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Underwater environment Artificial bodies of water Underwater_environment > Extent > Artificial bodies of water A reservoir is, most commonly, an enlarged natural or artificial lake, pond or impoundment created using a dam or lock to store water. Reservoirs can be created in a number of ways, including controlling a watercourse that drains an existing body of water, interrupting a watercourse to form an embayment within it, through excavation, or building retaining walls or levees. Canals are artificial waterways which may have dams and locks that create reservoirs of low speed current flow.
Isidor Isaac Rabi Education Isidor_Isaac_Rabi > Education Rabi found the answer in Ludwig Schlesinger's Einführung in die Theorie der Differentialgleichungen, which describes a method originally developed by Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi. The equation had the form of a hypergeometric equation to which Jacobi had found a solution. Kronig and Rabi wrote up their result and sent it to Physical Review, which published it in 1927.
Prepatellar bursitis Diagnosis Prepatellar_bursitis > Diagnosis 608 a threshold significantly lower than that of septic arthritis (50,000 cells per microliter). : p. 360 A tuberculosis infection can be confirmed using a radiograph of the knee and urinalysis.
Orbital station-keeping Geostationary orbit Orbital_station_keeping > Geostationary orbit Perturbation of the orbital period results from the imperfect rotational symmetry of the Earth relative the North/South axis, sometimes called the ellipticity of the Earth equator. The eccentricity (i.e. the eccentricity vector) is perturbed by the solar radiation pressure. The fuel needed for this East-West control is much less than what is needed for the North-South control.
Adjugate matrix 1 × 1 generic matrix Adjugate_matrix > Examples > 1 × 1 generic matrix Since the determinant of a 0 × 0 matrix is 1, the adjugate of any 1 × 1 matrix (complex scalar) is I = {\displaystyle \mathbf {I} ={\begin{bmatrix}1\end{bmatrix}}} . Observe that A adj ⁡ ( A ) = A I = ( det A ) I . {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} \operatorname {adj} (\mathbf {A} )=\mathbf {A} \mathbf {I} =(\det \mathbf {A} )\mathbf {I} .}
Water management Industries Fresh_water_resources > Water uses > Industries Water is used in renewable power generation. Hydroelectric power derives energy from the force of water flowing downhill, driving a turbine connected to a generator. This hydroelectricity is a low-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source.
Institute for Information Infrastructure Protection Information Sharing Institute_for_Information_Infrastructure_Protection > Research areas > 2011-2014 Research Projects > Information Sharing The preferred way to do this would be using a cloud, where numerous government agencies would all store information, and the information would be available to all who have the appropriate credentials. This model has tremendous added benefits – but what are the associated risks? Researchers from RAND and The University of Virginia took on the challenge of answering that question in our Information Sharing Project.
History of electromagnetic theory Early 19th century History_of_electromagnetic_theory > 19th century > Early 19th century George Green wrote An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism in 1828. The essay introduced several important concepts, among them a theorem similar to the modern Green's theorem, the idea of potential functions as currently used in physics, and the concept of what are now called Green's functions. George Green was the first person to create a mathematical theory of electricity and magnetism and his theory formed the foundation for the work of other scientists such as James Clerk Maxwell, William Thomson, and others.
Equilibrium chemistry Complexes of metals Equilibrium_chemistry > Complexes of metals The relationship between the two types of constant is given in association and dissociation constants. In biochemistry, an oxygen molecule can bind to an iron(II) atom in a heme prosthetic group in hemoglobin. The equilibrium is usually written, denoting hemoglobin by Hb, as Hb + O2 ⇌ HbO2but this representation is incomplete as the Bohr effect shows that the equilibrium concentrations are pH-dependent.
Mitochondrial trifunctional protein Hormonal influences Mitochondrial_trifunctional_protein > Hormonal influences Recent research has revealed that MTP can be affected by various hormones, via hormone receptors located in the mitochondria. Chochron et al. (2012) demonstrated that thyroid hormone stimulates mitochondrial metabolism in a pathway mediated by MTP. Zhou et al. (2012) used 2D gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry to identify MTP as one of the proteins that interacts with ER alpha, a receptor triggered by estrogen.
Personalized Onco-genomics Rationale Personalized_Onco-genomics > Rationale Subsequently, the origin cell's fast-growing progeny invade surrounding tissues, migrate to other tissues.In a typical tumour, several dozens of somatic mutations may be disrupting the normal function of proteins. The majority of somatic mutations are mere byproducts of the unstable cancer genome and do not enhance the tumour cell growth. Usually, between two and eight driver mutations, mutations that gives cancer cells growth advantages, are found amongst all the somatic mutations a tumour sample.
Invariant basis number Summary Invariant_basis_number In mathematics, more specifically in the field of ring theory, a ring has the invariant basis number (IBN) property if all finitely generated free left modules over R have a well-defined rank. In the case of fields, the IBN property becomes the statement that finite-dimensional vector spaces have a unique dimension.
Cuckoo hashing Example Cuckoo_hashing > Example The following hash functions are given: h ( k ) = k mod 1 1 {\displaystyle h\left(k\right)=k{\bmod {1}}1} h ′ ( k ) = ⌊ k 11 ⌋ mod 1 1 {\displaystyle h'\left(k\right)=\left\lfloor {\frac {k}{11}}\right\rfloor {\bmod {1}}1} The following two tables show the insertion of some example elements. Each column corresponds to the state of the two hash tables over time. The possible insertion locations for each new value are highlighted.
Hybrid Transactional/Analytical Processing (HTAP) HTAP advantages and challenges Hybrid_transactional/analytical_processing > HTAP advantages and challenges HTAP allows advanced analytics to be run in real time on "in flight" transaction data, providing an architecture that empowers users to respond more effectively to business moments.The main technical challenges for an HTAP database are how to be efficient both for operational (many small transactions with a high fraction of updates) and analytical workloads (large and complex queries traversing large number of rows) on the same database system and how to prevent the interference of the analytical queries over the operational workload. This kind of operational workload is also commonly referred to as Operational Analytical Processing. HTAP solves the issue of analytic latency in several ways, including eliminating the need for multiple copies of the same data and the requirement for data to be offloaded from operational databases to data warehouses via ETL processes.Most applications of HTAP are enabled by in-memory technologies that can process a high volume of transactions and offer features such as forecasting and simulations.
Endosymbiotic gene transfer Impact Endosymbiotic_gene_transfer > Ecology > Impact Ultimately, diatom cells in these resting populations re-enter the upper mixed layer when vertical mixing entrains them. In most circumstances, this mixing also replenishes nutrients in the upper mixed layer, setting the scene for the next round of diatom blooms. In the open ocean (away from areas of continuous upwelling), this cycle of bloom, bust, then return to pre-bloom conditions typically occurs over an annual cycle, with diatoms only being prevalent during the spring and early summer.
Compiler analysis Other optimizations Optimizing_compilers > Specific techniques > Other optimizations A "fewer jumps" optimization. The statements of imperative programming languages are also an example of such an optimization. Although statements could be implemented with function calls they are almost always implemented with code inlining.Jump threading In this optimization, consecutive conditional jumps predicated entirely or partially on the same condition are merged.
Leakage transformer Variometer and variocoupler Resonant_transformer > Other types > Variometer and variocoupler The pancake coil variometer was another common construction used in both 1920s receivers and transmitters. It consists of two flat spiral coils suspended vertically facing each other, hinged at one side so one could swing away from the other to an angle of 90° to reduce the coupling. The flat spiral design served to reduce parasitic capacitance and losses at radio frequencies.
Information ethics Security and privacy Digital_ethics > Security and privacy Circumstances that contribute to procedural fairness are providing the customer with the ability to voice their concerns or input, and control over the outcome of the contract. Best practice for any company collecting information from customers is to consider procedural fairness. This concept is a key proponent of ethical consumer marketing and is the basis of United States Privacy Laws, the European Union's privacy directive from 1995, and the Clinton Administration's June 1995 guidelines for personal information use by all National Information Infrastructure participants.
Archimedean Spiral Summary Arithmetic_spiral The Archimedean spiral (also known as the arithmetic spiral) is a spiral named after the 3rd-century BC Greek mathematician Archimedes. It is the locus corresponding to the locations over time of a point moving away from a fixed point with a constant speed along a line that rotates with constant angular velocity. Equivalently, in polar coordinates (r, θ) it can be described by the equation with real numbers a and b. Changing the parameter a moves the centerpoint of the spiral outward from the origin (positive a toward θ = 0 and negative a toward θ = π) essentially through a rotation of the spiral, while b controls the distance between loops.
Electromagnetic attack Signal processing Electromagnetic_attack > Background > Signal processing Sometimes, the attacker does not know which frequencies encryption is performed at. In this case, the trace can be represented as a spectrogram, which can help determine which frequencies are most prevalent at different points of execution. Depending on the device being attacked and the level of noise, several filters may need to be applied.
Hypotension Pathophysiology Low_blood_pressure > Pathophysiology Blood pressure is continuously regulated by the autonomic nervous system, using an elaborate network of receptors, nerves, and hormones to balance the effects of the sympathetic nervous system, which tends to raise blood pressure, and the parasympathetic nervous system, which lowers it. The vast and rapid compensation abilities of the autonomic nervous system allow normal individuals to maintain an acceptable blood pressure over a wide range of activities and in many disease states. Even small alterations in these networks can lead to hypotension.
Mean square error In regression Mean_squared_deviation > In regression This also is a known, computed quantity, and it varies by sample and by out-of-sample test space. In the context of gradient descent algorithms, it is common to introduce a factor of 1 / 2 {\displaystyle 1/2} to the MSE for ease of computation after taking the derivative. So a value which is technically half the mean of squared errors may be called the MSE.
Explicit parallelism Summary Explicit_parallelism The advantage of explicit parallel programming is the absolute programmer control over the parallel execution. A skilled parallel programmer takes advantage of explicit parallelism to produce very efficient code. However, programming with explicit parallelism is often difficult, especially for non computing specialists, because of the extra work involved in planning the task division and synchronization of concurrent processes. In some instances, explicit parallelism may be avoided with the use of an optimizing compiler that automatically extracts the parallelism inherent to computations (see implicit parallelism).
Inverted ligand field theory History Inverted_ligand_field_theory > History The first proposal of an inverted ligand field was done in a paper form 1995 by James Snyder. In this theoretical paper, Snyder proposed that the - complexes reported by Naumann et al. and assigned a formal oxidation state of 3+ at the copper would be better thought of as Cu(I). By comparing the d-orbital occupation, calculated charges and orbital population of - "Cu(III)" complex and the formally Cu(I) - complex, they illustrated how the former could be better described as a d10 copper complex experiencing two electron donation from the CF3- ligands. The phenomenon, termed an inverted ligand field by Roald Hoffman, began to be described by Aullón and Alvarez as they identified this phenonmenon as being a result of relative electronegativities.
Acute stress disorder Diagnostic criteria Acute_stress_disorder > Diagnostic criteria According to the DSM-V, acute stress disorder requires the exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violation by either directly experiencing it, witnessing it in person, learning it occurred to a close family or friend, or experiencing repeated exposure to aversive details of a traumatic event. In addition to the initial exposure, individuals may also present with a variety of different symptoms that fall within several clusters including intrusion, negative mood, dissociation, avoidance of distressing memories and emotional arousal. Intrusion symptoms include recurring and distressing dreams, flashbacks, or memories related to the traumatic event and related somatic symptoms. Negative mood refers to ones inability to experience positive emotions such as happiness or satisfaction.
Iron law of prohibition Derivation Iron_law_of_prohibition > Derivation As such, ϵ H L > 0 {\displaystyle \epsilon _{HL}>0} and ϵ L H > 0 {\displaystyle \epsilon _{LH}>0} , implying that But, this contradicts the assumption that p H > p L {\displaystyle p_{H}>p_{L}} . Thus, we conclude that ∂ ∂ τ ( x H x L ) > 0 {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial }{\partial \tau }}\left({\frac {x_{H}}{x_{L}}}\right)>0} . This implies that as the transport costs increase, the higher quality good will become more prevalent than the lower quality good. In the drug-specific context, as costs associated with drug enforcement increase, the more potent drug will become more prevalent in the illegal drug market.
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons Bonding and aromaticity Polyaromatic_hydrocarbons > Bonding and aromaticity This difference in number of sextets is reflected in the differing ultraviolet–visible spectra of these two isomers, as higher Clar pi-sextets are associated with larger HOMO-LUMO gaps; the highest-wavelength absorbance of phenanthrene is at 293 nm, while anthracene is at 374 nm. Three Clar structures with two sextets each are present in the four-ring chrysene structure: one having sextets in the first and third rings, one in the second and fourth rings, and one in the first and fourth rings. Superposition of these structures reveals that the aromaticity in the outer rings is greater (each has a sextet in two of the three Clar structures) compared to the inner rings (each has a sextet in only one of the three).
Straight lines Projective geometry Equation_of_a_line > Generalizations of the Euclidean line > Projective geometry In many models of projective geometry, the representation of a line rarely conforms to the notion of the "straight curve" as it is visualised in Euclidean geometry. In elliptic geometry we see a typical example of this. : 108 In the spherical representation of elliptic geometry, lines are represented by great circles of a sphere with diametrically opposite points identified.
Relational Model Application to databases Relational_data_model > Topics > Application to databases A data type as used in a typical relational database might be the set of integers, the set of character strings, the set of dates, or the two boolean values true and false, and so on. The corresponding type names for these types might be the strings "int", "char", "date", "boolean", etc. It is important to understand, though, that relational theory does not dictate what types are to be supported; indeed, nowadays provisions are expected to be available for user-defined types in addition to the built-in ones provided by the system. Attribute is the term used in the theory for what is commonly referred to as a column. Similarly, table is commonly used in place of the theoretical term relation (though in SQL the term is by no means synonymous with relation).
HIV/AIDS Prognosis HIV/AIDS > Prognosis The rate of clinical disease progression varies widely between individuals and has been shown to be affected by a number of factors such as a person's susceptibility and immune function; their access to health care, the presence of co-infections; and the particular strain (or strains) of the virus involved.Tuberculosis co-infection is one of the leading causes of sickness and death in those with HIV/AIDS being present in a third of all HIV-infected people and causing 25% of HIV-related deaths. HIV is also one of the most important risk factors for tuberculosis. Hepatitis C is another very common co-infection where each disease increases the progression of the other.
Protein evolution The driving forces of evolution Protein_evolution > The driving forces of evolution Depending on the relative importance assigned to the various forces of evolution, three perspectives provide evolutionary explanations for molecular evolution.Selectionist hypotheses argue that selection is the driving force of molecular evolution. While acknowledging that many mutations are neutral, selectionists attribute changes in the frequencies of neutral alleles to linkage disequilibrium with other loci that are under selection, rather than to random genetic drift. Biases in codon usage are usually explained with reference to the ability of even weak selection to shape molecular evolution.Neutralist hypotheses emphasize the importance of mutation, purifying selection, and random genetic drift. The introduction of the neutral theory by Kimura, quickly followed by King and Jukes' own findings, led to a fierce debate about the relevance of neodarwinism at the molecular level.
Heterothallism Life cycle of Neurospora crassa Heterothallism > Life cycle of Neurospora crassa After fusion of the cells, the further fusion of their nuclei is delayed. Instead, a nucleus from the fertilizing cell and a nucleus from the ascogonium become associated and begin to divide synchronously. The products of these nuclear divisions (still in pairs of unlike mating type, i.e. ‘A’ / ‘a’) migrate into numerous ascogenous hyphae, which then begin to grow out of the ascogonium.
Classical test theory Shortcomings Classical_test_theory > Shortcomings A third shortcoming involves the standard error of measurement. The problem here is that, according to classical test theory, the standard error of measurement is assumed to be the same for all examinees. However, as Hambleton explains in his book, scores on any test are unequally precise measures for examinees of different ability, thus making the assumption of equal errors of measurement for all examinees implausible (Hambleton, Swaminathan, Rogers, 1991, p.
Root mean square AC voltage Transmission, distribution, and domestic power supply AC_voltage > Transmission, distribution, and domestic power supply Small power tools and lighting are supposed to be supplied by a local center-tapped transformer with a voltage of 55 V between each power conductor and earth. This significantly reduces the risk of electric shock in the event that one of the live conductors becomes exposed through an equipment fault whilst still allowing a reasonable voltage of 110 V between the two conductors for running the tools. A third wire, called the bond (or earth) wire, is often connected between non-current-carrying metal enclosures and earth ground.
Periodic Videos Content Periodic_Videos > Content Some of the most popular videos are those of sodium, potassium, and uranium. The Periodic Table of Videos team has also performed live. Their first performance was in May 2009 at the Broadway Media Centre in Nottingham; in July 2010 they performed at the EuroScience Open Forum (ESOF) in Turin, Italy.
Formal manifold Summary Formal_manifold In geometry and topology, a formal manifold can mean one of a number of related concepts: In the sense of Dennis Sullivan, a formal manifold is one whose real homotopy type is a formal consequence of its real cohomology ring; algebro-topologically this means in particular that all Massey products vanish. A stronger notion is a geometrically formal manifold, a manifold on which all wedge products of harmonic forms are harmonic. == References ==
Beryl May Dent Reduced major axis regression Beryl_May_Dent > Legacy > Reduced major axis regression However, by treating the probability of the errors in terms of Gaussian error functions, she contended that this expression may be regarded as "a function of the unknown quantities", or the likelihood function of the data distribution. : 106 Furthermore, she argued that maximising this function to obtain the maximum likelihood estimation,: 5 subject to the condition that the points are collinear, will give the parameters for the line of best fit. She then deduced formulae for the errors in estimating the centroid and the line inclination when the data consists of a single (unrepeated) observation.
Constant elasticity of substitution Summary Constant_elasticity_of_substitution The vital economic element of the measure is that it provided the producer a clear picture of how to move between different modes or types of production. Specifically, it arises in a particular type of aggregator function which combines two or more types of consumption goods, or two or more types of production inputs into an aggregate quantity. This aggregator function exhibits constant elasticity of substitution.
Branched DNA Method Branched_DNA > Method A branched DNA assay begins with a dish or some other solid support (e.g., a plastic dipstick). The dish is peppered with small, single stranded DNA molecules (or chains) that stick out into the solution. These are known as capture probe DNA molecules. Next, an extender DNA molecule is added.
Stress analysis Differential formulation Stress_analysis > Mathematical methods > Differential formulation The external body forces will appear as the independent ("right-hand side") term in the differential equations, while the concentrated forces appear as boundary conditions. An external (applied) surface force, such as ambient pressure or friction, can be incorporated as an imposed value of the stress tensor across that surface. External forces that are specified as line loads (such as traction) or point loads (such as the weight of a person standing on a roof) introduce singularities in the stress field, and may be introduced by assuming that they are spread over small volume or surface area. The basic stress analysis problem is therefore a boundary-value problem.
Philopatry Speciation Philopatry > Natal philopatry > Consequences of philopatry > Speciation Small mutational changes in non-nuclear DNA that become fixed in small populations are likely to be the major driver of speciation. That there is minimal structural morphological difference between the genetically distinct populations is evidence for random genetic drift, rather than directional evolution due to natural selective pressure.Speciation through natal philopatry is a self-reinforcing process. Once genetic differences are sufficient, different species may be unable to interbreed to produce viable offspring. As a result, breeding could not occur anywhere except natal island, strengthening philopatry and ultimately leading to even greater genetic divergence.
Air conditioner inverter Miscellaneous Air_conditioner_inverter > Applications > Miscellaneous Typical applications for power inverters include: Portable consumer devices that allow the user to connect a battery, or set of batteries, to the device to produce AC power to run various electrical items such as lights, televisions, kitchen appliances, and power tools. Use in power generation systems such as electric utility companies or solar generating systems to convert DC power to AC power. Use within any larger electronic system where an engineering need exists for deriving an AC source from a DC source. Frequency conversion - if a user in (say) a 50 Hz country needs a 60 Hz supply to power equipment that is frequency-specific, such as a small motor or some electronics, it is possible to convert the frequency by running an inverter with a 60 Hz output from a DC source such as a 12V power supply running from the 50 Hz mains.
Hypovolemic shock Gastrointestinal Hypovolemic_shock > Cause > Fluid loss > Gastrointestinal Gastrointestinal (GI) losses can occur via many different etiologies. The gastrointestinal tract usually secretes between 3 and 6 liters of fluid per day. However, most of this fluid is reabsorbed as only 100 to 200 mL are lost in the stool. Volume depletion occurs when the fluid ordinarily secreted by the GI tract cannot be reabsorbed. This occurs when there is retractable vomiting, diarrhea, or external drainage via stoma or fistulas.
Computable analysis Analogy between general topology and computability theory Computable_analysis > Analogy between general topology and computability theory One of the basic results of computable analysis is that every computable function from R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } to R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } is continuous. Taking this further, this suggests that there is an analogy between basic notions in topology and basic notions in computability: Computable functions are analogous to continuous functions. Semidecidable sets are analogous to open sets. Co-semidecidable sets are analogous to closed sets.
Directed complete partial order Continuous functions and fixed-points Directed_complete_partial_order > Continuous functions and fixed-points A function f between two dcpos P and Q is called (Scott) continuous if it maps directed sets to directed sets while preserving their suprema: f ( D ) ⊆ Q {\displaystyle f(D)\subseteq Q} is directed for every directed D ⊆ P {\displaystyle D\subseteq P} . f ( sup D ) = sup f ( D ) {\displaystyle f(\sup D)=\sup f(D)} for every directed D ⊆ P {\displaystyle D\subseteq P} .Note that every continuous function between dcpos is a monotone function. This notion of continuity is equivalent to the topological continuity induced by the Scott topology.
Fatty liver Pathology Fatty_liver_disease > Pathology Progression to alcoholic steatohepatitis (ASH) or non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) depends on the persistence or severity of the inciting cause. Pathological lesions in both conditions are similar. However, the extent of inflammatory response varies widely and does not always correlate with degree of fat accumulation.
Traian Lalescu Work Traian_Lalescu > Work T. Lalesco, Introduction à la théorie des équations intégrales. Avec une préface de É. Picard, Paris: A. Hermann et Fils, 1912. VII + 152 pp. JFM entry Traian Lalescu, Introducere la teoria ecuaţiilor integrale, Editura Academiei Republicii Populare Romîne, 1956.
Cloud computing security Integrity Cloud_Security > Data security > Integrity Further, when a portion of the outsourced data is corrupted or lost, it can still be retrieved by the data users. Effective integrity security controls go beyond protection from malicious actors and protect data from unintentional alterations as well. An example of security control that covers integrity is automated backups of information.
Consumer behaviour Perception Consumer_behaviour > Influences on purchase decision > Internal influences on purchase decision > Perception The way that consumers combine information inputs to arrive at a purchase decision is known as integration.Marketers are interested in consumer perceptions of brands, packaging, product formulations, labeling, and pricing. Of special interest is the threshold of perception (also known as the just noticeable difference) in a stimulus. For example, how much should a marketer lower a price before consumers recognise it as a bargain?
Minimax strategy Example Game_value > Combinatorial game theory > Example Once again, the values are assigned to each parent node. The algorithm continues evaluating the maximum and minimum values of the child nodes alternately until it reaches the root node, where it chooses the move with the largest value (represented in the figure with a blue arrow). This is the move that the player should make in order to minimize the maximum possible loss.
Privacy and blockchain Summary Privacy_and_blockchain Blockchain technology secures and authenticates transactions and data through cryptography. With the rise and widespread adoption of technology, data breaches have become frequent. User information and data are often stored, mishandled, and misused, causing a threat to personal privacy. Advocates argue for the widespread adoption of blockchain technology because of its ability to increase user privacy, data protection, and data ownership.
Calculus (medicine) Etymology Calculus_(medicine) > Etymology The word comes from Latin calculus "small stone", from calx "limestone, lime", probably related to Greek χάλιξ chalix "small stone, pebble, rubble", which many trace to a Proto-Indo-European root for "split, break up". Calculus was a term used for various kinds of stones. In the 18th century it came to be used for accidental or incidental mineral buildups in human and animal bodies, like kidney stones and minerals on teeth.
Informetrics Basic Laws Informetrics > Basic Laws In the field of informetrics research, there are many outstanding contributors in the discipline with a solid knowledge of quantitative research methods. In the early 20th century, several scientists contributed empirical applications that have become the three basic laws of informetrics, Bradford's law, Lotka's law, and Zipf's law, which promote the development of informetrics.
Insulin signal transduction pathway and regulation of blood glucose Regulation of the insulin receptor signal Insulin_signal_transduction_pathway_and_regulation_of_blood_glucose > Transduction pathway > Regulation of the insulin receptor signal In the PI-3K heterodimer (P85-p110), P85 is responsible for the PI-3K activity, by binding to the binding site on the insulin receptor substrates (IRS). It was noted that an increase of P85 a (isoform of P85) results in a competition between the later and the P85-P110 complex to the IRS binding site, reducing the PI-3k activity and leading to insulin resistance. Insulin resistance refers also to Type 2 diabetes. It was also noted that increased serine phosphorylation of IRS is involved in the insulin resistance by reducing their ability to attract PI3K. The serine phosphorylation can also lead to degradation of IRS-1.
Catalytic activity Reaction energetics Catalytic_reaction > General principles > Reaction energetics Then, removing the catalyst would also result in a reaction, producing energy; i.e. the addition and its reverse process, removal, would both produce energy. Thus, a catalyst that could change the equilibrium would be a perpetual motion machine, a contradiction to the laws of thermodynamics. Thus, catalysts do not alter the equilibrium constant.
Hashcat Summary Hashcat Hashcat is a password recovery tool. It had a proprietary code base until 2015, but was then released as open source software. Versions are available for Linux, macOS, and Windows. Examples of hashcat-supported hashing algorithms are LM hashes, MD4, MD5, SHA-family and Unix Crypt formats as well as algorithms used in MySQL and Cisco PIX.
Tumor suppressor protein Functions Tumor_suppressor_genes > Functions Proteins that induce apoptosis. If damage cannot be repaired, the cell initiates programmed cell death to remove the threat it poses to the organism as a whole. (e.g., p53).
Normalised data Objectives Normalised_data > Objectives Specifically, the relation provides conflicting answers to the question of what this particular employee's address is. Deletion anomaly. Under certain circumstances, the deletion of data representing certain facts necessitates the deletion of data representing completely different facts. The "Faculty and Their Courses" relation described in the previous example suffers from this type of anomaly, for if a faculty member temporarily ceases to be assigned to any courses, the last of the records on which that faculty member appears must be deleted, effectively also deleting the faculty member, unless the Course Code field is set to null.
Number Theory Computational number theory Number_Theory > Other subfields > Computational number theory We now know fast algorithms for testing primality, but, in spite of much work (both theoretical and practical), no truly fast algorithm for factoring. The difficulty of a computation can be useful: modern protocols for encrypting messages (for example, RSA) depend on functions that are known to all, but whose inverses are known only to a chosen few, and would take one too long a time to figure out on one's own. For example, these functions can be such that their inverses can be computed only if certain large integers are factorized.
Basement membrane Summary Basement_membrane The basement membrane, also known as base membrane is a thin, pliable sheet-like type of extracellular matrix that provides cell and tissue support and acts as a platform for complex signalling. The basement membrane sits between epithelial tissues including mesothelium and endothelium, and the underlying connective tissue.
Greenhouse Heating Greenhouse > Theory of operation > Heating Most greenhouses, when supplemental heat is needed use natural gas or electric furnaces. Passive heating methods exist which seek heat using low energy input. Solar energy can be captured from periods of relative abundance (day time/summer), and released to boost the temperature during cooler periods (night time/winter). Waste heat from livestock can also be used to heat greenhouses, e.g., placing a chicken coop inside a greenhouse recovers the heat generated by the chickens, which would otherwise be wasted. Some greenhouses also rely on geothermal heating.
Reward power Negative Legitimate_power > Bases of power > Referent power > Negative It depends on respecting, liking, and holding another individual in high esteem. It usually develops over a long period of time.The power of holding the ability to administer to another a sense of personal acceptance or personal approval. This type of power is strong enough that the power-holder is often looked up to as a role model.
214 (number) In other fields 214_(number) > In other fields 214 is a song by Rivermaya. 214 Aschera is a Main belt asteroid. E214 is the E number of Ethylparaben. The Bell 214 is a helicopter.
Power rail Model railways Third_rail > Model railways These are typically powered by direct current (DC) where the voltage and polarity of the current controls the speed and direction of the DC motor in the train. A growing exception is Digital Command Control (DCC), where bi-polar DC is delivered to the rails at a constant voltage, along with digital signals that are decoded within the locomotive. The bi-polar DC carries digital information to indicate the command and the locomotive that is being commanded, even when multiple locomotives are present on the same track. The aforementioned Lionel O-Gauge system remains popular today as well with its three rail track and AC power implementation. Some model railroads realistically mimic the third rail configurations of their full-sized counterparts although nearly all do not draw power from the third rail.
Scapegoat tree Lookup Scapegoat_tree > Operations > Lookup Lookup is not modified from a standard binary search tree, and has a worst-case time of O ( log ⁡ n ) {\displaystyle O(\log n)} . This is in contrast to splay trees which have a worst-case time of O ( n ) {\displaystyle O(n)} . The reduced node memory overhead compared to other self-balancing binary search trees can further improve locality of reference and caching.
Coefficient of restitution Equations Restitution_coefficient > Equations In the case of a one-dimensional collision involving two objects, object A and object B, the coefficient of restitution is given by: where: v a {\displaystyle v_{\text{a}}} is the final speed of object A after impact v b {\displaystyle v_{\text{b}}} is the final speed of object B after impact u a {\displaystyle u_{\text{a}}} is the initial speed of object A before impact u b {\displaystyle u_{\text{b}}} is the initial speed of object B before impactThough C R {\displaystyle C_{R}} does not explicitly depend on the masses of the objects, it is important to note that the final velocities are mass-dependent. For two- and three-dimensional collisions of rigid bodies, the velocities used are the components perpendicular to the tangent line/plane at the point of contact, i.e. along the line of impact. For an object bouncing off a stationary target, C R {\displaystyle C_{R}} is defined as the ratio of the object's speed after the impact to that prior to impact: where v {\displaystyle v} is the speed of the object after impact u {\displaystyle u} is the speed of the object before impactIn a case where frictional forces can be neglected and the object is dropped from rest onto a horizontal surface, this is equivalent to: where h {\displaystyle h} is the bounce height H {\displaystyle H} is the drop heightThe coefficient of restitution can be thought of as a measure of the extent to which mechanical energy is conserved when an object bounces off a surface. In the case of an object bouncing off a stationary target, the change in gravitational potential energy, Ep, during the course of the impact is essentially zero; thus, C R {\displaystyle C_{R}} is a comparison between the kinetic energy, Ek, of the object immediately before impact with that immediately after impact: In a cases where frictional forces can be neglected (nearly every student laboratory on this subject), and the object is dropped from rest onto a horizontal surface, the above is equivalent to a comparison between the Ep of the object at the drop height with that at the bounce height. In this case, the change in Ek is zero (the object is essentially at rest during the course of the impact and is also at rest at the apex of the bounce); thus:
Photomagneton Summary Photomagneton The photomagneton is a theoretical treatment of the unitary group in quantum field theory and quantum chemistry that effectively describes the experimentally observed inverse Faraday effect. When circularly polarized light travels through a plasma, the angular momentum associated to the circular motion of the photons induces an angular momentum in the electrons of the plasma. This angular momentum induces an associated magnetic field. Exactly how this happens remains a subject of debate. For instance, if the so-called ghost field does not contribute to the free electromagnetic energy density in the plasma, then the electron must couple to something like a complex electric field. However, if the field induces a finite magnetic field in the absence of matter, then the implication may be a finite photon rest mass.
Base-pair substitution Functional categorization Nucleotide_substitution > Categorization > Functional categorization Most proteins can withstand one or two point mutations before their function changes. Non-conservative mutations result in an amino acid change that has different properties than the wild type. The protein may lose its function, which can result in a disease in the organism.
Free fall Uniform gravitational field with air resistance Free_fall > Free fall in Newtonian mechanics > Uniform gravitational field with air resistance This case, which applies to skydivers, parachutists or any body of mass, m {\displaystyle m} , and cross-sectional area, A {\displaystyle A} , with Reynolds number well above the critical Reynolds number, so that the air resistance is proportional to the square of the fall velocity, v {\displaystyle v} , has an equation of motion m d v d t = m g − 1 2 ρ C D A v 2 , {\displaystyle m{\frac {\mathrm {d} v}{\mathrm {d} t}}=mg-{\frac {1}{2}}\rho C_{\mathrm {D} }Av^{2}\,,} where ρ {\displaystyle \rho } is the air density and C D {\displaystyle C_{\mathrm {D} }} is the drag coefficient, assumed to be constant although in general it will depend on the Reynolds number. Assuming an object falling from rest and no change in air density with altitude, the solution is: v ( t ) = v ∞ tanh ⁡ ( g t v ∞ ) , {\displaystyle v(t)=v_{\infty }\tanh \left({\frac {gt}{v_{\infty }}}\right),} where the terminal speed is given by v ∞ = 2 m g ρ C D A . {\displaystyle v_{\infty }={\sqrt {\frac {2mg}{\rho C_{D}A}}}\,.} The object's speed versus time can be integrated over time to find the vertical position as a function of time: y = y 0 − v ∞ 2 g ln ⁡ cosh ⁡ ( g t v ∞ ) .
Renin/angiotensin system Cardiovascular effects Renin_angiotensin_system > Cardiovascular effects Angiotensin II decreases medullary blood flow through the vasa recta. This decreases the washout of NaCl and urea in the kidney medullary space. Thus, higher concentrations of NaCl and urea in the medulla facilitate increased absorption of tubular fluid.
List of model organisms Prokaryotes List_of_model_organisms > Prokaryotes This order is known for its easy updake of genetic tools as well as resistance to culture contamination. Thermococcus kodakarensis, Pyrococcus abyssi, and Pyrococcus furiosus are the Thermococcales models. This order is known for its unique metabolic pathways. Three members of Sulfolobus, S. solfataricus PBL2025, S. islandicus E322S, and S. acidocaldarius are the current Sulfolobales models. Proteins from these thermophilic bacteria are easy to crystalize, simplifying structural work.
Signal transduction pathway Cellular responses Signal_cascade > Cellular responses Gene activations and metabolism alterations are examples of cellular responses to extracellular stimulation that require signal transduction. Gene activation leads to further cellular effects, since the products of responding genes include instigators of activation; transcription factors produced as a result of a signal transduction cascade can activate even more genes. Hence, an initial stimulus can trigger the expression of a large number of genes, leading to physiological events like the increased uptake of glucose from the blood stream and the migration of neutrophils to sites of infection. The set of genes and their activation order to certain stimuli is referred to as a genetic program.Mammalian cells require stimulation for cell division and survival; in the absence of growth factor, apoptosis ensues.
Singular chain complex Cohomology Singular_chain > Cohomology By dualizing the homology chain complex (i.e. applying the functor Hom(-, R), R being any ring) we obtain a cochain complex with coboundary map δ {\displaystyle \delta } . The cohomology groups of X are defined as the homology groups of this complex; in a quip, "cohomology is the homology of the co ". The cohomology groups have a richer, or at least more familiar, algebraic structure than the homology groups. Firstly, they form a differential graded algebra as follows: the graded set of groups form a graded R-module; this can be given the structure of a graded R-algebra using the cup product; the Bockstein homomorphism β gives a differential.There are additional cohomology operations, and the cohomology algebra has addition structure mod p (as before, the mod p cohomology is the cohomology of the mod p cochain complex, not the mod p reduction of the cohomology), notably the Steenrod algebra structure.
Strain rate Simple deformations Strain_rate > Definition > Simple deformations In simple contexts, a single number may suffice to describe the strain, and therefore the strain rate. For example, when a long and uniform rubber band is gradually stretched by pulling at the ends, the strain can be defined as the ratio ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } between the amount of stretching and the original length of the band: ϵ ( t ) = L ( t ) − L 0 L 0 {\displaystyle \epsilon (t)={\frac {L(t)-L_{0}}{L_{0}}}} where L 0 {\displaystyle L_{0}} is the original length and L ( t ) {\displaystyle L(t)} its length at each time t {\displaystyle t} . Then the strain rate will be ϵ ˙ ( t ) = d ϵ d t = d d t ( L ( t ) − L 0 L 0 ) = 1 L 0 d L ( t ) d t = v ( t ) L 0 {\displaystyle {\dot {\epsilon }}(t)={\frac {d\epsilon }{dt}}={\frac {d}{dt}}\left({\frac {L(t)-L_{0}}{L_{0}}}\right)={\frac {1}{L_{0}}}{\frac {dL(t)}{dt}}={\frac {v(t)}{L_{0}}}} where v ( t ) {\displaystyle v(t)} is the speed at which the ends are moving away from each other. The strain rate can also be expressed by a single number when the material is being subjected to parallel shear without change of volume; namely, when the deformation can be described as a set of infinitesimally thin parallel layers sliding against each other as if they were rigid sheets, in the same direction, without changing their spacing.
Bayesian methods Elementary Bayesian_analysis > Further reading > Elementary The following books are listed in ascending order of probabilistic sophistication: Stone, JV (2013), "Bayes' Rule: A Tutorial Introduction to Bayesian Analysis", Download first chapter here, Sebtel Press, England. Dennis V. Lindley (2013). Understanding Uncertainty, Revised Edition (2nd ed.). John Wiley.
Krippendorff's Alpha Coefficients incompatible with alpha and the reliability of coding Krippendorff's_Alpha > Coefficients incompatible with alpha and the reliability of coding The baseline of Bennett, Alpert, and Goldstein's S is defined in terms of the number of values available for coding, which has little to do with how values are actually used. Goodman and Kruskal's lambdar is defined to vary between –1 and +1, leaving 0 without a particular reliability interpretation. Lin's reproducibility or concordance coefficient rc takes Pearson's product moment correlation rij as a measure of precision and adds to it a measure Cb of accuracy, ostensively to correct for rij's above mentioned inadequacy.
Cryptocat Encryption Cryptocat > Architecture > Encryption Cryptocat's goal is for its messages to obtain confidentiality, integrity, source authenticity, forward and future secrecy and indistinguishability even over a network controlled by an active attacker. The forward secrecy features of the protocol that Cryptocat uses are similar to those first introduced by Off-the-Record Messaging. Cryptocat uses the Advanced Encryption Standard in Galois/Counter Mode for authenticated encryption, Curve25519 for Elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman shared secret agreement, HMAC-SHA256 for key derivation and Ed25519 for signing. In order to limit the effect of a long-term identity key compromise, long-term keys are used exclusively once for the initial Authenticated Key Exchange, and once for signing a newly generated intermediate-term signed pre-key. For the transport layer, Cryptocat adopts the OMEMO Multi-End Message and Object Encryption standard, which also gives Cryptocat multi-device support and allows for offline messaging.
Two state system Significance and other examples Two-state_quantum_system > Significance and other examples Phenomena with tremendous industrial applications such as the maser and laser can be explained using the two-state formalism. The two-state formalism also forms the basis of quantum computing. Qubits, which are the building blocks of a quantum computer, are nothing but two-state systems. Any quantum computational operation is a unitary operation that rotates the state vector on the Bloch sphere.
Universal computation Summary Turing_Machines Then, based on the symbol and the machine's own present state, the machine writes a symbol into the same cell, and moves the head one step to the left or the right, or halts the computation. The choice of which replacement symbol to write, which direction to move the head, and whether to halt is based on a finite table that specifies what to do for each combination of the current state and the symbol that is read. Like a real computer program, it is possible for a Turing machine to go into an infinite loop which will never halt.
Distance sampling Assumptions and sources of bias Distance_sampling > Assumptions and sources of bias Since distance sampling is a comparatively complex survey method, the reliability of model results depends on meeting a number of basic assumptions. The most fundamental ones are listed below. Data derived from surveys that violate one or more of these assumptions can frequently, but not always, be corrected to some extent before or during analysis.
Atrial septal defect Evaluation prior to correction Atrial_septal_defect > Treatment > Atrial septal defect > Evaluation prior to correction However, individuals with a PVR greater than 15 wood units have increased mortality associated with closure of the ASD.If the pulmonary arterial pressure is more than two-thirds of the systemic systolic pressure, a net left-to-right shunt should occur at least 1.5:1 or evidence of reversibility of the shunt when given pulmonary artery vasodilators prior to surgery. (If Eisenmenger's physiology has set in, the right-to-left shunt must be shown to be reversible with pulmonary artery vasodilators prior to surgery. )Surgical mortality due to closure of an ASD is lowest when the procedure is performed prior to the development of significant pulmonary hypertension.
Rate of response Summary Rate_of_response In behaviorism, rate of response is a ratio between two measurements with different units. Rate of responding is the number of responses per minute, or some other time unit. It is usually written as R. Its first major exponent was B.F. Skinner (1939). It is used in the Matching Law. R = # of Responses/Unit of time = B/t
Fusion reaction Thermonuclear fusion Fusion_reaction > Artificial fusion > Thermonuclear fusion The other effect is quantum tunnelling. The nuclei do not actually have to have enough energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier completely.
The Zero Theorem Plot The_Zero_Theorem > Plot He requests permission to work from home, saying he would be more productive and mentioning his call, which he says he hopes will provide his life with a purpose. Management at first calls Qohen "insane" but later says he has a special project for Qohen that he thinks might prove mutually beneficial. The project is the "Zero Theorem", an extremely complex mathematical formula with a reputation for quickly exhausting or killing anyone who tries to solve it.
Sacred art Geometry Sacred_art > Islamic art > Geometry Geometric designs frequently coexist with calligraphic decoration. Circles and interlaced circles, squares or four-sided polygons are the typical star pattern resulting from squares and triangles inscribed in a circle. Multi-sided polygons are the four fundamental shapes or “repeat units” from which the more complex patterns are built.
Contract Bridge Overview Contract_Bridge > Gameplay > Overview If a partnership takes at least that many tricks, they receive points for the round; otherwise, they lose penalty points. Bridge extends the concept of bidding into an auction, where partnerships compete to take a contract, specifying how many tricks they will need to take in order to receive points, and also specifying the trump suit (or no trump, meaning that there will be no trump suit). Players take turns to call in a clockwise order: each player in turn either passes, doubles – which increases the penalties for not making the contract specified by the opposing partnership's last bid, but also increases the reward for making it – or redoubles, or states a contract that their partnership will adopt, which must be higher than the previous highest bid (if any).
Avoided crossing Emergence Avoided_crossing > In two-state systems > Emergence Study of a two-level system is of vital importance in quantum mechanics because it embodies simplification of many of physically realizable systems. The effect of perturbation on a two-state system Hamiltonian is manifested through avoided crossings in the plot of individual energy vs energy difference curve of the eigenstates. The two-state Hamiltonian can be written as H = ( E 1 0 0 E 2 ) {\displaystyle H={\begin{pmatrix}E_{1}&0\\0&E_{2}\end{pmatrix}}\,\!} The eigenvalues of which are E 1 {\displaystyle \textstyle E_{1}} and E 2 {\displaystyle \textstyle E_{2}} and the eigenvectors, ( 1 0 ) {\displaystyle \textstyle {\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\end{pmatrix}}} and ( 0 1 ) {\displaystyle \textstyle {\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\end{pmatrix}}} .
Traffic Simulation Microsimulation Traffic_Simulation > Microsimulation Animation can allow the analyst to quickly assess the performance, however it is limited to qualitative comparisons. The main indication of a problem that can be seen in an animation is the forming of persistent queues. 'Measures of Effectiveness' (MOEs) may be calculated or defined in a manner which is unique to each simulation program.
Microfluidics Microfluidic-assisted magnetophoresis Microfluidic-based_tools > Various kinds of microfluidic flows > Microfluidic-assisted magnetophoresis First, a paramagnetic substance (usually micro/nanoparticles or a paramagnetic fluid) needs to be functionalized to target the cell type of interest. This can be accomplished by identifying a transmembranal protein unique to the cell type of interest and subsequently functionalizing magnetic particles with the complementary antigen or antibody. Once the magnetic particles are functionalized, they are dispersed in a cell mixture where they bind to only the cells of interest.
Spinal cord injury research Stem cells Spinal_cord_injury_research > Stem cells Stem cells are cells that can differentiate to become different types of cells. The hope is that stem cells transplanted into an injured area of the spinal cord will allow neuroregeneration. Types of cells being researched for use in SCI include embryonic stem cells, neural stem cells, mesenchymal stem cells, olfactory ensheathing cells, Schwann cells, activated macrophages, and induced pluripotent stem cells. When stem cells are injected in the area of damage in the spinal cord, they secrete neurotrophic factors, and these factors help neurons and blood vessels to grow, thus helping repair the damage.
Stirling Engine Comparison with internal combustion engines Stirling_motor > Comparison with internal combustion engines Their lower maintenance requirements make the overall energy cost comparable. The thermal efficiency is also comparable (for small engines), ranging from 15% to 30%. For applications such as micro-CHP, a Stirling engine is often preferable to an internal combustion engine.
Kepler-16 Planetary system Kepler-16 > Planetary system Kepler-16b is a gas giant that orbits the two stars in the Kepler-16 system. The planet is a third of Jupiter's mass and slightly smaller than Saturn at 0.7538 Jupiter radii, but is more dense. Kepler-16b completes a nearly circular orbit every 228.776 days. == References ==
Lebesgue measurable Examples Lebesgue_measure > Examples Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in R n {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} , for n ≥ 2 {\displaystyle n\geq 2} , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space.
Tribology The cohesion theory Tribology > Physics > Friction > The cohesion theory The adhesion theory states that in the case of spherical asperities in contact with each other, subjected to a W → {\displaystyle {\vec {W}}} load, a deformation is observed, which, as the load increases, passes from an elastic to a plastic deformation. This phenomenon involves an enlargement of the real contact area A r {\displaystyle A_{r}} , which for this reason can be expressed as: where D is the hardness of the material definable as the applied load divided by the area of the contact surface. If at this point the two surfaces are sliding between them, a resistance to shear stress t is observed, given by the presence of adhesive bonds, which were created precisely because of the plastic deformations, and therefore the frictional force will be given by At this point, since the coefficient of friction is the ratio between the intensity of the frictional force and that of the applied load, it is possible to state that thus relating to the two material properties: shear strength t and hardness. To obtain low value friction coefficients μ {\displaystyle \mu } it is possible to resort to materials which require less shear stress, but which are also very hard.
Graph Modeling Language Applications supporting GML Graph_Modeling_Language > Applications supporting GML Cytoscape, an open source bioinformatics software platform for visualizing molecular interaction networks, loads and save previously-constructed interaction networks in GML. igraph, an open source network analysis library with interfaces to multiple programming languages. Gephi, an open source graph visualization and manipulation software. Graph-tool, a free Python module for manipulation and statistical analysis of graphs.
Pathogen transmission Relationship with virulence and survival Pathogen_transmission > Relationship with virulence and survival Pathogens must have a way to be transmitted from one host to another to ensure their species' survival. Infectious agents are generally specialized for a particular method of transmission. Taking an example from the respiratory route, from an evolutionary perspective viruses or bacteria that cause their host to develop coughing and sneezing symptoms have a great survival advantage, as they are much more likely to be ejected from one host and carried to another.
Electric meter Operation Watt-hour_meters > Operation Electricity meters operate by continuously measuring the instantaneous voltage (volts) and current (amperes) to give energy used (in joules, kilowatt-hours etc.). Meters for smaller services (such as small residential customers) can be connected directly in-line between source and customer. For larger loads, more than about 200 ampere of load, current transformers are used, so that the meter can be located somewhere other than in line with the service conductors. The meters fall into two basic categories, electromechanical and electronic.
Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity NK cells Antibody-dependent_cellular_cytotoxicity > NK cells Once the Fc receptor binds to the Fc region of the antibody, the NK cell releases cytotoxic factors that cause the death of the target cell. During replication of a virus, some of the viral proteins are expressed on the cell surface membrane of the infected cell. Antibodies can then bind to these viral proteins. Next, the NK cells which have reciprocal Fcγ receptors will bind to that antibody, inducing the NK cell to release proteins such as perforin and proteases known as granzymes, which causes the lysis of the infected cell to hinder the spread of the virus.
Cellular waste product Secretion and effects of waste products Cellular_waste_product > Secretion and effects of waste products Cellular respiration takes place in the cristae of the mitochondria within cells. Depending on the pathways followed, the products are dealt with in different ways. CO2 is excreted from the cell via diffusion into the blood stream, where it is transported in three ways: Up to 7% is dissolved in its molecular form in blood plasma. About 70-80% is converted into hydrocarbonate ions, The remainder binds with haemoglobin in red blood cells, is carried to the lungs, and exhaled.H2O also diffuses out of the cell into the bloodstream, from where it is excreted in the form of perspiration, water vapour in the breath, or urine from the kidneys.
Ridit scoring Choosing a reference data set Ridit_scoring > Calculation of ridit scores > Choosing a reference data set Since ridit scoring is used to compare two or more sets of ordered qualitative data, one set is designated as a reference against which other sets can be compared. In econometric studies, for example, the ridit scores measuring taste survey answers of a competing or historically important product are often used as the reference data set against which taste surveys of new products are compared. Absent a convenient reference data set, an accumulation of pooled data from several sets or even an artificial or hypothetical set can be used.

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