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Circular section Tri-axial ellipsoid Circular_section > Tri-axial ellipsoid In case of r = a {\displaystyle \ r=a\ } or r = c {\displaystyle \ r=c\ } the equation is only fulfilled by either the x-axis or the z-axis. Only in case of r = b {\displaystyle \ r=b\ } one gets a pair of planes with equation ( b 2 a 2 − 1 ) x 2 + ( b 2 c 2 − 1 ) z 2 = 0 ↔ z = ± c a a 2 − b 2 b 2 − c 2 x , {\displaystyle \left({\frac {b^{2}}{a^{2}}}-1\right)\;x^{2}+\left({\frac {b^{2}}{c^{2}}}-1\right)\;z^{2}=0\ \quad \leftrightarrow \quad z=\pm {\tfrac {c}{a}}{\sqrt {\tfrac {a^{2}-b^{2}}{b^{2}-c^{2}}}}\;x\ ,} because only in this case the remaining coefficients have different signs (due to: a > b > c {\displaystyle a>b>c} ). The diagram gives an impression of more common intersections between a sphere and an ellipsoid and highlights the exceptional circular case (blue).
Soil pore Electrical resistivity imaging Soil_pore > Modeling methods > Electrical resistivity imaging Using the infinite resistivity of air, the air spaces within a soil can be mapped. A specially designed resistivity meter had improved the meter-soil contact and therefore the area of the reading. This technology can be used to produce images that can be analysed for a range of cracking properties.
Stack-oriented programming Anatomy of some typical procedures Stack-oriented_programming_language > PostScript stacks > Anatomy of some typical procedures This procedure does not use named variables, purely the stack. Named variables can be created by using the /a exch def construct. For example, {/n exch def n n mul} is a squaring procedure with a named variable n. Assuming that /sq {/n exch def n n mul} def and 3 sq is called, the procedure sq is analysed in the following way: stack: 3 /n exch stack: /n 3 def stack: empty (it has been defined) n stack: 3 n stack: 3 3 mul stack: 9 which is the expected result.
Finger ring Summary Finger_ring A ring is a round band, usually made of metal, worn as ornamental jewelry. The term "ring" by itself always denotes jewellery worn on the finger; when worn as an ornament elsewhere, the body part is specified within the term, e.g., earrings, neck rings, arm rings, and toe rings. Rings always fit snugly around or in the part of the body they ornament, so bands worn loosely, like a bracelet, are not rings. Rings may be made of almost any hard material: wood, bone, stone, metal, glass, gemstone or plastic.
Period 6 element Tantalum Period_6_element > d-block elements > Tantalum Tantalum is a chemical element with the symbol Ta and atomic number 73. Previously known as tantalium, the name comes from Tantalus, a character from Greek mythology. Tantalum is a rare, hard, blue-gray, lustrous transition metal that is highly corrosion resistant.
RNA-directed DNA methylation Transposable element silencing and genome stability RNA-directed_DNA_methylation > Biological functions > Transposable element silencing and genome stability Although the RdDM mechanism itself is unique to plants, using DNA methylation to silence TEs is a common strategy among eukaryotes.RdDM primarily targets small TEs and TE fragments near genes, which are usually in open, accessible euchromatic regions of the genome that are permissive for gene expression. In these regions, the ‘active’ chromatin state has a tendency to spread from expressed genes to nearby repressed regions, like TEs, which can cause these TEs to become activated and transpose. Continuous activity by RdDM opposes the spread of active chromatin, maintaining a silent, repressive heterochromatic state over TEs in these otherwise euchromatic regions.
Philosophy of physics Interpretations of quantum mechanics Philosophy_of_physics > Philosophy of quantum mechanics > Interpretations of quantum mechanics Features common to Copenhagen-type interpretations include the idea that quantum mechanics is intrinsically indeterministic, with probabilities calculated using the Born rule, and the principle of complementarity, which states that objects have certain pairs of complementary properties that cannot all be observed or measured simultaneously. Moreover, the act of "observing" or "measuring" an object is irreversible, and no truth can be attributed to an object, except according to the results of its measurement. Copenhagen-type interpretations hold that quantum descriptions are objective, in that they are independent of any arbitrary factors in the physicist's mind.
Polynomial root-finding algorithms Finding one root Polynomial_root-finding_algorithms > Finding one root In fact, the problem of finding the roots of a polynomial from its coefficients can be highly ill-conditioned. This is illustrated by Wilkinson's polynomial: the roots of this polynomial of degree 20 are the 20 first positive integers; changing the last bit of the 32-bit representation of one of its coefficient (equal to –210) produces a polynomial with only 10 real roots and 10 complex roots with imaginary parts larger than 0.6. Closely related to Newton's method are Halley's method and Laguerre's method.
Methodological naturalism Providing assumptions required for science Philosophical_naturalism > Providing assumptions required for science By explaining past changes by analogy with present phenomena, a limit is set to conjecture, for there is only one way in which two things are equal, but there are an infinity of ways in which they could be supposed different." That experimental procedures will be done satisfactorily without any deliberate or unintentional mistakes that will influence the results. That experimenters won't be significantly biased by their presumptions. That random sampling is representative of the entire population.A simple random sample (SRS) is the most basic probabilistic option used for creating a sample from a population. The benefit of SRS is that the investigator is guaranteed to choose a sample that represents the population that ensures statistically valid conclusions.
Clark Glymour Journal articles Clark_Glymour > Publications > Journal articles (with Silva, Ricardo, Richard Scheines, and Peter Spirtes). "Learning Measurement Models for Unobserved Variables", UAI '03, Proceedings of the 19th Conference in Uncertainty in Artificial Intelligence, August 7–10, 2003, Acapulco, Mexico (2003), 543–550. (with Danks, David and Peter Spirtes).
Intermittent Explosive Disorder DSM-IV diagnosis Intermittent_Explosive_Disorder > Diagnosis (Intermittent Explosive Disorder) > DSM-IV diagnosis The past DSM-IV criteria for IED were similar to the current criteria, however, verbal aggression was not considered as part of the diagnostic criteria. The DSM-IV diagnosis was characterized by the occurrence of discrete episodes of failure to resist aggressive impulses that result in violent assault or destruction of property. Additionally, the degree of aggressiveness expressed during an episode should be grossly disproportionate to provocation or precipitating psychosocial stressor, and, as previously stated, diagnosis is made when certain other mental disorders have been ruled out, e.g., a head injury, Alzheimer's disease, etc., or due to substance use or medication. Diagnosis is made using a psychiatric interview to affective and behavioral symptoms to the criteria listed in the DSM-IV.The DSM-IV-TR was very specific in its definition of Intermittent Explosive Disorder which was defined, essentially, by the exclusion of other conditions. The diagnosis required: several episodes of impulsive behavior that result in serious damage to either persons or property, wherein the degree of the aggressiveness is grossly disproportionate to the circumstances or provocation, and the episodic violence cannot be better accounted for by another mental or physical medical condition.
Local outlier factor Formal Local_outlier_factor > Formal Let k-distance(A) be the distance of the object A to the k-th nearest neighbor. Note that the set of the k nearest neighbors includes all objects at this distance, which can in the case of a "tie" be more than k objects. We denote the set of k nearest neighbors as Nk(A). This distance is used to define what is called reachability distance: reachability-distancek(A,B)=max{k-distance(B), d(A,B)} In words, the reachability distance of an object A from B is the true distance of the two objects, but at least the k-distance of B. Objects that belong to the k nearest neighbors of B (the "core" of B, see DBSCAN cluster analysis) are considered to be equally distant.
Sin (trigonometry) Unit circle definitions Cosine_(trigonometric_function) > Definitions > Unit circle definitions The length of the opposite side of the triangle is simply the y-coordinate. A similar argument can be made for the cosine function to show that cos ⁡ ( θ ) = adjacent hypotenuse {\displaystyle \cos(\theta )={\frac {\text{adjacent}}{\text{hypotenuse}}}} when 0 < θ < π 2 {\displaystyle 0<\theta <{\frac {\pi }{2}}} , even under the new definition using the unit circle.
Secreta Mulierum Chapters Secreta_Mulierum > Chapters On the Generation of the Embryo On the Formation of the Fetus Concerning the Influence of the Planets On the Generation of Imperfect Animals On the Exit of the Fetus From the Uterus Concerning Monsters in Nature On the Signs of Conception On the Signs of Whether a Male or Female Is In the Uterus On the Signs of Corruption of Virginity On the Signs of Chastity Concerning a Defect of the Womb Concerning Impediments to Conception On the Generation of the Sperm
Epigenome-wide association study (EWAS) Retrospective (case-control) Epigenome-wide_association_study_(EWAS) > Methods > Types of Study Designs > Retrospective (case-control) Retrospective studies compare unrelated individuals who fall into two categories, controls without the disease or phenotype of interest, and cases who have the phenotype of interest. An advantage of such studies is that many cohorts of case-control samples already exist with available genotype and expression data that can be integrated with epigenome data. A downside, however, is that they cannot determine whether epigenetic differences are a result of disease-associated genetic differences, post-disease processes or disease-associated drug interventions.
DNA lesions Pathological effects of poor DNA repair DNA-damage_response > Aging > Pathological effects of poor DNA repair Experimental animals with genetic deficiencies in DNA repair often show decreased life span and increased cancer incidence. For example, mice deficient in the dominant NHEJ pathway and in telomere maintenance mechanisms get lymphoma and infections more often, and, as a consequence, have shorter lifespans than wild-type mice. In similar manner, mice deficient in a key repair and transcription protein that unwinds DNA helices have premature onset of aging-related diseases and consequent shortening of lifespan. However, not every DNA repair deficiency creates exactly the predicted effects; mice deficient in the NER pathway exhibited shortened life span without correspondingly higher rates of mutation.The maximum life spans of mice, naked mole-rats and humans are respectively ~3, ~30 and ~129 years.
Orbital momentum vector Angular momentum in any number of dimensions Relative_angular_momentum > Definition in classical mechanics > Angular momentum in any number of dimensions Angular momentum can be defined in terms of the cross product only in three dimensions. Defining it as the bivector L = r ∧ p {\displaystyle \mathbf {L} =\mathbf {r} \wedge \mathbf {p} } , where ∧ {\displaystyle \wedge } is the exterior product, is valid in any number of dimensions. This exterior product is equivalent to an antisymmetric tensor of degree 2, which also applies in any number of dimensions. Namely, if x i {\displaystyle x_{i}} is a position vector and p i {\displaystyle p_{i}} is the linear momentum vector, then we can define In the general case of summed angular momenta from multiple particles, this antisymmetric tensor has n ( n − 1 ) / 2 {\displaystyle n(n-1)/2} independent components (degrees of freedom), where n {\displaystyle n} is the number of dimensions. In the usual three-dimensional case it has 3 independent components, which allows us to identify it with a 3 dimensional pseudovector M = ( M x , M y , M z ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {M} =(M_{x},M_{y},M_{z})} . The components of this vector relate to the components of the rank 2 tensor as follows:
Internet of Musical Things Introduction Internet_of_Musical_Things > Introduction The term "Internet of Things" (IoT) is extensible to any everyday object connected to the internet, having its capabilities increased by exchanging information with other elements present in the network to achieve a common goal. Thanks to the technological advances that have occurred in the last decades, its use has spread to several areas of performance, assisting in medical analysis, traffic control and home security. When its concepts meet music, the Internet of Music Things (IoMusT) emerges. The term "Internet of Musical Things" also receives numerous classifications, according to the use of certain authors.
Resistive random-access memory Forming Resistive_RAM > Forming The basic idea is that a dielectric, which is normally insulating, can be made to conduct through a filament or conduction path formed after application of a sufficiently high voltage. The conduction path can arise from different mechanisms, including vacancy or metal defect migration. Once the filament is formed, it may be reset (broken, resulting in high resistance) or set (re-formed, resulting in lower resistance) by another voltage.
Beta function (physics) Standard Model Higgs–Yukawa Couplings Beta_function_(physics) > Examples > Standard Model Higgs–Yukawa Couplings In the Standard Model, quarks and leptons have "Yukawa couplings" to the Higgs boson. These determine the mass of the particle. Most all of the quarks' and leptons' Yukawa couplings are small compared to the top quark's Yukawa coupling. These Yukawa couplings change their values depending on the energy scale at which they are measured, through running.
Quantity calculus Summary Quantity_calculus Quantity calculus is the formal method for describing the mathematical relations between abstract physical quantities.Its roots can be traced to Fourier's concept of dimensional analysis (1822). The basic axiom of quantity calculus is Maxwell's description of a physical quantity as the product of a "numerical value" and a "reference quantity" (i.e. a "unit quantity" or a "unit of measurement"). De Boer summarized the multiplication, division, addition, association and commutation rules of quantity calculus and proposed that a full axiomatization has yet to be completed.Measurements are expressed as products of a numeric value with a unit symbol, e.g. "12.7 m". Unlike algebra, the unit symbol represents a measurable quantity such as a meter, not an algebraic variable.
Theories of technology Social Group Theories Theories_of_technology > Sociological theories > Social Group Theories The theory assumes that more contact will increase the key components of "presence": greater intimacy, immediacy, warmth and inter-personal rapport. As a consequence of social presence, social influence is expected to increase. In the case of communication technology, the assumption is that more text-based forms of interaction (e-mail, instant messaging) are less social, and therefore less conducive to social influence.
Fission-fusion hybrid Summary Nuclear_fusion-fission_hybrid This would not only make fusion designs more economical in power terms, but also be able to burn fuels that were not suitable for use in conventional fission plants, even their nuclear waste. In general terms, the hybrid is similar in concept to the fast breeder reactor, which uses a compact high-energy fission core in place of the hybrid's fusion core. Another similar concept is the accelerator-driven subcritical reactor, which uses a particle accelerator to provide the neutrons instead of nuclear reactions.
Optical stretcher Applications Optical_stretcher > Applications Cell mechanics and cell rheology play a crucial role in cellular development and also in many diseases. Due to its high throughput, the optical stretcher has in many biomechanical studies been the tool of choice to investigate the development of or changes in cell mechanics, among them studies on the development of cancer and stem cell differentiation. An exemplary study in stem cell research sheds light on the process of cell differentiation: Hematopoietic stem cells residing in the bone marrow differentiate into different types of blood cells to produce human blood - i.e., red blood cells and different types of white blood cells. In this study, it was shown that the white blood cell types show different mechanical behaviour depending on their later physiological function and that these differences arise during the process of stem cell differentiation.Using the optical stretcher, it was also shown that cancerous cells differ significantly in their mechanical properties from their healthy counterparts. The authors claim that the 'optical deformability' can be used as a biomechanical marker to distinguish cancerous from healthy cells, and even that higher stages of malignancy can be detected.
Dimensional homogeneity Mathematics Kinematic_quantity > Applications > Mathematics A simple application of dimensional analysis to mathematics is in computing the form of the volume of an n-ball (the solid ball in n dimensions), or the area of its surface, the n-sphere: being an n-dimensional figure, the volume scales as x n , {\displaystyle x^{n},} while the surface area, being ( n − 1 ) {\displaystyle (n-1)} -dimensional, scales as x n − 1 . {\displaystyle x^{n-1}.} Thus the volume of the n-ball in terms of the radius is C n r n , {\displaystyle C_{n}r^{n},} for some constant C n . {\displaystyle C_{n}.} Determining the constant takes more involved mathematics, but the form can be deduced and checked by dimensional analysis alone.
Full stop Computing Baseline_dot > Usage > Computing This means that they are not displayed or listed to the user by default. In Unix-like systems and Microsoft Windows, the dot character represents the working directory of the file system. Two dots (..) represent the parent directory of the working directory.
Classifier constructions in sign languages History Classifier_constructions_in_sign_languages > History First, the imitative gestures of non-signers are similar to classifiers. Second, very many types of movement and locations can be used in these constructions. Liddell suggested that it would be more accurate to consider them to be a mixture of linguistic and extra-linguistic elements, such as gesture.
Outline of artificial intelligence Learning Outline_of_artificial_intelligence > Goals and applications > Learning Machine learning – Constrained Conditional Models – Deep learning – Neural modeling fields –
Gaussian integers Gaussian primes Gaussian_primes > Gaussian primes The conjugate of a Gaussian prime is also a Gaussian prime (this implies that Gaussian primes are symmetric about the real and imaginary axes). A positive integer is a Gaussian prime if and only if it is a prime number that is congruent to 3 modulo 4 (that is, it may be written 4n + 3, with n a nonnegative integer) (sequence A002145 in the OEIS). The other prime numbers are not Gaussian primes, but each is the product of two conjugate Gaussian primes.
Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization History Sommerfeld–Bohr_theory > History Hendrik Kramers explained the Stark effect. Bose and Einstein gave the correct quantum statistics for photons. Kramers gave a prescription for calculating transition probabilities between quantum states in terms of Fourier components of the motion, ideas which were extended in collaboration with Werner Heisenberg to a semiclassical matrix-like description of atomic transition probabilities.
Homeothermy Pros Homeothermy > Pros A poikilotherm must either operate well below optimum efficiency most of the time, migrate, hibernate or expend extra resources producing a wider range of enzymes to cover the wider range of body temperatures. However, some environments offer much more consistent temperatures than others. For example, the tropics often have seasonal variations in temperature that are smaller than their diurnal variations. In addition, large bodies of water, such as the ocean and very large lakes, have moderate temperature variations. The waters below the ocean surface are particularly stable in temperature.
Executive functions Attentional biasing in sensory regions Cognitive_control > Experimental evidence > Attentional biasing in sensory regions Electrophysiology and functional neuroimaging studies involving human subjects have been used to describe the neural mechanisms underlying attentional biasing. Most studies have looked for activation at the 'sites' of biasing, such as in the visual or auditory cortices. Early studies employed event-related potentials to reveal that electrical brain responses recorded over left and right visual cortex are enhanced when the subject is instructed to attend to the appropriate (contralateral) side of space.The advent of bloodflow-based neuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) has more recently permitted the demonstration that neural activity in a number of sensory regions, including color-, motion-, and face-responsive regions of visual cortex, is enhanced when subjects are directed to attend to that dimension of a stimulus, suggestive of gain control in sensory neocortex. For example, in a typical study, Liu and coworkers presented subjects with arrays of dots moving to the left or right, presented in either red or green.
Adrenocortical hormone Stress and immunity Adrenocortical_hormone > Stress and immunity Chronic inflammation makes an individual more susceptible to diseases such as cancer, heart disease, and diabetes. Another study found that physical stress caused increased cortisol:DHEAS (dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate) molar ratios which may contribute to reduced immunity, especially in the elderly for whom cortisol:DHEAS ratios are already increased.
Cipher suite TLS 1.3 handshake Cipher_suite > Full handshake: coordinating cipher suites > TLS 1.3 handshake If two machines are corresponding over TLS 1.3, they coordinate which cipher suite to use by using the TLS 1.3 Handshake Protocol. The handshake in TLS 1.3 was condensed to only one round trip compared to the two round trips required in previous versions of TLS/SSL. First the client sends a clientHello message to the server that contains a list of supported ciphers in order of the client's preference and makes a guess on what key algorithm is being used so that it can send a secret key to share if needed. By making a guess on what key algorithm that is being used it eliminates a round trip. After receiving the clientHello, the server sends a serverHello with its key, a certificate, the chosen cipher suite and the finished message. After the client receives the server's finished message it now is coordinated with the server on which cipher suite to use.
CPU Cache History L2_cache > History Caches (like for RAM historically) have generally been sized in powers of: 2, 4, 8, 16 etc. KiB; when up to MiB sizes (i.e. for larger non-L1), very early on the pattern broke down, to allow for larger caches without being forced into the doubling-in-size paradigm, with e.g. Intel Core 2 Duo with 3 MiB L2 cache in April 2008. This happened much later for L1 caches, as their size is generally still a small number of KiB. The IBM zEC12 from 2012 is an exception however, to gain unusually large 96 KiB L1 data cache for its time, and e.g. the IBM z13 having a 96 KiB L1 instruction cache (and 128 KiB L1 data cache), and Intel Ice Lake-based processors from 2018, having 48 KiB L1 data cache and 48 KiB L1 instruction cache. In 2020, some Intel Atom CPUs (with up to 24 cores) have (multiple of) 4.5 MiB and 15 MiB cache sizes.
Almost everywhere Summary Almost_everywhere When discussing sets of real numbers, the Lebesgue measure is usually assumed unless otherwise stated. The term almost everywhere is abbreviated a.e.
Tree measurement Tree shape Tree_measurement > Tree shape As an example, the measurement data for 140 live oaks measured as part of the NTS Live Oak Project were graphically plotted using this process. The cluster representing the live oak data falls on the extreme edge of the general pattern of tree shapes. The height proportion exhibits a maximum of 17.23% of the shape value and a minimum of 6.55%, the girth (minimum of 19 feet in the data set) exhibits a maximum of 58.25% and a minimum of 40.25%, and Average Crown Spread maximum of 49.08% and a minimum of 30.92%. These points represent the measurements of the largest specimens of live oak measured in the field and typically represent open grown specimens, but the tightness of the shape cluster is still remarkable. It is even more interesting to note that while the data set contains both multiple trunk trees and single trunk trees, both plot within the same tight cluster.
Complete binary tree Depth-first order Binary_tree_(data_structure) > Common operations > Traversal > Depth-first order In depth-first order, we always attempt to visit the node farthest from the root node that we can, but with the caveat that it must be a child of a node we have already visited. Unlike a depth-first search on graphs, there is no need to remember all the nodes we have visited, because a tree cannot contain cycles. Pre-order is a special case of this. See depth-first search for more information.
Outcome (game theory) Choosing among outcomes Outcome_(game_theory) > Choosing among outcomes "A best response to a coplayer’s strategy is a strategy that yields the highest payoff against that particular strategy". A matrix is used to present the payoff of both players in the game. For example, the best response of player one is the highest payoff for player one’s move, and vice versa.
Puiseux series Definition Puiseux_series > Definition If K is a field (such as the complex numbers), a Puiseux series with coefficients in K is an expression of the form f = ∑ k = k 0 + ∞ c k T k / n {\displaystyle f=\sum _{k=k_{0}}^{+\infty }c_{k}T^{k/n}} where n {\displaystyle n} is a positive integer and k 0 {\displaystyle k_{0}} is an integer. In other words, Puiseux series differ from Laurent series in that they allow for fractional exponents of the indeterminate, as long as these fractional exponents have bounded denominator (here n). Just as with Laurent series, Puiseux series allow for negative exponents of the indeterminate as long as these negative exponents are bounded below (here by k 0 {\displaystyle k_{0}} ). Addition and multiplication are as expected: for example, ( T − 1 + 2 T − 1 / 2 + T 1 / 3 + ⋯ ) + ( T − 5 / 4 − T − 1 / 2 + 2 + ⋯ ) = T − 5 / 4 + T − 1 + T − 1 / 2 + 2 + ⋯ {\displaystyle (T^{-1}+2T^{-1/2}+T^{1/3}+\cdots )+(T^{-5/4}-T^{-1/2}+2+\cdots )=T^{-5/4}+T^{-1}+T^{-1/2}+2+\cdots } and ( T − 1 + 2 T − 1 / 2 + T 1 / 3 + ⋯ ) ⋅ ( T − 5 / 4 − T − 1 / 2 + 2 + ⋯ ) = T − 9 / 4 + 2 T − 7 / 4 − T − 3 / 2 + T − 11 / 12 + 4 T − 1 / 2 + ⋯ .
Positive feedback In electronics Positive_feedback > Examples and applications > In electronics An electronic flip-flop, or "latch", or "bistable multivibrator", is a circuit that due to high positive feedback is not stable in a balanced or intermediate state. Such a bistable circuit is the basis of one bit of electronic memory. The flip-flop uses a pair of amplifiers, transistors, or logic gates connected to each other so that positive feedback maintains the state of the circuit in one of two unbalanced stable states after the input signal has been removed, until a suitable alternative signal is applied to change the state.
Quantum artificial life Summary Quantum_artificial_life Quantum artificial life is the application of quantum algorithms with the ability to simulate biological behavior. Quantum computers offer many potential improvements to processes performed on classical computers including machine learning and artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence applications are often inspired by our own brains; this is a form of biomimicry. This can and has been implemented to a certain extent on classical computers (using neural networks), but quantum computers offer many advantages in the simulation of artificial life.
Prototype theory Combining categories Prototype_theory > Combining categories Within language we find instances of combined categories, such as tall man or small elephant. Combining categories was a problem for extensional semantics, where the semantics of a word such as red is to be defined as the set of objects having this property. This does not apply as well to modifiers such as small; a small mouse is very different from a small elephant. These combinations pose a lesser problem in terms of prototype theory.
Data flow analysis An iterative algorithm Global_data_flow_analysis > An iterative algorithm From these, the in-states are updated by applying the join operations. The latter two steps are repeated until we reach the so-called fixpoint: the situation in which the in-states (and the out-states in consequence) do not change. A basic algorithm for solving data-flow equations is the round-robin iterative algorithm: for i ← 1 to N initialize node i while (sets are still changing) for i ← 1 to N recompute sets at node i
Useable Corporate integration Useable > Benefits > Corporate integration Various academic programs focus on usability. Several usability consultancy companies have emerged, and traditional consultancy and design firms offer similar services. There is some resistance to integrating usability work in organisations. Usability is seen as a vague concept, it is difficult to measure and other areas are prioritised when IT projects run out of time or money.
Recombinant DNA technology Preparation of DNA to be cloned DNA_clone > Steps > Preparation of DNA to be cloned Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods are often used for amplification of specific DNA or RNA (RT-PCR) sequences prior to molecular cloning. DNA for cloning experiments may also be obtained from RNA using reverse transcriptase (complementary DNA or cDNA cloning), or in the form of synthetic DNA (artificial gene synthesis). cDNA cloning is usually used to obtain clones representative of the mRNA population of the cells of interest, while synthetic DNA is used to obtain any precise sequence defined by the designer. Such a designed sequence may be required when moving genes across genetic codes (for example, from the mitochondria to the nucleus) or simply for increasing expression via codon optimization.The purified DNA is then treated with a restriction enzyme to generate fragments with ends capable of being linked to those of the vector. If necessary, short double-stranded segments of DNA (linkers) containing desired restriction sites may be added to create end structures that are compatible with the vector.
BCG vaccine Tuberculosis BCG_vaccine > Medical uses > Tuberculosis Differences in effectiveness depend on region, due to factors such as genetic differences in the populations, changes in environment, exposure to other bacterial infections, and conditions in the laboratory where the vaccine is grown, including genetic differences between the strains being cultured and the choice of growth medium.A systematic review and meta-analysis conducted in 2014 demonstrated that the BCG vaccine reduced infections by 19–27% and reduced progression to active tuberculosis by 71%. The studies included in this review were limited to those that used interferon gamma release assay. The duration of protection of BCG is not clearly known.
Local consistency Uses of local consistency Bucket_elimination > Uses of local consistency All forms of local consistency can be enforced by constraint propagation, which may reduce the domains of variables and the sets of assignments satisfying a constraint and may introduce new constraints. Whenever constraint propagation produces an empty domain or an unsatisfiable constraint, the original problem is unsatisfiable. Therefore, all forms of local consistency can be used as approximations of satisfiability. More precisely, they can be used as incomplete unsatisfiability algorithms, as they can prove that a problem is unsatisfiable, but are in general unable to prove that a problem is satisfiable.
Heat sterilization Steam Chemical_sterilization > Heat > Steam The 263K scrapie prion is inactivated relatively quickly by such sterilization procedures; however, other strains of scrapie, and strains of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CKD) and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) are more resistant. Using mice as test animals, one experiment showed that heating BSE positive brain tissue at 134–138 °C (273–280 °F) for 18 minutes resulted in only a 2.5 log decrease in prion infectivity.Most autoclaves have meters and charts that record or display information, particularly temperature and pressure as a function of time. The information is checked to ensure that the conditions required for sterilization have been met.
Lucius B. Packard Summary Lucius_B._Packard 1,5 kW) gasoline engine by the American Gas Engine Company that gave its power via a chain to the left rear wheel. Speed was controlled by two levers; one sat on the right of the steering lever. Moving it forward accelerated the vehicle, backwards slowed it.
Renewable power Solar energy Renewable_Energy_Source > Mainstream technologies > Solar energy Active solar technologies encompass solar thermal energy, using solar collectors for heating, and solar power, converting sunlight into electricity either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). A photovoltaic system converts light into electrical direct current (DC) by taking advantage of the photoelectric effect. Solar PV has turned into a multi-billion, fast-growing industry, continues to improve its cost-effectiveness, and has the most potential of any renewable technologies together with CSP.
Loop nest optimization Summary Loop_nest_optimization In computer science and particularly in compiler design, loop nest optimization (LNO) is an optimization technique that applies a set of loop transformations for the purpose of locality optimization or parallelization or another loop overhead reduction of the loop nests. (Nested loops occur when one loop is inside of another loop.) One classical usage is to reduce memory access latency or the cache bandwidth necessary due to cache reuse for some common linear algebra algorithms. The technique used to produce this optimization is called loop tiling, also known as loop blocking or strip mine and interchange.
Taylor theorem Taylor's theorem in complex analysis Taylor_approximation > Relationship to analyticity > Taylor's theorem in complex analysis In particular, if f is once complex differentiable on the open set U, then it is actually infinitely many times complex differentiable on U. One also obtains the Cauchy's estimates for any z ∈ U and r > 0 such that B(z, r) ∪ S(c, r) ⊂ U. These estimates imply that the complex Taylor series of f converges uniformly on any open disk B ( c , r ) ⊂ U {\textstyle B(c,r)\subset U} with S ( c , r ) ⊂ U {\textstyle S(c,r)\subset U} into some function Tf. Furthermore, using the contour integral formulas for the derivatives f(k)(c), so any complex differentiable function f in an open set U ⊂ C is in fact complex analytic. All that is said for real analytic functions here holds also for complex analytic functions with the open interval I replaced by an open subset U ∈ C and a-centered intervals (a − r, a + r) replaced by c-centered disks B(c, r).
Prime editing Implications Prime_editing > Implications Although additional research is required to improve the efficiency of prime editing, the technology offers promising scientific improvements over other gene editing tools. The prime editing technology has the potential to correct the vast majority of pathogenic alleles that cause genetic diseases, as it can repair insertions, deletions, and nucleotide substitutions.
Ableism Education Ableism > Education For example, a disabled student may need to read text instead of listening to a tape recording of the text. In the past, schools have focused too much on fixing the disability, but progressive reforms make schools now focused on minimizing the impact of a student's disability and giving support, skills, and more opportunities to live a full life.
Blob detection The Laplacian of Gaussian Laplacian_of_the_Gaussian > The Laplacian of Gaussian One of the first and also most common blob detectors is based on the Laplacian of the Gaussian (LoG). Given an input image f ( x , y ) {\displaystyle f(x,y)} , this image is convolved by a Gaussian kernel g ( x , y , t ) = 1 2 π t e − x 2 + y 2 2 t {\displaystyle g(x,y,t)={\frac {1}{2\pi t}}e^{-{\frac {x^{2}+y^{2}}{2t}}}} at a certain scale t {\displaystyle t} to give a scale space representation L ( x , y ; t ) = g ( x , y , t ) ∗ f ( x , y ) {\displaystyle L(x,y;t)\ =g(x,y,t)*f(x,y)} . Then, the result of applying the Laplacian operator ∇ 2 L = L x x + L y y {\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}L=L_{xx}+L_{yy}} is computed, which usually results in strong positive responses for dark blobs of radius r 2 = 2 t {\textstyle r^{2}=2t} (for a two-dimensional image, r 2 = d t {\textstyle r^{2}=dt} for a d {\textstyle d} -dimensional image) and strong negative responses for bright blobs of similar size. A main problem when applying this operator at a single scale, however, is that the operator response is strongly dependent on the relationship between the size of the blob structures in the image domain and the size of the Gaussian kernel used for pre-smoothing.
Transcription factor Lim-1 Effects on formation of the future kidney Transcription_factor_Lim-1 > Effects on formation of the future kidney Although Lim-1 is primarily associated with head development in embryogenesis, the transcription factor also plays a role in forming the urogenital system. Since Lim-1 is crucial for head development, most Lim-1-deficient embryos die early in gestation. Thus, to study the role of Lim-1 on the mesonephros, a conditional knockout model was employed in mice whereby Lim-1 was selectively removed from the nephric epithelium just after it began to form. The Lim-1 conditional knockout mice had renal hypoplasia and hydronephrosis, thus demonstrating that Lim-1 regulates the differentiation of the nephric epithelium.
Carindacillin Pharmacokinetics Carindacillin > Pharmacokinetics Shortly after absorption via the small intestine, Carindacillin is hydrolyzed into Carbenicillin. Carbenicillin acts by interfering with final cell wall synthesis in susceptible bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and some Proteus. The most common adverse effects include nausea, bad taste, diarrhea, vomiting, flatulence, and glossitis.
Geriatric trauma Falls Geriatric_trauma > Risk Factors > Falls From a meta-analysis examining risk factors for falls in both community-dwelling and institutionalized populations, the most common intrinsic determinants of falls risks include: Lower extremity weakness due to limited physical activity and muscle atrophy, and chronic conditions like cardiovascular disease and diabetes A prior history of falls Gait and balance deficits Visual deficits, which may occur due to cataracts, glaucoma, or macular degeneration Arthritis Impaired functionality and loss of ability to complete activities of daily living Depression Cognitive impairment from dementia Other important intrinsic risk factors for falls indicated by other studies include peripheral nerve dysfunction with postural instability, use of sedatives, hypnotics, antidepressants, benzodiazepines, and vasodilators, and history of problem drinking.Lastly, in one study, home modifications like adding handrails for outside and inside stairs, grab rails for bathrooms, outdoor lighting, and slip-resistant floors was shown to cause a 26% reduction in the rate of injuries caused by falls at home per year compared to a control group without these interventions. This demonstrates the value in creating a more accommodating and safe home environment for a community-dwelling elder, especially if they have several intrinsic risk factors for falls. Another study found a lower risk of falls associated with wearing athletic shoes and canvas shoes compared to other types of footwear including slippers, sandals, and high heels.
Regular pentagon Carlyle circles Regular_pentagon > Regular pentagons > Geometrical constructions > Carlyle circles The Carlyle circle was invented as a geometric method to find the roots of a quadratic equation. This methodology leads to a procedure for constructing a regular pentagon. The steps are as follows: Draw a circle in which to inscribe the pentagon and mark the center point O. Draw a horizontal line through the center of the circle. Mark the left intersection with the circle as point B. Construct a vertical line through the center.
Molecular Interaction Maps Summary Molecular_Interaction_Maps In order to facilitate linkage to databases, each molecular species is represented only once in a diagram. The MIM notation forms the basis of, and further development of the MIM notation is coordinated with, the Systems Biology Graphical Notation (SBGN) consortium, an international effort to standardize diagrams depicting biochemical and cellular processes studied in systems biology. An update to the notation was published in 2006.
Linear control Furnace example Linear_control > Proportional control > Furnace example When controlling the temperature of an industrial furnace, it is usually better to control the opening of the fuel valve in proportion to the current needs of the furnace. This helps avoid thermal shocks and applies heat more effectively. At low gains, only a small corrective action is applied when errors are detected.
Derived graph Translated properties of the underlying graph Line_graph > Properties > Translated properties of the underlying graph The Whitney graph isomorphism theorem provides a converse to this for all but one pair of graphs. In the context of complex network theory, the line graph of a random network preserves many of the properties of the network such as the small-world property (the existence of short paths between all pairs of vertices) and the shape of its degree distribution. Evans & Lambiotte (2009) observe that any method for finding vertex clusters in a complex network can be applied to the line graph and used to cluster its edges instead.
Shades of black Technical black varieties Shades_of_black > Black > Technical black varieties A black body is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation (regardless of frequency or angle of incidence). To the human eye, it seems black. Some recent surface treatments to simulate a black body are: Carbon black Super black Roseman Black Vantablack Coal black Red Black Graphite Midnight
Corrosion in space Materials Corrosion_in_space > Materials However, the protective layers are subject to erosion by micrometeorites. Silver builds up a layer of silver oxide, which tends to flake off and has no protective function; such gradual erosion of silver interconnects of solar cells was found to be the cause of some observed in-orbit failures.Many plastics are considerably sensitive to atomic oxygen and ionizing radiation. Coatings resistant to atomic oxygen are a common protection method, especially for plastics. Silicone-based paints and coatings are frequently employed, due to their excellent resistance to radiation and atomic oxygen. However, the silicone durability is somewhat limited, as the surface exposed to atomic oxygen is converted to silica which is brittle and tends to crack.
Quantum foundations Summary Quantum_foundations Quantum foundations is a discipline of science that seeks to understand the most counter-intuitive aspects of quantum theory, reformulate it and even propose new generalizations thereof. Contrary to other physical theories, such as general relativity, the defining axioms of quantum theory are quite ad hoc, with no obvious physical intuition. While they lead to the right experimental predictions, they do not come with a mental picture of the world where they fit. There exist different approaches to resolve this conceptual gap: First, one can put quantum physics in contraposition with classical physics: by identifying scenarios, such as Bell experiments, where quantum theory radically deviates from classical predictions, one hopes to gain physical insights on the structure of quantum physics.
Tailless aircraft Drag Tailless_aircraft > Aerodynamics > Drag A conventional fixed-wing aircraft has a horizontal stabiliser surface separate from its main wing. This extra surface causes additional drag requiring a more powerful engine, especially at high speeds. If longitudinal (pitch) stability and control can be achieved by some other method (see below), the stabiliser can be removed and the drag reduced.
Warnier/Orr diagram Using Warnier/Orr diagrams Warnier/Orr_diagram > Using Warnier/Orr diagrams They have advantage of showing groupings of processes and the data that must be passed from level to level. In addition, the sequence of working backwards ensures that the system will be result oriented. This method is useful for both data and process definition. It can be used for each independently, or both can be combined on the same diagram.
Maximum power principle Philosophy and theory Maximum_power_principle > Philosophy and theory Odum and Pinkerton defined "power" in electronic terms as the rate of work, where Work is understood as a "useful energy transformation". The concept of maximum power can therefore be defined as the maximum rate of useful energy transformation. Hence the underlying philosophy aims to unify the theories and associated laws of electronic and thermodynamic systems with biological systems. This approach presupposed an analogical view which sees the world as an ecological-electronic-economic engine.
Die-deterioration doubling Overuse of Dies Die-deterioration_doubling > Causes > Overuse of Dies Copper has been used for centuries because of its malleability and the ease with which it makes coins. However, it too wears the dies when they are used for too long.
Sonogashira coupling Catalysts Sonogashira_coupling > Reaction conditions > Catalysts For instance, oxidation of triphenylphosphine to triphenylphosphine oxide can lead to the formation of Pd0 in situ when is used. Copper(I) salts, such as CuI, react with the terminal alkyne and produce a copper(I) acetylide, which acts as an activated species for the coupling reactions. Cu(I) is a co-catalyst in the reaction, and is used to increase the rate of the reaction.
External electric load Summary External_load An electrical load is an electrical component or portion of a circuit that consumes (active) electric power, such as electrical appliances and lights inside the home. The term may also refer to the power consumed by a circuit. This is opposed to a power source, such as a battery or generator, which produces power.The term is used more broadly in electronics for a device connected to a signal source, whether or not it consumes power. If an electric circuit has an output port, a pair of terminals that produces an electrical signal, the circuit connected to this terminal (or its input impedance) is the load.
Ludwig Boltzmann Statistical mechanics and the Boltzmann constant Ludwig_Boltzmann > Ludwig Boltzmann's legacy and impact on modern science > Statistical mechanics and the Boltzmann constant Statistical mechanics, which Boltzmann pioneered, connects macroscopic observations with microscopic behaviors. His statistical explanation of the second law of thermodynamics was a significant achievement, and he provided the current definition of entropy (S = k_B ln Ω), where k_B is the Boltzmann constant and Ω is the number of microstates corresponding to a given macrostate. Max Planck later named the constant k_B as the Boltzmann constant in honor of Boltzmann's contributions to statistical mechanics. The Boltzmann constant plays a central role in relating thermodynamic quantities to microscopic properties, and it is now a fundamental constant in physics, appearing in various equations across many scientific disciplines.
Limit of detection Significance in analytical chemistry Limit_of_detection > Significance in analytical chemistry In analytical chemistry, the detection limit, lower limit of detection, also termed LOD for limit of detection or analytical sensitivity (not to be confused with statistical sensitivity), is the lowest quantity of a substance that can be distinguished from the absence of that substance (a blank value) with a stated confidence level (generally 99%). The detection limit is estimated from the mean of the blank, the standard deviation of the blank, the slope (analytical sensitivity) of the calibration plot and a defined confidence factor (e.g. 3.2 being the most accepted value for this arbitrary value). Another consideration that affects the detection limit is the adequacy and the accuracy of the model used to predict concentration from the raw analytical signal.As a typical example, from a calibration plot following a linear equation taken here as the simplest possible model: f ( x ) = a x + b {\displaystyle f(x)=ax+b} where, f ( x ) {\displaystyle f(x)} corresponds to the signal measured (e.g. voltage, luminescence, energy, etc.), "b" the value in which the straight line cuts the ordinates axis, "a" the sensitivity of the system (i.e., the slope of the line, or the function relating the measured signal to the quantity to be determined) and "x" the value of the quantity (e.g. temperature, concentration, pH, etc.) to be determined from the signal f ( x ) {\displaystyle f(x)} , the LOD for "x" is calculated as the "x" value in which f ( x ) {\displaystyle f(x)} equals to the average value of blanks "y" plus "t" times its standard deviation "s" (or, if zero, the standard deviation corresponding to the lowest value measured) where "t" is the chosen confidence value (e.g. for a confidence of 95% it can be considered t = 3.2, determined from the limit of blank).Thus, in this didactic example: There are a number of concepts derived from the detection limit that are commonly used. These include the instrument detection limit (IDL), the method detection limit (MDL), the practical quantitation limit (PQL), and the limit of quantitation (LOQ).
Open-source product development Delineation with other terms Open-source_product_development > Delineation with other terms Most of the available definitions do not refer simultaneously to product openness (the development of open source hardware products as defined by the Open Source Definition) and process openness (possibility to any interested person to take part in the collaborative development process). Brulé and Valentin define openness in the context of open design as "the inclusion of people and their values during the project framing and ideation process" and as "a space left to users in the formalization process (choice of functions, interactions, aesthetcics...)". Open design is in this sense the inclusion of the end user in the development of the artefact through the sharing of designs that are low constrained and can be customized.
Passive survivability Passive Design Strategies Passive_survivability > Passive Design Strategies Balance point temperature is the outdoor temperature under which a building requires heating. An internally dominated structure will have a lower balance point temperature because of more internal heat sources, which means a longer overheated period and shorter under-heated period.
Measurement Summary Measurement Measurement is the quantification of attributes of an object or event, which can be used to compare with other objects or events. In other words, measurement is a process of determining how large or small a physical quantity is as compared to a basic reference quantity of the same kind. The scope and application of measurement are dependent on the context and discipline. In natural sciences and engineering, measurements do not apply to nominal properties of objects or events, which is consistent with the guidelines of the International vocabulary of metrology published by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.
3C 273 Properties 3C_273 > Properties The radiation is created by a jet of charged particles moving at relativistic speeds. VLBI radio observations of 3C 273 have revealed proper motion of some of the radio emitting regions, further suggesting the presence of relativistic jets of material.This is a prototype of an Active Galactic Nucleus, demonstrating that the energy is being produced through accretion by a supermassive black hole (SMBH). No other astrophysical source can produce the observed energy. The mass of its central SMBH has been measured to be 886±187 million solar masses through broad emission-line reverberation mapping.
Genetic engineering in agriculture Medicine Genetic_engineering_in_agriculture > Applications > Medicine Genetic engineering has many applications to medicine that include the manufacturing of drugs, creation of model animals that mimic human conditions and gene therapy. One of the earliest uses of genetic engineering was to mass-produce human insulin in bacteria. This application has now been applied to human growth hormones, follicle stimulating hormones (for treating infertility), human albumin, monoclonal antibodies, antihemophilic factors, vaccines and many other drugs. Mouse hybridomas, cells fused together to create monoclonal antibodies, have been adapted through genetic engineering to create human monoclonal antibodies.
Schrodinger's equation Preliminaries Time-dependent_Schrödinger_equation > Definition > Preliminaries Introductory courses on physics or chemistry typically introduce the Schrödinger equation in a way that can be appreciated knowing only the concepts and notations of basic calculus, particularly derivatives with respect to space and time. A special case of the Schrödinger equation that admits a statement in those terms is the position-space Schrödinger equation for a single nonrelativistic particle in one dimension: Here, Ψ ( x , t ) {\displaystyle \Psi (x,t)} is a wave function, a function that assigns a complex number to each point x {\displaystyle x} at each time t {\displaystyle t} . The parameter m {\displaystyle m} is the mass of the particle, and V ( x , t ) {\displaystyle V(x,t)} is the potential that represents the environment in which the particle exists. : 74 The constant i {\displaystyle i} is the imaginary unit, and ℏ {\displaystyle \hbar } is the reduced Planck constant, which has units of action (energy multiplied by time).
Language Integrated Query Standard Query Operator API Language_Integrated_Query > Architecture of LINQ in the .NET Framework > Standard Query Operator API The query operators supported by the API are: Select The Select operator performs a projection on the collection to select interesting aspects of the elements. The user supplies an arbitrary function, in the form of a named or lambda expression, which projects the data members. The function is passed to the operator as a delegate.
Catastrophic failure Summary Catastrophic_failure For example, catastrophic failure can be observed in steam turbine rotor failure, which can occur due to peak stress on the rotor; stress concentration increases up to a point at which it is excessive, leading ultimately to the failure of the disc. In firearms, catastrophic failure usually refers to a rupture or disintegration of the barrel or receiver of the gun when firing it. Some possible causes of this are an out-of-battery gun, an inadequate headspace, the use of incorrect ammunition, the use of ammunition with an incorrect propellant charge, a partially or fully obstructed barrel, or weakened metal in the barrel or receiver. A failure of this type, known colloquially as a "kaboom", or "kB" failure, can pose a threat not only to the user(s) but even many bystanders. In chemical engineering, thermal runaway can cause catastrophic failure.
Ordinary Least Squares Generalized method of moments Ordinary_least_squares_regression > Alternative derivations > Generalized method of moments Since xi is a p-vector, the number of moment conditions is equal to the dimension of the parameter vector β, and thus the system is exactly identified. This is the so-called classical GMM case, when the estimator does not depend on the choice of the weighting matrix. Note that the original strict exogeneity assumption E = 0 implies a far richer set of moment conditions than stated above. In particular, this assumption implies that for any vector-function ƒ, the moment condition E = 0 will hold. However it can be shown using the Gauss–Markov theorem that the optimal choice of function ƒ is to take ƒ(x) = x, which results in the moment equation posted above.
Immunologic adjuvant Summary Immunologic_adjuvant In immunology, an adjuvant is a substance that increases or modulates the immune response to a vaccine. The word "adjuvant" comes from the Latin word adiuvare, meaning to help or aid. "An immunologic adjuvant is defined as any substance that acts to accelerate, prolong, or enhance antigen-specific immune responses when used in combination with specific vaccine antigens.
Fission–fusion society Species Fission–fusion_society > Species Fission-fusion societies occur among many different species of primates (e.g. chimpanzees, orangutans, and humans), elephants (e.g. forest elephants, African elephants), and bats (e.g. northern long-eared bats). The change in composition, subgroup size, and dispersion of different groups are 3 main elements of a fission-fusion society.
Computer modeling In practical contexts Computational_modeling > In practical contexts modeling car crashes to test safety mechanisms in new vehicle models. crop-soil systems in agriculture, via dedicated software frameworks (e.g. BioMA, OMS3, APSIM)The reliability and the trust people put in computer simulations depends on the validity of the simulation model, therefore verification and validation are of crucial importance in the development of computer simulations. Another important aspect of computer simulations is that of reproducibility of the results, meaning that a simulation model should not provide a different answer for each execution.
Stefan Banach Contributions Stefan_Banach > Contributions However, because Wiener's work on the topic was limited, the established name became just Banach spaces.Likewise, Banach's fixed point theorem, based on earlier methods developed by Charles Émile Picard, was included in his dissertation, and was later extended by his students (for example in the Banach–Schauder theorem) and other mathematicians (in particular Brouwer and Poincaré and Birkhoff). The theorem did not require linearity of the space, and applied to any complete Cauchy space (in particular to any complete metric space). The Hahn–Banach theorem is one of the fundamental theorems of functional analysis. Further theorems related to Banach are: Banach–Tarski paradox Banach–Steinhaus theorem Banach–Alaoglu theorem Banach–Stone theorem
Weather radar Automatic algorithms Radar_meteorology > Radar display methods > Automatic algorithms Hail algorithms that estimate the presence of hail and its probable size.Main algorithms for Doppler velocities: Mesocyclone detection: is triggered by a velocity change over a small circular area. The algorithm is searching for a "doublet" of inbound/outbound velocities with the zero line of velocities, between the two, along a radial line from the radar. Usually the mesocyclone detection must be found on two or more stacked progressive tilts of the beam to be significative of rotation into a thunderstorm cloud.
Category of schemes Generalizations Scheme_theory > Generalizations From this general notion, Artin defined the narrower class of algebraic stacks (or "Artin stacks"), which can be considered geometric objects. These include Deligne–Mumford stacks (similar to orbifolds in topology), for which the stabilizer groups are finite, and algebraic spaces, for which the stabilizer groups are trivial. The Keel–Mori theorem says that an algebraic stack with finite stabilizer groups has a coarse moduli space which is an algebraic space.
Distal stimulus Effect of motivation and expectation Sensory_perception > Effects on perception > Effect of motivation and expectation For example, people with an aggressive personality are quicker to correctly identify aggressive words or situations.One classic psychological experiment showed slower reaction times and less accurate answers when a deck of playing cards reversed the color of the suit symbol for some cards (e.g. red spades and black hearts).Philosopher Andy Clark explains that perception, although it occurs quickly, is not simply a bottom-up process (where minute details are put together to form larger wholes). Instead, our brains use what he calls predictive coding. It starts with very broad constraints and expectations for the state of the world, and as expectations are met, it makes more detailed predictions (errors lead to new predictions, or learning processes).
Simulation software Summary Simulation_software When the penalty for improper operation is costly, such as airplane pilots, nuclear power plant operators, or chemical plant operators, a mock up of the actual control panel is connected to a real-time simulation of the physical response, giving valuable training experience without fear of a disastrous outcome. Advanced computer programs can simulate power system behavior, weather conditions, electronic circuits, chemical reactions, mechatronics, heat pumps, feedback control systems, atomic reactions, even complex biological processes. In theory, any phenomena that can be reduced to mathematical data and equations can be simulated on a computer.
Isotopes of molybdenum Molybdenum-99 Molybdenum-84 > Molybdenum-99 Implementing feed-stocks of high specific activity 99Mo solutions thus allowed for higher quality production and better separations of 99mTc from 99Mo on small alumina column using chromatography. Employing low-specific activity 99Mo under similar conditions is particularly problematic in that either higher Mo loading capacities or larger columns are required for accommodating equivalent amounts of 99Mo. Chemically speaking, this phenomenon occurs due to other Mo isotopes present aside from 99Mo that compete for surface site interactions on the column substrate.
Romano–Ward syndrome Mechanism Romano–Ward_syndrome > Mechanism In the Romano-Ward forms of Long QT syndrome, genetic mutations affect how positively-charged ions, such as potassium, sodium and calcium ions are transported in and out of heart cells. Many of these genes encode proteins which form or interact with ion channels. In cardiac muscle, these ion channels play critical roles in maintaining the heart's normal rhythm. Mutations in any of these genes alter the structure or function of channels, which changes the flow of ions between cells, a disruption in ion transport alters the way the heart beats, leading to abnormal heart rhythm characteristic of the syndrome.The protein made by the ANK2 gene ensures that other proteins, particularly ion channels, are inserted into the cell membrane appropriately. A mutation in the ANK2 gene likely alters the flow of ions between cells in the heart, which disrupts the heart's normal rhythm and results in the features of Romano–Ward syndrome.
Java ConcurrentMap Java Map Interfaces Java_ConcurrentMap > Java Map Interfaces The version 1.8 Map interface diagram has the shape below. Sets can be considered sub-cases of corresponding Maps in which the values are always a particular constant which can be ignored, although the Set API uses corresponding but differently named methods. At the bottom is the java.util.concurrent.ConcurrentNavigableMap, which is a multiple-inheritance. java.util.Collection java.util.Map java.util.SortedMap java.util.NavigableMap java.util.concurrent.ConcurrentNavigableMap java.util.concurrent.ConcurrentMap java.util.concurrent.ConcurrentNavigableMap
Neutron capture therapy Colorectal cancer Neutron_capture_therapy > Clinical Studies of BNCT for extracranial tumors > Other types of tumor > Colorectal cancer Nevertheless, the good clinical results in the first patient established proof of principle. Finally, Yanagie and his colleagues at Meiji Pharmaceutical University in Japan have treated several patients with recurrent rectal cancer using BNCT. Although no long-term results have been reported, there was evidence of short-term clinical responses.
Lagrangian (field theory) Overview Interaction_Lagrangian > Overview Jost continues with a geometric presentation, clarifying the relation between Hamiltonian and Lagrangian forms, describing spin manifolds from first principles, etc. Current research focuses on non-rigid affine structures, (sometimes called "quantum structures") wherein one replaces occurrences of vector spaces by tensor algebras. This research is motivated by the breakthrough understanding of quantum groups as affine Lie algebras (Lie groups are, in a sense "rigid", as they are determined by their Lie algebra. When reformulated on a tensor algebra, they become "floppy", having infinite degrees of freedom; see e.g. Virasoro algebra.)
Mass of electron Summary Electron Ionization or differences in the proportions of negative electrons versus positive nuclei changes the binding energy of an atomic system. The exchange or sharing of the electrons between two or more atoms is the main cause of chemical bonding. In 1838, British natural philosopher Richard Laming first hypothesized the concept of an indivisible quantity of electric charge to explain the chemical properties of atoms.
Stock and flow Summary Stocks_and_flows Therefore, a flow would be measured per unit of time (say a year). Flow is roughly analogous to rate or speed in this sense. For example, U.S.
Molecular binding Summary Molecular_binding Molecular binding is an attractive interaction between two molecules that results in a stable association in which the molecules are in close proximity to each other. It is formed when atoms or molecules bind together by sharing of electrons. It often, but not always, involves some chemical bonding.
Gravity wave Generation of ocean waves by wind Gravity_wave > Generation of ocean waves by wind A wave established on the surface either spontaneously as described above, or in laboratory conditions, interacts with the turbulent mean flow in a manner described by Miles. This is the so-called critical-layer mechanism. A critical layer forms at a height where the wave speed c equals the mean turbulent flow U. As the flow is turbulent, its mean profile is logarithmic, and its second derivative is thus negative.

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