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Bloom (test) Summary Bloom_(test) The higher a Bloom value, the higher the melting and gelling points of a gel, and the shorter its gelling times. This method is most often used on soft gels.
History of subatomic physics Quarks, leptons, and four fundamental forces History_of_subatomic_physics > Physics goes to high energies > Quarks, leptons, and four fundamental forces Because the quantum field theory (see above) postulates no difference between particles and interactions, classification of elementary particles allowed also to classify interactions and fields. Now a large number of particles and (non-fundamental) interactions is explained as combinations of a (relatively) small number of fundamental substances, thought to be fundamental interactions (incarnated in fundamental bosons), quarks (including antiparticles), and leptons (including antiparticles). As the theory distinguished several fundamental interactions, it became possible to see which elementary particles participate in which interaction. Namely: All particles participate in gravitation.
Off-the-Record Messaging Implementation Off-the-Record_Messaging > Implementation In addition to providing encryption and authentication — features also provided by typical public-key cryptography suites, such as PGP, GnuPG, and X.509 (S/MIME) — OTR also offers some less common features: Forward secrecy Messages are only encrypted with temporary per-message AES keys, negotiated using the Diffie–Hellman key exchange protocol. The compromise of any long-lived cryptographic keys does not compromise any previous conversations, even if an attacker is in possession of ciphertexts. Deniable authentication Messages in a conversation do not have digital signatures, and after a conversation is complete, anyone is able to forge a message to appear to have come from one of the participants in the conversation, assuring that it is impossible to prove that a specific message came from a specific person. Within the conversation the recipient can be sure that a message is coming from the person they have identified.
Cancer immunotherapy CTLA-4 blockade PD-1_inhibitor > Research > Immune checkpoints > CTLA-4 blockade The first checkpoint antibody approved by the FDA was ipilimumab, approved in 2011 for the treatment of melanoma. It blocks the immune checkpoint molecule CTLA-4. Clinical trials have also shown some benefits of anti-CTLA-4 therapy on lung cancer or pancreatic cancer, specifically in combination with other drugs. In on-going trials the combination of CTLA-4 blockade with PD-1 or PD-L1 inhibitors is tested on different types of cancer.However, patients treated with checkpoint blockade (specifically CTLA-4 blocking antibodies), or a combination of check-point blocking antibodies, are at high risk of having immune-related adverse events such as dermatologic, gastrointestinal, endocrine, or hepatic autoimmune reactions.
Vegetation-induced sedimentary structures Coalesced scour fills Vegetation-induced_sedimentary_structures > Hydrodynamic structures > Coalesced scour fills Large, internally complex sandstone bodies in well-drained floodplain strata, which superficially resemble small channel bodies. These discrete, locally thickened accumulations are laterally equivalent to thin sheet (crevasse splay) sandstones and are strongly incised into red mudstones. Coalesced scour fills are strongly erosional structures formed where interconnected scours between trees are infilled with sandy sediment during waning flow. Strong incision into underlying strata and downflow tapering suggests that the precursor scours formed in response to vigorous floods across the well-drained floodplain. These essentially are unconstrained by channels and vegetation. The current flow carried only enough sand to fill the scour and blanket the floodplain with a thin sand layer.
Digital self-determination Ethical and rights-based principles for AI Digital_self-determination > Current issues > Regulating for digital self-determination > Ethical and rights-based principles for AI For example, Japan's government established its "Social Principles of Human-Centric AI", which is closely linked to its "AI strategy 2019: AI for Everyone: People, Industries, Regions and Governments", and a separate set of AI Utilization Guidelines that encourage voluntary adherence and emphasize that AI shall be used to "expand human abilities and creativity", shall not "infringe on a person's individual freedom, dignity or equality", and adheres to the "principle of human dignity and individual autonomy".AI principles can also be incorporated into a national AI strategy, which primarily focuses on policy instruments advancing AI, such as investment in STEM education and public-private partnerships. For example, India's AI strategy, "National Strategy for Artificial Intelligence" published in June 2018, identifies key areas of high national priority for AI development (healthcare, agriculture, education, urban-/smart-city infrastructure, transportation and mobility), with ethical topics such as privacy and fairness integrated as a forward-looking section.Opportunities and challenges for AI principles to address self-determination Non-binding AI principles suggested by actors inside or outside the government might sometimes be further concretized into specific policy or regulation. In 2020, the United Kingdom's government's advisory body on the responsible use of AI, the Centre for Data Ethics and Innovation, proposed specific measures for government, regulators and industry to tackle algorithmic bias in the sectors of financial services, local government, policing and recruitment, with each area relevant to how individuals conduct their ways of life and access socio-economic opportunities without being subjected to unfair treatment. Cultural and geographical representation has been highlighted as a challenge in ensuring the burgeoning AI norms sufficiently consider unique opportunities and risks faced by the global population, who exercise their autonomy and freedom in vastly different political regimes with varying degrees of rule of law. In 2020, a report published by the Council of Europe reviewed 116 AI principles documents and found that "these soft law documents are being primarily developed in Europe, North America and Asia", while "the global south is currently underrepresented in the landscape of organisations proposing AI ethics guidelines".
Hershey–Chase experiment Methods and results Hershey–Chase_experiment > Methods and results Hershey and Chase needed to be able to examine different parts of the phages they were studying separately, so they needed to distinguish the phage subsections. Viruses were known to be composed of a protein shell and DNA, so they chose to uniquely label each with a different elemental isotope. This allowed each to be observed and analyzed separately. Since phosphorus is contained in DNA but not amino acids, radioactive phosphorus-32 was used to label the DNA contained in the T2 phage.
Linear-quadratic-Gaussian control Continuous time Linear-quadratic-Gaussian_control > Mathematical description of the problem and solution > Continuous time {\displaystyle {\mathbf {u} }(t)=-K(t){\hat {\mathbf {x} }}(t).} The matrix L ( t ) {\displaystyle {\mathbf {} }L(t)} is called the Kalman gain of the associated Kalman filter represented by the first equation. At each time t {\displaystyle {\mathbf {} }t} this filter generates estimates x ^ ( t ) {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {x} }}(t)} of the state x ( t ) {\displaystyle {\mathbf {x} }(t)} using the past measurements and inputs.
Reverse Pharmacology Summary Reverse_Pharmacology Once a compound that fulfills all of these requirements has been identified, the process of drug development can continue. If successful, clinical trials are developed.Modern drug discovery is thus usually a capital-intensive process that involves large investments by pharmaceutical industry corporations as well as national governments (who provide grants and loan guarantees). Despite advances in technology and understanding of biological systems, drug discovery is still a lengthy, "expensive, difficult, and inefficient process" with low rate of new therapeutic discovery.
Wilkinson Catalyst Catalytic applications Wilkinson_Catalyst > Catalytic applications In practice, terminal and disubstituted alkenes are good substrates, but more hindered alkenes are slower to hydrogenate. The hydrogenation of alkynes is troublesome to control since alkynes tend to be reduced to alkanes, via intermediacy of the cis-alkene. Ethylene reacts with Wilkinson's catalyst to give RhCl(C2H4)(PPh3)2, but it is not a substrate for hydrogenation.
Internal reflection Summary Total_Internal_Reflection When waves are refracted from a medium of lower propagation speed (higher refractive index) to a medium of higher propagation speed (lower refractive index) —e.g., from water to air—the angle of refraction (between the outgoing ray and the surface normal) is greater than the angle of incidence (between the incoming ray and the normal). As the angle of incidence approaches a certain threshold, called the critical angle, the angle of refraction approaches 90°, at which the refracted ray becomes parallel to the boundary surface. As the angle of incidence increases beyond the critical angle, the conditions of refraction can no longer be satisfied, so there is no refracted ray, and the partial reflection becomes total.
Tribocorrosion Passive metals Tribocorrosion > Passive metals While tribocorrosion phenomena may affect many materials, they are most critical for metals, especially the normally corrosion resistant so-called passive metals. The vast majority of corrosion resistant metals and alloys used in engineering (stainless steels, titanium, aluminium etc.) fall into this category. These metals are thermodynamically unstable in the presence of oxygen or water and they derive their corrosion resistance from the presence at the surface of a thin oxide film, called the passive film, which acts as a protective barrier between the metal and its environment.
The speed of light in vacuum Upper limit on speeds Light_speed > Fundamental role in physics > Upper limit on speeds If the spatial distance between two events A and B is greater than the time interval between them multiplied by c then there are frames of reference in which A precedes B, others in which B precedes A, and others in which they are simultaneous. As a result, if something were travelling faster than c relative to an inertial frame of reference, it would be travelling backwards in time relative to another frame, and causality would be violated. In such a frame of reference, an "effect" could be observed before its "cause". Such a violation of causality has never been recorded, and would lead to paradoxes such as the tachyonic antitelephone.
Power series Order of a power series Power_series > Order of a power series Let α be a multi-index for a power series f(x1, x2, …, xn). The order of the power series f is defined to be the least value r {\displaystyle r} such that there is aα ≠ 0 with r = \| α \| = α 1 + α 2 + ⋯ + α n {\displaystyle r=\|\alpha \|=\alpha _{1}+\alpha _{2}+\cdots +\alpha _{n}} , or ∞ {\displaystyle \infty } if f ≡ 0. In particular, for a power series f(x) in a single variable x, the order of f is the smallest power of x with a nonzero coefficient. This definition readily extends to Laurent series.
NMR relaxation T2* and magnetic field inhomogeneity Relaxation_(NMR) > T1 and T2 > T2* and magnetic field inhomogeneity In an idealized system, all nuclei in a given chemical environment, in a magnetic field, precess with the same frequency. However, in real systems, there are minor differences in chemical environment which can lead to a distribution of resonance frequencies around the ideal. Over time, this distribution can lead to a dispersion of the tight distribution of magnetic spin vectors, and loss of signal (free induction decay). In fact, for most magnetic resonance experiments, this "relaxation" dominates.
Lubrication Summary Boundary_lubrication Lubrication is the process or technique of using a lubricant to reduce friction and wear and tear in a contact between two surfaces. The study of lubrication is a discipline in the field of tribology. Lubrication mechanisms such as fluid-lubricated systems are designed so that the applied load is partially or completely carried by hydrodynamic or hydrostatic pressure, which reduces solid body interactions (and consequently friction and wear).
Groupthink Overview Groupthink > Overview Groupthink can often be referred to as a group of “yes men” because group activities and group projects in general make it extremely easy to pass on not offering constructive opinions. Some methods that have been used to counteract group think in the past is selecting teams from more diverse backgrounds, and even mixing men and women for groups (Kamalnath). Groupthink can be considered by many to be a detriment to companies, organizations and in any work situations.
Yang–Mills instanton Results Yang-Mills_instanton > Quantum mechanics > Results Note that a naïve perturbation theory around one of those two vacua alone (of the Minkowskian description) would never show this non-perturbative tunneling effect, dramatically changing the picture of the vacuum structure of this quantum mechanical system. In fact the naive perturbation theory has to be supplemented by boundary conditions, and these supply the nonperturbative effect, as is evident from the above explicit formula and analogous calculations for other potentials such as a cosine potential (cf. Mathieu function) or other periodic potentials (cf. e.g. Lamé function and spheroidal wave function) and irrespective of whether one uses the Schrödinger equation or the path integral.Therefore, the perturbative approach may not completely describe the vacuum structure of a physical system. This may have important consequences, for example, in the theory of "axions" where the non-trivial QCD vacuum effects (like the instantons) spoil the Peccei–Quinn symmetry explicitly and transform massless Nambu–Goldstone bosons into massive pseudo-Nambu–Goldstone ones.
Environmental impacts of deicing salt Deicing chemicals Environmental_impacts_of_deicing_salt > Deicing chemicals All chemical deicers share a common working mechanism: they chemically prevent water molecules from binding above a certain temperature that depends on the concentration. This temperature is below 0 °C, the freezing point of pure water (freezing point depression). Sometimes, there is an exothermic dissolution reaction that allows for an even stronger melting power. The following lists contains the most-commonly used deicing chemicals and their typical chemical formula.
Cartographic generalization Displace Cartographic_generalization > Operators > Displace Also called conflict resolution Displacement can be employed when two objects are so close to each other that they would overlap at smaller scales, especially when an exaggerate operator has made the two objects larger than they really are. A common place where this would occur is the cities Brazzaville and Kinshasa on either side of the Congo river in Africa. They are both the capital city of their country and on overview maps they would be displayed with a slightly larger symbol than other cities. Depending on the scale of the map the symbols would overlap.
Optical bandpass filter Neutral density Optical_bandpass_filter > Neutral density A practical example is making a waterfall look blurry when it is photographed in bright light. Alternatively, the photographer might want to use a larger aperture (so as to limit the depth of field); adding an ND filter permits this. ND filters can be reflective (in which case they look like partially reflective mirrors) or absorptive (appearing grey or black).
Burnishing (metal) In manufacturing (intentionally) Burnishing_(metal) > In manufacturing (intentionally) In some instances of the latter case (and always in ballizing), it rubs, in the former it generally rotates and rolls. The workpiece may be at ambient temperature, or heated to reduce the forces and wear on the tool. The tool is usually hardened and coated with special materials to increase its life.
Euclidean triangle Squares Scalene_triangle > Figures inscribed in a triangle > Squares Every acute triangle has three inscribed squares (squares in its interior such that all four of a square's vertices lie on a side of the triangle, so two of them lie on the same side and hence one side of the square coincides with part of a side of the triangle). In a right triangle two of the squares coincide and have a vertex at the triangle's right angle, so a right triangle has only two distinct inscribed squares. An obtuse triangle has only one inscribed square, with a side coinciding with part of the triangle's longest side.
Causal closure Ignoring phenomena Causal_closure > Criticism > Ignoring phenomena In Aristotelian terms, a neurological account explains the efficient cause, while the purpose-based account explains the final cause.The physical causal closure thesis challenges this account. It attempts to reduce all teleological final (and formal) causes to efficient causes. Goetz and Taliaferro urge that this challenge is unjustified, partly because it would imply that the real cause of arguing for the physical causal closure is neurobiological activity in the brain, not (as we know it is) the purpose-based attempt to understand the world and explain it to others.
Retrosplenial region Anatomy Retrosplenial_cortex > Anatomy There is large variation in the region's size across different species. In humans it comprises roughly 0.3% of the entire cortical surface whereas in rabbits it is at least 10% and in rats it extends for more than half the cerebrum dorso-ventrally, making it one of the largest cortical regions.On the basis of its microscopic cellular structure it is divided into dysgranular (area 30) and granular (area 29) regions. It has dense reciprocal projections with the visual cortex, postsubiculum (also known as dorsal presubiculum) and with anterior thalamic nuclei and the hippocampus.
Trace metal Summary Trace_metal Things such as vitamins, sports drinks, fresh fruits and vegetables are sources. Taken in excessive amounts, trace elements can cause problems. For example, fluorine is required for the formation of bones and enamel on teeth. However, when taken in an excessive amount can cause a disease called "Fluorosis', in which bone deformations and yellowing of teeth are seen. Fluorine can occur naturally in some areas in ground water.
Pythagoras On Greek philosophy Pythagoras > Later influence in antiquity > On Greek philosophy The later first-century Neopythagorean philosopher Moderatus of Gades expanded on Pythagorean number philosophy and probably understood the soul as a "kind of mathematical harmony." The Neopythagorean mathematician and musicologist Nicomachus likewise expanded on Pythagorean numerology and music theory. Numenius of Apamea interpreted Plato's teachings in light of Pythagorean doctrines.
Recurrent neural networks Global optimization methods Recurrent_neural_network > Training > Global optimization methods Training the weights in a neural network can be modeled as a non-linear global optimization problem. A target function can be formed to evaluate the fitness or error of a particular weight vector as follows: First, the weights in the network are set according to the weight vector. Next, the network is evaluated against the training sequence. Typically, the sum-squared-difference between the predictions and the target values specified in the training sequence is used to represent the error of the current weight vector.
Android rooting Summary Android_rooting On some devices, rooting can also facilitate the complete removal and replacement of the device's operating system, usually with a more recent release of its current operating system. Root access is sometimes compared to jailbreaking devices running the Apple iOS operating system. However, these are different concepts: Jailbreaking is the bypass of several types of Apple prohibitions for the end user, including modifying the operating system (enforced by a "locked bootloader"), installing non-officially approved (not available on the App Store) applications via sideloading, and granting the user elevated administration-level privileges (rooting).
Learning In animal evolution Learning > In animal evolution An example of this is when a horse is born and can immediately walk. The horse has not learned this behavior; it simply knows how to do it. In some scenarios, innate knowledge is more beneficial than learned knowledge. However, in other scenarios the opposite is true—animals must learn certain behaviors when it is disadvantageous to have a specific innate behavior. In these situations, learning evolves in the species.
Preprophase band Summary Preprophase_band Instead, the microtubules of the mitotic spindle aggregate on the nuclear surface and are reoriented to form the spindle at the end of prophase. The preprophase band also functions in properly orienting the mitotic spindle, and contributes to efficient spindle formation during prometaphase The preprophase band disappears as soon as the nuclear envelope breaks down and the mitotic spindle forms, leaving behind an actin-depleted zone. However, its position marks the future fusion sites for the new cell plate with the existing cell wall during telophase. When mitosis is completed, the cell plate and new cell wall form starting from the center along the plane occupied by the phragmosome. The cell plate grows outwards until it fuses with the cell wall of the dividing cell at exactly the spots predicted by the position of the preprophase band.
Biofilter Control of air pollution Biofilter > Control of air pollution When applied to air filtration and purification, biofilters use microorganisms to remove air pollution. The air flows through a packed bed and the pollutant transfers into a thin biofilm on the surface of the packing material. Microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi are immobilized in the biofilm and degrade the pollutant. Trickling filters and bioscrubbers rely on a biofilm and the bacterial action in their recirculating waters.
Software Testing Summary Alpha_testing These oracles may include (but are not limited to) specifications, contracts, comparable products, past versions of the same product, inferences about intended or expected purpose, user or customer expectations, relevant standards, applicable laws, or other criteria. A primary purpose of testing is to detect software failures so that defects may be discovered and corrected. Testing cannot establish that a product functions properly under all conditions, but only that it does not function properly under specific conditions.
Formation constant Classification of metal ions Macrocyclic_effect > Factors affecting the stability constants of complexes > Classification of metal ions In general terms hard–hard interactions are predominantly electrostatic in nature whereas soft–soft interactions are predominantly covalent in nature. The HSAB theory, though useful, is only semi-quantitative.The hardness of a metal ion increases with oxidation state. An example of this effect is given by the fact that Fe2+ tends to form stronger complexes with N-donor ligands than with O-donor ligands, but the opposite is true for Fe3+.
Eigensystem realization algorithm Summary Eigensystem_realization_algorithm The Eigensystem realization algorithm (ERA) is a system identification technique popular in civil engineering, in particular in structural health monitoring. ERA can be used as a modal analysis technique and generates a system realization using the time domain response (multi-)input and (multi-)output data. The ERA was proposed by Juang and Pappa and has been used for system identification of aerospace structures such as the Galileo spacecraft, turbines, civil structures and many other type of systems.
Launching gantry Operation and design Launching_gantry > Operation and design : 39–40 Once the bridge span between adjacent piers is completed, the winches on the trolleys are used to lift the gantry girders and "launch" them ahead to the next span. The process of lifting and placing bridge segments (or girders) followed by launching the gantry girders ahead is repeated until the bridge is complete.
Low-pass equivalent Baseband signal Base_band > Various uses > Baseband signal A baseband signal or lowpass signal is a signal that can include frequencies that are very near zero, by comparison with its highest frequency (for example, a sound waveform can be considered as a baseband signal, whereas a radio signal or any other modulated signal is not).A baseband bandwidth is equal to the highest frequency of a signal or system, or an upper bound on such frequencies, for example the upper cut-off frequency of a low-pass filter. By contrast, passband bandwidth is the difference between a highest frequency and a nonzero lowest frequency.
Bluetooth stack Summary Bluetooth_stack A Bluetooth stack is software that is an implementation of the Bluetooth protocol stack. Bluetooth stacks can be roughly divided into two distinct categories: General-purpose implementations that are written with emphasis on feature-richness and flexibility, usually for desktop computers. Support for additional Bluetooth profiles can typically be added through drivers. Embedded system implementations intended for use in devices where resources are limited and demands are lower, such as Bluetooth peripheral devices.
Walsh diagram Reactivity Walsh_diagram > Reactivity It can be seen that the HOMO, 1e’, of planar AH3 is destabilized upon bending of the A-H bonds to form a pyramid shape, due to disruption of bonding. The LUMO, which is concentrated on one atomic center, is a good electron acceptor and explains the Lewis acid character of BH3 and CH3+.Walsh correlation diagrams can also be used to predict relative molecular orbital energy levels. The distortion of the hydrogen atoms from the planar CH3+ to the tetrahedral CH3-Nu causes a stabilization of the C-Nu bonding orbital, σ.
Carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance Summary Distortionless_enhancement_by_polarization_transfer Carbon-13 (C13) nuclear magnetic resonance (most commonly known as carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy or 13C NMR spectroscopy or sometimes simply referred to as carbon NMR) is the application of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to carbon. It is analogous to proton NMR (1H NMR) and allows the identification of carbon atoms in an organic molecule just as proton NMR identifies hydrogen atoms. 13C NMR detects only the 13C isotope. The main carbon isotope, 12C is not detected. Although much less sensitive than 1H NMR spectroscopy, 13C NMR spectroscopy is widely used for characterizing organic and organometallic compounds.
Radio-controlled aerobatics Inside loops Radio-controlled_aerobatics > Inside loops Due to its simplicity, the inside loop is among the first aerobatic maneuvers a pilot learns. It is named after a 360 degree circle with the pilot on the inside of the loop. Simply applying power while pulling back on the elevator stick will cause the aircraft to loop upward into vertical flight, continue into inverted flight, continue into a dive, and return to horizontal flight. A well-performed inside loop will look like clean circle with the same entry and exit point, and this requires management of power to overcome the tendency of gravity to shorten the upward portion and lengthen the downward portion. The inside loop is performed by: starting from level controlled flight increasing power to maximum and applying up elevator in the amount that yields desired loop curvature reducing the up elevator input to maintain loop curvature at the 2nd and 3rd quadrant reducing power at the 4th quadrant while adjusting elevator input to maintain curvature pulling back to level flight and increasing power while returning elevator to neutral
Artificial lifeform History Artificial_lifeform > History 1910: First identifiable use of the term synthetic biology in Stéphane Leduc's publication Théorie physico-chimique de la vie et générations spontanées. He also noted this term in another publication, La Biologie Synthétique in 1912.1944: Canadian-American scientist Oswald Avery shows that DNA is the material of which genes and chromosomes are made. This becomes the bedrock on which all subsequent genetic research is built.1953: Francis Crick and James Watson publish the structure of the DNA in Nature. 1961: Jacob and Monod postulate cellular regulation by molecular networks from their study of the lac operon in E. coli and envisioned the ability to assemble new systems from molecular components.1973: First molecular cloning and amplification of DNA in a plasmid is published in P.N.A.S.
Mathematical crystallography Theory Mathematical_crystallography > Theory Diffraction patterns arise from the constructive interference of incident radiation (x-rays, electrons, neutrons), scattered by the periodic, repeating features of the sample. Because of their highly ordered and repetitive atomic structure (Bravais lattice), crystals diffract x-rays in a coherent manner, also referred to as Bragg's reflection. The scattering of electrons is more complex, see the section on electron diffraction for more details.
Thomas Bradwardine Science Thomas_Bradwardine > Science Bradwardine's identification of this error was described by Ernest Moody as a "radical shift from Aristotelian dynamics to modern dynamics, initiated in the early fourteenth century." Aristotle's calculation of average speed was criticized by Bradwardine for not examining "the whole question of how moment-to-moment velocities are related within the whole time of the movement." Bradwardine also believed Aristotle contradicted himself with his explanation of resistance in motion.
Glomerular nephritis Nephrotic syndrome Glomerular_nephritis > Signs and symptoms > Nephrotic syndrome The nephrotic syndrome is characterised by the finding of edema in a person with increased protein in the urine and decreased protein in the blood, with increased fat in the blood. Inflammation that affects the cells surrounding the glomerulus, podocytes, increases the permeability to proteins, resulting in an increase in excreted proteins. When the amount of proteins excreted in the urine exceeds the liver's ability to compensate, fewer proteins are detected in the blood – in particular albumin, which makes up the majority of circulating proteins. With decreased proteins in the blood, there is a decrease in the oncotic pressure of the blood.
Arden's rule Application Arden's_lemma > Application Arden's rule can be used to help convert some finite automatons to regular expressions, as in Kleene's algorithm.
Remdesivir Summary Remdesivir Remdesivir, sold under the brand name Veklury, is a broad-spectrum antiviral medication developed by the biopharmaceutical company Gilead Sciences. It is administered via injection into a vein. During the COVID‑19 pandemic, remdesivir was approved or authorized for emergency use to treat COVID‑19 in numerous countries.Remdesivir was originally developed to treat hepatitis C, and was subsequently investigated for Ebola virus disease and Marburg virus infections before being studied as a post-infection treatment for COVID‑19.Remdesivir is a prodrug that is intended to allow intracellular delivery of GS-441524 monophosphate and subsequent biotransformation into GS-441524 triphosphate, a ribonucleotide analogue inhibitor of viral RNA polymerase.The most common side effect in healthy volunteers is raised blood levels of liver enzymes. The most common side effect in people with COVID‑19 is nausea. Side effects may include liver inflammation and an infusion-related reaction with nausea, low blood pressure, and sweating.The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) considers it to be a first-in-class medication.
Cosmetic dentistry Bridging Cosmetic_dentistry > Common cosmetic dentistry options > Types > Bridging Dental bridges are used to replace one or more missing teeth. Teeth on both sides of the space left by the missing teeth are prepared. A bridge is made up of abutments, the teeth that are prepped, and the missing, false teeth, which are called pontics. This procedure is used to replace one or more missing teeth and is cemented in.
Cognitive Tutor Summary Cognitive_Tutor A cognitive tutor is a particular kind of intelligent tutoring system that utilizes a cognitive model to provide feedback to students as they are working through problems. This feedback will immediately inform students of the correctness, or incorrectness, of their actions in the tutor interface; however, cognitive tutors also have the ability to provide context-sensitive hints and instruction to guide students towards reasonable next steps.
Multidimensional discrete convolution Separable signals Multidimensional_discrete_convolution > Row-column decomposition with separable signals > Separable signals . , n M ) = δ ( n 1 ) δ ( n 2 ) . .
Borel summation Summary Borel_summability In mathematics, Borel summation is a summation method for divergent series, introduced by Émile Borel (1899). It is particularly useful for summing divergent asymptotic series, and in some sense gives the best possible sum for such series. There are several variations of this method that are also called Borel summation, and a generalization of it called Mittag-Leffler summation.
Thermal Energy Storage Molecular bonds Thermal_storage > Categories > Thermo-chemical heat storage > Molecular bonds It is designed by taking an indication from, well known, natural photosynthesis. The DSPEC generates hydrogen fuel by making use of the acquired solar energy to split water molecules into its elements. As the result of this split, the hydrogen is isolated and the oxygen is released into the air.
Symbol grounding Functionalism Symbol_grounding > Functionalism How would we know that we have a proper computer algorithm? It would have to be able to pass the Turing test. That means it would have to be capable of corresponding with any human being as a pen-pal, for a lifetime, without ever being in any way distinguishable from a real human pen-pal.
Function and Concept Overview Function_and_Concept > Overview In general, a concept is a function whose value is always a truth value (139). A relation is a two place function whose value is always a truth value (146). Frege draws an important distinction between concepts on the basis of their level.
Lazy deletion Summary Lazy_deletion In computer science, lazy deletion refers to a method of deleting elements from a hash table that uses open addressing. In this method, deletions are done by marking an element as deleted, rather than erasing it entirely. Deleted locations are treated as empty when inserting and as occupied during a search. The deleted locations are sometimes referred to as tombstones.The problem with this scheme is that as the number of delete/insert operations increases, the cost of a successful search increases.
CAD kernel Summary CAD_kernel Granite is developed by Parametric Technology Corporation. C3D Modeler is developed by C3D Labs, part of the ASCON Group. CGAL is an opensource Computational Geometry Algorithms Library which has support for boolean operations on Polyhedra; but no sweep, revolve or NURBS.
Phosphinidene Stable monomeric phosphino-phosphinidene Phosphinidene > Stable monomeric phosphino-phosphinidene The air/water sensitivity and high solubility of this compound prevented characterization by X-ray crystallography. Density functional theory and Natural bond orbital (NBO) calculations were used to gain insight into the structure and bonding of these phosphino-phosphinidenes. DFT calculations at the M06-2X/Def2-SVP level of theory on the phospino-phosphinidene with bulky 2,6-bis-4-methylphenyl groups suggest that the tri-coordinated phosphorus atom exists in a planar environment.
Francium Summary Francium The electronic structure of a francium atom is 7s1; thus, the element is classed as an alkali metal. Bulk francium has never been seen. Because of the general appearance of the other elements in its periodic table column, it is presumed that francium would appear as a highly reactive metal if enough could be collected together to be viewed as a bulk solid or liquid.
Binary decision Summary Binary_decision A binary decision is a choice between two alternatives, for instance between taking some specific action or not taking it.Binary decisions are basic to many fields. Examples include: Truth values in mathematical logic, and the corresponding Boolean data type in computer science, representing a value which may be chosen to be either true or false. Conditional statements (if-then or if-then-else) in computer science, binary decisions about which piece of code to execute next. Decision trees and binary decision diagrams, representations for sequences of binary decisions. Binary choice, a statistical model for the outcome of a binary decision.
Cygnus X-1 Compact object Cygnus_X-1 > Binary system > Compact object As self-luminous clumps of matter spiral into a black hole, their radiation is emitted in a series of pulses that are subject to gravitational redshift as the material approaches the horizon. That is, the wavelengths of the radiation steadily increase, as predicted by general relativity. Matter hitting a solid, compact object would emit a final burst of energy, whereas material passing through an event horizon would not.
Photon rocket Maximum speed limit Photon_rocket > Maximum speed limit Standard theory says that the theoretical speed limit of a photon rocket is below the speed of light. Haug has recently suggested a maximum speed limit for an ideal photon rocket that is just below the speed of light. However, his claims have been contested by Tommasini et al., because such velocity is formulated for the relativistic mass and is therefore frame-dependent. Regardless of the photon generator characteristics, onboard photon rockets powered with nuclear fission and fusion have speed limits from the efficiency of these processes.
Periodic boundary conditions Summary Periodic_boundary_condition A common application uses PBC to simulate solvated macromolecules in a bath of explicit solvent. Born–von Karman boundary conditions are periodic boundary conditions for a special system. In electromagnetics, PBC can be applied for different mesh types to analyze the electromagnetic properties of periodical structures.
Asteroid laser ablation In operation Asteroid_laser_ablation > In operation As the material becomes a gas it is pushed away from the asteroid and by Newton's third law, it also pushes back on the asteroid with an equal force, called a thrust. Newton's second law states that force is equal to mass times acceleration, or F=ma. Although the thrust on the asteroid is tiny in comparison to the asteroid's mass, by Newton's second law there will still be some small acceleration.
Pythagorean equation Rearrangement proofs Pythagoras's_theorem > Proofs using constructed squares > Rearrangement proofs With the area of the four triangles removed from both side of the equation what remains is a 2 + b 2 = c 2 . {\displaystyle a^{2}+b^{2}=c^{2}.} In another proof rectangles in the second box can also be placed such that both have one corner that correspond to consecutive corners of the square.
Loop representation in gauge theories and quantum gravity Summary Loop_representation_in_gauge_theories_and_quantum_gravity Attempts have been made to describe gauge theories in terms of extended objects such as Wilson loops and holonomies. The loop representation is a quantum hamiltonian representation of gauge theories in terms of loops. The aim of the loop representation in the context of Yang–Mills theories is to avoid the redundancy introduced by Gauss gauge symmetries allowing to work directly in the space of physical states (Gauss gauge invariant states). The idea is well known in the context of lattice Yang–Mills theory (see lattice gauge theory).
Mushroom cloud Radioisotopes Mushroom_cloud > Nuclear mushroom clouds > Radioisotopes Considerable amounts of neptunium-239 and uranium-237 are indicators of a fission-fusion-fission explosion. Minor amounts of uranium-240 are also formed, and capture of large numbers of neutrons by individual nuclei leads to formation of small but detectable amounts of higher transuranium elements, e.g. einsteinium-255 and fermium-255.One of the important fission products is krypton-90, a radioactive noble gas. It diffuses easily in the cloud, and undergoes two decays to rubidium-90 and then strontium-90, with half-lives of 33 seconds and 3 minutes.
Motivic Galois group Explanation for non-specialists Mixed_motive_(math) > Explanation for non-specialists Another way to handle the question is to attach to a given variety X an object of more linear nature, i.e. an object amenable to the techniques of linear algebra, for example a vector space. This "linearization" goes usually under the name of cohomology. There are several important cohomology theories, which reflect different structural aspects of varieties.
Units of selection Summary Levels_of_selection A unit of selection is a biological entity within the hierarchy of biological organization (for example, an entity such as: a self-replicating molecule, a gene, a cell, an organism, a group, or a species) that is subject to natural selection. There is debate among evolutionary biologists about the extent to which evolution has been shaped by selective pressures acting at these different levels.There is debate over the relative importance of the units themselves. For instance, is it group or individual selection that has driven the evolution of altruism? Where altruism reduces the fitness of individuals, individual-centered explanations for the evolution of altruism become complex and rely on the use of game theory, for instance; see kin selection and group selection. There also is debate over the definition of the units themselves, and the roles for selection and replication, and whether these roles may change in the course of evolution.
Transcription coupled repair Decline in NER with aging Transcription-coupled_nucleotide_excision_repair > Aging > Decline in NER with aging As reviewed by Gorbunova et al., studies of NER in different cells and tissues from young and old individuals frequently have shown a decrease in NER capacity with increasing age. This decline may be due to reduced constitutive levels of proteins employed in the NER pathway.
Generalized eigenvectors Overview and definition Jordan_chain > Overview and definition The matrix M {\displaystyle M} in this case is called a generalized modal matrix for A {\displaystyle A} . If λ {\displaystyle \lambda } is an eigenvalue of algebraic multiplicity μ {\displaystyle \mu } , then A {\displaystyle A} will have μ {\displaystyle \mu } linearly independent generalized eigenvectors corresponding to λ {\displaystyle \lambda } . These results, in turn, provide a straightforward method for computing certain matrix functions of A {\displaystyle A} .Note: For an n × n {\displaystyle n\times n} matrix A {\displaystyle A} over a field F {\displaystyle F} to be expressed in Jordan normal form, all eigenvalues of A {\displaystyle A} must be in F {\displaystyle F} . That is, the characteristic polynomial f ( x ) {\displaystyle f(x)} must factor completely into linear factors. For example, if A {\displaystyle A} has real-valued elements, then it may be necessary for the eigenvalues and the components of the eigenvectors to have complex values.The set spanned by all generalized eigenvectors for a given λ {\displaystyle \lambda } forms the generalized eigenspace for λ {\displaystyle \lambda } .
Data Structure Language support Data_Structure > Language support Some provide opaque data types that allow clients to hide implementation details. Object-oriented programming languages, such as C++, Java, and Smalltalk, typically use classes for this purpose. Many known data structures have concurrent versions which allow multiple computing threads to access a single concrete instance of a data structure simultaneously.
Electrolytic capacitor Lifetime Electrolytic_capacitors > Operational characteristics > Lifetime The lower these parameters compared to their maximum values, the longer the capacitor's “life”. The “end of life” point is defined by the appearance of wear-out failures or degradation failures when either capacitance, impedance, ESR or leakage current exceed their specified change limits. The lifetime is a specification of a collection of tested capacitors and delivers an expectation of the behavior of similar types.
Cognitive Biology University workgroup Cognitive_Biology > Academic usage > University workgroup The University of Adelaide has established a "Cognitive Biology" workgroup using this operating concept: Cognition is, first and foremost, a natural biological phenomenon — regardless of how the engineering of artificial intelligence proceeds. As such, it makes sense to approach cognition like other biological phenomena. This means first assuming a meaningful degree of continuity among different types of organisms—an assumption borne out more and more by comparative biology, especially genomics—studying simple model systems (e.g., microbes, worms, flies) to understand the basics, then scaling up to more complex examples, such as mammals and primates, including humans. Members of the group study the biological literature on simple organisms (e.g., nematode) in regard to cognitive process and look for homologues in more complex organisms (e.g., crow) already well studied.
Path integrals in polymer science Many-polymer systems Path_integrals_in_polymer_science > Many-polymer systems In the limit of very large concentrations, imagined by an almost completely filled lattice, the density fluctuations become less and less important. To begin with, let us generalize the path integral formulation to many chains. The generalization for the partition function calculation is very simple and all that has to be done is to take into account the interaction between all the chain segments: Z = ∫ ∏ α = 1 n p D R → α ( ν ) exp ⁡ { − β H ( ) } {\displaystyle Z=\int \prod _{\alpha =1}^{n_{p}}{\mathcal {D}}{\vec {R}}_{\alpha }(\nu )\exp\{-\beta {\mathcal {H}}()\}} Where the weighed energy states are defined as: β H ( ) = 3 2 l 2 ∑ α = 1 n p ∫ 0 N α ( ∂ R → α ∂ ν ) 2 d ν + 1 2 σ ∑ α , β = 1 n p ∫ 0 N α d ν ∫ 0 N β d ν ′ δ ( R → α ( ν ) − R → β ( ν ′ ) ) {\displaystyle \displaystyle \beta {\mathcal {H}}()={\frac {3}{2l^{2}}}\sum _{\alpha =1}^{n_{p}}\int _{0}^{N_{\alpha }}\left({\frac {\partial {\vec {R}}_{\alpha }}{\partial \nu }}\right)^{2}d\nu +{\frac {1}{2}}\sigma \sum _{\alpha ,\beta =1}^{n_{p}}\int _{0}^{N_{\alpha }}d\nu \int _{0}^{N_{\beta }}d\nu '\delta ({\vec {R}}_{\alpha }(\nu )-{\vec {R}}_{\beta }(\nu '))} With n p {\displaystyle n_{p}} denoting the number of polymers.
Byzantine technology Science and Daily Life Byzantine_technology > Science and Daily Life The result was partly successful as the surviving twin lived three days before dying. The fact that the second person survived for few days after separating him was still being mentioned a century and a half later by historians. The next recorded case of separating conjoined twins was 1689 in Germany.
Kernel density estimation Example Kernel_density_estimation > Example For the kernel density estimate, normal kernels with variance 2.25 (indicated by the red dashed lines) are placed on each of the data points xi. The kernels are summed to make the kernel density estimate (solid blue curve). The smoothness of the kernel density estimate (compared to the discreteness of the histogram) illustrates how kernel density estimates converge faster to the true underlying density for continuous random variables.
Robust Regression and Outlier Detection Background Robust_Regression_and_Outlier_Detection > Background The breakdown point of a robust regression method is the fraction of outlying data that it can tolerate while remaining accurate. For this style of analysis, higher breakdown points are better. The breakdown point for ordinary least squares is near zero (a single outlier can make the fit become arbitrarily far from the remaining uncorrupted data) while some other methods have breakdown points as high as 50%. Although these methods require few assumptions about the data, and work well for data whose noise is not well understood, they may have somewhat lower efficiency than ordinary least squares (requiring more data for a given accuracy of fit) and their implementation may be complex and slow.
Billiard table Dimensions Billiards_table > Snooker and English billiards tables > Dimensions The playing area of a tournament snooker table, as standardized by the World Professional Billiards and Snooker Association (WPBSA) and the amateur International Billiards and Snooker Federation (IBSF), measures 11 feet 8.5 inches by 5 ft 10 in (3569 mm by 1778 mm) with a tolerance of ± 0.5 in (13 mm), though commonly referred to as 12 ft by 6 ft, the nominal outer dimensions including the rails. Smaller tables, approximately 10 ft by 5 ft down to half size, are also sometimes used in pubs, homes and smaller snooker halls. The height from the floor to the top of the cushion is between 2 ft 9.5 in and 2 ft 10.5 in (851 mm and 876 mm).
Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops 2007-Present Canadian_Bioinformatics_Workshops > 2007-Present The Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops began offering the 2-day advanced topic workshops in 2008. All workshop material is licensed under a Creative Commons-Share Alike 2.5 license and is available on the Bioinformatics.ca website. The CBW is sponsored by the Canadian Institute of Health Research and the Ontario Institute for Cancer Research.
Infectious causes of cancer H. pylori, a common oncogenic bacterium Infectious_causes_of_cancer > Bacteria > H. pylori, a common oncogenic bacterium The increase in 8-OHdG likely increases mutation. In addition, oxidative stress, with high levels of 8-OHdG in DNA, also affects genome stability by altering chromatin status. Such alterations can lead to abnormal methylation of promoters of tumor suppressor genes.In addition to mutations caused by the direct damage to DNA by H. pylori-induced ROS, H. pylori-induced carcinogenic mutations and protein expression alterations are very often a result of H. pylori-induced epigenetic alterations.
Glycopyrronium bromide/formoterol Summary Glycopyrronium_bromide/formoterol Glycopyrronium bromide/formoterol, sold under the brand name Bevespi Aerosphere, is a combination medication for the maintenance treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). It is a combination of glycopyrronium bromide and formoterol. It is inhaled.The most common side effects include headache, nausea (feeling sick), muscle spasms and dizziness.Glycopyrronium bromide is a muscarinic receptor antagonist. This means that it blocks muscarinic receptors (targets) in muscle cells in the lungs.
Steven A. Benner Artificial genetic systems Steven_A._Benner > Research > Artificial genetic systems Efforts toward the goal of artificial genetic systems were first reported by Benner and coworkers in 1989, when they developed the first unnatural base pair. Benner and his colleagues have since developed a six-letter artificially expanded genetic information system called Artificially Expanded Genetic Information System (AEGIS) which includes two additional nonstandard nucleotides (Z and P) in addition to the four standard nucleotides (G, A, C, and T). AEGIS has its own supporting molecular biology. It enables the synthesis of proteins with more than the naturally-encoded 20 amino acids, and provides insight into how nucleic acids form duplex structures, how proteins interact with nucleic acids, and how alternative genetic systems might appear in non-terran life.Benner is one of a number of researchers, including Eric T. Kool, Floyd E. Romesberg, Ichiro Hirao, Mitsuhiko Shionoya and Andrew Ellington, who have created an extended alphabet of synthetic bases that can be incorporated into DNA (as well as RNA) using Watson-Crick bonding (as well as non-Watson-Crick bonding).
Wallerian degeneration Clearance in CNS Wallerian_degeneration > Myelin clearance > Clearance in CNS Therefore, CNS rates of myelin sheath clearance are very slow and could possibly be the cause for hindrance in the regeneration capabilities of the CNS axons as no growth factors are available to attract the proximal axons. Another feature that results eventually is Glial scar formation. This further hinders chances for regeneration and reinnervation.
Gradient-index lens History Gradient_index_lens > History This also limited the applications of the lens because it was difficult to use it to focus visible light; however, it had some usefulness in microwave applications. Some years later several new techniques have been developed to fabricate lenses of the Wood type. Since then at least the thinner GRIN lenses can possess surprisingly good imaging properties considering their very simple mechanical construction, while thicker GRIN lenses found application e.g. in Selfoc rods.
Triboelectric charging Friction and adhesion from tribocharging Contact_electrification > Examples > Friction and adhesion from tribocharging Similar to rolling friction there are energy terms in charge transfer, which contribute to friction. In static friction there is coupling between elastic strains, polarization and surface charge which contributes to the frictional force. In sliding friction, when asperities contact and there is charge transfer, some of the charge returns as the contacts are released, some does not and will contribute to the macroscopically observed friction.
Validation set Validation data set Validation_set > Validation data set The basic process of using a validation data set for model selection (as part of training data set, validation data set, and test data set) is: Since our goal is to find the network having the best performance on new data, the simplest approach to the comparison of different networks is to evaluate the error function using data which is independent of that used for training. Various networks are trained by minimization of an appropriate error function defined with respect to a training data set. The performance of the networks is then compared by evaluating the error function using an independent validation set, and the network having the smallest error with respect to the validation set is selected.
Mellin transform Relationship to other transforms Mellin_transform > Relationship to other transforms {\displaystyle \left\{{\mathcal {M}}f\right\}(s)=\left\{{\mathcal {B}}f(e^{-x})\right\}(s)=\left\{{\mathcal {F}}f(e^{-x})\right\}(-is)\ .} The Mellin transform also connects the Newton series or binomial transform together with the Poisson generating function, by means of the Poisson–Mellin–Newton cycle. The Mellin transform may also be viewed as the Gelfand transform for the convolution algebra of the locally compact abelian group of positive real numbers with multiplication.
Track bike Gear ratio Track_bike > Gear ratio Without a good jump, the rider risks opponents accelerating away; without good sustained speed, the rider will be unable to keep up with a fast race. Track sprinters make a compromise by using particular gear ratios that allows them to reach race speeds at a relatively high cadence (pedalling), around 130-135 revolutions per minute (r/min).Long-distance attempts such as the hour record sometimes use high gear combinations such as 52×12 or 55×14. Ondřej Sosenka used 54×13 with 190 mm cranks to set the 2005 record.
Pure apocrine carcinoma of the breast Histopathology Pure_apocrine_carcinoma_of_the_breast > Pathology > Histopathology The tumor cells have low to moderate rates of proliferation based on their Ki-67 protein levels. PACB tissues may have localized areas that contain mucin-like secretions within their luminal ducts, localized areas of necrosis (i.e. foci containing dead or dying cells), and/or microcalcifications spotted throughout the apocrine tissue. The stroma (i.e. connective tissue between the sheets, nests, papilla and cords of cells) typically contains non-malignant, infiltrating lymphocytes (see Fig. 3).
Tetralogy of Fallot Comorbidities Tetralogy_of_Fallot > Comorbidities In patients with pulmonary atresia, there is complete failure of forward flow from the right ventricle to the pulmonary arterial vasculature. As such, pulmonary blood flow is entirely dependent on shunting from the systemic circulation, typically through a patent ductus arteriosus. The pathophysiology of TOF together with pulmonary arteriosus is uniquely attributable to defects of the pulmonary arteries.
Functional verification Types Functional_verification > Types Generators create inputs at a high level of abstraction, namely, as transactions or assembly language. The drivers convert this input into actual design inputs as defined in the specification of the design's interface. The simulator produces the outputs of the design, based on the design's current state (the state of the flip-flops) and the injected inputs.
Magnetofection Summary Magnetofection Magnetofection is a transfection method that uses magnetic fields to concentrate particles containing vectors to target cells in the body. Magnetofection has been adapted to a variety of vectors, including nucleic acids, non-viral transfection systems, and viruses. This method offers advantages such as high transfection efficiency and biocompatibility which are balanced with limitations.
Chemical Synthesis Summary Chemical_syntheses A chemical synthesis involves one or more compounds (known as reagents or reactants) that will experience a transformation when subjected to certain conditions. Various reaction types can be applied to formulate a desired product. This requires mixing the compounds in a reaction vessel, such as a chemical reactor or a simple round-bottom flask.
Axiom of Regularity Summary Axiom_of_Regularity In mathematics, the axiom of regularity (also known as the axiom of foundation) is an axiom of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory that states that every non-empty set A contains an element that is disjoint from A. In first-order logic, the axiom reads: ∀ x ( x ≠ ∅ → ∃ y ( y ∈ x ∧ y ∩ x = ∅ ) ) . {\displaystyle \forall x\,(x\neq \varnothing \rightarrow \exists y(y\in x\ \land y\cap x=\varnothing )).} The axiom of regularity together with the axiom of pairing implies that no set is an element of itself, and that there is no infinite sequence (an) such that ai+1 is an element of ai for all i. With the axiom of dependent choice (which is a weakened form of the axiom of choice), this result can be reversed: if there are no such infinite sequences, then the axiom of regularity is true. Hence, in this context the axiom of regularity is equivalent to the sentence that there are no downward infinite membership chains.
Endobronchial valve Summary Endobronchial_valve An endobronchial valve (EBV), is a small, one-way valve, which may be implanted in an airway feeding the lung or part of lung. The valve allows air to be breathed out of the section of lung supplied, and prevents air from being breathed in. This leaves the rest of the lung to expand more normally and avoid air-trapping. Endobronchial valves are typically implanted using a flexible delivery catheter advanced through a bronchoscope in minimally invasive bronchoscopic lung volume reduction procedures in the treatment of severe emphysema. The valves are also removable if they are not working properly.
Empirical modelling Empirical Modelling as a variety of empirical modelling Empirical_model > Empirical Modelling > Empirical Modelling as a variety of empirical modelling Empirical modelling is a generic term for activities that create models by observation and experiment. Empirical Modelling (with the initial letters capitalised, and often abbreviated to EM) refers to a specific variety of empirical modelling in which models are constructed following particular principles. Though the extent to which these principles can be applied to model-building without computers is an interesting issue (to be revisited below), there are at least two good reasons to consider Empirical Modelling in the first instance as computer-based. Without doubt, computer technologies have had a transformative impact where the full exploitation of Empirical Modelling principles is concerned.
Address bus Memory bus Bus_(computing) > Memory bus The memory bus is the bus which connects the main memory to the memory controller in computer systems. Originally, general-purpose buses like VMEbus and the S-100 bus were used, but to reduce latency, modern memory buses are designed to connect directly to DRAM chips, and thus are designed by chip standards bodies such as JEDEC. Examples are the various generations of SDRAM, and serial point-to-point buses like SLDRAM and RDRAM. An exception is the Fully Buffered DIMM which, despite being carefully designed to minimize the effect, has been criticized for its higher latency.
Bohrium Chemical Bohrium > Predicted properties > Chemical The oxide should dissolve in water to form perbohric acid, HBhO4. Rhenium and technetium form a range of oxyhalides from the halogenation of the oxide. The chlorination of the oxide forms the oxychlorides MO3Cl, so BhO3Cl should be formed in this reaction.
Kernel memory Memory management Operating_system_kernel > Memory management This allows every program to behave as if it is the only one (apart from the kernel) running and thus prevents applications from crashing each other.On many systems, a program's virtual address may refer to data which is not currently in memory. The layer of indirection provided by virtual addressing allows the operating system to use other data stores, like a hard drive, to store what would otherwise have to remain in main memory (RAM). As a result, operating systems can allow programs to use more memory than the system has physically available.
Microbial genetics Archaea Microbial_genetics > Microorganisms whose study is encompassed by microbial genetics > Archaea Archaea is a domain of organisms that are prokaryotic, single-celled, and are thought to have developed 4 billion years ago. "They have no cell nucleus or any other organelles inside their cells. "Archaea replicate asexually in a process known as binary fission. The cell division cycle includes when chromosomes of daughter cells replicate.

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