Split (1)

train · 253k rows

page_content stringlengths 51 3.15k
Phosphatidylethanolamine binding protein Selective permeability Biological_membranes > Function > Selective permeability Generally, small hydrophobic molecules can readily cross phospholipid bilayers by simple diffusion.Particles that are required for cellular function but are unable to diffuse freely across a membrane enter through a membrane transport protein or are taken in by means of endocytosis, where the membrane allows for a vacuole to join onto it and push its contents into the cell. Many types of specialized plasma membranes can separate cell from external environment: apical, basolateral, presynaptic and postsynaptic ones, membranes of flagella, cilia, microvillus, filopodia and lamellipodia, the sarcolemma of muscle cells, as well as specialized myelin and dendritic spine membranes of neurons. Plasma membranes can also form different types of "supramembrane" structures such as caveolae, postsynaptic density, podosome, invadopodium, desmosome, hemidesmosome, focal adhesion, and cell junctions.
Gluon Properties Gluon > Properties The gluon is a vector boson, which means it has a spin of 1. While massive spin-1 particles have three polarization states, massless gauge bosons like the gluon have only two polarization states because gauge invariance requires the polarization to be transverse to the direction that the gluon is traveling. In quantum field theory, unbroken gauge invariance requires that gauge bosons have zero mass. Experiments limit the gluon's rest mass (if any) to less than a few MeV/c2. The gluon has negative intrinsic parity.
Unequal variance Consequences Unequal_variance > Consequences One of the assumptions of the classical linear regression model is that there is no heteroscedasticity. Breaking this assumption means that the Gauss–Markov theorem does not apply, meaning that OLS estimators are not the Best Linear Unbiased Estimators (BLUE) and their variance is not the lowest of all other unbiased estimators. Heteroscedasticity does not cause ordinary least squares coefficient estimates to be biased, although it can cause ordinary least squares estimates of the variance (and, thus, standard errors) of the coefficients to be biased, possibly above or below the true of population variance. Thus, regression analysis using heteroscedastic data will still provide an unbiased estimate for the relationship between the predictor variable and the outcome, but standard errors and therefore inferences obtained from data analysis are suspect.
Many worlds interpretation Probability and the Born rule Everett_interpretation > Probability and the Born rule Since the many-worlds interpretation's inception, physicists have been puzzled about the role of probability in it. As put by Wallace, there are two facets to the question: the incoherence problem, which asks why we should assign probabilities at all to outcomes that are certain to occur in some worlds, and the quantitative problem, which asks why the probabilities should be given by the Born rule. Everett tried to answer these questions in the paper that introduced many-worlds. To address the incoherence problem, he argued that an observer who makes a sequence of measurements on a quantum system will in general have an apparently random sequence of results in their memory, which justifies the use of probabilities to describe the measurement process.
Copper cathode Charge flow Cathode > Charge flow A battery or galvanic cell in use has a cathode that is the positive terminal since that is where conventional current flows out of the device. This outward current is carried internally by positive ions moving from the electrolyte to the positive cathode (chemical energy is responsible for this "uphill" motion). It is continued externally by electrons moving into the battery which constitutes positive current flowing outwards.
Internet Of Things Transportation The_Internet_of_Things > Applications > Organizations > Transportation The IoT can assist in the integration of communications, control, and information processing across various transportation systems. Application of the IoT extends to all aspects of transportation systems (i.e., the vehicle, the infrastructure, and the driver or user). Dynamic interaction between these components of a transport system enables inter- and intra-vehicular communication, smart traffic control, smart parking, electronic toll collection systems, logistics and fleet management, vehicle control, safety, and road assistance.
Hydrogen Peroxide Sewage treatment Hydrogen_Peroxide > Uses > Sewage treatment Hydrogen peroxide is used in certain waste-water treatment processes to remove organic impurities. In advanced oxidation processing, the Fenton reaction gives the highly reactive hydroxyl radical (•OH). This degrades organic compounds, including those that are ordinarily robust, such as aromatic or halogenated compounds. It can also oxidize sulfur-based compounds present in the waste; which is beneficial as it generally reduces their odour.
Ru360 Summary Ru360 Ru360 is an oxo-bridged dinuclear ruthenium ammine complex with an absorption spectrum maximum at 360 nm. It is an analog of ruthenium red, a well-known effective inhibitor of the mitochondrial calcium uniporter.Ru360 was discovered after scientists found that commercial preparations of ruthenium red were often less than 20% pure, and that the crude mixture produced a stronger inhibition than the purified product. This component was later isolated and its structure determined, Ru360 has structural formula (μ-O)2Cl3, that is, an oxygen-linked chain only two octahedral ruthenium–ammine units rather than the three of ruthenium red. One of the ruthenium atoms is in a +3 oxidation state, and the other in a +4 oxidation state.
Quantum Machine Learning Quantum learning theory Quantum_artificial_intelligence > Quantum learning theory The learner may be actively interacting with the target concept, or passively receiving samples from it. In active learning, a learner can make membership queries to the target concept c, asking for its value c(x) on inputs x chosen by the learner. The learner then has to reconstruct the exact target concept, with high probability.
Model Transformation Language Overview Model_Transformation_Language > Overview The notion of model transformation is central to model-driven development. A model transformation, which is essentially a program which operates on models, can be written in a general-purpose programming language, such as Java. However, special-purpose model transformation languages can offer advantages, such as syntax that makes it easy to refer to model elements.
Quantum system Free particle Quantum_mechanical_properties > Examples > Free particle This illustrates the uncertainty principle. As we let the Gaussian wave packet evolve in time, we see that its center moves through space at a constant velocity (like a classical particle with no forces acting on it). However, the wave packet will also spread out as time progresses, which means that the position becomes more and more uncertain. The uncertainty in momentum, however, stays constant.
Acoustic Doppler velocimetry Probe specs and features Acoustic_Doppler_velocimetry > Probe specs and features Lemmin and Lhermitte, Chanson et al., and Blanckaert and Lemmin discussed the inherent Doppler noise of an ADV system. Spikes may be caused by aliasing of the Doppler signal. McLelland and Nicholas explained the physical processes while Nikora and Goring, Goring and Nikora and Wahl developed techniques to eliminate aliasing errors called "spikes".
Fairness (machine learning) Postprocessing Fairness_(machine_learning) > Bias Mitigation strategies > Postprocessing If the score function is fair in the sense that it is independent of the protected attribute, then any choice of the threshold will also be fair, but classifiers of this type tend to be biased, so a different threshold may be required for each protected group to achieve fairness. A way to do this is plotting the true positive rate against the false negative rate at various threshold settings (this is called ROC curve) and find a threshold where the rates for the protected group and other individuals are equal.The advantages of postprocessing include that the technique can be applied after any classifiers, without modifying it, and has a good performance in fairness measures. The cons are the need to access to the protected attribute in test time and the lack of choice in the balance between accuracy and fairness.
Prion protein Gene Prion_protein > Gene The human PRNP gene is located on the short (p) arm of chromosome 20 between the end (terminus) of the arm and position 13, from base pair 4,615,068 to base pair 4,630,233.
Segment Tree Summary Segment_Tree In computer science, a segment tree, also known as a statistic tree, is a tree data structure used for storing information about intervals, or segments. It allows querying which of the stored segments contain a given point. It is, in principle, a static structure and cannot be modified once built. A similar data structure is the interval tree.
Chemical reactor materials selection High Temperature Operation Chemical_reactor_materials_selection > High Temperature Operation High temperature reactor operation includes a host of problems such as distortion and cracking due to thermal expansion and contraction, and high temperature corrosion. Some indications that the latter is occurring include burnt or charred surfaces, molten phases, distortion, thick scales, and grossly thinned metal. Some typical high-temperature alloys include iron, nickel, or cobalt that have >20% chromium for the purpose of forming a protective oxide against further oxidation. There are also various other elements to aid in corrosion resistance such as aluminum, silicon, and rare earth elements such as yttrium, cerium, and lanthanum.
Turing Test Cultural background Imitation_game > History > Cultural background Tests where a human judges whether a computer or an alien is intelligent were an established convention in science fiction by the 1940s, and it is likely that Turing would have been aware of these. Stanley G. Weinbaum's "A Martian Odyssey" (1934) provides an example of how nuanced such tests could be.Earlier examples of machines or automatons attempting to pass as human include the Ancient Greek myth of Pygmalion who creates a sculpture of a woman that is animated by Aphrodite, Carlo Collodi's novel The Adventures of Pinocchio, about a puppet who wants to become a real boy, and E. T. A. Hoffmann's 1816 story "The Sandman", where the protagonist falls in love with an automaton. In all these examples, people are fooled by artificial beings that - up to a point - pass as human.
Steel casting Impact and wear resistance Steel_casting > Impact and wear resistance Most steels offer a good balance of strength and ductility, which makes them extremely tough. This allows them to withstand significant stress and strain without fracturing. Steel can also be fairly wear-resistant. Alloy additions can increase both impact and wear resistance.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Purity determination (w/w NMR) Nuclear_Magnetic_Resonance > Applications > Purity determination (w/w NMR) While NMR is primarily used for structural determination, it can also be used for purity determination, provided that the structure and molecular weight of the compound is known. This technique requires the use of an internal standard of known purity. Typically this standard will have a high molecular weight to facilitate accurate weighing, but relatively few protons so as to give a clear peak for later integration e.g. 1,2,4,5-tetrachloro-3-nitrobenzene. Accurately weighed portions of the standard and sample are combined and analysed by NMR. Suitable peaks from both compounds are selected and the purity of the sample is determined via the following equation. P u r i t y = w s t d × n s t d × M W s p l w s p l × M W s t d × n s p l × P {\displaystyle \mathrm {Purity} ={\frac {w_{\mathrm {std} }\times n_{\mathrm {std} }\times MW_{\mathrm {spl} }}{w_{\mathrm {spl} }\times MW_{\mathrm {std} }\times n_{\mathrm {spl} }}}\times P} Where: wstd: weight of internal standard wspl: weight of sample nstd: the integrated area of the peak selected for comparison in the standard, corrected for the number of protons in that functional group nspl: the integrated area of the peak selected for comparison in the sample, corrected for the number of protons in that functional group MWstd: molecular weight of standard MWspl: molecular weight of sample P: purity of internal standard
Nonspecific immune cell The innate immune system Innate_immune_cell > The innate immune system There are two categories to which parts of the immune system are assigned: the non-specific, or innate immune system and the adaptive immune system. The non-specific response is a generalized response to pathogen infections involving the use of several white blood cells and plasma proteins. Non-specific immunity, or innate immunity, is the immune system with which you were born, made up of phagocytes and barriers.
AI ethics Artificial suffering Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence > Ethical challenges > Artificial suffering The moratorium was to run to 2050 and could be either extended or repealed early, depending on progress in better understanding the risks and how to mitigate them. Metzinger repeated this argument in 2021, highlighting the risk of creating an "explosion of artificial suffering", both as an AI might suffer in intense ways that humans could not understand, and as replication processes may see the creation of huge quantities of artificial conscious instances. Several labs have openly stated they are trying to create conscious AIs.
Enteric coating Description Enteric_coating > Description Likewise, certain groups of proton pump inhibitors (esomeprazole, omeprazole, pantoprazole and all grouped azoles) are acid-activated. For such drugs, enteric coating added to the formulation tends to avoid activation in the mouth and esophagus. Materials used for enteric coatings include fatty acids, waxes, shellac, plastics, and plant fibers.
Warehouse control system Control hierarchy Warehouse_control_system > Control hierarchy The typical warehouse/distribution center consists of a multi-tier control architecture in which each level in the control hierarchy has a defined role. The upper most level of the control hierarchy is the warehouse management system (WMS), or host. This system handles the business aspects of the system such as receiving customer orders, allocating inventory, and generating shipping manifests or bills of lading) and invoices based on order fulfillment information and shipping information received from the material handling control system (WCS). It typically interacts with the material handling system on a non-real-time basis.
MTOR inhibitor Temsirolimus MTOR_inhibitors > Development of mTOR inhibitors > Rapamycin and rapalogs > Temsirolimus Temsirolimus has higher water solubility than rapamycin and is therefore administered by intravenous injection. It was approved on May 30, 2007, by FDA for the treatment of advanced RCC.Temsirolimus has also been used in a Phase I clinical trial in conjunction with neratinib, a small-molecule irreversible pan-HER tyrosine kinase inhibitor. This study enrolled patients being treated for HER2-amplified breast cancer, HER2-mutant non-small-cell lung cancer, and other advanced solid tumors. While common toxicities included nausea, stomatitis, and anemia; responses were noted.
Ansoff Matrix Logical consistency challenges Ansoff_Matrix > Criticisms > Logical consistency challenges The logic of the Ansoff matrix has been questioned. The logical issues pertain to interpretations about newness. If one assumes a new product really is new to the firm, in many cases a new product will simultaneously take the firm into a new, unfamiliar market. In that case, one of the Ansoff quadrants, diversification, is redundant. Alternatively, if a new product does not necessarily take the firm into a new market, then the combination of new products into new markets does not always equate to diversification, in the sense of venturing into a completely unknown business.
Rapid Prototyping History 3D_fabrication > History A dramatic development which RP shares with related CNC areas is the freeware open-sourcing of high level applications which constitute an entire CAD-CAM toolchain. This has created a community of low res device manufacturers.
Sheet moulding compound Advantages Sheet_Moulding_Composite > Advantages Compared to similar methods, SMC benefits from a very high volume production ability, excellent part reproducibility, it is cost effective as low labor requirements per production level is very good and industry scrap is reduced substantially. Weight reduction, due to lower dimensional requirements and because of the ability to consolidate many parts into one, is also advantageous. The level of flexibility also exceeds many counterpart processes.
Inhabited set Example relating to choice Inhabited_set > Discussion > Examples > Example relating to choice The full axiom of choice is independent of Z F {\displaystyle {\mathsf {ZF}}} and provenly not constructively compatible with other common set theory axioms. So a theory including these axioms that does not permit excluded middle does also not validate that function existence principle. In Z F {\displaystyle {\mathsf {ZF}}} , the choice axiom is equivalent to the statement that for every vector space there exists basis.
Autogyro Principle of operation Autogyro > Principle of operation Pitch control is achieved by tilting the rotor fore and aft, and roll control is by tilting the rotor laterally. The tilt of the rotor can be effected by utilizing a tilting hub (Cierva), a swashplate (Air & Space 18A), or servo-flaps. A rudder provides yaw control. On pusher configuration autogyros, the rudder is typically placed in the propeller slipstream to maximize yaw control at low airspeed (but not always, as seen in the McCulloch J-2, with twin rudders placed outboard of the propeller arc).
Selfish genetic elements CRISPR gene drive and homing endonuclease systems Selfish_genetic_element > Applications in agriculture and biotechnology > CRISPR gene drive and homing endonuclease systems CRISPR allows the construction of artificial homing endonucleases, where the construct produces guide RNAs that cut the target gene, and homologous flanking sequences then allow insertion of the same construct harboring the Cas9 gene and the guide RNAs. Such gene drives ought to have the ability to rapidly spread in a population (see Gene-drive systems), and one practical application of such a system that has been proposed is to apply it to a pest population, greatly reducing its numbers or even driving it extinct. This has not yet been attempted in the field, but gene drive constructs have been tested in the lab, and the ability to insert into the wild-type homologous allele in heterozygotes for the gene drive has been demonstrated. Unfortunately, the double-strand break that is introduced by Cas9 can be corrected by homology directed repair, which would make a perfect copy of the drive, or by non-homologous end joining, which would produce "resistant" alleles unable to further propagate themselves. When Cas9 is expressed outside of meiosis, it seems like non-homologous end joining predominates, making this the biggest hurdle to practical application of gene drives.
Sparse vector Banded Dense_matrix > Special structure > Banded Notice that zeros are represented with dots for clarity. Matrices with reasonably small upper and lower bandwidth are known as band matrices and often lend themselves to simpler algorithms than general sparse matrices; or one can sometimes apply dense matrix algorithms and gain efficiency simply by looping over a reduced number of indices. By rearranging the rows and columns of a matrix A it may be possible to obtain a matrix A′ with a lower bandwidth. A number of algorithms are designed for bandwidth minimization.
List of uncertainty propagation software Software List_of_uncertainty_propagation_software > Software An implementation exists in R and add-ons for Excel (real and complex numbers). GUM Tree Calculator is a programmable Windows command-line tool with full support for uncertainty calculations involving real and complex quantities. GUM Workbench uses a graphical user interface to implement a systematic way to analyze an uncertainty problem for single and multiple results.
Increasing returns to scale Summary Increasing_returns_to_scale There are three possible types of returns to scale: If output increases by the same proportional change as all inputs change then there are constant returns to scale (CRS). For example, when inputs (labor and capital) increase by 100%, output increases by 100%. If output increases by less than the proportional change in all inputs, there are decreasing returns to scale (DRS).
Strategic deterrence Concept Deterrence_theory > Concept As outlined by Huth, a policy of deterrence can fit into two broad categories: preventing an armed attack against a state's own territory (known as direct deterrence) or preventing an armed attack against another state (known as extended deterrence). Situations of direct deterrence often occur if there is a territorial dispute between neighboring states in which major powers like the United States do not directly intervene. On the other hand, situations of extended deterrence often occur when a great power becomes involved.
Control-flow graph Summary Control-flow_graph In computer science, a control-flow graph (CFG) is a representation, using graph notation, of all paths that might be traversed through a program during its execution. The control-flow graph was discovered by Frances E. Allen, who noted that Reese T. Prosser used boolean connectivity matrices for flow analysis before.The CFG is essential to many compiler optimizations and static-analysis tools.
Air purification Other methods Air_purifier > Purifying techniques > Other methods Titanium dioxide (TiO2) technology - nanoparticles of TiO2, together with calcium carbonate to neutralize any acidic gasses that may be adsorbed, is mixed into slightly porous paint. Photocatalysis initiates the decomposition of airborne contaminants at the surface. Thermodynamic sterilization (TSS) - This technology uses heat sterilization via a ceramic core with microcapillaries, which are heated to 200 °C (392 °F).
Brouwer fixed-point theorem The function f as an endomorphism Brouwer_fixed-point > Importance of the pre-conditions > The function f as an endomorphism Consider the function f ( x ) = x + 1 {\displaystyle f(x)=x+1} with domain . The range of the function is . Thus, f is not an endomorphism.
Electromagnetic attraction Fundamental forces Electromagnetism > Fundamental forces The electromagnetic force is also involved in all forms of chemical phenomena. A necessary part of understanding the intra-atomic and intermolecular forces is the effective force generated by the momentum of the electrons' movement, such that as electrons move between interacting atoms they carry momentum with them. As a collection of electrons becomes more confined, their minimum momentum necessarily increases due to the Pauli exclusion principle. The behaviour of matter at the molecular scale including its density is determined by the balance between the electromagnetic force and the force generated by the exchange of momentum carried by the electrons themselves.
Phosphorus oxoacid Oxidation state +5 Phosphorus_oxoacid > Classification > Oxidation state +5 The most important members of this group are the phosphoric acids, where each phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms, one of them through a double bond, arranged as the corners of a tetrahedron. Two or more of these PO4 tetrahedra may be connected by shared single-bonded oxygens, forming linear or branched chains, cycles, or more complex structures. The single-bonded oxygen atoms that are not shared are completed with acidic hydrogen atoms.
Visual attention Modelling Visual_attention > Other descriptors for types of attention > Modelling In the domain of computer vision, efforts have been made to model the mechanism of human attention, especially the bottom-up intentional mechanism and its semantic significance in classification of video contents. Both spatial attention and temporal attention have been incorporated in such classification efforts. Generally speaking, there are two kinds of models to mimic the bottom-up salience mechanism in static images.
Lie group isomorphism Summary Group_automorphism In abstract algebra, a group isomorphism is a function between two groups that sets up a one-to-one correspondence between the elements of the groups in a way that respects the given group operations. If there exists an isomorphism between two groups, then the groups are called isomorphic. From the standpoint of group theory, isomorphic groups have the same properties and need not be distinguished.
Mind Evolution Mind > Evolution The Group selection theory contends that organism characteristics that provide benefits to a group (clan, tribe, or larger population) can evolve despite individual disadvantages such as those cited above. The idea that intelligence is connected with nutrition, and thereby with status. A higher IQ could be a signal that an individual comes from and lives in a physical and social environment where nutrition levels are high, and vice versa.
Interface conditions for electromagnetic fields Boundary conditions Interface_conditions_for_electromagnetic_fields > Boundary conditions In some cases, the boundary conditions resume to a simple interface condition. The most usual and simple example is a fully reflecting (electric wall) boundary - the outer medium is considered as a perfect conductor. In some cases, it is more complicated: for example, the reflection-less (i.e. open) boundaries are simulated as perfectly matched layer or magnetic wall that do not resume to a single interface.
Sedimentary Rock Sedimentary basins Sedimentary_rocks > Sedimentary basins Where the lithosphere moves downward (tectonic subsidence), a basin forms and sediments are deposited. A type of basin formed by the moving apart of two pieces of a continent is called a rift basin. Rift basins are elongated, narrow and deep basins.
Anaerobic microbe Energy metabolism Anaerobic_organisms > Energy metabolism Some obligate anaerobes use fermentation, while others use anaerobic respiration. Aerotolerant organisms are strictly fermentative. In the presence of oxygen, facultative anaerobes use aerobic respiration. In the absence of oxygen, some facultative anaerobes use fermentation, while others may use anaerobic respiration.
Acquired immunity Lymphocytes Active_immunity > Lymphocytes In humans, approximately 1–2% of the lymphocyte pool recirculates each hour to increase the opportunity for the cells to encounter the specific pathogen and antigen that they react to.B cells and T cells are derived from the same multipotent hematopoietic stem cells, and look identical to one another until after they are activated. B cells play a large role in the humoral immune response, whereas T cells are intimately involved in cell-mediated immune responses. In all vertebrates except Agnatha, B cells and T cells are produced by stem cells in the bone marrow. T cell progenitors then migrate from the bone marrow to the thymus, where they develop further. In an adult animal, the peripheral lymphoid organs contain a mixture of B and T cells in at least three stages of differentiation: Naive B and naive T cells, which have left the bone marrow or thymus and entered the lymphatic system, but have yet to encounter their matching antigen Effector cells that have been activated by their matching antigen, and are actively involved in eliminating a pathogen Memory cells, the survivors of past infections
Circulating Fluidized Bed Introduction Circulating_Fluidized_Bed > Introduction Fluidization is the phenomenon by which solid particles are transported into a fluid-like state through suspension in a gas or liquid. The resultant mixing of gas and solids promotes rapid heat transfer and chemical reactions within the bed. Power plants that use this technology are capable of burning low grade fuels at high efficiency and without the need for expensive fuel preparation. They are also smaller than the equivalent conventional furnace, so may offer significant advantages in terms of cost and flexibility.
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies Genetics Transmissible_spongiform_encephalopathies > Cause > Genetics It may also be involved in protecting brain cells and helping them communicate. 24 Point-Mutations in this gene cause cells to produce an abnormal form of the prion protein, known as PrPSc. This abnormal protein builds up in the brain and destroys nerve cells, resulting in the signs and symptoms of prion disease.
Greedy heuristic Examples Greedy_search > Examples A* search is conditionally optimal, requiring an "admissible heuristic" that will not overestimate path costs. Kruskal's algorithm and Prim's algorithm are greedy algorithms for constructing minimum spanning trees of a given connected graph. They always find an optimal solution, which may not be unique in general.
Permeation membrane Membrane configurations Permeation_membrane > Membrane configurations In the membrane field, the term module is used to describe a complete unit composed of the membranes, the pressure support structure, the feed inlet, the outlet permeate and retentate streams, and an overall support structure. The principal types of membrane modules are: Tubular, where membranes are placed inside a support porous tubes, and these tubes are placed together in a cylindrical shell to form the unit module. Tubular devices are primarily used in micro- and ultrafiltration applications because of their ability to handle process streams with high solids and high viscosity properties, as well as for their relative ease of cleaning.Hollow fiber membrane, consists of a bundle of hundreds to thousands of hollow fibers. The entire assembly is inserted into a pressure vessel.
Penning Trap Geonium atom Penning_Trap > Geonium atom A geonium atom is a pseudo-atomic system that consists of a single electron or ion stored in a Penning trap which is 'bound' to the remaining Earth, hence the term 'geonium'. The name was coined by H.G. Dehmelt.In the typical case, the trapped system consists of only one particle or ion. Such a quantum system is determined by quantum states of one particle, like in the hydrogen atom.
Linear differential equations System of linear differential equations Constant_coefficients > System of linear differential equations Let be the homogeneous equation associated to the above matrix equation. Its solutions form a vector space of dimension n, and are therefore the columns of a square matrix of functions U ( x ) {\displaystyle U(x)} , whose determinant is not the zero function. If n = 1, or A is a matrix of constants, or, more generally, if A commutes with its antiderivative B = ∫ A d x {\displaystyle \textstyle B=\int Adx} , then one may choose U equal the exponential of B. In fact, in these cases, one has In the general case there is no closed-form solution for the homogeneous equation, and one has to use either a numerical method, or an approximation method such as Magnus expansion. Knowing the matrix U, the general solution of the non-homogeneous equation is where the column matrix y 0 {\displaystyle \mathbf {y_{0}} } is an arbitrary constant of integration. If initial conditions are given as the solution that satisfies these initial conditions is
100% renewable energy Recent developments 100%_renewable_energy > Recent developments No oil spills, dead coal miners, dirty air, devastated lands, lost wildlife. No energy poverty. No oil-fed wars, tyrannies, or terrorists.
History of scientific method Francis Bacon's eliminative induction History_of_scientific_method > Emergence of inductive experimental method > Francis Bacon's eliminative induction In the other table, labelled "Table of Deviation, or of Absence in Proximity", he lists circumstances which bear resemblance to those of the first table except for the absence of heat. From an analysis of what he calls the natures (light emitting, heavy, colored, etc.) of the items in these lists we are brought to conclusions about the form nature, or cause, of heat. Those natures which are always present in the first table, but never in the second are deemed to be the cause of heat.
Cations and anions Formation of polyatomic and molecular ions Ion > Chemistry > Formation > Formation of polyatomic and molecular ions However, this ion is unstable, because it has an incomplete valence shell around the nitrogen atom, making it a very reactive radical ion. Due to the instability of radical ions, polyatomic and molecular ions are usually formed by gaining or losing elemental ions such as H+, rather than gaining or losing electrons. This allows the molecule to preserve its stable electronic configuration while acquiring an electrical charge.
Screw extruder Summary Extrusion_molding It limits the amount of change that can be performed in one step, so it is limited to simpler shapes, and multiple stages are usually needed. Drawing is the main way to produce wire. Metal bars and tubes are also often drawn.
Tree structure Nested sets Tree_structure > Representing trees > Nested sets Nested sets that use enclosure or containment to show parenthood; examples include TreeMaps, fractal maps, and Euler diagrams:
Holomorphic embedding load flow method Background Holomorphic_Embedding_Load-flow_method > Background The key differential advantage of the HELM is that it is fully deterministic and unambiguous: it guarantees that the solution always corresponds to the correct operative solution, when it exists; and it signals the non-existence of the solution when the conditions are such that there is no solution (voltage collapse). Additionally, the method is competitive with the FDNR method in terms of computational cost. It brings a solid mathematical treatment of the load-flow problem that provides new insights not previously available with the iterative numerical methods.
Thermal system Selective transfer of matter Thermodynamic_systems > Selective transfer of matter The corresponding extensive variable can be the number of moles Ni of the component substance in the system. For a contact equilibrium across a wall permeable to a substance, the chemical potentials of the substance must be same on either side of the wall. This is part of the nature of thermodynamic equilibrium, and may be regarded as related to the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
Nucl. Fusion Summary Nucl._Fusion Nuclear Fusion is a peer reviewed international scientific journal that publishes articles, letters and review articles, special issue articles, conferences summaries and book reviews on the theoretical and practical research based on controlled thermonuclear fusion. The journal was first published in September, 1960 by IAEA and its head office was housed at the headquarter of IAEA in Vienna, Austria. Since 2002, the journal has been jointly published by IAEA and IOP Publishing.
Anelasticity Boltzmann superposition principle Anelasticity > Boltzmann superposition principle Each response function constitutes a complete representation of the anelastic properties of the solid. Therefore, any one of the response functions can be used to completely describe the anelastic behaviour of the solid, and every other response function can be derived from the chosen one. The Boltzmann superposition principle states that every stress applied at a different time deforms the material as it if were the only one. This can be written generally for a series of stresses σ i ( i = 1 , 2 , .
Enzyme substrate Biochemistry Enzyme_substrate > Biochemistry In biochemistry, the substrate is a molecule upon which an enzyme acts. Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions involving the substrate(s). In the case of a single substrate, the substrate bonds with the enzyme active site, and an enzyme-substrate complex is formed. The substrate is transformed into one or more products, which are then released from the active site.
Matrix grammar Properties Matrix_grammar > Properties All languages in MAT can be produced by a context-sensitive grammar. There exists a context-sensitive language which does not belong to MAT λ {\displaystyle {\ce {MAT^{\lambda }}}} . Each language produced by a matrix grammar with only one terminal symbol is regular.
Artificial intelligence and moral enhancement Ideal observer theory Artificial_intelligence_and_moral_enhancement > Ideal observer theory Users can provide varying configurations and settings to instruct these systems, and this allows these systems to be relativist. Relativist artificial moral advisors would equip humans to be better moral judges and would respect their autonomy as both moral judges and moral agents. For these reasons, and because artificial moral advisors would be disinterested, dispassionate, consistent, relational, dispositional, empirical, and objectivist, relativist artificial moral advisors could be preferable to absolutist ideal observers.
Entropy and life Counteracting the second law tendency Entropy_and_life > Counteracting the second law tendency As a result, the temperature and entropy of the water decreases, and the system moves further away from uniformity with its warm surroundings. The important point is that refrigeration not only requires a source of work, it requires designed equipment, as well as pre-coded or direct operational intelligence or instructions to achieve the desired refrigeration effect. Observation is the basis for the understanding that category IV processes require both a source of exergy as well as a source or form of intelligence or instruction.
Chinese ritual bronzes Water vessels Chinese_ritual_bronze > Classification of pieces in the Imperial collection > Water vessels Yú (盂): Basin for water. May have up to four decorative handles around the edge; no brim. Zhì (觶): Broad-mouthed vase, similar in shape to a hú (壺), but with no handles. Zhōng (盅): Small cup with no handles. Not represented in Xiqing gujian.
Bilateral Laplace transform Summary Bilateral_Laplace_transform {\displaystyle {\mathcal {T}}\{f\}(s)=s{\mathcal {B}}\{f\}(s)=sF(s)=s\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }e^{-st}f(t)\,dt.} In pure mathematics the argument t can be any variable, and Laplace transforms are used to study how differential operators transform the function. In science and engineering applications, the argument t often represents time (in seconds), and the function f(t) often represents a signal or waveform that varies with time.
Universal causation Criticism Universal_causation > Criticism Pluralized causal principle - there are pluralized versions of universal causation, that allow exceptions to the principle. Robert K. Meyer's causal chain principle, uses set theory axioms, assumes that something must cause itself in set of causes and so universal causation doesn't exclude self-causation. Against infinite regress.
Quantum magnetism Introduction Quantum_magnetism > Introduction In ordinary materials, the magnetic dipole moments of individual atoms produce magnetic fields that cancel one another, because each dipole points in a random direction. Ferromagnetic materials below their Curie temperature, however, exhibit magnetic domains in which the atomic dipole moments are locally aligned, producing a macroscopic, non-zero magnetic field from the domain. These are the ordinary "magnets" with which we are all familiar. The study of the behavior of such "spin models" is a thriving area of research in condensed matter physics.
Latimer diagram Construction Latimer_diagram > Construction In a Latimer diagram, the most highly oxidized form of the element is on the left, with successively lower oxidation states to the right. The species are connected by arrows, and the numerical value of the standard potential (in volts) for the reduction is written at each arrow. For example, for oxygen, the species would be in the order O2 (0), H2O2 (–1), H2O (-2): The arrow between O2 and H2O2 has a value +0.68 V over it, it indicates that the standard electrode potential for the reaction: O2(g) + 2 H+ + 2 e− ⇄ H2O2(aq)is 0.68 volts.
Biotic component Decomposition Biotic_component > Processes > Decomposition Freshly shed leaf litter may be inaccessible due to an outer layer of cuticle or bark, and cell contents are protected by a cell wall. Newly dead animals may be covered by an exoskeleton. Fragmentation processes, which break through these protective layers, accelerate the rate of microbial decomposition.
Conversion factor Factor-label method Factor-label_method > Factor-label method The factor-label method, also known as the unit-factor method or the unity bracket method, is a widely used technique for unit conversions using the rules of algebra.The factor-label method is the sequential application of conversion factors expressed as fractions and arranged so that any dimensional unit appearing in both the numerator and denominator of any of the fractions can be cancelled out until only the desired set of dimensional units is obtained. For example, 10 miles per hour can be converted to metres per second by using a sequence of conversion factors as shown below: Each conversion factor is chosen based on the relationship between one of the original units and one of the desired units (or some intermediary unit), before being re-arranged to create a factor that cancels out the original unit. For example, as "mile" is the numerator in the original fraction and 1 m i = 1609.344 m {\displaystyle \mathrm {1~mi} =\mathrm {1609.344~m} } , "mile" will need to be the denominator in the conversion factor. Dividing both sides of the equation by 1 mile yields 1 m i 1 m i = 1609.344 m 1 m i {\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {1~mi} }{\mathrm {1~mi} }}={\frac {\mathrm {1609.344~m} }{\mathrm {1~mi} }}} , which when simplified results in the dimensionless 1 = 1609.344 m 1 m i {\displaystyle 1={\frac {\mathrm {1609.344~m} }{\mathrm {1~mi} }}} .
Kelvin–Planck statement Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin–Planck_statement > Corollaries > Thermodynamic temperature This is because, if a part of the two cycle engine is hidden such that it is recognized as an engine between the reservoirs at the temperatures T1 and T3, then the efficiency of this engine must be same to the other engine at the same reservoirs. If we choose engines such that work done by the one cycle engine and the two cycle engine are same, then the efficiency of each heat engine is written as the below. η 1 = 1 − \| q 3 \| \| q 1 \| = 1 − f ( T 1 , T 3 ) {\displaystyle \eta _{1}=1-{\frac {\|q_{3}\|}{\|q_{1}\|}}=1-f(T_{1},T_{3})} , η 2 = 1 − \| q 2 \| \| q 1 \| = 1 − f ( T 1 , T 2 ) {\displaystyle \eta _{2}=1-{\frac {\|q_{2}\|}{\|q_{1}\|}}=1-f(T_{1},T_{2})} , η 3 = 1 − \| q 3 \| \| q 2 \| = 1 − f ( T 2 , T 3 ) {\displaystyle \eta _{3}=1-{\frac {\|q_{3}\|}{\|q_{2}\|}}=1-f(T_{2},T_{3})} .Here, the engine 1 is the one cycle engine, and the engines 2 and 3 make the two cycle engine where there is the intermediate reservoir at T2.
Associative learning Operant conditioning Incidental_learning > Types > Associative learning > Operant conditioning Operant conditioning is a way in which behavior can be shaped or modified according to the desires of the trainer or head individual. Operant conditioning uses the thought that living things seek pleasure and avoid pain, and that an animal or human can learn through receiving either reward or punishment at a specific time called trace conditioning. Trace conditioning is the small and ideal period of time between the subject performing the desired behavior, and receiving the positive reinforcement as a result of their performance. The reward needs to be given immediately after the completion of the wanted behavior.Operant conditioning is different from classical conditioning in that it shapes behavior not solely on bodily reflexes that occur naturally to a specific stimulus, but rather focuses on the shaping of wanted behavior that requires conscious thought, and ultimately requires learning.Punishment and reinforcement are the two principal ways in which operant conditioning occurs.
Negative feedback loop History Negative_feedback_loop > History Negative feedback as a control technique may be seen in the refinements of the water clock introduced by Ktesibios of Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE. Self-regulating mechanisms have existed since antiquity, and were used to maintain a constant level in the reservoirs of water clocks as early as 200 BCE. Negative feedback was implemented in the 17th century.
Supervised Machine Learning Structural risk minimization Supervised_classification > How supervised learning algorithms work > Structural risk minimization Structural risk minimization seeks to prevent overfitting by incorporating a regularization penalty into the optimization. The regularization penalty can be viewed as implementing a form of Occam's razor that prefers simpler functions over more complex ones. A wide variety of penalties have been employed that correspond to different definitions of complexity. For example, consider the case where the function g {\displaystyle g} is a linear function of the form g ( x ) = ∑ j = 1 d β j x j {\displaystyle g(x)=\sum _{j=1}^{d}\beta _{j}x_{j}} .A popular regularization penalty is ∑ j β j 2 {\displaystyle \sum _{j}\beta _{j}^{2}} , which is the squared Euclidean norm of the weights, also known as the L 2 {\displaystyle L_{2}} norm.
Gram atomic mass Boiling-point elevation Formula_weight > Measurement > Boiling-point elevation The boiling point of a solution of an involatile solute is higher than that of the pure solvent, and the boiling-point elevation (ΔT) is directly proportional to the amount concentration for dilute solutions. When the composition is expressed as a molality, the proportionality constant is known as the ebullioscopic constant (Kb) and is characteristic for each solvent. If w represents the mass fraction of the solute in solution, and assuming no dissociation of the solute, the molar mass is given by M = w K b Δ T . {\displaystyle M={{wK_{\text{b}}} \over {\Delta T}}.\ }
Safe prime Cryptography Safe_and_Sophie_Germain_primes > Applications > Cryptography Safe primes are also important in cryptography because of their use in discrete logarithm-based techniques like Diffie–Hellman key exchange. If 2p + 1 is a safe prime, the multiplicative group of integers modulo 2p + 1 has a subgroup of large prime order. It is usually this prime-order subgroup that is desirable, and the reason for using safe primes is so that the modulus is as small as possible relative to p. A prime number p = 2q + 1 is called a safe prime if q is prime. Thus, p = 2q + 1 is a safe prime if and only if q is a Sophie Germain prime, so finding safe primes and finding Sophie Germain primes are equivalent in computational difficulty.
Pattern analysis Overview Pattern_detection > Overview These feature vectors can be seen as defining points in an appropriate multidimensional space, and methods for manipulating vectors in vector spaces can be correspondingly applied to them, such as computing the dot product or the angle between two vectors. Features typically are either categorical (also known as nominal, i.e., consisting of one of a set of unordered items, such as a gender of "male" or "female", or a blood type of "A", "B", "AB" or "O"), ordinal (consisting of one of a set of ordered items, e.g., "large", "medium" or "small"), integer-valued (e.g., a count of the number of occurrences of a particular word in an email) or real-valued (e.g., a measurement of blood pressure). Often, categorical and ordinal data are grouped together, and this is also the case for integer-valued and real-valued data. Many algorithms work only in terms of categorical data and require that real-valued or integer-valued data be discretized into groups (e.g., less than 5, between 5 and 10, or greater than 10).
Figure and ground (media) Overview Figure_and_ground_(media) > Overview If either the frame or the painting itself were to change, the interpretation of the work might shift. Pertaining to media, we must look at both the figure and the ground to "understand effects." The ground which media creates gives a context for human communication, and thus "directs human action in unique and important ways.
Energy efficiency in computing FLOPS per watt FLOPS_per_watt > FLOPS per watt FLOPS per watt is a common measure. Like the FLOPS (Floating Point Operations Per Second) metric it is based on, the metric is usually applied to scientific computing and simulations involving many floating point calculations.
Population structure (genetics) Dimensionality reduction Population_structure_(genetics) > Measures > Dimensionality reduction For each individual i {\displaystyle i} , the value at locus l {\displaystyle l} is g i , l {\displaystyle g_{i,l}} is the number of non-reference alleles (one of 0 , 1 , 2 {\displaystyle 0,1,2} ). If the allele frequency at l {\displaystyle l} is p l {\displaystyle p_{l}} , then the resulting N × S {\displaystyle N\times S} matrix of normalized genotypes has entries: g i , l − 2 p l 2 p l ( 1 − p l ) {\displaystyle {\frac {g_{i,l}-2p_{l}}{\sqrt {2p_{l}(1-p_{l})}}}} PCA transforms data to maximize variance; given enough data, when each individual is visualized as point on a plot, discrete clusters can form. Individuals with admixed ancestries will tend to fall between clusters, and when there is homogenous isolation by distance in the data, the top PC vectors will reflect geographic variation.
Wallis' integrals Deducing the Double Factorial Ratio Wallis'_integrals > Deducing the Double Factorial Ratio ! ( 2 p ) ! !
Hamilton equation Optical wave fronts and trajectories Hamilton-Jacobi_theory > Waves and particles > Optical wave fronts and trajectories The above duality is very general and applies to all systems that derive from a variational principle: either compute the trajectories using Euler–Lagrange equations or the wave fronts by using Hamilton–Jacobi equation. The wave front at time t {\textstyle t} , for a system initially at q 0 {\textstyle \mathbf {q} _{0}} at time t 0 {\textstyle t_{0}} , is defined as the collection of points q {\textstyle \mathbf {q} } such that S ( q , t ) = const {\textstyle S(\mathbf {q} ,t)={\text{const}}} . If S ( q , t ) {\textstyle S(\mathbf {q} ,t)} is known, the momentum is immediately deduced. Once p {\textstyle \mathbf {p} } is known, tangents to the trajectories q ˙ {\textstyle {\dot {\mathbf {q} }}} are computed by solving the equationfor q ˙ {\textstyle {\dot {\mathbf {q} }}} , where L {\textstyle {\cal {L}}} is the Lagrangian. The trajectories are then recovered from the knowledge of q ˙ {\textstyle {\dot {\mathbf {q} }}} .
Jay Last Fairchild Semiconductor Jay_Last > Semiconductors > Fairchild Semiconductor : 16–17 IBM was interested in obtaining transistors for a navigation computer for the B-70 bomber. Fairchild contracted to provide transistors to meet the specifications for IBM's core-memory driver. They developed complementary NPN and PNP transistors which could be used as a matched pair in a variety of circuit applications.
Baker clamp Origin Baker_clamp > Origin In that scheme, there is a saturation clamp supply at about 2 volts connected to the collector with a saturation clamp diode. When the transistor nears saturation, the clamp diode turns on and supplies the extra collector current to keep the transistor from saturating. The saturation clamp supply needs to supply substantial current.
Instruction level parallelism Discussion Instruction-level_parallelism > Discussion Micro-architectural techniques that are used to exploit ILP include: Instruction pipelining where the execution of multiple instructions can be partially overlapped. Superscalar execution, VLIW, and the closely related explicitly parallel instruction computing concepts, in which multiple execution units are used to execute multiple instructions in parallel. Out-of-order execution where instructions execute in any order that does not violate data dependencies.
Taylor polynomials History Maclaurin_series > History Though no record of his work survives, writings of his followers in the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics suggest that he found the Taylor series for the trigonometric functions of sine, cosine, and arctangent (see Madhava series). During the following two centuries his followers developed further series expansions and rational approximations. In late 1670, James Gregory was shown in a letter from John Collins several Maclaurin series ( sin ⁡ x , {\textstyle \sin x,} cos ⁡ x , {\textstyle \cos x,} arcsin ⁡ x , {\textstyle \arcsin x,} and x cot ⁡ x {\textstyle x\cot x} ) derived by Isaac Newton, and told that Newton had developed a general method for expanding functions in series.
MO diagram Dihelium and diberyllium MO_diagram > Diatomic MO diagrams > Dihelium and diberyllium This mixing makes the antibonding 1σu orbital slightly less antibonding than the bonding 1σg orbital is bonding, with a net effect that the whole configuration has a slight bonding nature. This explains the fact that the diberyllium molecule exists and has been observed in the gas phase. The slight bonding nature explains the low dissociation energy of only 59 kJ·mol−1.
Antigen-presenting cell Types and functions Antigen-presenting_cell > Types and functions Antigen-presenting cells fall into two categories: professional and non-professional. Those that express MHC class II molecules along with co-stimulatory molecules and pattern recognition receptors are often called professional antigen-presenting cells. The non-professional APCs express MHC class I molecules. T cells must be activated before they can divide and perform their function.
Higgs Field Nickname Higgs_Field > Public discussion > Naming > Nickname Higgs, an atheist, was reported to be displeased and stated in a 2008 interview that he found it "embarrassing" because it was "the kind of misuse ... which I think might offend some people". The nickname has been satirised in mainstream media as well. Science writer Ian Sample stated in his 2010 book on the search that the nickname is "universally hate" by physicists and perhaps the "worst derided" in the history of physics, but that (according to Lederman) the publisher rejected all titles mentioning "Higgs" as unimaginative and too unknown.Lederman begins with a review of the long human search for knowledge, and explains that his tongue-in-cheek title draws an analogy between the impact of the Higgs field on the fundamental symmetries at the Big Bang, and the apparent chaos of structures, particles, forces and interactions that resulted and shaped our present universe, with the biblical story of Babel in which the primordial single language of early Genesis was fragmented into many disparate languages and cultures.
Henoch–Schönlein purpura Kidney involvement Henoch–Schönlein_purpura > Prognosis > Kidney involvement In adults, kidney involvement progresses to end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) more often than in children. In a UK series of 37 patients, 10 (27%) developed advanced kidney disease. Proteinuria, hypertension at presentation, and pathology features (crescentic changes, interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy) predicted progression. About 20% of children that exhibit nephrotic or nephritic features experience long permanent renal impairment.The findings on renal biopsy correlate with the severity of symptoms: those with asymptomatic hematuria may only have focal mesangial proliferation while those with proteinuria may have marked cellular proliferation or even crescent formation. The number of crescentic glomeruli is an important prognostic factor in determining whether the patient will develop chronic renal disease.In ESKD, some eventually need hemodialysis or equivalent renal replacement therapy (RRT). If a kidney transplant is found for a patient on RRT, the disease will recur in the graft (transplanted kidney) in about 35% of cases, and in 11%, the graft will fail completely (requiring resumption of the RRT and a further transplant).
Modal verbs Summary Modal_auxiliary A modal verb is a type of verb that contextually indicates a modality such as a likelihood, ability, permission, request, capacity, suggestion, order, obligation, necessity, possibility or advice. Modal verbs generally accompany the base (infinitive) form of another verb having semantic content. In English, the modal verbs commonly used are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, ought to, used to and dare.
Digital audio processing Audio broadcasting Digital_audio_processing > Applications > Audio broadcasting Audio signal processing is used when broadcasting audio signals in order to enhance their fidelity or optimize for bandwidth or latency. In this domain, the most important audio processing takes place just before the transmitter. The audio processor here must prevent or minimize overmodulation, compensate for non-linear transmitters (a potential issue with medium wave and shortwave broadcasting), and adjust overall loudness to the desired level.
Convection cells Summary Convection_cell In the field of fluid dynamics, a convection cell is the phenomenon that occurs when density differences exist within a body of liquid or gas. These density differences result in rising and/or falling currents, which are the key characteristics of a convection cell. When a volume of fluid is heated, it expands and becomes less dense and thus more buoyant than the surrounding fluid. The colder, denser part of the fluid descends to settle below the warmer, less-dense fluid, and this causes the warmer fluid to rise.
Heating element Ceramic and semiconductor Heating_element > Heating elements types > Ceramic and semiconductor While most ceramics have a negative coefficient, these materials (often barium titanate and lead titanate composites) have a highly nonlinear thermal response, so that above a composition-dependent threshold temperature their resistance increases rapidly. This behavior causes the material to act as a self-regulating heater, since current passes when it is cool, and does not when it is hot. Thin films of this material are used in heating garments, in automotive rear-window defrost heaters, and honeycomb-shaped elements are used in more expensive hair dryers, space heaters and most modern pellet stoves. Such heating element can reach a temperature of 950-1000 °C and are praised for the speed of temperature and stability. Quartz halogen infrared heaters are also used to provide radiant heating.
Basal electrical rhythm Summary Basal_electrical_rhythm The cells can be located in either the circular or longitudinal layer of the smooth muscle in the GI tract; circular for the small and large intestine, longitudinal for the stomach. The frequency of contraction differs at each location in the GI tract beginning with 3 per minute in the stomach, then 12 per minute in the duodenum, 9 per minute in the ileum, and a normally low one contraction per 30 minutes in the large intestines that increases 3 to 4 times a day due to a phenomenon called mass movement. The basal electrical rhythm controls the frequency of contraction but additional neuronal and hormonal controls regulate the strength of each contraction.
Outline of category theory Category theory scholars Outline_of_category_theory > Persons influential in the field of category theory > Category theory scholars Saunders Mac Lane Samuel Eilenberg Max Kelly William Lawvere André Joyal
Algorithmic topology Summary Computational_topology Algorithmic topology, or computational topology, is a subfield of topology with an overlap with areas of computer science, in particular, computational geometry and computational complexity theory. A primary concern of algorithmic topology, as its name suggests, is to develop efficient algorithms for solving problems that arise naturally in fields such as computational geometry, graphics, robotics, structural biology and chemistry, using methods from computable topology.
Material failure theory Isotropic yield criteria Material_failure > Ductile material failure (yield) criteria > Isotropic yield criteria This theory gives good predictions for brittle materials. Maximum principal strain theory – by St.Venant. Yield occurs when the maximum principal strain reaches the strain corresponding to the yield point during a simple tensile test.

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.