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Solid Concepts Products and technologies Solid_Concepts > Products and technologies Their additive manufacturing services include Stereolithography (SLA), PolyJet, Z-Corp Color 3D Prints, Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS), and Selective Laser Sintering (SLS). The company also provides Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC) machining, composites, advanced cast urethanes, and injection molding and tooling. Cast Urethanes: By reinforcing urethanes with composites and epoxies, the company manufactures urethane prototypes, models, and industrial strength end-use products.
Artificial Intelligence Cold War Shortcomings of the AI Cold War narrative Artificial_Intelligence_Cold_War > Shortcomings of the AI Cold War narrative Concerns have been expressed by academics and observers about the validity and soundness of the AI Cold War narrative. Denise Garzia expressed concern in Nature that the AI Cold War narrative will undermine the efforts by the US to establish global rules for AI ethics. Researchers have warned in MIT Technology Review that the breakdown in international collaboration in the area of science because of the threat of the alleged AI Cold War would be detrimental to progress. Additionally, the AI Cold War narrative impacts on many more areas including the planning of supply chains and the proliferation of AI.
Even function Multiplication and division Even_functions > Basic properties > Multiplication and division The product of two even functions is an even function. That implies that product of any number of even functions is an even function as well. The product of two odd functions is an even function.
Sex evolution Increased resistance to parasites Tangled_bank_hypothesis > Advantages of sex and sexual reproduction > Increased resistance to parasites As parasite infections increased, the once plentiful clones dwindled dramatically in number. Some clonal types disappeared entirely.
Hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy Mechanism Hyperthermic_intraperitoneal_chemotherapy > Mechanism Infused chemotherapy diffuses from the intraperitoneal fluid into tissue, interstitial space, and plasma, similar to peritoneal dialysis. The plasma-peritoneum barrier prevents systemic absorption of the chemotherapy into the bloodstream thereby limiting toxicity and side effects. Certain agents, like cisplatin or mitomycin C, are heated to 41 °C-43 °C for an enhanced cytotoxic effect.
Numerical-value equation History Numerical-value_equation > History The origins of dimensional analysis have been disputed by historians. The first written application of dimensional analysis has been credited to François Daviet, a student of Lagrange, in a 1799 article at the Turin Academy of Science.This led to the conclusion that meaningful laws must be homogeneous equations in their various units of measurement, a result which was eventually later formalized in the Buckingham π theorem. Simeon Poisson also treated the same problem of the parallelogram law by Daviet, in his treatise of 1811 and 1833 (vol I, p. 39).
Thermodynamic free energy Summary Free_energy_(thermodynamics) The free energy is the portion of any first-law energy that is available to perform thermodynamic work at constant temperature, i.e., work mediated by thermal energy. Free energy is subject to irreversible loss in the course of such work. Since first-law energy is always conserved, it is evident that free energy is an expendable, second-law kind of energy.
Forensic seismology Seismic detection of nuclear detonations Forensic_seismology > Seismic detection of nuclear detonations The development of efficient algorithms for nuclear detonation detection has led to many advancements in other fields such as kriging, an advanced method of interpolation used primarily in geostatistics. Algorithms are used to identify key characteristics of wave forms, such as peak-to-peak distance, amplitude, phase, P-wave amplitude, and S-wave amplitude. P-waves, or primary waves, are compression waves that propagate quickly through rock, and are generally the first waves to reach seismic stations.
Mayer–Vietoris sequence Summary Mayer-Vietoris_sequence It is a natural long exact sequence, whose entries are the (co)homology groups of the whole space, the direct sum of the (co)homology groups of the subspaces, and the (co)homology groups of the intersection of the subspaces. The Mayer–Vietoris sequence holds for a variety of cohomology and homology theories, including simplicial homology and singular cohomology. In general, the sequence holds for those theories satisfying the Eilenberg–Steenrod axioms, and it has variations for both reduced and relative (co)homology.
Scale-invariant feature transform Keypoint descriptor Scale-invariant_feature_transform > Algorithm > Keypoint descriptor The magnitudes are further weighted by a Gaussian function with σ {\displaystyle \sigma } equal to one half the width of the descriptor window. The descriptor then becomes a vector of all the values of these histograms. Since there are 4 × 4 = 16 histograms each with 8 bins the vector has 128 elements.
Casimir forces Generalities Casimir_Force > Generalities More interesting is the understanding that the sums over the energies of standing waves should be formally understood as sums over the eigenvalues of a Hamiltonian. This allows atomic and molecular effects, such as the Van der Waals force, to be understood as a variation on the theme of the Casimir effect. Thus one considers the Hamiltonian of a system as a function of the arrangement of objects, such as atoms, in configuration space.
Shannon information theory Integrated process organization of neural information Shannon_information_theory > Applications to other fields > Integrated process organization of neural information Quantitative information theoretic methods have been applied in cognitive science to analyze the integrated process organization of neural information in the context of the binding problem in cognitive neuroscience. In this context, either an information-theoretical measure, such as functional clusters (Gerald Edelman and Giulio Tononi's functional clustering model and dynamic core hypothesis (DCH)) or effective information (Tononi's integrated information theory (IIT) of consciousness), is defined (on the basis of a reentrant process organization, i.e. the synchronization of neurophysiological activity between groups of neuronal populations), or the measure of the minimization of free energy on the basis of statistical methods (Karl J. Friston's free energy principle (FEP), an information-theoretical measure which states that every adaptive change in a self-organized system leads to a minimization of free energy, and the Bayesian brain hypothesis).
Beam balance Torsion balance Weighing_scale > Pan balance > Mechanical balances > Torsion balance The scale must still use a calibration weight to compare against, and can weigh objects greater than 120 mg and come within a margin of error +/- 7 mg. Many microbalances and ultra-microbalances that weigh fractional gram values are torsion balances. A common fiber type is quartz crystal.
Public key fingerprint Public key fingerprints in practice Key_fingerprint > Public key fingerprints in practice In systems such as CGA or SFS and most cryptographic peer-to-peer networks, fingerprints are embedded into pre-existing address and name formats (such as IPv6 addresses, file names or other identification strings). If addresses and names are already being exchanged through trusted channels, this approach allows fingerprints to piggyback on them.In PGP, most keys are created in such a way that what is called the "key ID" is equal to the lower 32 or 64 bits respectively of a key fingerprint.
Rice theorem Formal proof Rice_theorem > Proof by reduction from the halting problem > Formal proof For the formal proof, algorithms are presumed to define partial functions over strings and are themselves represented by strings. The partial function computed by the algorithm represented by a string a is denoted Fa. This proof proceeds by reductio ad absurdum: we assume that there is a non-trivial property that is decided by an algorithm, and then show that it follows that we can decide the halting problem, which is not possible, and therefore a contradiction. Let us now assume that P(a) is an algorithm that decides some non-trivial property of Fa.
Oracle Advanced Queuing Summary Oracle_Advanced_Queuing As of Oracle release 10.1, AQ is integrated into Oracle Streams, and is called "Oracle Streams AQ". As of Oracle release 12.1, Oracle Streams is deprecated and AQ is again named just "Oracle AQ". Oracle AQ is used as the internal Java Message Service provider in the Oracle Enterprise Service Bus. In addition to asynchronous message exchanges (point-to-point and publish–subscribe), Oracle AQ can also perform message transformation via SQL functions. Oracle AQ is available in all editions of Oracle database, including XE.
Multiprocessor system on a chip Structure Multi-processor_system-on-chip > Structure A multiprocessor system on a chip must by definition have multiple processor cores. MPSoCs often contain multiple logically distinct processor modules as well. Additionally, MPSoCs typically contain: Memory blocks, often using scratchpad RAM and direct memory accesstiming sources to generate clock signals to control execution of SoC functions crystal oscillators and phase-locked loops are popular clock generators. peripherals including counters and power-on reset generators external interfaces, typically for communication protocols These are often based upon industry standards such as USB, FireWire, Ethernet, USART, SPI, HDMI, I²C, etc. each interface is typically to one given core or logical unit on the MPSoC a network on a chip (NoC) to communicate and share data between the processors and functional units of the MPSoC
Vibrational band Summary Vibronic_band The intensity of allowed vibronic transitions is governed by the Franck–Condon principle. Vibronic spectroscopy may provide information, such as bond length, on electronic excited states of stable molecules. It has also been applied to the study of unstable molecules such as dicarbon, C2, in discharges, flames and astronomical objects.
Puncture resistance Summary Puncture_resistance Puncture resistance denotes the relative ability of a material or object to inhibit the intrusion of a foreign object. This is defined by a test method, regulation, or technical specification. It can be measured in several ways ranging from a slow controlled puncture to a rapid impact of a sharp object or a rounded probe.
A New Kind of Science Mapping and mining the computational universe A_New_Kind_of_Science > Contents > Mapping and mining the computational universe In order to study simple rules and their often-complex behaviour, Wolfram argues that it is necessary to systematically explore all of these computational systems and document what they do. He further argues that this study should become a new branch of science, like physics or chemistry. The basic goal of this field is to understand and characterize the computational universe using experimental methods.
Rohloff Speedhub Summary Rohloff_Speedhub The Rohloff Speedhub is an epicyclic internal hub gear for bicycles, developed and patented by Rohloff AG. It has been manufactured and marketed by that company since 1998. The Speedhub 500/14 has 14 equally spaced, sequential, non-overlapping gear ratios operated by a single twistgrip. The overall gear range is 526%, meaning the highest gear is 5.26 times as high as the lowest gear.
Autoimmune diseases Diagnosis Autoimmune_conditions > Diagnosis Diagnosing autoimmune disorders can be complex due to the wide range of diseases within this category and their often overlapping symptoms. Accurate diagnosis is crucial for determining appropriate treatment strategies. Generally, the diagnostic process involves a combination of medical history evaluation, physical examination, laboratory tests, and, in some cases, imaging or biopsies.
System Ten Summary System_Ten The partition would respond to CPU I/O instructions to retrieve and transfer data in bursts from terminal devices to main memory, there were no small or single character transfers of data to reduce the demand for access to the processor memory. The processor would cycle through each partition in turn, bypassing those that had an I/O instruction in progress, and executing instructions in the others until either a new I/O was posted or 16.7ms (20ms in Europe) had elapsed and a successful branch instruction was encountered. Theoretically it was possible to "hog" the processor if a successful branch or I/O instruction was never encountered.
Siderophile element Atmophile elements Lithophile_element > Atmophile elements The atmophile elements are: H, C, N and the noble gases.Atmophile elements (also called "volatile elements") are defined as those that remain mostly on or above the surface because they are, or occur in, liquids and/or gases at temperatures and pressures found on the surface. The noble gases do not form stable compounds and occur as monatomic gases, while nitrogen, although it does not have a stable configuration for its individual atoms, forms a diatomic molecule so strong that all oxides of nitrogen are thermodynamically unstable with respect to nitrogen and oxygen. Consequently, with the development of free oxygen through photosynthesis, ammonia was oxidised to molecular nitrogen which has come to form four-fifths of the Earth's atmosphere. Carbon is also classed as an atmophile because it forms very strong multiple bonds with oxygen in carbon monoxide (slowly oxidised in the atmosphere) and carbon dioxide.
Linked list Linked list operations Linked_lists > Linked list operations When manipulating linked lists in-place, care must be taken to not use values that you have invalidated in previous assignments. This makes algorithms for inserting or deleting linked list nodes somewhat subtle. This section gives pseudocode for adding or removing nodes from singly, doubly, and circularly linked lists in-place. Throughout we will use null to refer to an end-of-list marker or sentinel, which may be implemented in a number of ways.
Colour of chemicals Summary Colour_of_chemicals The color of chemicals is a physical property of chemicals that in most cases comes from the excitation of electrons due to an absorption of energy performed by the chemical. What is seen by the eye is not the color absorbed, but the complementary color from the removal of the absorbed wavelengths. This spectral perspective was first noted in atomic spectroscopy. The study of chemical structure by means of energy absorption and release is generally referred to as spectroscopy.
Obligate anaerobe Energy metabolism Obligate_anaerobe > Energy metabolism Examples of alternative electron acceptors include sulfate, nitrate, iron, manganese, mercury, and carbon monoxide.Fermentation differs from anaerobic respiration in that the pyruvate generated from glycolysis is broken down without the involvement of an electron transport chain (i.e. there is no oxidative phosphorylation). Numerous fermentation pathways exist such as lactic acid fermentation, mixed acid fermentation, 2-3 butanediol fermentation where organic compounds are reduced to organic acids and alcohol.The energy yield of anaerobic respiration and fermentation (i.e. the number of ATP molecules generated) is less than in aerobic respiration. This is why facultative anaerobes, which can metabolise energy both aerobically and anaerobically, preferentially metabolise energy aerobically. This is observable when facultative anaerobes are cultured in thioglycolate broth.
Immunoglobulin A Serum IgA Immunoglobulin_A > Physiology > Serum IgA In the blood, IgA interacts with an Fc receptor called FcαRI (or CD89), which is expressed on immune effector cells, to initiate inflammatory reactions. Ligation of FcαRI by IgA containing immune complexes causes antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC), degranulation of eosinophils and basophils, phagocytosis by monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils, and triggering of respiratory burst activity by polymorphonuclear leukocytes.
Bitcoin Decentralization Bitcoin > Decentralization Bitcoin is decentralized thus: Bitcoin does not have a central authority. The bitcoin network is peer-to-peer, without central servers. The network also has no central storage; the bitcoin ledger is distributed. The ledger is public; anybody can store it on a computer.
Principle of Optimality Analytical concepts in dynamic programming Principle_of_Optimality > Analytical concepts in dynamic programming Choosing the control variables now may be equivalent to choosing the next state; more generally, the next state is affected by other factors in addition to the current control. For example, in the simplest case, today's wealth (the state) and consumption (the control) might exactly determine tomorrow's wealth (the new state), though typically other factors will affect tomorrow's wealth too. The dynamic programming approach describes the optimal plan by finding a rule that tells what the controls should be, given any possible value of the state.
Meningococcal disease History and etymology Meningococcal_septicaemia > History and etymology From the Greek meninx (membrane) + kokkos (berry), meningococcal disease was first described by Gaspard Vieusseux during an outbreak in Geneva in 1805. In 1884, Italian pathologists Ettore Marchiafava and Angelo Celli described intracellular micrococci in cerebrospinal fluid, and in 1887, Anton Wiechselbaum identified the meningococcus (designated as Diplococcus intracellularis meningitidis) in cerebrospinal fluid and established the connection between the organism and epidemic meningitis.
Giant cell arteritis Signs and symptoms Giant-cell_arteritis > Signs and symptoms Common symptoms of giant cell arteritis include: bruits fever headache tenderness and sensitivity on the scalp jaw claudication (pain in jaw when chewing) tongue claudication (pain in tongue when chewing) and necrosis reduced visual acuity (blurred vision) acute visual loss (sudden blindness) diplopia (double vision) acute tinnitus (ringing in the ears) stroke polymyalgia rheumatica (in 50%)The inflammation may affect blood supply to the eye; blurred vision or sudden blindness may occur. In 76% of cases involving the eye, the ophthalmic artery is involved, causing arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy.Giant cell arteritis may present with atypical or overlapping features. Early and accurate diagnosis is important to prevent ischemic vision loss. Therefore, this condition is considered a medical emergency.While studies vary as to the exact relapse rate of giant cell arteritis, relapse of this condition can occur. It most often happens at low doses of prednisone (<20 mg/day), during the first year of treatment, and the most common signs of relapse are headache and polymyalgia rheumatica.
Data integrity Types of integrity constraints Data_integrity > Databases > Types of integrity constraints Domain integrity specifies that all columns in a relational database must be declared upon a defined domain. The primary unit of data in the relational data model is the data item. Such data items are said to be non-decomposable or atomic.
Diabetes management Medications Glycemic_control > Lifestyle modification > Medications Weight reduction and exercise improve tissue sensitivity to insulin and allow its proper use by target tissues. Patients who have poor diabetic control after lifestyle modifications are typically placed on oral hypoglycemics.
NOP (code) Machine language instructions NOP_(code) > Machine language instructions A NOP must not access memory, as that could cause a memory fault or page fault. A NOP is most commonly used for timing purposes, to force memory alignment, to prevent hazards, to occupy a branch delay slot, to render void an existing instruction such as a jump, as a target of an execute instruction, or as a place-holder to be replaced by active instructions later on in program development (or to replace removed instructions when reorganizing would be problematic or time-consuming). In some cases, a NOP can have minor side effects; for example, on the Motorola 68000 series of processors, the NOP opcode causes a synchronization of the pipeline.Listed below are the NOP instruction for some CPU architectures: From a hardware design point of view, unmapped areas of a bus are often designed to return zeroes; since the NOP slide behavior is often desirable, it gives a bias to coding it with the all-zeroes opcode.
Electricity generator Linear electric generator Electric_generator > Specialised types of generator > Alternating current (AC) > Linear electric generator In the simplest form of linear electric generator, a sliding magnet moves back and forth through a solenoid - a copper wire or a coil. An alternating current is induced in the wire, or loops of wire, by Faraday's law of induction each time the magnet slides through. This type of generator is used in the Faraday flashlight. Larger linear electricity generators are used in wave power schemes.
Multiple coil magnet Summary Multiple_coil_magnet An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric current. Electromagnets usually consist of wire wound into a coil. A current through the wire creates a magnetic field which is concentrated in the hole in the center of the coil. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off.
Quartic polynomial Reducible quartics Quartic_equations > Solution > Simpler cases > Reducible quartics {\displaystyle Q(x)=(c_{2}x^{2}+c_{1}x+c_{0})(d_{2}x^{2}+d_{1}x+d_{0}).} In either case, the roots of Q(x) are the roots of the factors, which may be computed using the formulas for the roots of a quadratic function or cubic function. Detecting the existence of such factorizations can be done using the resolvent cubic of Q(x). It turns out that: if we are working over R (that is, if coefficients are restricted to be real numbers) (or, more generally, over some real closed field) then there is always such a factorization; if we are working over Q (that is, if coefficients are restricted to be rational numbers) then there is an algorithm to determine whether or not Q(x) is reducible and, if it is, how to express it as a product of polynomials of smaller degree.In fact, several methods of solving quartic equations (Ferrari's method, Descartes' method, and, to a lesser extent, Euler's method) are based upon finding such factorizations.
Capacity theory Viewer characteristics Capacity_theory > Three basic components of the capacity model > Processing of narrative content > Viewer characteristics Viewer's prior knowledge – if an individual is familiar with the narrative content, such as knowing the characters or storyline, then cognitive demand will be low and more working memory will be made available. Story schema – ability to understand the basic components of a story and the hierarchy of events will help influence the amount of cognitive demand required. Cognitive abilities – individuals with higher intelligence and higher cognitive abilities will make more efficient use of cognitive resources when encoding the narrative. Interest in the story - the viewer's interest in the story will affect how much attention is paid to the narrative and therefore will influence how resources are allocated.
ISO/IEC 11179 Structure of an ISO/IEC 11179 metadata registry ISO/IEC_11179 > Structure of an ISO/IEC 11179 metadata registry It does not refer to the description of physical files, tables and columns. The ISO/IEC 11179 constructs are "semantic" as opposed to "physical" or "technical". The standard has two main purposes: definition and exchange. The core object is the data element concept, since it defines a concept and, ideally, describes data independent of its representation in any one system, table, column or organisation.
Warfarin sodium History Warfarin_sodium > History However, coumarins themselves do not influence clotting or warfarin-like action, but must first be metabolized by various fungi into compounds such as 4-hydroxycoumarin, then further (in the presence of naturally occurring formaldehyde) into dicoumarol, to have any anticoagulant properties. Over the next few years, numerous similar chemicals (specifically 4-hydroxycoumarins with a large aromatic substituent at the 3 position) were found to have the same anticoagulant properties. The first drug in the class to be widely commercialized was dicoumarol itself, patented in 1941 and later used as a pharmaceutical.
Refraction Explanation for bending of light as it enters and exits a medium Refraction > Light > General explanation > Explanation for bending of light as it enters and exits a medium If the speed is decreased, such as in the figure to the right, the wavelength will also decrease. With an angle between the wave fronts and the interface and change in distance between the wave fronts the angle must change over the interface to keep the wave fronts intact.
ARM architectures CPU modes ARM_NEON > 32-bit architecture > CPU modes Undefined mode: A privileged mode that is entered whenever an undefined instruction exception occurs. System mode (ARMv4 and above): The only privileged mode that is not entered by an exception. It can only be entered by executing an instruction that explicitly writes to the mode bits of the Current Program Status Register (CPSR) from another privileged mode (not from user mode).
Intelligent Artificial Intelligent > Artificial Progress in artificial intelligence can be demonstrated in benchmarks ranging from games to practical tasks such as protein folding. Existing AI lags humans in terms of general intelligence, which is sometimes defined as the "capacity to learn how to carry out a huge range of tasks".Singularitarian Eliezer Yudkowsky provides a loose qualitative definition of intelligence as "that sort of smartish stuff coming out of brains, which can play chess, and price bonds, and persuade people to buy bonds, and invent guns, and figure out gravity by looking at wandering lights in the sky; and which, if a machine intelligence had it in large quantities, might let it invent molecular nanotechnology; and so on". Mathematician Olle Häggström defines intelligence in terms of "optimization power", an agent's capacity for efficient cross-domain optimization of the world according to the agent's preferences, or more simply the ability to "steer the future into regions of possibility ranked high in a preference ordering".
Amortising swap Summary Amortising_swap An Amortising swap is usually an interest rate swap in which the notional principal for the interest payments declines (i.e. is paid down) during the life of the swap, perhaps at a rate tied to the prepayment of a mortgage or to an interest rate benchmark such as the London Interbank Offered Rate (Libor). It is the opposite of the accreting swap. If the swap allows for uncertain contingent ups and downs in the notional principal, it is called a "roller-coaster swap".
Vibration isolation Factors influencing the selection of passive vibration isolators Vibration_isolation > Passive isolation > How passive isolation works > Factors influencing the selection of passive vibration isolators Size Constraints: The isolation system may have to fit in a restricted space in a laboratory or vacuum chamber, or within a machine housing. Nature of vibrations to be isolated or mitigated Frequencies: If possible, it is important to know the frequencies of ambient vibrations. This can be determined with a site survey or accelerometer data processed through FFT analysis.
Breast pump Open collection systems vs. closed collection systems Breast_pumping > Open collection systems vs. closed collection systems It may also not be able to compensate for larger shield sizes. There are no studies comparing the open- versus closed-system design. Most information in marketing materials by breast-pump manufacturers is offered without studies to back them up.
Ari Laptev Summary Ari_Laptev Ari Laptev (born August 10, 1950) is a mathematician working on the spectral theory of partial differential equations. His PhD was obtained in 1978 at Leningrad State University under the supervision of Michael Solomyak.He is currently Professor at both the KTH in Stockholm and Imperial College London. From 2001 to 2003 Laptev served as the President of the Swedish Mathematical Society.In the years 2007–2010 he served as the President of the European Mathematical Society.In April 2007 he was awarded the Royal Society Wolfson Research Merit Award.
Non-equilibrium systems Difference between equilibrium and non-equilibrium thermodynamics Non-equilibrium_systems > Scope > Difference between equilibrium and non-equilibrium thermodynamics A quasi-static process is a conceptual (timeless and physically impossible) smooth mathematical passage along a continuous path of states of thermodynamic equilibrium. It is an exercise in differential geometry rather than a process that could occur in actuality. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics, on the other hand, attempting to describe continuous time-courses, needs its state variables to have a very close connection with those of equilibrium thermodynamics. This profoundly restricts the scope of non-equilibrium thermodynamics, and places heavy demands on its conceptual framework.
Structuralism (philosophy of mathematics) Historical motivation Modal_structuralism > Historical motivation Contrarily, mathematical nominalism denies the existence of any such abstract objects in the ontology of mathematics. In the late 19th and early 20th century, a number of anti-Platonist programs gained in popularity. These included intuitionism, formalism, and predicativism.
Open quantum system Markovian equations Open_quantum_system > Dynamics > Markovian equations This method is known as the Caldeira–Leggett model, or harmonic bath model. To proceed and obtain explicit solutions, the path integral formulation description of quantum mechanics is typically employed. A large part of the power behind this method is the fact that harmonic oscillators are relatively well-understood compared to the true coupling that exists between the system and the bath.
Tests of relativistic energy and momentum Undergraduate experiments Tests_of_relativistic_energy_and_momentum > Undergraduate experiments Various experiments have been performed which, due to their simplicity, are still used as undergraduate experiments. Mass, velocity, momentum, and energy of electrons have been measured in different ways in those experiments, all of them confirming relativity. They include experiments involving beta particles, Compton scattering in which electrons exhibit highly relativistic properties and positron annihilation.
Brain stem Function Brain_stem > Function There are three main functions of the brainstem: The brainstem plays a role in conduction. That is, all information relayed from the body to the cerebrum and cerebellum and vice versa must traverse the brainstem. The ascending pathways coming from the body to the brain are the sensory pathways and include the spinothalamic tract for pain and temperature sensation and the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway (DCML) including the gracile fasciculus and the cuneate fasciculus for touch, proprioception, and pressure sensation. The facial sensations have similar pathways and will travel in the spinothalamic tract and the DCML.
Writing process Historical and contemporary perspectives Writing_process > Historical and contemporary perspectives From the contemporary perspective of composition studies, it is thus inaccurate to assume that any authentic writing process (i.e., one not contrived as part of a school assignment or laboratory setting) necessarily involves a linear sequence of "stages". Rather different kinds of activities emerge as overlapping parts of a complex whole or parts of a repeating process that can be repeated multiple times throughout anyone's process of composing a particular document. For example, writers routinely discover that editorial changes trigger brainstorming and a change of purpose; that drafting is temporarily interrupted to correct a misspelling; or that the boundary between pre-writing and drafting is less than obvious.
Shadow RAM Memory hierarchy RAM_chip > Memory hierarchy The overall goal of using a memory hierarchy is to obtain the fastest possible average access time while minimizing the total cost of the entire memory system (generally, the memory hierarchy follows the access time with the fast CPU registers at the top and the slow hard drive at the bottom). In many modern personal computers, the RAM comes in an easily upgraded form of modules called memory modules or DRAM modules about the size of a few sticks of chewing gum. These can quickly be replaced should they become damaged or when changing needs demand more storage capacity. As suggested above, smaller amounts of RAM (mostly SRAM) are also integrated in the CPU and other ICs on the motherboard, as well as in hard-drives, CD-ROMs, and several other parts of the computer system.
List of free and open-source software packages Cryptocurrency List_of_free_and_open-source_software_packages > Finance > Cryptocurrency Bitcoin – Blockchain platform, peer-to-peer decentralised digital currency Ethereum – Blockchain platform with smart contract functionality
Ni3Al NiAl Ni3Al > NiAl NiAl despite its beneficial properties generally suffers from two factors: very high brittleness at low temperatures (<330 °C) and rapid loss of strength for temperatures higher than 550 °C. The brittleness is attributed to both the high energy of anti-phase boundaries as well as high atomic order along grain boundaries. Similar to that of Ni3Al-based alloys these issues are generally addressed via the integration of other elements. Attempted elements can be broken into three groups depending on their influence of microstructure: Elements that form ternary intermetallic phases such as Ti and Hf Pseudobinary eutectic forming elements such as Cr Elements with high solubility in NiAl such as Fe, Co and CuSome of the more successful elements have been shown to be Fe, Co and Cr which drastically increase room temperature ductility as well as hot workability.
Responsibility-driven design Control style Data-driven_design > Control style These are places where objects charged with controlling and coordinating reside. Control Style Variations: A control style comes in three distinct variations. These are not precise definitions though since a control style can be said to be more centralized or delegated than another.
Decidable (logic) Some undecidable theories Decidable_(logic) > Some undecidable theories Robinson established in 1949 that the theory of fields is undecidable. Robinson arithmetic (and therefore any consistent extension, such as Peano arithmetic) is essentially undecidable, as established by Raphael Robinson in 1950.
John Raymond Smythies Biography John_Raymond_Smythies > Biography He was elected a member of the Athenaeum in 1968 (33). He published over 200 scientific papers and 16 books. He made extensive contributions to knowledge in a number of fields including the neurochemistry of schizophrenia (5,6) and the neuropharmacology of psychedelic drugs (7); the functional neuroanatomy of synapses with particular regard to the role of synaptic plasticity, endocytosis and redox factors (8,9); the role in the brain of orthoquinone metabolites of catecholamines (10); the role of virtual reality mechanisms in visual perception (11) and, in particular, theories of brain-consciousness relations (12–17).
Universal Gas Constant Summary Universal_Gas_Constant As a consequence, the SI value of the molar gas constant is exactly 8.31446261815324 J⋅K−1⋅mol−1. Some have suggested that it might be appropriate to name the symbol R the Regnault constant in honour of the French chemist Henri Victor Regnault, whose accurate experimental data were used to calculate the early value of the constant. However, the origin of the letter R to represent the constant is elusive.
Disquotational principle Overview Disquotational_principle > Overview Pierre's background tells him that statesmen are generally not very gifted in music, and this leads him to the belief that Paderewski had no musical talent. The disquotation principle allows us to deduce that Pierre believes the proposition that Paderewski had no musical talent. Using this principle, we have now deduced that Pierre believes that Paderewski had musical talent, and does not believe that Paderewski had musical talent, even though Pierre's beliefs were formed logically.
Spinal meningitis Bacterial Eosinophilic_meningitis > Causes > Bacterial These pathogens are also associated with meningitis in people with an impaired immune system. An infection in the head and neck area, such as otitis media or mastoiditis, can lead to meningitis in a small proportion of people. Recipients of cochlear implants for hearing loss are more at risk for pneumococcal meningitis.Tuberculous meningitis, which is meningitis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, is more common in people from countries in which tuberculosis is endemic, but is also encountered in people with immune problems, such as AIDS.Recurrent bacterial meningitis may be caused by persisting anatomical defects, either congenital or acquired, or by disorders of the immune system.
Basolateral membrane Lipid bilayer Cellular_membrane > Structures > Lipid bilayer The arrangement of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer prevent polar solutes (ex. amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins, and ions) from diffusing across the membrane, but generally allows for the passive diffusion of hydrophobic molecules. This affords the cell the ability to control the movement of these substances via transmembrane protein complexes such as pores, channels and gates.
Quartic equation Converting to a depressed quartic Quartic_equation > The general case > Converting to a depressed quartic Now rename the coefficients of u. Let a = − 3 B 2 8 A 2 + C A , b = B 3 8 A 3 − B C 2 A 2 + D A , c = − 3 B 4 256 A 4 + C B 2 16 A 3 − B D 4 A 2 + E A . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}a&={-3B^{2} \over 8A^{2}}+{C \over A}\ ,\\b&={B^{3} \over 8A^{3}}-{BC \over 2A^{2}}+{D \over A}\ ,\\c&={-3B^{4} \over 256A^{4}}+{CB^{2} \over 16A^{3}}-{BD \over 4A^{2}}+{E \over A}\ .\end{aligned}}} The resulting equation is which is a depressed quartic equation. If b = 0 {\displaystyle \ b=0\ } then we have the special case of a biquadratic equation, which is easily solved, as explained above.
Military simulation Political-military simulations Virtual_battlefield > Political-military simulations Kriegsspiel was concerned only with the movement and engagement of military forces, and subsequent simulations were similarly focused in their approach. Following the Prussian success in 1866 against Austria at Sadowa, the Austrians, French, British, Italians, Japanese and Russians all began to make use of wargaming as a training tool. The United States was relatively late to adopt the trend, but by 1889 wargaming was firmly embedded in the culture of the U.S.
Zero Field NMR Summary Zero_Field_NMR One successful implementation was using atomic magnetometers at zero magnetic field working with rubidium vapor cells to detect zero-field NMR.Without a large magnetic field to induce nuclear spin polarization, the nuclear spins must be polarized externally using hyperpolarization techniques. This can be as simple as polarizing the spins in a magnetic field followed by shuttling to the ZULF region for signal acquisition, and alternative chemistry-based hyperpolarization techniques can also be used. It is sometimes but inaccurately referred to as nuclear quadrupole resonance (NQR).
Management of multiple sclerosis Medical treatments for symptoms Management_of_multiple_sclerosis > Managing the effects of MS > Medical treatments for symptoms Spasticity: spasticity is characterized by increased stiffness and slowness in limb movement, the development of certain postures, an association with weakness of voluntary muscle power, and with involuntary and sometimes painful spasms of limbs. A physiotherapist can help to reduce spasticity and avoid the development of contractures with techniques such as passive stretching. Nabiximols is safe and effective for relieving spasticity.
Maximum entropy thermodynamics Maximum Shannon entropy Maximum_entropy_thermodynamics > Maximum Shannon entropy The approach also creates a theoretical framework for the study of some very special cases of far-from-equilibrium scenarios, making the derivation of the entropy production fluctuation theorem straightforward. For non-equilibrium processes, as is so for macroscopic descriptions, a general definition of entropy for microscopic statistical mechanical accounts is also lacking. Technical note: For the reasons discussed in the article differential entropy, the simple definition of Shannon entropy ceases to be directly applicable for random variables with continuous probability distribution functions.
Noise disturbance Sound level meters Ocean_noise > Noise assessment > Instrumentation > Sound level meters Sound can be measured in the air using a sound level meter, a device consisting of a microphone, an amplifier, and a time meter. Sound level meters can measure noise at different frequencies (usually A- and C-weighted levels). There are two settings for response time constants, fast (time constant = 0.125 seconds, similar to human hearing) or slow (1 second, used for calculating averages over widely varying sound levels). Sound level meters meet the required standards set by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and in the United States, the American National Standards Institute as type 0, 1, or 2 instruments.Type 0 devices are not required to meet the same criteria expected of types 1 and 2 since scientists use these as laboratory reference standards. Type 1 (precision) instruments are to study the precision of capturing sound measurements, while type 2 instruments are for general field use. Type 1 devices acceptable by the standards have a margin of error of ±1.5 dB, while type 2 instruments meet a margin of error of ±2.3 dB.
Counter-current flow Countercurrent exchange in industry and scientific research Countercurrent_exchange > Countercurrent exchange in industry and scientific research The process in the trays is a combination of heat transfer and mass transfer. Heat is supplied at the bottom, known as a "reboiler" and cooling is done with a condenser at the top.Liquid-liquid extraction (also called 'solvent extraction' or 'partitioning') is a common method for extracting a substance from one liquid into another liquid at a different 'phase' (such as "slurry").
Systematic errors Characterization Systematic_errors > Characterization They can be estimated by comparing multiple measurements and reduced by averaging multiple measurements. Systematic error is predictable and typically constant or proportional to the true value. If the cause of the systematic error can be identified, then it usually can be eliminated.
Cardano formula Cardano's formula Cardano's_formula > Cardano's formula If 4 p 3 + 27 q 2 < 0 , {\displaystyle 4p^{3}+27q^{2}<0,} there are three real roots, but Galois theory allows proving that, if there is no rational root, the roots cannot be expressed by an algebraic expression involving only real numbers. Therefore, the equation cannot be solved in this case with the knowledge of Cardano's time. This case has thus been called casus irreducibilis, meaning irreducible case in Latin.
Manual transmission Truck transmissions Constant_mesh_gearbox > Truck transmissions With a third transmission, gears are multiplied yet again, giving greater range or closer spacing. Some trucks thus have dozens of gear positions, although most are duplicates. Sometimes a secondary transmission is integrated with the differential in the rear axle, called a "two-speed rear end".
Genetic Engineering Regulation Genetic_manipulation > Regulation The regulation of genetic engineering concerns the approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the development and release of GMOs. The development of a regulatory framework began in 1975, at Asilomar, California. The Asilomar meeting recommended a set of voluntary guidelines regarding the use of recombinant technology. As the technology improved the US established a committee at the Office of Science and Technology, which assigned regulatory approval of GM food to the USDA, FDA and EPA.
World3 nonrenewable resource sector Overview World3_nonrenewable_resource_sector > Overview This causes the amount of resources expended to depend on the amount of industrial capital, and not on the amount of resources consumed. The consumption of nonrenewable resources is determined by a nonlinear function of the per capita industrial output. The higher the per capita industrial output, the higher the nonrenewable resource consumption.
Organizational charts Examples Organizational_breakdown_structure > Examples The example on the right shows a simple hierarchical organizational chart. An example of a "line relationship" (or chain of command in military relationships) in this chart would be between the general and the two colonels—the colonels are directly responsible to the general. An example of a "lateral relationship" in this chart would be between "Captain A", and "Captain B" who both work on level and both report to the "Colonel B". Various shapes such as rectangles, squares, triangles, circles can be used to indicate different roles.
Simple-type schizophrenia Controversy Simple-type_schizophrenia > Controversy Definition of this type of schizophrenia is without unity or is controversial. The diagnosis was discontinued in the DSM system, although it was recommended for reinclusion in 1989. It was subsequently confirmed as having imprecise diagnostic criteria based on collective descriptions lacking in agreement.However, in an experiment with a small sample size, five patients with a diagnosis of simple deteriorative disorder (DSM-IV) were found to have grey matter deficits, atrophy and reduced cerebral perfusion in the frontal areas. Whitwell et al. found justification to retain the classification on the basis of fulfillment of "dimensional" considerations of classification, as opposed to criticisms resulting from disagreement in considerations of classification using orientation from other categories.
Ohmic contact Physics of formation of metal–semiconductor ohmic contacts Nonrectifying_junction > Physics of formation of metal–semiconductor ohmic contacts Unfortunately experiments have shown that the predictive power of the model doesn't extend much beyond this statement. Under realistic conditions, contact metals may react with semiconductor surfaces to form a compound with new electronic properties. A contamination layer at the interface may effectively widen the barrier. The surface of the semiconductor may reconstruct leading to a new electronic state. The dependence of contact resistance on the details of the interfacial chemistry is what makes the reproducible fabrication of ohmic contacts such a manufacturing challenge.
Aircraft stability Speed stability Aircraft_flight_dynamics > Stability > Speed stability An aircraft in cruise flight is typically speed stable. If speed increases, drag increases, which will reduce the speed back to equilibrium for its configuration and thrust setting. If speed decreases, drag decreases, and the aircraft will accelerate back to its equilibrium speed where thrust equals drag. However, in slow flight, due to lift-induced drag, as speed decreases, drag increases (and vice versa). This is known as the "back of the drag curve". The aircraft will be speed unstable, because a decrease in speed will cause a further decrease in speed.
Nonlinear system identification Neural networks Nonlinear_system_identification > Neural networks Depending on the architecture of the network the training problem can be either nonlinear-in-the-parameters which involves optimisation or linear-in-the-parameters which can be solved using classical approaches. The training algorithms can be categorised into supervised, unsupervised, or reinforcement learning. Neural networks have excellent approximation properties but these are usually based on standard function approximation results using for example the Weierstrass Theorem that applies equally well to polynomials, rational functions, and other well-known models.
Static forces and virtual-particle exchange Summary Static_forces_and_virtual-particle_exchange Static force fields are fields, such as a simple electric, magnetic or gravitational fields, that exist without excitations. The most common approximation method that physicists use for scattering calculations can be interpreted as static forces arising from the interactions between two bodies mediated by virtual particles, particles that exist for only a short time determined by the uncertainty principle. The virtual particles, also known as force carriers, are bosons, with different bosons associated with each force. : 16–37 The virtual-particle description of static forces is capable of identifying the spatial form of the forces, such as the inverse-square behavior in Newton's law of universal gravitation and in Coulomb's law.
Transformation groupoid Summary Groupoid In mathematics, especially in category theory and homotopy theory, a groupoid (less often Brandt groupoid or virtual group) generalises the notion of group in several equivalent ways. A groupoid can be seen as a: Group with a partial function replacing the binary operation; Category in which every morphism is invertible. A category of this sort can be viewed as augmented with a unary operation on the morphisms, called inverse by analogy with group theory. A groupoid where there is only one object is a usual group.In the presence of dependent typing, a category in general can be viewed as a typed monoid, and similarly, a groupoid can be viewed as simply a typed group.
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy Diagnosis Bovine_spongiform_encephalopathy > Diagnosis Diagnosis of BSE continues to be a practical problem. It has an incubation period of months to years, during which no signs are noticed, though the pathway of converting the normal brain prion protein (PrP) into the toxic, disease-related PrPSc form has started. At present, no way is known to detect PrPSc reliably except by examining post mortem brain tissue using neuropathological and immunohistochemical methods. Accumulation of the abnormally folded PrPSc form of PrP is a characteristic of the disease, but it is present at very low levels in easily accessible body fluids such as blood or urine.
Multiple realizability The significance of multiple realizability Multiple_realizability > The significance of multiple realizability The special sciences therefore cannot be reduced to physics. Functionalism, which attempts to identify mental kinds with functional kinds that are characterized exclusively in terms of causes and effects, abstracts from particle physics and hence seems to be a more suitable explanation of the relation between mind and body.
Educational neuroscience Attention and executive control Educational_neuroscience > Neuroscience and education: Sample cases > Attention and executive control Attention is the key cognitive skill impaired in ADHD resulting in difficulty in completing tasks or attending to details. Aspects of attention may also be atypical in children showing anti-social behaviour and conduct disorders. From the perspective of basic neuroscience, recent evidence suggests that attention skills may be one of the human brain functions that respond best to early intervention and training (e.g.).
Specific entropy Biology Specific_entropy > Interdisciplinary applications > Biology Chiavazzo et al. proposed that where cave spiders choose to lay their eggs can be explained through entropy minimization.Entropy has been proven useful in the analysis of base pair sequences in DNA. Many entropy-based measures have been shown to distinguish between different structural regions of the genome, differentiate between coding and non-coding regions of DNA, and can also be applied for the recreation of evolutionary trees by determining the evolutionary distance between different species.
Multi-model database User-defined data models Multi-model_database > User-defined data models In addition to offering multiple data models in a single data store, some databases allow developers to easily define custom data models. This capability is enabled by ACID transactions with high performance and scalability. In order for a custom data model to support concurrent updates, the database must be able to synchronize updates across multiple keys. ACID transactions, if they are sufficiently performant, allow such synchronization. JSON documents, graphs, and relational tables can all be implemented in a manner that inherits the horizontal scalability and fault-tolerance of the underlying data store.
Terminal differentiation Mammalian cell types Terminal_differentiation > Mammalian cell types Three basic categories of cells make up the mammalian body: germ cells, somatic cells, and stem cells. Each of the approximately 37.2 trillion (3.72x1013) cells in an adult human has its own copy or copies of the genome except certain cell types, such as red blood cells, that lack nuclei in their fully differentiated state. Most cells are diploid; they have two copies of each chromosome. Such cells, called somatic cells, make up most of the human body, such as skin and muscle cells.
Auscultation Doppler auscultation Auscultation > Doppler auscultation It was demonstrated in the 2000s that Doppler auscultation using a handheld ultrasound transducer enables the auscultation of valvular movements and blood flow sounds that are undetected during cardiac examination with a stethoscope. The Doppler auscultation presented a sensitivity of 84% for the detection of aortic regurgitations, while classic stethoscope auscultation presented a sensitivity of 58%. Moreover, Doppler auscultation was superior in the detection of impaired ventricular relaxation. Since the physics of Doppler auscultation and classic auscultation are different, it has been suggested that both methods could complement each other.
Laws of Kepler Inverse square law Kepler's_Laws > Planetary acceleration > Inverse square law So the inverse square law for planetary accelerations applies throughout the entire Solar System. The inverse square law is a differential equation. The solutions to this differential equation include the Keplerian motions, as shown, but they also include motions where the orbit is a hyperbola or parabola or a straight line. (See Kepler orbit.)
Steroidal hormones Transport Steroid_hormone > Transport Steroid hormones are transported through the blood by being bound to carrier proteins—serum proteins that bind them and increase the hormones' solubility in water. Some examples are sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), corticosteroid-binding globulin, and albumin. Most studies say that hormones can only affect cells when they are not bound by serum proteins. In order to be active, steroid hormones must free themselves from their blood-solubilizing proteins and either bind to extracellular receptors, or passively cross the cell membrane and bind to nuclear receptors.
Mobile membranes Mutual Membranes with Objects on Surface Mobile_membranes > Computability Power of Mobile Membranes > Mutual Membranes with Objects on Surface A summary of the results (existing and new ones) is given in what follows: The multiplicity vector of the multiset from all membranes is considered as a result of the computation. Thus, the result of a halting computation consists of all the vectors describing the multiplicity of objects from all the membranes; a non-halting computation provides no output. The number of objects from the right-hand side of a rule is called its weight.
Reverse Osmosis Energy recovery Reverse_Osmosis_Water_Purification_Unit > Desalination > Energy recovery Energy recovery can reduce energy consumption by 50% or more. Much of the input energy can be recovered from the concentrate flow, and the increasing efficiency of energy recovery devices greatly reduces energy requirements. Devices used, in order of invention, are: Turbine or Pelton wheel: a water turbine driven by the concentrate flow, connected to the pump drive shaft provides part of the input power. Positive displacement axial piston motors have been used in place of turbines on smaller systems.
Gravitational red shift Uniform gravitational field or acceleration Gravitational_blueshift > Prediction by the equivalence principle and general relativity > Uniform gravitational field or acceleration Einstein's theory of general relativity incorporates the equivalence principle, which can be stated in various different ways. One such statement is that gravitational effects are locally undetectable for a free-falling observer. Therefore, in a laboratory experiment at the surface of the earth, all gravitational effects should be equivalent to the effects that would have been observed if the laboratory had been accelerating through outer space at g. One consequence is a gravitational Doppler effect. If a light pulse is emitted at the floor of the laboratory, then a free-falling observer says that by the time it reaches the ceiling, the ceiling has accelerated away from it, and therefore when observed by a detector fixed to the ceiling, it will be observed to have been Doppler shifted toward the red end of the spectrum.
Function problems Summary Function_problems In computational complexity theory, a function problem is a computational problem where a single output (of a total function) is expected for every input, but the output is more complex than that of a decision problem. For function problems, the output is not simply 'yes' or 'no'.
Kolmogorov structure function Main property Kolmogorov_structure_function > Probability models > Main property It is proved that at each level α {\displaystyle \alpha } of complexity the structure function allows us to select the best model S {\displaystyle S} for the individual string x {\displaystyle x} within a strip of O ( log ⁡ n ) {\displaystyle O(\log n)} with certainty, not with great probability.
Empirical method Scientific research Empirical_study > Usage > Scientific research In some of the cases, disagreement at the point of gaining knowledge results in the provision of conflicting responses to other aspects as well. There might be a disagreement in the overall feature of warrant, while limiting the knowledge and thought. Empiricists are known for sharing the view that there is no existence of innate knowledge and rather that is derivation of knowledge out of experience.
Light-front computational methods Renormalization group Light-front_computational_methods > Renormalization group The other task is to define a theory unambiguously. This is explained below. Since the front form of dynamics aims at explaining hadrons as bound states of quarks and gluons, and the binding mechanism is not describable using perturbation theory, the definition of a theory needed in this case cannot be limited to perturbative expansions.
Database table Summary Database_table Each row is identified by one or more values appearing in a particular column subset. A specific choice of columns which uniquely identify rows is called the primary key.