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Hammett acidity function Definition Hammett_acidity_function > Definition In dilute aqueous solution (pH 0–14) the predominant acid species is H3O+ and the activity coefficients are close to unity, so H0 is approximately equal to the pH. However, beyond this pH range, the effective hydrogen-ion activity changes much more rapidly than the concentration. This is often due to changes in the nature of the acid species; for example in concentrated sulfuric acid, the predominant acid species ("H+") is not H3O+ but rather H3SO4+, which is a much stronger acid.
Field equation Origin Field_equation > Generalities > Origin Usually, field equations are postulated (like the Einstein field equations and the Schrödinger equation, which underlies all quantum field equations) or obtained from the results of experiments (like Maxwell's equations). The extent of their validity is their ability to correctly predict and agree with experimental results. From a theoretical viewpoint, field equations can be formulated in the frameworks of Lagrangian field theory, Hamiltonian field theory, and field theoretic formulations of the principle of stationary action. Given a suitable Lagrangian or Hamiltonian density, a function of the fields in a given system, as well as their derivatives, the principle of stationary action will obtain the field equation.
DOT Language Summary DOT_Language Others, such as gvpr, gc, acyclic, ccomps, sccmap, and tred, read DOT files and perform calculations on the represented graph. Finally, others, such as lefty, dotty, and grappa, provide an interactive interface.
Computing power As an aspect of software quality Software_performance > Technical and non-technical definitions > As an aspect of software quality Computer software performance, particularly software application response time, is an aspect of software quality that is important in human–computer interactions.
Turing Machines Primary literature, reprints, and compilations Turing_Machines > References > Primary literature, reprints, and compilations Reprinted in The Undecidable, pp. 293ff. In the Appendix of this paper Post comments on and gives corrections to Turing's paper of 1936–1937.
Jacob Bernoulli Important works Jacob_Bernoulli > Important works In the last part of the book, Bernoulli sketches many areas of mathematical probability, including probability as a measurable degree of certainty; necessity and chance; moral versus mathematical expectation; a priori an a posteriori probability; expectation of winning when players are divided according to dexterity; regard of all available arguments, their valuation, and their calculable evaluation; and the law of large numbers. Bernoulli was one of the most significant promoters of the formal methods of higher analysis. Astuteness and elegance are seldom found in his method of presentation and expression, but there is a maximum of integrity.
Insulin sensitivity Summary Insulin_Resistance Insulin resistance (IR) is a pathological condition in which cells either fail to respond normally to the hormone insulin or downregulate insulin receptors in response to hyperinsulinemia. Insulin is a hormone that facilitates the transport of glucose from blood into cells, thereby reducing blood glucose (blood sugar). Insulin is released by the pancreas in response to carbohydrates consumed in the diet. In states of insulin resistance, the same amount of insulin does not have the same effect on glucose transport and blood sugar levels.
Post-acute infection syndrome Classification Post-acute_infection_syndrome > Classification PAIS is a broad term describing conditions triggered by various infections, including long COVID, ME/CFS, post-Ebola virus syndrome, post-dengue fatigue syndrome, post-polio syndrome, post-SARS syndrome, post-chikungunya disease, Q fever fatigue syndrome, post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome, and symptoms observed after other infections lacking a specific name. Other better-understood sequela of infections include multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C), delayed acute encephalitis (a rare sequela of measles), and subacute sclerosing panencephalitis. ME/CFS has similar symptoms, and usually, but not always, has an apparent infectious trigger.
Internet area network History Internet_area_network > History This contribution focused in particular in the need for better meta-data able to describe not only implementation details but also conceptual details of model-based applications. In the 1990s, telecommunications companies who previously offered primarily dedicated point-to-point data circuits, began offering virtual private network (VPN) services with comparable quality of service but at a much lower cost.
Observational learning Influential stages and factors Observational_learning > Influential stages and factors Motivation: The observer must have motivation to recreate the observed behavior.Bandura clearly distinguishes between learning and performance. Unless motivated, a person does not produce learned behavior. This motivation can come from external reinforcement, such as the experimenter's promise of reward in some of Bandura's studies, or the bribe of a parent.
Data obfuscation Background Data_obfuscation > Background Data involved in any data masking or obfuscation must remain meaningful at several levels: The data must remain meaningful for the application logic. For example, if elements of addresses are to be obfuscated and city and suburbs are replaced with substitute cities or suburbs, then, if within the application there is a feature that validates postcode or post code lookup, that function must still be allowed to operate without error and operate as expected. The same is also true for credit-card algorithm validation checks and Social Security Number validations. The data must undergo enough changes so that it is not obvious that the masked data is from a source of production data.
Decentralization Environmental Decentralization > Government decentralization > Environmental Central governments themselves may own large tracts of land and control the forest, water, mineral, wildlife and other resources they contain. They may manage them through government operations or leasing them to private businesses; or they may neglect them to be exploited by individuals or groups who defy non-enforced laws against exploitation. It also may control most private land through land-use, zoning, environmental and other regulations.
Solidiification point Metals Solidiification_point > Classes of solids > Metals The strength and reliability of metals has led to their widespread use in construction of buildings and other structures, as well as in most vehicles, many appliances and tools, pipes, road signs and railroad tracks. Iron and aluminium are the two most commonly used structural metals. They are also the most abundant metals in the Earth's crust.
Catagenesis (geology) Theoretical reaction Catagenesis_(geology) > Theoretical reaction In almost all cases, as biogenic material matures in a geologic environment, the volatile elements such as oxygen and hydrogen are significantly reduced, resulting in a reduction in the O/C and H/C ratios. A typical O/C ratio value for a fully matured, catagenesis stage carbon might be less than 0.1.
Goldstone theorem Natural Goldstone_theorem > Examples > Natural Because this symmetry is gauged, the three would-be Goldstone bosons are absorbed by the three gauge bosons corresponding to the three broken generators; this gives these three gauge bosons a mass and the associated necessary third polarization degree of freedom. This is described in the Standard Model through the Higgs mechanism. An analogous phenomenon occurs in superconductivity, which served as the original source of inspiration for Nambu, namely, the photon develops a dynamical mass (expressed as magnetic flux exclusion from a superconductor), cf. the Ginzburg–Landau theory.
Mathematical neuroscience Behaviors of networks Mathematical_neuroscience > Major topics > Behaviors of networks Biological neurons are connected to each other in a complex, recurrent fashion. These connections are, unlike most artificial neural networks, sparse and usually specific. It is not known how information is transmitted through such sparsely connected networks, although specific areas of the brain, such as the visual cortex, are understood in some detail. It is also unknown what the computational functions of these specific connectivity patterns are, if any.
Monte Carlo method in statistical mechanics Canonical Monte_Carlo_method_in_statistical_physics > Implementation > Canonical The following steps are to be made to perform a single measurement. step 1: generate a state that follows the p ( r → ) {\displaystyle p({\vec {r}})} distribution: step 1.1: Perform TT times the following iteration: step 1.1.1: pick a lattice site at random (with probability 1/N), which will be called i, with spin σ i {\displaystyle \sigma _{i}} . step 1.1.2: pick a random number α ∈ {\displaystyle \alpha \in } .
Cosmological redshift Summary Hubble_redshift The motion of astronomical objects due solely to this expansion is known as the Hubble flow. It is described by the equation v = H0D, with H0 the constant of proportionality—the Hubble constant—between the "proper distance" D to a galaxy, which can change over time, unlike the comoving distance, and its speed of separation v, i.e. the derivative of proper distance with respect to the cosmological time coordinate. (See Comoving and proper distances § Uses of the proper distance for some discussion of the subtleties of this definition of "velocity".)
Attractive (force) Conservation Physical_force > Concepts derived from force > Conservation A conservative force that acts on a closed system has an associated mechanical work that allows energy to convert only between kinetic or potential forms. This means that for a closed system, the net mechanical energy is conserved whenever a conservative force acts on the system. The force, therefore, is related directly to the difference in potential energy between two different locations in space, and can be considered to be an artifact of the potential field in the same way that the direction and amount of a flow of water can be considered to be an artifact of the contour map of the elevation of an area. : ch.12 Conservative forces include gravity, the electromagnetic force, and the spring force.
IPCC list of greenhouse gases Summary IPCC_list_of_greenhouse_gases Water vapor and clouds are more dynamic atmospheric constituents and contribute strong climate change feedback influences. other short-lived gases (e.g. carbon monoxide, NOx) and aerosols (e.g. mineral dust, black carbon) that also vary more strongly over location and time. Ozone has warming influences comparable to nitrous oxide and CFCs, and is longer lived and more abundant in the stratosphere than in the troposphere.
Mitotic spindles Centrosome-mediated "search-and-capture" model Metaphase_plate > Organizing the spindle apparatus > Centrosome-mediated "search-and-capture" model Gradually, the bi-oriented chromosome is pulled towards the center of the cell until microtubule tension is balanced on both sides of the centromere; the congressed chromosome then oscillates at the metaphase plate until anaphase onset releases cohesion of the sister chromatids. In this model, microtubule organizing centers are localized to the cell poles, their separation driven by microtubule polymerization and 'sliding' of antiparallel spindle microtubules with respect to one another at the spindle midzone mediated by bipolar, plus-end-directed kinesins. Such sliding forces may account not only for spindle pole separation early in mitosis, but also spindle elongation during late anaphase.
Social class Marxist Social_class > Theoretical models > Marxist Along with this, every person is placed into different groups that have similar interests and values that can differ drastically from group to group. Class is special in that does not relate to specifically to a singular person, but to a specific role.Marxists explain the history of "civilized" societies in terms of a war of classes between those who control production and those who produce the goods or services in society. In the Marxist view of capitalism, this is a conflict between capitalists (bourgeoisie) and wage-workers (the proletariat).
Stackelberg game Economic analysis Stackelberg_competition > Economic analysis An extensive-form representation is often used to analyze the Stackelberg leader-follower model. Also referred to as a “decision tree”, the model shows the combination of outputs and payoffs both firms have in the Stackelberg game. The image on the left depicts in extensive form a Stackelberg game. The payoffs are shown on the right.
Nearest-neighbor chain algorithm Background Nearest-neighbor_chain_algorithm > Background Known methods for repeatedly finding the closest pair of clusters in a dynamic set of clusters either require superlinear space to maintain a data structure that can find closest pairs quickly, or they take greater than linear time to find each closest pair. The nearest-neighbor chain algorithm uses a smaller amount of time and space than the greedy algorithm by merging pairs of clusters in a different order. In this way, it avoids the problem of repeatedly finding closest pairs. Nevertheless, for many types of clustering problem, it can be guaranteed to come up with the same hierarchical clustering as the greedy algorithm despite the different merge order.
SWEET transporters Structure SWEET_transporters > Structure Many bacterial homologues have only 3 TMSs and are half sized, but they nevertheless are members of the SWEET family with a single 3 TMS repeat unit. Other bacterial homologues have 7 TMSs as do most eukaryotic proteins in this family. The SWEET family is large and diverse.
Real-time database Preserving data consistency Real-time_database > Preserving data consistency An example is registering for classes where the student selects a block of classes that he wishes to take and presses submit. In this scenario, higher priorities often take up precedence. A school registration system probably uses this technique when the server receives two registration transactions. If one student had 22 credits and the other had 100 credits, the person with 100 credits would take priority (Value based scheduling).
Vaccine mandates Individual and herd immunity Vaccine_mandates > Goals > Individual and herd immunity Vaccination policies aim to produce immunity to preventable diseases. Besides individual protection from getting ill, some vaccination policies also aim to provide the community as a whole with herd immunity. Herd immunity refers to the idea that the pathogen will have trouble spreading when a significant part of the population has immunity against it, reducing the effect an infectious disease has on society.
Complexity Varied meanings Complexity > Varied meanings In physical systems, complexity is a measure of the probability of the state vector of the system. This should not be confused with entropy; it is a distinct mathematical measure, one in which two distinct states are never conflated and considered equal, as is done for the notion of entropy in statistical mechanics. In dynamical systems, statistical complexity measures the size of the minimum program able to statistically reproduce the patterns (configurations) contained in the data set (sequence).
Pseudocapacitor Summary Pseudocapacitor This faradaic energy storage with only fast redox reactions makes charging and discharging much faster than batteries. Electrochemical pseudocapacitors use metal oxide or conductive polymer electrodes with a high amount of electrochemical pseudocapacitance. The amount of electric charge stored in a pseudocapacitance is linearly proportional to the applied voltage. The unit of pseudocapacitance is the farad.
Particular values of the Riemann zeta function The Riemann zeta function at 0 and 1 Zeta_constant > The Riemann zeta function at 0 and 1 At zero, one has At 1 there is a pole, so ζ(1) is not finite but the left and right limits are: Since it is a pole of first order, it has a complex residue
Rodolfo Llinás Contributions Rodolfo_Llinás > Contributions Llinás is known for his many contributions to neuroscience, however, his most important contributions are the following: Discovery of dendritic inhibition in central neurons (at the mammalian motoneuron). The functional organization of the cerebellar cortex neuronal circuits. Defining cerebellar function from an evolutionary perspective. First description of electrical coupling in the mammalian CNS (mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus).
Parameter Music Parameter > Music In music theory, a parameter denotes an element which may be manipulated (composed), separately from the other elements. The term is used particularly for pitch, loudness, duration, and timbre, though theorists or composers have sometimes considered other musical aspects as parameters. The term is particularly used in serial music, where each parameter may follow some specified series. Paul Lansky and George Perle criticized the extension of the word "parameter" to this sense, since it is not closely related to its mathematical sense, but it remains common. The term is also common in music production, as the functions of audio processing units (such as the attack, release, ratio, threshold, and other variables on a compressor) are defined by parameters specific to the type of unit (compressor, equalizer, delay, etc.).
Dialogs (Lem) Summary Dialogs_(Lem) Dialog I is about logical, ethical and philosophical problems related to the possibility of recreating a person as a perfect atom-wise copy. The dialog concludes that consciousness is not reducible to the mere physical composition and structure of a person, but at the same time this does not disprove the material nature of consciousness, pending the future progress of science. == References ==
Alkali group Compounds Alkali_group > Compounds The alkali metals form complete series of compounds with all usually encountered anions, which well illustrate group trends. These compounds can be described as involving the alkali metals losing electrons to acceptor species and forming monopositive ions. : 79 This description is most accurate for alkali halides and becomes less and less accurate as cationic and anionic charge increase, and as the anion becomes larger and more polarisable. For instance, ionic bonding gives way to metallic bonding along the series NaCl, Na2O, Na2S, Na3P, Na3As, Na3Sb, Na3Bi, Na. : 81
Formulation of Maxwell's equations in special relativity Summary Covariant_formulation_of_classical_electromagnetism The covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism refers to ways of writing the laws of classical electromagnetism (in particular, Maxwell's equations and the Lorentz force) in a form that is manifestly invariant under Lorentz transformations, in the formalism of special relativity using rectilinear inertial coordinate systems. These expressions both make it simple to prove that the laws of classical electromagnetism take the same form in any inertial coordinate system, and also provide a way to translate the fields and forces from one frame to another. However, this is not as general as Maxwell's equations in curved spacetime or non-rectilinear coordinate systems.
Greenlandic language Causative mood Greenlandic_language > Grammar > Verbs > Inflection > Causative mood The causative mood (sometimes called the conjunctive) is used to construct subordinate clauses that mean "because", "since" or "when" and is also sometimes used to mean "that". The causative is used also in main clauses to imply some underlying cause.
Privacy engineering Aspects of information Privacy_engineering > Aspects of information Privacy engineering is particularly concerned with the processing of information over the following aspects or ontologies and their relations to their implementation in software: Data Processing Ontologies Information Type Ontologies (as opposed to PII or machine types) Notions of controller and processor The notions of authority and identity (ostensibly of the source(s) of data) Provenance of information, including the notion of data subject Purpose of information, viz: primary vs secondary collection Semantics of information and data sets (see also noise and anonymisation) Usage of informationFurther to this how the above then affect the security classification, risk classification and thus the levels of protection and flow within a system can then the metricised or calculated.
Magnetic flux tube Definition Magnetic_flux_tube > Definition The tube follows the field lines, possibly turning, twisting, and changing its cross sectional size and shape as the field lines converge or diverge. Since no field lines pass through the tube walls there is no flux through the walls of the tube, so all the field lines enter and leave through the end surfaces. Thus a flux tube divides all the field lines into two sets; those passing through the inside of the tube, and those outside.
Chronic renal failure Dogs End_stage_kidney_disease > Other animals > Dogs The incidence rate of CKD in dogs was 15.8 cases per 10,000 dog years at risk. The mortality rate of CKD was 9.7 deaths per 10,000 dog years at risk. (rates developed from a population of 600,000 insured Swedish dogs; one dog year at risk is one dog at risk for one year)The breeds with the highest rates were the Bernese mountain dog, miniature schnauzer and boxer. The Swedish elkhound, Siberian husky and Finnish spitz were the breeds with the lowest rates.
Goosecoid protein Role in cancer development Goosecoid_protein > Role in cancer development Due to its role as a transcription factor in cell migration during embryonic development, GSC has been looked into as a potential role-player in cancer development and metastasis, since embryonic development and cancer development share similar characteristics. GSC, along with other transcription factors like Twist, FOXC2, and Snail, induce epithelial to mesenchymal transitions by regulating the cell adhesion proteins E-cadherin, α-catenin and γ-catenin expression in epithelial cells. Studies have shown that in highly metastatic ovarian, lung, breast, and other cancer cells, GSC is highly expressed early in the progression of the tumor. Furthermore, high levels of GSC expression in cancer cells correlates with poor survival rates and thus can be used as a prognostic tool. High expression of GSC also correlates with the chemoresistance of the cancer. Therefore, GSC “primes cells for the expression of aggressive phenotypes” and “may be the most potential biomarker of drug response and poor prognosis.”
Helioseismology Global helioseismology Helioseismology > Data analysis > Global helioseismology The chief tool for analysing the raw seismic data is the Fourier transform. To good approximation, each mode is a damped harmonic oscillator, for which the power as a function of frequency is a Lorentz function. Spatially resolved data are usually projected onto desired spherical harmonics to obtain time series which are then Fourier transformed.
Homomorphic secret sharing Examples Homomorphic_secret_sharing > Examples Each authority collects the values that he receives. Since each authority only gets one value from each voter, he can't discover any given voter's polynomial. Moreover, he can't predict how altering the submissions will affect the vote.
Web-based experiments Use in psychology Web-based_experiments > Examples > Use in psychology Lora Levett and Margaret Bull Kovera examined whether opposing expert witnesses are effective in educating jurors about unreliable expert evidence. Rather than sensitizing jurors to flaws in the other expert's testimony, the researchers found that jurors became more skeptical of all expert testimony. In her experiment, this led to more guilty verdicts.
Transition moment In terms of momentum Transition_moment > Definition > In terms of momentum For a single, nonrelativistic particle of mass m, in zero magnetic field, the transition dipole moment between two energy eigenstates ψa and ψb can alternatively be written in terms of the momentum operator, using the relationship This relationship can be proven starting from the commutation relation between position x and the Hamiltonian H: Then However, assuming that ψa and ψb are energy eigenstates with energy Ea and Eb, we can also write Similar relations hold for y and z, which together give the relationship above.
PACELC theorem Database PACELC ratings PACELC_theorem > Database PACELC ratings For writes, Couchbase favors Consistency over Availability making it formally CP, but on read there is more user-controlled variability depending on index replication, desired consistency level and type of access (single document lookup vs range scan vs full-text search, etc.). On top of that, there is then further variability depending on cross-datacenter-replication (XDCR) which takes multiple CP clusters and connects them with asynchronous replication and Couchbase Lite which is an embedded database and creates a fully multi-master (with revision tracking) distributed topology. Cosmos DB supports five tunable consistency levels that allow for tradeoffs between C/A during P, and L/C during E. Cosmos DB never violates the specified consistency level, so it's formally CP.
Permute instruction Summary Permute_instruction The scatter variant can be seen to "scatter" the source elements across (into) to the destination, where the "gather" variant is gathering data from the indexed source elements. Given that the indices may be repeated in both variants, the resultant output is not a strict mathematical permutation because duplicates can occur in the output. A special case of permute is also used in GPU "swizzling" (again, not strictly a permutation) which performs on-the-fly reordering of subvector data so as to align or duplicate elements with the appropriate SIMD lane.
Corrective lenses Summary Spectacle_lens A corrective lens is a lens (i.e. a transmissive optical device) that is typically worn in front of the eye to improve daily vision. The most common use is to treat refractive errors: myopia, hypermetropia, astigmatism, and presbyopia. Glasses or "spectacles" are worn on the face a short distance in front of the eye. Contact lenses are worn directly on the surface of the eye. Intraocular lenses are surgically implanted most commonly after cataract removal but can be used for purely refractive purposes.
Induced drag Summary Lift-induced_drag For a constant amount of lift, induced drag can be reduced by increasing airspeed. A counter-intuitive effect of this is that, up to the speed-for-minimum-drag, aircraft need less power to fly faster. Induced drag is also reduced when the wingspan is higher, or for wings with wingtip devices.
Itō calculus Summary Ito_integral So with the integrand a stochastic process, the Itô stochastic integral amounts to an integral with respect to a function which is not differentiable at any point and has infinite variation over every time interval. The main insight is that the integral can be defined as long as the integrand H is adapted, which loosely speaking means that its value at time t can only depend on information available up until this time. Roughly speaking, one chooses a sequence of partitions of the interval from 0 to t and constructs Riemann sums.
Prostatic artery embolization Summary Prostatic_artery_embolization Prostatic artery embolization (PAE, or prostate artery embolisation) is a non-surgical technique for treatment of benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH).The procedure involves blocking the blood flow of small branches of the prostatic arteries using microparticles injected via a small catheter, to decrease the size of the prostate gland to reduce lower urinary tract symptoms. It is a minimally invasive therapy which can be performed with local anesthesia, as an outpatient procedure.
Female reproductive biomarkers Interrupted meiosis Female_reproductive_biomarkers > Cause > Interrupted meiosis Meiosis. a special type of cell division specific to germ cells, produces egg cells in women. During meiosis, accurate segregation of chromosomes must occur during two rounds of division to create, upon fertilisation, a zygote with a proper diploid(euploid) set of chromosomes. About half of all spontaneous abortions are aneuploid, that is, have an improper set of chromosomes.
Flex sensor Applications Flex_sensor > Applications Flex sensors are used in wide areas of research from computer interfaces, rehabilitation, security systems and even music interfaces. It is also famous among students and hobbyists.
Causation and correlation Bidirectional causation: A causes B, and B causes A Causation_and_correlation > Examples of illogically inferring causation from correlation > Bidirectional causation: A causes B, and B causes A Causality is not necessarily one-way; in a predator-prey relationship, predator numbers affect prey numbers, but prey numbers, i.e. food supply, also affect predator numbers. Another well-known example is that cyclists have a lower Body Mass Index than people who do not cycle. This is often explained by assuming that cycling increases physical activity levels and therefore decreases BMI. Because results from prospective studies on people who increase their bicycle use show a smaller effect on BMI than cross-sectional studies, there may be some reverse causality as well (i.e. people with a lower BMI are more likely to cycle).
Business simulation game Summary Business_simulation_game Active development of Internet technologies and the growth of the Internet audience in recent years gave a powerful impetus to the development of the industry of online games, and in particular, online business simulations. There are many varieties of online business simulations - browser-based and downloadable, single-player and multiplayer, real-time and turn-based. Some online simulations are aimed primarily at the leisure market while others have real world applications in training, education and modelling.
Comparative cognition Allen and Beatrix Gardner Comparative_cognition > Key contributors > Allen and Beatrix Gardner After 51 months of teaching, the Gardners reported that Washoe has 132 signs. Through the methods of the Gardners, Washoe was able to learn to communicate in American sign language, and demonstrated the ability to create novel signs for new factors introduced to her environment. In one instance, Washoe described a Brazil nut, an object whose name she was not familiar with, by signing "rock" and "berry", and continued to refer to the Brazil nut in this way.
Semi-automation Summary Semi-automation Centralized computer controllers within semi-automated processes orchestrate processes by instructing the worker, providing electronic communication and control to process equipment, tools, or machines, as well as perform data management to record and ensure that the process meets established process criteria. Many manufacturers choose not to fully automate a process, and instead implement semi-automation due to the complexity of the task, or the number of products produced is too low to justify the investment in full automation. Other processes may not be fully automated because it may reduce the flexibility to easily adapt the processes to reflect production needs.
Loop route Summary Loop_route Typically, special routes share a route number with a dominant route, often referred as the "parent" or "mainline", and are given either a descriptor which may be used either before or after the route name, such as Alternate or Business, or a letter suffix that is attached to the route number. For example, an alternate route of U.S. Route 1 may be called "Alternate U.S.
Spaceframe chassis Design methods Space_truss > Design methods Space frames are typically designed using a rigidity matrix. The special characteristic of the stiffness matrix in an architectural space frame is the independence of the angular factors. If the joints are sufficiently rigid, the angular deflections can be neglected, simplifying the calculations.
Nomogram Description Nomogram > Description These scales may be linear, logarithmic, or have some more complex relationship. The sample isopleth shown in red on the nomogram at the top of this article calculates the value of T when S = 7.30 and R = 1.17. The isopleth crosses the scale for T at just under 4.65; a larger figure printed in high resolution on paper would yield T = 4.64 to three-digit precision.
Stimulus control Summary Stimulus_control Such behavior is said to be emitted because it does not force the behavior to occur since stimulus control is a direct result of historical reinforcement contingencies, as opposed to reflexive behavior that is said to be elicited through respondent conditioning. Some theorists believe that all behavior is under some form of stimulus control. For example, in the analysis of B. F. Skinner, verbal behavior is a complicated assortment of behaviors with a variety of controlling stimuli.
Minkowski diagram The speed of light as a limit Loedel_diagram > Relativistic phenomena in diagrams > The speed of light as a limit By a slight variation of the velocity of this coordinate system in both directions it is always possible to find two inertial reference frames whose observers estimate the chronological order of these events to be different. Given an object moving faster than light, say from O to A in Fig 4-7, then for any observer watching the object moving from O to A, another observer can be found (moving at less than the speed of light with respect to the first) for whom the object moves from A to O. The question of which observer is right has no unique answer, and therefore makes no physical sense. Any such moving object or signal would violate the principle of causality.
Multi-effect Protocol Implementation and results Multi-effect_Protocol > Protocol contents > Implementation and results In addition, there will be approximately 47,500 fewer premature deaths resulting from ozone and particulate matter in the air. Furthermore, the amount of vegetation exposed to excessive ozone levels will be reduced by 44% from 1990 levels. However, for large parts of Europe, human exposure to particulate matter and ozone will remain higher than recommended by the World Health Organization.
Carbonyl ligand Nomenclature and terminology Metal_carbonyls > Nomenclature and terminology The nomenclature of the metal carbonyls depends on the charge of the complex, the number and type of central atoms, and the number and type of ligands and their binding modes. They occur as neutral complexes, as positively-charged metal carbonyl cations or as negatively charged metal carbonylates. The carbon monoxide ligand may be bound terminally to a single metal atom or bridging to two or more metal atoms. These complexes may be homoleptic, containing only CO ligands, such as nickel tetracarbonyl (Ni(CO)4), but more commonly metal carbonyls are heteroleptic and contain a mixture of ligands.Mononuclear metal carbonyls contain only one metal atom as the central atom.
Old-age-security hypothesis Summary Old-age-security_hypothesis The old-age-security hypothesis is an economic hypothesis according to which parents view their children as a source of income and personal services in old age. Within the framework of this hypothesis, the demand for children is considered as the need to ensure a safe old age. As a consequence, increasing the profitability of alternative assets or introducing a universal public pension system reduces the demand for children.
ProgramByDesign Functional Programming, Computing and Design in Programming 101 ProgramByDesign > Functional Programming, Computing and Design in Programming 101 Along the process dimension students learn that there are six steps to designing a (simple) program, before they can run it and others can use it: Analysing problems with the goal of describing the classes of data that go into the program and come out; Reformulating the problem statement as a concise purpose statement Creating examples that illustrate the purpose statement and that serve as criteria for success; Organizing givens, also called a template or inventory Coding Creating a test suite from examples to ensure the program works properly on small inputs.As in test-driven development, test cases are written before coding, as part of requirements analysis, rather than afterward as part of testing. Almost any human endeavour can benefit from clearly understanding the problem, defining criteria for success, analyzing the available resources and givens, developing a proposed solution, and checking it against the criteria, in that order. For example, a journalist benefits from a similar process: figuring out the major concepts in a story; creating a headline; lining up examples and specific data; organizing the article about the story of the givens and how the story unfolded; writing; and fact checking.
Demyelinating disease Treatment Demyelinating_disease > Treatment Treatments are patient-specific and depend on the symptoms that present with the disorder, as well as the progression of the condition. Improvements to the patient's life may be accomplished through the management of symptoms or slowing of the rate of demyelination. Treatment can include medication, lifestyle changes (i.e. smoking cessation, increased rest, and dietary changes), counselling, relaxation, physical exercise, patient education, and in some cases, deep brain thalamic stimulation (to ameliorate tremors). : 227–248
Adrenergic blocking agent Alpha 1 blocker Adrenergic_blocking_agent > Medical Uses > Alpha 1 blocker The alpha blockers mostly act in our smooth muscles, especially the ones that control the size of vessels. Thus, alpha1 blockers can dilate blood vessels and decrease the blood pressure. Depending on its site of action, it can be used to treat different diseases. They can be used to treat signs and symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia, hypertension (but not as first line agent), pheochromocytoma, extravasation management and reversal of local anesthesia. There are some off- label use as well, such as chronic prostatitis and lower urinary tract symptoms in males, ureteral calculus expulsion, ureteral stent-related urinary symptoms. It can be used in post-traumatic stress disorder, Raynaud phenomenon, hypertensive crisis, Extravasation of sympathomimetic vasopressors, problem with urine related to neurogenic bladder, functional outlet obstruction and partial prostate obstruction.
Relativistic angular momentum tensor Angular momentum in general relativity Relativistic_angular_momentum > Angular momentum in general relativity One also wishes to study the effect of a compact, rotating mass on its surrounding spacetime. The prototype solution is of the Kerr metric, which describes the spacetime around an axially symmetric black hole. It is obviously impossible to draw a point on the event horizon of a Kerr black hole and watch it circle around. However, the solution does support a constant of the system that acts mathematically similarly to an angular momentum.
Exclosure Experimental sites Exclosure > Experimental sites One purpose of the exclosure is to determine how the area would develop (in biodiversity, vegetation height, ecological characteristics, etc.) if grazing were not conducted.
Rainbow table Precomputed hash chains Rainbow_table > Precomputed hash chains It is created once and then repeatedly used for the lookups unmodified. Increasing the length of the chain decreases the size of the table. However, it also increases the time required to perform lookups, and this is the time-memory trade-off of the rainbow table.
Probability density Summary Probability_density_function In other sources, "probability distribution function" may be used when the probability distribution is defined as a function over general sets of values or it may refer to the cumulative distribution function, or it may be a probability mass function (PMF) rather than the density. "Density function" itself is also used for the probability mass function, leading to further confusion. In general though, the PMF is used in the context of discrete random variables (random variables that take values on a countable set), while the PDF is used in the context of continuous random variables.
Circular RNA Other possible functions for circRNAs Circular_RNA > Plausible functions of circular RNA > Other possible functions for circRNAs Though recent attention has been focused on circRNA's "sponge" functions, scientists are considering several other functional possibilities as well. For example, some areas of the mouse adult hippocampus show expression of CiRS-7 but not miR-7, suggesting that CiRS-7 may have roles that are independent of interacting with the miRNA.Potential roles include the following: Binding to RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) and RNAs besides miRNAs to form RNA-protein complexes. These complexes could regulate RBP & RNA interactions with, for example, the canonical linear transcript of the gene or viral infection. Protein production Chen and Sarnow 1995 showed that a synthetic circRNA that contained an IRES (internal ribosome entry site) produced a protein product in vitro, whereas that without an IRES did not.
Push-down automaton PDA and Turing machines Pushdown_automaton > PDA and Turing machines A pushdown automaton is computationally equivalent to a 'restricted' Turing Machine (TM) with two tapes which is restricted in the following manner- On the first tape, the TM can only read the input and move from left to right (it cannot make changes). On the second tape, it can only 'push' and 'pop' data. Or equivalently, it can read, write and move left and right with the restriction that the only action it can perform at each step is to either delete the left-most character in the string (pop) or add an extra character left to the left-most character in the string (push). That a PDA is weaker than a TM can be brought down to the fact that the procedure 'pop' deletes some data.
Geometric class field theory Summary Geometric_class_field_theory In mathematics, geometric class field theory is an extension of class field theory to higher-dimensional geometrical objects: much the same way as class field theory describes the abelianization of the Galois group of a local or global field, geometric class field theory describes the abelianized fundamental group of higher dimensional schemes in terms of data related to algebraic cycles.
Particle mechanics Classical Mechanical_processes > Sub-disciplines > Classical The following are described as forming classical mechanics: Newtonian mechanics, the original theory of motion (kinematics) and forces (dynamics) Analytical mechanics is a reformulation of Newtonian mechanics with an emphasis on system energy, rather than on forces. There are two main branches of analytical mechanics: Hamiltonian mechanics, a theoretical formalism, based on the principle of conservation of energy Lagrangian mechanics, another theoretical formalism, based on the principle of the least action Classical statistical mechanics generalizes ordinary classical mechanics to consider systems in an unknown state; often used to derive thermodynamic properties. Celestial mechanics, the motion of bodies in space: planets, comets, stars, galaxies, etc. Astrodynamics, spacecraft navigation, etc. Solid mechanics, elasticity, plasticity, or viscoelasticity exhibited by deformable solids Fracture mechanics Acoustics, sound (density, variation, propagation) in solids, fluids and gases Statics, semi-rigid bodies in mechanical equilibrium Fluid mechanics, the motion of fluids Soil mechanics, mechanical behavior of soils Continuum mechanics, mechanics of continua (both solid and fluid) Hydraulics, mechanical properties of liquids Fluid statics, liquids in equilibrium Applied mechanics (also known as engineering mechanics) Biomechanics, solids, fluids, etc. in biology Biophysics, physical processes in living organisms Relativistic or Einsteinian mechanics
Chemical ecology Summary Chemical_ecology Chemical ecology is the study of chemically mediated interactions between living organisms, and the effects of those interactions on the demography, behavior and ultimately evolution of the organisms involved. It is thus a vast and highly interdisciplinary field. Chemical ecologists seek to identify the specific molecules (i.e. semiochemicals) that function as signals mediating community or ecosystem processes and to understand the evolution of these signals.
Logic of graphs Data compression and graph isomorphism Logic_of_graphs > First order > Data compression and graph isomorphism The logical length, analogously, is defined as the length of the shortest sentence describing the graph. The sentence described above has length proportional to the square of the number of vertices, but it is possible to define any graph by a sentence with length proportional to its number of edges.All trees, and most graphs, can be described by first-order sentences with only two variables, but extended by counting predicates. For graphs that can be described by sentences in this logic with a fixed constant number of variables, it is possible to find a graph canonization in polynomial time (with the exponent of the polynomial equal to the number of variables). By comparing canonizations, it is possible to solve the graph isomorphism problem for these graphs in polynomial time.
Hash Function Universality Hash_functions > Properties > Universality A universal hashing scheme is a randomized algorithm that selects a hashing function h among a family of such functions, in such a way that the probability of a collision of any two distinct keys is 1/m, where m is the number of distinct hash values desired—independently of the two keys. Universal hashing ensures (in a probabilistic sense) that the hash function application will behave as well as if it were using a random function, for any distribution of the input data. It will, however, have more collisions than perfect hashing and may require more operations than a special-purpose hash function.
Waste stabilization pond Anaerobic ponds Stabilization_pond > Types > Anaerobic ponds Anaerobic ponds receive raw wastewater. They have a smaller surface area compared to facultative ponds and are also deeper (usually 3.0 to 5.0 m). The depth decreases the influence of oxygen production by photosynthesis, leading to anaerobic conditions. Depending on loading and climatic conditions, these ponds are able to remove between half to two thirds of the influent BOD.
DNA re-replication Preventing rereplication DNA_re-replication > Preventing rereplication The DNA re-replication response is different from the response taken when damage is due to oxygen radical generation. Damage from oxygen radical generations leads to a response from the Myc oncogene, which phosphorylates p53 and H2AX.The ATM/ATR DNA damage network will also respond to cases where there is an overexpression of Cdt1. Overexpression of Cdt1 leads to accumulation of ssDNA and DSBs.
Transaction logic Dining philosophers Transaction_logic > Examples > Dining philosophers Here | is the logical connective of parallel conjunction of Concurrent Transaction Logic.
Memory-prediction framework The basic theory: recognition and prediction in bi-directional hierarchies Memory-prediction_framework > The basic theory: recognition and prediction in bi-directional hierarchies This process produces increased invariance at higher levels. Higher levels predict future input by matching partial sequences and projecting their expectations to the lower levels. However, when a mismatch between input and memorized/predicted sequences occurs, a more complete representation propagates upwards.
Kepler-1658b History Kepler-1658b > History Chontos announced it on 5 March at NASA’s Kepler & K2 science conference in Glendale, California, and published it on 29 April in The Astronomical Journal. The study described it as "the closest known planet in terms of orbital period to an evolved star" and an "insight into theories for hot Jupiter formation and migration." The planet was named Kepler-1658b, referring to the entry number in the Kepler Input Catalogue. After running out of fuel, the Kepler space telescope terminated in 2018, and the study was taken over by the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS).
Scientific education Guided-discovery approach Science_education > Pedagogy > Guided-discovery approach Along with John Dewey, Jerome Bruner, and many others, Arthur Koestler offers a critique of contemporary science education and proposes its replacement with the guided-discovery approach: To derive pleasure from the art of discovery, as from the other arts, the consumer—in this case the student—must be made to re-live, to some extent, the creative process. In other words, he must be induced, with proper aid and guidance, to make some of the fundamental discoveries of science by himself, to experience in his own mind some of those flashes of insight which have lightened its path. .
Glossary of chemistry terms E Glossary_of_chemistry_terms > E electron shell An orbital around the nucleus of an atom which contains a fixed number of electrons (usually two or eight). electronegativity (χ) A chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom to attract a shared pair of electrons (or electron density) towards itself. An atom's electronegativity is affected both by its nuclear charge (which is proportional to the number of protons in its nucleus) and the number and location of the electrons present in its atomic shells (which influences the distance of the nucleus from the valence electrons).
ProActive Active object basis ProActive > Active objects > Active object basis Active objects, on the other hand, are always passed by reference. Symmetrically, this also applies to objects returned from methods called on active objects. Thanks to the concepts of asynchronous calls, futures, and no data sharing, an application written with ProActive doesn't need any structural change—actually, hardly any change at all—whether it runs in a sequential, multi-threaded, or distributed environment.
Point mutation General consequences Point_mutations > General consequences Point mutations that occur in non-coding sequences are most often without consequences, although there are exceptions. If the mutated base pair is in the promoter sequence of a gene, then the expression of the gene may change. Also, if the mutation occurs in the splicing site of an intron, then this may interfere with correct splicing of the transcribed pre-mRNA. By altering just one amino acid, the entire peptide may change, thereby changing the entire protein.
Relativistic electromagnetism Redundancy Relativistic_electromagnetism > Redundancy Such a royal route to electromagnetic understanding may be lacking, but a path has been opened with differential geometry: The tangent space at an event in spacetime is a four-dimensional vector space, operable by linear transformations. Symmetries observed by electricians find expression in linear algebra and differential geometry. Using exterior algebra to construct a 2-form F from electric and magnetic fields, and the implied dual 2-form *F, the equations dF = 0 and d*F = J (current) express Maxwell's theory with a differential form approach.
Morpheus (The Matrix) The Matrix Resurrections Morpheus_(The_Matrix) > Character history > The Matrix Resurrections In the fourth film The Matrix Resurrections, a new version of Morpheus, originally a program subconsciously created by a suppressed Neo as part of a modal based upon his memories, is released by Bugs from the Matrix. Initially, Morpheus is an amalgamation of Neo's memories of Agent Smith and Morpheus. He retains the same purpose as Smith in The Matrix, serving as the lead Agent in a trio alongside Agents White and Jones. After Bugs infiltrates the modal and frees 'Smith', he assumes the identity of Morpheus and joins Bugs in working to find and free Neo from the Matrix once again.
Ginzburg criterion Example: Classical Heisenberg model Ginzburg_criterion > Example: Classical Heisenberg model In the classical Heisenberg model of magnetism, the order parameter has a higher symmetry, and it has violent directional fluctuations which are more important than the size fluctuations. They overtake to the Ginzburg temperature interval over which fluctuations modify the mean-field description thus replacing the criterion by another, more relevant one.
Linezolid Catheter-related infections Linezolid > Medical uses > Other > Catheter-related infections The difference was found to be due to the inferiority of linezolid in the treatment of Gram-negative infections alone or mixed Gram-negative/Gram-positive infections. In participants whose infection was due to Gram-positive bacteria alone, linezolid was as safe and effective as vancomycin. In light of these results, the FDA issued an alert reminding healthcare professionals that linezolid is not approved for the treatment of catheter-related infections or infections caused by Gram-negative organisms, and that more appropriate therapy should be instituted whenever a Gram-negative infection is confirmed or suspected.
Quadrature (mathematics) Integral calculus Quadrature_(mathematics) > History > Integral calculus John Wallis algebrised this method; he wrote in his Arithmetica Infinitorum (1656) some series which are equivalent to what is now called the definite integral, and he calculated their values. Isaac Barrow and James Gregory made further progress: quadratures for some algebraic curves and spirals. Christiaan Huygens successfully performed a quadrature of the surface area of some solids of revolution. The quadrature of the hyperbola by Saint-Vincent and de Sarasa provided a new function, the natural logarithm, of critical importance. With the invention of integral calculus came a universal method for area calculation. In response, the term quadrature has become traditional, and instead the modern phrase finding the area is more commonly used for what is technically the computation of a univariate definite integral.
Wing-shape optimization Traditional Wing-shape_optimization > Examples > Traditional An example of an optimization proof of concept was done in 2003 by Leoviriyakit using the Boeing 747-200. Using the variable list above, he optimized for only a single point – a lift coefficient of 0.42 and a speed of Mach 0.87, just above cruising. With just those few variables, he was able to realize a 12% decrease in drag and a 0.1% decrease in wing weight.
Habitable exomoon Atmosphere Habitability_of_natural_satellites > Presumed conditions > Atmosphere An atmosphere is considered by astrobiologists to be important in developing prebiotic chemistry, sustaining life and for surface water to exist. Most natural satellites in the Solar System lack significant atmospheres, the sole exception being Saturn's moon Titan.Sputtering, a process whereby atoms are ejected from a solid target material due to bombardment of the target by energetic particles, presents a significant problem for natural satellites. All the gas giants in the Solar System, and likely those orbiting other stars, have magnetospheres with radiation belts potent enough to completely erode an atmosphere of an Earth-like moon in just a few hundred million years. Strong stellar winds can also strip gas atoms from the top of an atmosphere causing them to be lost to space.
Lavr Proskouriakov Life and career Lavr_Proskouriakov > Life and career Proskouriakov's implementation of a static truss that featured subdivided panels and upward-angled top girders was later adopted and heavily utilized by numerous bridge engineers. One such engineer, Professor Nikolai Belelubsky, even borrowed this system (with minor modifications) when designing a railway bridge that spanned the Volga River in the vicinity of Sviyazhsk. Proskouriakov successfully developed a range of optimal span designs for different types of bridges.
Injection molded plastics Machining Injection_molded > Equipment > Machining Moulds are built through two main methods: standard machining and EDM. Standard machining, in its conventional form, has historically been the method of building injection moulds. With technological developments, CNC machining became the predominant means of making more complex moulds with more accurate mould details in less time than traditional methods.
First law of thermodynamics Adiabatic processes First_law_of_thermodynamics > Evidence for the first law of thermodynamics for closed systems > Adiabatic processes For the latter, another step of evidence is needed, which may be related to the concept of reversibility, as mentioned below. That important state variable was first recognized and denoted U {\displaystyle U} by Clausius in 1850, but he did not then name it, and he defined it in terms not only of work but also of heat transfer in the same process. It was also independently recognized in 1850 by Rankine, who also denoted it U {\displaystyle U} ; and in 1851 by Kelvin who then called it "mechanical energy", and later "intrinsic energy".
Factorial experiments Analysis example Factorial_design > Analysis > Analysis example Four factors are considered: temperature (A), pressure (B), formaldehyde concentration (C), and stirring rate (D). Each of the four factors will be tested at two levels.Onwards, the minus (−) and plus (+) signs will indicate whether the factor is run at a low or high level, respectively. The non-parallel lines in the A:C interaction plot indicate that the effect of factor A depends on the level of factor C. A similar results holds for the A:D interaction.
Feature hashing Implementations Feature_hashing > Implementations Implementations of the hashing trick are present in: Apache Mahout Gensim scikit-learn sofia-ml Vowpal Wabbit Apache Spark R TensorFlow Dask-ML
Top mounted intercooler Method of heat transfer Aftercooler > Internal combustion engines > Method of heat transfer The majority of marine engines use air-to-liquid intercoolers, since the water of the lake, river or sea can easily be accessed for cooling purposes. In addition, most marine engines are located in closed compartments where obtaining a good flow of cooling air for an air-to-air unit would be difficult. Marine intercoolers take the form of a tubular heat exchanger with the air passing around a series of tubes within the cooler casing, and sea water circulating inside the tubes. The main materials used for this kind of application are meant to resist sea water corrosion: Copper-Nickel for the tubes and bronze for the sea water covers.