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Lin–Kernighan heuristic Basic Lin–Kernighan algorithm Lin–Kernighan_heuristic > Derivation > Basic Lin–Kernighan algorithm If i ≤ j {\displaystyle i\leq j} then if g ∗ > 0 {\displaystyle g^{}>0} then set T := T △ F {\displaystyle T:=T\mathbin {\triangle } F} (update current tour) and clear the stack. else if i > p 1 {\displaystyle i>p_{1}} then pop all elements ( u , j , g ) {\displaystyle (u,j,g)} off the stack that have j > p 1 {\displaystyle j>p_{1}} end if end if end while until g ∗ = 0 {\displaystyle g^{}=0} . Return T {\displaystyle T} The length of the alternating trails considered are thus not explicitly bounded, but beyond the backtracking depth p 1 {\displaystyle p_{1}} no more than one way of extending the current trail is considered, which in principle stops those explorations from raising the exponent in the runtime complexity.
Gluing (topology) Quotient map Quotient_space_(topology) > Quotient map {\displaystyle Y.} In particular, open subsets of X {\displaystyle X} that are not saturated have no impact on whether the function f {\displaystyle f} is a quotient map (or, indeed, continuous: a function f: X → Y {\displaystyle f:X\to Y} is continuous if and only if, for every saturated S ⊆ X {\textstyle S\subseteq X} such that f ( S ) {\displaystyle f(S)} is open in f ( X ) {\textstyle f(X)} , the set S {\displaystyle S} is open in X {\textstyle X} ). Indeed, if τ {\displaystyle \tau } is a topology on X {\displaystyle X} and f: X → Y {\displaystyle f:X\to Y} is any map then set τ f {\displaystyle \tau _{f}} of all U ∈ τ {\displaystyle U\in \tau } that are saturated subsets of X {\displaystyle X} forms a topology on X .
Visual space Space and its content Visual_space > Space and its content In a more richly textured visual world, the various visual percepts carry with them prior perceptual associations which often affect their relative spatial disposition. Identical separations in physical space can look quite different (are quite different in visual space) depending on the features that demarcate them. This is particularly so in the depth dimension because the apparatus by which values in the third visual dimension are assigned is fundamentally different from that for the height and width of objects.
Nerve conduction study Interpretation of nerve conductions Nerve_conduction_studies > Interpretation of nerve conductions The interpretation of nerve conduction studies is complex and requires the expertise of health care practitioners such as clinical neurophysiologists, medical neurologists, physical therapists, chiropractic neurologists or physiatrists. In general, different pathological processes result in changes in latencies, motor, and/or sensory amplitudes, or slowing of the conduction velocities to differing degrees. For example, slowing of the NCV usually indicates there is damage to the myelin.
Intrinsic bond orbitals Application in structure and bonding Intrinsic_bond_orbitals > Application in structure and bonding In his original paper introducing IBOs, Knizia showed the versatility of his method for describing not only classical bonding situations, such as the σ and π bond, but also aromatic systems and non-trivial bonds. The differentiation of σ and π bonds in acrylic acid is possible based on IBO geometries, as are the identification of the IBOs corresponding to the oxygen lone pairs. Benzene provided an example of a delocalized aromatic system to test the IBO method. Apart from the C-C and C-H σ-bonds, the six electron π-system is expressed as three delocalized IBOs. Representation of non-Lewis bonding was demonstrated on diborane B2H6, with one IBO stretching over B-H-B, corresponding to the 3-center-2-electron bond.
Z3 Theorem Prover Summary Z3_Theorem_Prover Z3, also known as the Z3 Theorem Prover, is a satisfiability modulo theories (SMT) solver developed by Microsoft.
Geosynchronous Earth orbit Launch Geosynchronous_Earth_orbit > Launch A launch site should have water or deserts to the east, so any failed rockets do not fall on a populated area.Most launch vehicles place geosynchronous satellites directly into a geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO), an elliptical orbit with an apogee at GSO height and a low perigee. On-board satellite propulsion is then used to raise the perigee, circularise and reach GSO.Once in a viable geostationary orbit, spacecraft can change their longitudinal position by adjusting their semi-major axis such that the new period is shorter or longer than a sidereal day, in order to effect an apparent "drift" Eastward or Westward, respectively. Once at the desired longitude, the spacecraft's period is restored to geosynchronous.
Alphasyllabic numeral system Structure Alphasyllabic_numeral_system > Structure The number’s value, which is represented in this way, is given as positional number with one syllable on each position. Direction of this script is right to left.In aksharapalli system, syllables were assigned the numerical values 1–9, 10–90, but never as high as 1000. According to S. Chrisomalis there was never a single regular system for correlating signs with numeral values in this system. It was used widely for paginating books, aksharapalli numerals were written in the margins from top to bottom.
Factorial number system Examples Factorial_number_system > Examples which equals 719 in decimal: 5×5! + 4×4!
Champernowne constant Continued fraction expansion Champernowne_constant > Continued fraction expansion That there are such large numbers as terms of the continued fraction expansion means that the convergents obtained by stopping before these large numbers provide an exceptionally good approximation of the Champernowne constant. For example, truncating just before the 4th partial quotient, gives which matches the first term in the rapidly converging series expansion of the previous section and which approximates Champernowne's constant with an error of about 1 × 10−9. Truncating just before the 18th partial quotient gives an approximation that matches the first two terms of the series, that is, the terms up to the term containing 10−9, which approximates Champernowne's constant with error approximately 9 × 10−190.
Harmony search Particle swarm optimization (PSO) (Kennedy & Eberhart, 1995) Glowworm_swarm_optimization > Algorithms > 1980s-1990s > Particle swarm optimization (PSO) (Kennedy & Eberhart, 1995) PSO is originally attributed to Kennedy, Eberhart and Shi and was first intended for simulating social behaviour as a stylized representation of the movement of organisms in a bird flock or fish school. The algorithm was simplified, and it was observed to be performing optimization. The book by Kennedy and Eberhart describes many philosophical aspects of PSO and swarm intelligence. An extensive survey of PSO applications is made by Poli. A comprehensive review of theoretical and experimental works on PSO has been published by Bonyadi and Michalewicz.
Construction field computing Integration of systems Construction_field_computing > Other considerations > Integration of systems Web Based Mobile IT These systems from leading vendors are not simply all about mobility in field and cutting the work required by in field managers in the area of report writing. Cloud based tablet and PC systems provide not just mobile capture and access to data in field but also for the first time they both computerise and move to the cloud the quality function. The use of powerful relational databases at the back end permits the data captured in field to be analysed.
Theory of equivalence Overview Theory_of_equivalence > Overview But for the purposes of an overview, it is convenient to stick with the principal bundle viewpoint. The second step is to use the diffeomorphism invariance of the exterior derivative to try to isolate any other higher-order invariants of the G-structure. Basically one obtains a connection in the principal bundle PM, with some torsion. The components of the connection and of the torsion are regarded as invariants of the problem. The third step is that if the remaining torsion coefficients are not constant in the fibres of the principal bundle PM, it is often possible (although sometimes difficult), to normalize them by setting them equal to a convenient constant value and solving these normalization equations, thereby reducing the effective dimension of the Lie group G. If this occurs, one goes back to step one, now having a Lie group of one lower dimension to work with.
Water molecule Summary Water_molecule This polarity allows it to dissociate ions in salts and bond to other polar substances such as alcohols and acids, thus dissolving them. Its hydrogen bonding causes its many unique properties, such as having a solid form less dense than its liquid form, a relatively high boiling point of 100 °C for its molar mass, and a high heat capacity.
Telecommunication technology Internet Electronic_communications > Modern media > Internet The Internet is a worldwide network of computers and computer networks that communicate with each other using the Internet Protocol (IP). Any computer on the Internet has a unique IP address that can be used by other computers to route information to it. Hence, any computer on the Internet can send a message to any other computer using its IP address. These messages carry with them the originating computer's IP address allowing for two-way communication.
Control character Miscellaneous codes Control_codes > The design purpose > Miscellaneous codes Since the position of a NUL character has no holes punched, it can be replaced with any other character at a later time, so it was typically used to reserve space, either for correcting errors or for inserting information that would be available at a later time or in another place. In computing it is often used for padding in fixed length records and more commonly, to mark the end of a string. Code 127 (DEL, a.k.a.
Nephrotic syndrome Diagnosis Nephrotic_syndrome > Diagnosis The urine sample is tested for proteinuria (>3.5 g per 1.73 m2 per 24 hours). It is also examined for urinary casts, which are more a feature of active nephritis. Next a blood screen, comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP) will look for hypoalbuminemia: albumin levels of ≤2.5 g/dL (normal=3.5-5 g/dL).
Optical Physics Atomic and molecular physics Optical_sciences > Atomic and molecular physics One important aspect of molecular physics is that the essential atomic orbital theory in the field of atomic physics expands to the molecular orbital theory. Molecular physics is concerned with atomic processes in molecules, but it is additionally concerned with effects due to the molecular structure. Additionally to the electronic excitation states which are known from atoms, molecules are able to rotate and to vibrate.
Quantization distortion Quantization noise model Quantization_(signal_processing) > Noise and error characteristics > Quantization noise model The calculations are relative to full-scale input. For smaller signals, the relative quantization distortion can be very large. To circumvent this issue, analog companding can be used, but this can introduce distortion.
Hypoelastic material Summary Hypoelastic_material In continuum mechanics, a hypoelastic material is an elastic material that has a constitutive model independent of finite strain measures except in the linearized case. Hypoelastic material models are distinct from hyperelastic material models (or standard elasticity models) in that, except under special circumstances, they cannot be derived from a strain energy density function.
Magnes sive de Arte Magnetica Magnetism and health Magnes_sive_de_Arte_Magnetica > Magnetism and health While Magnes is noted today primarily for its arguments against Copernicanism, the work addressed a wide variety of different phenomena, including some that have no relationship to the modern scientific understanding of magnetism. There was a scholarly debate in Kircher's time as to whether 'magnetic' powers (i.e. powers of attraction) could be used to heal wounds. Robert Fludd held that if the weapon used to cause a wound was placed against it, the wound would disappear. Kircher argued that there was no magnetic cure - indeed such a cure would be the work of the devil. : 47–48 While he dismissed the notion of a magnetic cure for wounds, he devoted a chapter of Magnes to tarantism as a cure for a spider bite - an example, he believed, of magnetic forces of attraction inherent in music.
Stuart Dalziel Summary Stuart_Dalziel Stuart Bruce Dalziel is a British and New Zealand fluid dynamicist. He is currently based at the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics at the University of Cambridge, where he has directed the GKB Laboratory since 1997. He was promoted to the rank of Professor in 2016.Dalziel completed his PhD in Cambridge in 1988, under the supervision of Paul Linden.Dalziel's research areas include stratified turbulence and internal gravity waves. == References ==
Elementary particles Electroweak bosons Elementary_particle > Standard Model > Fundamental bosons > Electroweak bosons There are three weak gauge bosons: W+, W−, and Z0; these mediate the weak interaction. The W bosons are known for their mediation in nuclear decay: The W− converts a neutron into a proton then decays into an electron and electron-antineutrino pair. The Z0 does not convert particle flavor or charges, but rather changes momentum; it is the only mechanism for elastically scattering neutrinos.
Autoinflammatory diseases Loss of negative regulators Autoinflammatory_diseases > Mechanisms of the origin > Loss of negative regulators That, again, can lead to systemic inflammation and severe inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). This provides that even single-cytokine dysregulation can cause autoinflammatory diseases. There are also mutations which can change the ability of cytotoxic cells to induce cell death, resulting in failure to terminate macrophage and dendritic cells activation and cause macrophage activation syndrome.
Elasticity of cell membranes Research papers on closed vesicles Elasticity_of_cell_membranes > Bibliography > Research papers on closed vesicles U. Seifert, K. Berndl, and R. Lipowsky, Shape transformations of vesicles: Phase diagram for spontaneous- curvature and bilayer-coupling models, Phys. Rev. A 44 (1991) 1182-1202.
Rainbow table Precomputed hash chains Rainbow_table > Precomputed hash chains Given a password hash function H and a finite set of passwords P, the goal is to precompute a data structure that, given any output h of the hash function, can either locate an element p in P such that H(p) = h, or determine that there is no such p in P. The simplest way to do this is compute H(p) for all p in P, but then storing the table requires Θ(\|P\|n) bits of space, where \|P\| is the size of the set P and n is the size of an output of H, which is prohibitive for large \|P\|. Hash chains are a technique for decreasing this space requirement. The idea is to define a reduction function R that maps hash values back into values in P. Note, however, that the reduction function is not actually an inverse of the hash function, but rather a different function with a swapped domain and codomain of the hash function. By alternating the hash function with the reduction function, chains of alternating passwords and hash values are formed.
Military simulation Problems of simulation Virtual_battlefield > Simulation and reality > Problems of simulation For obvious reasons of cost, weapons systems (such as an air-to-air missile system for use by fighter aircraft) are extensively modelled on computer. Without testing of their own, a potential buyer must rely to a large extent on the manufacturer's own model.
Double-stranded RNA Regulatory RNA in prokaryotes RNA > Regulatory RNA > Regulatory RNA in prokaryotes At first, regulatory RNA was thought to be a eukaryotic phenomenon, a part of the explanation for why so much more transcription in higher organisms was seen than had been predicted. But as soon as researchers began to look for possible RNA regulators in bacteria, they turned up there as well, termed as small RNA (sRNA). Currently, the ubiquitous nature of systems of RNA regulation of genes has been discussed as support for the RNA World theory. There are indications that the enterobacterial sRNAs are involved in various cellular processes and seem to have significant role in stress responses such as membrane stress, starvation stress, phosphosugar stress and DNA damage.
Watermark (data file) Digital watermarking Watermark_(data_file) > Digital watermarking Digital watermarking is distinctly different from data hashing. It is the process of altering the original data file, allowing for the subsequent recovery of embedded auxiliary data referred to as a watermark. A subscriber, with knowledge of the watermark and how it is recovered, can determine (to a certain extent) whether significant changes have occurred within the data file. Depending on the specific method used, recovery of the embedded auxiliary data can be robust to post-processing (such as lossy compression).
Other nonmetal Unclassified Reactive_nonmetals > Subclasses > Unclassified Oxygen corrodes iron via rust. White phosphorus, the most unstable form, ignites in air and produces phosphoric acid residue. Untreated selenium in soils can give rise to corrosive hydrogen selenide gas.
Cayley–Menger determinant Example Cayley–Menger_determinant > Realization of a Euclidean distance matrix > Theorem (d is given) > Example . . {\displaystyle p_{2}={(\delta _{12})^{2},0,...}} .
Spin transfer Summary Spin_transfer If this spin-polarized current is directed into a second, thinner magnetic layer (the “free layer”), the angular momentum can be transferred to this layer, changing its orientation. This can be used to excite oscillations or even flip the orientation of the magnet. The effects are usually seen only in nanometer scale devices.
Holding current (electronics) Summary Holding_current_(electronics) The holding current (hypostatic) for electrical, electromagnetic, and electronic devices is the minimum current which must pass through a circuit in order for it to remain in the 'ON' state. The term can be applied to a single switch or to an entire device. A simple example of holding current is in a Spark gap.
Arzelà–Ascoli theorem Differentiable functions Ascoli's_theorem > Statement and first consequences > Immediate examples > Differentiable functions Then there is a subsequence of the { fn } converging uniformly to a continuously differentiable function. The diagonalization argument can also be used to show that a family of infinitely differentiable functions, whose derivatives of each order are uniformly bounded, has a uniformly convergent subsequence, all of whose derivatives are also uniformly convergent. This is particularly important in the theory of distributions.
Rope bridge Design Simple_suspension_bridge > Design These include a stressed ribbon bridge, which is closely related to a simple suspension bridge but has a stiffened deck suitable for vehicle traffic. A very light bridge, constructed with cables under high tension, may approach a suspended deck bridge in the nearly horizontal grade of its deck. The bridge may be stiffened by the addition of cables that do not bear the primary structural or live loads and so may be relatively light.
Intracellular membranes Golgi apparatus Intracellular_membranes > Components of the system > Golgi apparatus The Golgi apparatus (also known as the Golgi body and the Golgi complex) is composed of separate sacs called cisternae. Its shape is similar to a stack of pancakes. The number of these stacks varies with the specific function of the cell. The Golgi apparatus is used by the cell for further protein modification.
Differential privacy The Laplace mechanism Differential_privacy > ε-differentially private mechanisms > The Laplace mechanism The Laplace mechanism adds Laplace noise (i.e. noise from the Laplace distribution, which can be expressed by probability density function noise ( y ) ∝ exp ⁡ ( − \| y \| / λ ) {\displaystyle {\text{noise}}(y)\propto \exp(-\|y\|/\lambda )\,\!} , which has mean zero and standard deviation 2 λ {\displaystyle {\sqrt {2}}\lambda \,\!} ). Now in our case we define the output function of A {\displaystyle {\mathcal {A}}\,\!}
Graphical programming Multimedia Visual_programming > List of visual languages > Multimedia Houdini (software) vfx, modeling and animation software. GenerativeComponents, a parametric CAD software developed by Bentley Systems Grasshopper 3d, a generative modeling interface for Rhinoceros 3D Isadora, a proprietary graphic programming environment for Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows, with emphasis on real-time manipulation of digital video. Kyma (sound design language), a visual programming language for sound design used by musicians, researchers, and sound designers.
Laue equations Summary Laue_conditions (This physical interpretation of the equation is based on the assumption that scattering at a lattice point is made in a way that the scattering wave and the incoming wave have the same phase at the point.) It also can be seen as the conservation of momentum as ℏ k o u t = ℏ k i n + ℏ G {\displaystyle \hbar \mathbf {k} _{\mathrm {out} }=\hbar \mathbf {k} _{\mathrm {in} }+\hbar \mathbf {G} } since G {\displaystyle \mathbf {G} } is the wavevector for a plane wave associated with parallel crystal lattice planes. (Wavefronts of the plane wave are coincident with these lattice planes.) The equations are equivalent to Bragg's law; the Laue equations are vector equations while Bragg's law is in a form that is easier to solve, but these tell the same content.
Photochemistry Principles Photochemistry > Concept > Principles In the case of photochemical reactions, light provides the activation energy. Simplistically, light is one mechanism for providing the activation energy required for many reactions. If laser light is employed, it is possible to selectively excite a molecule so as to produce a desired electronic and vibrational state. Equally, the emission from a particular state may be selectively monitored, providing a measure of the population of that state.
Comparison of Java and C++ Performance Comparison_of_Java_and_C++ > Performance Currently available JVM implementations have no problem in inlining most of the monomorphic, mostly monomorphic and dimorphic calls, and research is in progress to inline also megamorphic calls, thanks to the recent invoke dynamic enhancements added in Java 7. Inlining can allow for further optimisations like loop vectorisation or loop unrolling, resulting in a huge overall performance increase. In Java, thread synchronizing is built into the language, so the JIT compiler can potentially, via escape analysis, elide locks, significantly improve the performance of naive multi-threaded code.Also, some performance problems occur in C++: Allowing pointers to point to any address can make optimizing difficult due to the possibility of pointer aliasing.
Comparison of BSD operating systems Other sources Comparison_of_BSD_operating_systems > Notes and references > Other sources "The UNIX system family tree: Research and BSD" (ASCII). The NetBSD Foundation. Retrieved 2006-06-03.
Server consolidation Reasons for virtualization Guest_operating_system > Reasons for virtualization There are several approaches to platform virtualization. Examples of virtualization use cases: Running one or more applications that are not supported by the host OS: A virtual machine running the required guest OS could permit the desired applications to run, without altering the host OS. Evaluating an alternate operating system: The new OS could be run within a VM, without altering the host OS.
Glacial erosion Submarine sediment gravity flows Erosion > Physical processes > Submarine sediment gravity flows On the continental slope, erosion of the ocean floor to create channels and submarine canyons can result from the rapid downslope flow of sediment gravity flows, bodies of sediment-laden water that move rapidly downslope as turbidity currents. Where erosion by turbidity currents creates oversteepened slopes it can also trigger underwater landslides and debris flows. Turbidity currents can erode channels and canyons into substrates ranging from recently deposited unconsolidated sediments to hard crystalline bedrock. Almost all continental slopes and deep ocean basins display such channels and canyons resulting from sediment gravity flows and submarine canyons act as conduits for the transfer of sediment from the continents and shallow marine environments to the deep sea. Turbidites, which are the sedimentary deposits resulting from turbidity currents, comprise some of the thickest and largest sedimentary sequences on Earth, indicating that the associated erosional processes must also have played a prominent role in Earth's history.
Root-finding algorithms Summary Root_finding_of_polynomials In mathematics and computing, a root-finding algorithm is an algorithm for finding zeros, also called "roots", of continuous functions. A zero of a function f, from the real numbers to real numbers or from the complex numbers to the complex numbers, is a number x such that f(x) = 0. As, generally, the zeros of a function cannot be computed exactly nor expressed in closed form, root-finding algorithms provide approximations to zeros, expressed either as floating-point numbers or as small isolating intervals, or disks for complex roots (an interval or disk output being equivalent to an approximate output together with an error bound).Solving an equation f(x) = g(x) is the same as finding the roots of the function h(x) = f(x) – g(x). Thus root-finding algorithms allow solving any equation defined by continuous functions.
CH3I Methylation reagent CH3I > Reactions > Methylation reagent Iodomethane is an excellent substrate for SN2 substitution reactions. It is sterically open for attack by nucleophiles, and iodide is a good leaving group. It is used for alkylating carbon, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus nucleophiles. Unfortunately, it has a high equivalent weight: one mole of iodomethane weighs almost three times as much as one mole of chloromethane and nearly 1.5 times as much as one mole of bromomethane.
Categorization Classical view Categorization > Theories > Classical view The classical theory of categorization, is a term used in cognitive linguistics to denote the approach to categorization that appears in Plato and Aristotle and that has been highly influential and dominant in Western culture, particularly in philosophy, linguistics and psychology. Aristotle's categorical method of analysis was transmitted to the scholastic medieval university through Porphyry's Isagoge. The classical view of categories can be summarized into three assumptions: a category can be described as a list of necessary and sufficient features that its membership must have, categories are discrete in that they have clearly defined boundaries (either an element belongs to one or not, with no possibilities in between), and all the members of a category have the same status. (There are no members of the category which belong more than others).
Human nature Summary Human_nature Charles Darwin's theory of evolution has particularly changed the shape of the discussion, supporting the proposition that mankind's ancestors were not like mankind today. As in much of modern science, such theories seek to explain with little or no recourse to metaphysical causation. They can be offered to explain the origins of human nature and its underlying mechanisms, or to demonstrate capacities for change and diversity which would arguably violate the concept of a fixed human nature.
Horizontal transfer Prokaryotes Transposition_(horizontal_gene_transfer) > Prokaryotes Horizontal gene transfer is common among bacteria, even among very distantly related ones. This process is thought to be a significant cause of increased drug resistance when one bacterial cell acquires resistance, and the resistance genes are transferred to other species. Transposition and horizontal gene transfer, along with strong natural selective forces have led to multi-drug resistant strains of S. aureus and many other pathogenic bacteria. Horizontal gene transfer also plays a role in the spread of virulence factors, such as exotoxins and exoenzymes, amongst bacteria.
Potential gradient Three dimensions Potential_gradient > Definition > Three dimensions {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =\nabla \phi .\,\!} although this final form holds in any curvilinear coordinate system, not just Cartesian. This expression represents a significant feature of any conservative vector field F, namely F has a corresponding potential ϕ.Using Stokes' theorem, this is equivalently stated as ∇ × F = 0 {\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {F} ={\boldsymbol {0}}\,\!} meaning the curl, denoted ∇×, of the vector field vanishes.
Welcome mat Others Mat > Types > Others an anti-vibration mat, which performs the function of isolating vibration between that which is above the mat and that which is below. Such a mat might typically be used when mounting a heavy machine which vibrates, onto a concrete floor; in the absence of the anti-vibration mat, the machine tend to erode the floor through abrasion. Contrawise, some machines, such as the lithography machines used in chip fabs, need to be isolated from vibrations in their locale, and so are mounted on anti-vibration mats. a slipmat, a circular piece of slippery cloth or synthetic material designed to allow disc jockeys to turn or stop vinyl records on record players, or to scratch.
Aerial Lift Bridge Bridge history Aerial_Lift_Bridge > Bridge history This type of span, known variously as an aerial transfer, ferry, or transporter bridge, was first demonstrated in Bilbao's Vizcaya Bridge in 1893 and one in France in 1898. Duluth's bridge was inspired by the one in France, though the actual construction is quite different. The architect was a city engineer, Thomas McGilvray.When it was completed in 1905, the Aerial Bridge's gondola had a capacity of 60 short tons (54 tonnes) and could carry 350 people plus wagons, streetcars, or automobiles.
Normalization Process Model Constructs Normalization_Process_Model > Development > Components > Constructs Therefore: a complex intervention is disposed to normalization if it is calibrated to an agreed skill-set at a recognizable location in the division of labor. Contextual integration: This refers to the incorporation of work within an organizational setting. A complex intervention will affect the mechanisms that link work to existing structures and procedures (its execution), and for allocating and organizing resources for them (its realization). Therefore: a complex intervention is disposed to normalization if it confers an advantage on an organization in flexibly executing and realizing work.
Apparent molar property Multicomponent mixtures or solutions Apparent_molar_property > Multicomponent mixtures or solutions . ) = ϕ V ~ 123.. = V − V 0 n 1 + n 2 + n 3 + . .
Sink United States Wash_basin > History > United States The washstand was a bathroom sink made in the United States in the late 18th century. The washstands were small tables on which were placed a pitcher and a deep bowl, following the English tradition. Sometimes the table had a hole where the large bowl rested, which led to the making of dry sinks. From about 1820 to 1900, the dry sink evolved by the addition of a wooden cabinet with a trough built on the top, lined with zinc or lead. This is where the bowls or buckets for water were kept. Splashboards were sometimes added to the back wall, as well as shelves and drawers, the more elaborate designs usually placed in the kitchen.
Position four-vector Four-velocity Position_four-vector > Kinematics > Four-velocity The four-velocity of a particle is defined by: Geometrically, U is a normalized vector tangent to the world line of the particle. Using the differential of the four-position, the magnitude of the four-velocity can be obtained: in short, the magnitude of the four-velocity for any object is always a fixed constant: The norm is also: so that: which reduces to the definition of the Lorentz factor. Units of four-velocity are m/s in SI and 1 in the geometrized unit system. Four-velocity is a contravariant vector.
Dual vector Summary Dual_vector In mathematics, a linear form (also known as a linear functional, a one-form, or a covector) is a linear map from a vector space to its field of scalars (often, the real numbers or the complex numbers). If V is a vector space over a field k, the set of all linear functionals from V to k is itself a vector space over k with addition and scalar multiplication defined pointwise. This space is called the dual space of V, or sometimes the algebraic dual space, when a topological dual space is also considered.
Solar forcing Recent growth trends Radiative_Forcing > Recent growth trends Radiative forcing can be a useful way to compare the growing warming influence of different anthropogenic greenhouse gases over time. The table and figures below (derived by researchers at NOAA from atmospheric radiative transfer models) show changes since year 1979 in the radiative forcing of the long-lived and well-mixed greenhouse gases that have been increasing in earth's atmosphere since the industrial revolution. The table includes the direct forcing contributions from carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O); chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 12 and 11; and fifteen other halogenated gases. These data do not include the significant forcing contributions from shorter-lived and less-well-mixed gases or aerosols; including those indirect forcings from the decay of methane and some halogens.
Haematopoietic system Function Hematopoietic_system > Function They are derived from common lymphoid progenitors. The lymphoid lineage is composed of T-cells, B-cells and natural killer cells. This is lymphopoiesis. Cells of the myeloid lineage, which include granulocytes, megakaryocytes and macrophages, are derived from common myeloid progenitors, and are involved in such diverse roles as innate immunity and blood clotting. This is myelopoiesis.
SAW filter Technologies Filter_(signal_processing) > Technologies Filters can be built in a number of different technologies. The same transfer function can be realised in several different ways, that is the mathematical properties of the filter are the same but the physical properties are quite different. Often the components in different technologies are directly analogous to each other and fulfill the same role in their respective filters. For instance, the resistors, inductors and capacitors of electronics correspond respectively to dampers, masses and springs in mechanics.
Shear strength (soil) Summary Shear_strength_(soil) If soil expands its volume, the density of particles will decrease and the strength will decrease; in this case, the peak strength would be followed by a reduction of shear stress. The stress-strain relationship levels off when the material stops expanding or contracting, and when interparticle bonds are broken. The theoretical state at which the shear stress and density remain constant while the shear strain increases may be called the critical state, steady state, or residual strength.
Time hierarchy theorem Non-deterministic time hierarchy theorem Time_hierarchy > Non-deterministic time hierarchy theorem If g(n) is a time-constructible function, and f(n+1) = o(g(n)), then there exists a decision problem which cannot be solved in non-deterministic time f(n) but can be solved in non-deterministic time g(n). In other words, the complexity class NTIME(f(n)) is a strict subset of NTIME(g(n)).
Algal toxin Bloom characterization Diatom_bloom > Bloom characterization These blooms are recognizable by large blades of algae that may wash up onto the shoreline.Once the nutrient is present in the water, the algae begin to grow at a much faster rate than usual. In a mini bloom, this fast growth benefits the whole ecosystem by providing food and nutrients for other organisms.Of particular note are the harmful algal blooms (HABs), which are algal bloom events involving toxic or otherwise harmful phytoplankton. Many species can cause harmful algal blooms. For example, Gymnodinium nagasakiense can cause harmful red tides, dinoflagellates Gonyaulax polygramma can cause oxygen depletion and result in large fish kills, cyanobacteria Microcystis aeruginosa can make poisonous toxins, and diatom Chaetoceros convolutus can damage fish gills.
Variational Monte Carlo Wave function optimization in VMC Variational_Monte_Carlo > Wave function optimization in VMC QMC calculations crucially depend on the quality of the trial-function, and so it is essential to have an optimized wave-function as close as possible to the ground state. The problem of function optimization is a very important research topic in numerical simulation. In QMC, in addition to the usual difficulties to find the minimum of multidimensional parametric function, the statistical noise is present in the estimate of the cost function (usually the energy), and its derivatives, required for an efficient optimization. Different cost functions and different strategies were used to optimize a many-body trial-function.
Microstructured optical arrays Properties Microstructured_optical_arrays > Properties MOAs are achromatic (which means the focal properties do not change for radiation of different wavelengths) as they utilize grazing incidence reflection. This means that they are able to focus chromatic radiation to a common point unlike zone plates. MOAs are also adjustable as the optic can be compressed to alter the focal properties such as focal length.
ZX-calculus Applications ZX-calculus > Applications The ZX-calculus has been used in a variety of quantum information and computation tasks. It has been used to describe measurement-based quantum computation and graph states. The ZX-calculus is a language for lattice surgery on surface codes. It has been used to find and verify correctness of quantum error correcting codes. It has been used to optimize quantum circuits.
Anti-scatter grid Drawbacks Anti-scatter_grid > Drawbacks Hollis Potter (1880-1964) showed in 1920 that these grid lines could be eliminated by moving the grid at right angles to the grid lines during the exposure. If the range and speed of motion is sufficient, the grid lines will be blurred out.
Ataxia–telangiectasia Immune problems Ataxia–telangiectasia > Management > Immune problems Problems with immunity sometimes can be overcome by immunization. Vaccines against common bacterial respiratory pathogens such as Hemophilus influenzae, pneumococci and influenza virus (the "flu") are commercially available and often help to boost antibody responses, even in individuals with low immunoglobulin levels. If the vaccines do not work and the patient continues to have problems with infections, gamma globulin therapy (IV or subcutaneous infusions of antibodies collected from normal individuals) may be of benefit.
Hyperlens Summary Metamaterial_lens A superlens, or super lens, is a lens which uses metamaterials to go beyond the diffraction limit. The diffraction limit is a feature of conventional lenses and microscopes that limits the fineness of their resolution depending on the illumination wavelength and the numerical aperture NA of the objective lens. Many lens designs have been proposed that go beyond the diffraction limit in some way, but constraints and obstacles face each of them.
Quantinuum Quantum NLP/Compositional Intelligence Quantinuum > Technology and Products > Quantum NLP/Compositional Intelligence Quantinuum’s Quantum Natural Language Processing team is developing reasoning-based quantum artificial intelligence that works with modern machine learning-based techniques to produce AI systems that are more interpretable, transparent, and cost effective, requiring less data. This quantum compositional intelligence is based on categorical quantum mechanics, which studies quantum processes and how they are composed.
Accidental symmetry In Quantum Mechanics Accidental_symmetry > In Quantum Mechanics The observed degeneracy boils down to the fact that the system has a D3 symmetry. In quantum mechanics, calculations (at least formally) boil down to the diagonalization of Hermitian matrices - in particular, the Hamiltonian, or in the continuous case, the solution of linear differential equations. Again, observed degeneracies in the eigenspectrum are a consequence of discrete (or continuous) symmetries.
Synchro Synchro variants Synchro > Synchro variants For instance, a two-speed link had two transmitters, one rotating for one turn over the full range (such as a gun's bearing), while the other rotated one turn for every 10 degrees of bearing. The latter was called a 36-speed synchro. Of course, the gear trains were made accordingly.
Neurobiological effects of physical exercise Cortisol and the psychological stress response Neurobiological_effects_of_physical_exercise > Effects on neurochemistry > Cortisol and the psychological stress response The "stress hormone", cortisol, is a glucocorticoid that binds to glucocorticoid receptors. Psychological stress induces the release of cortisol from the adrenal gland by activating the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis). Short-term increases in cortisol levels are associated with adaptive cognitive improvements, such as enhanced inhibitory control; however, excessively high exposure or prolonged exposure to high levels of cortisol causes impairments in cognitive control and has neurotoxic effects in the human brain. For example, chronic psychological stress decreases BDNF expression, which has detrimental effects on hippocampal volume and can lead to depression.As a physical stressor, aerobic exercise stimulates cortisol secretion in an intensity-dependent manner; however, it does not result in long-term increases in cortisol production since this exercise-induced effect on cortisol is a response to transient negative energy balance.
Hydrogen ions Summary Hydrogen_ions A hydrogen ion is created when a hydrogen atom loses an electron. A positively charged hydrogen ion (or proton) can readily combine with other particles and therefore is only seen isolated when it is in a gaseous state or a nearly particle-free space. Due to its extremely high charge density of approximately 2×1010 times that of a sodium ion, the bare hydrogen ion cannot exist freely in solution as it readily hydrates, i.e., bonds quickly. The hydrogen ion is recommended by IUPAC as a general term for all ions of hydrogen and its isotopes. Depending on the charge of the ion, two different classes can be distinguished: positively charged ions and negatively charged ions.
Andalusian cadence Modal vs. tonal Andalusian_cadence > Analysis > Modal vs. tonal When the VI chord, which may be added between III and ♭II (iv–III–VI–♭II–I) and cadenced upon, is the most characteristic contrasting tonal area, similar by analogy to the relative major of a minor key.Another modification gives the progression a more characteristically modal sound by simply replacing the VII with a vii chord. This alters the progression slightly; Amin – Gmin – Fmaj – E7. It can be found in "Chanela", by DiMeola / McLaughlin / De Lucia. Although this example is in the key of B minor, the applied principle is the same.
Iron bloom Process Iron_bloom > Process Since slag from previous blooms may have a high iron content, it can also be broken up and may be recycled into the bloomery with the new ore. In operation, after the bloomery is heated typically with a wood fire, shifting to burning sized charcoal, iron ore and additional charcoal are introduced through the top. Again, traditional methods vary, but normally smaller charges of ore are added at the start of the main smelting sequence, increasing to larger amounts as the smelt progresses.
Air-Line Fittings Common fitting profiles by size Air-Line_Fittings > Common fitting profiles by size European convention uses DN (nominal diameter) to denote a nominal size of each fitting. Various manufacturers specify series or styles for each profile. Fittings are commonly referred to by their manufacturer name/series, i.e., "Rectus 25" for the common European standard. Proprietary designs supported by a single manufacturer are not included in this table.
Undercompressive shock wave Non-linear waves and the classical theory of shock waves Undercompressive_shock_wave > Further reading > Non-linear waves and the classical theory of shock waves J. David Logan. An introduction to nonlinear partial differential equations Wiley-Interscience 1994 G. B. Whitham. Linear and non-linear waves Wiley-Interscience 1974 Peter D. Lax. Hyperbolic systems of conservation laws and the mathematical theory of shock waves Society for industrial and applied mathematics Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1973, Hyperbolic systems of conservation laws II Comm. Pure Appl. Math., 10 :537-566, 1957
Premack principle Summary Premack_principle The Premack principle, or the relativity theory of reinforcement, states that more probable behaviors will reinforce less probable behaviors.
Drug interaction With herbal medicines Drug_interaction > With herbal medicines The most commonly implicated conventional drugs in herb-drug interactions are warfarin, insulin, aspirin, digoxin, and ticlopidine, due to their narrow therapeutic indices. The most commonly implicated herbs involved in such interactions are those containing St. John’s Wort, magnesium, calcium, iron, or ginkgo.
Brand Brand recognition Brand_marketing > Concepts > Brand recognition When given some type of cue, consumers who are able to retrieve the particular memory node that referred to the brand, they exhibit brand recognition. Often, this form of brand awareness assists customers in choosing one brand over another when faced with a low-involvement purchasing decision.Brand recognition is often the mode of brand awareness that operates in retail shopping environments. When presented with a product at the point-of-sale, or after viewing its visual packaging, consumers are able to recognize the brand and may be able to associate it with attributes or meanings acquired through exposure to promotion or word-of-mouth referrals.
Chemical Imaging Principles Chemical_Imaging > Principles Chemical imaging shares the fundamentals of vibrational spectroscopic techniques, but provides additional information by way of the simultaneous acquisition of spatially resolved spectra. It combines the advantages of digital imaging with the attributes of spectroscopic measurements. Briefly, vibrational spectroscopy measures the interaction of light with matter. Photons that interact with a sample are either absorbed or scattered; photons of specific energy are absorbed, and the pattern of absorption provides information, or a fingerprint, on the molecules that are present in the sample.
Pyruvate oxidation Summary Pyruvate_decarboxylation Pyruvate decarboxylation or pyruvate oxidation, also known as the link reaction, Swanson Conversion, or oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate, is the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA by the enzyme complex pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.The reaction may be simplified as: Pyruvate + NAD+ + CoA → Acetyl-CoA + NADH + CO2Pyruvate oxidation is the step that connects glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. In glycolysis, a single glucose molecule (6 carbons) is split into 2 pyruvates (3 carbons each). Because of this, the link reaction occurs twice for each glucose molecule to produce a total of 2 acetyl-CoA molecules, which can then enter the Krebs cycle. Energy-generating ions and molecules, such as amino acids and carbohydrates, enter the Krebs cycle as acetyl coenzyme A and oxidize in the cycle.
Howe truss The web Howe_truss > The truss > The web A Howe truss bridge can be strengthened to achieve a live load to dead load ratio of 2-to-1. If this ratio is 2-to-1 or greater, then a six-panel truss must have counter-braces and these must at least one-third as strong as the braces. The counter-braces in an eight-panel truss must be at least two-thirds as strong as the braces, and the counter-braces in a 10-panel truss must be at least equal in strength to the braces.
Artificial Photosynthesis Current research Artificial_Photosynthesis > Current research In energy terms, natural photosynthesis can be divided in three steps: Light-harvesting complexes in bacteria and plants capture photons and transduce them into electrons, injecting them into the photosynthetic chain. Proton-coupled electron transfer along several cofactors of the photosynthetic chain, causing local, spatial charge separation. Redox catalysis, which uses the aforementioned transferred electrons to oxidize water to dioxygen and protons; these protons can in some species be utilized for dihydrogen production.Using biomimetic approaches, artificial photosynthesis tries to construct systems doing the same type of processes. Ideally, a triad assembly could oxidize water with one catalyst, reduce protons with another and have a photosensitizer molecule to power the whole system.
Solvation Solvents and intermolecular interactions Solvation > Solvents and intermolecular interactions Solvation involves different types of intermolecular interactions: hydrogen bonding, ion–dipole interactions, and van der Waals forces (which consist of dipole–dipole, dipole–induced dipole, and induced dipole–induced dipole interactions). Which of these forces are at play depends on the molecular structure and properties of the solvent and solute. The similarity or complementary character of these properties between solvent and solute determines how well a solute can be solvated by a particular solvent. Solvent polarity is the most important factor in determining how well it solvates a particular solute.
Echo state network Background Echo_state_network > Background The Echo State Network (ESN) belongs to the Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) family and provide their architecture and supervised learning principle. Unlike Feedforward Neural Networks, Recurrent Neural Networks are dynamic systems and not functions. Recurrent Neural Networks are typically used for: Learn dynamical process: signal treatment in engineering and telecommunications, vibration analysis, seismology, control of engines and generators. Signal forecasting and generation: text, music, electric signals, chaotic signals.
Java ConcurrentMap Weak consistency Java_ConcurrentMap > Weak consistency So, for example, a Map containing two entries that are inter-dependent may be seen in an inconsistent way by a reader Thread during modification by another Thread. An update that is supposed to change the key of an Entry (k1,v) to an Entry (k2,v) atomically would need to do a remove(k1) and then a put(k2, v), while an iteration might miss the entry or see it in two places. Retrievals return the value for a given key that reflects the latest previous completed update for that key.
Mechanome Summary Mechanome Requires knowledge of the distribution of force throughout the cell/organ/body, the functional interactions between these stresses and the fundamental biological processes. The mechanome seeks to understand the fundamental physical-mechanical processes and events that affect biological function. An example at the molecular level includes the common structural designs used by kinesin and myosin motor proteins (such as dimer formation and mechanochemical cycles) that control their function and lead to properties such as processivity.
Assignable variable Scope and extent Scalar_variable > Scope and extent Such a variable may, however, be assigned a new value, which gives it a new extent. For space efficiency, a memory space needed for a variable may be allocated only when the variable is first used and freed when it is no longer needed. A variable is only needed when it is in scope, thus beginning each variable's lifetime when it enters scope may give space to unused variables.
Data validation and reconciliation Benefits Data_validation_and_reconciliation > Data reconciliation > Benefits Redundancy can be used as a source of information to cross-check and correct the measurements y {\displaystyle y\,\!} and increase their accuracy and precision: on the one hand they reconciled Further, the data reconciliation problem presented above also includes unmeasured variables x {\displaystyle x\,\!} . Based on information redundancy, estimates for these unmeasured variables can be calculated along with their accuracies. In industrial processes these unmeasured variables that data reconciliation provides are referred to as soft sensors or virtual sensors, where hardware sensors are not installed.
H3K9me2 Epigenetic implications H3K9me2 > Epigenetic implications These annotated states can be used as new ways to annotate a genome independently of the underlying genome sequence. This independence from the DNA sequence enforces the epigenetic nature of histone modifications. Chromatin states are also useful in identifying regulatory elements that have no defined sequence, such as enhancers. This additional level of annotation allows for a deeper understanding of cell specific gene regulation.
Facet theory Description of Partial Order Scalogram Analysis by Coordinates (POSAC) Facet_theory > Multiple scaling by POSAC > Description of Partial Order Scalogram Analysis by Coordinates (POSAC) The well known Guttman scale (example: 1111, 1121, 1131, 2131, 2231, 2232) is simply a 1-d scalogram, i.e. one all of whose profiles are comparable. The procedure of identifying and interpreting the coordinate scales X1...Xm is called multiple scaling. multiple scaling is facilitated by partial order scalogram analysis by base coordinates (POSAC) for which algorithms and computer programs have been devised.
Dropout (neural networks) Weak dilution Dropout_(neural_networks) > Weak dilution In weak dilution only a small and fixed fraction of the weights are diluted. When the number of terms in the sum goes to infinite (the weights for each node) it is still infinite (the fraction is fixed), thus mean field theory can be applied. In the notation from Hertz et al. this would be written as ⟨ h i ⟩ {\displaystyle \left\langle h_{i}\right\rangle } the mean field temperature c {\displaystyle c} – a scaling factor for the temperature from the probability of keeping the weight w i j {\displaystyle w_{ij}} – real weight before dilution, also called the Hebb connection strength ⟨ S j ⟩ {\displaystyle \left\langle S_{j}\right\rangle } – the mean stable equilibrium statesThere are some assumptions for this to hold, which are not listed here.
Fecal occult blood test Colorectal cancer screening Fecal_occult_blood > Medical uses > Colorectal cancer screening Cancer Council Australia recommended that FOBT should be done every two years. People over 50 not yet eligible for the national program can arrange with their doctor for an FOBT. The Canadian Cancer Society recommends that men and women aged 50 and over have an FOBT at least every two years. In colon cancer screening, using only one sample of feces collected by a doctor performing a digital rectal examination is discouraged.The use of the M2-PK Test is encouraged over gFOBT for routine screening, as it may pick up tumors whether or not they are bleeding. It is able to detect 80 percent of colorectal cancers and 44 percent for adenoma > 1 centimeter, while gFOBT picks up 13 to 50 percent of colorectal cancers.
Binary search trees Summary Binary_search_trees BSTs were devised in the 1960s for the problem of efficient storage of labeled data and are attributed to Conway Berners-Lee and David Wheeler. The performance of a binary search tree is dependent on the order of insertion of the nodes into the tree since arbitrary insertions may lead to degeneracy; several variations of the binary search tree can be built with guaranteed worst-case performance. The basic operations include: search, traversal, insert and delete.
DNS hijacking Response DNS_hijacking > Response In the UK, the Information Commissioner's Office has acknowledged that the practice of involuntary DNS hijacking contravenes PECR, and EC Directive 95/46 on Data Protection which require explicit consent for processing of communication traffic. However, they have refused to intervene, claiming that it would not be sensible to enforce the law, because it would not cause significant (or indeed any) demonstrable detriment to individuals. In Germany, in 2019 it was revealed that the Deutsche Telekom AG not only manipulated their DNS servers, but also transmitted network traffic (such as non-secure cookies when users did not use HTTPS) to a third party company because the web portal T-Online, at which users were redirected due to the DNS manipulation, was not (any more) owned by the Deutsche Telekom. After a user filed a criminal complaint, the Deutsche Telekom stopped further DNS manipulations. ICANN, the international body responsible for administering top-level domain names, has published a memorandum highlighting its concerns, and affirming: ICANN strongly discourages the use of DNS redirection, wildcards, synthesized responses and any other form of NXDOMAIN substitution in existing gTLDs, ccTLDs and any other level in the DNS tree for registry-class domain names.
Expectancy violations theory Axiological assumptions Expectancy_violations_theory > Metatheoretical assumptions > Axiological assumptions This theory seeks to be value-neutral as supporting studies have been conducted empirically and sought to objectively describe how humans react when their expectations are violated.
Dirichlet distribution Support Dirichlet_distribution > Definitions > Support The support of the Dirichlet distribution is the set of K-dimensional vectors x {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {x}}} whose entries are real numbers in the interval such that ‖ x ‖ 1 = 1 {\displaystyle \\|{\boldsymbol {x}}\\|_{1}=1} , i.e. the sum of the coordinates is equal to 1. These can be viewed as the probabilities of a K-way categorical event. Another way to express this is that the domain of the Dirichlet distribution is itself a set of probability distributions, specifically the set of K-dimensional discrete distributions. The technical term for the set of points in the support of a K-dimensional Dirichlet distribution is the open standard (K − 1)-simplex, which is a generalization of a triangle, embedded in the next-higher dimension. For example, with K = 3, the support is an equilateral triangle embedded in a downward-angle fashion in three-dimensional space, with vertices at (1,0,0), (0,1,0) and (0,0,1), i.e. touching each of the coordinate axes at a point 1 unit away from the origin.
T-complex 1 Function T-complex_1 > Function This gene encodes a molecular chaperone that is a member of the TRiC complex. This complex consists of two identical stacked rings, each containing eight different proteins. Unfolded polypeptides enter the central cavity of the complex and are folded in an ATP-dependent manner. The complex folds various proteins, including actin and tubulin. Alternate transcriptional splice variants of this gene, encoding different isoforms, have been characterized.

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