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Water disinfection pH adjustment Water_purification > Treatment > Pretreatment > pH adjustment Pure water has a pH close to 7 (neither alkaline nor acidic). Sea water can have pH values that range from 7.5 to 8.4 (moderately alkaline). Fresh water can have widely ranging pH values depending on the geology of the drainage basin or aquifer and the influence of contaminant inputs (acid rain). If the water is acidic (lower than 7), lime, soda ash, or sodium hydroxide can be added to raise the pH during water purification processes.
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Flood fill Moving the recursion into a data structure Flood_fill > Stack-based recursive implementation (four-way) > Moving the recursion into a data structure Set n equal to the first element of Q. 5. Remove first element from Q.
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Evolution of metal ions in biological systems Zinc Evolution_of_metal_ions_in_biological_systems > Metal ions > Zinc This allowed its incorporation in the single-cell eukaryotes as they arose at this time. It is believed that the later addition of ions such as zinc and copper allowed them to displace iron and manganese from the enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD). Fe and Mn complexes dissociate readily (Irving–Williams series) while Zn and Cu do not.
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Keto-enol tautomerism Enediols Keto–enol_tautomerism > Enediols Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate is a key substrate in the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis. In the Calvin cycle, the ribulose equilibrates with the enediol, which then binds carbon dioxide. The same enediol is also susceptible to attack by oxygen (O2) in the (undesirable) process called photorespiration.
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Eui-Cheol Shin Selected articles Eui-Cheol_Shin > Bibliography > Selected articles Immunity, 54(1), 44–52. Noh, J. Y., Jeong, H. W., Kim, J. H., & Shin, E. C. (2021).
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Reaction engine Energy Reaction_engine > Energy use > Energy To see this, if, for example, v e {\displaystyle v_{e}} =10 km/s and the speed of the rocket is 3 km/s, then the speed of a small amount of expended reaction mass changes from 3 km/s forwards to 7 km/s rearwards. Thus, although the energy required is 50 MJ per kg reaction mass, only 20 MJ is used for the increase in speed of the reaction mass. The remaining 30 MJ is the increase of the kinetic energy of the rocket and payload.
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Paradoxes of set theory Summary Paradoxes_of_set_theory This article contains a discussion of paradoxes of set theory. As with most mathematical paradoxes, they generally reveal surprising and counter-intuitive mathematical results, rather than actual logical contradictions within modern axiomatic set theory.
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H-theorem Gibbs' H-theorem Boltzmann's_H-theorem > Gibbs' H-theorem Josiah Willard Gibbs described another way in which the entropy of a microscopic system would tend to increase over time. Later writers have called this "Gibbs' H-theorem" as its conclusion resembles that of Boltzmann's. Gibbs himself never called it an H-theorem, and in fact his definition of entropy—and mechanism of increase—are very different from Boltzmann's. This section is included for historical completeness.
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100 prisoners problem Permutation representation 100_prisoners_problem > Solution > Permutation representation The permutation of the first example above can be written in cycle notation as ( 1 7 5 ) ( 2 4 8 ) ( 3 6 ) {\displaystyle (1~7~5)(2~4~8)(3~6)} and thus consists of two cycles of length 3 and one cycle of length 2. The permutation of the third example is accordingly ( 1 3 7 4 5 8 2 ) ( 6 ) {\displaystyle (1~3~7~4~5~8~2)(6)} and consists of a cycle of length 7 and a cycle of length 1. The cycle notation is not unique since a cycle of length l {\displaystyle l} can be written in l {\displaystyle l} different ways depending on the starting number of the cycle.
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Rayleigh's method of dimensional analysis Quantity equations Quantity_equation > Properties > Quantity equations A quantity equation is an equation that remains valid independently of the unit of measurement used when expressing the physical quantities.In contrast, in a numerical-value equation, just the numerical values of the quantities occur, without units. Therefore, it is only valid when each numerical values is referenced to a specific unit. For example, a quantity equation for displacement d as speed s multiplied by time difference t would be: d = s tfor s = 5 m/s, where t and d may be expressed in any units, converted if necessary. In contrast, a corresponding numerical-value equation would be: D = 5 Twhere T is the numeric value of t when expressed in seconds and D is the numeric value of d when expressed in metres. Generally, the use of numerical-value equations is discouraged.
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Footspeed Summary Footspeed Footspeed, or sprint speed, is the maximum speed at which a human can run. It is affected by many factors, varies greatly throughout the population, and is important in athletics and many sports, such as association football, rugby football, American football, track and field, field hockey, tennis, baseball, and basketball.
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Synthetic DNA Recombinant DNA technology Synthetic_DNA > Recombinant DNA technology Soon after the discovery of restriction endonucleases and ligases, the field of genetics began using these molecular tools to assemble artificial sequences from smaller fragments of synthetic or naturally-occurring DNA. The advantage in using the recombinatory approach as opposed to continual DNA synthesis stems from the inverse relationship that exists between synthetic DNA length and percent purity of that synthetic length. In other words, as you synthesize longer sequences, the number of error-containing clones increases due to the inherent error rates of current technologies. Although recombinant DNA technology is more commonly used in the construction of fusion proteins and plasmids, several techniques with larger capacities have emerged, allowing for the construction of entire genomes.
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Evolutionary graph theory Summary Evolutionary_graph_theory We may consider the mutant population on a graph as a random walk between absorbing barriers representing mutant extinction and mutant fixation. For highly symmetric graphs, we can then use martingales to find the fixation probability as illustrated by Monk (2018). Also evolutionary games can be studied on graphs where again an edge between i and j means that these two individuals will play a game against each other. Closely related stochastic processes include the voter model, which was introduced by Clifford and Sudbury (1973) and independently by Holley and Liggett (1975), and which has been studied extensively.
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Carbon nanotube supported catalyst Summary Carbon_nanotube_supported_catalyst Carbon nanotube supported catalyst is a novel supported catalyst, using carbon nanotubes as the support instead of the conventional alumina or silicon support. The exceptional physical properties of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) such as large specific surface areas, excellent electron conductivity incorporated with the good chemical inertness, and relatively high oxidation stability makes it a promising support material for heterogeneous catalysis.The catalyst is a substance, usually used in small amounts relative to the reactants, that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change. One or more kinds of catalysts can be loaded on another material with a high surface area, which serves as the support, to form a supported catalyst as a whole system. In a supported catalyst system, the significance of using the support are to increase the dispersion of the active phases, to have a better control of the porous structure, to improve mechanical strength, to prevent sintering and to assist catalysis.
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Alcoholic hepatitis Summary Alcoholic_hepatitis Alcoholic hepatitis is hepatitis (inflammation of the liver) due to excessive intake of alcohol. Patients typically have a history of at least 10 years of heavy alcohol intake, typically 8-10 drinks per day. It is usually found in association with fatty liver, an early stage of alcoholic liver disease, and may contribute to the progression of fibrosis, leading to cirrhosis. Symptoms may present acutely after a large amount of alcoholic intake in a short time period, or after years of excess alcohol intake.
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Unbiased estimation of standard deviation Variance of the mean Unbiased_estimation_of_standard_deviation > Effect of autocorrelation (serial correlation) > Variance of the mean It is often of interest to estimate the variance or standard deviation of an estimated mean rather than the variance of a population. When the data are autocorrelated, this has a direct effect on the theoretical variance of the sample mean, which is V a r = σ 2 n . {\displaystyle {\rm {Var}}\left={\frac {\sigma ^{2}}{n}}\left.} The variance of the sample mean can then be estimated by substituting an estimate of σ2.
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Renal diet Summary Renal_diet Phosphorus restriction can help maintain bone health, as phosphorus buildup in the blood results in the leaching of calcium from bones and subsequently an increased fracture risk. The evidence supporting uptake of a renal diet and a reduction in cardiovascular events and mortality is limited, but dietary interventions may increase health-related quality of life and estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate (eGFR) while lowering serum albumin and serum cholesterol levels.The restrictiveness of a renal diet depends on the severity of the patient's kidney disease, and the diet should be undertaken with the advice of a dietician. Patients with comorbid conditions like diabetes may need to further alter their diets to meet the needs of those conditions simultaneously.
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Protein NMR Resonance assignment Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy_of_proteins > Resonance assignment In order to analyze the nuclear magnetic resonance data, it is important to get a resonance assignment for the protein, that is to find out which chemical shift corresponds to which atom. This is typically achieved by sequential walking using information derived from several different types of NMR experiment. The exact procedure depends on whether the protein is isotopically labelled or not, since a lot of the assignment experiments depend on carbon-13 and nitrogen-15.
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Matrix differentiation Notation Matrix_derivative > Notation The vector and matrix derivatives presented in the sections to follow take full advantage of matrix notation, using a single variable to represent a large number of variables. In what follows we will distinguish scalars, vectors and matrices by their typeface. We will let M(n,m) denote the space of real n×m matrices with n rows and m columns. Such matrices will be denoted using bold capital letters: A, X, Y, etc. An element of M(n,1), that is, a column vector, is denoted with a boldface lowercase letter: a, x, y, etc. An element of M(1,1) is a scalar, denoted with lowercase italic typeface: a, t, x, etc. XT denotes matrix transpose, tr(X) is the trace, and det(X) or |X| is the determinant.
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Consensus sequences Software Consensus_sequences > Software Bioinformatics tools are able to calculate and visualize consensus sequences. Examples of the tools are JalView and UGENE.
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Hib vaccine Conjugate vaccine Hib_vaccine > History > Conjugate vaccine the vaccine also was associated with a dramatic decline in Hib disease in the age group less than 18 months, which was not being vaccinated (evidence of indirect community protection or “herd immunity”. Trudy Murphy and her colleagues reported that healthy children in a day care center who had been immunized with PRP-D had a lower rate of Hib colonization in their noses and throats than healthy unvaccinated children, which was not observed in children vaccinated with unconjugated PRP vaccine. These results provided an explanation for the ability of PRP-D conjugate vaccine to lower transmission of Hib from conjugate-vaccinated to unvaccinated children, and provide indirect community protection from conjugate vaccination . There are currently three types of conjugate vaccine, utilizing different carrier proteins for the conjugation process: inactivated tetanospasmin (also called tetanus toxoid); mutant diphtheria protein; and meningococcal group B outer membrane protein.
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Binary oppositions Summary Binary_oppositions A binary opposition (also binary system) is a pair of related terms or concepts that are opposite in meaning. Binary opposition is the system of language and/or thought by which two theoretical opposites are strictly defined and set off against one another. It is the contrast between two mutually exclusive terms, such as on and off, up and down, left and right. Binary opposition is an important concept of structuralism, which sees such distinctions as fundamental to all language and thought.
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Peptic ulcer disease Anticoagulants Peptic_ulcers > Management > Anticoagulants High doses of vitamin K should be avoided to reduce the time for rewarfarinisation once the stomach bleeding has stopped. Prothrombin complex concentrates are preferred for severe bleeding.
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Control-flow diagram Process-control-flow diagram Control_flow_diagram > Types of control-flow diagrams > Process-control-flow diagram The results of this comparison, which controls the critical component. This may control the component electronically or may indicate the need for a manual action. This closed-cycle process has many checks and balances to ensure that it stays safe. It may be fully computer controlled and automated, or it may be a hybrid in which only the sensor is automated and the action requires manual intervention. Further, some process control systems may use prior generations of hardware and software, while others are state of the art.
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Principle of Virtual Work Mathematical treatment Virtual_work > Mathematical treatment Consider a particle P that moves from a point A to a point B along a trajectory r(t), while a force F(r(t)) is applied to it. The work done by the force F is given by the integral where dr is the differential element along the curve that is the trajectory of P, and v is its velocity. It is important to notice that the value of the work W depends on the trajectory r(t). Now consider particle P that moves from point A to point B again, but this time it moves along the nearby trajectory that differs from r(t) by the variation δr(t) = εh(t), where ε is a scaling constant that can be made as small as desired and h(t) is an arbitrary function that satisfies h(t0) = h(t1) = 0.
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QT prolongation Risk factors QTc_prolongation > Risk factors In males, the presence of testosterone upregulates IKr channels and therefore decreases QT interval. Stated otherwise, estrogens prolong the QT interval, while androgens shorten it and decrease the response to IKr-blocking agents.Structural heart disease, such as heart failure, myocardial infarction, and left ventricular hypertrophy, are also risk factors. Diuretic-induced hypokalemia and/or hypomagnesemia taken for heart failure can induce proarrthymia. The ischemia that results from myocardial infarctions also induce QT prolongation.
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Design Structure Matrix DSM Structure Design_Structure_Matrix > DSM Structure A DSM is a square matrix, representing linkages between the system elements. The system elements are often labeled in the rows to the left of the matrix and/or in the columns above the matrix. These elements can represent for example product components, organization teams, or project activities. The off-diagonal cells are used to indicate relationships between the elements.
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Automation Significant applications Automatic_control > History > Significant applications Machine tools were automated with Numerical control (NC) using punched paper tape in the 1950s. This soon evolved into computerized numerical control (CNC).
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Airy wave theory Description Airy_wave_theory > Description Airy wave theory uses a potential flow (or velocity potential) approach to describe the motion of gravity waves on a fluid surface. The use of (inviscid and irrotational) potential flow in water waves is remarkably successful, given its failure to describe many other fluid flows where it is often essential to take viscosity, vorticity, turbulence or flow separation into account. This is due to the fact that for the oscillatory part of the fluid motion, wave-induced vorticity is restricted to some thin oscillatory Stokes boundary layers at the boundaries of the fluid domain.Airy wave theory is often used in ocean engineering and coastal engineering. Especially for random waves, sometimes called wave turbulence, the evolution of the wave statistics – including the wave spectrum – is predicted well over not too long distances (in terms of wavelengths) and in not too shallow water.
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Buffer overflow protection A canary example Canary_value > A canary example As such, it is possible for the protection to alter the structure of the data on the stack frame. This is exactly the case in systems such as ProPolice. The above function's automatic variables are rearranged more safely: arrays c and d are allocated first in the stack frame, which places integer a and integer pointer b before them in memory.
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Matrix pencil Applications Matrix_pencil > Applications Matrix pencils play an important role in numerical linear algebra. The problem of finding the eigenvalues of a pencil is called the generalized eigenvalue problem. The most popular algorithm for this task is the QZ algorithm, which is an implicit version of the QR algorithm to solve the associated eigenvalue problem B − 1 A x = λ x {\displaystyle B^{-1}Ax=\lambda x} without forming explicitly the matrix B − 1 A {\displaystyle B^{-1}A} (which could be impossible or ill-conditioned if B {\displaystyle B} is singular or near-singular)
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Number density Molar concentration Number_concentration > Relation to other quantities > Molar concentration For any substance, the number density can be expressed in terms of its amount concentration c (in mol/m3) as n = N A c {\displaystyle n=N_{\rm {A}}c} where NA is the Avogadro constant. This is still true if the spatial dimension unit, metre, in both n and c is consistently replaced by any other spatial dimension unit, e.g. if n is in cm−3 and c is in mol/cm3, or if n is in L−1 and c is in mol/L, etc.
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Hamiltonian simulation Taylor series Hamiltonian_simulation > Techniques > Taylor series The first term is the identity matrix so the system doesn't change when it is applied, but in the second term the Hamiltonian is applied once. For practical implementations, the series has to be truncated ( ∑ n = 0 N ( − i H t ) n n ! ) {\displaystyle \left(\sum _{n\mathop {=} 0}^{N}{\frac {(-iHt)^{n}}{n!
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Ouvrage Bousse Summary Ouvrage_Bousse Ouvrage Bousse, also known as Ouvrage Bois de Bousse, is a lesser work (petit ouvrage) of the Maginot Line in the Fortified Sector of Boulay. The ouvrage is located between petit ouvrage Hobling and gros ouvrage Anzeling, near Hestroff in the Bois du Bousse, facing Germany. A small position, it was manned primarily by reservists. It is noted for the events of 15 June 1940, when it received orders to prepare for an evacuation as German forces advanced along the Line in the Battle of France.
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Diagnostic design specification Summary Diagnostic_design_specification In reality, not all the specifications can be delivered on time for the build-up of the first prototype boards so all the tests defined in the document usually are given in phases. Once both teams agree on the delivery timeline, the document is signed by both teams and put into some kind of document control. It is possible that the document may be changed from time to time like when other teams introduce new components or remove them.
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Acute megakaryoblastic leukemia Treatment Acute_megakaryoblastic_leukemia > DS-AMKL > Treatment The chemotherapy regimens used for all types of AMKL are similar to those used for AML. A final confirmation of safety and efficacy phase 3 study consisted of 4 cycles of induction therapy with cytarabine and daunorubicin followed by a single course of intensification therapy consisting of cytarabine and L-asparaginase, and concluded with a central nervous system consolidation course of 3 additional doses of intrathecal cytarabine. The dosages of cytarabine in this study were kept low because DS-AMKL patients proved highly susceptible to the toxic effects of the regimen which used a higher cytarabine dosage to treat AML. The low-dose cytarabine regimen achieved excellent results in DS-AMKL with relatively reduced overall toxicity and is currently recommended as a preferred treatment regimen for the disease.Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (i.e. transplantation of stem cells derived from the individual being transplanted) did not improve relapse-free survival in one large study of DS-AMKL. Allogenic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (i.e. transplantation of stem cells derived another individual) has given better disease-free survival results than autologous transplantation and, based on recent uncontrolled studies, should be considered in DS-AMKL cases that have relapsed after their first chemotherapy-induced complete remission.
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Kernel memory Device management Kernel_memory > Device management At the hardware level, common abstractions of device drivers include: Interfacing directly Using a high-level interface (Video BIOS) Using a lower-level device driver (file drivers using disk drivers) Simulating work with hardware, while doing something entirely differentAnd at the software level, device driver abstractions include: Allowing the operating system direct access to hardware resources Only implementing primitives Implementing an interface for non-driver software such as TWAIN Implementing a language (often a high-level language such as PostScript)For example, to show the user something on the screen, an application would make a request to the kernel, which would forward the request to its display driver, which is then responsible for actually plotting the character/pixel.A kernel must maintain a list of available devices. This list may be known in advance (e.g., on an embedded system where the kernel will be rewritten if the available hardware changes), configured by the user (typical on older PCs and on systems that are not designed for personal use) or detected by the operating system at run time (normally called plug and play). In plug-and-play systems, a device manager first performs a scan on different peripheral buses, such as Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) or Universal Serial Bus (USB), to detect installed devices, then searches for the appropriate drivers. As device management is a very OS-specific topic, these drivers are handled differently by each kind of kernel design, but in every case, the kernel has to provide the I/O to allow drivers to physically access their devices through some port or memory location. Important decisions have to be made when designing the device management system, as in some designs accesses may involve context switches, making the operation very CPU-intensive and easily causing a significant performance overhead.
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Table of elements Metallicity Periodic_Table > Periodic trends > Metallicity Those forming giant covalent crystals exhibit high melting and boiling points, as it takes considerable energy to overcome the strong covalent bonds. Those forming discrete molecules are held together mostly by dispersion forces, which are more easily overcome; thus they tend to have lower melting and boiling points, and many are liquids or gases at room temperature. Nonmetals are often dull-looking.
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Metal complexes Geometry Metal_complex > Structures > Geometry The s, p, and d orbitals of the metal can accommodate 18 electrons (see 18-Electron rule). The maximum coordination number for a certain metal is thus related to the electronic configuration of the metal ion (to be more specific, the number of empty orbitals) and to the ratio of the size of the ligands and the metal ion. Large metals and small ligands lead to high coordination numbers, e.g. 4−.
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Gastrin releasing peptide Synthesis Gastrin_releasing_peptide > Synthesis PreproGRP begins with signal peptidase cleavage to generate the proGRP, which is then processed by proteolytic cleavages, to form smaller GRP peptides.These smaller peptides are released by the post-ganglionic fibers of the vagus nerve, which innervate the G cells of the stomach and stimulate them to release gastrin. GRP regulates numerous functions of the gastrointestinal and central nervous systems, including release of gastrointestinal hormones, smooth muscle cell contraction, and epithelial cell proliferation.
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Minimum inhibitory concentration Clinical usage Minimum_inhibitory_concentration > Clinical usage Nowadays, the MIC is used in antimicrobial susceptibility testing. The MIC is reported by providing the susceptibility interpretation next to each antibiotic. The different susceptibility interpretations are: S (Sensitive), I (Intermediate), and R (Resistant). These interpretations were created and implemented by the U.S.
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Mid-wave infrared Heat Short-wavelength_infrared > Heat Unlike heat transmitted by thermal conduction or thermal convection, thermal radiation can propagate through a vacuum. Thermal radiation is characterized by a particular spectrum of many wavelengths that are associated with emission from an object, due to the vibration of its molecules at a given temperature. Thermal radiation can be emitted from objects at any wavelength, and at very high temperatures such radiation is associated with spectra far above the infrared, extending into visible, ultraviolet, and even X-ray regions (e.g. the solar corona).
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Ecology Gravity Ecological_science > Relation to the environment > Physical environments > Gravity The shape and energy of the land are significantly affected by gravitational forces. On a large scale, the distribution of gravitational forces on the earth is uneven and influences the shape and movement of tectonic plates as well as influencing geomorphic processes such as orogeny and erosion. These forces govern many of the geophysical properties and distributions of ecological biomes across the Earth.
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Seismic noise Characterization of the vibration properties of civil engineering structures Seismic_noise > Current uses of seismic noise > Characterization of the vibration properties of civil engineering structures The branch that studies the modal properties of systems under ambient vibrations is called Operational modal analysis (OMA) or Output-only modal analysis and provides many useful methods for civil engineering. The observed vibration properties of structures integrate all the complexity of these structures including the load-bearing system, heavy and stiff non-structural elements (infill masonry panels...), light non-structural elements (windows...) and the interaction with the soil (the building foundation may not be perfectly fixed on the ground and differential motions may happen). This is emphasized because it is difficult to produce models able to be compared with these measurements.
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Displacement reaction Other organic reaction mechanisms Metal-acid_reaction > Reactions in organic chemistry > Other organic reaction mechanisms In a rearrangement reaction, the carbon skeleton of a molecule is rearranged to give a structural isomer of the original molecule. These include hydride shift reactions such as the Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement, where a hydrogen, alkyl or aryl group migrates from one carbon to a neighboring carbon. Most rearrangements are associated with the breaking and formation of new carbon-carbon bonds. Other examples are sigmatropic reaction such as the Cope rearrangement.Cyclic rearrangements include cycloadditions and, more generally, pericyclic reactions, wherein two or more double bond-containing molecules form a cyclic molecule.
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Drying oils Role of metal catalysts Drying_oils > Chemistry of the drying process > Role of metal catalysts The drying process is accelerated by certain metal salts, especially derivatives of cobalt, manganese, or iron. In technical terms, these oil drying agents are coordination complexes that function as homogeneous catalysts. These salts are derived from the carboxylates of lipophilic carboxylic acids, such as naphthenic acids to make the complexes oil-soluble. These catalysts speed up the reduction of the hydroperoxide intermediates.
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Significance level Redefining significance Statistical_significance > Challenges > Redefining significance Additionally, the change to 0.005 would increase the likelihood of false negatives, whereby the effect being studied is real, but the test fails to show it. In 2019, over 800 statisticians and scientists signed a message calling for the abandonment of the term "statistical significance" in science, and the ASA published a further official statement declaring (page 2): We conclude, based on our review of the articles in this special issue and the broader literature, that it is time to stop using the term "statistically significant" entirely. Nor should variants such as "significantly different," " p ≤ 0.05 {\displaystyle p\leq 0.05} ," and "nonsignificant" survive, whether expressed in words, by asterisks in a table, or in some other way.
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Outline of chemistry Atomic Theory Outline_of_chemistry > Atomic Theory Atomic theory Atomic models Atomism – Natural philosophy that theorizes that the world is composed of indivisible pieces. Plum pudding model Rutherford model Bohr model
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Linezolid Pneumonia Linezolid > Medical uses > Pneumonia Several issues in study design have been raised, however, calling into question results that suggest the superiority of linezolid. Regardless, linezolid's advantages include its high oral bioavailability—which allows easy switching to oral therapy—and the fact that poor kidney function is not an obstacle to use. In contrast, achieving the correct dosage of vancomycin in patients with kidney failure is very difficult.
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Structured digital abstract History Structured_digital_abstract > History In the pilot project, the journal concentrated on protein-protein interactions. After six months, this “experiment” was evaluated.
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Megavitamin therapy History Megavitamin_therapy > History In the 1930s and 1940s, some scientific and clinical evidence suggested that there might be beneficial uses of vitamins C, E, and niacin in large doses. Beginning in the 1930s in Canada, a megadose vitamin E therapy for cardiovascular and circulatory complaints was developed by Evan Shute and colleagues, named the "Shute protocol". Tentative experiments in the 1930s by Claus W. Jungeblut with larger doses of vitamin C led to Frederick Klenner's development of megadose intravenous vitamin C treatments for polio and other viruses in the 1940s. William Kaufman published articles in the 1940s that detailed his treatment of arthritis with frequent, high doses of niacinamide.
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Polynomial equations Terminology Algebraic_equations > Terminology In particular, it includes the study of equations that involve nth roots and, more generally, algebraic expressions. This makes the term algebraic equation ambiguous outside the context of the old problem. So the term polynomial equation is generally preferred when this ambiguity may occur, specially when considering multivariate equations.
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Isovalent hybridisation Summary Isovalent_hybridisation In chemistry, isovalent or second order hybridization is an extension of orbital hybridization, the mixing of atomic orbitals into hybrid orbitals which can form chemical bonds, to include fractional numbers of atomic orbitals of each type (s, p, d). It allows for a quantitative depiction of bond formation when the molecular geometry deviates from ideal bond angles. Only bonding with 4 equivalent substituents results in exactly sp3 hybridization. For molecules with different substituents, we can use isovalent hybridization to rationalize the differences in bond angles between different atoms.
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Mathematical operator Laplace transform Mathematical_operator > Examples > Calculus > Laplace transform The Laplace transform is another integral operator and is involved in simplifying the process of solving differential equations. Given f = f(s), it is defined by:
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Pitot tubes Theory of operation Pitot_probe > Theory of operation However, Bernoulli's equation states: Stagnation pressure = static pressure + dynamic pressureWhich can also be written p t = p s + ( ρ u 2 2 ) {\displaystyle p_{t}=p_{s}+\left({\frac {\rho u^{2}}{2}}\right)} Solving that for flow velocity gives u = 2 ( p t − p s ) ρ {\displaystyle u={\sqrt {\frac {2(p_{t}-p_{s})}{\rho }}}} where u {\displaystyle u} is the flow velocity; p t {\displaystyle p_{t}} is the stagnation or total pressure; p s {\displaystyle p_{s}} is the static pressure; and ρ {\displaystyle \rho } is the fluid density.NOTE: The above equation applies only to fluids that can be treated as incompressible. Liquids are treated as incompressible under almost all conditions. Gases under certain conditions can be approximated as incompressible.
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Bode plotter Normalized plot Bode_diagram > Example > Normalized plot The horizontal frequency axis, in both the magnitude and phase plots, can be replaced by the normalized (nondimensional) frequency ratio ω ω c {\displaystyle {\omega \over {\omega _{\mathrm {c} }}}} . In such a case the plot is said to be normalized and units of the frequencies are no longer used since all input frequencies are now expressed as multiples of the cutoff frequency ω c {\displaystyle \omega _{\mathrm {c} }} .
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Product lifecycle Bottom–up design Product_lifecycle > Phases of product lifecycle and corresponding technologies > Bottom–up design Bottom–up design (CAD-centric) occurs where the definition of 3D models of a product starts with the construction of individual components. These are then virtually brought together in sub-assemblies of more than one level until the full product is digitally defined. This is sometimes known as the "review structure" which shows what the product will look like.
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Neural network software Data analysis simulators Neural_network_software > Simulators > Data analysis simulators Unlike the more general development environments, data analysis simulators use a relatively simple static neural network that can be configured. A majority of the data analysis simulators on the market use backpropagating networks or self-organizing maps as their core. The advantage of this type of software is that it is relatively easy to use. Neural Designer is one example of a data analysis simulator.
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Representations of the atmospheric boundary layer in global climate models Bulk aerodynamic formulae Representations_of_the_atmospheric_boundary_layer_in_global_climate_models > Turbulence closure > Bulk aerodynamic formulae From the known variables the exchange coefficients can be easily calculated, and thus, the fluxes can be easily calculated as well. The image below shows the equations used for calculating the exchange coefficients and fluxes, with u* as the frictional velocity. == References ==
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Virtual resource partitioning Summary Virtual_resource_partitioning Virtual resource partitioning (VRP) is an operating system-level virtualization technology that allocates computing resources (such as CPU & I/O) to transactions. Conventional virtualization technologies allocate resources on an operating system (Windows, Linux...) wide basis. VRP works 2 levels deeper by allowing regulation and control of the resources used by specific transactions within an application.In many computerized environments, a single user, application, or transaction can appropriate all server resources and by that, affect the quality of service & user experience of other active users, applications or transactions. For example, a single report in a data warehouse environment can monopolize data access by demanding large amounts of data. Similarly, a CPU-bound application may consume all server processing power and starve other activities. VRP allows balancing, regulating and manipulating the resource consumption of individual transactions, and by that, improving the overall quality of service, compliance with service level agreements, and the ultimate end user experience.
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Symbolic Circuit Analysis Summary Symbolic_Circuit_Analysis Symbolic circuit analysis is a formal technique of circuit analysis to calculate the behaviour or characteristic of an electric/electronic circuit with the independent variables (time or frequency), the dependent variables (voltages and currents), and (some or all of) the circuit elements represented by symbols.When analysing electric/electronic circuits, we may ask two types of questions: What is the value of certain circuit variable (voltage, current, resistance, gain, etc.) or what is the relationship between some circuit variables or between a circuit variable and circuit components and frequency (or time). Such relationship may take the form of a graph, where numerical values of a circuit variable are plotted versus frequency or component value (the most common example would be a plot of the magnitude of a transfer function vs. frequency). Symbolic circuit analysis is concerned with obtaining those relationships in symbolic form, i.e., in the form of analytical expression, where the complex frequency (or time) and some or all of the circuit components are represented by symbols.
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Wavefront arbiter Algorithm description Wavefront_arbiter > Algorithm description The results of the first computation then enable the next computation at the point to the right and at the point below and switch closing decision is made at each of those two points. The results of these subsequent two calculations then are then fed to the points below and to the right of them. These results then enable the decisions at the next three points which are to the right and below.
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Polynomial matrix Properties Polynomial_matrix > Properties A polynomial matrix over a field with determinant equal to a non-zero element of that field is called unimodular, and has an inverse that is also a polynomial matrix. Note that the only scalar unimodular polynomials are polynomials of degree 0 – nonzero constants, because an inverse of an arbitrary polynomial of higher degree is a rational function. The roots of a polynomial matrix over the complex numbers are the points in the complex plane where the matrix loses rank. The determinant of a matrix polynomial with Hermitian positive-definite (semidefinite) coefficients is a polynomial with positive (nonnegative) coefficients.Note that polynomial matrices are not to be confused with monomial matrices, which are simply matrices with exactly one non-zero entry in each row and column. If by λ we denote any element of the field over which we constructed the matrix, by I the identity matrix, and we let A be a polynomial matrix, then the matrix λI − A is the characteristic matrix of the matrix A. Its determinant, |λI − A| is the characteristic polynomial of the matrix A.
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Hardware virtualization Hardware-assisted virtualization Platform_virtualization > Hardware-assisted virtualization In hardware-assisted virtualization, the hardware provides architectural support that facilitates building a virtual machine monitor and allows guest OSs to be run in isolation. Hardware-assisted virtualization was first introduced on the IBM System/370 in 1972, for use with VM/370, the first virtual machine operating system. In 2005 and 2006, Intel and AMD developed additional hardware to support virtualization ran on their platforms. Sun Microsystems (now Oracle Corporation) added similar features in their UltraSPARC T-Series processors in 2005. In 2006, first-generation 32- and 64-bit x86 hardware support was found to rarely offer performance advantages over software virtualization.
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Oscillatory integral Summary Oscillatory_integral In mathematical analysis an oscillatory integral is a type of distribution. Oscillatory integrals make rigorous many arguments that, on a naive level, appear to use divergent integrals. It is possible to represent approximate solution operators for many differential equations as oscillatory integrals.
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Negative priming Experimental terminology Negative_priming > Characteristics of negative priming in experiments > Experimental terminology In the previous example provided, prime refers to the repeated perception of the blue pen as the distractor. Probe trial in an experiment refers to the actual testing for negative priming effects. In this trial, the repeated distractor of the prime trial is presented as the target.
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Alan G. Thomas (scientist) Summary Alan_G._Thomas_(scientist) He demonstrated that Griffith's strain energy release rate provided a useful way to characterize the conditions at a crack tip, a problem that previously had been thought intractable due to the finite straining and nonlinearly elastic stress-strain behavior of rubber. Thomas has been recognised with many prizes and medals.
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Dynamic scoping Java Lexically_scoped > By language > Java The loop's variables (local to that loop) are destroyed as soon as the loop ends.Member variables also called fields are variables declared within the class, outside of any method. By default, these variables are available for all methods within that class and also for all classes in the package.Parameters are variables in method declarations.In general, a set of brackets defines a particular scope, but variables at top level within a class can differ in their behavior depending on the modifier keywords used in their definition. The following table shows the access to members permitted by each modifier.
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Relational Model Summary Relational_Model The relational model (RM) is an approach to managing data using a structure and language consistent with first-order predicate logic, first described in 1969 by English computer scientist Edgar F. Codd, where all data is represented in terms of tuples, grouped into relations. A database organized in terms of the relational model is a relational database. The purpose of the relational model is to provide a declarative method for specifying data and queries: users directly state what information the database contains and what information they want from it, and let the database management system software take care of describing data structures for storing the data and retrieval procedures for answering queries.
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Autophagy Parkinson’s disease Autophagy > Parkinson’s disease Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder partially caused by the cell death of brain and brain stem cells in many nuclei like the substantia nigra. Parkinson's disease is characterized by inclusions of a protein called alpha-synuclien (Lewy bodies) in affected neurons that cells cannot break down. Deregulation of the autophagy pathway and mutation of alleles regulating autophagy are believed to cause neurodegenerative diseases. Autophagy is essential for neuronal survival.
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Electrochemical reaction mechanism "Following" physical transformations Electrochemical_reaction_mechanism > "Following" physical transformations During potential variant experiments, it is common to go through a redox couple in which the major species is transformed from a species that is soluble in the solution to one that is insoluble. This results in a nucleation process in which a new species plates out on the working electrode. If a species has been deposited on the electrode during a potential sweep then on the return sweep a stripping wave is usually observed. While the nucleation wave may be pronounced or difficult to detect, the stripping wave is usually very distinct.
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Complex Regional Pain Syndrome Signs and symptoms Reflex_sympathetic_dystrophy > Signs and symptoms Patients may develop burning pain and allodynia in either form of CRPS. Both forms of the syndrome are also characterized by autonomic dysfunction, which presents with temperature changes (usually localized, but can be global), cyanosis, and/or edema.The patient may also experience localized swelling; hypersensitivity to nonpainful stimuli such as wind, water, noise, and vibrations; sensitivity to touch (by self, others, and even light clothing or bedding/blankets); abnormally increased sweating (or absent sweating); changes in skin temperature (alternating between overly warm and cold); changes in skin colouring (from white and mottled to bright red or reddish-violet); changes in skin texture (waxy, shiny, thin, tight skin); softening and thinning of bones; arthritis; changes in nails and hair (delayed or increased growth or brittle nails/hair that easily break); muscle spasms; muscle loss (atrophy); tremors; dystonia; allodynia; hyperalgesia; and decreased/restricted ability to or painful movement of the affected body part(s). Drop attacks (falls), almost fainting, fainting spells, and visual problems are infrequently reported.The symptoms of CRPS vary in severity and duration.
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Dynamic list Singly linked lists Linked_lists > Linked list operations > Linearly linked lists > Singly linked lists Our node data structure will have two fields. We also keep a variable firstNode which always points to the first node in the list, or is null for an empty list. record Node { data; // The data being stored in the node Node next // A reference to the next node, null for last node } record List { Node firstNode // points to first node of list; null for empty list } Traversal of a singly linked list is simple, beginning at the first node and following each next link until we come to the end: node := list.firstNode while node not null (do something with node.data) node := node.next The following code inserts a node after an existing node in a singly linked list. The diagram shows how it works.
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Multigene family Relocation Multigene_family > Formation > Relocation This protein aids in copying the RNA transcripts of LINEs and SINEs back into DNA, and integrates them into different areas of the genome. This self-perpetuates the growth of LINE and SINE families. Due to the highly repetitive nature of these elements, LINEs and SINEs when close together also trigger unequal crossing over events which result in single-gene duplications and the formation of gene families.
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Industrial processes Separation Industrial_processes > Separation Many materials exist in an impure form. Purification or separation provides a usable product. Comminution – reduces the size of physical particles (it exists between crushing and grinding) Frasch process – for extracting molten sulfur from the ground Froth flotation, flotation process – separating minerals through flotation Liquid–liquid extraction – dissolving one substance in another
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Agricultural resources Agricultural engineering Agricultural_resources > Branches of agriculture > Agricultural Disciplines > Agricultural engineering Electrical energy efficiency on United States farms – covers the use of electricity on farms and the methods and incentives for improving the efficiency of that use. Electronics – branch of physics, engineering and technology dealing with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies. Energy – ability a physical system has to do work on other physical systems.
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Thermohaline circulation Movement of deep water masses Thermohaline_circulation > Overview > Movement of deep water masses The out-flowing undersea of cold and salty water makes the sea level of the Atlantic slightly lower than the Pacific and salinity or halinity of water at the Atlantic higher than the Pacific. This generates a large but slow flow of warmer and fresher upper ocean water from the tropical Pacific to the Indian Ocean through the Indonesian Archipelago to replace the cold and salty Antarctic Bottom Water. This is also known as 'haline forcing' (net high latitude freshwater gain and low latitude evaporation). This warmer, fresher water from the Pacific flows up through the South Atlantic to Greenland, where it cools off and undergoes evaporative cooling and sinks to the ocean floor, providing a continuous thermohaline circulation.Hence, a recent and popular name for the thermohaline circulation, emphasizing the vertical nature and pole-to-pole character of this kind of ocean circulation, is the meridional overturning circulation.
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TCP connection Dupack-based retransmission TCP_header > Protocol operation > Data transfer > Reliable transmission > Dupack-based retransmission If a single segment (say segment number 100) in a stream is lost, then the receiver cannot acknowledge packets above that segment number (100) because it uses cumulative ACKs. Hence the receiver acknowledges packet 99 again on the receipt of another data packet. This duplicate acknowledgement is used as a signal for packet loss. That is, if the sender receives three duplicate acknowledgements, it retransmits the last unacknowledged packet.
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Basal animal metabolic rate Biochemistry Basal_metabolic_rate > Biochemistry The breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules—associated with release of energy—is catabolism. The building up process is termed anabolism. The breakdown of proteins into amino acids is an example of catabolism, while the formation of proteins from amino acids is an anabolic process.
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Three-spool engine Principles Turbofan_engines > Principles Although the engine would use less fuel to produce a pound of thrust, more fuel is wasted in the faster propelling jet. In other words, the independence of thermal and propulsive efficiencies, as exists with the piston engine/propeller combination which preceded the turbojet, is lost. In contrast, Roth considers regaining this independence the single most important feature of the turbofan which allows specific thrust to be chosen independently of the gas generator cycle.
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Mathematics of artificial neural networks Neuron Mathematics_of_artificial_neural_networks > Structure > Neuron A neuron with label j {\displaystyle j} receiving an input p j ( t ) {\displaystyle p_{j}(t)} from predecessor neurons consists of the following components: an activation a j ( t ) {\displaystyle a_{j}(t)} , the neuron's state, depending on a discrete time parameter, an optional threshold θ j {\displaystyle \theta _{j}} , which stays fixed unless changed by learning, an activation function f {\displaystyle f} that computes the new activation at a given time t + 1 {\displaystyle t+1} from a j ( t ) {\displaystyle a_{j}(t)} , θ j {\displaystyle \theta _{j}} and the net input p j ( t ) {\displaystyle p_{j}(t)} giving rise to the relation a j ( t + 1 ) = f ( a j ( t ) , p j ( t ) , θ j ) , {\displaystyle a_{j}(t+1)=f(a_{j}(t),p_{j}(t),\theta _{j}),} and an output function f out {\displaystyle f_{\text{out}}} computing the output from the activation o j ( t ) = f out ( a j ( t ) ) . {\displaystyle o_{j}(t)=f_{\text{out}}(a_{j}(t)).} Often the output function is simply the identity function. An input neuron has no predecessor but serves as input interface for the whole network. Similarly an output neuron has no successor and thus serves as output interface of the whole network.
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Passive diffusion Diffusion Passive_diffusion > Diffusion If there are different solutions at the two sides of the membrane with different equilibrium solubility of the drug, the difference in the degree of saturation is the driving force of passive membrane transport. It is also true for supersaturated solutions which are more and more important owing to the spreading of the application of amorphous solid dispersions for drug bioavailability enhancement. Simple diffusion and osmosis are in some ways similar.
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Illness narrative Plot Illness_narrative > Elements > Plot These events form plot points, moments of change that affect the characters' understandings, decisions, and actions. The movement of the plot forward often corresponds to protagonists encountering or realizing the conflict, and then working to resolve it, creating emotional stakes for the characters as well as the audience. (The audience's anxious feeling of anticipation due to high emotional stakes is called suspense.)
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Data binning Summary Data_binning Data binning, also called data discrete binning or data bucketing, is a data pre-processing technique used to reduce the effects of minor observation errors. The original data values which fall into a given small interval, a bin, are replaced by a value representative of that interval, often a central value (mean or median). It is related to quantization: data binning operates on the abscissa axis while quantization operates on the ordinate axis. Binning is a generalization of rounding.
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Hemorrhagic shock Non-bleeding Hemorrhagic_shock > Diagnosis > Non-bleeding Measurements of pulse pressure variation via various commercial devices has also been postulated as a measure of volume responsiveness. However, pulse pressure variation as a measure of fluid responsiveness is only valid in patients without spontaneous breaths or arrhythmias. The accuracy of pulse pressure variation also can be compromised in right heart failure, decreased lung or chest wall compliance, and high respiratory rates.Similar to examining pulse pressure variation, measuring respiratory variation in inferior vena cava diameter as a measure of volume responsiveness has only been validated in patients without spontaneous breaths or arrhythmias.Measuring the effect of passive leg raises on cardiac contractility by echo appears to be the most accurate measurement of volume responsiveness, although it is also subject to limitations.History and physical can often make the diagnosis of hypovolemic shock.
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Biological network Gene regulatory networks (DNA–protein interaction networks) Biological_network > Networks in biology > Gene regulatory networks (DNA–protein interaction networks) These edges are directional, representing the regulatory relationship between the two ends of the edge. For example., the directed edge from gene A to gene B indicates that A regulates the expression of B. Thus, these directional edges can not only represent the promotion of gene regulation but also its inhibition. GRNs are usually constructed by utilizing the gene regulation knowledge available from databases such as., Reactome and KEGG. High-throughput measurement technologies, such as microarray, RNA-Seq, ChIP-chip, and ChIP-seq, enabled the accumulation of large-scale transcriptomics data, which could help in understanding the complex gene regulation patterns.
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Passive fire protection Main characteristics Passive_fire_protection > Main characteristics Smaller components such as fire dampers, fire doors, etc., follow suit in the main intentions of the basic standard for walls and floors. Fire testing involves live fire exposures upwards of 1100 °C, depending on the fire-resistance rating and duration one is after. Test objectives other than fire exposures are sometimes included such as hose stream impact to determine the survivability of the system under realistic conditions.
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Nucleosynthesis Timeline Nucleosynthesis > History > Timeline The heavier elements produced after the Big Bang range in atomic numbers from Z = 6 (carbon) to Z = 94 (plutonium). Synthesis of these elements occurred through nuclear reactions involving the strong and weak interactions among nuclei, and called nuclear fusion (including both rapid and slow multiple neutron capture), and include also nuclear fission and radioactive decays such as beta decay. The stability of atomic nuclei of different sizes and composition (i.e. numbers of neutrons and protons) plays an important role in the possible reactions among nuclei. Cosmic nucleosynthesis, therefore, is studied among researchers of astrophysics and nuclear physics ("nuclear astrophysics").
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Compiler construction Front end Compiler_theory > Compiler construction > Three-stage compiler structure > Front end The lexeme syntax is typically a regular language, so a finite state automaton constructed from a regular expression can be used to recognize it. The software doing lexical analysis is called a lexical analyzer. This may not be a separate step—it can be combined with the parsing step in scannerless parsing, in which case parsing is done at the character level, not the token level.
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Microlith (catalytic reactor) Technology Microlith_(catalytic_reactor) > Technology A catalyst is a substance that speeds a reaction but that itself is left in its original state after the reaction, so that it can assist in the reaction of a large quantity of material over a long period of time. A Microlith reactor is constructed with a very thin metal substrate coated with a variety of materials including catalysts to speed reactions, and adsorbent materials for use in filters. The substrate has short channels (0.001–0.020 in) which resemble screens or meshes. This results in a lower pressure drop than other reactors and allows for high cell density and low thermal mass.
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Diatonic genus Tunings Chromatic_genus > Tetrachords > Enharmonic > Tunings The precise ancient Pythagorean tuning of the enharmonic genus is not known. Aristoxenus believed that the pyknon evolved from an originally pentatonic trichord in which a perfect fourth was divided by a single "infix"—an additional note dividing the fourth into a semitone plus a major third (e.g., E, F, A, where F is the infix dividing the fourth E–A). Such a division of a fourth necessarily produces a scale of the type called pentatonic, because compounding two such segments into an octave produces a scale with just five steps. This became an enharmonic tetrachord by the division of the semitone into two quarter tones (E, E↑, F, A). Archytas, according to Ptolemy, Harmonics, ii.14—for no original writings by him survive—used 9:7, as in all three of his genera; here it is the mediant of 4:3 and 5:4, as (4+5):(3+4) = 9:7: hypate parhypate lichanos mese 4:3 9:7 5:4 1:1 | 28:27 |36:35| 5:4 | -498 -435 -386 0 cents Also according to Ptolemy, Didymus uses the same major third (5:4) but divides the pyknon with the arithmetic mean of the string lengths (if one wishes to think in terms of frequencies, rather than string lengths or interval distance down from the tonic, as the example below does, splitting the interval between the frequencies 4:3 and 5:4 by their harmonic mean 31:24 will result in the same sequence of intervals as below): hypate parhypate lichanos mese 4:3 31:24 5:4 1:1 |32:31 |31:30 | 5:4 | -498 -443 -386 0 cents This method splits the 16:15 half-step pyknon into two nearly equal intervals, the difference in size between 31:30 and 32:31 being less than 2 cents.
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Glossary of cryptographic keys Summary Glossary_of_cryptographic_keys Symmetric keys are typically used with a cipher and must be kept secret to maintain confidentiality. traffic encryption key (TEK)/data encryption key (DEK) - a symmetric key that is used to encrypt messages. TEKs are typically changed frequently, in some systems daily and in others for every message.
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Regime shift Theoretical basis Regime_shift > Theoretical basis Conditions at which a system shifts its dynamics from one set of processes to another are often called thresholds. In ecology for example, a threshold is a point at which there is an abrupt change in an ecosystem quality, property or phenomenon; or where small changes in an environmental driver produce large responses in an ecosystem. Thresholds are, however, a function of several interacting parameters, thus they change in time and space. Hence, the same system can present smooth, abrupt or discontinuous change depending on its parameters' configurations. Thresholds will be present, however, only in cases where abrupt and discontinuous change is possible.
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Crosslinguistic influence Transfer Crosslinguistic_influence > Transfer She described transfer as "an unnecessary carryover from the heyday of behaviorism." In her view, transfer is more of a constraint on the L2 learners' judgments about the constructions of the acquired L2 language.
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Vitamin A Preventing and treating deficiency Vitamin_A > Medical uses > Preventing and treating deficiency Recognition of its prevalence and consequences has led to governments and non-government organizations promoting vitamin A fortification of foods and creating programs that administer large bolus-size oral doses of vitamin A to young children every four to six months. In 2008, the World Health Organization estimated that vitamin A supplementation over a decade in 40 countries averted 1.25 million deaths due to vitamin A deficiency. A Cochrane review reported that vitamin A supplementation is associated with a clinically meaningful reduction in morbidity and mortality in children ages six month to five years of age. All-cause mortality was reduced by 14%, and incidences of diarrhea by 12%. However, a Cochrane review by the same group concluded there was insufficient evidence to recommend blanket vitamin A supplementation for infants one to six months of age, as it did not reduce infant mortality or morbidity.
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Convolution kernel Fast convolution algorithms Convolution_operation > Discrete convolution > Fast convolution algorithms In many situations, discrete convolutions can be converted to circular convolutions so that fast transforms with a convolution property can be used to implement the computation. For example, convolution of digit sequences is the kernel operation in multiplication of multi-digit numbers, which can therefore be efficiently implemented with transform techniques (Knuth 1997, §4.3.3.C; von zur Gathen & Gerhard 2003, §8.2). Eq.1 requires N arithmetic operations per output value and N2 operations for N outputs. That can be significantly reduced with any of several fast algorithms.
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Indirect Inference Core idea Indirect_Inference > Core idea We then seek a fitted model with parameters ϕ gen ( θ ∗ ) ≈ ϕ obs {\displaystyle \phi _{\text{gen}}(\theta ^{*})\approx \phi _{\text{obs}}} so that the generative process with parameters θ ∗ {\displaystyle \theta ^{*}} could have generated the observations. By using the auxiliary model as an intermediary, indirect inference allows for the estimation of the generative model's parameters even when the likelihood function is not easily accessible. This method can be particularly useful in situations where traditional estimation techniques are not feasible or computationally prohibitive.
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Internet Standard Internet Standard Internet_Standard > Standardization process > Internet Standard An Internet Standard is characterized by a high degree of technical maturity and by a generally held belief that the specified protocol or service provides significant benefit to the Internet community. Generally Internet Standards cover interoperability of systems on the Internet through defining protocols, message formats, schemas, and languages. An Internet Standard ensures that hardware and software produced by different vendors can work together. Having a standard makes it much easier to develop software and hardware that link different networks because software and hardware can be developed one layer at a time.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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Mendelian randomization Motivation Mendelian_randomization > Motivation There are many epidemiological study designs that aim to understand relationships between traits within a population sample, each with shared and unique advantages and limitations in terms of providing causal evidence, with the "gold standard" being randomized controlled trials.Well-known successful demonstrations of causal evidence consistent across multiple studies with different designs include the identified causal links between smoking and lung cancer, and between blood pressure and stroke. However, there have also been notable failures when exposures hypothesized to be a causal risk factor for a particular outcome were later shown by well conducted randomized controlled trials not to be causal. For instance, it was previously thought that hormone replacement therapy would prevent cardiovascular disease, but it is now known to have no such benefit Another notable example is that of selenium and prostate cancer.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis Prevention Extensively_drug-resistant_tuberculosis > Prevention Countries aim to prevent XDR-TB by ensuring that the work of their national TB control programmes, and of all practitioners working with people with TB, is carried out according to the International Standards for TB Care. These emphasize providing proper diagnosis and treatment to all TB patients, including those with drug-resistant TB; assuring regular, timely supplies of all anti-TB drugs; proper management of anti-TB drugs and providing support to patients to maximize adherence to prescribed regimens; caring for XDR-TB cases in a centre with proper ventilation, and minimizing contact with other patients, particularly those with HIV, especially in the early stages before treatment has had a chance to reduce the infectiousness. Also an effective disease control infrastructure is necessary for the prevention of XDR tuberculosis. Increased funding for research, and strengthened laboratory facilities are much required. Immediate detection through drug susceptibility testing's are vital, when trying to stop the spread of XDR tuberculosis.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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