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Mill conversion Summary Mill_conversion Mill Conversion or mill rehab is a form of adaptive reuse in which a historic mill or industrial factory building is restored or rehabilitated into another use, such as residential housing, retail shops, office, or a mix of these non-industrial elements (mixed-use).
Concurrent access Concurrency control in databases Modular_concurrency_control > Concurrency control in databases To some extent they are complementary, and their merging may be useful. To ensure correctness, a DBMS usually guarantees that only serializable transaction schedules are generated, unless serializability is intentionally relaxed to increase performance, but only in cases where application correctness is not harmed. For maintaining correctness in cases of failed (aborted) transactions (which can always happen for many reasons) schedules also need to have the recoverability (from abort) property.
Rule 90 Additivity, superposition, and decomposition Rule_90 > Properties > Additivity, superposition, and decomposition The rule for the automaton within each of these subsets is equivalent (except for a shift by half a cell per time step) to another elementary cellular automaton, Rule 102, in which the new state of each cell is the exclusive or of its old state and its right neighbor. That is, the behavior of Rule 90 is essentially the same as the behavior of two interleaved copies of Rule 102.Rule 90 and Rule 102 are called additive cellular automata. This means that, if two initial states are combined by computing the exclusive or of each their states, then their subsequent configurations will be combined in the same way. More generally, one can partition any configuration of Rule 90 into two subsets with disjoint nonzero cells, evolve the two subsets separately, and compute each successive configuration of the original automaton as the exclusive or of the configurations on the same time steps of the two subsets.
Nuclear Fission Discovery of nuclear fission Fission_reaction > History > Discovery of nuclear fission Marie Curie had been separating barium from radium for many years, and the techniques were well-known. Meitner and Frisch then correctly interpreted Hahn's results to mean that the nucleus of uranium had split roughly in half. Frisch suggested the process be named "nuclear fission", by analogy to the process of living cell division into two cells, which was then called binary fission.
Shooting method Eigenvalue problem Shooting_method > Examples > Eigenvalue problem If there are n {\displaystyle n} or less roots, the guessed energy is too low, so increase it and repeat the process. If there are more than n {\displaystyle n} roots, the guessed energy is too high, so decrease it and repeat the process.The energy-guessing can be done with the bisection method, and the process can be terminated when the energy difference is sufficiently small. Then one can take any energy in the interval to be the correct energy.
Bohr theory Refinements Bohr_Model > Refinements The whole theory did not extend to non-integrable motions, which meant that many systems could not be treated even in principle. In the end, the model was replaced by the modern quantum-mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom, which was first given by Wolfgang Pauli in 1925, using Heisenberg's matrix mechanics. The current picture of the hydrogen atom is based on the atomic orbitals of wave mechanics, which Erwin Schrödinger developed in 1926.
EM wave Wave and particle effects of electromagnetic radiation EM_radiation > Physics > Wave and particle effects of electromagnetic radiation The atoms absorb certain frequencies of the light between emitter and detector/eye, then emit them in all directions. A dark band appears to the detector, due to the radiation scattered out of the light beam. For instance, dark bands in the light emitted by a distant star are due to the atoms in the star's atmosphere.
Resource tracking Basic techniques Resource_tracking > Basic techniques The basic approach to resource management is to acquire a resource, do something with it, then release it, yielding code of the form (illustrated with opening a file in Python): This is correct if the intervening ... code does not contain an early exit (return), the language does not have exceptions, and open is guaranteed to succeed. However, it causes a resource leak if there is a return or exception, and causes an incorrect release of unacquired resource if open can fail. There are two more fundamental problems: the acquisition-release pair is not adjacent (the release code must be written far from the acquisition code), and resource management is not encapsulated – the programmer must manually ensure that they are always paired. In combination, these mean that acquisition and release must be explicitly paired, but cannot be placed together, thus making it easy for these to not be paired correctly.
Half reaction Example: oxidation of magnesium Half-reaction > Example: oxidation of magnesium Consider the example burning of magnesium ribbon (Mg). When magnesium burns, it combines with oxygen (O2) from the air to form magnesium oxide (MgO) according to the following equation: 2 Mg ( s ) + O 2 ( g ) ⟶ 2 MgO ( s ) {\displaystyle {\ce {2Mg_{(s)}{}+ O2_{(g)}-> 2MgO_{(s)}}}} Magnesium oxide is an ionic compound containing Mg2+ and O2− ions whereas Mg(s) and O2(g) are elements with no charges. The Mg(s) with zero charge gains a +2 charge going from the reactant side to product side, and the O2(g) with zero charge gains a –2 charge. This is because when Mg(s) becomes Mg2+, it loses 2 electrons.
Flood fill Moving the recursion into a data structure Flood_fill > Stack-based recursive implementation (four-way) > Moving the recursion into a data structure Add node to the end of Q. 3. While Q is not empty: 4.
Dual education system Disadvantages Dual_education_system > Disadvantages Requirements for several positions have become more complex and many high school graduates do not provide the right level of education. The less complex positions have only graduates with very little education are willing to do it, and even they are not able to keep up with the course. Also, companies are often highly specialized and unable to train apprentices in all the required areas.
All-electric vehicle Records Electric_drive_vehicle > Records Rimac Nevera, an electric hypercar, sets 23 world speed records in one day. Fastest acceleration of an electric car, 0 to 100 km/h in 1.461 seconds by university students at the University of Stuttgart. Electric Land Speed Record 353 mph (568 km/h). Electric Car Distance Record 1,725 miles (2,776 km) in 24 hours by Bjørn Nyland.
Torsion point Summary Torsion-free_group This terminology is more commonly used for modules over a domain, that is, when the regular elements of the ring are all its nonzero elements. This terminology applies to abelian groups (with "module" and "submodule" replaced by "group" and "subgroup"). This is allowed by the fact that the abelian groups are the modules over the ring of integers (in fact, this is the origin of the terminology, that has been introduced for abelian groups before being generalized to modules). In the case of groups that are noncommutative, a torsion element is an element of finite order. Contrary to the commutative case, the torsion elements do not form a subgroup, in general.
Infra-red (IR) spectroscopy Isotope effects IR_spectrum > Isotope effects In some systems, such as silicon and germanium, the decay of the anti-symmetric stretch mode of interstitial oxygen involves the symmetric stretch mode with a strong isotope dependence. For example, it was shown that for a natural silicon sample, the lifetime of the anti-symmetric vibration is 11.4 ps. When the isotope of one of the silicon atoms is increased to 29Si, the lifetime increases to 19 ps. In similar manner, when the silicon atom is changed to 30Si, the lifetime becomes 27 ps.
Target selection Region specification Target_selection > Region specification The first stage in target selection is specification of target region, a process known as Axon pathfinding. Growing neurites follow gradients of cell surface molecules that serve as chemoattractants and repellents to the growth cone. This perspective is an evolution of the Chemoaffinity Hypothesis posited by Roger Sperry in the 1960s. Sperry studied how the neurons in the visual systems of amphibians and goldfish form topographic maps in the brain, noting that if the optic nerve is crushed and allowed to regenerate, the axons will trace back the same patterns of connections.
Denaturation (biochemistry) Summary Protein_denaturation In biochemistry, denaturation is a process in which proteins or nucleic acids lose the quaternary structure, tertiary structure, and secondary structure which is present in their native state, by application of some external stress or compound such as a strong acid or base, a concentrated inorganic salt, an organic solvent (e.g., alcohol or chloroform), agitation and radiation or heat. If proteins in a living cell are denatured, this results in disruption of cell activity and possibly cell death. Protein denaturation is also a consequence of cell death. Denatured proteins can exhibit a wide range of characteristics, from conformational change and loss of solubility to aggregation due to the exposure of hydrophobic groups.
Firefighting Science of extinguishment Firefighting > Science of extinguishment When it comes into contact with a fuel, it provides the energy necessary for ignition, causes the continuous production and ignition of fuel vapors or gases so that the combustion reaction can continue, and causes the vaporization of solid and liquid fuels. The resulting self-sustained chemical chain reaction is complex and requires fuel, an oxidizer, and heat energy to come together in a very specific way. An oxidizing agent is a material or substance that will release gases, including oxygen, when the proper conditions exist.
Cache line Exclusive versus inclusive Instruction_cache > Cache hierarchy in a modern processor > Multi-level caches > Exclusive versus inclusive In cache hierarchies which do not enforce inclusion, the L1 cache must be checked as well. As a drawback, there is a correlation between the associativities of L1 and L2 caches: if the L2 cache does not have at least as many ways as all L1 caches together, the effective associativity of the L1 caches is restricted. Another disadvantage of inclusive cache is that whenever there is an eviction in L2 cache, the (possibly) corresponding lines in L1 also have to get evicted in order to maintain inclusiveness.
Remotely triggered earthquakes Summary Remotely_triggered_earthquakes The first type of triggering may be due to static changes in the critical state. For example, after the magnitude 7.3 Landers earthquake struck California in 1992, it is said that "the earthquake map of California lit up like a Christmas tree". This event reinforced the idea of remotely triggered earthquakes, and pushed the hypothesis into the scientific mainstream.
Isotope affinity tags Metabolic flux analysis using stable isotope labeling Radioisotopic_labeling > Stable isotope labeling > Metabolic flux analysis using stable isotope labeling Metabolic flux analysis (MFA) using stable isotope labeling is an important tool for explaining the flux of certain elements through the metabolic pathways and reactions within a cell. An isotopic label is fed to the cell, then the cell is allowed to grow utilizing the labeled feed. For stationary metabolic flux analysis the cell must reach a steady state (the isotopes entering and leaving the cell remain constant with time) or a quasi-steady state (steady state is reached for a given period of time). The isotope pattern of the output metabolite is determined.
Graves disease Mechanism Graves_disease > Mechanism Thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins recognize and bind to the (TSH receptor, which stimulates the secretion of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Thyroxine receptors in the pituitary gland are activated by the surplus hormone, suppressing additional release of TSH in a negative feedback loop. The result is very high levels of circulating thyroid hormones and a low TSH level.
Neural ensemble Encoding Neuronal_ensemble > Encoding However, the basic principle of ensemble encoding holds: large neuronal populations do better than single neurons. The emergence of specific neural assemblies is thought to provide the functional elements of brain activity that execute the basic operations of informational processing (see Fingelkurts An.A. and Fingelkurts Al.A., 2004; 2005).Neuronal code or the 'language' that neuronal ensembles speak is very far from being understood.
Cardiac transplant Rejection Cardiac_transplant > Complications > Rejection Since the transplanted heart originates from another organism, the recipient's immune system typically attempts to reject it. The risk of rejection never fully goes away, and the patient will be on immunosuppressive drugs for the rest of their life. These drugs may cause unwanted side effects, such as an increased likelihood of infections or the development of certain cancers.
Homogeneous equation Summary Homogeneous_system_of_linear_equations In mathematics, the theory of linear systems is the basis and a fundamental part of linear algebra, a subject used in most modern mathematics. Computational algorithms for finding the solutions are an important part of numerical linear algebra, and play a prominent role in engineering, physics, chemistry, computer science, and economics. A system of non-linear equations can often be approximated by a linear system (see linearization), a helpful technique when making a mathematical model or computer simulation of a relatively complex system.
Project life cycle Project complexity Project_life_cycle > Characteristics of projects > Project complexity A complex system can be described by Euclid’s statement that the whole is more than the sum of its parts. Really complex projects, a.k.a. very complex, or chaotic: characterized by unknowables.
Schwinger effect Summary Schwinger_mechanism The Schwinger effect is a predicted physical phenomenon whereby matter is created by a strong electric field. It is also referred to as the Sauter–Schwinger effect, Schwinger mechanism, or Schwinger pair production. It is a prediction of quantum electrodynamics (QED) in which electron–positron pairs are spontaneously created in the presence of an electric field, thereby causing the decay of the electric field. The effect was originally proposed by Fritz Sauter in 1931 and further important work was carried out by Werner Heisenberg and Hans Heinrich Euler in 1936, though it was not until 1951 that Julian Schwinger gave a complete theoretical description.The Schwinger effect can be thought of as vacuum decay in the presence of an electric field.
Light activated resin Summary Photopolymer Photopolymers undergo a process called curing, where oligomers are cross-linked upon exposure to light, forming what is known as a network polymer. The result of photo-curing is the formation of a thermoset network of polymers. One of the advantages of photo-curing is that it can be done selectively using high energy light sources, for example lasers, however, most systems are not readily activated by light, and in this case a photoinitiator is required.
Loop around Summary Loop_around Phreaks would use the loop around in a similar manner, to exchange information that they had learned about the phone company.Loop lines are far less common today than they were in the 1960s, however they reportedly continued to exist past the start of the 21st century. One such loop line is certain to exist: it is a TPI-560P located at (416) 981-0001 owned by Telus. It also comes with an automatic number announcement circuit.
Entropy and life Gibbs free energy and biological evolution Entropy_and_life > Gibbs free energy and biological evolution Assuming evolution drives organisms towards higher information content, it is postulated by Gregory Chaitin that life has properties of high mutual information, and by Tamvakis that life can be quantified using mutual information density metrics, a generalisation of the concept of Biodiversity.In a study titled "Natural selection for least action" published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society A., Ville Kaila and Arto Annila of the University of Helsinki describe how the process of natural selection responsible for such local increase in order may be mathematically derived directly from the expression of the second law equation for connected non-equilibrium open systems. The second law of thermodynamics can be written as an equation of motion to describe evolution, showing how natural selection and the principle of least action can be connected by expressing natural selection in terms of chemical thermodynamics. In this view, evolution explores possible paths to level differences in energy densities and so increase entropy most rapidly. Thus, an organism serves as an energy transfer mechanism, and beneficial mutations allow successive organisms to transfer more energy within their environment.
Analysis of Variance Cautions Analysis_of_Variance > Cautions Balanced experiments (those with an equal sample size for each treatment) are relatively easy to interpret; unbalanced experiments offer more complexity. For single-factor (one-way) ANOVA, the adjustment for unbalanced data is easy, but the unbalanced analysis lacks both robustness and power. For more complex designs the lack of balance leads to further complications. "The orthogonality property of main effects and interactions present in balanced data does not carry over to the unbalanced case.
Consistency model Grouping operations Memory_consistency > Consistency and replication > Data-centric consistency models > Consistent ordering of operations > Grouping operations In grouping operation, accesses to the synchronization variables are sequentially consistent. A process is allowed to access a synchronization variable that all previous writes have been completed. In other words, accesses to synchronization variables are not permitted until all operations on the synchronization variables are completely performed.
Internet of Musical Things Web Audio, cloud computing and edge computing Internet_of_Musical_Things > Related fields > Web Audio, cloud computing and edge computing Each machine has the same software configurations, but can differ in the central processing unit, memory usage, and disk storage capacity. This model was developed with three main objectives in mind: i) reduce the cost in the acquisition and composition of the elements that form the network infrastructure, allowing it to be heterogeneous and adaptable to the resources required; ii) flexibility in adding or replacing computing resources; iii) ease of access to the services provided by it, where users only need their machines to have an operating system, browser and Internet access to access the resources available in the cloud.Despite all the advantages listed above about using cloud computing, its centralized mode of operation creates a lot of service load on the network, in particular on costs and bandwidth resources for data transmission. In addition, network performance worsens as the amount of data increases.
Accuracy and precision In information systems Accuracy_and_precision > In information systems Less commonly, the metric of accuracy is used, is defined as the total number of correct classifications (true positives plus true negatives) divided by the total number of documents. None of these metrics take into account the ranking of results. Ranking is very important for web search engines because readers seldom go past the first page of results, and there are too many documents on the web to manually classify all of them as to whether they should be included or excluded from a given search.
Closed-cycle gas turbine Summary Closed-cycle_gas_turbine A closed-cycle gas turbine is a turbine that uses a gas (e.g. air, nitrogen, helium, argon, etc.) for the working fluid as part of a closed thermodynamic system. Heat is supplied from an external source. Such recirculating turbines follow the Brayton cycle.
Leishmaniasis vaccine Vaccine development Leishmaniasis_vaccine > Vaccine development There is a challenge in interpreting the data in animal models to apply to humans. Another challenge is effectively transferring knowledge from laboratory settings to field practice. There is also a basic lack of scientific understanding of how an antiparasitic vaccine should generate and maintain immunological memory during parasitic infection.The development of a vaccine using CRISPR-Cas9 technology was published in 2020 which showed that inoculation with a live attenuated Leishmania major strain induces durable protection, analogous to leishmanization. Another gene deletion mutant was created in a Leishmania mexicana strain in 2022, showing complete inhibition of the typical cutaneous lesions in mouse models thanks to a diminished induction of the Th2 cytokines.
Double factorial History and usage Double_factorial > History and usage {\displaystyle n!!} for such products, and if a name be required for the product to call it the "alternate factorial" or the "double factorial." Meserve (1948) states that the double factorial was originally introduced in order to simplify the expression of certain trigonometric integrals that arise in the derivation of the Wallis product. Double factorials also arise in expressing the volume of a hypersphere, and they have many applications in enumerative combinatorics. They occur in Student's t-distribution (1908), though Gosset did not use the double exclamation point notation.
Naive Set Theory Paradoxes in early set theory Naive_Set_Theory > Paradoxes in early set theory It is again the axiom schema of unrestricted comprehension allowing (x ∈ x) → {} ≠ {} for P(x). With the axiom schema of specification instead of unrestricted comprehension, the conclusion Y ∈ Y does not hold and hence {} ≠ {} is not a logical consequence. Nonetheless, the possibility of x ∈ x is often removed explicitly or, e.g. in ZFC, implicitly, by demanding the axiom of regularity to hold.
Conder token Cataloging and Attribution Conder_token > Cataloging and Attribution Conder tokens are named after James Conder who was an early collector and cataloguer of these tokens. Building on the work of Conder and a few other intermediary reference works, the definitive and exhaustive work on attributing Conder tokens used by modern collectors is that of Dalton and Hamer. Each token is identified based on one of four large geographic regions (England, Anglesey and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland), then further by county. Within the county of issue, each unique combination of obverse and reverse design is assigned a number (referred to as the D&H number), and variations in edge lettering are further differentiated by a lower case letter following the number designation.
Left heart failure Medication Heart_strain > Management > Chronic management > Medication The angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitors (ARNI) sacubitril/valsartan is recommended as first choice of RAS inhibitors in American guidelines published by AHA/ACC in 2022. Use of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors (ACE-I), or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB) if the person develops a long-term cough as a side effect of the ACE-I, is associated with improved survival, fewer hospitalizations for heart failure exacerbations, and improved quality of life in people with heart failure. European guidelines published by ESC in 2021 recommends that ARNI should be used in those who still have symptoms while on an ACE-I or ARB, beta blocker, and a mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist.
Science of Logic B. Specifying Measure Science_of_Logic > Objective Logic: Doctrine of Being > Measure > Specific Quantity > B. Specifying Measure Insofar as Quantity describes the upper and lower Limits between which a specific Quality can maintain itself, it serves as a (a) Rule. The Rule is an arbitrary external standard or Amount that measures something other than itself. Although it is often tempting to assume so, there is in actuality no object that can serve as a completely universal standard of measurement, i.e., be pure Quantity. Rather, what is involved in measurement is a ratio between two Qualities and their inherent Quantities, the one made to act as the (b) Specifying Measure of the other, this other, however, being itself just as capable of measuring that which it is being measured by.
Quartic interaction Feynman integral quantization Quartic_interaction > Feynman integral quantization The Feynman diagram expansion may be obtained also from the Feynman path integral formulation. The time ordered vacuum expectation values of polynomials in φ, known as the n-particle Green's functions, are constructed by integrating over all possible fields, normalized by the vacuum expectation value with no external fields, ⟨ Ω \| T { ϕ ( x 1 ) ⋯ ϕ ( x n ) } \| Ω ⟩ = ∫ D ϕ ϕ ( x 1 ) ⋯ ϕ ( x n ) e i ∫ d 4 x ( 1 2 ∂ μ ϕ ∂ μ ϕ − m 2 2 ϕ 2 − λ 4 ! ϕ 4 ) ∫ D ϕ e i ∫ d 4 x ( 1 2 ∂ μ ϕ ∂ μ ϕ − m 2 2 ϕ 2 − λ 4 ! ϕ 4 ) .
Relativistic electromagnetism Redundancy Relativistic_electromagnetism > Redundancy The title of this article is redundant since all mathematical theories of electromagnetism are relativistic. Indeed, as Einstein wrote, "The special theory of relativity ... was simply a systematic development of the electrodynamics of Clerk Maxwell and Lorentz". Combination of spatial and temporal variables in Maxwell's theory required admission of a four-manifold. Finite light speed and other constant motion lines were described with analytic geometry.
Cognitive workload Children Cognitive_load_theory > Sub-population studies > Children When it comes to learning, their lack of experience with numbers, words, and concepts increases their cognitive load. As children grow older they develop superior basic processes and capacities. They also develop metacognition, which helps them to understand their own cognitive activities.
Serotonin toxicity Causes Serotonin_toxicity > Causes It has also been suggested that mirtazapine has no significant serotonergic effects and is therefore not a dual action drug. Bupropion has also been suggested to cause SS, although as there is no evidence that it has any significant serotonergic activity, it is thought unlikely to produce the syndrome. In 2006 the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued an alert suggesting that the combined use of SSRIs or SNRIs and triptan medications or sibutramine could potentially lead to severe cases of SS.
Copper deficiency Other Copper_deficiency > Causes > Other It is rarely suggested that excess iron supplementation causes copper deficiency myelopathy. Another rarer cause of copper deficiency is celiac disease, probably due to malabsorption in the intestines. Still, a large percentage, around 20%, of cases have unknown causes.
Physical force Fundamental interactions Force_vector > Fundamental interactions For example, friction is a manifestation of the electromagnetic force acting between atoms of two surfaces. The forces in springs, modeled by Hooke's law, are also the result of electromagnetic forces. Centrifugal forces are acceleration forces that arise simply from the acceleration of rotating frames of reference.
Fibrotic lung disease Diagnosis Pulmonary_fibrosis > Diagnosis The removed tissue is examined histopathologically by microscopy to confirm the presence and pattern of fibrosis as well as presence of other features that may indicate a specific cause e.g. specific types of mineral dust or possible response to therapy e.g. a pattern of so-called non-specific interstitial fibrosis. Misdiagnosis is common because, while overall pulmonary fibrosis is not rare, each individual type of pulmonary fibrosis is uncommon and the evaluation of patients with these diseases is complex and requires a multidisciplinary approach. Terminology has been standardized but difficulties still exist in their application. Even experts may disagree with the classification of some cases.On spirometry, as a restrictive lung disease, both the FEV1 (forced expiratory volume in 1 second) and FVC (forced vital capacity) are reduced so the FEV1/FVC ratio is normal or even increased in contrast to obstructive lung disease where this ratio is reduced. The values for residual volume and total lung capacity are generally decreased in restrictive lung disease.
Lebesgue integration Basic theorems of the Lebesgue integral Lebesgue_integration > Basic theorems of the Lebesgue integral For a set S ∈ Σ, define Then ν is a Lebesgue measure on (Ω, Σ). Monotone convergence theorem: Suppose {fk}k ∈ N is a sequence of non-negative measurable functions such that Then, the pointwise limit f of fk is Lebesgue measurable and The value of any of the integrals is allowed to be infinite. Fatou's lemma: If {fk}k ∈ N is a sequence of non-negative measurable functions, then Again, the value of any of the integrals may be infinite. Dominated convergence theorem: Suppose {fk}k ∈ N is a sequence of complex measurable functions with pointwise limit f, and there is a Lebesgue integrable function g (i.e., g belongs to the space L1) such that \|fk\| ≤ g for all k. Then f is Lebesgue integrable and
Eigenface Summary Eigenface An eigenface () is the name given to a set of eigenvectors when used in the computer vision problem of human face recognition. The approach of using eigenfaces for recognition was developed by Sirovich and Kirby and used by Matthew Turk and Alex Pentland in face classification. The eigenvectors are derived from the covariance matrix of the probability distribution over the high-dimensional vector space of face images.
Out of order execution Out-of-order processors In-order_processor > Basic concept > Out-of-order processors This is called the graduation or retire stage.The key concept of OoOE processing is to allow the processor to avoid a class of stalls that occur when the data needed to perform an operation are unavailable. In the outline above, the OoOE processor avoids the stall that occurs in step (2) of the in-order processor when the instruction is not completely ready to be processed due to missing data. OoOE processors fill these "slots" in time with other instructions that are ready, then re-order the results at the end to make it appear that the instructions were processed as normal.
Instrumental convergence Resource acquisition Instrumental_convergence > Basic AI drives > Resource acquisition Many instrumental goals, such as resource acquisition, are valuable to an agent because they increase its freedom of action.For almost any open-ended, non-trivial reward function (or set of goals), possessing more resources (such as equipment, raw materials, or energy) can enable the agent to find a more "optimal" solution. Resources can benefit some agents directly by being able to create more of whatever stuff its reward function values: "The AI neither hates you nor loves you, but you are made out of atoms that it can use for something else." In addition, almost all agents can benefit from having more resources to spend on other instrumental goals, such as self-preservation.
Deterministic rendezvous problem Ta-Shma and Zwick Deterministic_rendezvous_problem > Solutions > Ta-Shma and Zwick The solution presented by Ta-Shma and Zwick in 2014 solves the problem in O ( n 5 + l ) {\textstyle O\left(n^{5}+l\right)} time. In addition to the reduced time complexity (which doesn't rely on τ), this solution also doesn't use backtracking. Instead, it uses the notion of universal traversal sequences to help solve the problem.A universal traversal sequence is a sequence of instructions comprising a graph traversal for any regular graph with a set number of vertices and for any starting vertex. Since the robots may not be in a regular graph, a universal traversal sequence for n nodes and degree d is used, where d is the maximum degree of the graph.
Doppler Shift Compensation Constant frequency vs. frequency modulated pulses Doppler_Shift_Compensation > Bat echolocation calls > Constant frequency vs. frequency modulated pulses These types of pulses are produced by CF bats, and are also incorporated into the calls of CF-FM bats, which produce compound pulses that contain both CF and FM elements. The CF pulse is preceded by a short, upward FM sweep, and is terminated by a brief, downward FM sweep. The second harmonic of the CF-FM pulse is typically the dominant (highest amplitude) sound, and is usually about 80 kHz.
Fermat's Last Theorem Diophantine equations Fermat’s_Last_Theorem > Mathematical history > Pythagoras and Diophantus > Diophantine equations Fermat's conjecture of his Last Theorem was inspired while reading a new edition of the Arithmetica, that was translated into Latin and published in 1621 by Claude Bachet.Diophantine equations have been studied for thousands of years. For example, the solutions to the quadratic Diophantine equation x2 + y2 = z2 are given by the Pythagorean triples, originally solved by the Babylonians (c. 1800 BC).
Capillary tube Examples Capillarity_effect > Examples With some pairs of materials, such as mercury and glass, the intermolecular forces within the liquid exceed those between the solid and the liquid, so a convex meniscus forms and capillary action works in reverse. In hydrology, capillary action describes the attraction of water molecules to soil particles. Capillary action is responsible for moving groundwater from wet areas of the soil to dry areas.
Visual Search Engine Google Images Visual_Search_Engine > Application in popular search systems > Google Images Google's Search by Image is a feature that uses reverse image search and allows users to search for related images by uploading an image or copying the image URL. Google accomplishes this by analyzing the submitted picture and constructing a mathematical model of it. It is then compared with other images in Google's databases before returning matching and similar results. When available, Google also uses metadata about the image such as description. In 2022 the feature was replaced by Google Lens as the default visual search method on Google, and the old Search by Image function remains available within Google Lens.
Partial residual plot Summary Partial_residual_plot In applied statistics, a partial residual plot is a graphical technique that attempts to show the relationship between a given independent variable and the response variable given that other independent variables are also in the model.
Mucociliary clearance Mechanism Mucociliary_escalator > Function > Mechanism Within the thin periciliary liquid layer the cilia beat in a coordinated fashion directed to the pharynx where the transported mucus is either swallowed or coughed up. This movement towards the pharynx is either upward from the lower respiratory tract or downwards from the nasal structures clearing the mucus that is constantly produced.Each cilium is about 7 μm in length, and is fixed at its base. Its beat has two parts the power stroke, or effector stroke, and the recovery stroke. The movement of the cilia takes place in the periciliary liquid which is a little shorter in depth than the height of an extended cilium.
Ivermectin during the COVID-19 pandemic COVID-19 and strongyloidiasis Ivermectin_during_the_COVID-19_pandemic > Clinical guidance > COVID-19 and strongyloidiasis There is one very specific circumstance in which ivermectin may be useful in the management of COVID-19. People infected with the Strongyloides stercoralis parasite are at risk for strongyloides hyperinfection syndrome (SHS) — a condition with a mortality rate as high as 90% — if given corticosteroids to treat COVID-19. Strongyloidiasis affects as many as 370 million people worldwide, and it is usually subclinical or even asymptomatic. However, it can become fatal in the setting of SHS, which can be triggered by the immunosuppression that results from the administration of corticosteroids.
Amperometric titration Summary Amperometric_titration Amperometric titration refers to a class of titrations in which the equivalence point is determined through measurement of the electric current produced by the titration reaction. It is a form of quantitative analysis.
Orbiting Carbon Observatory Technology Orbiting_Carbon_Observatory > Technology If the light is divided into a rainbow of colors, called a spectrum, the specific colors absorbed by each gas appear as dark lines. Different gases absorb different colors, so the pattern of absorption lines provides a telltale spectral "fingerprint" for that molecule. OCO's spectrometers were designed to detect these molecular fingerprints.
Taylor Aggression Paradigm Summary Taylor_Aggression_Paradigm The Taylor Aggression Paradigm (TAP; also commonly referred to as the Competitive Reaction Time Task) is a prominent, well-validated, laboratory analog measure of aggressive behavior in humans, predominantly utilized within the field of psychology.
Oxaloacetic acid Gluconeogenesis Oxaloacetic_acid > Biochemical functions > Gluconeogenesis Then oxaloacetate remains in the cytosol, where the rest of reactions will take place. Oxaloacetate is later decarboxylated and phosphorylated by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and becomes 2-phosphoenolpyruvate using guanosine triphosphate (GTP) as phosphate source. Glucose is obtained after further downstream processing.
Shapiro Senapathy algorithm S&S - the first algorithm for identifying splice sites, exons and split genes Shapiro–Senapathy_algorithm > S&S - the first algorithm for identifying splice sites, exons and split genes Senapathy demonstrated that only deleterious mutations in the donor or acceptor splice sites that would drastically make the protein defective would reduce the splice site score (later known as the Shapiro–Senapathy score), and other non-deleterious variations would not reduce the score. The S&S method was adapted for researching the cryptic splice sites caused by mutations leading to diseases.
MINPACK Summary MINPACK MINPACK is a library of FORTRAN subroutines for the solving of systems of nonlinear equations, or the least-squares minimization of the residual of a set of linear or nonlinear equations. MINPACK, along with other similar libraries such as LINPACK and EISPACK, originated from the Mathematics and Computer Science Division Software (MCS) of Argonne National Laboratory. Written by Jorge Moré, Burt Garbow, and Ken Hillstrom, MINPACK is free and designed to be highly portable, robust and reliable. The quality of its implementation of the Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm is attested by Dennis and Schnabel.Five algorithmic paths each include a core subroutine and a driver routine. The algorithms proceed either from an analytic specification of the Jacobian matrix or directly from the problem functions. The paths include facilities for systems of equations with a banded Jacobian matrix, for least-squares problems with a large amount of data, and for checking the consistency of the Jacobian matrix with the functions.
Quotient Integer part definition Quotient > Integer part definition The quotient is also less commonly defined as the greatest whole number of times a divisor may be subtracted from a dividend—before making the remainder negative. For example, the divisor 3 may be subtracted up to 6 times from the dividend 20, before the remainder becomes negative: 20 − 3 − 3 − 3 − 3 − 3 − 3 ≥ 0,while 20 − 3 − 3 − 3 − 3 − 3 − 3 − 3 < 0.In this sense, a quotient is the integer part of the ratio of two numbers.
Geometric drawing General references Geometric_drawing > General references São Paulo: Scipione. Aaboe, Asger (2002). Episódios da História Antiga da Matemática (in Portuguese).
Rush Hour (puzzle) Computational complexity on larger boards Rush_Hour_(puzzle) > Computational complexity on larger boards When generalized so that it can be played on an arbitrarily large board, the problem of deciding if a Rush Hour problem has a solution is PSPACE-complete. This is proved by reducing a graph game called nondeterministic constraint logic, which is known to be PSPACE-complete, to generalized Rush Hour positions. In 2005, Tromp and Cilibrasi showed that Rush Hour is still PSPACE-complete when the cars are of size 2 only. They also conjectured that Rush Hour is still nontrivial when the cars are of size 1 only.
Configuration state function Single orbital configurations and wavefunctions Configuration_state_function > Single orbital configurations and wavefunctions They obey the same coupling rules as other electrons but the Pauli exclusion principle makes certain couplings impossible. The Pauli exclusion principle requires that no two electrons in a system can have all their quantum numbers equal. For equivalent electrons, by definition the principal quantum number is identical.
Top-down proteomics Advantages Top-down_proteomics > Advantages The main advantages of the top-down approach include the ability to detect degradation products, protein isoforms, sequence variants, combinations of post-translational modifications as well as simplified processes for data normalization and quantitation. Top-down proteomics, when accompanied with polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, can help to complement the bottom-up proteomic approach. Top-down proteomic methods can assist in exposing large deviations from predictions and has been very successfully pursued by combining Gel Elution Liquid-based Fractionation Entrapment Electrophoresis fractionation, protein precipitation, and reverse phase HPLC with electrospray ionization and MS/MS. Characterization of small proteins represents a significant challenge for bottom up proteomics due to the inability to generate sufficient tryptic peptides for analysis. Top-down proteomics allows for low mass protein detection, thus increasing the repertoire of proteins known. While Bottom-up proteomics integrates cleaved products from all proteoforms produced by a gene into a single peptide map of the full-length gene product to tabulate and quantify expressed proteins, a major strength of Top-down proteomics is that it enables researchers to quantitatively track one or more proteoforms from multiple samples and to excise these proteoforms for chemical analysis.
Lac operon Classification of regulatory mutants Lactose_operon > Development of the classic model > Classification of regulatory mutants When the operator site where repressor must bind is damaged by mutation, the presence of a second functional site in the same cell makes no difference to expression of genes controlled by the mutant site. A more sophisticated version of this experiment uses marked operons to distinguish between the two copies of the lac genes and show that the unregulated structural gene(s) is(are) the one(s) next to the mutant operator (panel (g). For example, suppose that one copy is marked by a mutation inactivating lacZ so that it can only produce the LacY protein, while the second copy carries a mutation affecting lacY and can only produce LacZ.
Vasomotor center Function Vasomotor_center > Function The vasomotor center changes vascular smooth muscle tone. This changes local and systemic blood pressure.A drop in blood pressure leads to increased sympathetic tone from the vasomotor center. This acts to raise blood pressure.
Pulmonary embolism Probability testing Pulmonary_embolism > Diagnosis > Probability testing If positive D-dimer, obtain MDCT and base treatment on results. Moderate clinical probability. If negative D-dimer, PE is excluded.
Partial gas volume In medicine Partial_pressure > In medicine The partial pressures of particularly oxygen ( p O 2 {\displaystyle p_{\mathrm {O_{2}} }} ) and carbon dioxide ( p C O 2 {\displaystyle p_{\mathrm {CO_{2}} }} ) are important parameters in tests of arterial blood gases, but can also be measured in, for example, cerebrospinal fluid.
Hill system Overview Chemical_Formula > Overview Some types of ionic compounds, however, cannot be written with entirely whole-number empirical formulae. An example is boron carbide, whose formula of CBn is a variable non-whole number ratio with n ranging from over 4 to more than 6.5. When the chemical compound of the formula consists of simple molecules, chemical formulae often employ ways to suggest the structure of the molecule.
Peripheral neuropathy Summary Mononeuritis_multiplex Common causes include systemic diseases (such as diabetes or leprosy), hyperglycemia-induced glycation, vitamin deficiency, medication (e.g., chemotherapy, or commonly prescribed antibiotics including metronidazole and the fluoroquinolone class of antibiotics (such as ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin)), traumatic injury, ischemia, radiation therapy, excessive alcohol consumption, immune system disease, celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, or viral infection. It can also be genetic (present from birth) or idiopathic (no known cause). In conventional medical usage, the word neuropathy (neuro-, "nervous system" and -pathy, "disease of") without modifier usually means peripheral neuropathy.
Reaction kinetics Catalysts Chemical_dynamics > Factors affecting reaction rate > Catalysts Michaelis–Menten kinetics describe the rate of enzyme mediated reactions. A catalyst does not affect the position of the equilibrium, as the catalyst speeds up the backward and forward reactions equally. In certain organic molecules, specific substituents can have an influence on reaction rate in neighbouring group participation.
Bayesian approaches to brain function Origins Bayesian_brain > Origins This field of study has its historical roots in numerous disciplines including machine learning, experimental psychology and Bayesian statistics. As early as the 1860s, with the work of Hermann Helmholtz in experimental psychology the brain's ability to extract perceptual information from sensory data was modeled in terms of probabilistic estimation. The basic idea is that the nervous system needs to organize sensory data into an accurate internal model of the outside world. Bayesian probability has been developed by many important contributors.
Abuse of statistics Data dredging Misuse_of_statistics > Types of misuse > Data dredging Data dredging is an abuse of data mining. In data dredging, large compilations of data are examined in order to find a correlation, without any pre-defined choice of a hypothesis to be tested. Since the required confidence interval to establish a relationship between two parameters is usually chosen to be 95% (meaning that there is a 95% chance that the relationship observed is not due to random chance), there is thus a 5% chance of finding a correlation between any two sets of completely random variables. Given that data dredging efforts typically examine large datasets with many variables, and hence even larger numbers of pairs of variables, spurious but apparently statistically significant results are almost certain to be found by any such study.
Dependability state model Reliability Dependability_state_model > Example > Reliability The reliability of the system is found by making the failure states absorbing, i.e. removing all outgoing state transitions. For this system the function is: R ( t ) = e − λ t {\displaystyle R(t)=e^{-\lambda t}\,}
Conductometry Titration Conductometry > Titration Acid-base titrations and redox titrations are often performed in which common indicators are used to locate the end point e.g., methyl orange, phenolphthalein for acid base titrations and starch solutions for iodometric type redox process. However, electrical conductance measurements can also be used as a tool to locate the end point.
Air bearings Advantages Air_bearings > Advantages and disadvantages of gas-lubricated bearings > Advantages Roller bearings and friction bearings have a high degree of friction when used at high speed or acceleration, causing a positive feedback loop where high abrasion decreases precision, which in turn causes greater wear, leading to their eventual failure. Guiding, repeatability, and position accuracy. In the chip production and when positioning at the back-end, repeatability accuracy of 1-2 μm must be reached with the wire bonder.
Archival science Archival preservation Archival_science > Preservation in archival science > Archival preservation In order to preserve a record it must be preserved in its original entirety or else it may lose its significance. This definition relates to the principle of provenance and respect des fonds as it similarly emphasizes the idea of the original record.Metadata is key for the preservation of context within archival science. Metadata, as defined by the SAA, is "data about data".
Solvable by radicals Summary Galois_Theory This widely generalizes the Abel–Ruffini theorem, which asserts that a general polynomial of degree at least five cannot be solved by radicals. Galois theory has been used to solve classic problems including showing that two problems of antiquity cannot be solved as they were stated (doubling the cube and trisecting the angle), and characterizing the regular polygons that are constructible (this characterization was previously given by Gauss, but all known proofs that this characterization is complete require Galois theory).
Standard reference temperature Molar volume of a gas Standard_pressure > Molar volume of a gas It is as important to indicate the applicable reference conditions of temperature and pressure when stating the molar volume of a gas as it is when expressing a gas volume or volumetric flow rate. Stating the molar volume of a gas without indicating the reference conditions of temperature and pressure has very little meaning and can cause confusion. The molar volume of gases around STP and at atmospheric pressure can be calculated with an accuracy that is usually sufficient by using the ideal gas law.
Controlled aerodynamic instability phenomena Controlled aerodynamic instability phenomena Controlled_aerodynamic_instability_phenomena > Controlled aerodynamic instability phenomena The wind interacts with the obstacles it reaches in its way by transferring a part of its energy to those interactions, which are converted into forces over the bodies, leading them to different levels of motion, which are directly dependent on their aeroelastic and geometric characteristics. A large number of studies and researches has been conducted concerning these interactions and their dependencies, aiming the understanding of the aerodynamic phenomena that arise due to them, such as the Kármán vortex street, galloping, buffeting and flutter, mainly regarding bluff bodies. By the understanding of such phenomena it is possible to predict instabilities and their consequent motions, feeding the designers with the data they need in order to arrange the structures properly. In the great majority of the cases – e.g.: in civil buildings – such motions are useless and undesirable, in a manner that all the designing approaches are focused on avoiding them.
Differential forms Differential calculus Integration_of_a_differential_form > Concept > Differential calculus {\frac {d}{dt}}f(p+t\mathbf {v} )\right\|_{t=0}.} (This notion can be extended pointwise to the case that v is a vector field on U by evaluating v at the point p in the definition.) In particular, if v = ej is the jth coordinate vector then ∂v f is the partial derivative of f with respect to the jth coordinate vector, i.e., ∂f / ∂xj, where x1, x2, ..., xn are the coordinate vectors in U. By their very definition, partial derivatives depend upon the choice of coordinates: if new coordinates y1, y2, ..., yn are introduced, then ∂ f ∂ x j = ∑ i = 1 n ∂ y i ∂ x j ∂ f ∂ y i .
Entropy Entropy balance equation for open systems Molar_entropy > Applications > Entropy balance equation for open systems In chemical engineering, the principles of thermodynamics are commonly applied to "open systems", i.e. those in which heat, work, and mass flow across the system boundary. Flows of both heat ( Q ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}} ) and work, i.e. W ˙ S {\displaystyle {\dot {W}}_{\text{S}}} (shaft work) and P ( d V / d t ) {\displaystyle P(dV/dt)} (pressure-volume work), across the system boundaries, in general cause changes in the entropy of the system. Transfer as heat entails entropy transfer Q ˙ / T {\displaystyle {\dot {Q}}/T} , where T {\displaystyle T} is the absolute thermodynamic temperature of the system at the point of the heat flow. If there are mass flows across the system boundaries, they also influence the total entropy of the system.
NMR in porous media NMR Cryoporometry for measuring pore size distributions NMR_in_porous_media > NMR Cryoporometry for measuring pore size distributions Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) may be used as a convenient method of measuring the quantity of liquid that has melted, as a function of temperature, making use of the fact that the T 2 {\displaystyle T_{2}} relaxation time in a frozen material is usually much shorter than that in a mobile liquid. The technique was developed at the University of Kent in the UK. It is also possible to adapt the basic NMRC experiment to provide structural resolution in spatially dependent pore size distributions, or to provide behavioural information about the confined liquid.
Performance bonds Summary Performance_Bond A performance bond, also known as a contract bond, is a surety bond issued by an insurance company or a bank to guarantee satisfactory completion of a project by a contractor. The term is also used to denote a collateral deposit of good faith money, intended to secure a futures contract, commonly known as margin.
Pulsating DC Smoothing Pulsed_DC > Smoothing Most modern electronic items function using a DC voltage, so the PDC waveform must usually be smoothed before use. A reservoir capacitor converts the PDC wave into a DC waveform with some superimposed ripple. When the PDC voltage is initially applied, it charges the capacitor, which acts as a short term storage device to keep the output at an acceptable level while the PDC waveform is at a low voltage. Voltage regulation is often also applied using either linear or switching regulation.
Numerical modeling (geology) Finite element approach Numerical_modeling_(geology) > Applications > Global-scale > Mantle convection > Finite element approach In the finite element approach, stream functions are also often used to reduce the complexity of the equations. ConMan, modeling two-dimensional incompressible flow in the mantle, was one of the popular codes for modeling mantle convection in the 1990s. Citcom, an Eulerian mutlgrid finite element model, is one of the most popular programs to model mantle convection in 2D and 3D.
Balanced anesthesia Principles of Pharmacokinetic of balanced anesthesia Balanced_anesthesia > Principles of Pharmacokinetic of balanced anesthesia In addition, if the medicine has distributed fully at equilibrium in the body, which is called the volume of distribution at a stable state. In case the loading dose was administered after the CRI, the time period of which will keep the concentration at a stable state equals 3 time constants or 5 terminal half-lives of the specific medicine. The bolus dose can full with the volume of the medicine in an efficiently and effectively way in order that the medicine can be cleared and delivered.
Copenhagen interpretation Principles Copenhagen_interpretation_of_quantum_mechanics > Principles The probabilities computed by the Born rule do not require an ensemble or collection of "identically prepared" systems to understand. The results provided by measuring devices are essentially classical, and should be described in ordinary language. This was particularly emphasized by Bohr, and was accepted by Heisenberg.
Separation of concerns Implementation Separation_of_concern > Implementation The mechanisms for modular or object-oriented programming that are provided by a programming language are mechanisms that allow developers to provide SoC. For example, object-oriented programming languages such as C#, C++, Delphi, and Java can separate concerns into objects, and architectural design patterns like MVC or MVP can separate presentation and the data-processing (model) from content. Service-oriented design can separate concerns into services. Procedural programming languages such as C and Pascal can separate concerns into procedures or functions.
Opcode table Summary Opcode_table An opcode table (also called an opcode matrix) is a visual representation of all opcodes in an instruction set. It is arranged such that each axis of the table represents an upper or lower nibble, which combined form the full byte of the opcode. Additional opcode tables can exist for additional instructions created using an opcode prefix.
Behavioral epigenetics Background Behavioral_epigenetics > Background These changes impact how genes are expressed.Epigenetics has a strong influence on the development of an organism and can alter the expression of individual traits. Epigenetic changes occur not only in the developing fetus, but also in individuals throughout the human life-span. Because some epigenetic modifications can be passed from one generation to the next, subsequent generations may be affected by the epigenetic changes that took place in the parents.
Quantum chromodynamic Fields QCD_theory > Theory > Fields Gluons are spin-1 bosons that also carry color charges, since they lie in the adjoint representation 8 of SU(3). They have no electric charge, do not participate in the weak interactions, and have no flavor.
Workplace impact of artificial intelligence Risk management Workplace_impact_of_artificial_intelligence > Risk management Both applications and hazards arising from AI can be considered as part of existing frameworks for occupational health and safety risk management. As with all hazards, risk identification is most effective and least costly when done in the design phase.Workplace health surveillance, the collection and analysis of health data on workers, is challenging for AI because labor data are often reported in aggregate and does not provide breakdowns between different types of work, and is focused on economic data such as wages and employment rates rather than skill content of jobs. Proxies for skill content include educational requirements and classifications of routine versus non-routine, and cognitive versus physical jobs.
Ives–Stilwell experiment Relativistic Doppler effect Mössbauer_rotor_experiments > Mössbauer rotor experiments > Relativistic Doppler effect This effect was actually observed using the Mössbauer effect. The maximal deviation from time dilation was 10−5, thus the precision was much higher than that (10−2) of the Ives–Stilwell experiments. Such experiments were performed by Hay et al. (1960), Champeney et al. (1963, 1965), and Kündig (1963).

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