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Joseph Valentin Boussinesq Biography Joseph_Valentin_Boussinesq > Biography In 1897, he published Théorie de l'écoulement tourbillonnant et tumultueux des liquides ("Theory of the swirling and agitated flow of liquids"), a work that greatly contributed to the study of turbulence and hydrodynamics. The word "turbulence" was never used by Boussinesq. He used sentences such as "écoulement tourbillonnant et tumultueux". The first mention of the word "turbulence" in French or English scientific fluid mechanics literature (the word "turbulence" existed in other context) can be found in a paper by Lord Kelvin in 1887. |
Directed differentiation Conceptual frame Directed_differentiation > Conceptual frame During differentiation, pluripotent cells make a number of developmental decisions to generate first the three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm) of the embryo and intermediate progenitors, followed by subsequent decisions or check points, giving rise to all the body's mature tissues. The differentiation process can be modeled as sequence of binary decisions based on probabilistic or stochastic models. Developmental biology and embryology provides the basic knowledge of the cell types' differentiation through mutation analysis, lineage tracing, embryo micro-manipulation and gene expression studies. Cell differentiation and tissue organogenesis involve a limited set of developmental signaling pathways. It is thus possible to direct cell fate by controlling cell decisions through extracellular signaling, mimicking developmental signals. |
Monte Carlo methods for electron transport Inclusion of scattering mechanisms in Monte Carlo Monte_Carlo_method_for_electron_transport > Scattering mechanisms > Inclusion of scattering mechanisms in Monte Carlo A computationally efficient approach to including scattering in Monte Carlo simulation consists in storing the scattering rates of the individual mechanisms in tables. Given the different scattering rates for a precise particle state, one may then randomly select the scattering process at the end of the free flight. These scattering rates are very often derived using the Born approximation, in which a scattering event is merely a transition between two momentum states of the carrier involved. As discussed in section II-I, the quantum many-body problem arising from the interaction of a carrier with its surrounding environment (phonons, electrons, holes, plasmons, impurities,...) can be reduced to a two-body problem using the quasiparticle approximation, which separates the carrier of interest from the rest of the crystal. |
0-based indexing Usage in programming languages Zero-based_numbering > Computer programming > Usage in programming languages In computer science, zero is thus often used as the base case for many kinds of numerical recursion. Proofs and other sorts of mathematical reasoning in computer science often begin with zero. For these reasons, in computer science it is not unusual to number from zero rather than one. In recent years this trait has also been observed among many pure mathematicians, where many constructions are defined to be numbered from 0.If an array is used to represent a cycle, it is convenient to obtain the index with a modulo function, which can result in zero. |
Velocity time dilation Reciprocity Clock_hypothesis > Time dilation caused by a relative velocity > Reciprocity On the contrary, at the end of the round-trip, the traveling twin will be younger than the sibling on Earth. The dilemma posed by the paradox, however, can be explained by the fact that the traveling twin must markedly accelerate in at least three phases of the trip (beginning, direction change, and end), while the other will only experience negligible acceleration, due to rotation and revolution of Earth. During the acceleration phases of space travel, time dilation is not symmetric. |
Aspect-oriented programming Join point models Aspect-oriented_software_development > Join point models A means of specifying code to run at a join point. AspectJ calls this advice, and can run it before, after, and around join points. Some implementations also support things like defining a method in an aspect on another class.Join-point models can be compared based on the join points exposed, how join points are specified, the operations permitted at the join points, and the structural enhancements that can be expressed. |
Zero-point motion Overview Zero-point_energies > Overview All these fields have zero-point energy. Recent experiments advocate the idea that particles themselves can be thought of as excited states of the underlying quantum vacuum, and that all properties of matter are merely vacuum fluctuations arising from interactions of the zero-point field.The idea that "empty" space can have an intrinsic energy associated to it, and that there is no such thing as a "true vacuum" is seemingly unintuitive. It is often argued that the entire universe is completely bathed in the zero-point radiation, and as such it can add only some constant amount to calculations. |
Gaseous signaling molecule Carbon dioxide Gaseous_signaling_molecules > Gaseous Signaling Molecules > Carbon dioxide Rather, breathing is stimulated by higher carbon dioxide levels.The respiratory centers try to maintain an arterial CO2 pressure of 40 mm Hg. With intentional hyperventilation, the CO2 content of arterial blood may be lowered to 10–20 mm Hg (the oxygen content of the blood is little affected), and the respiratory drive is diminished. This is why one can hold one's breath longer after hyperventilating than without hyperventilating. This carries the risk that unconsciousness may result before the need to breathe becomes overwhelming, which is why hyperventilation is particularly dangerous before free diving. |
QCD scale Weak and strong coupling Coupling_constants > Weak and strong coupling In a quantum field theory with a coupling g, if g is much less than 1, the theory is said to be weakly coupled. In this case, it is well described by an expansion in powers of g, called perturbation theory. If the coupling constant is of order one or larger, the theory is said to be strongly coupled. |
Infinite dimensional Lie group Summary Lie_Groups These are now called the classical groups, as the concept has been extended far beyond these origins. Lie groups are named after Norwegian mathematician Sophus Lie (1842–1899), who laid the foundations of the theory of continuous transformation groups. Lie's original motivation for introducing Lie groups was to model the continuous symmetries of differential equations, in much the same way that finite groups are used in Galois theory to model the discrete symmetries of algebraic equations. |
Rubik's Cube Permutations Singmaster_notation > Mathematics > Permutations Eleven edges can be flipped independently, with the flip of the twelfth depending on the preceding ones, giving 211 (2,048) possibilities. 8 ! × 3 7 × 12 ! |
Linearity of expectation Expectations under convergence of random variables Mathematical_expectation > Properties > Expectations under convergence of random variables and applying Fatou's lemma. Dominated convergence theorem: Let { X n: n ≥ 0 } {\displaystyle \{X_{n}:n\geq 0\}} be a sequence of random variables. If X n → X {\displaystyle X_{n}\to X} pointwise (a.s. |
Integrated information theory Related papers Integrated_information_theory > External links > Related papers 215 (3): 216–242. doi:10.2307/25470707. JSTOR 25470707. |
Kinetochore Capturing MTs Kinetochore > Function > Chromosome anchoring to MTs in the mitotic spindle > Capturing MTs In this way, the spindle in a mitotic cell has two poles emanating microtubules. Microtubules are long proteic filaments with asymmetric extremes, a "minus"(-) end relatively stable next to the centrosome, and a "plus"(+) end enduring alternate phases of growing-shrinking, exploring the center of the cell. During this searching process, a microtubule may encounter and capture a chromosome through the kinetochore. |
Unique ergodicity The dynamical system associated with a Markov chain Uniquely_ergodic > Ergodicity of Markov chains > The dynamical system associated with a Markov chain Let S {\displaystyle S} be a finite set. A Markov chain on S {\displaystyle S} is defined by a matrix P ∈ S × S {\displaystyle P\in ^{S\times S}} , where P ( s 1 , s 2 ) {\displaystyle P(s_{1},s_{2})} is the transition probability from s 1 {\displaystyle s_{1}} to s 2 {\displaystyle s_{2}} , so for every s ∈ S {\displaystyle s\in S} we have ∑ s ′ ∈ S P ( s , s ′ ) = 1 {\textstyle \sum _{s'\in S}P(s,s')=1} . A stationary measure for P {\displaystyle P} is a probability measure ν {\displaystyle \nu } on S {\displaystyle S} such that ν P = ν {\displaystyle \nu P=\nu } ; that is ∑ s ′ ∈ S ν ( s ′ ) P ( s ′ , s ) = ν ( s ) {\textstyle \sum _{s'\in S}\nu (s')P(s',s)=\nu (s)} for all s ∈ S {\displaystyle s\in S} . Using this data we can define a probability measure μ ν {\displaystyle \mu _{\nu }} on the set X = S Z {\displaystyle X=S^{\mathbb {Z} }} with its product σ-algebra by giving the measures of the cylinders as follows: Stationarity of ν {\displaystyle \nu } then means that the measure μ ν {\displaystyle \mu _{\nu }} is invariant under the shift map T ( ( s k ) k ∈ Z ) ) = ( s k + 1 ) k ∈ Z {\displaystyle T\left(\left(s_{k}\right)_{k\in \mathbb {Z} })\right)=\left(s_{k+1}\right)_{k\in \mathbb {Z} }} . |
Stream flow Relationship to the environment Channel_runoff > Relationship to the environment Runoff of water in channels is responsible for transport of sediment, nutrients, and pollution downstream. Without streamflow, the water in a given watershed would not be able to naturally progress to its final destination in a lake or ocean. This would disrupt the ecosystem. Streamflow is one important route of water from the land to lakes and oceans. The other main routes are surface runoff (the flow of water from the land into nearby watercourses that occurs during precipitation and as a result of irrigation), flow of groundwater into surface waters, and the flow of water from constructed pipes and channels. |
Brake fluid pressure sensor Design Brake_fluid_pressure_sensor > Design The sensor has an input port to measure the hydraulic braking pressure and an electrical connector output for a wire connection for feeding the warning light. Some brake failures do not trip the sensor into a fault mode. A brake fluid pressure sensor is used in anti-lock braking system (ABS). ABS fault lights come on with unexpected wheel lock from the ABS system, but could also include low fluid in the reservoir.New accident avoidance technologies system also use brake fluid pressure sensors.Many large heavy vehicles, like trucks, particularly those having multiple trailers use air brakes that use air pressure sensors. |
Glossary of genetics (0–L) H Glossary_of_gene_expression_terms > H A set of two matching chromosomes, one maternal and one paternal, which pair up with each other inside the nucleus during meiosis. They have the same genes at the same loci, but may have different alleles. homologous recombination A type of genetic recombination in which nucleotide sequences are exchanged between two similar or identical ("homologous") molecules of DNA, especially that which occurs between homologous chromosomes. |
Social physics History Social_physics > History The earliest mentions of a concept of social physics began with the English philosopher Thomas Hobbes. In 1636 he traveled to Florence, Italy, and met physicist-astronomer Galileo Galilei, known for his contributions to the study of motion. It was here that Hobbes began to outline the idea of representing the "physical phenomena" of society in terms of the laws of motion. In his treatise De Corpore, Hobbes sought to relate the movement of "material bodies" to the mathematical terms of motion outlined by Galileo and similar scientists of the time period. |
Data lineage Prescriptive data lineage Data_provenance > Prescriptive data lineage The concept of prescriptive data lineage combines the logical model (entity) of how that data should flow with the actual lineage for that instance.Data lineage and provenance typically refer to the way or the steps a dataset took to reach its current state of Data lineage, as well as all copies or derivatives. However, looking back at the audit or log correlations to determine the lineage from a forensic point of view fails for certain data management cases. For instance, it is impossible to determine with certainty if the route a data workflow took was correct or in compliance without the logic model. |
Three-way handshake Timeout-based retransmission ACK_flag > Protocol operation > Data transfer > Reliable transmission > Timeout-based retransmission When a sender transmits a segment, it initializes a timer with a conservative estimate of the arrival time of the acknowledgement. The segment is retransmitted if the timer expires, with a new timeout threshold of twice the previous value, resulting in exponential backoff behavior. Typically, the initial timer value is smoothed RTT + max ( G , 4 × RTT variation ) {\displaystyle {\text{smoothed RTT}}+\max(G,4\times {\text{RTT variation}})} , where G {\displaystyle G} is the clock granularity. : 2 This guards against excessive transmission traffic due to faulty or malicious actors, such as man-in-the-middle denial of service attackers. |
Personal data service Summary Personal_data_service Personal data services or personal datastores (PDS) are services to let an individual store, manage and deploy their key personal data in a highly secure and structured way.They give the user a central point of control for their personal information (e.g. interests, contact information, affiliations, preferences, friends). The user's data attributes being managed by the service may be stored in a co-located repository, or they may be stored in multiple external distributed repositories, or a combination of both. Attributes from a PDS may be accessed via an API. Users of the same PDS instance may be allowed to selectively share sets of attributes with other users. A data ecosystem is developing where such sharing among projects or "operators" may become practicable. |
Tuberculosis New onset Epidemiology_of_tuberculosis > Treatment > New onset The recommended treatment of new-onset pulmonary tuberculosis, as of 2010, is six months of a combination of antibiotics containing rifampicin, isoniazid, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol for the first two months, and only rifampicin and isoniazid for the last four months. Where resistance to isoniazid is high, ethambutol may be added for the last four months as an alternative. Treatment with anti-TB drugs for at least 6 months results in higher success rates when compared with treatment less than 6 months, even though the difference is small. |
Glossary of calculus T Glossary_of_calculus > T total differential . trigonometric functions . trigonometric identities . |
Fuzzy concept Observer effect Fuzzy_concept > Uncertainty > Observer effect In physics, the observer effect and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle indicate that there is a physical limit to the amount of precision that is knowable, with regard to the movements of subatomic particles and waves. That is, features of physical reality exist, where we can know that they vary in magnitude, but of which we can never know or predict exactly how big or small the variations are. This insight suggests that, in some areas of our experience of the physical world, fuzziness is inevitable and can never be totally removed. Since the physical universe itself is incredibly large and diverse, it is not easy to imagine it, grasp it or describe it without using fuzzy concepts. |
Nuclear structure The interacting boson model Nuclear_structure > Mean field theories > The interacting boson model The interacting boson model (IBM) is a model in nuclear physics in which nucleons are represented as pairs, each of them acting as a boson particle, with integral spin of 0, 2 or 4. This makes calculations feasible for larger nuclei. There are several branches of this model - in one of them (IBM-1) one can group all types of nucleons in pairs, in others (for instance - IBM-2) one considers protons and neutrons in pairs separately. |
Alternate data streams Structure Alternate_Data_Stream > Structure NTFS is made up of several components including: a partition boot sector (PBS) that holds boot information; the master file table that stores a record of all files and folders in the filesystem; a series of meta files that help structure meta data more efficiently; data streams and locking mechanisms. Internally, NTFS uses B-trees to index file system data. A file system journal is used to guarantee the integrity of the file system metadata but not individual files' content. Systems using NTFS are known to have improved reliability compared to FAT file systems.NTFS allows any sequence of 16-bit values for name encoding (e.g. file names, stream names or index names) except 0x0000. |
Simple fruit Development Simple_fruit > Development A fruit results from the fertilizing and maturing of one or more flowers. The gynoecium, which contains the stigma-style-ovary system, is centered in the flower-head, and it forms all or part of the fruit. Inside the ovary(ies) are one or more ovules. Here begins a complex sequence called double fertilization: a female gametophyte produces an egg cell for the purpose of fertilization. |
Free Will Genetics Existence_of_free_will > Scientific approaches > Genetics Like physicists, biologists have frequently addressed questions related to free will. One of the most heated debates in biology is that of "nature versus nurture", concerning the relative importance of genetics and biology as compared to culture and environment in human behavior. The view of many researchers is that many human behaviors can be explained in terms of humans' brains, genes, and evolutionary histories. This point of view raises the fear that such attribution makes it impossible to hold others responsible for their actions. |
Liver protein production Symptoms Hepatic_metabolism > Clinical significance > Symptoms Bruising and easy bleeding are other features of liver disease. The liver makes clotting factors, substances which help prevent bleeding. When liver damage occurs, these factors are no longer present and severe bleeding can occur. Pain in the upper right quadrant can result from the stretching of Glisson's capsule in conditions of hepatitis and pre-eclampsia. |
Quorum sensing Applications Quorum_sensing > Quorum quenching > Applications Applications of quorum quenching that have been exploited by humans include the use of AHL-degrading bacteria in aquacultures to limit the spread of diseases in aquatic populations of fish, mollusks and crustaceans. This technique has also been translated to agriculture, to restrict the spread of pathogenic bacteria that use quorum sensing in plants. Anti-biofouling is another process that exploits quorum quenching bacteria to mediate the dissociation of unwanted biofilms aggregating on wet surfaces, such as medical devices, transportation infrastructure and water systems. Quorum quenching is recently studied for the control of fouling and emerging contaminants in electro membrane bioreactors (eMBRs) for the advanced treatment of wastewater. Extracts of several traditional medicinal herbs display quorum quenching acivity, and have potential antibacterial applications. |
Solar reflectance Climate and weather Albedo_effects > Examples of terrestrial albedo effects > Climate and weather Albedo affects climate by determining how much radiation a planet absorbs. The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive weather.The response of the climate system to an initial forcing is modified by feedbacks: increased by "self-reinforcing" or "positive" feedbacks and reduced by "balancing" or "negative" feedbacks. The main reinforcing feedbacks are the water-vapour feedback, the ice–albedo feedback, and the net effect of clouds. : 58 |
Effect of nuclear explosions Thermal radiation Effect_of_nuclear_explosions > Direct effects > Thermal radiation So despite any object that casts a shadow being rendered ineffective as a shield from the flash by fog or haze, due to scattering, the fog fills the same protective role, but generally only at the ranges that survival in the open is just a matter of being protected from the explosion's flash energy.The thermal pulse also is responsible for warming the atmospheric nitrogen close to the bomb and causing the creation of atmospheric NOx smog components. This, as part of the mushroom cloud, is shot into the stratosphere where it is responsible for dissociating ozone there, in exactly the same way as combustion NOx compounds do. The amount created depends on the yield of the explosion and the blast's environment. Studies done on the total effect of nuclear blasts on the ozone layer have been at least tentatively exonerating after initial discouraging findings. |
Anomaly-based intrusion detection system Summary Anomaly-based_intrusion_detection_system An anomaly-based intrusion detection system, is an intrusion detection system for detecting both network and computer intrusions and misuse by monitoring system activity and classifying it as either normal or anomalous. The classification is based on heuristics or rules, rather than patterns or signatures, and attempts to detect any type of misuse that falls out of normal system operation. This is as opposed to signature-based systems, which can only detect attacks for which a signature has previously been created.In order to positively identify attack traffic, the system must be taught to recognize normal system activity. The two phases of a majority of anomaly detection systems consist of the training phase (where a profile of normal behaviors is built) and testing phase (where current traffic is compared with the profile created in the training phase). |
19 (number) Mathematics 19_(number) > Mathematics 19 {\displaystyle 19} is the eighth prime number, and forms a sexy prime with 13, a twin prime with 17, and a cousin prime with 23. It is the third full reptend prime in decimal, the fifth central trinomial coefficient, and the seventh Mersenne prime exponent. 19 is the second Keith number, and more specifically the first Keith prime. It is also the second octahedral number, after 6. |
Random quantity Some properties Random_quantity > Some properties The probability distribution of the sum of two independent random variables is the convolution of each of their distributions. Probability distributions are not a vector space—they are not closed under linear combinations, as these do not preserve non-negativity or total integral 1—but they are closed under convex combination, thus forming a convex subset of the space of functions (or measures). |
Bond Order Examples Bond_Order > Examples In some molecules, bond orders can be 4 (quadruple bond), 5 (quintuple bond) or even 6 (sextuple bond). For example, potassium octachlorodimolybdate salt (K4) contains the 4− anion, in which the two Mo atoms are linked to each other by a bond with order of 4. Each Mo atom is linked to four Cl− ligands by a bond with order of 1. The compound (terphenyl)–CrCr–(terphenyl) contains two chromium atoms linked to each other by a bond with order of 5, and each chromium atom is linked to one terphenyl ligand by a single bond. A bond of order 6 is detected in ditungsten molecules W2, which exist only in a gaseous phase. |
Bayesian inference in phylogeny Bayesian inference of phylogeny background and bases Bayesian_inference_in_phylogeny > Bayesian inference of phylogeny background and bases Bayesian inference refers to a probabilistic method developed by Reverend Thomas Bayes based on Bayes' theorem. Published posthumously in 1763 it was the first expression of inverse probability and the basis of Bayesian inference. Independently, unaware of Bayes' work, Pierre-Simon Laplace developed Bayes' theorem in 1774.Bayesian inference or the inverse probability method was the standard approach in statistical thinking until the early 1900s before RA Fisher developed what's now known as the classical/frequentist/Fisherian inference. Computational difficulties and philosophical objections had prevented the widespread adoption of the Bayesian approach until the 1990s, when Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithms revolutionized Bayesian computation. |
Correlation swap Summary Correlation_swap A correlation swap is an over-the-counter financial derivative that allows one to speculate on or hedge risks associated with the observed average correlation, of a collection of underlying products, where each product has periodically observable prices, as with a commodity, exchange rate, interest rate, or stock index. |
History of electromagnetic theory Einstein's Annus Mirabilis History_of_electromagnetic_theory > 20th century > Einstein's Annus Mirabilis (Einstein 1905c) In his paper on mass–energy equivalence (previously considered to be distinct concepts), Einstein deduced from his equations of special relativity what later became the well-known expression: E = m c 2 {\displaystyle E=mc^{2}} , suggesting that tiny amounts of mass could be converted into huge amounts of energy. (Einstein 1905d)All four papers are today recognized as tremendous achievements—and hence 1905 is known as Einstein's "Wonderful Year". At the time, however, they were not noticed by most physicists as being important, and many of those who did notice them rejected them outright. Some of this work—such as the theory of light quanta—remained controversial for years. |
Wheel slide protection Controlled wheel slip Wheel_slide_protection > Controlled wheel slip The controlled slip has the effect of conditioning the contamination layer on the rail (scrubbing action) thereby improving the level of friction and enhancing the ability of the train to stop. Controlled wheel slip can also have a limited cleaning action on the rail head along the length of a train. This tends to result in the vehicles at the rear having more grip than those at the front. |
Cohomology with compact support Summary Cohomology_with_compact_support In mathematics, cohomology with compact support refers to certain cohomology theories, usually with some condition requiring that cocycles should have compact support. |
Hypothetical protein Summary Hypothetical_protein The real evidences for the hypothetical protein functioning in the metabolism of the organism can be predicted by comparing its sequence or structure homology by considering the conserved domain analysis. Even when there is enough evidence that the product of the gene is expressed, by techniques such as microarray and mass-spectrometry, it is difficult to assign a function to it given its lack of identity to protein sequences with annotated biochemical function. Nowadays, most protein sequences are inferred from computational analysis of genomic DNA sequence. |
Billiard table Bed Billiards_table > Snooker and English billiards tables > Bed The playing surface of a good quality snooker table has a bed of slate and is covered with baize cloth, traditionally green, though many other colours are now available. The thickness of this cloth determines the table's speed (lack of friction) and responsiveness to spin, thicker cloths being longer lasting but slower and less responsive. The nap of the cloth can affect the run of the balls, especially on slower shots and shots played with sidespin applied to the cue ball. A snooker table traditionally has the nap running from the baulk to the top end and is brushed and ironed in this direction. |
Hans Dekker Research highlights Hans_Dekker > Research highlights Novel formulation of the dynamics of dissipative spin-boson systems in the noninteracting-blips approximation (1987). Discovery of the weak damping depopulation factor in an exactly solvable model for quantum tunnelling and thermal activation (1988). Nonequilibrium thermodynamics of metastable mesoscopic systems (1991). |
Cardiac murmur Anatomic sources Cardiac_murmur > Diagnostic approach and diagnosis > Anatomic sources One may also hear it at the right lower sternal border (when associated with a dilated aorta). Other possible exam findings are bounding carotid and peripheral pulses. These are also known as Corrigan's pulse or Watson's water hammer pulse. |
Rufus Bowen Selected published works Rufus_Bowen > Selected published works 377–397. Bowen: "Symbolic Dynamics for Hyperbolic Flows" in Proceedings of the International Congress of Mathematicians (Vancouver, 1974), pp. 299–302. |
Sample-complexity bounds Efficiency in robotics Sample-complexity_bounds > Efficiency in robotics A high sample complexity means, that many calculations are needed for running a Monte Carlo tree search. Its equal to a model free brute force search in the state space. In contrast, a high efficiency algorithm has a low sample complexity. Possible techniques for reducing the sample complexity are metric learning and model based reinforcement learning. == References == |
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra History Fundamental_Theorem_of_Algebra > History {\displaystyle x^{4}+a^{4}=\left(x^{2}+a{\sqrt {2}}\cdot x+a^{2}\right)\left(x^{2}-a{\sqrt {2}}\cdot x+a^{2}\right).} A first attempt at proving the theorem was made by d'Alembert in 1746, but his proof was incomplete. Among other problems, it assumed implicitly a theorem (now known as Puiseux's theorem), which would not be proved until more than a century later and using the fundamental theorem of algebra. |
Discrete transistor Importance Discrete_transistor > Importance MOSFETs are the most numerously produced artificial objects in history, with more than 13 sextillion manufactured by 2018.Although several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged (known as discrete) MOS transistors every year, the vast majority are produced in integrated circuits (also known as IC's, microchips, or simply chips), along with diodes, resistors, capacitors and other electronic components, to produce complete electronic circuits. A logic gate consists of up to about 20 transistors, whereas an advanced microprocessor, as of 2022, may contain as many as 57 billion MOSFETs.The transistor's low cost, flexibility and reliability have made it ubiquitous. Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in controlling appliances and machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical system. |
Genome editing Multiplex Automated Genomic Engineering (MAGE) Genome_editing_with_engineered_nucleases > Multiplex Automated Genomic Engineering (MAGE) The methods for scientists and researchers wanting to study genomic diversity and all possible associated phenotypes were very slow, expensive, and inefficient. Prior to this new revolution, researchers would have to do single-gene manipulations and tweak the genome one little section at a time, observe the phenotype, and start the process over with a different single-gene manipulation. Therefore, researchers at the Wyss Institute at Harvard University designed the MAGE, a powerful technology that improves the process of in vivo genome editing. It allows for quick and efficient manipulations of a genome, all happening in a machine small enough to put on top of a small kitchen table. |
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Medicine Nuclear_Magnetic_Resonance > Applications > Medicine The application of nuclear magnetic resonance best known to the general public is magnetic resonance imaging for medical diagnosis and magnetic resonance microscopy in research settings. However, it is also widely used in biochemical studies, notably in NMR spectroscopy such as proton NMR, carbon-13 NMR, deuterium NMR and phosphorus-31 NMR. Biochemical information can also be obtained from living tissue (e.g. human brain tumors) with the technique known as in vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy or chemical shift NMR microscopy. |
Discontinuous Galerkin Method Summary Discontinuous_Galerkin_Method However, among the early influential contributors were Babuška, J.-L. Lions, Joachim Nitsche and Miloš Zlámal. DG methods for elliptic problems were already developed in a paper by Garth Baker in the setting of 4th order equations in 1977. A more complete account of the historical development and an introduction to DG methods for elliptic problems is given in a publication by Arnold, Brezzi, Cockburn and Marini. A number of research directions and challenges on DG methods are collected in the proceedings volume edited by Cockburn, Karniadakis and Shu. |
Stock options Other models Stock_options > Valuation > Model implementation > Other models Other numerical implementations which have been used to value options include finite element methods. |
Geography of disability Models of disability Geography_of_disability > Models of disability Rob Imrie and Claire Edwards described how geographical-research methodology is used for social research on disabled people:"Hall and Kearns (2001: 243), for example, comment that 'traditional' research methods, such as questionnaires and interviews, 'can fail to represent the geographical lives of intellectually disabled people' (also, see Hall, 2004). Similarly, a project by Kitchin (2000) about the opinions of disabled people about social research shows that most do not like using methods that fail to capture the complexities of disability. Such methods include pre-set questions that collect quantitative data and statistics. These observations suggest that using particular qualitative or interpretative methods is a preferred way of giving voice to disabled people's experiences and opening up the scope for inclusive research practices. In this respect, some important methodological developments in geographical research seek to articulate the different ways that disabled people know and experience the world." |
Linear function (calculus) Example Linear_function_(calculus) > Relationship with linear equations > Example Note that the graph includes points with negative values of x or y, which have no meaning in terms of the original variables (unless we imagine selling meat to the butcher). Thus we should restrict our function f ( x ) {\displaystyle f(x)} to the domain 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 {\displaystyle 0\leq x\leq 2} . Also, we could choose y as the independent variable, and compute x by the inverse linear function: x = g ( y ) = − 1 2 y + 2 {\displaystyle x=g(y)=-{\tfrac {1}{2}}y+2} over the domain 0 ≤ y ≤ 4 {\displaystyle 0\leq y\leq 4} . |
Two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy Frequency domain Two-dimensional_infrared_spectroscopy > Experimental approaches > Frequency domain Similarly, in the frequency-domain approach, a narrowband pump pulse is applied and, after a certain waiting time, then a broadband pulse probes the system. A 2DIR correlation spectrum is obtained by plotting the probe frequency spectrum at each pump frequency. |
Critical line (mathematics) Origin Critical_line_theorem > Origin We still have not the slightest idea of what the expression could be. As to the properties he simply enunciated, some thirty years elapsed before I was able to prove all of them but one . Riemann's original motivation for studying the zeta function and its zeros was their occurrence in his explicit formula for the number of primes π(x) less than or equal to a given number x, which he published in his 1859 paper "On the Number of Primes Less Than a Given Magnitude". |
Parkinson disease The neuroimmune connection Parkinson_disease > Pathophysiology > The neuroimmune connection PD patients have altered gut microbiota and colon problems years before motor issues arise. Alpha-synuclein is produced in the gut and may migrate via the vagus nerve to the brainstem, and then to the substantia nigra. Furthermore, the bacteria Proteus mirabilis has been associated with higher levels of alpha-synuclein and an increase of motor symptoms in PD patients. Further elucidation of the causal role of alpha-synuclein, the role of inflammation, the gut-brain axis, as well as an understanding of the individual differences in immune stress responses is needed to better understand the pathological development of PD. |
Local linearization method Local linearization schemes Local_linearization_method > LL methods for RDEs > Local linearization schemes Depending on the approximations ξ ~ {\displaystyle {\widetilde {\mathbf {\xi } }}} to the process ξ {\displaystyle \mathbf {\xi } } and of the algorithm to compute ϕ {\displaystyle \mathbf {\phi } } , different Local Linearizations schemes can be defined. Every numerical implementation y n {\displaystyle \mathbf {y} _{n}} of the local linear discretization z n {\displaystyle \mathbf {z} _{n}} is generically called local linearization scheme. |
Neural architecture search One-shot models Neural_architecture_search > One-shot models These approaches are generally referred to as differentiable NAS and have proven very efficient in exploring the search space of neural architectures. One of the most popular algorithms amongst the gradient-based methods for NAS is DARTS. However DARTS faces problems such as performance collapse due to an inevitable aggregation of skip connections and poor generalization which were tackled by many future algorithms. |
Microcontroller unit Embedded design Micro_controller > Embedded design A microcontroller can be considered a self-contained system with a processor, memory and peripherals and can be used as an embedded system. The majority of microcontrollers in use today are embedded in other machinery, such as automobiles, telephones, appliances, and peripherals for computer systems. While some embedded systems are very sophisticated, many have minimal requirements for memory and program length, with no operating system, and low software complexity. Typical input and output devices include switches, relays, solenoids, LED's, small or custom liquid-crystal displays, radio frequency devices, and sensors for data such as temperature, humidity, light level etc. Embedded systems usually have no keyboard, screen, disks, printers, or other recognizable I/O devices of a personal computer, and may lack human interaction devices of any kind. |
Minimal standard model Higgs sector Minimal_standard_model > Theoretical aspects > Construction of the Standard Model Lagrangian > Higgs sector This is the only dimensional parameter of the Standard Model and has a measured value of ~246 GeV/c2. After symmetry breaking, the masses of the W {\displaystyle {\text{W}}} and Z {\displaystyle {\text{Z}}} are given by m W = 1 2 g v {\displaystyle m_{\text{W}}={\frac {1}{2}}gv} and m Z = 1 2 g 2 + g ′ 2 v {\displaystyle m_{\text{Z}}={\frac {1}{2}}{\sqrt {g^{2}+g'^{2}}}v} , which can be viewed as predictions of the theory. The photon remains massless. The mass of the Higgs Boson is m H = 2 μ 2 = 2 λ v {\displaystyle m_{\text{H}}={\sqrt {2\mu ^{2}}}={\sqrt {2\lambda }}v} . Since μ {\displaystyle \mu } and λ {\displaystyle \lambda } are free parameters, the Higgs' mass could not be predicted beforehand and had to be determined experimentally. |
Open subsets Motivation Open_region > Motivation In the set of all real numbers, one has the natural Euclidean metric; that is, a function which measures the distance between two real numbers: d(x, y) = |x − y|. Therefore, given a real number x, one can speak of the set of all points close to that real number; that is, within ε of x. In essence, points within ε of x approximate x to an accuracy of degree ε. Note that ε > 0 always but as ε becomes smaller and smaller, one obtains points that approximate x to a higher and higher degree of accuracy. For example, if x = 0 and ε = 1, the points within ε of x are precisely the points of the interval (−1, 1); that is, the set of all real numbers between −1 and 1. |
Proth number Large primes Proth_prime > Large primes As of 2022, the largest known Proth prime is 10223 × 2 31172165 + 1 {\displaystyle 10223\times 2^{31172165}+1} . It is 9,383,761 digits long. It was found by Szabolcs Peter in the PrimeGrid volunteer computing project which announced it on 6 November 2016. It is also the second largest known non-Mersenne prime.The project Seventeen or Bust, searching for Proth primes with a certain t {\displaystyle t} to prove that 78557 is the smallest Sierpinski number (Sierpinski problem), has found 11 large Proth primes by 2007. |
Electron Quantum properties Mass_of_electron > Characteristics > Quantum properties When the absolute value of this function is squared, it gives the probability that a particle will be observed near a location—a probability density. : 162–218 Electrons are identical particles because they cannot be distinguished from each other by their intrinsic physical properties. In quantum mechanics, this means that a pair of interacting electrons must be able to swap positions without an observable change to the state of the system. |
Flux (metabolism) Control of metabolic flux Flux_(metabolism) > Metabolic flux > Control of metabolic flux A step with a flux control coefficient of zero means that, that particular step, has no influence over the steady-state flux. A step in a linear chain with a flux control coefficient of one means that that particular step has complete control over the steady-state flux. A flux control coefficient can only be measured in the intact system and cannot for example be determined by inspection of an isolated enzyme in vitro. |
Glossary of computer science S Glossary_of_computer_science > S serializability In concurrency control of databases, transaction processing (transaction management), and various transactional applications (e.g., transactional memory and software transactional memory), both centralized and distributed, a transaction schedule is serializable if its outcome (e.g., the resulting database state) is equal to the outcome of its transactions executed serially, i.e. without overlapping in time. Transactions are normally executed concurrently (they overlap), since this is the most efficient way. Serializability is the major correctness criterion for concurrent transactions' executions. |
Combrex Targeted experimental validation Combrex > Goals > Targeted experimental validation Such a model favors the validation of genes that provide relatively large increases in knowledge, for example because their validated function results in a large number of new predictions for other genes. At an early stage COMBREX will introduce lists of "high priority" genes, which may be identified as being of significant predictive or biomedical value, and to which COMBREX members may nominate candidates. As a longer-term goal, COMBREX is working towards the use of machine learning techniques such as active learning to optimize the selection of such genes. |
Nervous system disease Genetic Nervous_system_disease > Causes > Genetic Some nervous system diseases are due to genetic mutations. For example, Huntington's disease is an inherited disease characterized by progressive neurodegeneration. Huntington's disease results from a mutation in either copy of the HTT gene, which results in an abnormally folded protein. The accumulation of mutated proteins results in brain damage of the basal ganglia. |
Stable isotope composition of amino acids Example Stable_isotope_composition_of_amino_acids > Isotopic fractionation in reaction networks > Example These acetyl groups enter the citric acid cycle as acetyl-CoA or can be used to synthesize lipids. There is a large kinetic isotope effect associated with this reaction, so the remaining pyruvate pool becomes enriched in 13C relative to the acetyl groups. This enriched pyruvate can be transaminated to produce alanine. |
DNS management software DNS software homogeneity DNS_management_software > DNS software homogeneity Primary reasons for DNS providers (especially root operators) to use different DNS servers is code diversity and application performance. Code diversity makes it less likely that a performance or security bug in one DNS server could be exploited to inflict a Denial of Service attack upon an organization. It is for this reason that NSD and Knot DNS are frequently used by root and TLD operators. DNS management software can greatly simplify publishing DNS data to varying DNS servers. |
DNA transposon Polintons DNA_transposon > Mechanisms of action > Polintons Polintons are also a group of eukaryotic class II TEs. As one of the most complex known DNA transposons in eukaryotes, they make up the genomes of protists, fungi, and animals, such as the entamoeba, soybean rust, and chicken, respectively. They contain genes with homology to viral proteins and which are often found in eukaryotic genomes, like polymerase and retroviral integrase. However, there is no known protein functionally similarly to the viral capsid or envelope proteins. |
Anisotropic diffusion Regularization Diffusion-based_image_processing > Regularization The diffusion coefficient, c ( x , y , t ) {\displaystyle c(x,y,t)} , as proposed by Perona and Malik can lead to instabilities when ‖ ∇ I ‖ 2 > K 2 {\displaystyle \|\nabla I\|^{2}>K^{2}} . It can be proven that this condition is equivalent to the physical diffusion coefficient (which is different from the mathematical diffusion coefficient defined by Perona and Malik) becoming negative and it leads to backward diffusion that enhances contrasts of image intensity rather than smoothing them. To avoid the problem, regularization is necessary and people have shown that spatial regularizations lead to converged and constant steady-state solution.To this end one of the modified Perona–Malik models (which is also known as regularization of P-M equation) will be discussed. |
Influenza Vaccination Human_influenza > Prevention > Vaccination Annual vaccination is the primary and most effective way to prevent influenza and influenza-associated complications, especially for high-risk groups. Vaccines against the flu are trivalent or quadrivalent, providing protection against an H1N1 strain, an H3N2 strain, and one or two IBV strains corresponding to the two IBV lineages. Two types of vaccines are in use: inactivated vaccines that contain "killed" (i.e. inactivated) viruses and live attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIVs) that contain weakened viruses. There are three types of inactivated vaccines: whole virus, split virus, in which the virus is disrupted by a detergent, and subunit, which only contains the viral antigens HA and NA. |
Real Analysis Series Real_Analysis > Scope > Series The series is assigned the value of this limit, if it exists. Given an (infinite) sequence ( a n ) {\displaystyle (a_{n})} , we can define an associated series as the formal mathematical object a 1 + a 2 + a 3 + ⋯ = ∑ n = 1 ∞ a n {\textstyle a_{1}+a_{2}+a_{3}+\cdots =\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }a_{n}} , sometimes simply written as ∑ a n {\textstyle \sum a_{n}} . The partial sums of a series ∑ a n {\textstyle \sum a_{n}} are the numbers s n = ∑ j = 1 n a j {\textstyle s_{n}=\sum _{j=1}^{n}a_{j}} . |
Glauber–Sudarshan P representation Thermal radiation Glauber_P_representation > Examples > Thermal radiation {\displaystyle P(\{\alpha _{\mathbf {k} ,s}\})=\prod _{\mathbf {k} ,s}{\frac {1}{\pi \langle {\hat {n}}_{\mathbf {k} ,s}\rangle }}e^{-|\alpha |^{2}/\langle {\hat {n}}_{\mathbf {k} ,s}\rangle }.} In other words, every mode of the black body is normally distributed in the basis of coherent states. Since P is positive and bounded, this system is essentially classical. This is actually quite a remarkable result because for thermal equilibrium the density matrix is also diagonal in the Fock basis, but Fock states are non-classical. |
Strict ∞-categories Strict higher categories Higher-dimensional_category_theory > Strict higher categories An ordinary category has objects and morphisms, which are called 1-morphisms in the context of higher category theory. A 2-category generalizes this by also including 2-morphisms between the 1-morphisms. Continuing this up to n-morphisms between (n − 1)-morphisms gives an n-category. Just as the category known as Cat, which is the category of small categories and functors is actually a 2-category with natural transformations as its 2-morphisms, the category n-Cat of (small) n-categories is actually an (n + 1)-category. |
Slope deflection method Introduction Slope_deflection_method > Introduction By forming slope deflection equations and applying joint and shear equilibrium conditions, the rotation angles (or the slope angles) are calculated. Substituting them back into the slope deflection equations, member end moments are readily determined. Deformation of member is due to the bending moment. |
Surface area Definition Surface_area > Definition Since surface area is a geometric notion, areas of congruent surfaces must be the same and the area must depend only on the shape of the surface, but not on its position and orientation in space. This means that surface area is invariant under the group of Euclidean motions. These properties uniquely characterize surface area for a wide class of geometric surfaces called piecewise smooth. |
Weighted catenary Examples Weighted_catenary > Examples The Gateway Arch in the American city of St. Louis (Missouri) is the most famous example of a weighted catenary. Simple suspension bridges use weighted catenaries. |
Induced magnetic field In Maxwell's equations Magnetization > In Maxwell's equations The behavior of magnetic fields (B, H), electric fields (E, D), charge density (ρ), and current density (J) is described by Maxwell's equations. The role of the magnetization is described below. |
Fusion weapon Neutron bombs Two-point_implosion > Specific designs > Neutron bombs Nuclear warheads are very resistant to physical damage, but are very difficult to harden against extreme neutron flux. ERWs were two-stage thermonuclears with all non-essential uranium removed to minimize fission yield. |
Thermal conductivities Gases Thermal_impedance > Molecular origins > Gases For monatomic gases, such as the noble gases, the agreement with experiment is fairly good.For gases whose molecules are not spherically symmetric, the expression k = f μ c v {\displaystyle k=f\mu c_{v}} still holds. In contrast with spherically symmetric molecules, however, f {\displaystyle f} varies significantly depending on the particular form of the interparticle interactions: this is a result of the energy exchanges between the internal and translational degrees of freedom of the molecules. An explicit treatment of this effect is difficult in the Chapman–Enskog approach. |
Glossary of engineering: A–L E Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L > E ElectromagnetIs a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric current. Electromagnets usually consist of wire wound into a coil. A current through the wire creates a magnetic field which is concentrated in the hole, denoting the centre of the coil. |
Molten Sea In rabbinical literature Molten_Sea > In rabbinical literature The basin contained water sufficient for two thousand baths. According to the Talmud the laver was not entirely round, as might be inferred from Scripture; the upper two-fifths were round, but the lower three were square (Talmud. Eruvin 14a, b) The symbolism of the brazen sea is described in detail in the Midrash Tadshe. The sea represented the world; the ten ells of diameter corresponded to the ten Sefirot; and it was round at the top (according to the Talmud passage above cited) as the heavens are round. |
Concurrency control Distribution Concurrency_control > Concurrency control in databases > Major goals of concurrency control mechanisms > Distribution With the fast technological development of computing the difference between local and distributed computing over low latency networks or buses is blurring. Thus the quite effective utilization of local techniques in such distributed environments is common, e.g., in computer clusters and multi-core processors. However the local techniques have their limitations and use multi-processes (or threads) supported by multi-processors (or multi-cores) to scale. This often turns transactions into distributed ones, if they themselves need to span multi-processes. In these cases most local concurrency control techniques do not scale well. |
Lagrange equations Momentum space formulation Lagrange_equation > Other contexts and formulations > Momentum space formulation The Euler–Lagrange equations can also be formulated in terms of the generalized momenta rather than generalized coordinates. Performing a Legendre transformation on the generalized coordinate Lagrangian L(q, dq/dt, t) obtains the generalized momenta Lagrangian L′(p, dp/dt, t) in terms of the original Lagrangian, as well the EL equations in terms of the generalized momenta. Both Lagrangians contain the same information, and either can be used to solve for the motion of the system. In practice generalized coordinates are more convenient to use and interpret than generalized momenta. |
Interaction network Predicting PPIs Interaction_network > Computational methods to study interactomes > Predicting PPIs Using experimental data as a starting point, homology transfer is one way to predict interactomes. Here, PPIs from one organism are used to predict interactions among homologous proteins in another organism ("interologs"). However, this approach has certain limitations, primarily because the source data may not be reliable (e.g. contain false positives and false negatives). In addition, proteins and their interactions change during evolution and thus may have been lost or gained. |
Artificial philosophy Innovation in Understanding Artificial_philosophy > AI and AE Ethical System > Innovation in Understanding The proposed ethical system for AI and AE provides a comprehensive framework for the ethical development and use of AI. It acknowledges the unique form of 'being' presented by AE while also considering the ethical implications of AI's capabilities and limitations. This system can serve as a foundation for further exploration and development of ethical considerations in the field of AI and artificial experientialism. |
Semiconductor Devices Improvements in transistor design Semiconductor_electronics > History of semiconductor device development > Improvements in transistor design Shockley was upset about the device being credited to Brattain and Bardeen, who he felt had built it "behind his back" to take the glory. Matters became worse when Bell Labs lawyers found that some of Shockley's own writings on the transistor were close enough to those of an earlier 1925 patent by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld that they thought it best that his name be left off the patent application. Shockley was incensed, and decided to demonstrate who was the real brains of the operation. A few months later he invented an entirely new, considerably more robust, bipolar junction transistor type of transistor with a layer or 'sandwich' structure, used for the vast majority of all transistors into the 1960s. |
Object-oriented design Object-oriented concepts Object-oriented_design > Object-oriented design topics > Object-oriented concepts Interface (object-oriented programming): The ability to defer the implementation of a method. The ability to define the functions or methods signatures without implementing them. Polymorphism (specifically, Subtyping): The ability to replace an object with its sub-objects. The ability of an object-variable to contain, not only that object, but also all of its sub-objects. |
Multiple-vehicle collision Effects Multiple-vehicle_collision > Effects If the collision takes place in a remote area, getting medical help to the scene can be difficult. The destruction and intense heat of fires can also damage roadways, particularly by melting and burning the asphalt or spalling concrete surfaces. The structural steel of bridges and overpasses can also be weakened by the heat. A fiery pileup inside a tunnel is the most serious, as there is little means to escape the poisonous fumes and the confined heat may damage structural supports. The large scale of these collisions can close highway routes for several days, or even longer if highway support structures are damaged. |
Goldstone's theorem Nonrelativistic theories Goldstone's_theorem > Extensions > Nonrelativistic theories A version of Goldstone's theorem also applies to nonrelativistic theories. It essentially states that, for each spontaneously broken symmetry, there corresponds some quasiparticle which is typically a boson and has no energy gap. In condensed matter these goldstone bosons are also called gapless modes (i.e. states where the energy dispersion relation is like E ∝ p n {\displaystyle E\propto p^{n}} and is zero for p = 0 {\displaystyle p=0} ), the nonrelativistic version of the massless particles (i.e. photons where the dispersion relation is also E = p c {\displaystyle E=pc} and zero for p = 0 {\displaystyle p=0} ). Note that the energy in the non relativistic condensed matter case is H−μN−α→⋅P→ and not H as it would be in a relativistic case. |
Foreign function interface Operation Foreign_function_interface > Operation The primary function of a foreign function interface is to mate the semantics and calling conventions of one programming language (the host language, or the language which defines the FFI), with the semantics and conventions of another (the guest language). This process must also take into consideration the runtime environments and/or application binary interfaces of both. This can be done in several ways: Requiring that guest-language functions which are to be host-language callable be specified or implemented in a particular way, often using a compatibility library of some sort. Use of a tool to automatically "wrap" guest-language functions with appropriate glue code, which performs any necessary translation. |
Conceptual modeling Mathematical models Abstract_model > Models in philosophy and science > Mathematical models Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to dynamical systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game theoretic models. These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a variety of abstract structures. A more comprehensive type of mathematical model uses a linguistic version of category theory to model a given situation. Akin to entity-relationship models, custom categories or sketches can be directly translated into database schemas. The difference is that logic is replaced by category theory, which brings powerful theorems to bear on the subject of modeling, especially useful for translating between disparate models (as functors between categories). |
Kernel (integral operator) Summary Kernel_(integral_operator) In mathematics, an integral transform is a type of transform that maps a function from its original function space into another function space via integration, where some of the properties of the original function might be more easily characterized and manipulated than in the original function space. The transformed function can generally be mapped back to the original function space using the inverse transform. |
1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers Summary and impact of the PRL papers 1964_PRL_symmetry_breaking_papers > History > Summary and impact of the PRL papers The three papers written in 1964 were each recognised as milestone papers during Physical Review Letters's 50th anniversary celebration. Their six authors were also awarded the 2010 J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics for this work. (A controversy also arose the same year, because in the event of a Nobel Prize only up to three scientists could be recognised, with six being credited for the papers. ) Two of the three PRL papers (by Higgs and by GHK) contained equations for the hypothetical field that eventually would become known as the Higgs field and its hypothetical quantum, the Higgs boson. |
Mahalanobis distance Intuitive explanation Mahalanobis_distance > Intuitive explanation The simplistic approach is to estimate the standard deviation of the distances of the sample points from the center of mass. If the distance between the test point and the center of mass is less than one standard deviation, then we might conclude that it is highly probable that the test point belongs to the set. The further away it is, the more likely that the test point should not be classified as belonging to the set. |
Perceptual control theory The methodology of modeling, and PCT as model Perceptual_control_theory > The methodology of modeling, and PCT as model It is crucially important to distinguish the perceptions and point of view of the observer from those of the observed organism. It may take a number of variations of the test to isolate just which aspect of the environmental situation is under control, as perceived by the observed organism.PCT employs a black box methodology. The controlled variable as measured by the observer corresponds quantitatively to a reference value for a perception that the organism is controlling. |
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