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Risk factors of schizophrenia Other views Risk_factors_of_schizophrenia > Other views However, unlike the current medical model of mental disorders, they may argue that poor parenting in tribal societies causes the shamans' schizoid personalities. Commentators such as Paul Kurtz and others have endorsed the idea that major religious figures experienced psychosis; they heard voices and displayed delusions of grandeur.Modern clinical psychological research has indicated a number of processes which may precipitate episodes of schizophrenia. A number of cognitive biases and deficits have been identified.
X-inactivation Overview Lyon_hypothesis > Mechanism > Cycle of X-chromosome activation in rodents > Overview As the meiosis I only completes with ovulation, human germ cells exist in this stage from the first weeks of development until puberty. The completion of meiosis leads to: XaM AND XaP haploid germ cells (eggs).The X activation cycle has been best studied in mice, but there are multiple studies in humans. As most of the evidence is coming from mice, the above scheme represents the events in mice. The completion of the meiosis is simplified here for clarity. Steps 1–4 can be studied in in vitro fertilized embryos, and in differentiating stem cells; X-reactivation happens in the developing embryo, and subsequent (6–7) steps inside the female body, therefore much harder to study.
Hilbert R-tree Summary Hilbert_R-tree There are two types of Hilbert R-trees: one for static databases, and one for dynamic databases. In both cases Hilbert space-filling curves are used to achieve better ordering of multidimensional objects in the node. This ordering has to be "good", in the sense that it should group "similar" data rectangles together, to minimize the area and perimeter of the resulting minimum bounding rectangles (MBRs).
Environmental stress Effects of chronic stress Environmental_stresses > Effects of chronic stress Similarly, the effects that acute stressors have on the immune system may be increased when there is perceived stress and/or anxiety due to other events. For example, students who are taking exams show weaker immune responses if they also report stress due to daily hassles. While responses to acute stressors typically do not impose a health burden on young, healthy individuals, chronic stress in older or unhealthy individuals may have long-term effects that are detrimental to health.
Protein biosynthesis Transcription Protein_biosynthesis > Transcription Despite DNA being a double-stranded molecule, only one of the strands acts as a template for pre-mRNA synthesis - this strand is known as the template strand. The other DNA strand (which is complementary to the template strand) is known as the coding strand.Both DNA and RNA have intrinsic directionality, meaning there are two distinct ends of the molecule. This property of directionality is due to the asymmetrical underlying nucleotide subunits, with a phosphate group on one side of the pentose sugar and a base on the other.
Principal submatrix Symmetric or skew-symmetric matrix Matrix_equation > Square matrix > Main types > Symmetric or skew-symmetric matrix A square matrix A that is equal to its transpose, that is, A = AT, is a symmetric matrix. If instead, A is equal to the negative of its transpose, that is, A = −AT, then A is a skew-symmetric matrix. In complex matrices, symmetry is often replaced by the concept of Hermitian matrices, which satisfy A∗ = A, where the star or asterisk denotes the conjugate transpose of the matrix, that is, the transpose of the complex conjugate of A. By the spectral theorem, real symmetric matrices and complex Hermitian matrices have an eigenbasis; that is, every vector is expressible as a linear combination of eigenvectors. In both cases, all eigenvalues are real. This theorem can be generalized to infinite-dimensional situations related to matrices with infinitely many rows and columns, see below.
Mental models and reasoning Summary Mental_models_and_reasoning The mental model theory of reasoning was developed by Philip Johnson-Laird and Ruth M.J. Byrne (Johnson-Laird and Byrne, 1991). It has been applied to the main domains of deductive inference including relational inferences such as spatial and temporal deductions; propositional inferences, such as conditional, disjunctive and negation deductions; quantified inferences such as syllogisms; and meta-deductive inferences. Ongoing research on mental models and reasoning has led the theory to be extended to account for probabilistic inference (e.g., Johnson-Laird, 2006) and counterfactual thinking (Byrne, 2005).
Eventual consistency Strong eventual consistency Eventual_consistency > Strong eventual consistency Whereas eventual consistency is only a liveness guarantee (updates will be observed eventually), strong eventual consistency (SEC) adds the safety guarantee that any two nodes that have received the same (unordered) set of updates will be in the same state. If, furthermore, the system is monotonic, the application will never suffer rollbacks. A common approach to ensure SEC is conflict-free replicated data types.
Glossary of computer chess terms A–M Glossary_of_computer_chess_terms > A–M heuristic A method used to solve a problem that is not guaranteed to be optimal or correct, employed when a method for the exact solution of the problem is unknown or impractical. Heuristics can be used in computer chess to evaluate positions and to guide the search algorithm. horizon effect The consequence that it is impractical in most positions for the search algorithm to search all the way to the conclusion of the game.
Contraction hierarchy Algorithm Contraction_hierarchies > Algorithm The contraction hierarchies (CH) algorithm is a two-phase approach to the shortest path problem consisting of a preprocessing phase and a query phase. As road networks change rather infrequently, more time (seconds to hours) can be used to once precompute some calculations before queries are to be answered. Using this precomputed data, many queries can be answered taking very little time (microseconds) each. CHs rely on shortcuts to achieve this speedup.
Pseudo-LRU Tree-PLRU Pseudo-LRU > Tree-PLRU To find a pseudo-LRU element, traverse the tree according to the values of the flags. To update the tree with an access to an item N, traverse the tree to find N and, during the traversal, set the node flags to denote the direction that is opposite to the direction taken. This algorithm can be sub-optimal since it is an approximation. For example, in the above diagram with A, C, B, D cache lines, if the access pattern was: C, B, D, A, on an eviction, B would chosen instead of C. This is because both A and C are in the same half and accessing A directs the algorithm to the other half that does not contain cache line C.
Space launch Energy Space_launch > Issues with reaching space > Energy In the past fifty years spaceflight has usually meant remaining in space for a period of time, rather than going up and immediately falling back to earth. This entails orbit, which is mostly a matter of velocity, not altitude, although that does not mean air friction and relevant altitudes in relation to that and orbit don't have to be taken into account. At much, much higher altitudes than many orbital ones maintained by satellites, altitude begins to become a larger and larger factor and speed a lesser one. At lower altitudes, due to the high speed required to remain in orbit, air friction is a very important consideration affecting satellites, much more than in the popular image of space. At even lower altitudes, balloons, with no forward velocity, can serve many of the roles satellites play.
Quickselect Summary Quickselect In computer science, quickselect is a selection algorithm to find the kth smallest element in an unordered list, also known as the kth order statistic. Like the related quicksort sorting algorithm, it was developed by Tony Hoare, and thus is also known as Hoare's selection algorithm. Like quicksort, it is efficient in practice and has good average-case performance, but has poor worst-case performance. Quickselect and its variants are the selection algorithms most often used in efficient real-world implementations.
Rounded rectangle Mathematical properties Superellipse > Mathematical properties {\displaystyle \mathrm {Area} ={\frac {4ab}{n}}\mathrm {B} \!\left({\frac {1}{n}},{\frac {1}{n}}+1\right).} The pedal curve is relatively straightforward to compute. Specifically, the pedal of is given in polar coordinates by
Beamforming Summary Antenna_beamforming Beamforming or spatial filtering is a signal processing technique used in sensor arrays for directional signal transmission or reception. This is achieved by combining elements in an antenna array in such a way that signals at particular angles experience constructive interference while others experience destructive interference. Beamforming can be used at both the transmitting and receiving ends in order to achieve spatial selectivity.
Bacterial sepsis Summary Bacterial_sepsis A central venous catheter and an arterial catheter may be placed for access to the bloodstream and to guide treatment. Other helpful measurements include cardiac output and superior vena cava oxygen saturation. People with sepsis need preventive measures for deep vein thrombosis, stress ulcers, and pressure ulcers unless other conditions prevent such interventions.
Geography Scale Four_traditions_of_geography > Fundamentals > Core concepts > Scale Scale in the context of a map is the ratio between a distance measured on the map and the corresponding distance as measured on the ground. This concept is fundamental to the discipline of geography, not just cartography, in that phenomena being investigated appear different depending on the scale used. Scale is the frame that geographers use to measure space, and ultimately to try and understand a place.
Laplace Transform Bilateral Laplace transform S_plane > Formal definition > Bilateral Laplace transform When one says "the Laplace transform" without qualification, the unilateral or one-sided transform is usually intended. The Laplace transform can be alternatively defined as the bilateral Laplace transform, or two-sided Laplace transform, by extending the limits of integration to be the entire real axis. If that is done, the common unilateral transform simply becomes a special case of the bilateral transform, where the definition of the function being transformed is multiplied by the Heaviside step function. The bilateral Laplace transform F(s) is defined as follows: An alternate notation for the bilateral Laplace transform is B { f } {\displaystyle {\mathcal {B}}\{f\}} , instead of F.
MiR-122 Expression and regulation MiR-122 > Expression and regulation The mature sequence is excised from the 5' arm of the hairpin.There is evidence that miR-122 is regulated by Rev-ErbA alpha which is involved in circadian gene expression, suggesting that miR-122 is a circadian metabolic regulator. miR-122 regulates the expression of several mRNA molecules that are important in the circadian cycle, such as PPARβ/δ. Mature miR-122 is subject to modification by the poly(A) polymerase GLD-2, which adds a single adenosine to the miRNA 3' end. This results in an increase in miR-122 stability.
Cyanate anion Complexes with the cyanate ion Cyanate > Complexes with the cyanate ion Cyanate is an ambidentate ligand which can donate the pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom or the oxygen atom, or both. Structurally the isomers can be distinguished by the geometry of the complex. In N-bonded cyanate complexes the M−NCO unit sometimes has a linear structure, but with O-bonded cyanate the M−O−C unit is bent. Thus, the silver cyanato complex, −, has a linear structure as shown by X-ray crystallography.
Picnic table Summary Picnic_table They are used for a wide range of dining, educational, recreational and community-building purposes. Their popularity has various impacts on the flora, fauna and soil around picnic table sites, where they often attract various species interested in feeding on human food. Picnic tables are also common targets of vandalism.
Optical lens design Lens optimization Optical_lens_design > Lens optimization A simple two-element air-spaced lens has nine variables (four radii of curvature, two thicknesses, one airspace thickness, and two glass types). A multi-configuration lens corrected over a wide spectral band and field of view over a range of focal lengths and over a realistic temperature range can have a complex design volume having over one hundred dimensions. Lens optimization techniques that can navigate this multi-dimensional space and proceed to local minima have been studied since the 1940s, beginning with early work by James G. Baker, and later by Feder, Wynne, Glatzel, Grey and others. Prior to the development of digital computers, lens optimization was a hand-calculation task using trigonometric and logarithmic tables to plot 2-D cuts through the multi-dimensional space.
Distributed data flow Formal representation Distributed_data_flow > Formal representation Consistent flows typically represent various sorts of global decisions made by the protocol or application. Monotonicity. A distributed flow is said to be weakly monotonic if for any pair of events e_1 and e_2 that occur at the same location, if e_1 has a smaller version than e_2, then e_1 must carry a smaller value than e_2.
Foam cells Composition Foam_cell > Composition Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (LDL-C — also known as “bad” cholesterol) and particularly modified forms of LDL cholesterol such as oxidized, glycated, or acetylated LDL, is contained by a foam cell - a marker of atherosclerosis. The uptake of LDL-C alone does not cause foam cell formation; however, the co-internalization of LDL-C with modified LDL in macrophages can result in foam cell development. Modified LDL affects the intracellular trafficking and metabolism of native LDL, such that not all LDL need to be modified for foam cell formation when LDL levels are high.The maintenance of foam cells and the subsequent progression of plaque build-up is caused by the secretion of chemokines and cytokines from macrophages and foam cells. Foam cells secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukins: IL-1, IL-6; tumour necrosis factor (TNF); chemokines: chemokines ligand 2, CCL5, CXC-chemokine ligand 1 (CXCL1); as well as macrophage retention factors.
GNU Autotools GNU Automake GNU_Build_System > Components > GNU Automake Automake helps to create portable Makefiles, which are in turn processed with the make utility. It takes its input as Makefile.am, and turns it into Makefile.in, which is used by the configure script to generate the file Makefile output. It also performs automatic dependency tracking; every time a source file is compiled, the list of dependencies (e.g., C header files) is recorded. Later, any time make is run and a dependency appears to have changed, the dependent files will be rebuilt.
Fish anatomy Cerebellum Fish_anatomy > Nervous system > Cerebellum In amphibians, lampreys, and hagfish, the cerebellum is little developed; in the latter two groups, it is barely distinguishable from the brain-stem. Although the spinocerebellum is present in these groups, the primary structures are small paired nuclei corresponding to the vestibulocerebellum.The cerebellum of cartilaginous and bony fishes is extraordinarily large and complex. In at least one important respect, it differs in internal structure from the mammalian cerebellum: The fish cerebellum does not contain discrete deep cerebellar nuclei.
Rydberg polaron Summary Rydberg_polaron Under these circumstances, the distance between the nucleus and the electron of the excited Rydberg atoms is higher than the average distance of the atoms of the condensate. As a result, some atoms lie inside the orbit of the Rydberg atom's electron. As the atoms don't have an electric charge, they only produce a minimal force on the electron.
Wave disk engine Operational principles Wave_disk_engine > Operational principles As with all heat engines, the efficiency of a wave disk engine is governed by the temperature difference between the hot and cold sides (see Carnot's theorem). Compared to a conventional piston engine (reciprocating engine), a wave disk engine works at higher peak temperature, which theoretically makes it more efficient. The design also works without a cooling system, saving weight.
Point-to-point laser technology Benefits Point-to-point_laser_technology > Benefits PPLT has many benefits in creating BIM or (CAD) models. Entering data directly into a CAD- or BIM-enabled work station allows a user or 'surveyor' to capture and confirm a building's geometry on site. This effectively builds a digital model of a building while it is being measured enabling not only speed but accuracy. Additionally, building in real time can eliminate the need for revisits and also minimizes the need for future interpretation and manipulation of measurements and data by a CAD operator.
Periodic table of chemical elements Period 1 Mendeleev's_table > Variations > Period 1 Although the modern periodic table is standard today, the placement of the period 1 elements hydrogen and helium remains an open issue under discussion, and some variation can be found. Following electron configurations, hydrogen would be placed in group 1, and helium would be placed in group 2. The group 1 placement of hydrogen is common, but helium is almost always placed in group 18 with the other noble gases.
Spinodal decomposition Fourier transform Spinodal_decomposition > Fourier transform The motivation for the Fourier transformation comes from the study of a Fourier series. In the study of a Fourier series, complicated periodic functions are written as the sum of simple waves mathematically represented by sines and cosines. Due to the properties of sine and cosine, it is possible to recover the amount of each wave in the sum by an integral. In many cases it is desirable to use Euler's formula, which states that e2πiθ = cos 2πθ + i sin 2πθ, to write Fourier series in terms of the basic waves e2πiθ, with the distinct advantage of simplifying many unwieldy formulas.
Maximally informative dimensions Summary Maximally_informative_dimensions Maximally informative dimensions is a dimensionality reduction technique used in the statistical analyses of neural responses. Specifically, it is a way of projecting a stimulus onto a low-dimensional subspace so that as much information as possible about the stimulus is preserved in the neural response. It is motivated by the fact that natural stimuli are typically confined by their statistics to a lower-dimensional space than that spanned by white noise but correctly identifying this subspace using traditional techniques is complicated by the correlations that exist within natural images. Within this subspace, stimulus-response functions may be either linear or nonlinear. The idea was originally developed by Tatyana Sharpee, Nicole C. Rust, and William Bialek in 2003.
Program equilibrium Setting and definition Program_equilibrium > Setting and definition Finally, the utilities for the players are given by u i ( s 1 , s 2 ) {\displaystyle u_{i}(s_{1},s_{2})} for i = 1 , 2 {\displaystyle i=1,2} , i.e., by applying the utility functions for the base game to the chosen strategies. One has to further deal with the possibility that one of the programs p i {\displaystyle p_{i}} doesn't halt. One way to deal with this is to restrict both players' sets of available programs to prevent non-halting programs.A program equilibrium is a pair of programs ( p 1 , p 2 ) {\displaystyle (p_{1},p_{2})} that constitute a Nash equilibrium of the program game. In other words, ( p 1 , p 2 ) {\displaystyle (p_{1},p_{2})} is a program equilibrium if neither player i {\displaystyle i} can deviate to an alternative program p i ′ {\displaystyle p_{i}'} such that their utility is higher in ( p i ′ , p − i ) {\displaystyle (p_{i}',p_{-i})} than in ( p 1 , p 2 ) {\displaystyle (p_{1},p_{2})} .
Microsuction tape Summary Microsuction_tape Friction force is not significantly reduced over time and it does not depend significantly on contact area. Specific traction (force per surface unit) is roughly proportional to contact pressure.
Wedderburn principal theorem Representation theory Commutative_algebra_(structure) > Examples > Representation theory The universal enveloping algebra of a Lie algebra is an associative algebra that can be used to study the given Lie algebra. If G is a group and R is a commutative ring, the set of all functions from G to R with finite support form an R-algebra with the convolution as multiplication. It is called the group algebra of G. The construction is the starting point for the application to the study of (discrete) groups. If G is an algebraic group (e.g., semisimple complex Lie group), then the coordinate ring of G is the Hopf algebra A corresponding to G. Many structures of G translate to those of A. A quiver algebra (or a path algebra) of a directed graph is the free associative algebra over a field generated by the paths in the graph.
Extremal principles in non-equilibrium thermodynamics Paltridge Extremal_principles_in_non-equilibrium_thermodynamics > Historical development > Paltridge According to Tuck (2008), "On the macroscopic level, the way has been pioneered by a meteorologist (Paltridge 1975, 2001). Initially Paltridge (1975) used the terminology "minimum entropy exchange", but after that, for example in Paltridge (1978), and in Paltridge (1979)), he used the now current terminology "maximum entropy production" to describe the same thing. This point is clarified in the review by Ozawa, Ohmura, Lorenz, Pujol (2003).
Compiler theory Compiled versus interpreted languages Semantic_analysis_(computer_science) > Compiled versus interpreted languages It only hides it from the user and makes it gradual. Even though an interpreter can itself be interpreted, a set of directly executed machine instructions is needed somewhere at the bottom of the execution stack (see machine language). Furthermore, for optimization compilers can contain interpreter functionality, and interpreters may include ahead of time compilation techniques.
Minimal standard model Journal articles Standard_Model_of_Particle_Physics > Further reading > Journal articles doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-012-2205-9. S2CID 15052448. Y. Hayato; et al. (1999).
Multilinear subspace learning Summary Multilinear_subspace_learning Multilinear subspace learning is an approach for disentangling the causal factor of data formation and performing dimensionality reduction. The Dimensionality reduction can be performed on a data tensor that contains a collection of observations have been vectorized, or observations that are treated as matrices and concatenated into a data tensor. Here are some examples of data tensors whose observations are vectorized or whose observations are matrices concatenated into data tensor images (2D/3D), video sequences (3D/4D), and hyperspectral cubes (3D/4D). The mapping from a high-dimensional vector space to a set of lower dimensional vector spaces is a multilinear projection. When observations are retained in the same organizational structure as matrices or higher order tensors, their representations are computed by performing linear projections into the column space, row space and fiber space.Multilinear subspace learning algorithms are higher-order generalizations of linear subspace learning methods such as principal component analysis (PCA), independent component analysis (ICA), linear discriminant analysis (LDA) and canonical correlation analysis (CCA).
AI capability control Motivation AI_box > Motivation Some hypothetical intelligence technologies, like "seed AI", are postulated to be able to make themselves faster and more intelligent by modifying their source code. These improvements would make further improvements possible, which would in turn make further iterative improvements possible, and so on, leading to a sudden intelligence explosion.An unconfined superintelligent AI could, if its goals differed from humanity's, take actions resulting in human extinction. For example, an extremely advanced system of this sort, given the sole purpose of solving the Riemann hypothesis, an innocuous mathematical conjecture, could decide to try to convert the planet into a giant supercomputer whose sole purpose is to make additional mathematical calculations (see also paperclip maximizer).One strong challenge for control is that neural networks are by default highly uninterpretable. This makes it more difficult to detect deception or other undesired behavior as the model self-trains iteratively. Advances in interpretable artificial intelligence could mitigate this difficulty.
Turing-computable function Description Universal_computation > Description Among these is the special start state with which the state register is initialized. These states, writes Turing, replace the "state of mind" a person performing computations would ordinarily be in. A finite table of instructions that, given the state(qi) the machine is currently in and the symbol(aj) it is reading on the tape (symbol currently under the head), tells the machine to do the following in sequence (for the 5-tuple models):Either erase or write a symbol (replacing aj with aj1).
Operon History Polycistronic_operon > History Therefore, it is not possible to talk of a general regulatory mechanism, because different operons have different mechanisms. Today, the operon is simply defined as a cluster of genes transcribed into a single mRNA molecule. Nevertheless, the development of the concept is considered a landmark event in the history of molecular biology. The first operon to be described was the lac operon in E. coli. The 1965 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine was awarded to François Jacob, André Michel Lwoff and Jacques Monod for their discoveries concerning the operon and virus synthesis.
Longitudinal stress Causes and effects Physical_stress > Causes and effects In general, the stress distribution in a body is expressed as a piecewise continuous function of space and time. Conversely, stress is usually correlated with various effects on the material, possibly including changes in physical properties like birefringence, polarization, and permeability. The imposition of stress by an external agent usually creates some strain (deformation) in the material, even if it is too small to be detected.
RX J0822−4300 Summary RX_J0822−4300 RX J0822−4300, often referred to as a "Cosmic Cannonball", is a radio-quiet neutron star currently moving away from the center of the Puppis A supernova remnant at over 3 million miles per hour (5 400 000 km/h; 1500 km/s; ~0.5% the speed of light), making it one of the fastest moving stars ever found. Astronomers used NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory to observe the star over a period of five years to determine its speed. At this velocity the star will be ejected from the galaxy millions of years from now. Although the cosmic cannonball is not the only hypervelocity star discovered, it is unique in the apparent origin of its speed.
Time scale Summary Time_scale Time scale may refer to: Time standard, a specification of either the rate at which time passes, points in time, or both A duration or quantity of time: Orders of magnitude (time) as a power of 10 in seconds; A specific unit of time Geological time scale, a scale that divides up the history of Earth into scientifically meaningful periodsIn astronomy and physics: Dynamical time scale, in stellar physics, the time in which changes in one part of a body can be communicated to the rest of that body, or in celestial mechanics, a realization of a time-like argument based on a dynamical theory Nuclear timescale, an estimate of the lifetime of a star based solely on its rate of fuel consumption Thermal time scale, an estimate of the lifetime of a star once the fuel reserves at its center are used upIn cosmology and particle physics: Planck time, the time scale beneath which quantum effects are comparable in significance to gravitational effectsIn mathematics: Time-scale calculus, the unification of the theory of difference equations with differential equationsIn music: Rhythm, a temporal pattern of events Time scale (music), which divides music into sections of timeIn project management: Man-hour, the time scale used in project management to account for human labor planned or utilized
Residual dipolar coupling Summary Residual_dipolar_coupling The residual dipolar coupling between two spins in a molecule occurs if the molecules in solution exhibit a partial alignment leading to an incomplete averaging of spatially anisotropic dipolar couplings. Partial molecular alignment leads to an incomplete averaging of anisotropic magnetic interactions such as the magnetic dipole-dipole interaction (also called dipolar coupling), the chemical shift anisotropy, or the electric quadrupole interaction. The resulting so-called residual anisotropic magnetic interactions are useful in biomolecular NMR spectroscopy.
NP-complete problem Common misconceptions NP_completeness > Common misconceptions Further, some NP-complete problems actually have algorithms running in superpolynomial, but subexponential time such as O(2√nn). For example, the independent set and dominating set problems for planar graphs are NP-complete, but can be solved in subexponential time using the planar separator theorem. "Each instance of an NP-complete problem is difficult."
Bicycle computer Cyclist power measurement Bicycle_computer > Additional information > Cyclist power measurement Some more sophisticated models are able to measure the rider's power in terms of watts. These units incorporate elements that measure torque at the crank, or rear wheel hub, or tension on the chain. This technology began in the late 1980s. (See Team Strawberry for the early development and testing stages of this technology.)
Atom (text editor) Summary Atom_(text_editor) Atom was a free and open-source text and source code editor for macOS, Linux, and Windows with support for plug-ins written in JavaScript, and embedded Git Control. Developed by GitHub, Atom was released on June 25, 2015.Most of the extending packages have free software licenses and are community-built and maintained.On June 8, 2022, GitHub announced that Atom's end-of-life would occur on December 15 of that year, "in order to prioritize technologies that enable the future of software development", specifically its GitHub Codespaces and Microsoft's Visual Studio Code.
Turing-computable function Computability theory Deterministic_Turing_machine > References > Computability theory Taylor L. Booth (1967), Sequential Machines and Automata Theory, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. Graduate level engineering text; ranges over a wide variety of topics, Chapter IX Turing Machines includes some recursion theory. Martin Davis (1958).
Ancestral reconstruction Empirical and hierarchical Bayes Ancestral_reconstruction > Methods and algorithms > Bayesian inference > Empirical and hierarchical Bayes Huelsenbeck and Bollback first proposed a hierarchical Bayes method to ancestral reconstruction by using Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods to sample ancestral sequences from this joint posterior distribution. A similar approach was also used to reconstruct the evolution of symbiosis with algae in fungal species (lichenization). For example, the Metropolis-Hastings algorithm for MCMC explores the joint posterior distribution by accepting or rejecting parameter assignments on the basis of the ratio of posterior probabilities.
Mathematical Logic Other classical logics Mathematical_Logic > Formal logical systems > Other classical logics The semantics are defined so that, rather than having a separate domain for each higher-type quantifier to range over, the quantifiers instead range over all objects of the appropriate type. The logics studied before the development of first-order logic, for example Frege's logic, had similar set-theoretic aspects. Although higher-order logics are more expressive, allowing complete axiomatizations of structures such as the natural numbers, they do not satisfy analogues of the completeness and compactness theorems from first-order logic, and are thus less amenable to proof-theoretic analysis.
Colonial morphology Interpretation Colony_morphology > Interpretation aureus. : 101: 203 Observation of hemolysis is useful in the presumptive identification of bacteria,: 165–6 especially streptococci, which are classified on the basis of their hemolytic reactions. : 92 For example, Streptococcus pyogenes, which causes strep throat and scarlet fever, displays beta-hemolysis, while Streptococcus pneumoniae, which can cause pneumonia and meningitis, displays alpha-hemolysis.
Monte Carlo methods for electron transport Schrödinger-based correction Monte_Carlo_method_for_electron_transport > Quantum corrections for Monte Carlo simulation > Schrödinger-based correction This approach involves periodical solving of a Schrödinger equation in a simulation with the input being the self-consistent electrostatic potential. The exact energy levels and wavefunctions relating to the electrostatic potential solution are employed to calculate the quantum potential. The quantum correction obtained on the basis of this method can be visualised by the following equation V s c h r ( z ) = − k B T ⋅ log ⁡ ( n q ( z ) ) − V p ( z ) + V 0 {\displaystyle V_{\mathrm {schr} }(z)=-k_{B}T\cdot \log(n_{q}(z))-V_{p}(z)+V_{0}} where Vschr is the quantum correction potential, z is the direction perpendicular to the interface, nq is the quantum density from the Schrödinger equation which is equivalent to the converged Monte Carlo concentration, Vp is the potential from the Poisson solution, V0 is the arbitrary reference potential far away from the quantum region such that the correction goes to null in the region of semi-classical behavior. Even though the above-mentioned potentials for quantum correction differ in their method of calculation and their basic assumptions, yet when it comes to their inclusion into Monte Carlo simulation they are all incorporated the same way.
Numerical-value equation Formalisms Numerical-value_equation > Dimensionless concepts > Formalisms Now, the correlation length is the relevant length scale related to critical phenomena, so one can, e.g., surmise on "dimensional grounds" that the non-analytical part of the free energy per lattice site should be ∼ 1 / ξ d {\displaystyle \sim 1/\xi ^{d}} where d {\displaystyle d} is the dimension of the lattice. It has been argued by some physicists, e.g., Michael J. Duff, that the laws of physics are inherently dimensionless. The fact that we have assigned incompatible dimensions to Length, Time and Mass is, according to this point of view, just a matter of convention, borne out of the fact that before the advent of modern physics, there was no way to relate mass, length, and time to each other.
Jing Fang Music theory Jing_Fang > Music theory 122 BC in the Huainanzi, a book is written for the prince of Huainan. Huainanzi emphasizes that the number of musical temperament and calendar reflect the path of heaven and earth.He accomplished this calculation by beginning with a suitable large starting value ( 3 11 = 177147 {\displaystyle 3^{11}=177147} ) that could be divided by three easily, and proceeded to calculate the relative values of successive tones by the following method: Divide the value by three. 177147 / 3 = 59049 {\displaystyle 177147/3=59049} Add this value to the original.
Abstract concept Arguments against the classical theory Abstract_concept > Notable theories on the structure of concepts > Classical theory > Arguments against the classical theory If concepts and categories were very well defined, such cases should be rare. Since then, many researches have discovered borderline members that are not clearly in or out of a category of concept.
Feedback linearization Summary Feedback_linearization Feedback linearization is a common strategy employed in nonlinear control to control nonlinear systems. Feedback linearization techniques may be applied to nonlinear control systems of the form where x ( t ) ∈ R n {\displaystyle x(t)\in \mathbb {R} ^{n}} is the state, u 1 ( t ) , … , u m ( t ) ∈ R {\displaystyle u_{1}(t),\ldots ,u_{m}(t)\in \mathbb {R} } are the inputs. The approach involves transforming a nonlinear control system into an equivalent linear control system through a change of variables and a suitable control input. In particular, one seeks a change of coordinates z = Φ ( x ) {\displaystyle z=\Phi (x)} and control input u = a ( x ) + b ( x ) v , {\displaystyle u=a(x)+b(x)\,v,} so that the dynamics of x ( t ) {\displaystyle x(t)} in the coordinates z ( t ) {\displaystyle z(t)} take the form of a linear, controllable control system, An outer-loop control strategy for the resulting linear control system can then be applied to achieve the control objective.
K-trivial set Developments after 2008 K-trivial_set > Brief history and development > Developments after 2008 From 2009 on, concepts from analysis entered the stage. This helped solving some notorious problems. One says that a set Y is a positive density point if every effectively closed class containing Y has positive lower Lebesgue density at Y. Bienvenu, Hölzl, Miller, and Nies showed that a ML-random is Turing incomplete iff it is a positive density point. Day and Miller used this for an affirmative answer to the ML-cupping problem: A is K-trivial iff for every Martin-Löf random set Z such that A⊕Z compute the halting problem, already Z by itself computes the halting problem.
Pulmonary aspiration Prevention Pulmonary_aspiration > Prevention In patients at imminent risk of aspiration, tracheal intubation by a trained health professional provides the best protection. A simpler intervention that can be implemented is to lay the patient on their side in the recovery position (as taught in first aid and CPR classes), so that any vomitus produced by the patient will drain out their mouth instead of back down their pharynx. Some anesthetists will use sodium citrate to neutralize the stomach's low pH and metoclopramide or domperidone (pro-kinetic agents) to empty the stomach.
Achromatic refractor How it works Achromatic_telescope > How it works The image of a star can appear blue on one side and orange on the other. Early refracting telescopes with non-achromatic objectives were constructed with very long focal lengths to mask the chromatic aberration. An Achromatic telescope uses an achromatic lens to correct for this.
XOXO (microformat) XML format XOXO_(microformat) > XML format Represents a hyperlink for an item in the outline. Possible attributes include: a title attribute to indicate additional information; a type attribute to indicate the MIME type of the link destination; a rel attribute to indicate the link resource’s relationship to this outline (e.g. using XFN); and/or a rev attribute to indicate the relationship of this outline to the linked resource (e.g. using VoteLinks). May contain any number of arbitrary properties using (definition term) and (definition description) elements..
Genome editing with engineered nucleases Zinc finger nucleases Adenine_base_editing > Process > Engineered nucleases > Zinc finger nucleases It is also possible to fuse a protein constructed in this way with the catalytic domain of an endonuclease in order to induce a targeted DNA break, and therefore to use these proteins as genome engineering tools.The method generally adopted for this involves associating two DNA binding proteins – each containing 3 to 6 specifically chosen zinc fingers – with the catalytic domain of the FokI endonuclease which need to dimerize to cleave the double-strand DNA. The two proteins recognize two DNA sequences that are a few nucleotides apart. Linking the two zinc finger proteins to their respective sequences brings the two FokI domains closer together.
Harrod–Domar model Summary Harrod–Domar_model The Harrod–Domar model was the precursor to the exogenous growth model.Neoclassical economists claimed shortcomings in the Harrod–Domar model—in particular the instability of its solution—and, by the late 1950s, started an academic dialogue that led to the development of the Solow–Swan model.According to the Harrod–Domar model there are three kinds of growth: warranted growth, actual growth and natural rate of growth. Warranted growth rate is the rate of growth at which the economy does not expand indefinitely or go into recession. Actual growth is the real rate increase in a country's GDP per year.
Solar power tower Design Solar_power_tower > Design Some concentrating solar power towers are air-cooled instead of water-cooled, to avoid using limited desert water Flat glass is used instead of the more expensive curved glass Thermal storage to store the heat in molten salt containers to continue producing electricity while the sun is not shining Steam is heated to 500 °C to drive turbines that are coupled to generators which produce electricity Control systems to supervise and control all the plant activity including the heliostat array positions, alarms, other data acquisition and communication.Generally, installations use from 150 hectares (1,500,000 m2) to 320 hectares (3,200,000 m2).
Chemical game theory Summary Chemical_game_theory The reactions occurring in the reactors are comparable to the decision-making process of each player. The concentrations of the final products represent the likelihood of each outcome given the preexisting biases and pains for the situation. == References ==
Collaboration technologies Commons-based peer production Collaboration_technologies > Occupational examples > Technology > Commons-based peer production Commons-based peer production is a term coined by Yale Law professor Yochai Benkler to describe a new model of economic production in which the creative energy of large numbers of people is coordinated (usually with the aid of the internet) into large, meaningful projects, mostly without hierarchical organization or financial compensation. He compares this to firm production (where a centralized decision process decides what has to be done and by whom) and market-based production (when tagging different prices to different jobs serves as an attractor to anyone interested in doing the job). Examples of products created by means of commons-based peer production include Linux, a computer operating system; Slashdot, a news and announcements website; Kuro5hin, a discussion site for technology and culture; Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia; and Clickworkers, a collaborative scientific work. Another example is Socialtext, a software solution that uses tools such as wikis and weblogs and helps companies to create a collaborative work environment.
Subroutine call Language support Procedure_call > Language support High-level programming languages usually include specific constructs to: Delimit the part of the program (body) that makes up the function Assign an identifier (name) to the function Specify the names and data types of its parameters and return values Provide a private naming scope for its temporary variables Identify variables outside the function that are accessible within it Call the function Provide values to its parameters The main program contains the address of the subprogram The subprogram contains the address of the next instruction of the function call in the main program Specify the return values from within its body Return to the calling program Dispose of the values returned by a call Handle any exceptional conditions encountered during the call Package functions into a module, library, object, or classSome programming languages, such as Pascal, Fortran, Ada and many dialects of BASIC, distinguish between functions or function subprograms, which provide an explicit return value to the calling program, and subroutines or procedures, which do not. In those languages, function calls are normally embedded in expressions (e.g., a sqrt function may be called as y = z + sqrt(x)). Procedure calls either behave syntactically as statements (e.g., a print procedure may be called as if x > 0 then print(x) or are explicitly invoked by a statement such as CALL or GOSUB (e.g., call print(x)).
Apoptotic pathway Viral infection Apoptotic_pathway > Implication in disease > Viral infection It can be interpreted by counting, measuring, and analyzing the cells of the Sub/G1 cell population. When HeLA cells are infected with OROV, the cytochrome C is released from the membrane of the mitochondria, into the cytosol of the cells. This type of interaction shows that apoptosis is activated via an intrinsic pathway.In order for apoptosis to occur within OROV, viral uncoating, viral internalization, along with the replication of cells is necessary.
Genetics of cancer Point mutations Oncogenomics > Mitochondrial DNA > Point mutations Point mutations have been observed in the coding and non-coding region of the mtDNA contained in cancer cells. In individuals with bladder, head/neck and lung cancers, the point mutations within the coding region show signs of resembling each other. This suggests that when a healthy cell transforms into a tumor cell (a neoplastic transformation) the mitochondria seem to become homogenous. Abundant point mutations located within the non-coding region, D-loop, of the cancerous mitochondria suggest that mutations within this region might be an important characteristic in some cancers.
Naïve set theory Specifying sets Naive_Set_Theory > Specifying sets An extreme (but correct) example of this notation is {}, which denotes the empty set. The notation {x: P(x)}, or sometimes {x \|P(x)}, is used to denote the set containing all objects for which the condition P holds (known as defining a set intensionally). For example, {x \| x ∈ R} denotes the set of real numbers, {x \| x has blonde hair} denotes the set of everything with blonde hair.
Betti cohomology Sheaf cohomology Extraordinary_cohomology_theories > Sheaf cohomology Grothendieck defined sheaf cohomology groups to be the right derived functors of the left exact functor E ↦ E(X).That definition suggests various generalizations. For example, one can define the cohomology of a topological space X with coefficients in any complex of sheaves, earlier called hypercohomology (but usually now just "cohomology"). From that point of view, sheaf cohomology becomes a sequence of functors from the derived category of sheaves on X to abelian groups.
Acute lymphocytic leukemia Genetics Acute_lymphocytic_leukemia > Cause > Risk factors > Genetics Common inherited risk factors include mutations in ARID5B, CDKN2A/2B, CEBPE, IKZF1, GATA3, PIP4K2A and, more rarely, TP53. These genes play important roles in cellular development, proliferation, and differentiation. Individually, most of these mutations are low risk for ALL.
Long-term depression Prefrontal cortex Long_term_depression > Mechanisms that weaken synapses > Prefrontal cortex The neurotransmitter serotonin is involved in LTD induction in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). The serotonin system in the PFC plays an important role in regulating cognition and emotion. Serotonin, in cooperation with a group I metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) agonist, facilitates LTD induction through augmentation of AMPA receptor internalization. This mechanism possibly underlies serotonin's role in the control of cognitive and emotional processes that synaptic plasticity in PFC neurons mediates.
Sign (mathematics) Complex numbers Nonnegative_number > Sign of a number > Complex numbers {\displaystyle e^{i\pi }=-1.} For the definition of a complex sign-function. see § Complex sign function below.
Control–feedback–abort loop The control element Control–feedback–abort_loop > A description of the control–feedback–abort (CFA) loop > The control element The Control element is the ‘primary control’ for the system. While everything is operating within a ‘normal’ operational mode, the Control element remains the primary control. Figure 2 – CFA Loop – Control Element
List of undecidable problems Summary List_of_undecidable_problems In computability theory, an undecidable problem is a type of computational problem that requires a yes/no answer, but where there cannot possibly be any computer program that always gives the correct answer; that is, any possible program would sometimes give the wrong answer or run forever without giving any answer. More formally, an undecidable problem is a problem whose language is not a recursive set; see the article Decidable language. There are uncountably many undecidable problems, so the list below is necessarily incomplete.
Freewheeling diode Induction at the opening of a contact Flyback_diode > Induction at the opening of a contact Another way to dissipate energy is through electromagnetic radiation. Similarly, for non-mechanical solid-state switching (i.e., a transistor), large voltage drops across an unactivated solid-state switch can destroy the component in question (either instantaneously or through accelerated wear and tear). Some energy is also lost from the system as a whole and from the arc as a broad spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, in the form of radio waves and light.
Geostationary Transfer Orbit Other considerations Geostationary_Transfer_Orbit > Other considerations Because of Baikonur's high latitude and range safety considerations that block launches directly east, it requires less delta-v to transfer satellites to GEO by using a supersynchronous transfer orbit where the apogee (and the maneuver to reduce the transfer orbit inclination) are at a higher altitude than 35,786 km, the geosynchronous altitude. Proton even offers to perform a supersynchronous apogee maneuver up to 15 hours after launch.The geostationary orbit is a special type of orbit around the Earth in which a satellite orbits the planet at the same rate as the Earth's rotation. This means that the satellite appears to remain stationary relative to a fixed point on the Earth's surface. The geostationary orbit is located at an altitude of approximately 35,786 kilometers (22,236 miles) above the Earth's equator.
T-duality Superstrings T-duality > Superstrings Up until the mid 1990s, physicists working on string theory believed there were five distinct versions of the theory: type I, type IIA, type IIB, and the two flavors of heterotic string theory (SO(32) and E8×E8). The different theories allow different types of strings, and the particles that arise at low energies exhibit different symmetries. In the mid 1990s, physicists noticed that these five string theories are actually related by highly nontrivial dualities.
Specific entropy Carnot cycle Entropy > Definitions and descriptions > Carnot cycle This allowed Kelvin to establish his absolute temperature scale. It is also known that the net work W produced by the system in one cycle is the net heat absorbed, which is the sum (or difference of the magnitudes) of the heat QH > 0 absorbed from the hot reservoir and the waste heat QC < 0 given off to the cold reservoir: Since the latter is valid over the entire cycle, this gave Clausius the hint that at each stage of the cycle, work and heat would not be equal, but rather their difference would be the change of a state function that would vanish upon completion of the cycle. The state function was called the internal energy, that is central to the first law of thermodynamics.Now equating (1) and (2) gives, for the engine per Carnot cycle, This implies that there is a function of state whose change is Q/T and this state function is conserved over a complete Carnot cycle, like other state function such as the internal energy.
Comparison of remote desktop software Terminology Comparison_of_remote_desktop_software > Features > Terminology NAT passthrough: the ability to connect to the server behind a NAT without configuring the router's port forwarding rules. It offers an advantage when you can't reconfigure the router/firewall (for example in case it is on the Internet service provider's side), but is a serious security risk (unless the traffic is end-to-end encrypted), because all the traffic will pass through some proxy server which in most cases is owned by the remote access application's developers. Maximum simultaneous connections: number of clients connected to the same session Screen blanking: the ability to prevent the user of the host/server from viewing what is currently being displayed on the screen while a remote user is connected. Session persistence: unsaved work will not be lost when the user disconnects or in the event of connection loss IPv6 support: supports connections over IPv6
Double-loop learning Historical precursors Double-loop_learning > Historical precursors A Behavioral Theory of the Firm (1963) describes how organizations learn, using (what would now be described as) double-loop learning: An organization ... changes its behavior in response to short-run feedback from the environment according to some fairly well-defined rules. It changes rules in response to longer-run feedback according to more general rules, and so on.
Severe weather Heavy snowfall Severe_weather > Severe winter weather > Heavy snowfall Conditions within blizzards often include large quantities of blowing snow and strong winds that may significantly reduce visibility. Reduced viability of personnel on foot may result in extended exposure to the blizzard and increase the chance of becoming lost. The strong winds associated with blizzards create wind chill that can result in frostbites and hypothermia. The strong winds present in blizzards are capable of damaging plants and may cause power outages, frozen pipes, and cut off fuel lines.
Integer sorting Algorithms for few items Integer_sorting > Theoretical algorithms > Algorithms for few items As in the algorithm of Kirkpatrick and Reisch, they perform range reduction using a representation of the keys as numbers in base b for a careful choice of b. Their range reduction algorithm replaces each digit by a signature, which is a hashed value with O(log n) bits such that different digit values have different signatures. If n is sufficiently small, the numbers formed by this replacement process will be significantly smaller than the original keys, allowing the non-conservative packed sorting algorithm of Albers & Hagerup (1997) to sort the replaced numbers in linear time. From the sorted list of replaced numbers, it is possible to form a compressed trie of the keys in linear time, and the children of each node in the trie may be sorted recursively using only keys of size b, after which a tree traversal produces the sorted order of the items.
Adaptive Deep Brain Stimulation History in Parkinson’s disease Adaptive_Deep_Brain_Stimulation > History in Parkinson’s disease A systematic multicentre international study consisted of six investigational sites (in Italy, Poland and The Netherlands) was also conducted to highlight safety and efficacy of aDBS vs cDBS using this a new generation of DBS IPG in PD (AlphaDBS system by Newronika SpA, Milan, Italy). The Medtronic PC+S device was also developed in a commercial IPG allowing stimulation and sensing, the Percept™ PC, which is approved for aDBS delivery in Japan. Nobutaka Hattori and the group performed a research study, focused on exploring the case of a 51-year-old man with Parkinson's disease (PD) presenting with motor fluctuations, who received bilateral subthalamic deep brain stimulation (DBS) the Percept™ PC device, showing the feasibility of the approach. While these new devices seem to have various applications in terms of facilitating condition-dependent stimulation, and providing new insights into the pathophysiological mechanisms of PD, they are currently under investigation in larger clinical studies, to definitely allow their use in clinical practice
Magnetic sense Electromagnetic induction Magnetoreception > Proposed mechanisms > In animals > Electromagnetic induction Another possible mechanism of magnetoreception in animals is electromagnetic induction in cartilaginous fish, namely sharks, stingrays, and chimaeras. These fish have electroreceptive organs, the ampullae of Lorenzini, which can detect small variations in electric potential. The organs are mucus-filled and consist of canals that connect pores in the skin of the mouth and nose to small sacs within the animal's flesh. They are used to sense the weak electric fields of prey and predators.
Mitsunobu reaction Summary Mitsunobu_reaction The alcohol reacts with the phosphine to create a good leaving group then undergoes an inversion of stereochemistry in classic SN2 fashion as the nucleophile displaces it. A common side-product is produced when the azodicarboxylate displaces the leaving group instead of the desired nucleophile.
Quantum Break Story Quantum_Break > Development > Story According to Louden, the story characters are not "black and white", and depending on the player's perspective, players will feel sympathy for the villain and feel torn when making the choices. Junction points were a tool used by Remedy to add replayability to the game, unlocking alternate content and changing the state of the world, and the gameplay segments remain identical regardless of players' choices.Quantum Break was described as a "transmedia action-shooter video game and television hybrid". At its core the game is an action-adventure game with a live action TV show bundled with it.
Schedule III controlled substance Research exemptions Schedule_I_controlled_substance > Research exemptions The act contains several "generic statements" or "chemical space" laws, which aim to control all chemicals similar to the "named" substance, these provide detailed descriptions similar to Markushes, these include ones for Fentanyl and also synthetic cannabinoids. Due to this complexity in legislation the identification of controlled chemicals in research or chemical supply is often carried out computationally on the chemical structure, either by in house systems maintained a company or by the use of commercial software solutions. Automated systems are often required as many research operations can have chemical collections running into 10Ks of molecules at the 1–5 mg scale, which are likely to include controlled substances, especially within medicinal chemistry research, even if the core research of the company is not narcotic or psychotropic drugs. These may not have been controlled when created, but they have subsequently been declared controlled, or fall within chemical space close to known controlled substances, or are used as tool compounds, precursors or sythetic intermediates.
NBench Shortcomings NBench > Shortcomings Currently, each benchmark test uses only a single execution thread. However, most modern operating systems have some multitasking component. How a system "scales" as more tasks are run simultaneously is an effect that NBench does not explore.
Orthogonal basis In functional analysis Orthogonal_basis > In functional analysis In functional analysis, an orthogonal basis is any basis obtained from an orthonormal basis (or Hilbert basis) using multiplication by nonzero scalars.
Telomere shortening End replication problem Telomere_shortening > Structure and function > End replication problem Most prokaryotes, relying on circular chromosomes, accordingly do not possess telomeres. A small fraction of bacterial chromosomes (such as those in Streptomyces, Agrobacterium, and Borrelia), however, are linear and possess telomeres, which are very different from those of the eukaryotic chromosomes in structure and function. The known structures of bacterial telomeres take the form of proteins bound to the ends of linear chromosomes, or hairpin loops of single-stranded DNA at the ends of the linear chromosomes.
Social immunity Concept Social_immunity > Concept Social immunity is the evolution of an additional level of immunity in the colonies of eusocial insects (some bees and wasps, all ants and termites). Social immunity includes collective disease defences in other stable societies, including those of primates, and has also been broadened to include other social interactions, such as parental care. It is a recently developed concept. Social immunity provides an integrated approach for the study of disease dynamics in societies, combining both the behaviour and physiology (including molecular-level processes) of all group members and their social interactions.
Allostasis Nature of concept Allostasis > Nature of concept Allostasis encourages increased attention to new solutions at the level of society, as well as the individual and immediate community.Allostatic regulation reflects, at least partly, cephalic involvement in primary regulatory events, in that it is anticipatory to systemic physiological regulation. This is different from homeostasis, which occurs in response to subtle ebb and flow. Both homeostasis and allostasis are endogenous systems responsible for maintaining the internal stability of an organism.
H3K9me2 Epigenetic implications H3K9me2 > Epigenetic implications Different developmental stages were profiled in Drosophila as well, an emphasis was placed on histone modification relevance. A look in to the data obtained led to the definition of chromatin states based on histone modifications. Certain modifications were mapped and enrichment was seen to localize in certain genomic regions.
Alcoholic fatty liver disease Laboratory findings Alcoholic_liver_disease > Diagnosis > Laboratory findings Other laboratory findings include red blood cell macrocytosis (mean corpuscular volume > 100) and elevations of serum gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), alkaline phosphatase, and bilirubin levels. Folate level is reduced in alcoholic patients due to decreased intestinal absorption, increased bone marrow requirement for folate in the presence of alcohol, and increased urinary loss. The magnitude of leukocytosis (white blood cell depletion) reflects severity of liver injury.
Double-layer capacitor Evolution of components Hybrid_capacitor > History > Evolution of components That changed around 1978 as Panasonic marketed its Goldcaps brand. This product became a successful energy source for memory backup applications.
De Broglie wavelength Matter waves vs. electromagnetic waves (light) Matter_waves > Matter waves vs. electromagnetic waves (light) Obviously visible light interacts weakly with air molecules. By contrast, strongly interacting particles like slow electrons and molecules require vacuum: the matter wave properties rapidly fade when they are exposed to even low pressures of gas. With special apparatus, high velocity electrons can be used to study liquids and gases.
Cycle shape Definition Circular_notation > Definition To distinguish between these two, the identifiers active and passive are sometimes prefixed to the term permutation, whereas in older terminology substitutions and permutations are used.A permutation can be decomposed into one or more disjoint cycles, that is, the orbits, which are found by repeatedly tracing the application of the permutation on some elements. For example, the permutation σ {\displaystyle \sigma } defined by σ ( 7 ) = 7 {\displaystyle \sigma (7)=7} has a 1-cycle, ( 7 ) {\displaystyle (\,7\,)} while the permutation π {\displaystyle \pi } defined by π ( 2 ) = 3 {\displaystyle \pi (2)=3} and π ( 3 ) = 2 {\displaystyle \pi (3)=2} has a 2-cycle ( 2 3 ) {\displaystyle (\,2\,3\,)} (for details on the syntax, see § Cycle notation below). In general, a cycle of length k, that is, consisting of k elements, is called a k-cycle.

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