the cause of the crash was the overuse of the [[rudder]] to counter [[Wingtip vortices | wake turbulence]] (causing the tail to eventually break off).
On [[November 22]], [[2003]], a [[European Air Transport]] A300B4-203F, operating on behalf of [[DHL]], was hit by an [[SA-7 Grail | SA-7 'Grail']] missile after take-off from [[Baghdad International Airport]]. The aeroplane rapidly lost all hydraulic pressure, and thus controls. The crew found that after extending the landing gear to create more drag, they could pilot the plane using differences in engine thrust and managed to land the plane with minimal further damage. The plane was later repaired and offered for sale ([http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20031122-0 incident summary and photos]).
==Specifications==
A300-600 Performance
A300-600R - Max cruising speed 897km/h (484kt), long range cruising speed 875km/h (472kt). Range at typical airline operating weight with 267 passengers with 370km (200nm) reserves and standard fuel 7505km (4050nm) with CF6s, or 7540km (4070nm) with PW-4000s.
A300-600 - Range at same parameters 6670km (3600nm).
A300-600F - Range with max payload, and reserves 4908km (2650nm).
A300-600 Dimensions
Wing span 44.84m (147ft 1in), length 54.08m (177ft 5in), height 16.62m (54ft 6.5in). Wing area 260.0m2 (2798.7sq ft).
[http://www.airbus.com/en/aircraftfamilies/a300a310/a300-600/specifications.html]
==External links==
* [http://www.airbus.com/product/a300_a310_backgrounder.asp Official site]
* [http://www.planepictures.net/netsearch.cgi?A300 Pictures]
* [http://www.aircraft-info.net/aircraft/jet_aircraft/airbus/A300-600/ Aircraft-Info.net - Airbus A300-600]
* [http://www.planemad.net/data/list/Airbus/A300/ Airbus A300 Production List]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3956087.stm Airbus A300-600 rudder problems]
==Related content==
{{Commons|Airbus A300}}
'''Related development:'''
*[[Airbus Beluga]]
*[[A310]]
*[[Airbus A330|A330]]
*[[Airbus A340|A340]]
*[[A350]]
'''Comparable aircraft:'''
*[[Boeing 767|Boeing 767-300(ER)]]
*[[Boeing 767|Boeing 767-400ER]]
*[[Ilyushin Il-86]]
'''Designation sequence:'''
* [[Airbus A300|A300]] - [[Airbus A310|A310]] - [[Airbus A320|A318]] - [[Airbus A320|A319]]
'''Related lists:'''
'''See also:'''
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<title>AlJazeera</title>
<id>2525</id>
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<page>
<title>Agostino Carracci</title>
<id>2526</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Carracci Agostino Faun.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''Head of a Faun'' (c.1595) 181 x 187 mm <br />Pen and brown ink on laid paper <br /> National Gallery of Art, Washington]]
'''Agostino Carracci''' (or '''Caracci''') ([[August 16]], [[1557]], in [[Bologna]] - [[March 22]], [[1602]], in [[Parma]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[painter]] and graphical artist. He posited the ideal in nature, and was the founder of the competing school to the more gritty (for lack of a better term) view of nature as expressed by [[Michelangelo Merisi|Caravaggio]]. He was, along with his brothers, one of the founders of the [[Accademia degli Incamminati]], which helped propel painters of the [[Bolognese School (painting)|School of Bologna]] to prominence.
''See also'' his brothers [[Annibale Carracci]] and [[Lodovico Carracci]].
*Drawing: Head of a Faun in a Concave (roundel) (c. 1595, National Gallery of Art, Washington DC)
*The Penitent Magdalen (Private collection)
*The Annunciation (Louvre) [http://cartelen.louvre.fr/cartelen/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=18809]
*The Lamentation (Hermitage)[http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/fcgi-bin/db2www/quickSearch.mac/gallery?selLang=English&tmCond=Carracci+Agostino]
==Gallery==
Despite working in a post-Tridentine ([[Council of Trent]]) environment restricting the use of public images, Agostino profited from the making of engravings of graphic and sensual images of mythologic or heroic love-making scenes. In Rome, his brother Anibale completed the elaborate fresco of [[The Loves of the Gods (Carracci)|Loves of the Gods]] for the [[Palazzo Farnese]], whose images from Ovid's ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' intimate but do not depict the act of [[sexual intercourse|lovemaking]].
see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Carracci_Jupiter_et_Junon.jpg], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Carracci_Antoine_et_Cleopatre.jpg], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Carracci_Achille_et_Briseis.jpg].
{{sect-stub}}
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03374c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Carracci]
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<page>
<title>Ayatollah Khomeini</title>
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<page>
<title>Adenylate cyclase</title>
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<timestamp>2005-11-02T20:19:52Z</timestamp>
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<ip>82.61.43.47</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">'''Adenylate cyclase''' ({{EC number|4.6.1.1}}, also known as '''adenylyl cyclase''' or '''AC''') is a [[lyase]], an [[enzyme]] that [[catalysis|catalyzes]] the conversion of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] to [[cyclic AMP|3',5'-cyclic AMP]] (cAMP) and [[pyrophosphate]]. cAMP is an important molecule in [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[signal transduction]], a so-called [[second messenger]]. Adenylate cyclase can be activated or inhibited by [[G protein]]s |
Bankruptcy in the United Kingdom}}
In the [[United Kingdom]] (UK), bankruptcy (in a strict legal sense) relates only to individuals and [[partnerships]]. Companies and other [[corporations]] enter into differently-named legal insolvency procedures: [[liquidation]], [[administration]] and [[administrative receivership]]. However, the term 'bankruptcy' is often used (incorrectly) when referring to companies in the media and in general conversation.
A [[Trustee in bankruptcy]] must be either an [[Official Receiver]] (a civil servant) or a licensed [[insolvency practitioner]].
Following the introduction of the [[Enterprise Act 2002]], a UK bankruptcy will now normally last no longer than 12 months and may be less, if the Official Receiver files in Court a certificate that his investigations are complete.
It is expected that the UK Government's liberalisation of the UK bankruptcy regime will increase the number of bankruptcy cases; initial Government statistics appear to bear this out. It remains to be seen whether the legislation will need reviewing if this remains the case.
There were 20,461 individual insolvencies in England and Wales in the fourth quarter of 2005 on a seasonally adjusted basis. This was an increase of 15.0% on the previous quarter and an increase of 36.8% on the same period a year ago.
This was made up of 13,501 bankruptcies, an increase of 10.9% on the previous quarter and an increase of 37.6% on the corresponding quarter of the previous year, and 6,960 [[Individual Voluntary Arrangement]]s (IVA’s), an increase of 23.9% on the previous quarter and an increase of 117.1% on the corresponding quarter of the previous year.
==Bankruptcy in the United States==
{{main|Bankruptcy in the United States}}
Bankruptcy in the United States is a matter placed under [[United States federal law|Federal jurisdiction]] by the [[United States Constitution]] (in Article 1, Section 8), which allows [[United States Congress|Congress]] to enact "uniform laws on the subject of Bankruptcy throughout the United States." Its implementation, however, is found in [[statute law]]. The relevant statutes are incorporated within the '''Bankruptcy Code''', located at Title 11 of the [[United States Code]], and amplified by state law in the many places where Federal law either fails to speak or defers expressly to state law.
While bankruptcy cases are always filed in [[United States Bankruptcy Court]] (an adjunct to the [[U.S. District Courts]]), bankruptcy cases, particularly with respect to the validity of claims and exemptions, are often highly dependent upon State law. State law therefore plays a major role in many bankruptcy cases, and it is often quite unwise to generalize bankruptcy issues across state lines.
===Bankruptcy chapters===
There are six types of bankruptcy under the [[Bankruptcy Code]], located at Title 11 of the [[United States Code]]:
*[[Chapter 7]] (a liquidation-style case for individuals or businesses),
*Chapter 9 (Municipal bankruptcy)
*[[Chapter 11]] (a more complex rehabilitation-style case used primarily by business debtors, but sometimes by individuals with substantial debts and assets).
*[[Chapter 12]] (a payment plan or rehabilitation-style case for family farmers and fishermen), and
*[[Chapter 13]] (a payment plan or rehabilitation-style case for individuals with a regular source of income),
*Chapter 15 (ancillary and other cross-border cases)
The most common types of personal bankruptcy for individuals are Chapter 7 and Chapter 13.
====Chapter 7====
[[Chapter 7]] personal bankruptcy is also known as straight bankruptcy, or liquidation bankruptcy. Under Chapter 7, debtors give up certain property that they own when they go bankrupt. The property is sold, and the proceeds are used to pay the creditors. In most cases debtors do not have any assets, and thus in most cases they do not lose anything.
In most Chapter 7 cases most debts are discharged about 90 days after filing. Debts that are discharged (which means they go away) include credit card debts. Debts that are not discharged would include child support payments and some taxes and student loans. Secured debts, such as car loans and house mortgages, are also not discharged.
Under the new rules implemented as a result of the [http://www.uscourts.gov/bankruptcycourts/resources.html 2005 Bankruptcy Reform], it is now more difficult to qualify for Chapter 7 bankruptcy. Debtors are subject to a means test, and if income exceeds limits set by the government, the debtor must file under Chapter 13.
====Chapter 13====
[[Chapter 13]] bankruptcy is a reorganization plan for individuals. To qualify for Chapter 13, an individual must have secured and unsecured debts under a certain amount. Under Chapter 13 the debtor keeps all of their property, but in return they make regular payments to a trustee, who distributes the payments to the creditors. Most Chapter 13 plans last for three to five years, and then eligible debts are discharged. The types of debt that can be discharged under Chapter 13 was substantially scaled back by the 2005 reform amendments.
Creditors may challenge a Chapter 13 plan but a plan can still be confirmed over their objection if the criteria for confirmation is otherwise met. A requirement for confirmation of a Chapter 13 plan is that unsecured creditors would receive at least as much as they would receive in a [[Chapter 7]] liquidation.
===Sources===
[http://www.abiworld.org American Bankruptcy Institute]
[http://www.bankruptcy-america.com Bankruptcy America]
[http://www.uscourts.gov/bankruptcycourts.html U. S. Bankruptcy Courts]
==Bibliography==
''Born Losers: A History of Failure in America'', by Scott A. Sandage (Harvard University Press, 2005).
==See also==
*[[Debt consolidation]]
*[[Insolvency]]
==External links==
* [http://www.uscourts.gov/bankruptcycourts.html US Courts Bankruptcy Page]
* [http://www.nacba.org National Association of Consumer Bankruptcy Attorneys (US)]
* [http://www.law.cornell.edu/topics/bankruptcy.html LII Law about... Bankruptcy]
* [http://www.insolvency.gov.uk/ Website of the Insolvency Service in the UK]
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<page>
<title>British Prime Minister</title>
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<title>United Kingdom general election</title>
<id>4697</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect[[United Kingdom general elections]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Blissymbols</title>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Blissymbolics''' or '''Blissymbols''' were conceived of as an [[ideographic]] [[writing system]] consisting of several hundred basic symbols, each representing a concept, which can be composed together to generate new symbols that represent new concepts. Blissymbols differ from all the world's major writing systems in that the characters do not directly correspond to the sounds of any [[spoken language]].
They were invented by [[Charles K. Bliss]] (1897-1985) after the [[World War II|Second World War]]. Bliss wanted to create an easy-to-learn [[international auxiliary language]] to allow [[communication]] between people who do not speak the same language. He was inspired by [[Chinese written language|Chinese]] [[ideogram]]s, with which Bliss became familiar while in [[Shanghai]] as a refugee from [[Nazi]] anti-semitic persecution. His system ''World Writing'' was explained in his work ''Semantography'' (1949). This work laid out the language structure and vocabulary for his utopian vision of easy communication, but it failed to gain popularity. However, since the 1960s, Blissymbols have become popular as a method of [[Augmentative and Alternative Communication]] (AAC) for non-speaking people with [[cerebral palsy]] or other disorders, for whom it can be impossible to otherwise communicate with spoken language.
It should be noted, however, that linguists such as [[John DeFrancis]] and [[J. Marshall Unger]] have argued that genuine ideographic writing systems with the same capacities as [[natural language|natural languages]], do not exist, but it is likely that they have not examined Blissymbols, hence the claim that Blissymbols may in fact be the exception to the rule.
Blissymbolics Communication International is an international group of people who act as an authority regarding the standardization of the Blissymbolics language. They have taken responsibility for any extensions of the Blissymbolics language as well as any maintenance needed for the language. BCI has coordinated usage of the language since 1971 for augmentative and alternative commun |
p optimization]], [[jump threading]], [[common subexpression elimination]], [[instruction scheduling]], and so forth. The RTL optimizations are of less importance with the recent addition of global SSA-based optimizations on [[GIMPLE]] trees, as RTL optimizations have a much more limited scope, and have less high-level information.
A "reloading" phase changes abstract (pseudo-) [[processor register|register]]s into real machine registers, using data collected from the patterns describing the target's [[instruction set]]. This is a somewhat complicated phase, because it must account for the vagaries of all of GCC's targets.
The final phase is somewhat anticlimactic, since the patterns to match were generally chosen during reloading, and so the assembly code is simply built by running substitutions of registers and addresses into the strings specifying the instructions.
==Debugging GCC programs==
The primary tool for debugging GCC code is the [[GNU Debugger]] (gdb). Among more specialized tools are [[Valgrind]] for finding memory leaks.
==References==
*[[Richard Stallman|Richard M. Stallman]]: ''[http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc-2.95.3/gcc.html Using and Porting the GNU Compiler Collection]'', [[Free Software Foundation]], ISBN 059510035X
*Richard M. Stallman: ''[http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc-3.3.1/gcc/ Using Gcc: The Gnu Compiler Collection Reference]'', Free Software Foundation, ISBN 1882114396
*[[Brian J. Gough]]: ''[http://www.network-theory.co.uk/gcc/intro/ An Introduction to GCC]'', Network Theory Ltd., ISBN 0-9541617-9-3
==See also==
GCC now includes [[Boehm GC]], a conservative [[Garbage collection (computer science)|garbage collector]] for C/C++.
*[[ConceptGCC]]
*[[GCC-XML]]
*[[introspector (program)|GCC Introspector]]
*[[LLVM]], Low Level Virtual Machine compiler infrastructure
*[[MinGW]], Minimalist GNU for Windows
*[[GCC Summit]]
*[[Watcom|OpenWatcom]], another free open-source C++/Fortran compiler
==External links==
* [http://gcc.gnu.org/ GCC homepage]
* [http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc-4.0.0/gcc/ v4.0 Manual]
* [http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc-3.4.3/gcc/ v3.4.3 Manual]
<!--* [http://gccnews.chatta.us/ GCC periodic news summary]-->
* [http://www.kegel.com/crosstool/ Building and Testing gcc/glibc cross toolchains]
<!--* [http://www.isanbard.org/~wendling/tree.html Wendling's overview of trees] timesout -->
* [http://gcc.gnu.org/wiki GCC Wiki]
* [http://www.nabble.com/gcc-f1154.html GCC Forum] - hosted by [http://www.nabble.com Nabble] archiving all gcc mailing lists into a searchable forum.
==Further reading==
* Arthur Griffith, ''GCC: The Complete Reference''. McGrawHill/Osborne. ISBN 0-07-222405-3.
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<title>Games of chance</title>
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<title>Galen</title>
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'''Claudius Galenus of Pergamum''' ([[131]]-[[201]] AD), better known in [[English language|English]] as '''Galen''', was an [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[physician]]. His views dominated [[European]] [[medicine]] for over a thousand years.
== Life ==
Galen was born in [[Pergamum]] (modern-day [[Bergama]], [[Turkey]]), the son of [[Aeulius Nicon|Nicon]], a wealthy architect. His interests were eclectic - [[agriculture]], [[architecture]], [[astronomy]], [[astrology]], [[philosophy]] - until he concentrated on [[medicine]].
By the age of twenty he had become a ''therapeutes'' ("attendant" or "associate") of the god [[Asclepius]] in the local temple for four years. After his father's death in [[148]] or [[149]] he left to study abroad. He studied in [[Izmir|Smyrna]] and [[Corinth]] and at [[Alexandria]]. He studied medicine for a total of twelve years. When he returned to Pergamum in [[157]], he worked as a physician in a [[gladiator]] school for three or four years. During this time he gained experience of [[trauma]] and [[wound]] treatment. He later regarded wounds as "windows into the body".
From [[162]] he lived in [[Rome]] where he wrote extensively, lectured and publicly demonstrated his knowledge of [[anatomy]]. He gained a reputation as an experienced physician and his practice had widespread clientele. One of them was the [[consul]] [[Flavius Boethius]] who introduced him to the court where he became a court physician to Emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]]. Later he also treated [[Lucius Verus]], [[Commodus]] and [[Septimius Severus]]. Reputedly he spoke mostly [[Greek language|Greek]], which was a more respected language of medicine than [[Latin language|Latin]] at the time. He briefly returned to Pergamum during [[166]]-[[169]].
Galen spent the rest of his life in the Imperial court, writing and experimenting. He performed [[vivisection]]s of numerous animals to study the function of the [[kidneys]] and the [[spinal cord]]. His favorite subject was the [[barbary ape]]. Reportedly he employed twenty scribes to write down his words. In [[191]], fire in the Temple of Peace destroyed some of his records. His exact date of death has traditionally been placed around the year [[200]], based on a reference from the [[10th century]] [[Suda Lexicon]]. Some, however, have argued for dates as late as [[216]],on the basis that his last writings seem to be as late as [[207]].
== Work and impact ==
Galen transmitted [[Hippocratic medicine]] all the way to the [[Renaissance]]. His ''On the Elements According to [[Hippocrates]]'' describes the philosopher's system of [[The four humours|four bodily humours]], which were identified with the four [[classical element]]s. He created his own theories from those principles. In turn, he mainly ignored Latin writings of [[Aulus_Cornelius_Celsus|Celsus]].
Amongst Galen's own major works is a seventeen-volume ''On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Human Body''. He also wrote about philosophy and [[philology]]. His collected works total twenty-two volumes.
Galen's own theories, in accord with [[Plato]]'s, emphasized purposeful creation by a single Creator ("Nature" - Greek ''phusis'') - a major reason why later [[Christian]] and [[Muslim]] scholars could accept his views. His fundamental principle of life was ''pneuma'' (air, breath) that later writers connected with the [[soul]]. ''Pneuma physicon'' (animal spirit) in the [[brain]] took care of [[movement]], [[perception]], and [[senses]]. ''Pneuma zoticon'' (vital spirit) in the [[heart]] controlled [[blood]] and [[body temperature]]. "Natural spirit" in the [[liver]] handled [[nutrition]] and [[metabolism]].
Galen expanded his knowledge partly by experimenting with live animals. One of his methods was to publicly dissect a living pig and cut its [[nerve]] bundles one at a time. Eventually he cut a [[laryngeal nerve]] (now also known as ''Galen's Nerve'') and the pig stopped squealing. He tied the [[ureter]]s of living animals to show that [[urine]] comes from the [[kidney]]s. He severed spinal cords to demonstrate [[paralysis]].
From the modern viewpoint, Galen's theories were partially correct, partially flawed. He demonstrated that [[artery|arteries]] carry [[blood]], not air and made first studies about nerve functions, and the [[brain]] and [[heart]]. He also argued that the mind was in the brain, not in the heart as [[Aristotle]] had claimed.
However, much of Galen's understanding is flawed from the modern point of view. He did not recognize [[circulatory system|blood circulation]] and thought that [[venous]] and [[arteries|arterial]] systems were separate. This view did not change until [[William Harvey]]'s work in the [[17th century]]. Since most of his knowledge of anatomy was based on dissection of pigs, dogs, and [[Barbary ape]]s, he also assumed that ''[[rete mirabile]]'', a blood vessel plexus of [[ungulate|ungulates]], also existed in the human body. He also resisted the idea of [[tourniquet]]s to stop bleeding and vigorously propagated [[blood letting]] as a treatment.
Galen's authority dominated medicine all the way to the [[16th century]]. Experimenters' disciples did not bother to experiment and studies of [[physiology]] and anatomy stopped - Galen had already written about everything. [[Blood letting]] became a standard medical procedure. [[Vesalius]] presented the first serious challenge to his hegemony.
Much of medieval Islamic medicine drew on the works of the ancient Greeks, especially those elucidated by Galen, such as his expanded [[Four humours|humoral theory]]. Most of Galen's Greek writings were first translated to the [[Syriac language]] by [[Nestorian]] monks in the university of [[Academy of Gundishapur|Gundishapur]], [[Persian Empire|Persia]]. Muslim scholars primarily in Baghdad |
Countries]] eligible for [[debt relief]], and this debt relief was given in [[2005]].
Both the electricity services (ENEE) and land line telephone services (Hondutel) are run by government monopolies, with the former receiving heavy subsidies from the government because of its chronic financial problems. There are price controls around the price of [[petrol]], and other temporary price controls of basic commodities are often passed for short periods by the [[National Congress of Honduras|Congress]].
After years of declining against the US dollar the [[Lempira]] has stabilized at around 19 Lempiras per dollar.
==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Honduras]]''
[[image:Honduras_land_1983.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Land use map of Honduras, 1983]]
The population of Honduras is predominantly of [[Mestizo]] descent and [[Roman Catholic]] faith, but there are also several [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] denominations. Along the northern coast are communities of English speakers who have maintained their culture since Honduras was part of the [[British Empire]]. Groups of [[Garífuna]] live along the north coast, where there are also many [[Afro-Latin American]]s. In the 20th century, Garífunas became part of Honduras' projected identity through theatrical presentations such as [[Louvavagu]] in order to help boost [[tourism]]. [[Asian]]s in Honduras are mostly of [[overseas Chinese|Chinese]] and [[ethnic Japanese|Japanese]] descent. Hundreds of families can find their roots in [[Lebanon]] or [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], in Middle Eastern families called "turcos". The so-called "Turcos" along with the Jewish minority population influence the Honduran economy and politics by having the highest income. Many others have connections to [[Spain]], the [[United States]] (especially [[New Orleans]], [[Florida]] and [[California]]) and the [[Cayman Islands]].
Even with all the "new-comers" in the country, the [[indigenous peoples]] of Honduras are widely scattered throughout the country. Tribes like Chortís (Mayan descent), Payas or Pech, Tolupanes or Xicaques/Jicaques, Lencas, Sumos or Tawahkas, and Olmecas. For the most part, these tribes live in extreme poverty due to their remote locations and uninterested government.
==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Honduras]]''
The patron saint of Honduras is the [[Virgin of Suyapa]].
A Honduran can be called a ''Catracho'' or ''Catracha''. The word is derived from the last name of Honduran General [[Florencio Xatruch]], who led Honduran armed forces in defense of Honduran territories in [[1857]] against an attempted invasion led by North American filibuster [[William Walker (soldier)|William Walker]]. The nickname is considered complimentary, not derogatory.
One of Honduras' best known writers is [[Ramón Amaya Amador]]. Other writers include [[Roberto Sosa]], [[Eduardo Bähr]], [[Amanda Castro]], [[Javier Abril Espinoza]], and [[Roberto Quesada]].
[[Oscar Andres Rodriguez]] is a [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] who was a potential [[papabile|candidate]] for [[Pope]] in the [[Papal conclave, 2005]].
Not as famous as the cardinal, but also noteworthy, is [[Salvador Moncada]], a world-renowned scientist with authorship of more than 12 highly cited papers, including his work on [[nitric oxide]]. His research on heart-related drugs includes the development of Viagra. Moncada works at the [[University College]] of London and funds an NGO in Tegucigalpa.
''[[Honduras This Week]]'' is a weekly [[English language]] [[newspaper]] that has been [[publishing|published]] now for 17 years in Tegucigalpa.
The [[Federación Nacional Autónoma de Fútbol de Honduras]] runs the popular [[football]] league while the [[Honduras national football team]] represents the country internationally. Local teams include [[Club Deportivo Marathón]], [[CD Motagua]], [[Club Olimpia Deportivo]], [[C.D. Platense]] and [[Real C.D. España]].
==Environment==
- Natural resources
- Forests
- Water
- Minerals
- Fisheries
- Biological diversity and conservation
- Ecosystems
- Forests
- Coasts
- Wetlands, lakes and rivers
- Wildlife
Sustainable Development
- Current environmental issues
- Poverty and environmental degradation
- Environmental policy and law enforcement
- NGO's and civil engagement
The Mesoamerican region, the landmass that extends from Southern Mexico to Panama, it is known for its biological diversity and thus is considered as a "biodiversity hotspot". Like the other countries in the region, Honduras contains vast biological resources and several indigenous cultures. This 112,092 sq km country hosts 6,000-8,000 species of [[vascular plants]], around 250 reptiles and amphibians, between 650-700 bird species, and 110 mammal species, half of them are bat species.
In the northeastern region of [[La Mosquitia]] lies the [[Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve]], a lowland rainforest which provides home to a great diversity of life. Sometimes called "The Last Lungs of Central America", this Reserve was added to the [[UNESCO World Heritage]] Sites List in 1982.
==Soccer==
Soccer is the most popular sport in Honduras. In the following articles you'll find some information of teams, competitions and players.
*[[Liga Profesional de Honduras]]
*[[Hispano FC]]
*[[C.D. Platense]]
*[[Universidad NAH]]
*[[Municipal Valencia]]
*[[C.D. Victoria]]
*[[C.D. Vida]]
*[[Liga de Ascenso Honduras]]
*[[C.D. Arsenal]]
*[[Social Sol]]
*[[Deportes Savio]]
*[[Atletico Olanchano]]
*[[Motagua Reservas]]
*[[Juticalpa Tulin]]
*[[Olimpia Reservas]]
*[[C.D. Federal]]
*[[Honduras Salzburg]]
*[[Boludos United]]
*[[Prinx United]]
*[[Honduras05-06apertura]]
*[[Honduras04-05clausura]]
*[[Honduras04-05apertura]]
*[[Honduras03-04clausura]]
*[[Honduras03-04apertura]]
*[[Honduras 02-03 clausura]]
*[[Edgar Álvarez]]
*[[Víctor Coello]]
*[[Estadio Olímpico Metropolitano]]
*[[E.I.S.]]
*[[Infantil 0506]]
==Miscellaneous topics==
* [[Communications in Honduras]]
* [[Elections in Honduras]]
* [[Foreign relations of Honduras]]
* [[Flag of Honduras]]
* [[Garífunas]]
* [[Garifuna music]]
* [[Honduran lempira]]
* [[Liberalism in Honduras]]
* [[List of Honduras-related topics]]
* [[List of Schools in Honduras]]
* [[List of political parties in Honduras]]
* [[Mara Salvatrucha]]
* [[Military of Honduras]]
* [[Music of Honduras]]
* [[Project Honduras]]
* [[Transportation in Honduras]]
''Note: Some of these articles are based on text from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the U.S. Department of State website.''
== Further Reading ==
{{sisterlinks|Honduras}}
* ''Adventures in Nature: Honduras'' James D. Gollin
* ''Don't Be Afraid, Gringo: A Honduran Woman Speaks From The Heart : The Story of Elvia Alvarado'' Medea Benjamin
* ''Honduras: The Making of a Banana Republic'' Alison Acker
* ''Honduras: State for Sale'' Richard Lapper, James Painter
* ''Inside Honduras'' Kent Norsworthy and Tom Berry
* ''La Mosquitia: A Guide to the Savannas, Rain Forest and Turtle Hunters'' Derek Parent
* ''Moon Handbooks: Honduras'' Christopher Humphrey
* ''Reinterpreting the Banana Republic: Region and State in Honduras, 1870-1972'' Dario A. Euraque
* ''Seven Names for the Bellbird: Conservation Geography in Honduras'' Mark Bonta
* ''Ulysses Travel Guide: Honduras'' Eric Hamovitch
* ''The United States in Honduras, 1980-1981: An Ambassador's Memoir'' Jack R. Binns
* ''The War of the Dispossessed: Honduras and El Salvador, 1969'' Thomas P. Anderson
==External links==
* [http://www.country-data.com/frd/cs/hntoc.html#hn0009 Country Data]
* [http://www.hondurasnews.com Honduras News]
* [http://www.marrder.com/htw/ Honduras This Week] Internal article is [[Honduras This Week]]
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[[zh:洪都拉斯]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>History of Honduras</title>
<id>13395</id>
<revision>
<id>37557001</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T19:39:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bobblewik</username>
<id>51235</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>reduce links to 'non-preference' date elements</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{POV-because|The major source is the U.S. State Department, uncited. It mentions only the good the U.S. has done for Central America / Honduras, and none of the bad, and is written from an American and not an international or an Honduran perspective.}}
==Pre-Colombian times==
In [[Pre-Columbian]] times, what is now [[Honduras]] was part of the [[Mesoamerica]]n cultural area. The west contained the famous [[Maya civilization]] which are now the pre-Columbian city state ruins of [[Copán]], that flourished for hundreds of years until the early 9th century. Remains of other Pre-Columbian cultures are found throughout the country, notably at sites like [[La Travesía]] and the Ulua valley. A collection of the nation's pre-Hispanic artifacts can be found at the National Museum in [[Tegucigalpa]].
==Spanish period==
[[Christopher Columbus]] landed on mainland [[Honduras]] near modern [[Trujillo, Honduras|Trujillo]] in 1502, giving the country its na |
[Northern Mariana Islands]]
***+1-684 [[American Samoa]]
*+1 [[Canada]] (area code details can be found at [http://www.cnac.ca/mapcodes.htm cnac.ca])
*+1-441 [[Bermuda]]
*Many, but not all, [[Caribbean nation]]s, with area codes:
**+1-264 [[Anguilla]]
**+1-268 [[Antigua and Barbuda]]
**+1-242 [[Bahamas]]
**+1-246 [[Barbados]]
**+1-284 [[British Virgin Islands]]
**+1-345 [[Cayman Islands]]
**+1-767 [[Dominica]]
**+1-809 and +1-829 [[Dominican Republic]]
**+1-473 [[Grenada]]
**+1-876 [[Jamaica]]
**+1-664 [[Montserrat]]
**+1-787 and +1-939 [[Puerto Rico]]
**+1-869 [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
**+1-758 [[Saint Lucia]]
**+1-784 [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
**+1-868 [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
**+1-649 [[Turks and Caicos Islands]]
**+1-340 [[U.S. Virgin Islands]]
:''For more information please see [http://www.nanpa.com/ nanpa.com]''
=== Zone 2 &ndash; Mostly [[Africa]] ===
*20 &ndash; [[Egypt]]
*210 &ndash; unassigned
*211 &ndash; unassigned
*212 &ndash; [[Morocco]]
*213 &ndash; [[Algeria]]
*214 &ndash; unassigned
*215 &ndash; unassigned
*216 &ndash; [[Tunisia]]
*217 &ndash; unassigned
*218 &ndash; [[Libya]]
*219 &ndash; unassigned
*220 &ndash; [[The Gambia]]
*221 &ndash; [[Senegal]]
*222 &ndash; [[Mauritania]]
*223 &ndash; [[Mali]]
*224 &ndash; [[Guinea]]
*225 &ndash; [[Côte d'Ivoire|Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)]]
*226 &ndash; [[Burkina Faso]]
*227 &ndash; [[Niger]]
*228 &ndash; [[Togo]]
*229 &ndash; [[Benin]]
*230 &ndash; [[Mauritius]]
*231 &ndash; [[Liberia]]
*232 &ndash; [[Sierra Leone]]
*233 &ndash; [[Ghana]]
*234 &ndash; [[Nigeria]]
*235 &ndash; [[Chad]]
*236 &ndash; [[Central African Republic]]
*237 &ndash; [[Cameroon]]
*238 &ndash; [[Cape Verde]]
*239 &ndash; [[São Tomé and Príncipe]]
*240 &ndash; [[Equatorial Guinea]]
*241 &ndash; [[Gabon]]
*242 &ndash; [[Republic of the Congo]] (Brazzaville)
*243 &ndash; [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (Kinshasa, formerly known as [[Zaire]])
*244 &ndash; [[Angola]]
*245 &ndash; [[Guinea-Bissau]]
*246 &ndash; [[Diego Garcia]]
*247 &ndash; [[Ascension Island]]
*248 &ndash; [[Seychelles]]
*249 &ndash; [[Sudan]]
*250 &ndash; [[Rwanda]]
*251 &ndash; [[Ethiopia]]
*252 &ndash; [[Somalia]] (also used in [[Somaliland]])
*253 &ndash; [[Djibouti]]
*254 &ndash; [[Kenya]]
*255 &ndash; [[Tanzania]]
*256 &ndash; [[Uganda]]
*257 &ndash; [[Burundi]]
*258 &ndash; [[Mozambique]]
*259 &ndash; [[Zanzibar]] - ''never implemented - see 255 Tanzania''
*260 &ndash; [[Zambia]]
*261 &ndash; [[Madagascar]]
*262 &ndash; [[Réunion]]
*263 &ndash; [[Zimbabwe]]
*264 &ndash; [[Namibia]]
*265 &ndash; [[Malawi]]
*266 &ndash; [[Lesotho]]
*267 &ndash; [[Botswana]]
*268 &ndash; [[Swaziland]]
*269 &ndash; [[Comoros]] and [[Mayotte]]
*27 &ndash; [[South Africa]]
*28x &ndash; unassigned
*290 &ndash; [[Saint Helena]]
*291 &ndash; [[Eritrea]]
*292 &ndash; unassigned
*293 &ndash; unassigned
*294 &ndash; unassigned
*295 &ndash; discontinued (was assigned to [[San Marino]], see +378)
*296 &ndash; unassigned
*297 &ndash; [[Aruba]]
*298 &ndash; [[Faroe Islands]]
*299 &ndash; [[Greenland]]
=== Zone 3 &ndash; [[Europe]] ===
*3 &ndash; (proposed in [[1996]] as the [[European Union]] country code [http://europa.eu.int/en/record/green/gp9611/])
*30 &ndash; [[Greece]]
*31 &ndash; [[The Netherlands]]
*32 &ndash; [[Belgium]]
*33 &ndash; [[France]]
*34 &ndash; [[Spain]]
*350 &ndash; [[Gibraltar]]
*351 &ndash; [[Portugal]]
*352 &ndash; [[Luxembourg]]
*353 &ndash; [[Republic of Ireland]]
*354 &ndash; [[Iceland]]
*355 &ndash; [[Albania]]
*356 &ndash; [[Malta]]
*357 &ndash; [[Cyprus]]; ''for the [[TRNC]] (Northern Cyprus), the country code is 90 392''
*358 &ndash; [[Finland]]
*359 &ndash; [[Bulgaria]]
*36 &ndash; [[Hungary]]
*37 &ndash; discontinued (was assigned to the [[East Germany|GDR]], area now covered by [[Germany]]'s country code 49)
*370 &ndash; [[Lithuania]]
*371 &ndash; [[Latvia]]
*372 &ndash; [[Estonia]]
*373 &ndash; [[Republic of Moldova|Moldova]]
** 373 533 &ndash; [[Transnistria]]
*374 &ndash; [[Armenia]]
*375 &ndash; [[Belarus]]
*376 &ndash; [[Andorra]]
*377 &ndash; [[Monaco]]
*378 &ndash; [[San Marino]]
*379 &ndash; [[Vatican City]]
*38 &ndash; discontinued (was assigned to [[Yugoslavia]] before break-up)
*380 &ndash; [[Ukraine]]
*381 &ndash; [[Serbia and Montenegro]]
*382 &ndash; unassigned
*383 &ndash; unassigned
*384 &ndash; unassigned
*385 &ndash; [[Croatia]]
*386 &ndash; [[Slovenia]]
*387 &ndash; [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*388 &ndash; shared code for groups of nations
**388 3 &ndash; [[European Telephony Numbering Space]] - Europe-wide services
*389 &ndash; [[Republic of Macedonia]]
*39 &ndash; [[Italy]]
=== Zone 4 &ndash; [[Europe]] ===
*40 &ndash; [[Romania]]
*41 &ndash; [[Switzerland]]
*42 &ndash; previously [[Czechoslovakia]]
*420 &ndash; [[Czech Republic]]
*421 &ndash; [[Slovakia]]
*422 &ndash; unassigned
*423 &ndash; [[Liechtenstein]]
*424 &ndash; unassigned
*425 &ndash; unassigned
*426 &ndash; unassigned
*427 &ndash; unassigned
*428 &ndash; unassigned
*429 &ndash; unassigned
*43 &ndash; [[Austria]]
*44 &ndash; [[United Kingdom]]
*45 &ndash; [[Denmark]]
*46 &ndash; [[Sweden]]
*47 &ndash; [[Norway]]
*48 &ndash; [[Poland]]
*49 &ndash; [[Germany]]
=== Zone 5 &ndash; [[Mexico]], [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]], [[West Indies]] ===
*500 &ndash; [[Falkland Islands]]
*501 &ndash; [[Belize]]
*502 &ndash; [[Guatemala]]
*503 &ndash; [[El Salvador]]
*504 &ndash; [[Honduras]]
*505 &ndash; [[Nicaragua]]
*506 &ndash; [[Costa Rica]]
*507 &ndash; [[Panama]]
*508 &ndash; [[Saint-Pierre and Miquelon]]
*509 &ndash; [[Haiti]]
*51 &ndash; [[Peru]]
*52 &ndash; [[Mexico]]
*53 &ndash; [[Cuba]]
*54 &ndash; [[Argentina]]
*55 &ndash; [[Brazil]]
*56 &ndash; [[Chile]]
*57 &ndash; [[Colombia]]
*58 &ndash; [[Venezuela]]
*590 &ndash; [[Guadeloupe]]
*591 &ndash; [[Bolivia]]
*592 &ndash; [[Guyana]]
*593 &ndash; [[Ecuador]]
*594 &ndash; [[French Guiana]]
*595 &ndash; [[Paraguay]]
*596 &ndash; [[Martinique]]
*597 &ndash; [[Suriname]]
*598 &ndash; [[Uruguay]]
*599 &ndash; [[Netherlands Antilles]]
=== Zone 6 &ndash; South Pacific and [[Oceania]] ===
*60 &ndash; [[Malaysia]]
*61 &ndash; [[Australia]] including external territories of [[Christmas Island]] and [[Cocos Islands]]
*62 &ndash; [[Indonesia]]
*63 &ndash; [[Philippines]]
*64 &ndash; [[New Zealand]]
*65 &ndash; [[Singapore]]
*66 &ndash; [[Thailand]]
*670 &ndash; [[East Timor]] - used to be Northern Mariana Islands which is now included in [[NANPA]] as code +1-670 (See Zone 1, above)
*671 &ndash; used to be [[Guam]] - Now included in [[NANPA]] as code +1-671 (See Zone 1, above)
*672 &ndash; Australian external territories other than Christmas, Cocos Islands, such as [[Australian Antarctic Territory]], [[Norfolk Island]]
*673 &ndash; [[Brunei|Brunei Darussalam]]
*674 &ndash; [[Nauru]]
*675 &ndash; [[Papua New Guinea]]
*676 &ndash; [[Tonga]]
*677 &ndash; [[Solomon Islands]]
*678 &ndash; [[Vanuatu]]
*679 &ndash; [[Fiji]]
*680 &ndash; [[Palau]]
*681 &ndash; [[Wallis and Futuna]]
*682 &ndash; [[Cook Islands]]
*683 &ndash; [[Niue|Niue Island]]
*684 &ndash; used to be [[American Samoa]] - Now included in [[NANPA]] as code +1-684 (See Zone 1, above)
*685 &ndash; [[Samoa]]
*686 &ndash; [[Kiribati]], [[Gilbert Islands]]
*687 &ndash; [[New Caledonia]]
*688 &ndash; [[Tuvalu]], [[Ellice Islands]]
*689 &ndash; [[French Polynesia]]
*690 &ndash; [[Tokelau]]
*691 &ndash; [[Federated States of Micronesia]]
*692 &ndash; [[Marshall Islands]]
*693 &ndash; unassigned
*694 &ndash; unassigned
*695 &ndash; unassigned
*696 &ndash; unassigned
*697 &ndash; unassigned
*698 &ndash; unassigned
*699 &ndash; unassigned
=== Zone 7 &ndash; Russia and its vicinity (former [[Soviet Union]]) ===
*7 &ndash; [[Russia]], [[Kazakhstan]].
=== Zone 8 &ndash; [[East Asia]] and Special Services ===
*800 &ndash; International Freephone ([[UIFN]])
*801 &ndash; unassigned
*802 &ndash; unassigned
*803 &ndash; unassigned
*804 &ndash; unassigned
*805 &ndash; unassigned
*806 &ndash; unassigned
*807 &ndash; unassigned
*808 &ndash; reserved for [[Shared Cost Service|Shared Cost Services]]
*809 &ndash; unassigned
*81 &ndash; [[Japan]]
*82 &ndash; [[South Korea]]
*83x &ndash; unassigned
*84 &ndash; [[Vietnam]]
*850 &ndash; [[North Korea]]
*851 &ndash; unassigned
*852 &ndash; [[Hong Kong|Hong Kong S.A.R.]] of the [[People's Republic of China]]
*853 &ndash; [[Macau|Macau S.A.R.]] of the [[People's Republic of China]]
*854 &ndash; unassigned
*855 &ndash; [[Cambodia]]
*856 &ndash; [[Laos]]
*857 &ndash; unassigned
*858 &ndash; unassigned
*859 &ndash; unassigned
*86 &ndash; [[People's Republic of China]] ([[mainland China|mainland]] only)
*870 &ndash; [[Inmarsat]] "SNAC" service
*871 &ndash; [[Inmarsat]] (Atlantic East)
*872 &ndash; [[Inmarsat]] (Pacific)
*873 &ndash; [[Inmarsat]] (Indian)
*874 &ndash; [[Inmarsat]] (Atlantic West)
*875 &ndash; reserved for Maritime Mobile service
*876 &ndash; reserved for Maritime Mobile service
*877 &ndash; reserved f |
">Here are some examples of '''French words and phrases used by English speakers'''.
There are many [[List of English words of French origin|words of French origin in English]], such as ''competition'', ''art'', ''table'', ''publicity'', ''police'', ''role'', ''routine'', ''machine'', ''force'', and many others which have been anglicized; they are now pronounced according to [[English language|English]] rules of [[orthography]], rather than [[French language|French]]. Approximately 40% of English vocabulary is of French or [[Oïl language]] origin, most derived from, or transmitted via, the [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]] spoken by the [[upper class]]es in [[England]] for several hundred years after the [[Norman Conquest]].
This article, however, covers only words and phrases that seem unmistakably foreign and "French" to an English-speaking person; that is, words that are infrequently used and which have not passed into general usage as a part of the English language proper.
That said, the phrases are given as used in English, and may seem correct modern French to English speakers, but may not be recognised as such by French speakers. A general rule is that if the word or phrase looks better in italics, it has retained its French identity, but if it doesn't need italics, it has probably passed over into English.
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[[#Only found in English|Only found in English]] &mdash; [[#French phrases in international air-sea rescue|French phrases in international air-sea rescue]] &mdash; [[#See also|See also]] &mdash; [[#External links|External links]]
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== Words and phrases ==
Note that these phrases are pronounced using the French rules, and not the English ones. Thus, the stress may fall on the final [[syllable]], a final consonant is usually silent, consequent words are pronounced without a pause between them, unaccented ''e'' is usually pronounced as {{IPA|[&#601;]}} except in final position when it is silent, and final ''n'' nasalizes the preceding vowel. (see [[International Phonetic Alphabet for English]] for a guide to phonetic symbols).
== A ==
* À bientôt!&mdash;''See you soon!'' (relatively uncommon in English)
* accouchement—confinement during childbirth, the process of having a baby
* Adieu!&mdash;''Good bye!''
* à gogo—in abundance
* [[aide-de-camp]]—a military assistant
* aide-mémoire—a position paper
* [[agent provocateur]], pl. agents provocateurs&mdash;a police spy who causes a crime to secure a conviction; can also mean a secret agent spreading unrest in French
* à la&mdash;''in the manner of''
* [[à la carte]]&mdash;''on the card''.
* [[à la mode]]&mdash;''fashionable'' (UK) or ''with ice cream'' (US)
* amour-propre—self regard. Lit ''proper love'', or ''love of self''
* [[Ancien Régime]]—a sociopolitical or other system that no longer exists, in allusion to pre-revolutionary France
* à outrance—to the utmost or last extreme
* [[apéritif]]—a before-meal drink
* [[appliqué]]—an inlaid or attached decorative feature
* après—after
* Après moi, le déluge—the remark attributed to [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]], used in reference to the impending end of an era (“After me, the deluge”)
* [[après-ski]]—socializing after a ski session
* [[Arete (landform)|arête]]—a narrow ridge
* armoire—a type of cabinet; wardrobe
* arriviste—a social climber
* artiste—a skilled performer, a person with artistic pretensions
* [[art nouveau]]—a style of decoration and architecture of the late 19th and early 20th centuries
* [[attaché]]—a person attached to an embassy
* au contraire&mdash;''to the contrary''
* au courant—up-to-date, abreast of current affairs
* au fait—up to par
* au naturel—nude
* [[au pair]]—a young foreigner who does domestic chores in exchange for room and board
* Au revoir!&mdash;''See you soon!'', lit. ''Until the next sight''
* autres temps, autres moeurs—"other times, other customs"
* [[Avant-garde|avant garde]]&mdash; applied to cutting-edge or radically innovative movements in art and literature, lit. ''before the guard'' (vanguard).
== B ==
* beaucoup—a lot of (slang, ''e.g.'', ''beaucoup bucks '')
* beau ideal—an idealized type (should be spelt and pronounced "bel idéal" in French)
* [[Beaux-Arts architecture|beaux arts]]—fine arts, a style of achitecture
* bel esprit—a witty or clever person
* [[belle époque]]—an era of cultural refinement
* [[belles lettres]]—literary works valued for their aesthetic qualities
* [[bête noire]], pl. bêtes noires&mdash;someone or something which is detested or avoided, lit. ''black beast''
* bêtise—a foolish act
* bien aimé—a beloved person
* bien pensant—right-thinking; politically correct
* [[billet doux]]—a love letter
* [[bistro]]—a small restaurant
* bivouac—a temporary camp
* blasé—jaded
* Bon appétit!&mdash;''Enjoy your meal!'', lit. ''Good appetite!''
* bonhomie—geniality
* Bonjour!&mdash;''Hello!'', lit. ''Good day!''
* bon mot—a witticism
* bonne bouche—a delicious morsel
* Bonne chance!&mdash;''Good luck!''
* bonnet rouge—a revolutionist
* bon ton—a sophisticated manner, high society
* bon vivant—an epicure
* Bon voyage!&mdash;''Have a good trip!''
* [[boudoir]]—bedroom
* [[bourgeois]]—belonging to the privileged class
* [[bourgeoisie]]—the privileged class
* boutonnière—a small bunch of flowers for a buttonhole
* [[brasserie]]—a small restaurant
* [[bricolage]]—construction from bits and pieces on hand
== C ==
* cachet—a distinctive quality
* cap-à-pie—from head to foot
* [[carte blanche]]&mdash;unlimited authority, lit. ''blank card''
* Ça va sans dire&mdash;That goes without saying
* C'est bon!&mdash;I understand; I get it, lit. ''It's good''
* C'est la mode &mdash;''such is fashion''
* C'est la vie !&mdash;''That's life!''
* C'est magnifique !&mdash;''That's great!'' (relatively uncommon in English)
* [[chaise longue]]—a long chair for reclining
* chanson—a song
* chanteuse—a female singer
* chapeau—a hat (can also be used as a compliment: "Hat off!")
* [[chargé d'affaires]]—a temporary or low-level diplomat
* [[masterpiece|chef d'œuvre]]—a masterpiece
* chez—the home of (pronounced SHAY)
* chic—stylish
* [[chignon]]—a hairstyle worn in a roll at the nape of the neck
* [[cinéma vérité]]—realism in documentary filmmaking
* [[claque]]—a group of admirers
* cliché—a stereotype
* coquette—a flirtatious girl, a tease
* [[commandant]]—a commanding officer
* comme il faut—as is proper
* comme ci comme ça—so-so
* Comment allez-vous ?&mdash;''How are you?''
* communiqué—an official communication
* [[concierge]]—a hotel desk manager
* [[concordat]]—an agreement, treaty
* confrère—a colleague
* congé—a departure
* [[connoisseur]]—an expert in wines, fine arts or other matters of culture. A person of refined taste. ''(spelt "conn'''ai'''sseur" in modern French.)''
* conte—a short story
* contretemps—an awkward clash, a delay
* cortège—a funeral procession
* [[corvée]]—forced labor for minimal or no pay
* cotte d'armes—coat of arms
* coup de foudre—a sudden unforeseen event
* [[Coup de grâce|coup de grâce]]&mdash;''death-blow'', lit. ''blow of mercy''
* [[coup de main]]—a surprise attack
* [[Coup d'état|coup d'état]], pl. coups d'état&mdash;a sudden change in government by force, lit. ''takeover of state''
* coup d'oeil—a glance
* [[couture]]—fashion
* couturier—a fashion designer
* crèche—a nativity display
* crème de la crème&mdash;''best of the best'', lit. ''cream of the cream''
* cri de coeur—a passionate plea
* [[cul-de-sac]]—a dead-end (residential) street. lit. ''bottom of bag''
== D ==
* D'accord.&mdash;''Agreed.'', ''OK.'' (relatively uncommon in English)
* déclassé—of inferior social status
* décor—the layout and furnishing of a room
* [[découpage]]—decoration with cut paper
* dégagé—unworried
* [[déjà vu]]&mdash;The impression or illusion of having seen or experienced something before.
* démarche—a decisive step.
* [[demimonde]]—a class of women of ill repute
* démodé—dated
* [[dénouement]]—the end result
* de nouveau—again, anew
* dépaysé—out of one’s element
* [[Derailleur gears|dérailleur]]—a bicycle gear-shift mechanism
* de règle—according to custom. Not used in French.
* de rigueur&mdash;''required'', ''necessary'', especially with reference to fashion.
* dernier cri—the latest fashion
* derrière&mdash;rear, buttocks, lit. ''behind''
* déshabillé—partially clad
* [[détente]]—easing of diplomatic tension
* de trop—excessive
* diablerie—witchcraft, deviltry
* divertissement—an amusing diversion
* dossier—a file containing detailed information about a person
* douceur de vivre&mdash;''sweetness of life'' (relatively uncommon in English)
* doyenne—the senior female member of a group
* [[dressage]]—a form of competitive horse training.
== E ==
* eau de toilette—perfume
* éclat—conspicuous achievement
* élan—a distinctive flair
* embarras de richesses—embarrassment of riches
* embarras du choix— (in the contruction: avoir l'embarras du choix) multitude difficult to choose from
* embonpoint—fat (euphemistically)
* [[émigré]]—one who has emigrated for political reasons
* [[eminence grise|éminence grise]]&mdash;a powerful advisor or decision-maker who operates secretly or otherwise unofficially, lit. ''gray eminence''
* empressé—eager
* [[enfant terrible]]—a disruptively unconventional person
* en bloc—as a group
* en masse—all together
* ennui—boredom
* en passant—in passi |
om typically relate to the arts, sports or entertainment. For example, it would be unusual to refer to an accountant who is very interested in the details of accounting as a "fan" of accounting.
Members of a fandom associate with one another, often attending [[fan convention]]s (such as [[science fiction convention]]s), and publishing and exchanging [[fanzine]]s. Today, these communities are often online, especially for less well-known source material.
Some fans also write [[fan fiction]], stories based around the universe and characters of their chosen fandom. Some also dress in [[costumes]] ("[[cosplay]]") or recite lines of [[dialogue]] either out-of-context or as part of a group [[reenactment]].
The term "fandom" is particularly associated with fans of the science fiction and [[fantasy]] [[genre]]s, a community that dates back to the [[1930]]s and has held the [[World Science Fiction Convention]] since [[1939]]. The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] traces the usage of the term back as far as 1903, with many of its documented references referring to sports fandom.
The term is also commonly associated with anime/manga. Serious fans of this subject are also called [[otaku]].
"Fandom" is also the name of a [[Documentary film|documentary]] / [[mockumentary]] about a fan obsessed with [[Natalie Portman]].
== See also ==
* [[Fanboy]]
* [[Fanposter]]
* [[Furry fandom]]
* [[Harry Potter fandom]]
* [[Otaku|Otaku (anime fandom)]]
* [[Science fiction fandom]]
* [[Tolkien fandom]]
* [[Trekkie|Trekkie (''Star Trek'' fandom)]]
[[Category:Fandom]]
[[cs:Fandom]]
[[de:Fantum]]
[[es:Fandom]]
[[fr:Fandom]]
[[it:Fandom]]
[[he:פנדום]]
[[pl:Fandom]]
[[sv:Fandom]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Filk</title>
<id>11505</id>
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<id>15909249</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Filk music]]
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<page>
<title>Ft. Collins, Colorado</title>
<id>11506</id>
<revision>
<id>15909250</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fort Collins, Colorado]]
</text>
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<page>
<title>Fort Collins, Colorado</title>
<id>11507</id>
<revision>
<id>41521891</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T22:45:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BabuBhatt</username>
<id>546909</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DSCN5380 horsetoothmountainwithhorse e.jpg|225px|right|thumb|Horsetooth Rock, atop [[Horsetooth Mountain]], is often used as a symbol of Fort Collins.]]
'''Fort Collins''', situated on the [[Cache la Poudre River]], is the largest city and [[county seat]] of [[Larimer County, Colorado]]. It is a large college town (home to [[Colorado State University]]) in the north central region of the state, along what is known as the [[Colorado Front Range]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 118,652.
== History ==
Fort Collins was founded as a military outpost of the [[United States Army]] in [[1864]]. A previous encampment, known as [[Camp Collins]], on the [[Cache La Poudre River]] near present-day [[Laporte, Colorado|Laporte]], was destroyed by a flood in June 1864. Afterwards, the commander of the fort wrote to Colonel William O. Collins at [[Fort Laramie]] in southeast Wyoming, suggesting that a site several miles further down the Poudre would make a good location for the fort. The fort never had walls.
Settlers began arriving in the vicinity of the fort nearly immediately. The fort was decommissioned in [[1868]] and the original fort site is now adjacent to the present historic "Old Town" portion of the city. The town was formally incorporated in 1873. Stone quarrying, sugar beet farming, and sheep were among the areas's earliest industries. Fort Collins is home to [[Colorado State University]], Colorado's original land-grant college (formerly known as Colorado Agricultural and Mechanical College). Other large employers include [[Hewlett-Packard]], Poudre Valley Health System, and Poudre School District. For more information on local history see the [[Fort Collins Public Library]]'s local historical archives. http://library.ci.fort-collins.co.us/.
== Geography ==
[[Image:COMap-doton-FortCollins.PNG|right|Location of Fort Collins, Colorado]]
Fort Collins is located at 40&deg;33'33" North, 105&deg;4'41" West (40.559238, -105.078302){{GR|1}}. The city is situated just east of the Rocky Mountain foothills of the Northern Front Range approximately 70 miles north of Denver, Colorado. Prominent geographic landmarks include Horsetooth Reservoir and Horsetooth Mountain- so named because of a tooth shaped granite rock that dominates the city's western skyline.
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 122.1 [[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] (47.1 [[square mile|mi&sup2;]]). 120.5 km&sup2; (46.5 mi&sup2;) of it is land and 1.6 km&sup2; (0.6 mi&sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 1.27% water.
== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 118,652 people, 45,882 households, and 25,785 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 984.4/km&sup2; (2,549.3/mi&sup2;). There are 47,755 housing units at an average density of 396.2/km&sup2; (1,026.0/mi&sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 89.63% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.02% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.60% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 2.48% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.12% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 3.61% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.53% from two or more races. 8.77% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.
Fort Collins is home to four major high schools. They include Fort Collins High School, Rocky Mountain High School, [[Poudre High School]], and Fossil Ridge High School. Fossil Ridge is currently in its second year. The educational system is run by Poudre School District.
[[Image:DSCN5499 fortcollinshighschool e.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Old Fort Collins High School, now part of Colorado State University]]
There are 45,882 households out of which 29.0% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.9% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 7.9% have a female householder with no husband present, and 43.8% are non-families. 26.0% of all households are made up of individuals and 5.9% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.45 and the average family size is 3.01.
In the city the population is spread out with 21.5% under the age of 18, 22.1% from 18 to 24, 31.5% from 25 to 44, 17.0% from 45 to 64, and 7.9% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 28 years. For every 100 females there are 100.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 99.7 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $44,459, and the median income for a family is $59,332. Males have a median income of $40,856 versus $28,385 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $22,133. 14.0% of the population and 5.5% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 8.3% of those under the age of 18 and 5.8% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.
The largest employer in Fort Collins is [[Colorado State University]]. Other major employers in Fort Collins include [[Hewlett Packard]], [[Anheuser-Busch]], [[Poudre Valley Hospital]], Poudre School District, and Avago Technologies, formerly HP's components spinoff [[Agilent Technologies]].
==Culture==
Much of Fort Collins' culture is centered around the students of [[Colorado State University]]. Driven by a large college-age demographic, the city has a thriving local music circuit, and is home to a number of well-recognized microbreweries. Old Town, a historic down-town shopping district, hosts a number of large festivals each year. For example, the New West Fest occurs in late summer, featuing local cuisine, music, and businesses. The Lincoln Center is home to the Fort Collins Symphony Orchestra and regularly attracts national touring companies of Broadway plays. Beyond the city limits, the Fort Collins Balloon Festival attracts hot air balloon enthusiasts from around the world.
[[image:Fort_Collins_Brewfest_2004.jpg|frame|none|The 2004 Colorado Brewers Festival in Fort Collins]]
There is a thriving beer culture in the city. In addition to an [[Anheuser-Busch]] brewery — operating just north of the city since 1984 — there are three microbreweries, the [[New Belgium Brewing Company]], the [http://www.odellbrewing.com Odell Brewing Company], and the [http://www.fortcollinsbrewery.com Fort Collins Brewery]. New Belgium is the largest of the local microbreweries, with regional distribution west of the Mississippi. There are several brewpubs, including the original C.B. & Potts Restaurant and its Big Horn Brewery; CooperSmith's Pub & Brewing, a local mainstay since 1989; and one of Conor O'Neill's Irish Pub & Restaurant's three locations. The [http://downtownfortcollins.com/festivals.php/brewfest Colorado Brewer's Festival] is held in late June annually in Fort Collins. The outdoor event is held in Fort Collins' old town area and features beers from as many as 45 brewers from the state of Colorado and averages around 30,000 attendees.
==Facilities==
*Transmitter of [[WWVB]]
*[[Poudr |
stration is GBZ, and Gibraltar number plates consist of the letter G followed by a series of digits. These are the same shape, type face and colours as those in the UK. The [[Chief Minister of Gibraltar|Chief Minister]]'s official car has the registration number G1, while the [[Governor of Gibraltar|Governor]]'s car, following tradition, has a crown, not a number plate.
{{CIA}}
'''[[Railroad|Railways]]:'''
<br>''total:''
0 km;
There used to be a 1.000-m gauge system in [http://wiktionary.org/wiki/Dockyard dockyard] area only
'''[[Highway]]s:'''
<br>''total:''
49.9 km
<br>''paved:''
49.9 km
<br>''unpaved:''
0 km
'''[[Pipeline]]s:'''
0 km
'''Ports and [[harbour]]s:'''
Gibraltar
'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
<br>''total:''
26 [[ship]]s (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 477,183 GRT/752,644 DWT
<br>''ships by type:''
bulk 1, cargo 2, chemical tanker 2, container 4, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger 1, petroleum tanker 13, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)
'''[[Airport]]s:'''
1
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
1
<br>''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1<br>
The airport is built on the [[isthmus]] which the Spanish Government claim not to have been ceded in the [[Treaty of Utrecht (1713)|Treaty of Utrecht]], thus the integration of [[Gibraltar Airport]] in the [[Single European Sky]] system has been blocked by Spain. The 1987 agreement for joint control of the airport with Spain was rejected by the then Government of Gibraltar. All successive Gibraltar governments have rejected it, although welcoming joint use of the airport (which being on the border could operate very similarly to [[Geneva Airport]] or [[Basel Airport]]). This offer has not been accepted.
Spain also bans ferry and air services to and from Gibraltar. For a few months in [[2004]] Spain banned cruise ships which had visited Gibraltar from going to Spanish ports on the same journey. Motorists and sometimes pedestrians crossing the border are randomly subjected to long delays and searches by the Spanish authorities. The [[Guardia Civil (Spain)|Guardia Civil]] routinely search vehicles in the middle of the road, rather than directing suspect vehicles to a designated search area, thereby causing an obstruction to vehicles behind.
In 2003 the land frontier was closed for a day by Spain on the grounds that a visiting cruise liner, the [[MV Aurora]], was affected by contagious food poisoning. Subsequently, no cases in Gibraltar were reported.
'''Bus routes:'''
<br>''total:''
5<br>
Buses run to most areas of the territory apart from the Upper Rock, which is a nature reserve. One bus company runs four routes, a second company runs one. Buses run regularly from the frontier/airport area to the city centre.
'''Taxis'''
Taxis are available around the Rock. Many cater specifically offer tours of the Upper Rock nature reserve. These can be picked up from the frontier or the city centre.
'''Cable car'''
A cable car runs from just south of the city centre to the [[Barbary Ape|Ape's Den]] and the Top of the Rock, which despite its name is actually the second highest peak of the Rock.
:''See also :'' [[Gibraltar]]
{{Gibraltar-stub}}
[[Category:Gibraltar]]
[[Category:Transport in British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies]]</text>
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<title>Military of Gibraltar</title>
<id>12085</id>
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<timestamp>2002-10-22T04:52:41Z</timestamp>
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<title>Foreign relations of Gibraltar</title>
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<comment>#REDIRECT [[Gibraltar]] -- merged with main page</comment>
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<title>Glorioso Islands</title>
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<title>History of the Glorioso Islands</title>
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<title>Geography of the Glorioso Islands</title>
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<title>Government of the Glorioso Islands</title>
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<title>Economy of the Glorioso Islands</title>
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<title>Communications on the Glorioso Islands</title>
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<title>Transportation on the Glorioso Islands</title>
<id>12094</id>
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<title>Military of the Glorioso Islands</title>
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<title>Transnational issues of the Glorioso Islands</title>
<id>12096</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-16T15:35:08Z</timestamp>
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<username>Koavf</username>
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<page>
<title>Gulf of Finland</title>
<id>12098</id>
<revision>
<id>37015791</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-28T00:05:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ghirlandajo</username>
<id>147410</id>
</contributor>
<comment>not sure if the cat is appropriate however</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Baltic_sea_map.jpg|thumb|320px|The Baltic Sea]]
The '''Gulf of Finland''' is an arm of the [[Baltic Sea]] that extends between [[Finland]] (to the north) and [[Estonia]] (to the south) all the way to the city of [[Saint Petersburg]] in [[Russia]], where the river [[Neva]] drains into it. Other major cities around the gulf include [[Helsinki]] and [[Tallinn]].
==See also==
* [[Kotlin Island]]
==External links==
* [http://earth.esa.int/showcase/env/Finland/Gulf_of_Finland_MER_FR_Orbit_07204_20030717.htm ESA satellite photograph of the Gulf of Finland]
[[Category:Gulfs|Finland]]
[[Category:Geography of Finland]]
[[Category:Geography of Estonia]]
[[Category:Bays of Russia]]
[[af:Finse Golf]]
[[ar:خليج فنلندا]]
[[ca:Golf de Finlàndia]]
[[cs:Finský záliv]]
[[de:Finnischer Meerbusen]]
[[et:Soome laht]]
[[el:Φινλανδικός κόλπος]]
[[es:Golfo de Finlandia]]
[[fr:Golfe de Finlande]]
[[ko:핀란드 만]]
[[it:Golfo di Finlandia]]
[[he:המפרץ הפיני]]
[[hu:Finn-öböl]]
[[nl:Finse Golf]]
[[ja:フィンランド湾]]
[[nn:Finskebukta]]
[[pl:Zatoka Fińska]]
[[pt:Golfo da Finlândia]]
[[ru:Финский залив]]
[[sk:Fínsky záliv]]
[[fi:Suomenlahti]]
[[sv:Finska viken]]
[[vi:Vịnh Phần Lan]]
[[tr:Finlandiya Körfezi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gdańsk</title>
<id>12099</id>
<restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
<revision>
<id>42105496</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:36:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Cosal</username>
<id>153219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Foundation and the Middle Ages */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For alternative meanings of Gdańsk and Danzig, see [[Gdańsk (disambiguation)]] and [[Danzig (disambiguation)]]}}
{{Infobox Poland <!--SCROLL DOWN IN ORDER TO EDIT THE ARTICLE-->
| city_name=Gdańsk
| motto=''Nec temere, nec timide'' <br>(Neither rashly nor timidly)
| |
me computing|real-time]]-rendered games running on consumer-level hardware. The advance from id Software's previous game ''[[Wolfenstein 3D]]'' was enabled by several new features in the ''Doom'' engine:
[[Image:Doom darkness.png|thumb|240px|''Doom'' relies heavily on contrasts of lighting in building its atmosphere.]]
* Height differences (all rooms in ''Wolfenstein 3D'' are at the same altitude);
* Non-[[perpendicular]] walls (all walls in ''Wolfenstein 3D'' run along a rectangular grid);
* Full [[texture mapping]] of all surfaces (in ''Wolfenstein 3D'', floors and ceilings are not texture mapped); and,
* Varying light levels (all areas in ''Wolfenstein 3D'' are fully lit at the same brightness). While contributing to the game's visual authenticity by allowing effects such as highlights and shadows, this perhaps most importantly added to the game's atmosphere and even gameplay; the use of darkness as a means of frightening or confusing the player was an unseen element in games.
In contrast to the static levels of ''Wolfenstein 3D'', those in ''Doom'' are highly interactive: platforms can lower and rise, floors can raise sequentially to form [[staircase]]s, and bridges can raise and lower. The life-like feeling of the environment was enhanced further by the [[stereo sound]] system, which made it possible to roughly tell the direction and distance of a sound's origin. The player is kept on guard by the grunts and gnarls of monsters, and receives occasional clues to finding secret areas in the form of sounds of hidden doors opening remotely. Monsters can also become aware of the player's presence by hearing distant gunshots.
Carmack had to make use of several tricks for these features to run smoothly on 1993's home computers. Most significantly, ''Doom'' levels are not truly three-dimensional; they are internally represented on a [[plane (mathematics)|plane]], with height differences added separately (a similar trick is still used by many games to create huge outdoor environments). This leads to several limitations: it is, for example, not possible for a ''Doom'' level to have one room over another. This two-dimensional representation does, however, have the benefit that rendering can be done very quickly, using a [[Binary space partitioning|binary space partitioning]] method. Another benefit was the clearness of the automap because it could be displayed with 2D vectors without the risk of overlapping.
Another important feature of the ''Doom'' engine is a modular approach that allows the game content to be replaced by loading custom [[Doom WAD|WAD files]]. ''Wolfenstein 3D'' was not designed to be expansible, but fans had nevertheless figured out how to create their own levels for it, and ''Doom'' was designed to take the phenomenon further. The ability to create custom scenarios contributed significantly to the game's popularity (see the section on [[#WADs|WADs]] below).
==Release and later history==
===Initial popularity===
The development of ''Doom'' was surrounded by much anticipation. The large number of posts in Internet [[newsgroup]]s about ''Doom'' led to the [[SPISPOPD]] joke, to which a nod was given in the game in the form of a [[cheat code]]. In addition to news, rumors, and [[screenshot]]s, unauthorized leaked [[alpha version]]s also circulated online. (Many years later these alpha versions were sanctioned by id Software because of historical interest; they reveal how the game progressed from its early design stages.) The first public version of ''Doom'' was uploaded to an [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] run at the [[University of Wisconsin]] on [[December 10]], [[1993]].
Released as [[shareware]], people were encouraged to distribute ''Doom'' further, and did so: in 1995, ''Doom'' was estimated to have been installed on more than 10 million computers. Although most users did not purchase the registered version, over one million copies have been sold, and the popularity helped the sales of later games in the ''Doom'' series which were not released as shareware. In 1995, ''[[The Ultimate Doom]]'' (version 1.9, including episode IV) was released, making this the first time that ''Doom'' was sold commercially in stores.
[[Image:Billdoom.png|thumb|240px|Recognizing the game's popularity, [[Bill Gates]] made a presentation to promote [[Windows 95]] while digitally superimposed into ''Doom'' to blast zombies.]]
In a press release dated [[January 1]], [[1993]], id Software had written that they expected ''Doom'' to be "the number one cause of decreased productivity in businesses around the world". This prediction came true at least in part: ''Doom'' became a major problem at workplaces, both occupying the time of employees and clogging [[computer network]]s with traffic caused by deathmatches. [[Intel]], [[Lotus Development]] and [[Carnegie Mellon University]] are among many organizations reported to form policies specifically disallowing ''Doom''-playing during work hours. At the [[Microsoft]] campus, ''Doom'' was by one account{{ref_label|MastersOfDoom|5a|a}} equal to a "religious phenomenon".
In late 1995, ''Doom'' was estimated to be installed on more computers worldwide than Microsoft's new operating system [[Windows 95]], despite million-dollar advertising campaigns for the latter. The game's popularity prompted [[Bill Gates]] to briefly consider buying id Software, and led Microsoft to develop a Windows 95 port of ''Doom'' to promote the operating system as a gaming platform. One such presentation to promote Windows 95 had Bill Gates digitally superimposed into the game. {{ref|BillGates}}
''Doom'' was also widely praised in the gaming press. In 1994, it was awarded [[Game of the Year]] by both [[PC Gamer]] and [[Computer Gaming World]]. It also received the Award for Technical Excellence from [[PC Magazine]], and the Best Action Adventure Game award by the [[Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences]].
In addition to the thrilling nature of the single-player game, the [[deathmatch]] mode was an important factor in the game's popularity. ''Doom'' was not the first first-person shooter with a deathmatch mode&mdash;''[[MIDI Maze]]'' on the [[Atari ST]] had one in 1987, using the [[MIDI]] ports built into the ST to network up to four machines together. However, ''Doom'' was the first game to allow deathmatching over [[ethernet]], and the combination of violence and gore with fighting friends made deathmatching in ''Doom'' particularly attractive. Two player deathmatch was also possible over a phone line by using a [[modem]]. Due to its widespread distribution, ''Doom'' hence became the game that introduced deathmatching to a large audience (and was also the first game to use the term "deathmatch").
===WADs===
''Main article: [[Doom WAD]]s''
[[Image:Ghostbusters Doom.png|thumb|240px|''[[Ghostbusters]]'' is one of many movies that have been made into ''Doom'' WADs.]]
The ability to create custom levels and otherwise modify the game, in the form of custom [[WAD file]]s, turned out to be a particularly popular aspect of ''Doom''. Gaining the first large [[mod (computer gaming)|mod]]-making community, ''Doom'' affected the culture surrounding first-person shooters, and also the industry. Several to-be professional [[game designer]]s started their careers making ''Doom'' WADs as a hobby, among them [[Tim Willits]], who later became the lead designer at id Software.
The first [[level editor]]s appeared in early 1994, and additional tools have been created that allow most aspects of the game to be edited. Although the majority of WADs contain one or several custom levels mostly in the style of the original game, others implement new monsters and other resources, and heavily alter the gameplay; several popular movies, television series and other brands from popular culture have been turned into ''Doom'' WADs by fans (without authorization), including ''[[Aliens (1986 film)|Aliens]]'', ''[[Star Wars]]'', ''[[The X-files]]'', ''[[The Simpsons]]'' and ''[[Batman]]''.
Some addon files were also made which changed the sounds made by the various characters and weapons. Notable ones were samples from [[Beavis and Butthead]] and the famous orgasm scene from ''[[When Harry Met Sally...]]''.
Around 1994 and 1995, WADs were primarily distributed online over [[bulletin board system]]s or sold in collections on [[compact disc]]s in computer shops, sometimes bundled with editing guide books. [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] servers became the primary method in later years. A few WADs have been released commercially, including the ''[[Master Levels for Doom II]]'', which was released in 1995 along with ''Maximum Doom'', a CD containing 1,830 WADs that had been downloaded from the Internet. Several thousands of WADs have been created in total: the ''idgames'' FTP archive contains over 13,000 files{{ref|idgamesCount}}, and this does not represent the complete output of ''Doom'' fans.
Third party programs were also written to handle the loading of various WADs, since the game is a [[DOS]] game and all commands had to be entered on the [[command line]] to run. A typical launcher would allow the player to select which files to load from a menu, making it much easier to start.
===Clones and related products===
''Main articles: [[Doom clone]]s, [[Versions and ports of Doom]], [[Doom spin-offs and homages]]''
[[Image:Doom clone vs first person shooter.png|thumb|240px|The phrase "[[Doom clone|''Doom'' clone]]" was initially popular to describe the style of gameplay in ''Doom''-like games, but after 1996 was gradually replaced by the more generic "[[first person shooter]]".]]
The popularity of ''Doom'' led to the development of a sequel, ''[[Doom II: Hell on Earth]]'' (1994), as well as expansion packs and alternate versions based on the same game engine, including ''[[The Ultimate Doom]]'' (1995), ''[[Final Doom]]'' (1996), and ''[[Doom 64]]'' (1997). ''Doom'' |
avoid death or capture during the battle. Although there is no evidence that he acted with cowardace, he became a scapegoat after the debacle and was stripped of his knighthood. This correlates to the setting of [[Henry VI, Part I]]. The real John Fastolf became the scapegoat of this major English defeat, losing his knighthood as punishment. There is no direct evidence that he acted improperly at this battle. His other actions as a soldier had earned him wide respect.
==See also==
*Falstaff is also the name of a British rocket. See [[Falstaff (rocket)]].
*Falstaff is an American beer originally produced by Lemp Brewing in [[1903]] and discontinued in [[2005]]. In its later years, it was brewed by [[Pabst]].
*[[Sir John Fastolf]]
*[[Sir John Oldcastle]]
*[[Battle of Patay]]
*[[Falstaff (opera)]]
[[Category:Shakespearean characters|Falstaff, Sir John]]
[[de:Falstaff]]
[[ja:フォルスタッフ]]
[[sl:Falstaff (Verdi)]]
[[zh:法斯塔夫]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Floorball</title>
<id>11247</id>
<revision>
<id>42125660</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:07:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>The tooth</username>
<id>652482</id>
</contributor>
<comment>RV</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Floorball game.jpg|thumb|300px|A floorball match between powerhouses [[Sweden]] (yellow) and [[Finland]] (white)]]
'''Floorball''' is an indoor [[team sport]] played using composite sticks with a plastic vented blade where the aim is to put a light plastic ball into the opponent's goal. Floorball is most popular in [[Sweden]], [[Finland]] and [[Switzerland]], and is also played in several other countries, such as [[Norway]] and the [[Czech Republic]]. It is gaining popularity in many other places as well, including some countries outside [[Europe]], such as [[Singapore]], [[Japan]], [[Australia]] and the [[United States]].
Floorball is played in a court by six players per side. The objective of the game is to score goals by playing a plastic ball into the opponent's goal net, which is placed at the opposite end of the rink. The players may control and redirect the ball using a stick with a blade that is often curved at one end. Players must not use their hands, arms or head to play the ball on purpose. One may use other body parts. It is also allowed to play (especially stop) the ball once by foot, but not to score goals or pass to teammates.
A floorball team consist of 5 field players and one [[goalkeeper]], whose primary job is to stop the ball from entering the net, and who is permitted unique gear towards that end. The goalkeeper is not permitted a stick. The playing field is 40 x 20 [[metre]]s and enclosed by a board with rounded corners (50 cm tall). The goal cages are 1.60 x 1.15 m and 65 [[centimetre|cm]] deep. The sticks are made of [[plastic]] or [[carbon]] and a bit over 1 metre long. The shaft is no longer than 99 cm and a blade of a different kind of plastic is attached to its end. The ball is made of plastic, is 72 mm in diameter, has a maximum [[weight]] of 23 grams, and has 26 holes in it.
A world championship tournament is played every two years. The current reigning world champions are [[Switzerland]] (women, [[2005]]) and [[Sweden]] (men, [[2004]]) ([http://www.floorball.org/wfcres.htm Floorball World Championships]).
== The game ==
[[Image:Floorball rink.png|thumb|right|The dimensions of a floorball rink]]
Floorball as a game comes from northern Europe. It is similar to [[Bandy]], a kind of sport considered the predecessor of [[ice hockey]]. Floorball is sometimes likened to ice hockey without the ice skates, but there are considerable differences in the rules. In [[Switzerland]], floorball is commonly considered to be a kind of [[hockey]].
Floorball is a fast and dynamic sport with much of the time played near the goals. The mixture of endurance, power and precision make floorball a popular game in schools.
Floorball is not only played on the original rink, but also on a smaller court measuring 24 x 14 m. In the smaller court a team consists of three field players and one goalie. The rules do not differ, with some adjustions for the smaller rink. In the initial years of floorball, the goalkeeper was permitted to use a special kind of stick, but today no stick is used.
On the original field, the game is played by five field players and one goalie on each side. The team consists of a larger number of players which can be substituted at any time. A floorball game is usually played over 3 periods of 20 minutes. Time is stopped in the case of time penalties, goals and timeouts. There is a break of ten minutes between the thirds. If the game is part of a tournament, the time may be shortened to 2 x 20 minutes and the break to 5 minutes. In both cases, the last three minutes the clock is only running when the balls is in play. Each team is allowed a timeout of 30 seconds. There are two referees in charge of each game, both of which have the same authority.
[[Image:Floorballball.jpg|right|thumb|A floorball. This is a precision type ball, characterized by 1516 tiny dimples that reduce air resistance, as well as friction on the floor.]]
The stick used in floorball is exactly regulated. The shaft may be at most 99 cm long, and the whole stick must not weigh more than 350 grams. Its material is plastic and it is hollow. Generally lighter sticks are preferred. The ball is made of white plastic and hollow. It has a diameter of 72&nbsp;mm and weighs between 20 and 23 grams. There are 26 holes, each of which measuring 11&nbsp;mm. The goals are 160&nbsp;cm wide and 115&nbsp;cm high; their depth is 65&nbsp;cm.
The goalie wears special equipment. His trousers are long and padded. The shirt is padded and might be long. The goalie is allowed to wear gloves (though not commonly used), but a mitt is not permitted. The goalie wears a helmet to protect his face. All the equipment worn by the goalie has the purpose to protect the goalkeeper and must not augment the area as covered by the goalie without the protective wear. The goalie does not have a stick. The field players on the other hand only wear shorts, a shirt, socks and indoor sport shoes. They are allowed shin guards.
Compared to [[ice hockey]] floorball does not permit the use of the body as much. No checks are allowed, nor is pushing, blocking etc. Such rules help a dynamic game which emphasizes tactics.
A free hit is the standard position after a foul. There are time penalties of two and five minutes for harder fouls; ten minutes are reserved for ''unsportsmanlike behaviour''. For extreme cases there are match penalties (''red card'').
== History ==
There are a great number of people that think they have ''invented'' floorball. It is commonly considered that the roots of floorball go back to the [[1950s]] in the [[United States|USA]]. At the time young people played indoors with plastic sticks and a plastic puck. The game was called ''floor hockey'' and the first tournament was organized in [[1976]] in [[Michigan]].
When ''floor hockey'' reached [[Europe]] the puck was soon dropped in favour of a light plastic ball. The new sport with the name ''floorball'' was first played in [[Sweden]] in the early [[1970s]]. It soon gained popularity at schools and in leisure clubs. At that time, the goals were much smaller, but there was no goal keeper.
Floorball soon caught on and in the late [[1970s]] the sport spread across Europe. In the early [[1980s]] many national associations were founded. This created the structures that enabled the young sport to grow faster. At the time of writing ([[2004]]) only four countries dominate the international game: [[Sweden]], [[Finland]], [[Switzerland]] and the [[Czech Republic]]. The gap to other countries, however, is narrowing year by year.
== National associations ==
The following list shows the year in which a national association was founded.
* [[1981]] [[Sweden]]
* [[1983]] [[Japan]]
* [[1985]] [[Finland]] and [[Switzerland]]
* [[1986]] the ''International Floorball Federation'' (IFF) was founded
* [[1989]] [[Denmark]], and [[Hungary]]
* [[1991]] [[Norway]]
* [[1992]] [[Russia]], the [[Czech Republic]], and [[Germany]]
* [[1993]] [[United States|USA]], [[Estonia]], and [[Latvia]]
* [[1995]] [[Poland]], [[Belgium]], [[Singapore]], and [[Great Britain]]
* [[1996]] [[Austria]] and [[Australia]]
* [[1999]] [[Netherlands]], [[Brazil]], [[Slovakia]]
* [[2001]] [[Spain]], [[Italy]], [[Slovenia]], [[Canada]], and [[New Zealand]]
* [[2002]] [[Malaysia]], [[India]], and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
* [[2003]] [[France]]
* [[2004]] [[Pakistan]]
* [[2005]] [[Korea]], [[Ukraine]], [[Liechtenstein]], and [[Iceland]]
== The International Federation ==
The ''International Floorball Federation'' (IFF) was founded in [[1986]] in Sweden. Founding nations were [[Sweden]], [[Finland]] and [[Switzerland]]. In [[1994]] the first European championship for men took place in [[Zurich]]. The following year the first European championship for women was organized. The first world championship for men took place in [[1996]] in [[Sweden]]. The following year the first world championship for women was organized. Since then the world championships for men and women take place in alternating years. As of [[2005]] there are 36 member countries in the IFF, with over 3,900 clubs and 230,000 registerd players. There is organized floorball in some countries that are not IFF members.
The IFF gained full membership of the GAISF (General Association of International Sports Federations) in [[2004]]. Every year the European Cup is organized. World Championships take place every other year, with even years for men, and odd years for women.
==Championships==
World championships are played in alternate years
===Women's world champions===
*[[1997]] — [[Sweden]], held in Finland
*[[1999]] — [[Finland]], held in Sweden
*[[2001]] — Finland, held in [[Latvi |
, and is almost a ground cover. It has with greyish-green leaves and light purple flowers.
Some ''[[Dracocephalum]]'', ''[[Glechoma]]'' and ''[[Calamintha]]'' species were formerly classified in ''Nepeta''.
===Medicinal uses===
Due to the fact that catnip promotes sweating when taken as a hot infusion, it was used for the treatment of nervousness, colds, [[influenza]], and fevers during the Middle Ages. Catnip has also been alleged to aid with flatulence, diarrhea, colic, and other childhood diseases,
as well as preventing miscarriages, premature births, and morning sickness. It is also sometimes used as an enema (Plants).
As herbal remedies, catnips are used as [[relaxant]]s, [[nervine]]s, [[sedative]]s, and as [[antispasmodic]]s. They are used to alleviate symptoms such as [[insomnia]], stress, [[Menstrual cycle|menstrual]] [[cramp]]s, and gut cramps. The effect is a very mild one.
A study conducted at [[Iowa State University]] suggests that pure [[nepetalactone]], a constituent of the essential oil of ''Nepeta cataria'', may be 10 times as effective at repelling [[mosquitos]] as the common repellant, [[DEET]].
===Effects on cats===
Catnip and catmints are mainly known for, and named after, the effects they have on [[Felidae|cat]]s, particularly [[cat|domestic cats]]. Approximately two thirds of cats are susceptible to the effects of catnip, as the phenomenon is [[hereditary]].
Catnip contains nepetalactone, a [[terpene]], that is thought to mimic feline sex [[pheromone]]s. Cats detect it through their [[vomeronasal organ]]s. When cats sense the bruised leaves or stems of catnip, they will rub in it, roll over it, paw at it, chew it, lick it, leap about, then purr loudly, growl, and meow. This reaction only lasts for several minutes before the cat loses interest. It takes up to two hours for the cat to "reset" and then it can come back to the catnip and have the same response as before. Young kittens and older cats are less likely to have a reaction to catnip but [[big cat]]s, such as [[tiger]]s, seem to be extremely sensitive to it.
Cat owners do not need to worry about allowing their cats access to catnip because there are, for the most part, no negative side effects to it. However, some cats become overly excited when exposed to catnip, and so aging cats with heart troubles should not be given catnip.
Other plants that also have this effect on cats include [[Valerian (plant)|Valerian]] and plants that contain [[actinidine]] or [[dihydroactinidiolide]] (''Smith, 2005'').
At least three species attract cats, ''Nepeta cataria'', ''N. grandiflora'' and ''N. × faassenii'', but most other species have not been tested. Of these, both true catnip and Faassen's catnip have a sharp, biting taste, while the taste of giant catmint is bland.
<!-- SOURCES NEEDED
===Other Uses===
When smoked, catnip has a mild euphoric effect.
-->
==References and external links==
*[http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/FE/fe.html Flora Europaea]
*[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=122138 Flora of China]
*[http://www.efloras.org/browse.aspx?flora_id=110&start_taxon_id=122138 Flora of Nepal]
*[http://www.liberherbarum.com/Pn0450.HTM Liber Herbarum II page on Nepeta cataria]
*[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/08/010828075659.htm Catnip Repels Mosquitoes More Effectively Than DEET] - reported at the 222nd national meeting of the American Chemical Society
*[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a1_008.html The Straight Dope: What is it with cats and catnip?]
*[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/whatstuff/83/8331catnip.html What is in catnip anyway? Nepetalactone]
*[http://science.howstuffworks.com/question303.htm ''How does catnip work?'' HowStuffWorks, Inc. 1998-2005.]
*[http://www.penmarric.ns.ca/catcare/usefulinfo/catnip.htm Smith, L. ''Catnip''. Penmarrie Cornish Rex. 1996-2005.]
* Jacobs, Betty E.M. Growing and Using Herbs Successfully. Garden Way Publishing. Pownal, Vermont, 1981.
[[Category:Cat attractants]]
[[Category:Herbs]]
[[Category:Lamiaceae]]
[[de:Echte Katzenminze]]
[[fr:Cataire]]
[[lt:Katžolė]]
[[pl:Kocimiętka właściwa]]
[[fi:Aitokissanminttu]]
[[sv:Kattmynta]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cumin</title>
<id>5712</id>
<revision>
<id>40585248</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T17:06:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RussBot</username>
<id>279219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Robot: corrected link to disambiguation page Stem ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Cumin
| image = Historical CUMIN.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Apiales]]
| familia = [[Apiaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Cuminum]]''
| species = '''''C. cyminum'''''
| binomial = ''Cuminum cyminum''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
}}
'''Cumin''' '''''(Cuminum cyminum)''''' is a [[flowering plant]] in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Apiaceae]], native to the eastern [[Mediterranean region]] east to northern [[India]].
It is a [[herbaceous]] [[annual plant]], with a slender branched [[Plant stem|stem]] 20-30 cm tall. The [[leaf|leaves]] are 5-10 cm long, pinnate or bipinnate, with thread-like leaflets. The [[flower]]s are small, white or pink, and borne in [[umbel]]s. The [[fruit]] is a laterally compressed fusiform or [[ovoid]] [[achene]] 4-5 mm long, containing a single [[seed]]. Cumin seeds are similar to [[fennel]] seeds, but are smaller and darker in [[colour]].
[[Image:Cumin-spice.jpg|thumb|left|Whole cumin seeds and ground cumin]]
===Cultivation and uses===
Cumin seeds are used as a [[spice]] for their distinctive aroma, popular in [[North African cuisine|North African]], [[Middle East|Middle Eastern]], western Chinese, [[Indian cuisine|Indian]] and [[Mexican cuisine]].
Cumin fruits have a distinctive bitter flavour and strong, warm aroma due to their abundant [[essential oil]] content. Its main constituent and important [[aroma compound]] is [[cuminaldehyde]] (4-isopropylbenzaldehyde). Important aroma compounds of toasted cumin are the [[Substitution (chemistry)|substituted]] [[pyrazine]]s, 2-ethoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine, 2-methoxy-3-''sec''-butylpyrazine, and 2-methoxy-3-methylpyrazine. Their [[Odor|smell]] can also be detected in the eater's [[sweat]] even after consuming only small amounts.
Today, cumin is identified with [[Indian cuisine]] and [[Mexican cuisine]]. It is used as an ingredient of [[curry powder]]. Cumin can be found in some [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[cheese]]s, and in some traditional [[bread]]s from [[France]]. In [[herbal medicine]], cumin is classified as [[stimulant]], [[carminative]], and [[antimicrobial]].
Cumin can be used to season many dishes, as it draws out their natural sweetnesses. It is traditionally added to curries, enchiladas, tacos, and other Middle-eastern, Indian, Cuban and Mexican-style foods. It can also be added to salsa to give it extra flavour. Cumin has also been used on meat in addition to the traditional seasonings. The spice helps give any dish a tex-mex taste.
Cultivation of Cumin requires a long, hot summer with 3-4 months with daytime temperatures around 30 °C; it is drought tolerant, and is mostly grown in [[mediterranean climate]]s. It is grown from seed sown in spring, and needs a fertile, well-drained soil.
===History===
Cumin has been grown and used as a spice since ancient times. Originally cultivated in [[Iran]] and the Mediterranean region, cumin is mentioned in the [[Bible]] in both the [[Old Testament]] ([[Isaiah]] 28:27) and in the [[New Testament]] ([[Matthew]] 23:23). It was also known in [[ancient Greece]] and [[ancient Rome|Rome]]. The Greeks kept cumin at the dining table in its own container (much as pepper is frequently kept today) and this practice continues in [[Morocco]]. Cumin fell out of favour in [[Europe]] except in [[Spain]] during the [[Middle Ages]], but is more widely used again today; it was introduced to the [[Americas]] by Spanish colonists. It is now mostly grown in [[Iran]], [[Morocco]], [[Egypt]], [[India]], [[Syria]], [[Mexico]], and [[Chile]].
The name cumin has a long history. Although the English form goes back to Latin ''cuminum'', and Greek κύμινον, the Greek seems to have been borrowed from a Semitic source; forms of this word are attested in several ancient Semitic languages, including [[Akkadian]]. The ultimate source seems to be the [[Sumerian]] word ''gamun'' [http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/S161.html].
A [[folk etymology]] connects the word with the [[Iran|Persian]] city [[Kerman]], where, the story goes, most of ancient Persia's cumin was produced. For the Persians the expression "carrying cumin to Kerman" is the same as the [[English language]] phrase "carrying coals to [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]]". Kerman, locally called ''Kermun'', would have became ''Kumun'' and then cumin in the European languages.
In [[India]], cumin is known as ''jeera'' or ''geera''; in [[Urdu]]/[[Pakistan]], cumin is known as ''zeera''; in northwest [[China]], cumin is known as ''ziran''.
=== Confusion with other spices ===
Cumin is hotter to the taste, lighter in colour, and larger than [[caraway]] (''Carum carvi''), another umbelliferous spice that is sometimes confused with it. Some older cookbooks erroneously name ground [[coriander]] as the same spice as ground cumin.
The distantly related ''[[Bunium persicum]]'' and the unrelated ''[[Nigella sativa]]'' are both sometimes called [[black cumin]] (''q.v.'').
Curcumin is a compound extracted from [[turmeric]].
== External links ==
* [http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Cumi_cym.html Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages: Cumin]
* [http://botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/c/cumin127.html Botanical.com]
[[Category:Apiaceae]]
[[Category:Spi |
apal legates, Cardinal Dominici of Ragusa and Prince Charles of Malatesa. On 4 July, 1415 the Bull of Gregory XII which appointed Malatesta and Cardinal Dominici of Ragusa as his proxies at the council was formally read before the assembled Bishops. The cardinal then read a decree of Gregory XII which convoked the council and authorized its succeeding acts. Thereupon, the Bishops voted to accept the summons. Prince Malatesa immediately informed the Council that he was empowered by a commission from Pope Gregory XII to resign the Papal Throne on the Pontiff's behalf. He asked the Council whether they would prefer to receive the abdication at that point or at a later date. The Bishops voted to receive the Papal abdication immediately. Hereupon the commission by Gregory XII authorizing his proxy to resign the Papacy on his behalf was read and Malatesta, acting in the name of Gregory XII, pronounced the resignation of the papacy by Gregory XII and handed a written copy of the resignation to the assembly.
Former Pope Gregory XII was then created Cardinal Bishop of Porto by the Council, with rank immediately below the Pope (which made him the highest ranking person in the Church, since, due to his abdication, the See of Peter was vacant). Gregory XII´s cardinals were accepted as true cardinals by the Council, but the members of the council delayed electing a new pope for fear that a new pope would restrict further discussion of pressing issues in the Church.
By the time the anti-popes were all deposed and the new Pope, Martin V, was elected, two years had passed since Gregory XII´s abdication, and Gregory was already dead.
A second goal of the council was to continue the reforms begun at the Council of Pisa. These reforms were largely directed against [[John Wyclif]], mentioned in the opening session, and condemned in the eighth, [[May 4]], [[1415]] and [[Jan Hus]], and their followers. [[Jan Hus]], summoned to Constance under a letter of indemnity, was condemned by council and [[burned at the stake]] notwithstanding on [[July 6]], [[1415]].
The council also attempted to direct ecclesiastical reforms. However, once two anti-popes, [[Baldassare Cossa]] (John XXIII), who fled from Constance on March 20, 1415, and [[Antipope Benedict XIII|Peter de Luna]] (Benedict XIII) had been eliminated, the successor to [[Urban VI]] was induced to resign, with great care to protect the legitimacy of the succession, ratifying all his acts, a new pontiff was chosen. The new pope, [[Pope Martin V|Martin V]], elected November 1417, soon asserted the absolute authority of the papal office, and the claim that a council might be superior to a single pope was set aside when it was later declared that a council of Bishops has no greater authority than the Pope.
During the council there were also political topics discussed, such as the accusation by the [[Teutonic Knights]] that [[Poland]] was defending [[Paganism|pagans]]. [[Pawel Wlodkowic]], [[rector]] of the [[Jagiellonian University]] in [[Kraków]], [[Poland]], presented there the theory that all nations, including pagan ones, have the right to self-govern and to live in peace and possess their land, which is one of the earliest ideas of [[international law]]. The creation of a book on how to die was ordered by the council, and thus written in 1415 called ''[[Ars moriendi]]''.
The upshot was that reforms were stymied by sheer inertia of the establishment, conflicting national interests and the full assertion of [[papal supremacy]] once more. The acts of the Council were not made public until 1442, at the behest of the [[Council of Basel]]; they were printed in 1500.
==Sources==
*Cantor, Norman F. 1993. ''Civilization of the Middle Ages'' pp 498ff.
*[http://www.piar.hu/councils/ecum16.htm Tanner, Norman P., editor, ''Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils'']: ''Council of Constance 1414-18'', excerpts of the sessions (in English)
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04288a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Council of Constance]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church Councils|Constance]]
[[Category:1410s]]
[[Category:Western Schism]]
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[[pt:Concílio de Constança]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Churches Uniting in Christ</title>
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<comment>communion --> Eucharist. Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Churches Uniting in Christ''' (CUIC) brings together nine [[mainline]] [[United States|American]] [[religious denomination|denominations]] (including both predominantly [[whites|white]] and predominantly [[African American|black]] churches), and was inaugurated on [[January 20]], [[2002]].
CUIC is the successor organization to the '''Consultation on Church Union''' (COCU) founded in [[1962]]. The original task of COCU was to negotiate a [[merger]] between its ten member denominations; however, the membership of the denominations overwhelmingly rejected a merger when it was proposed in [[1969]]. With the failure of the merger proposal, COCU then turned to negotiating "[[intercommunion]]", whereby each member church would retain its own autonomy and identity, while recognizing the validity of the rites and [[religious minister|ministry]] of the others and accepting them as true churches. In [[1991]] it was proposed that this was to be done on the historic model of [[bishop]], [[presbyter]] and [[deacon]]. However, the [[Presbyterian Church USA]] was unwilling to implement some of the changes to its internal rules that this model would require, and the [[Episcopal|Episcopal Church]] did not feel able to participate at the time. It was then proposed that intercommunion be established without a resolution of the ministry issue, which would be resolved by [[2007]] by means of intensive dialog between the churches. This modified proposal was then accepted by the member churches.
CUIC is not a merger, but rather an intercommunion agreement whereby each member recognizes the others as part of the true church, and recognizes its rites ([[baptism]], [[Eucharist|communion]]) as valid. The original proposal for CUIC also had a full recognition of each other's ministers, but the Episcopal Church's insistence on the historic episcopate, which conflicts with the method of administration in some other member churches (especially in the [[Presbyterian Church USA]]), has meant that this part of the CUIC proposal has been put on hold. CUIC will however hold negotiations once it is established, possibly leading to a full recognition of each other's ministers within the next few years.
===Full members===
*[[African Methodist Episcopal Church]]
*[[African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church]]
*[[Disciples of Christ|Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]]
*[[Christian Methodist Episcopal Church]]
*[[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]]
*[[International Council of Community Churches]]
*[[Presbyterian Church USA|Presbyterian Church (USA)]]
*[[United Church of Christ]]
*[[United Methodist Church]]
===Partners in mission and dialogue===
*[[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]]
*[[Moravians (religion)|Moravian Church Northern Province]]
==See also==
*[[Christian ecumenism]]
==External links==
* [http://www.cuicinfo.org/ Churches Uniting in Christ homepage]
[[Category:Christian denominations of North America]]
[[Category:Christian denominations]]
[[Category:Christian group structuring]]
[[Category:United Uniting churches]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Canadian Unitarian Council</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|September 2005}}
The '''Canadian Unitarian Council''' (CUC) is the national body for [[Unitarian Universalist]]s in [[Canada]].
The CUC is a member of the [[International Council of Unitarians and Universalists]].
== Principles and Sources ==
The Principles and Sources
of Our Religious Faith
=== Principles ===
We, the member congregations of the Canadian Unitarian Council, covenant to affirm and promote:
* the inherent worth and dignity of every person;
* justice, equity, and compassion in human relations;
* acceptance of one another and encouragement to spiritual growth in our congregations;
* a free and responsible search for truth and meaning;
* the right of conscience and the use of the democratic process within our congregations and in society at large;
* the goal of world community with peace, liberty, and justice for all;
* respect for the interdependent web of all existence of which we are a part.
=== Sources ===
The living tradition which we share draws from many sources:
* direct experience of that transcending mystery and wonder, affirmed in all cultures, which moves us to a renewal of the spirit and an openness to the forces which create and uphold life;
* words and deeds of prophetic women and men which challenge us to confront powers and structures of evil with justice, compassion, and the transforming power of love;
* wisdom from the world's religions which inspi |
], d is the symbol for [[day]] (from the Latin ''dies''; this is the only symbol for this unit acceptable for use with [[SI]])
* In [[music]], D is a [[note]].
* In [[nutrition]], D is a [[Vitamin D|vitamin]].
* In [[particle physics]], d is the symbol of the [[deuteron]].
* In [[physics]]:
** ''d'' is the recommended symbol for: thickness, diameter, relative density (mechanics), lattice plane spacing (solid state physics), and degeneracy of vibrational mode (molecular spectroscopy).
** ''D'' is the recommended symbol for: diffusion coefficient (molecular physics), and [[Debye-Waller factor]] (solid state physics).
** '''''D''''' is the recommended symbol for electric displacement (electricity and magnetism).
* In [[print]], ''[[D Magazine]]'' is a [[magazine]] for the city of [[Dallas, Texas]].
* In [[Roman numerals]], D denotes the number [[500 (number)|500]] (there are also separate [[Unicode]] characters for this number, 0x216E "Ⅾ" and 0x217E "ⅾ").
* In the [[SI]] system, d, [[deci]], is the [[SI prefix]] meaning one tenth, 10<sup>-1</sup>.
* In [[sports]], D is often used as an [[abbreviation]] for [[Defense (sport)|defence]].
* In [[video games]], ''[[D (video game)|D]]'' is the title of a game released in the mid-1990s for [[PlayStation]].
* [[D (Japanese band)|D]] is also the name of a Japanese VK band.
==See also==
* [[Eth (letter)|&#208;]]
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<page>
<title>Delta</title>
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<comment>remove extraneous links and piping per [[MoS:DP]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Delta''' may refer to:
{{wiktionarypar|delta}}
{{TOCright}}
* [[Delta (letter)]], the letter &Delta; or &delta; in the Greek alphabet. Also used as a mathematical and enumeration symbol, often to indicate the change of a quantity.
* [[River delta]], a triangular area of alluvial deposit at the mouth of a river, roughly in shape of &Delta;.
* [[Delta (computer)]], a computer.
* [[Delta (computer game)]], a computer game made by Thalamus Ltd
* [[Delta Faucet Company]], a plumbing fixtures company that introduced the single handle ball valve faucet to market in 1954, a division of Masco Corporation.
* [[Delta Air Lines]], a major U.S. airline.
* [[Delta Machinery]], a market leader in stationary power tools and equipment.
* [[EX Delta Species]], Pokemon Trading Card Game expansion
* [[Lancia Delta]], a famous rally car made by Italian company Lancia.
==Abbreviations==
* [[DELTA (ELT)]] (always in capitals) is an advanced diploma in English language teaching (ELT).
* [[DELTA (taxonomy)]], the '''DE'''scription '''L'''anguage for '''TA'''xonomy.
==Places==
*'''Canada'''
** [[Delta, British Columbia]]
***[[Delta (provincial electoral district)]]
***[[Delta (electoral district)]] a federal electoral district, 2003-present
*'''Nigeria'''
** [[Delta State, Nigeria]]
*'''United States'''
** [[Delta, Colorado]]
** [[Delta, Iowa]]
** [[Delta, Kentucky]]
** [[Delta, Louisiana]]
** [[Delta, Missouri]]
** [[Delta, Ohio]]
** [[Delta, Pennsylvania]]
** [[Delta, Utah]]
** [[Delta, Wisconsin]]
* [[Delta Quadrant]], a quadrant of the Milky Way Galaxy depicted in Star Trek
{{disambig}}
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[[ru:Дельта]]
[[sv:Delta (olika betydelser)]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Digamma</title>
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<comment>stigma already has its own article; clarify distinction between digamma as number and stigma</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Table_Greekletters|letter=digamma2}}
{{Otheruses4|the Greek letter|the mathematical function|digamma function}}
'''Digamma''' (upper case {{polytonic|&#988;}}, lower case {{polytonic|&#989;}}) is an archaic letter of the [[Greek alphabet]], used primarily as a [[Greek numeral]].
The letter had the phonetic value [[Voiced labial-velar approximant|/w/]]. Its original name is unknown, but was probably {{polytonic|&#988;αυ}} (wau). It was later called 'digamma' (double [[gamma (letter)|gamma]]) because of its shape. It is attested in archaic and dialectal [[Ancient Greek language|ancient Greek]] [[inscription]]s, and is occasionally used as a symbol in later Greek mathematical texts.
It is also used as the [[Greek numeral]] 6. In ancient usage, the numeral had the same form as the letter digamma. However, in medieval and modern usage, the numeral has normally been written in the graphic form of a [[stigma (letter)|stigma]] ({{polytonic|&#986;}}, {{polytonic|&#987;}}), which historically is completely distinct from digamma; it is a medieval [[Ligature (typography)|ligature]] of [[sigma (letter)|sigma]] and [[tau (letter)|tau]]. To complete the confusion, in modern times, the sequence &sigma;&tau; or &Sigma;&Tau; is sometimes used instead of the stigma symbol.
Digamma, like [[Upsilon|Y]], derives from the [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] letter [[Waw (letter)|Waw]], and in its turn gave rise to the [[Roman alphabet|Roman letter]] [[F (letter)|F]].
==The sound [w] in Greek==
The sound [w] existed in Mycenean Greek, as attested in [[Linear B]] and archaic Greek inscriptions using digamma. It is also confirmed by the [[Hittite language|Hittite]] name of [[Troy]], Wilusa, corresponding to the Greek name *Wilion. The sound was lost at various times in various dialects, mostly before the classical period.
In [[Ionic Greek|Ionic]], [w] had probably disappeared before [[Homer]]'s epics were written down ([[7th century BC]]), but its former presence can be detected in many cases because its omission left the [[meter (poetry)|meter]] defective. An example is the word {{polytonic|ἄναξ}} (king) found in the [[Iliad]], which would originally have been [wanaks]. Also {{polytonic|&omicron;&#7990;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf;}} (wine) was used in the meter where a word starting with a consonant would be expected. Further evidence coupled with cognate-analysis shows that {{polytonic|&omicron;&#7990;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf;}} was earlier [woinos] (cf. [[Latin language|Latin]] ''vinum'' and [[English language|English]] "wine").
----
'''Digamma Club''' was the original name of the Fox Club, a [[Harvard University]] [[final club]].
[[Category:Greek letters]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Dose</title>
<id>8126</id>
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<timestamp>2005-12-19T16:30:40Z</timestamp>
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<username>Gurubrahma</username>
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<comment>See also added (dosing)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dose''' can refer to several things:
# ''n'' An amount of [[medication]] to be taken at one time.
# ''n'' An amount of [[absorbed dose|radiation]] received.
# ''v'' To give a dose of medicine to somebody, or to measure an amount for this.
# ''n'' An album by the [[jam band]] [[Gov't Mule]]. See [[Dose (album)]].
# ''n'' A free daily [[Canadian]] magazine published by [[CanWest Global]]. See [[Dose (magazine)]].
# ''n'' '''[[Dosa]]''', a [[South India]]n breakfast.
== See also ==
* ''v'' '''[[Dosing]]''', measuring / administering an amount.
{{disambig}}
[[Category:Disambiguation]]
[[ca:Dosi]]
[[de:Dosis]]
[[es:Dosis]]
[[fr:Dose]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Dilbert</title>
<id>8127</id>
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<id>42017616</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:20:21Z</timestamp>
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<ip>68.104.201.53</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* ''Dilbert'' in popular culture */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Thriving On Vague Objectives Cover.jpg|right|thumb|200px|''[[Thriving on Vague Objectives]]'', the latest ''Dilbert'' book]]
[[Image:Dilbert-animated.jpg|right|thumb|200px|''Dilbert'' animated series, [[The Virtual Employee (Dilbert episode)|episode 212]]]]
'''''Dilbert''''' is a popular [[United States of America|American]] [[comic strip]]. Written and drawn by [[Scott Adams]], the comic is known for its heavily [[satire|satirical]] [[humor]] about a [[white-collar]], [[micromanage]]d [[office]], featuring the [[engineer]] [[Dilbert (character)|Dilbert]] as the [[title role|title character]]. The strip has run in newspapers since [[April 16]], [[1989]], spawning several books, an [[Dilbert#Animated series|animated television series]], a [[computer game]], and hundreds of Dilbert-themed [[merchandising|merchandise]] items. Adams has also received the [[National Cartoonist Society]] [[Reuben Award]] and Newspaper Comic Strip Award in 1997 for his work on the strip. Dilbert appears in 2500 newspapers worldwide in 65 countries and 19 languages with over 150 million fans.
==Themes==
The comic strip originally revolved around the engineer [[Dilbert (character)|Dilbert]] and his "pet" dog [[Dogbert]], with most action takin |
' [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bakunin/godandstate/godandstate_ch1.html]
*[[Emma Goldman]], ''[[Anarchism & Other Essays]]'' [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/goldman/GoldmanCW.html]
*[[Peter Kropotkin]], ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution|Mutual Aid]]'' [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/4341]
*[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], ''[[What is Property?]]'' [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/360]
*[[Rudolf Rocker]], ''[[Anarcho-Syndicalism (book)|Anarcho-Syndicalism]]''
*[[Murray Rothbard]] ''[[The Ethics of Liberty]]'' [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/ethics/ethics.asp]
*[[Max Stirner]], ''[[The Ego And Its Own]]'' [http://www.df.lth.se/~triad/stirner/]
*[[Leo Tolstoy]], ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]'' [http://www.kingdomnow.org/withinyou.html]
===Anarchism by region/culture===
* [[African Anarchism]]
* [[Anarchism in Spain]]
* [[Anarchism in the English tradition]]
* [[Chinese anarchism]]
==References==
<div style="font-size: 85%">
<references/>
</div>
'''These notes have no corresponding reference in the article. They might be re-used.'''
# {{note|bill}} [http://ns52.super-hosts.com/~vaz1net/bill/anarchism/library/thelaw.html]
# {{note|praxeology}} [http://praxeology.net/GM-PS.htm]
# {{note|platform}} [http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/platform/plat_preface.html]
# {{note|appleton}} [http://www.againstpolitics.com/market_anarchism/appleton_boston.htm Against Politics - Appleton - Boston Anarchists]
# {{note|Yarros-NotUtopian}} [[Victor Yarros|Yarros, Victor]] ''Liberty'' VII, [[January 2]] [[1892]].
# {{note|totse}} [http://www.totse.com/en/politics/anarchism/161594.html Noam Chomsky on Anarchism by Noam Chomsky]
==External links==
The overwhelming diversity and number of links relating to anarchism is extensively covered on the [[List of anarchism web resources|links subpage]].
{{wikiquote|Definitions of anarchism}}
*[http://anarchoblogs.protest.net/ Anarchoblogs] Blogs by Anarchists.
*[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/ Anarchy Archives] extensively archives information relating to famous anarchists. This includes many of their books and other publications.
*Hundreds of anarchists are listed, with short bios, links & dedicated pages [http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/gallery/galleryindex.htm at the Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.infoshop.org/ Infoshop.org] ([[Infoshop.org|wikipedia page]])
*[http://www.iww.org/ Industrial Workers of the World]
<!-- Attention! The external link portion of this article regularly grows far beyond manageable size. Please only list an outside link if it applies to anarchism in general and is somewhat noteworthy. Links to lesser known sites or submovements will be routinely moved to the list page to keep this article free of clutter -->
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<page>
<title>AfghanistanHistory</title>
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<comment>whoops</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Afghanistan]]</text>
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<page>
<title>AfghanistanGeography</title>
<id>14</id>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Afghanistan]]
</text>
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<page>
<title>AfghanistanPeople</title>
<id>15</id>
<revision>
<id>15898950</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-21T10:42:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>-- April</username>
<id>166</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fix link</comment>
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<page>
<title>AfghanistanEconomy</title>
<id>17</id>
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<id>15898951</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-17T15:30:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>AxelBoldt</username>
<id>2</id>
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<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Afghanistan]]
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<page>
<title>AfghanistanCommunications</title>
<id>18</id>
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<id>15898952</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-13T13:39:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>indirect redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Afghanistan]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>AfghanistanTransportations</title>
<id>19</id>
<revision>
<id>15898953</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:36:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Afghanistan]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Afghanistan]]</text>
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<page>
<title>AfghanistanMilitary</title>
<id>20</id>
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<id>15898954</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-03T01:14:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>short-circuiting two-step redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Afghanistan]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>AfghanistanTransnationalIssues</title>
<id>21</id>
<revision>
<id>15898955</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:37:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Afghanistan]]</comment>
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</page>
<page>
<title>AlTruism</title>
<id>22</id>
<revision>
<id>15898956</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Altruism]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>AssistiveTechnology</title>
<id>23</id>
<revision>
<id>15898957</id>
<timestamp>2003-04-25T22:20:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ams80</username>
<id>7543</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Fixing redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Assistive_technology]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>AmoeboidTaxa</title>
<id>24</id>
<revision>
<id>15898958</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Amoeboid]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Autism</title>
<id>25</id>
<revision>
<id>42019020</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:39:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ohnoitsjamie</username>
<id>507787</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv difficult-to-follow paragraph</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- NOTES:
1) Please do not convert the bullets to subheadings here as the table of contents would be too large in that case (for example, see the FAC).
2) Use ref/note combos for all links and explicitly cited references
3) Reference anything you put here with notable references, as this subject tends to attract a lot of controversy.
-->{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
Name = Childhood autism |
ICD10 = F84.0 |
ICD9 = {{ICD9|299.0}} |
}}
'''Autism''' is classified as a neurodevelopmental disorder that manifests itself in markedly abnormal social interaction, communication ability, patterns of interests, and patterns of behavior.
Although the specific [[etiology]] of autism is unknown, many researchers suspect that autism results from genetically mediated vulnerabilities to environmental triggers. And while there is disagreement about the magnitude, nature, and mechanisms for such environmental factors, researchers have found at least seven major genes prevalent among individuals diagnosed as autistic. Some estimate that autism occurs in as many as one [[United States]] child in 166, however the [[National Institute of Mental Health]] gives a more conservative estimate of one in 1000{{ref|NihAutismov2005}}. For families that already have one autistic child, the odds |
of political discourse and organization. From the great Berber dynasties of the [[Almoravid]]s and [[Almohad]]s to the militants seeking an Islamic state in the 1990s, the call to return to true Islamic values and practices has had social resonance and political power. For 300 years, beginning in the early sixteenth century, [[Algeria]] was a province of the [[Ottoman Empire]] under a regency that had [[Algiers]] as its capital (see [[Dey]]). During this period, the modern Algerian state began to emerge as a distinct territory between [[Tunisia]] and [[Morocco]]. Algeria and surrounding areas, collectively known as the [[Barbary States]], were responsible for [[piracy]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], as well as the enslaving of [[Christian]]s, actions which brought them into the [[First Barbary War | First]] and [[Second Barbary War]] with the [[United States of America]].
=== French period ===
The [[France | French]] occupation of [[Algeria]], beginning in [[1830]], while having a profound impact, was immediately met by a rebellion led by [[Abdel Kadir]]. In addition to enduring the affront of being ruled by a foreign, non-Muslim power, many Algerians lost their lands to the new government or to colonists. Traditional leaders were eliminated, coopted, or made irrelevant, and the traditional educational system was largely dismantled; social structures were stressed to the breaking point. Viewed by the Europeans with condescension at best and contempt at worst, the Algerians endured 132 years of colonial subjugation. In the earlier part of the French colonization, native Muslims and Jews were viewed as French nationals, but not French ''citizens''. However, in [[1865]], [[Napoleon III]] allowed them to apply for full French citizenship, a measure that few took, since it involved renouncing the right to be governed by ''[[sharia]]'' law in personal matters, and was considered a kind of [[apostasy]]; in 1870, French citizenship was made automatic for Jewish natives, a move which largely angered the Muslims, who began to consider the Jews as the accomplices of the colonial power. Nonetheless, this period saw progress in health, some infrastructures, and the overall expansion of the economy of Algeria, as well as the formation of new social classes, which, after exposure to ideas of equality and political liberty, would help propel the country to independence. During the years of French domination, the struggles to survive, to co-exist, to gain equality, and to achieve independence shaped a large part of the Algerian national identity.
=== Independence ===
During [[World War II]], Algerian troops fought with other [[Free French Forces]], on the [[Allies of World War II|Allied side]], but when the victory celebrations in 1945 escalated into demands for Algerian rights and [[independence]], the recently reinstated French government under [[de Gaulle]] suppressed the protests. The [[massacre]]s that followed marked a turning point in Algerian history.
In April 1945 the French had arrested the Algerian nationalist leader [[Messali Hadj]]. On [[May 1st]] the followers of his [[Parti du Peuple Algérien]] (PPA) participated in [[demonstration]]s which where violently put down by the police. Several Algerians were killed. But it was on [[May 8th]], when France celebrated [[Germany]]'s [[unconditional surrender]], that more deaths provoked a violent uprising by the Algerian population in and around [[Sétif]]. The army set villages on fire, and between 6,000 and 8,000 people were killed, according to [[Yves Bénot]]; other sources, including the present Algerian government, put the death toll as high as 50,000. Many nationalists drew the conclusion that independence could not be won by peaceful means, and so started organizing for violent rebellion.
The [[Algerian War of Independence]] (1954–62), brutal and long, was the most recent major turning point in the country's history. Although often fratricidal, it ultimately united Algerians and seared the value of independence and the philosophy of [[anticolonialism]] into the national consciousness. The systematic use of [[torture]] by the French did not secure military victory, and the abusive tactics of the [[French Army]] remains a controversial subject in France to this day.
Between 300,000 and 1 million Algerians are estimated to have died during the war, and an additional 2 or 3 million, out of a total [[Muslim]] population of 9 or 10 million, were made into refugees or forcibly relocated into government-controlled camps. Much of the countryside and [[agriculture]] was devastated, along with the modern [[Economic system|economy]], which had been dominated by urban [[Europe]]an [[settler]]s (the ''[[pied-noir]]s''). These nearly one million people of mostly French descent were forced to flee the country at independence due to the unbridgeable rifts opened by the civil war and threats from units of the victorious FLN; along with them fled Algerians of [[Jew]]ish descent and those Muslim Algerians who had supported a French Algeria (''[[harki]]s''). Post-war infighting, armed chaos and lynch trials of supposed traitors contributed to tens of thousands of deaths after the pullback of French troops, until the new Algerian government, led by [[Ben Bella]], was able to secure control.
=== Military rule ===
In 1965 the military toppled [[Ahmed Ben Bella]] and [[Houari Boumedienne]] became head of state. The military has dominated Algerian politics up to today.
==Chapters of the series==
'''Main article: [[Prehistory of Central North Africa]]'''<br>
The area which now consists of Algeria was settled by hunting people who left behind vivid cave paintings of a [[savanna]] region (now transformed into desert).
'''Main article: [[North Africa during the Classical Period]]'''<br>
Since the [[5th century BC]], the [[indigenous peoples]] of [[northern Africa]] (identified by the Romans as ''[[Berber]]s'') were pushed back from the coast by successive waves of [[Phoenicia]]n, [[ancient Rome|Roman]], [[Vandal]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], [[Arab]], [[Turkey|Turkish]], and, finally, [[France|French]] invaders.
'''Main article: [[Rise of Islam in Algeria]]'''<br>
The greatest cultural impact came from the Arab invasions of the 8th and 11th centuries A.D., which brought [[Islam]] and the [[Arabic language]]. The effects of the most recent (French) occupation &mdash; [[French language]] and [[European]] inspired [[socialism]] &mdash; are still pervasive.
'''Main article: [[History of Ottoman Algeria|Ottoman rule in Algeria]]'''<br>
'''Main article: [[French rule in Algeria]]'''<br>
North African boundaries have shifted during various stages of the conquests. The borders of modern Algeria were created by the French, whose [[colonization]] began [[1830]] (French invasion began on [[July 5]]). To benefit French colonists, most of whom were farmers and businessmen, northern Algeria was eventually organized into overseas departments of France, with representatives in the [[French National Assembly]]. France controlled the entire country, but the traditional Muslim population in the rural areas remained separated from the modern economic infrastructure of the European community.
'''Main article: [[Nationalism and resistance in Algeria]]'''<br>
A new generation of [[Muslim]] leadership emerged in Algeria at the time of [[World War I]] and grew to maturity during the 1920s and 1930s. Various groups were formed in opposition to French rule, most notable the [[National Liberation Front]] (FLN) and the [[National Algerian Movement]].
'''Main article: [[Algerian War of Independence]]'''<br>
Indigenous Algerians began their revolt on [[November 1]], [[1954]], to gain rights denied them under French rule. The revolution, launched by a small group of nationalists who called themselves the [[National Liberation Front]] (FLN), was a [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla war]] in which both sides used [[terrorism|terrorist]] tactics. Eventually, protracted negotiations led to a cease-fire signed by France and the FLN on [[March 18]], [[1962]], at [[Evian, France]]. The [[Evian accords]] also provided for continuing economic, financial, technical, and cultural relations, along with interim administrative arrangements until a [[referendum]] on self-determination could be held. The Evian accords failed to protect the rights of minorities, leading to the exodus of one million ''pieds-noirs'' and ''harkis''.
'''Main article: [[History of Algeria since 1962]]'''<br>
The referendum was held in Algeria on [[July 1]], 1962, and France declared Algeria independent on [[July 3]]. On [[September 8]], [[1963]], a [[constitution]] was adopted by referendum, and later that month, [[Ahmed Ben Bella]] was formally elected the first president.
Col. [[Chadli Bendjedid]] was elected President in [[1979]] and re-elected in [[1984]] and [[1988]]. A new constitution was adopted in [[1989]] that allowed the formation of political associations other than the FLN. It also removed the [[armed forces]], which had run the government since the days of [[Houari Boumédiènne]], from a designated role in the operation of the government. Among the scores of parties that sprang up under the new constitution, the militant [[Islamic Salvation Front]] (FIS) was the most successful, winning more than 50% of all votes cast in [[municipal]] elections in June [[1990]] as well as in first stage of national legislative elections held in December [[1991]].
The surprising first round of success for the fundamentalist FIS party in the December 1991 balloting caused the army to intervene, crack down on the FIS, and postpone the subsequent elections. The fundamentalist response has resulted in a continuous low-grade civil conflict with the secular state apparatus, which nonetheless has allowed elections featuring pro-government and moderate religious-based parties. The FIS's arm |
the Council of Ministers. He cannot be removed from office and is protected for his official actions by an immunity similar to [[parliamentary immunity]]. He does not receive or accept orders from any authority. The current ombudsman is [[Jean-Paul Delevoye]].
==French law==
===Basic principles===
[[Image:Declaration_of_Human_Rights.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The basic principles that the French Republic must respect are found in the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]].]]
France uses a [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] system; that is, law arises primarily from written statutes; judges are not to make law, but merely to interpret it (though the amount of judge interpretation in certain areas makes it equivalent to [[case law]]).
Many fundamental principles of French Law were laid in the [[Napoleonic Code]]s. Basic principles of the [[rule of law]] were laid in the Napoleonic Code: laws can only address the future and not the past ([[ex post facto]] laws are prohibited); to be applicable, laws must have been officially published (see ''[[Journal Officiel de la République Française|Journal Officiel]]'').
In agreement with the principles of the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]], the general rule is that of freedom, and law should only prohibit actions detrimental to society. As [[Guy Canivet]], first president of the [[Court of Cassation]], wrote about the management of prisons:[http://www.reseauvoltaire.net/article7985.html]
:''Freedom is the rule, and its restriction is the exception; any restriction of Freedom must be provided for by Law and must follow the principles of necessity and proportionality.''
That is, law may lay out prohibitions only if they are needed, and if the inconveniences caused by this restriction do not exceed the inconveniences that the prohibition is supposed to remedy.
France does not recognize [[religious law]], nor does it recognize religious beliefs or morality as a motivation for the enactment of prohibitions. As a consequence, France has long had neither [[blasphemy]] laws nor [[sodomy law]]s (the latter being abolished in 1789).
===Statute law vs executive regulations===
French law differentiates between [[statute|statutes]] (''loi''), generally adopted by the [[legislative branch]], and [[regulation|regulations]] (''règlement'', instituted by ''[[decree|décrets]]''), issued by the [[prime minister]]. There also exist secondary regulation called ''arrêtés'', issued by ministers, subordinates acting in their names, or local authorities; these may only be taken in areas of competency and within the scope delineated by primary legislation. There are also more and more regulations issued by independent agencies, especially relating to economic matters.
According to the [[Constitution of France]]:
Statutes shall concern:
* [[civil rights|Civic rights]] and the fundamental guarantees granted to citizens for the exercise of their [[public liberties]]; the obligations imposed for the purposes of [[national defense|national defence]] upon citizens in respect of their persons and their [[property]];
* Nationality, the status and legal capacity of persons, matrimonial regimes, [[inheritance]] and gifts;
* The determination of serious [[crime|crimes]] and other major offences and the penalties applicable to them; [[criminal procedure]]; [[amnesty]] ; the establishment of new classes of [[court|courts]] and tribunals and the regulations governing the members of the [[judiciary]];
* The base, rates and methods of collection of [[tax|taxes]] of all types; the issue of [[currency]].
Statutes shall likewise determine the rules concerning:
* The [[electoral system|electoral]] systems of [[French Parliament|parliamentary assemblies]] and local assemblies;
* The creation of categories of public establishments;
* The fundamental guarantees granted to civil and military personnel employed by the State;
* The [[nationalization]] of enterprises and transfers of ownership in enterprises from the public to the private sector.
Statutes shall determine the fundamental principles of:
* The general organization of national defence ;
* The self-government of territorial units, their powers and their resources ;
* [[Education]];
* The regime governing ownership, rights in rem, and civil and commercial obligations ;
* [[Labour law]], [[trade union|trade-union]] law and [[social security]].
Finance Acts shall determine the resources and obligations of the State in the manner and with the reservations specified in an institutional Act.
Social Security Finance Acts shall determine the general conditions for the financial balance of Social Security and, in light of their revenue forecasts, shall determine expenditure targets in the manner and with the reservations specified in an institutional Act.
Programme Acts shall determine the objectives of the economic and social action of the State.
The provisions of this article may be enlarged upon and complemented by an institutional Act.
Other areas are matters of [[regulation]].
===Hierarchy of norms===
When courts have to deal with incoherent texts, they apply the following hierarchy:
# The French Constitution
# general principles of constitutional values recognized by the laws of the Republic (as defined by the Constitutional Council)
# International Treaties and Agreements
# organic laws
# normal laws
# general principles of law (as defined by the [[Conseil d'État]])
# decrees taken with advisory review by the Conseil d'État
# decrees taken without review by the Conseil d'État
# ''arrêtés''
#* of several ministers
#* of a single minister
#* of other authorities
# regulations and decisions by independent agencies.
==Local government==
[[Image:France_departements.png|thumb|right|300px|Since the French revolution, France is divided into ''départements'', which were later grouped into ''[[région]]s'']]
Traditionally, decision-making in France used to be highly centralized, with each of France's ''[[département in France|département]]'' headed by a [[préfet|prefect]] appointed by the central government, in addition to the ''conseil général'', a locally elected council. However, in [[1982]], the national government passed legislation to [[Decentralisation|decentralize]] authority by giving a wide range of administrative and fiscal powers to local elected officials. In March [[1986]], regional councils were directly elected for the first time, and the process of decentralization has continued, albeit at a slow pace. In March 2003, a constitutional revision has changed very significantly the legal framework and could lead to more decentralisation in the coming years.
Administrative units with a local government in [[Metropolitan France]] (that is, the parts of France lying in Europe) consist of:
* about 36,000 ''[[commune in France|communes]]'', headed by a municipal council and a mayor, grouped in
* 96 ''[[département in France|département]]s'', headed by a ''conseil général'' (general council) and its president, grouped in
* 22 ''[[région in France|région]]s'', headed by a [[Conseil régional|regional council]] and its [[President of the regional council|president]].
The ''conseil général'' is an institution created in 1790 by the French Revolution in each of the newly created departments (they were suppressed by the Vichy government from 1942 to 1944). A ''conseiller général'' (departmental councillor) must be at least 21 years old and either live or pay taxes in locality from which he or she is elected. (Sociologist Jean Viard noted [''Le Monde'', Feb. 22, 2006] that half of all ''conseillers généraux'' were still ''fils de paysans'', i.e. sons of peasants, suggesting France's deep rural roots). Though the central government can theoretically dissolve a ''conseil général'', this has happened only once in the Fifth Republic.
The ''conseil général'' discusses and passes laws on matters that concern the department; it is administratively responsible for departmental employees and land, manages subsidized housing, public transportation, and school subsidies, and contributes to public facilities. It is not allowed to express "political wishes." The ''conseil général'' meets at least three times a year and elects its president for a term of 3 years, who presides over its "permanent commission," usually consisting of 5-10 other departmental councillors elected from among their number. The ''conseil général'' has accrued new powers in the course of the political decentralization that has occurred past in France during the past thirty years. There are in all more than 4,000 ''conseillers généraux'' in France.
Different levels of administration have different duties, and shared responsibility is common; for instance, in the field of education, ''communes'' run public elementary schools, while ''départements'' run public junior high schools and ''régions'' run public high schools, but only for the building and upkeep of buildings; curricula and teaching personnel are supplied by the national Ministry of Education.
[[French overseas departments and territories|French oversea possessions]] are divided into two groups:
* 4 [[Départements d'outre-mer|oversea ''départements'']], with some strong similarity of organization to their metropolitan counterparts;
* [[Territoires d'outre-mer|Other possessions]], generally having greater autonomy.
All inhabited French territory is represented in both houses of Parliament and votes for the presidential election.
==References==
''All texts in French unless otherwise noted.''
* Legal reference texts
** Constitution
*** ''[[Constitution of France|Constitution de la République Française]]''
[http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/textes/c1958web.htm original text], [http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/english/8ab.asp official English translation])
*** [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] ([[s:fr |
act have a disease. A person without any disease may feel unhealthy and believe he has an illness. Another person may feel healthy and believe he does not have an illness even though he may have a disease such as dangerously [[arterial hypertension|high blood pressure]] which may lead to a fatal [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] or [[cerebrovascular accident|stroke]].
==Transmission of disease==
Some diseases, such as [[influenza]], are contagious or [[infection|infectious]], and can be transmitted by any of a variety of mechanisms, including droplets from coughs and sneezes, by bites of insects or other [[vector (biology)|vectors]], from contaminated water or food, etc.
Other diseases, such as [[cancer]] and [[heart disease]] are not considered to be due to infection, although micro-organisms may play a role.
==Social significance of disease==
The identification of a condition as a disease, rather than as simply a variation of human structure or function, can have significant social or economic implications. The controversial recognitions as diseases of [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], also known as "shell shock"; [[repetitive motion injury]] or [[repetitive stress injury]] (RSI); and [[Gulf War syndrome]] has had a number of positive and negative effects on the financial and other responsibilities of governments, corporations and institutions towards individuals, as well as on the individuals themselves. The social implication of viewing [[senescence|aging]] as a disease could be profound, though this classification is not yet widespread.
A condition may be considered to be a disease in some cultures or eras but not in others. [[Oppositional-defiant disorder]], [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]], and, increasingly, [[obesity]] are conditions considered to be diseases in the United States and Canada today, but were not so-considered decades ago and are not so-considered in some other countries. [[Leprosy|Lepers]] were a group of afflicted individuals who were historically shunned and the term "leper" still evokes social stigma. Fear of disease can still be a widespread social phenomena, though not all diseases evoke extreme social stigma.
a disease can also be caused by repeated high anger or stress.
==Other uses of the term==
In [[biology]], ''disease'' refers to any abnormal condition of an organism that impairs function.
The term ''disease'' is often used metaphorically for disordered, dysfunctional, or distressing conditions of other things, as in ''disease of society''.
==See also==
* [[List of childhood diseases]]
* [[List of common diseases]]
* [[List of diseases]] for a huge list of 6000+ diseases, many very rare.
* [[List of genetic disorders]]
* [[List of environment topics]]
* [[Diagnosis]]
* [[Epidemic]]
* [[Illness]]
* [[Palliative care]]
* [[Therapy]]
* [[Transmission (medicine)|Transmission]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html Health Topics], [[MedlinePlus]] descriptions of most diseases, with access to current research articles.
*[http://www.cdc.gov/health/default.htm Center for Disease Control Health Topics A-Z], fact sheets about many common diseases
*[http://rarediseases.about.com/ Rare/Orphan Diseases]
*[http://www.national-health.org/rarediseases/ National Organization for Rare Disorders] Extensive, useful information on rare diseases.
*[http://www.merck.com/pubs/mmanual/sections.htm The Merck Manual], detailed description of most diseases, freely searchable online.
[[Category:Diseases|*]]
[[Category:Medical terms]]
[[als:Krankheit]]
[[ar:مرض]]
[[zh-min-nan:Pīⁿ]]
[[br:Kleñved]]
[[ca:Malaltia]]
[[cs:Nemoc]]
[[da:Sygdom]]
[[de:Krankheit]]
[[es:Enfermedad]]
[[eo:Malsano]]
[[eu:Gaixotasun]]
[[fa:بیماری]]
[[fr:Maladie]]
[[io:Morbo]]
[[id:Penyakit]]
[[ia:Maladia]]
[[it:Malattia]]
[[la:Morbus]]
[[he:מחלה]]
[[ms:Penyakit]]
[[nl:Ziekte]]
[[ja:病気]]
[[no:Sykdom]]
[[nn:Sjukdom]]
[[pl:Choroba]]
[[pt:Doença]]
[[ru:Болезнь]]
[[simple:Disease]]
[[sk:Choroba]]
[[sl:Bolezen]]
[[sv:Sjukdom]]
[[tl:Karamdaman]]
[[th:โรค]]
[[zh:疾病]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dardanelles</title>
<id>8073</id>
<revision>
<id>41540077</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T01:01:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>218.79.52.196</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dardanelles map2.png|thumb|250px|Map of the Dardanelles]]
The '''Dardanelles''' ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Çanakkale Boğazı,'' [[Greek Language|Greek]]: ''Δαρδανελλια''), formerly known as the [[Hellespont]], is a narrow [[strait]] in northwestern [[Turkey]] connecting the [[Aegean Sea]] with the [[Sea of Marmara]]. It is located at approximately {{coor dm|40|13|N|26|26|E|}}. The strait is 61 km (38 miles) long but only 1.2 to 6 km (0.75 to 4 miles) wide, averaging 55 m (180 ft) deep with a maximum depth of 82 m (300 ft). Water flows in both directions along the strait, from the Sea of Marmara to the Aegean via a surface current and in the opposite direction via an undercurrent.
Just like the [[Bosporus]] strait, it separates [[Europe]] (in this case the [[Gallipoli]] peninsula) and the mainland of [[Asia]]. The strait is an [[International waterway]] and together with the Bosporus connect the [[Black Sea]] to the [[Mediterranean Sea]].
The major city adjoining the strait is [[Çanakkale]] (which takes its name from its famous [[castle]]s; ''kale'' means "castle"). The name ''Dardanelles'' derives from [[Dardanus]], an [[ancient Greek]] city on the Asian shore of the strait.
==History==
The strait has long had a strategic role in history. The ancient city of [[Troy]] was located near the western entrance of the strait and the strait's Asiatic shore was the focus of the [[Trojan War]]. It was also the scene of the legendary Greek story of [[Hero and Leander]]. The [[Persian Empire|Persian]] army of [[Xerxes I]] and later the [[Macedon]]ian army of [[Alexander the Great]] crossed the Dardanelles in opposite directions to invade each other's lands, in [[480 BC]] and [[334 BC]] respectively. The Dardanelles were vital to the defence of [[Constantinople]] during the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] period, and since the [[14th century]] they have almost continuously been controlled by the Turks.
Gaining control or special access to the strait became a key foreign policy goal of the [[Russian Empire]] during the [[19th century]]. Following the [[Ottoman Empire]]'s defeat in the [[Russo-Turkish War, 1828-1829|Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829]], in [[1833]] Russia forced the Turks to sign the Treaty of Hunkiar Iskelesi which required the straits to be closed to warships of non-Black Sea powers at Russia's request. This would have effectively given Russia a free hand in the Black Sea.
The treaty alarmed the Western powers, who feared the consequences of potential Russian expansionism in the Mediterranean. At the London Straits Convention in July [[1841]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Austria]] and [[Prussia]] forced Russia to agree that only Turkish warships could traverse the Dardanelles in peacetime. The United Kingdom and France subsequently sent their fleets through the straits to attack the [[Crimea]] during the [[Crimean War]] in [[1853]], though this was done as allies of the Ottoman Empire. This convention was formally reaffirmed by the [[Congress of Paris]] in [[1856]], following the Russian defeat in the Crimean War, and it remained theoretically in force into the [[20th century]].
The Allies made a failed attempt to seize the Dardanelles during [[World War I]], seeking to knock the Ottoman Empire out of the conflict. The [[Dardanelles Campaign|Battle of Gallipoli]] damaged the career of [[Winston Churchill]], the [[First Lord of the Admiralty]] who eagerly promoted the use of [[Royal Navy]] [[battleship|battleships]] to force open the straits. The straits were mined to prevent Allied ships from penetrating them, although a British submarine did succeed in evading the minefields and sank a Turkish battleship off the [[Golden Horn]] in Istanbul. [[Sir Ian Hamilton]]'s [[Mediterranean Expeditionary Force]] was unsuccessful in its attempt to capture the Gallipoli peninsula, and a withdrawal was ordered in January [[1916]].
Following the war, the [[1920]] [[Treaty of Sèvres]] demilitarized the strait and made it an international territory under the control of the [[League of Nations]]. This was amended under the [[1923]] [[Treaty of Lausanne]] which restored the straits to Turkey but allowed all foreign warships to traverse the straits freely. Turkey rejected the terms of this treaty and subsequently remilitarized the area. The reversion to this old regime was formalised under the [[Montreux Convention]] of July [[1936]]. The convention, which is still in force today, treats the straits as an international shipping lane but Turkey retains the right to restrict the naval traffic of non-[[Black Sea]] nations (like [[Greece]]). During [[World War II]], when Turkey was neutral for almost the entire length of the conflict, the Dardanelles were closed to the ships of the belligerent nations.
==See also==
*[[List of straits]]
*[[Battle of Gallipoli]]
==External links==
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/canakkale_turkey Pictures of the city of Çanakkale]
* [http://www.turkishclass.com/turkey_pictures_gallery_46 Pictures of Çanakkale - Dardanelles]
[[Category:Straits of Asia]]
[[Category:Straits of Europe]]
[[Category:Geography of Turkey]]
[[Category:Trojans]]
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[[sl |
ation, which was incorporated on [[June 15]], [[1911]] in [[Binghamton, New York]]. This company was a merger of the Tabulating Machine Corporation, the Computing Scale Corporation and the International Time Recording Company. The president of the Tabulating Machine Corporation at that time was [[Herman Hollerith]], who had founded the company in [[1896]]. [[Thomas J. Watson|Thomas J. Watson Sr.]], the founder of IBM, became General Manager of CTR in 1914 and President in 1915. In [[1917]], the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company entered the [[Canada|Canadian]] market under the name of International Business Machines Co., Limited. On [[February 14]], [[1924]], CTR changed its name to '''International Business Machines Corporation'''.
The companies that merged to form CTR manufactured a wide range of products, including employee time keeping systems, [[weighing scale]]s, automatic meat slicers, and most importantly for the development of the computer, [[History of computing hardware|punched card equipment]]. Over time CTR came to focus purely on the punched card business, and ceased its involvement in the other activities.
===World War II===
During [[World War II]], IBM's German subsidiary [[Dehomag]] (from "'''De'''utsche '''Ho'''llerith '''Ma'''schinen '''G'''esellschaft", that is "German Hollerith Machine Company Ltd.") provided the Nazi regime with punch card machines. Dehomag was taken over by the Nazis in December [[1941]]. In [[2001]] author [[Edwin Black]] published a book titled [http://www.ibmandtheholocaust.com/ IBM and the Holocaust], which alleged that [[Thomas J. Watson]] knew of the German regime's activities and was indifferent to any moral issues. The conclusions of Black's book [http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/01_12/b3724036.htm have been questioned], including its claim that [[the Holocaust]] would have been impossible on the scale it reached, without Dehomag's data processing systems. The author {{dlw-inline|url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/01_14/c3726027.htm#B3726028|title=has responded to these claims}}. As of [[As of 2004|2004]] IBM's possible complicity in the Holocaust is the subject of [http://www.cnn.com/2004/LAW/07/08/ramasastry.holocaust.ibm/ at least one unresolved lawsuit]. IBM has donated more than 10,000 pages of archived documents concerning Dehomag to [[Hohenheim University]] in [[Germany]] and [[New York University]]. The topic is explored in the [[2003]] [[documentary film]] ''[[The Corporation]]''.
IBM contributed to the Allied war effort by manufacturing the [[Browning Automatic Rifle]] and the [[M1 Carbine]].
===Airforce and airline projects===
In the [[1950s]], IBM became a chief contractor for developing computers for the [[United States Air Force]]'s automated defense systems. Working on the [[Semi Automatic Ground Environment|SAGE]] anti-aircraft system, IBM gained access to crucial research being done at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]], working on the first real-time, digital computer (which included many other advancements such as an integrated [[video display]], [[magnetic core memory]], [[light gun]]s, the first effective algebraic computer language, analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversion techniques, [[modem|digital data transmission over telephone lines]], [[duplexing]], [[multiprocessing]], and [[computer network|networks]]). IBM built fifty-six SAGE computers at the price of $30 million each, and at the peak of the project devoted more than 7,000 employees (20% of its then workforce) to the project. More valuable to the company in the long run than the profits, however, was the access to cutting-edge research into digital computers being done under military auspices. IBM neglected, however, to gain an even more dominant role in the nascent industry by allowing the [[RAND|RAND Corporation]] to take over the job of programming the new computers, because, according to one project participant (Robert P. Crago), "we couldn't imagine where we could absorb two thousand programmers at IBM when this job would be over someday." IBM would use its experience designing massive, integrated real-time networks with SAGE to design its [[SABRE reservation system|SABRE]] airline reservation system, which met with much success.
===Successes of the 1960s===
IBM was the largest of the eight major [[computer]] companies (with [[UNIVAC]], [[Burroughs]], [[Scientific Data Systems]], [[Control Data Corporation]], [[General Electric]], [[RCA]] and [[Honeywell]]) through most of the [[1960s]]. People in this business would talk of "IBM and the seven dwarfs", given the much smaller size of the other companies or of their computer divisions. When only Burroughs, Univac, [[NCR Corporation|NCR]] and Honeywell produced mainframes, a bit later, people talked of "IBM and the B.U.N.C.H.". Most of those companies are now long gone as IBM competitors, except for [[Unisys]], which is the result of multiple mergers that included UNIVAC and Burroughs. NCR and Honeywell dropped out of the general mainframe and mini sector and concentrated on lucrative niche markets. General Electric remains one of the world's largest companies, but no longer operates in the computer market. The IBM computer range that earned it its position in the market at that time is still growing today. It was originally known as the IBM [[System/360]] and, in far more modern 64-bit form, is now known as the IBM [[zSeries]] (often referred to as "IBM mainframes").
IBM's success in the mid-1960s led to inquiries as to IBM antitrust violations by the [[U.S. Department of Justice]], which filed a complaint for the case U.S. v. IBM in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of New York]], on [[January 17]], [[1969]]. The suit alleged that IBM violated the Section 2 of the [[Sherman Act]] by monopolizing or attempting to monopolize the general purpose electronic digital computer system market, specifically computers designed primarily for business. Litigation continued until [[1983]], and had a significant impact on the company's practices.
===Recent history===
On [[January 19]], [[1993]] IBM announced a USD4.97 billion loss for [[1992]], which was at that time the largest single-year corporate loss in [[United States]] history. Since that loss, IBM has made major changes in its business activities, shifting its focus significantly away from components and hardware and towards software and services.
In [[2004]], IBM announced the proposed sale of its PC business to Chinese computer maker [[Lenovo]], which is partially owned by the Chinese government, for USD650 million in cash and USD600 million in Lenovo stock. The deal was approved by the [[Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States]] in March 2005, and completed in May 2005. IBM will have a 19% stake in Lenovo, which will move its headquarters to New York State and appoint an IBM executive as its chief executive officer. The company will retain the right to use certain IBM brand names for an initial period of five years.
== Facts and trivia ==
[[Image:IbmTokyoRed.jpg|thumb|182px|right|''IBM logo in [[Tokyo]].'']]
*The IBM Logo was designed by [[Paul Rand]].
*[[IBM_Software_Group|IBM's Software Group]], if it were a separate entity, would be the second largest software company in the world, behind only [[Microsoft]] in total revenue. Software Group groups its products into five brands: [[DB2]] (information management), [[Rational Software|Rational]] (software development lifecycle), [[Lotus Software|Lotus]] (collaboration), [[Tivoli_Framework|Tivoli]] (systems management and security) and [[WebSphere]] (application as well as data integration and middleware).
*IBM invented many of the core technologies used in all forms of computing, including the first [[hard disk]] drive and the Winchester hard disk drive, the [[cursor (computers)|cursor]] (on [[computer screen]]s), Dynamic [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] (DRAM), the [[relational database]], [[disk read-and-write head|Thin Film recording heads]], [[RISC]] architecture, and the [[floppy disk]]. The infamous [[Control-Alt-Delete]] keystroke ([[David Bradley (engineer)|David Bradley]], 2001: "I invented it, but it was Bill [Gates] that made it famous"), also invented at IBM, is still frequently used on PCs running the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating systems.
*The first black employee was hired in [[1899]] by the Computing Scale Corporation (as it was known at the time).
*IBM began hiring women to work as professional systems service staff in [[1935]]. Thomas J. Watson Sr. wrote: "Men and women will do the same kind of work for equal pay. They will have the same treatment, the same responsibilities and the same opportunities for advancement."
*From [[1933]] to [[1944]], IBM punch card machines were installed at various [[Nazi Germany|German]] [[concentration camps]]. It has been alleged by a journalist that IBM president Thomas J. Watson, Sr. was aware of their use. Note however that ''concentration'' camps are a perfectly legal war disposition regulated by the [[Geneva convention]]. The problem lies with ''extermination'' camps, about which there were already a lot of war rumours, but nothing that could be confirmed or inferred formally before their discovery by allies in 1945. <!-- given that few Germans knew of it, this seems unlikely! --> [http://ibmandtheholocaust.com/]
*From [[1942]] to [[1944]] IBM was one of nine companies contracted by the U.S. Government to produce [[M1 Carbine]] rifles; these are now sought-after antiques.
*IBM also made clocks until they sold their time division in 1958.
*In [[1944]], IBM was the first corporation to support the [[United Negro College Fund]].
*In [[1953]], IBM published the first U.S. corporate mandate on equal employment opportunity, stating that the company would hire people based on their ability, " |
>
|caption = A screenshot of BeOS R4.5
|developer = [[Be Incorporated]]
|family = BeOS
|source_model = [[Closed source]]
|working_state = Stopped
|kernel_type = [[Modular]] [[Microkernel]]
|license = [[Proprietary]]
|website = [http://www.beincorporated.com/ Be website ]
}}
'''BeOS''' is an [[operating system]] for [[personal computers]] which began development by [[Be Incorporated]] in [[1991]].
==Overview==
The '''Be Operating System''', or '''BeOS''', was first written in 1991 to run on [[BeBox]] hardware. Unlike other operating systems of the time, BeOS was written to take advantage of modern hardware. Optimized for digital media work, BeOS makes full use of [[Symmetric multiprocessing|multiprocessor]] systems by utilizing modular I/O bandwidth, pervasive multithreading, preemptive multitasking and a custom [[64-bit]] [[Journaling file system|journaled]] file system known as [[Be File System|BFS]]. The BeOS GUI was developed on the principles of clarity and a clean, uncluttered design. The [[application programming interface|API]] was written in [[C++]] for ease-of-programming. It has [[POSIX]] compatibility and access to a [[command line interface]] through the [[Bash]] shell, although internally is not a Unix-derived operating system.
Initially designed to run on [[AT&T Hobbit]]-based hardware, BeOS was later modified to run on [[PowerPC|PowerPC-based]] processors: first Be's own systems, later Apple's [[PReP]] and [[CHRP]] platforms, with the hope that [[Apple Computer]] would purchase or license BeOS as a replacement for its then aging [[Mac OS]]. However, Apple's board of directors decided [[NeXTSTEP]] was a better choice and purchased [[NeXT]] in 1996, bringing back Apple co-founder [[Steve Jobs]]. To further complicate matters for Be, Apple refused to disclose architectural information about its [[PowerPC G3|G3]] line of computers&mdash;information critical to making BeOS work on the latest hardware from Apple.
Due to Apple's moves and the mounting debt of [[Be Inc]], BeOS was soon ported to the [[x86]] platform with its R3 release in March 1998. Through the late 1990s, BeOS managed to create a niche of followers, but the company failed to become solvent. As a last-ditch effort to increase interest in the failing operating system, Be Inc. released a stripped-down, but free, copy of [[BeOS R5]] known as BeOS Personal Edition (BeOS PE). BeOS PE could be started from within [[Microsoft Windows]] or [[Linux]], and was intended to nurture consumer interest in its product and give developers something with which they could tinker.
Be Inc. also released a stripped-down version of BeOS for Internet Appliances ([[BeIA]]), which soon became the company's business focus in place of BeOS. Unfortunately, BeOS PE and BeIA proved to be too little too late, and in 2001 Be's intellectual property was sold to [[Palm, Inc.]] BeOS R5 is considered the last official version, but BeOS R5.1 "Dano", which was under development before Be's sale to Palm and included the [[BeOS Networking Environment|BONE]] networking stack, was leaked to the public shortly after the company's demise.
Despite the end of Be Inc. BeOS remains popular among devoted followers. The BeOS community still develops free software and has even released patches, drivers and various updates to BeOS. The main source of BeOS-related software can be found at [[BeBits]] [http://www.bebits.com].
The BeOS user interface was notable at the time for being almost completely unthemeable, even with third party hacks. The BeOS theme of [[yellow]], changing length [[Tab (GUI)|tabs]] on the top of windows, and relatively plain [[grey]] interface widgets was enforced. This UI remained relatively unchanged from 1995, but had been completely overhauled by the time of the leaked ''Dano'' release. An [[Easter egg (virtual)|easter egg]] in the OS allowed changing the titlebar look-and-feel to a few others, and in ''Dano'', this had been extended to be a feature allowing changing of the title bar and scrollbars. No other interface widgets could be changed.
The plain BeOS R5 GUI is commonly cloned, either as the main UI, such as in [[TriangleOS]], or as a theme, such as for [[SkyOS]] or [[GNOME]].
== Projects to recreate BeOS ==
BeOS was well loved by a small but loyal community, and the BeOS user base was disappointed when Be, Inc. failed commercially and no further enhancement of the operating system would be possible. As of [[2002]], a few projects have formed to independently recreate BeOS in varying ways, with the eventual goal of then continuing where Be Inc. left off. To ensure that the OS cannot be "taken away" from the Be community again, and to attract the efforts of volunteer programmers, these projects are all [[free software]] / [[open source software]]. The success of similar projects to make free software operating systems has been proven by the [[GNU project]] and various free software [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]]-based projects. The modular nature of the original BeOS facilitates recreating the operating system a piece at a time, inserting the newly coded modules into a working BeOS system to test compatibility. Eventually all of the "servers" (interworking modules of code) are to be replaced with original, freely licensed code.
* [[Haiku (operating system)|Haiku]]
* [[Blue Eyed OS]] (appears to be dead?)
* [[Cosmoe]]
== Projects to continue BeOS ==
* [[YellowTAB]] is believed to have the rights to use the unfinished BeOS R5.1 sourcebase, but not the BeOS trademark, and currently distributes a release ([[as of 2005 |as of June 9 2005]]) of the OS project called [[YellowTAB ZETA|ZETA]]. YellowTAB has never stated their legal position with regard to the BeOS code-base (perhaps for contractual reasons), and because of this, has created a great amount of controversy and skepticism in the Be community.
==See also==
* [[BeBits]]
* [[Beunited]]
* [[bootman]]
* [[Comparison of operating systems]]
* [[List of BeOS programs]]
* [[OpenTracker]]
* [[Gobe Productive]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.iscomputeron.com/ IsComputerOn] (Named after a function in BeOS that determines whether or not the machine is on) One of the best news sites for BeOS developments.
* [http://www.bebits.com BeBits] is ''the'' file repository for BeOS applications.
* [http://beos.petterhj.net/laptop/?id=2 BeOS on laptops and notebooks].
* [http://studio-33.blogspot.com Studio-33] News for BeOS users
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</page>
<page>
<title>Biome</title>
<id>4802</id>
<revision>
<id>41696426</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T03:02:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bcasterline</username>
<id>750386</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[ecology]], a '''biome''' is a major regional group of distinctive [[plant]] and [[animal]] [[community|communities]] best adapted to the region's physical [[natural environment]], [[latitude]], [[altitude]] and terrain factors. A biome is composed of the [[climax (biology)|climax]] [[vegetation]] and all associated subclimax, or degraded, vegetation, [[fauna (animals)|fauna]] and [[soil]]s, but can often be identified by the climax vegetation type.
A fundamental classification of biomes is into:
# Terrestrial (or continental) biomes and
# Aquatic biomes.
Biomes are often given local names. For example, a [[Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|Temperate grassland or shrubland]] biome is known commonly as ''[[steppe]]'' in central [[Asia]], ''[[savanna]]'' or [[veld]] in southern [[Africa]], ''[[prairie]]'' in [[North America]], ''[[pampa]]'' in [[South America]] and ''[[outback]]'' in [[Australia]].
== Latitude classification ==
Latitude is a major climate-influencing factor determining biomes. There is a good correlation between the distribution of climates with latitude, and homogeneous vegetation bands. Another major factor is humidity. This can be illustrated by the fact that [[biodiversity]] increases away from the poles towards the equator, and increases with [[humidity]].
The most widely used classification of biomes is related to latitude (or temperature zoning) and humidity :
=== Arctic or subarctic area ===
* humid type : [[Tundra]]
=== Subarctic and boreal area ===
* humid type: [[taiga]] or [[boreal forest]]
=== Temperate cold ===
* humid type : [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests]], [[Temperate coniferous forests]]
=== Temperate warm or sub-tropical ===
* humid: [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|subtropical moist broadleaf forest]]
* semi-humid: [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests]]
=== Tropical ===
* humid area: [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical moist broadleaf forest (tropical rainforest)]]
* semi-humid area: [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical dry broadleaf forest]], [[Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests|tropical coniferous forest]]
* Semi-arid area: [[Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|tropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]]
* Arid area: [[deserts and xeric shrublands]]
=== Aquatic ===
* [[continental shelf]]
* [[littoral]]
* [[riparian]]
* [[pond]]
* [[coral reef]]
* [[kelp forest]]
* [[pack ice]]
* [[hydrothermal vent]]s
* [[cold seep]]s
* [[benthic zone]]
* [[pelagic zone]]
== Altitude and latitude classification ==
Another system of classification takes into account altitude and humidity, ignoring temperature as a factor. This classification is used to define the [[Global 200]] list |
Nitrox, EANx or Safe&nbsp;Air. In EANx, the "x" indicates the percentage of oxygen in the mix and is dropped when the percentage is known; for example a 32% EANx mix is called EAN32. The two most popular blends are EAN32 and EAN36 (also named Nitrox I and Nitrox II or simply Nitrox32 and Nitrox36).
== Richness of mix==
Nitrox with more than 40% oxygen is uncommon within entry-level [[recreational diving]].
Nitrox with 50% to 80% oxygen is common in [[technical diving]] as a decompression gas, which eliminates inert gases, such as nitrogen and helium, from the tissues more quickly than leaner oxygen mixtures eliminate them.
Nitrox with around 30% oxygen, with a [[maximum operating depth]] of around 35 metres/115 feet, is sometimes used as "travel mix". The main reasons for using "travel mix" are to conserve the "bottom mix" for the deep part of the dive, to reduce nitrogen tissue loading and avoid breathing a [[Hypoxia (medical)| hypoxic]] "bottom" gas in shallow water.
==Dangers==
===Oxygen toxicity===
Diving and handling Nitrox raises a number of potentially fatal dangers due to the high [[partial pressure]] of oxygen (ppO2). Nitrox is not a deep-diving gas mixture due the increased proportion of oxygen in Nitrox: oxygen becomes [[oxygen toxicity|toxic]] when breathed at high pressure. For example, the maximum operating depth of nitrox with 36% oxygen, a popular [[recreational diving]] mix, is generally around 30 metres/100 feet. The exact value of the maximum allowed ppO2 and maximum operating depth varies depending on factors such as the training agency, the type of dive, the breathing equipment and the level of surface support, with [[professional diving|professional divers]] sometimes being allowed to breath higher ppO2s than those recommended to [[recreational diving|recreational divers]]. See the main articles: [[oxygen toxicity]] and [[maximum operating depth]].
To dive safely with Nitrox, the diver must learn good buoyancy control, a vital part of SCUBA diving in its own right, and a disciplined approach to preparing, planning and executing a dive to ensure that the ppO2 is known and the maximum operating depth is not exceeded. Reputable diver operators and gas blenders insist on diver having recognised Nitrox training before selling Nitrox services.
Some training agencies teach the use of two depth limits to protect against oxygen toxicity. The shallower depth is called the "maximum operating depth" and is reached when the partial pressure of oxygen in the breathing gas hits 1.4 Bar. The second deeper depth, called the "contingency depth", is reached when the partial pressure hits 1.6 bar. Diving at or beyond this level exposes the diver to the risk of Central Nervous System oxygen toxicity. This can be extremely dangerous since its onset is often without warning and can lead to drowning as the regulator is spat out during convulsions.
===Fire===
[[Diving cylinder]]s are filled with Nitrox by a [[gas blending]] technique such as partial pressure blending or premix decanting. With the use of pure oxygen during partial pressure blending there is a risk of fire, which means that only oxygen clean and oxygen compatible cylinders and regulators should be used. There have been reports of fires and explosions where the oxygen content was well below the usual 40% clean and compatible limit.
== History ==
In 1970, [[Dr. Morgan Wells]], the former Director of the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration ([[NOAA]]) began instituting diving procedures for oxygen-enriched air. He also developed a process for mixing oxygen and air which he called a continuous blending system. For many years Dr. Wells' invention was the only practical alternative to partial pressure blending.
== See also ==
*[[BSAC]]
*[[CMAS]]
*[[International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers]]
*[[PADI]]
*[[Trimix]]
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<page>
<title>Erik Satie</title>
<id>9956</id>
<revision>
<id>42006723</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T04:28:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Antandrus</username>
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<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.36.44.16|203.36.44.16]] ([[User talk:203.36.44.16|talk]]) to last version by Adkins</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Image no longer available at commons:
[[Image:Debussysatie.jpg|thumb|right|Opx|Erik Satie (right) and [[Claude Debussy]] (left) - picture taken probably between 1910 and 1915.]]-->
'''Eric Alfred Leslie Satie''' ([[Honfleur]], [[17 May]] [[1866]] &ndash; [[Paris]], [[1 July]] [[1925]]) was a [[France|French]] [[composer]] and [[pianist]].
Satie also introduced himself as a "gymnopedist" (in [[1887]], shortly before writing his most famous compositions, the ''[[Gymnopédie]]s''). He was a writer of articles for several periodicals, and referred to himself as a "phonometrograph" or "phonometrician" (someone who measures and writes down sounds) &mdash; preferring this definition of his profession to "[[musician]]", after he had been called “a clumsy but subtle technician” in a book on contemporary French composers in [[1911]]. Satie can be seen as a serial [[precursor]], streets ahead of many [[20th century]] [[avant-garde]] artistic ideas, see [[#"Petit dictionnaire d'idées reçues" (short dictionary of preconceived ideas)|below]].
He is best known as '''Erik Satie''' (he exchanged, from his first composition in [[1884]], the 'c' at the end of his first name for a 'k'). Although in later life he prided himself on always publishing his work under his own name, there appears to have been a brief period in the late 1880s in which he published articles under the [[pseudonym]] ‘Virginie Lebeau’.
==Life and work==
===Early years===
[[Image:MaisonSatie.jpg|thumb|200px|Satie house and museum in Honfleur]]
Erik Satie's youth was spent alternating between living in [[Honfleur]], [[Basse-Normandie]], and Paris. When he was four years old, his family moved to Paris, his father (Alfred), having been offered a translator's job in the capital. After his mother (born Jane Leslie Anton) died in [[1872]], he was sent, together with his younger brother Conrad, back to Honfleur, to live with his paternal grandparents. There he received his first music lessons from a local [[organist]]. When his grandmother died in 1878, the two brothers were reunited in Paris with their father, who remarried (a piano teacher) shortly afterwards. From the early [[1880]]s onwards, Alfred Satie started publishing salon compositions (by his new wife and himself, among others).
In [[1879]] Satie entered the [[Paris Conservatoire]], where he was soon labelled untalented by his teachers. After being sent home for two and a half years, he was re-accepted in the Conservatoire at the end of 1885 &mdash; but was unable to make a much more favourable impression on his teachers than he had before, so he finally resolved to take up [[military service]] a year later. This didn't last very long; within a few weeks he tried to leave the army through a trick, which eventually succeeded.
In 1887 he left home to take lodgings in [[Montmartre]]. By this time he had started what was to be a long-lived friendship with the romantic poet [[Patrice Contamine]], and had had his first compositions published by his father. He soon integrated with the artistic clientèle of the [[Chat Noir|Le Chat Noir]] Café-cabaret, and started publishing his ''[[Gymnopédies]]''. Publication of compositions in the same vein (''[[Ogives]]'', ''[[Gnossiennes]]'', etc.) followed. In the same period he got to know [[Claude Debussy]]. He moved to a smaller room, still in Montmartre (rue Cortot N° 6), in [[1890]]. By [[1891]] he was the official composer and chapel-master of the [[Rosicrucian]] "Ordre de la Rose-Croix Catholique, du Temple et du Graal", led by Sâr [[Joséphin Péladan]], which led to compositions such as ''[[Salut Drapeau!]]'', ''[[Le Fils des étoiles]]'', and the ''[[Sonneries de la Rose Croix|Sonneries de la Rose+Croix]]''.
By mid-[[1892]] he had composed the first pieces in a compositional system of his own making (''[[Fête donnée par des Chevaliers Normands en l'Honneur d'une jeune Demoiselle]]''), had provided incidental music to a [[chivalric]] [[esoteric]] play (two ''[[Prélude du Nazaréen|Préludes du Nazaréen]]''), had had his first [[hoax]] published (announcing the [[premiere]] of ''Le Bâtard de Tristan'', an anti-Wagnerian opera he probably never composed), and had broken with Péladan, starting that autumn with the ''[[Uspud]]'' project, a "Christian Ballet", in collaboration with [[Contamine de Latour]]. While the comrades from both the Chat Noir and [[Miguel Utrillo]]'s [[Auberge du Clou]] sympathised, a promotional brochure was produced for the project, which reads as a [[pamphlet]] for a new esoteric [[sect]].
[[Image:SatiebyValadon.jpg|thumb|right|0px|Portrait of Satie by Valadon]]
Satie and [[Suzanne Valadon]], an artist, and long-time friend of Miguel Utrillo, started an affair early in [[1893]]. Soon Valadon moved to a room next to Satie's at the Rue Cortot. Satie became obsessed with her, calling her his ''Biqui'', and writing impassioned notes about "her whole being, lovely eyes, gentle hands, and tiny feet". Valadon painted Satie's portrait and gave it to him, but after six months she moved on, leaving Satie broken-hearted. During their relationship Satie had composed the ''[[Danses Gothiques]]'' as a kind of prayer to restore peace of mind. Apparently, this would remain the only relationship Satie ever had.
In the same year he me |
founder of [[OpenBSD]] and [[OpenSSH]]
*[[Jef Raskin]] - started the [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] project in [[Apple Computer]], designed [[Canon Cat]] computer, developed [[The Humane Environment]] program
*[[Eric S. Raymond|Eric Raymond]] - [[Open Source movement]], author of [[fetchmail]]
*[[Dennis Ritchie]] - [[C programming language|C]], [[Unix]], [[Plan 9 from Bell Labs]], [[Inferno (operating sytem)|Inferno]]
*[[Ron Rivest]] - co-inventor of the [[RSA]] algorithm (the ''R'' in the name stands for Rivest)
*[[Marc Rochkind]] - SCCS, see [[SCM]], [[SCM History]]
*[[Blake Ross]] - co-author of [[Mozilla Firefox]]
*[[Alessandro Rossini]] - co-author of [[ZNF]]
*[[Guido van Rossum]] - [[Python programming language|Python]]
*[[Jeff Rulifson]] - Lead programmer on the [[NLS (computer system)|NLS]] project
*[[Rusty Russell]] - Creator of [[iptables]] for [[linux]]
*[[Steve Russell]] - First [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] interpreter; original [[Spacewar]] graphic computer game.
==S==
*[[Bill Schelter]] - [[Maxima|GNU Maxima]], [[GNU Common Lisp]]
*[[Randal L. Schwartz]] - [[Just another Perl hacker]]
*[[Ken Silverman]] - creator of [[Duke Nukem 3D]]'s graphics engine
*[[Adi Shamir]] - co-inventor of the [[RSA]] algorithm (the ''S'' in the name stands for Shamir)
*[[Cliff Shaw]] - [[Information Processing Language|IPL]], the first AI language
*[[Charles Simonyi]] - [[Hungarian notation]], [[Microsoft Word]]
*[[Matthew Smith (games programmer)|Matthew Smith]] - [[ZX Spectrum]] games, including [[Manic Miner]] and [[Jet Set Willy]]
*[[Santiago Lizardo Oscares]] - [[Molins]], [[Jerba]], [[GPGEXT]]
*[[Henry Spencer]] - [[C News]], [[Regex]]
*[[Quentin Stafford-Fraser]] - author of the original [[Virtual Network Computing|VNC]] viewer, first Windows VNC server, client program for the [[Trojan room coffee pot|first webcam]]
*[[Richard Stallman]] - [[Emacs]], [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]], [[GDB]], founder and pioneer of the [[GNU]] Project, terminal-independent I/O pioneer on [[Incompatible Timesharing System|ITS]], [[Lisp machine]] manual ([[chineual]])
*[[Guy Steele]] - [[Common Lisp]], [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]]
*[[Bjarne Stroustrup]] - [[C++]]
*[[Zeev Suraski]] - co-creator of [[PHP]] programming language
*[[Gerald Jay Sussman]] - [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]]
*[[Tim Sweeney (game developer)|Tim Sweeney]] - [[Unreal|The Unreal engine]], [[UnrealScript]], [[ZZT]]
==T - V==
*[[Andrew Tanenbaum]] - [[Minix]]
*[[Simon Tatham]] - [[NASM]], [[PuTTY]]
*[[Larry Tesler]] - the [[PUB (software)|PUB]] [[markup language]], the [[Smalltalk]] [[code browser|browser]], [[debugger]] and [[object inspector|inspector]], and (with [[Tim Mott]]) the [[Gypsy (software)|Gypsy]] word processor
*[[Avie Tevanian]] - author of the [[Mach kernel]]
*[[Ken Thompson]] - main designer and author of [[Unix]], [[Plan 9 from Bell Labs|Plan 9]] and [[Inferno (operating system)|Inferno]] operating systems, [[B programming language|B]] and Bon programming languages (precursors of [[C programming language|C]]), inventor of [[UTF-8]] character encoding, introduced [[regular expression]]s in [[QED (text editor)|QED]].
*[[Michael Tiemann]] - [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]]
*[[Linus Torvalds]] - original author and current maintainer of the [[Linux]] kernel
*[[Roy Trubshaw]] - [[MUD]] - together with [[Richard Bartle]], the father of MUDs
*[[Andrew Tridgell]] - [[Samba software|Samba]], [[Rsync]]
*[[Wietse Venema]] - [[Postfix]], [[SATAN]], [[TCP Wrapper]]
*[[Paul Vixie]] - [[BIND]], [[Cron]]
==W - Z==
*[[Larry Wall]] - [[warp (computer game)|warp]], [[rn (newsreader)|rn]], [[Patch (computing)|patch]], [[Perl]]
*[[Bob Wallace]] - author [[PC-Write]] word processor; he is considered one of the fathers of [[shareware]]
*[[John Warnock]] - creator of [[PostScript]]
*[[Pei-Yuan Wei]] - author of [[ViolaWWW|Viola]], one of the earliest graphical browsers
*[[Peter Weinberger]] - co-creator of [[AWK programming language]] (the ''W'' in the name stands for Weinberger)
*[[David Wheeler]] - co-inventor of the [[subroutine]]; designer of [[WAKE]]; co-designer of [[Tiny Encryption Algorithm]], [[XTEA]], [[Burrows-Wheeler transform]]. (see http://www.dwheeler.com/dwheeler.html); this refers to several David Wheelers in computing
*[[Arthur Whitney]] - [[A plus|A+]], [[K programming language|K]]
*[[Roberta Williams|Roberta]] and [[Ken Williams (gaming)|Ken Williams]] -- [[Sierra Entertainment]], [[King's Quest]], graphic adventure game
*[[Dave Winer]] &ndash; developed [[XML-RPC]], [[Frontier]] scripting language
*[[Niklaus Wirth]] - [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], [[Modula-2]], [[Oberon programming language|Oberon]]
*[[Don Woods]] - [[INTERCAL]], [[Colossal Cave Adventure]]
*[[Steve Wozniak]] - [[Breakout]], [[Apple Integer BASIC]], founded [[Apple Computer]] (with [[Steve Jobs]])
*[[Jerry Yang]] - co-creator of [[Yahoo!]]
*[[Jamie Zawinski]] - [[XEmacs|Lucid Emacs]], [[Netscape Navigator|Netscape]], [[Mozilla]], [[XScreenSaver]]
[[Category:Programmers]]
[[Category:Lists of people by occupation|Programmers]]
[[cs:Seznam programátorů]]
[[da:Kendte programmører]]
[[sl:Seznam programerjev]]
[[fi:Luettelo tietokoneohjelmoijista]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Film stock</title>
<id>11028</id>
<revision>
<id>37501179</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T10:58:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Melaen</username>
<id>136864</id>
</contributor>
<comment>interwiki: it</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Film stock''' is the term for [[photographic film]] on which [[Film|motion pictures]] are shot.
==Classification and properties==
There are several variables in classifying stocks; in practice, one orders raw stock by a code number, based on desired sensitivity to light.
A piece of film consists of a light-sensitive [[emulsion]] applied to a tough, transparent base, attached to [[anti-halation backing]]. Originally the highly flammable [[Nitrocellulose|cellulose nitrate]], was used. In the [[1930s]], film manufacturers introduced "[[safety film]]" with a cellulose triacetate [[plastic]] base. All amateur film stocks were safety film, but the use of nitrate persisted for professional releases. [[Kodak]] discontinued the manufacture of nitrate base in [[1951]], and the industry transitioned entirely to safety film in [[1951]] in the [[United States]] and by [[1955]] internationally. Since the [[1980s]] a growing number of films have used [[polyester]] film stock.
Chemistry may produce either a positive or negative image. Camera films that produce a positive image are known as [[reversal film]]s. But since negative films are much more commonly used, there are terms based on the steps needed to produce a viewable finished print; one speaks of negatives and positives. There are color and black and white stocks.
Film is also classified according to its width and the arrangement of its sprocket holes&mdash;a range of gauges from [[8mm film|8mm]] to [[70mm film|70mm]] or more, single-perf or double-perf configurations.
Another critical property of a stock is its [[film speed]], determined by [[ASA]] or its sensitivity to light listed by a measurement on the [[raw stock]] which must be chosen with care. Speed determines the range of lighting conditions under which the film can be shot, and is related to [[film grain|granularity]] and contrast, which influence the look of the image.
Motion picture film is known to be a highly unstable medium: improperly preserved film can deteriorate in a period of time much faster than many [[photograph]]s or other visual presentations. Owners of home-made films often find that their film can become brittle and unwatchable in the space of a few years. Decaying film stock gives off an odor similar to that of [[vinegar]], which is why film buffs often refer to such decaying as "[[vinegar syndrome]]."
The distinction between camera stocks and print stocks involves a difference in the recording process. It is possible to transfer video images to film stocks by makeing a [[digital intermediate]], that can be developed and printed in the normal manner. Theater performances have been preserved that way for many years&mdash;the [[1964]] [[New York, New York|New York]] production of ''[[Hamlet]]'' with [[Richard Burton]], for example, was shot on video and printed as a film that was released in [[movie theater]]s (See also: [[Kinescope]]). [[Digital video]] equipment has made this approach easier, and certain movies such as ''[[Timecode (film)|Timecode]]'' ([[2000]]) have been produced that way.
==Reference==
*Ascher, Steve and Edward Pincus. The Filmmaker's Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide for the Digital Age, Penguin Group, 1999.
==Film Types==
*[[Negative Film]]
*[[Reversal Film]]
==See also==
*[[Film format]]
*[[Film preservation]]
==External links==
* [http://www.kodak.com/US/en/motion/about/chrono1.shtml Kodak's history of film stock] - note: emphasis on Kodak products
[[it:Pellicola cinematografica]]
[[pl:ta&#347;ma filmowa]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Form 1040</title>
<id>11029</id>
<revision>
<id>41662315</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T22:30:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Shawnc</username>
<id>388211</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ marketwatch article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Form 1040, U.S. Individual Income Tax Return''', is the starting form for personal Federal [[income tax]] returns filed in the [[United States]]. Any individual U.S. income taxpayer can use Form 1040 (often referred to as the "long form" to distinguish it from the other 1040 variants). Those with uncomplicated tax situations (for example, no [[itemized deduction]]s, no capital gain or loss, etc.) may be able to use the simplified [[Form 1040A]] (the "short form&qu |
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