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Search engine technology Database Search Engines Search_engine_technology > Search engine categories > Database Search Engines Searching for text-based content in databases presents a few special challenges from which a number of specialized search engines flourish. Databases can be slow when solving complex queries (with multiple logical or string matching arguments). Databases allow pseudo-logical queries which full-text searches do not use. There is no crawling necessary for a database since the data is already structured. However, it is often necessary to index the data in a more economized form to allow a more expeditious search.
Combination guns Firing mechanisms Combination_gun > Firing mechanisms The earliest combination guns were called swivel guns, (not to be confused with the more widely known small cannon that is mounted on a swiveling stand or fork and allows a wide range of motion) which used a set of barrels designed to rotate to allow either the rifled or the smoothbore barrel to line up with a flintlock mechanism before firing. Modern combination guns tend to resemble double-barreled shotguns and double-barreled rifles, and are almost universally break open designs. Combination guns generally have a selector that allows the user to choose which barrel will fire. Three-barrel versions known as Drillings, are commonly found with two shotgun barrels and one rifle barrel, generally have two triggers, one for each shotgun barrel, and a selector that will allow one trigger to fire the rifle barrel. Four-barrel versions known as Vierlings, generally have two triggers, and selectors to switch between both the shotgun and rifle barrels.
Social learning theory History and theoretical background Social_learning_theory > History and theoretical background Reinforcement value is defined as the individual's subjective preference for a given outcome, assuming that all possible outcomes were equally available. In other words, the two variables are independent of each other. These two variables interact to generate behavior potential, or the likelihood that a given action will be performed.
Secure multiparty computation Two-party computation Secure_multi-party_computation > Protocols > Two-party computation The sender sends the mapping from the receivers output encodings to bits to the receiver, allowing the receiver to obtain their output. In more detail, the garbled circuit is computed as follows.
Infrasound Infrasound for nuclear detonation detection Infrasound > Human reactions > Infrasound for nuclear detonation detection The microbarometers used are designed to monitor frequencies below approximately 20 hertz. Sound waves below 20 hertz have longer wavelengths and are not easily absorbed, allowing for detection across large distances.Infrasound wavelengths can be generated artificially through detonations and other human activity, or naturally from earthquakes, severe weather, lightning, and other sources. Like forensic seismology, algorithms and other filter techniques are required to analyze gathered data and characterize events to determine if a nuclear detonation has actually occurred. Data is transmitted from each station via secure communication links for further analysis. A digital signature is also embedded in the data sent from each station to verify if the data is authentic.
Pitch Lake Geology Pitch_Lake > Geology The regional geology of southern Trinidad consists of a trend of ridges, anticlines with shale diapiric cores, and sedimentary volcanoes. According to Woodside, "host muds and/or shales become over pressured and under compacted in relation to the surrounding sediments...mud or shale diapirs or mud volcanoes result because of the unstable semi-fluid nature of the methane-charged, undercompacted shales/muds." The mud volcanoes are aligned along east-northeast parallel trends.
Balancing network Summary Balancing_network In a hybrid set, hybrid coil, or resistance hybrid, balancing network is a circuit used to match, i.e., to balance, the impedance of a uniform transmission line, (e.g., a twisted metallic pair, coaxial cable, etc.) over a selected range of frequencies. A balancing network is required to ensure isolation between the two ports of the four-wire side of the hybrid.A balancing network can also be a device used between a balanced device or line and an unbalanced device or line for the purpose of transforming from balanced to unbalanced or from unbalanced to balanced. Source: from Federal Standard 1037C and from MIL-STD-188
Promoter (genetics) Synthetic promoter design and engineering Promoter_regions_(genetics) > Synthetic promoter design and engineering Promoters are important gene regulatory elements used in tuning synthetically designed genetic circuits and metabolic networks. For example, to overexpress an important gene in a network, to yield higher production of target protein, synthetic biologists design promoters to upregulate its expression. Automated algorithms can be used to design neutral DNA or insulators that do not trigger gene expression of downstream sequences.
Sunburst diagram Summary Polar_area_diagram The earliest known pie chart is generally credited to William Playfair's Statistical Breviary of 1801.Pie charts are very widely used in the business world and the mass media. However, they have been criticized, and many experts recommend avoiding them, as research has shown it is difficult to compare different sections of a given pie chart, or to compare data across different pie charts. Pie charts can be replaced in most cases by other plots such as the bar chart, box plot, dot plot, etc.
Common Access Card Common problems Common_Access_Card > Common problems The ICC is fragile and regular wear can make the card unusable. Older cards tend to de-laminate with repeated insertion/removal from readers, but this problem appears to be less significant with the newer (PIV-compliant) cards. Also, the gold contacts on the ICC can become dirty and require cleaning with either solvents or a rubber pencil eraser. Fixing or replacing a CAC typically requires access to a RAPIDS facility, causing some practical problems.
U12 minor spliceosomal RNA Summary U12_minor_spliceosomal_RNA U12 minor spliceosomal RNA is formed from U12 small nuclear (snRNA), together with U4atac/U6atac, U5, and U11 snRNAs and associated proteins, forms a spliceosome that cleaves a divergent class of low-abundance pre-mRNA introns. Although the U12 sequence is very divergent from that of U2, the two are functionally analogous.
Field automorphism Definition Automorphism > Definition Category theory deals with abstract objects and morphisms between those objects. In category theory, an automorphism is an endomorphism (i.e., a morphism from an object to itself) which is also an isomorphism (in the categorical sense of the word, meaning there exists a right and left inverse endomorphism). This is a very abstract definition since, in category theory, morphisms are not necessarily functions and objects are not necessarily sets. In most concrete settings, however, the objects will be sets with some additional structure and the morphisms will be functions preserving that structure.
Enzyme activator Hexokinase-I Enzyme_activator > Examples > Hexokinase-I Hexokinase-I (HK-I) is an enzyme activator because it draws glucose into the glycolysis pathway. Its function is to phosphorylate glucose releasing glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) as the product. HK-I not only signals the activation of glucose into glycolysis but also maintains a low glucose concentration to facilitate glucose diffusion into the cell.
Directed differentiation Drug discovery and toxicology Directed_differentiation > Applications > Drug discovery and toxicology Cell types differentiated from pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) are being evaluated as preclinical in vitro models of Human diseases. Human cell types in a dish provide an alternative to traditional preclinical assays using animal, human immortalized cells or primary cultures from biopsies, which have their limitations. Clinically-relevant cell types i.e. cell type affected in diseases are a major focus of research, this includes hepatocytes, Langerhans islet beta-cells, cardiomyocytes and neurons. Drug screen are performed on miniaturized cell culture in multiwell-plates or on a chip.
General-purpose programming language C General-purpose_programming_language > Examples > C It provides economy of expression, flow control, data structures, and a rich set of operators, but does not constrain its users to use it in any one context. As a result, though it was first used by its creators to rewrite the kernel of the Unix operating system, it was easily adapted for use in application development, embedded systems (e.g., microprocessor programming), video games (e.g., Doom), and so on. Today, C remains one of the most popular and widely-used programming languages.
Abstract concept Classical theory Abstract_concept > Notable theories on the structure of concepts > Classical theory Features entailed by the definition of a concept must be both necessary and sufficient for membership in the class of things covered by a particular concept. A feature is considered necessary if every member of the denoted class has that feature. A feature is considered sufficient if something has all the parts required by the definition.
Rotary phase converter Power quality Rotary_phase_converter > Types > Power quality A common measure of the quality of the power produced by an RPC or any phase converter is the voltage balance, which may be measured while the RPC is driving a balanced load such as a three-phase motor. Other quality measures include the harmonic content of the power produced and the power factor of the RPC motor combination as seen by the utility. Selection of the best phase converter for any application depends on the sensitivity of the load to these factors. Three-phase induction motors are very sensitive to voltage imbalances.
DNA unwinding element Process DNA_unwinding_element > Prokaryotes > Process In bacteria, the protein DnaA is the replication initiator. It gets loaded onto oriC at a DnaA box sequence where it binds and assembles filaments to open duplex and recruit DnaB helicase with the help of DnaC. DnaA is highly conserved and has two DNA binding domains. Just upstream to this DnaA box, is three tandem 13-mer sequences.
Drag Coefficient Background Coefficient_of_Drag > Background For low Mach number M a {\displaystyle \mathrm {Ma} } , the drag coefficient is independent of Mach number. Also, the variation with Reynolds number R e {\displaystyle \mathrm {Re} } within a practical range of interest is usually small, while for cars at highway speed and aircraft at cruising speed, the incoming flow direction is also more-or-less the same. Therefore, the drag coefficient c d {\displaystyle c_{\mathrm {d} }} can often be treated as a constant.For a streamlined body to achieve a low drag coefficient, the boundary layer around the body must remain attached to the surface of the body for as long as possible, causing the wake to be narrow.
Axiomatic proof Summary Axiomatic_framework In mathematics and logic, an axiomatic system is any set of axioms from which some or all axioms can be used in conjunction to logically derive theorems. A theory is a consistent, relatively-self-contained body of knowledge which usually contains an axiomatic system and all its derived theorems. An axiomatic system that is completely described is a special kind of formal system. A formal theory is an axiomatic system (usually formulated within model theory) that describes a set of sentences that is closed under logical implication. A formal proof is a complete rendition of a mathematical proof within a formal system.
Glucose solution Glucose degradation User:Just_some_student_on_the_web/sandbox > Biochemical properties > Glucose degradation This is called the Warburg effect. For the increased uptake of glucose in tumors various SGLT and GLUT are overly produced.In yeast, ethanol is fermented at high glucose concentrations, even in the presence of oxygen (which normally leads to respiration rather than fermentation). This is called the Crabtree effect. Glucose can also degrade to form carbon dioxide through abiotic means. This has been demonstrated to occur experimentally via oxidation and hydrolysis at 22 °C and a pH of 2.5.
Microsoft SQL Server Master Data Services Terminology Microsoft_SQL_Server_Master_Data_Services > Terminology e.g. Within the Customer Entity you may want to create a business rule that ensures all members of the 'Country' Attribute contain either the text "USA" or "Canada". The Business Rule once created and ran will then verify all the data is correct before it accepts it into the approved model. Versions provide system owners / administrators with the ability to Open, Lock or Commit a particular version of a model and the data contained within it at a particular point in time. As the content within a model varies, grows or shrinks over time versions provide a way of managing metadata so that subscribing systems can access to the correct content.
Chlorofluorocarbon Impact as greenhouse gases Chlorofluorocarbon > Impact as greenhouse gases CFCs were phased out via the Montreal Protocol due to their part in ozone depletion. The atmospheric impacts of CFCs are not limited to their role as ozone-depleting chemicals. Infrared absorption bands prevent heat at that wavelength from escaping earth's atmosphere. CFCs have their strongest absorption bands from C-F and C-Cl bonds in the spectral region of 7.8–15.3 µm—referred to as the “atmospheric window” due to the relative transparency of the atmosphere within this region.The strength of CFC absorption bands and the unique susceptibility of the atmosphere at wavelengths where CFCs (indeed all covalent fluorine compounds) absorb radiation creates a “super” greenhouse effect from CFCs and other unreactive fluorine-containing gases such as perfluorocarbons, HFCs, HCFCs, bromofluorocarbons, SF6, and NF3.
SolveIT Software Products/Services SolveIT_Software > Products/Services Demand Planning & Forecasting (DPF): based on multiple prediction algorithms and techniques, DPF can be applied to: replenishment; promotions and incentives; pricing and discounting; cross selling and upselling; product churn. Predictive Modelling: based on a combination of both classical forecasting methods and new, non-traditional prediction technologies, which are tuned to each customers business requirements and circumstances. The service includes project planning, data validation, model training and calibration, onsite support, and parallel running.
Orbital motion (quantum) Spin Orbital_motion_(quantum) > Spin An electron has no charge distribution, and is therefore considered a point charge. It does however produce a magnetic dipole that can be oriented in an external magnetic field, as with magnetic resonance. There is also a so-called "current loop" that is created by the motion of the charged electron, despite its lack of any apparent volume which is required classically for such a current loop to exist. It also contributes to the total angular momentum the particle has, which is a sum of both the angular momentum and spin.A particle's spin is generally represented in terms of spin operators. It turns out for particles that make up ordinary matter (protons, neutrons, electrons, quarks, etc.) particles are of spin 1/2, meaning that only two eigenvectors of the Hamiltonian exist for a spin 1/2 state, implying that there are only two values of energy that can be measured. Thus showing that the inherent quantum property of energy quantization is a direct result of electron spin.
Off-target effects of genome editing Mechanisms Off-target_genome_editing > Mechanisms The CRISPR-Cas9 system works as the adaptive immune system in bacteria and archaea. When a virus infects the bacteria, this system incorporates segments of the viral DNA into the bacterial genome. Upon a second invasion, transcripts from these sequences direct a nuclease activity to its complementary sequence in the invading virus so as to destroy it.In order to extrapolate this method into eukaryotes to develop a gene editing method, a Cas9 protein, a recognition sequence RNA, and a transactivating RNA are required.
States of consciousness In artificial intelligence States_of_consciousness > Outside human adults > In artificial intelligence Turing disavowed any interest in terminology, saying that even "Can machines think?" is too loaded with spurious connotations to be meaningful; but he proposed to replace all such questions with a specific operational test, which has become known as the Turing test. To pass the test, a computer must be able to imitate a human well enough to fool interrogators.
Algorithmic technique Learning Algorithmic_technique > General techniques > Learning Learning techniques employ statistical methods to perform categorization and analysis without explicit programming. Supervised learning, unsupervised learning, reinforcement learning, and deep learning techniques are included in this category.
Linear wave theory Historical Airy_wave_theory > References > Historical Airy, G. B. (1841). "Tides and waves". In Hugh James Rose; et al.
Mustafa Al-Bassam Distributed ledgers Mustafa_Al-Bassam > Career and research > Distributed ledgers Al-Bassam has published research on scaling blockchains and cryptocurrencies. He contributed to the design and implementation of Chainspace, a blockchain protocol that makes use of sharding to increase transaction throughput. Chainspace was later spun-out into a commercial company he co-founded, and was then acquired by Facebook in 2019 to become a part of the Libra project. Al-Bassam has since been critical of Libra, stating that "the road to dystopia is paved with good intentions, and I'm concerned about Libra's model for decentralization".
Singular distribution (differential geometry) Special classes of distributions Involutive_distribution > Special classes of distributions Unless stated otherwise, by "distribution" we mean a smooth regular distribution (in the sense explained above).
Landau symbol Multiple uses Landau_symbol > Matters of notation > Multiple uses In more complicated usage, O(·) can appear in different places in an equation, even several times on each side. For example, the following are true for n → ∞ {\displaystyle n\to \infty }: The meaning of such statements is as follows: for any functions which satisfy each O(·) on the left side, there are some functions satisfying each O(·) on the right side, such that substituting all these functions into the equation makes the two sides equal. For example, the third equation above means: "For any function f(n) = O(1), there is some function g(n) = O(en) such that nf(n) = g(n)." In terms of the "set notation" above, the meaning is that the class of functions represented by the left side is a subset of the class of functions represented by the right side. In this use the "=" is a formal symbol that unlike the usual use of "=" is not a symmetric relation. Thus for example nO(1) = O(en) does not imply the false statement O(en) = nO(1).
Neonatal meningitis Pathogenesis Neonatal_meningitis > Pathogenesis Generally, the progression of neonatal meningitis starts with bacteria colonizing the gastrointestinal tract. The bacteria then invades through the intestinal mucosa layer into the blood, causing bacteremia followed by invasion of the cerebrospinal fluid. The neonate's less efficient immune system (especially the alternative complement system) lessens their defense against invading bacteria. Colonization of the mother plays an important role in transmission to the neonate, causing early-onset meningitis.
Hypocenter Earthquakes Hypocenter > Earthquakes Computing the hypocenters of foreshocks, main shock, and aftershocks of earthquakes allows the three-dimensional plotting of the fault along which movement is occurring. The expanding wavefront from the earthquake's rupture propagates at a speed of several kilometers per second; this seismic wave is what is measured at various surface points in order to geometrically determine an initial guess as to the hypocenter. The wave reaches each station based upon how far away it was from the hypocenter.
Magnetic tunnel effect Physical explanation Tunnel_magnetoresistance > Physical explanation These vary depending on the magnetic state of the junctions. There are two possibilities to obtain a defined anti-parallel state. First, one can use ferromagnets with different coercivities (by using different materials or different film thicknesses).
Universal computing Smallest machines Universal_Turing_Machine > Smallest machines One such generalization is to allow an infinitely repeated word on one or both sides of the Turing machine input, thus extending the definition of universality and known as "semi-weak" or "weak" universality, respectively. Small weakly universal Turing machines that simulate the Rule 110 cellular automaton have been given for the (6, 2), (3, 3), and (2, 4) state-symbol pairs. The proof of universality for Wolfram's 2-state 3-symbol Turing machine further extends the notion of weak universality by allowing certain non-periodic initial configurations. Other variants on the standard Turing machine model that yield small UTMs include machines with multiple tapes or tapes of multiple dimension, and machines coupled with a finite automaton.
Semiconductor Devices First transistor Semiconductor_electronics > History of semiconductor device development > First transistor The result was two very closely spaced contacts of gold. When the wedge was pushed down onto the surface of a crystal and voltage was applied to the other side (on the base of the crystal), currently started to flow from one contact to the other as the base voltage pushed the electrons away from the base towards the other side near the contacts. The point-contact transistor had been invented.
Induction lamp Magnetic induction lamps Induction_lamp > Magnetic induction lamps A special resonant circuit in the driver produces an initial high voltage on the coil to start a gas discharge; thereafter the voltage is reduced to normal running level. The system can be seen as a type of transformer, with the power coupler (inductor) forming the primary coil and the gas discharge arc in the bulb forming the one-turn secondary coil and the load of the transformer. The driver is connected to mains electricity, and is generally designed to operate on voltages between 100 and 277 VAC at a frequency of 50 or 60 Hz, or on a voltage between 100 and 400 VDC for battery-fed emergency light systems.
Cancer Genome Anatomy Project Background Cancer_Genome_Anatomy_Project > Research > Background The fundamental cause of cancer is the inability for a cell to regulate its gene expression. To characterise a specific type of cancer, the proteins that are produced from the altered gene expression or the mRNA precursor to the protein can be examined. CGAP works to associate a particular cell's expression profile, molecular signature or transcriptome, which is essentially the cell's fingerprint, with the cell's phenotype. Therefore, expression profiles exist with consideration to cancer type and stage of progression.
Market trend Market sentiment Market_trends > Market sentiment Market sentiment is a contrarian stock market indicator. When an extremely high proportion of investors express a bearish (negative) sentiment, some analysts consider it to be a strong signal that a market bottom may be near. David Hirshleifer sees in the trend phenomenon a path starting with under-reaction and ending in overreaction by investors / traders. Indicators that measure investor sentiment may include: Investor Intelligence Sentiment Index: If the Bull-Bear spread (% of Bulls − % of Bears) is close to a historic low, it may signal a bottom.
Agricultural hydrology Water table outside transition zone Agricultural_hydrology > Specific water balances > Water table outside transition zone When the water table is above the soil surface, the balances containing the components Inf, Per, Cap are not appropriate as they do not exist. When the water table is inside the root zone, the balances containing the components Per, Cap are not appropriate as they do not exist. When the water table is below the transition zone, only the aquifer balance is appropriate.
Argument of a complex number Summary Argument_of_a_complex_number In mathematics (particularly in complex analysis), the argument of a complex number z, denoted arg(z), is the angle between the positive real axis and the line joining the origin and z, represented as a point in the complex plane, shown as φ {\displaystyle \varphi } in Figure 1. It is a multivalued function operating on the nonzero complex numbers. To define a single-valued function, the principal value of the argument (sometimes denoted Arg z) is used. It is often chosen to be the unique value of the argument that lies within the interval (−π, π].
Adrenal crisis Causes Adrenal_crisis > Causes Adrenal crisis is caused by a deficiency of cortisol resulting from Addison's disease, congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), corticosteroid biosynthetic enzyme defects or pituitary disorders (such as Sheehan's syndrome, pituitary adenoma, hypopituitarism (inactive or underactive pituitary) causing failure to activate the adrenal glands. May also be a side effect of Zytiga (Abiraterone) for prostate cancer.
Malignancy Surgery Malignancy > Management > Surgery Surgery can help manage or treat malignancy by either removing the tumour, localising it and/or determining whether there has been a spread to other organs. When undertaking surgery for malignancy, there are six major objectives which are considered. These include "prevention of cancer, diagnosis and staging of disease, disease cure, tumour debulking, symptom palliation and patient rehabilitation".Surgical prevention of cancer largely consists of removing the organ at risk of developing malignancy. This would occur if an individual is predisposed to the formation of malignant cells as a result of inherited genetic mutations and, acquired diseases.Surgical diagnosis of malignancy involves completing a biopsy.
Onboard camera Summary Onboard_camera Since 1998, all Formula One cars have been fitted with at least three onboard cameras (usually more) and they form an integral part of the television coverage. As with US onboard coverage, F1 used a helicopter as a local satellite to pick up the transmission from the cars and re-broadcast it to the truck / local production center. This was initially shifted to a ground-based analog system, with variable results, and more recently to a ground-based digital solution which is now the norm. Onboard cameras are now commonplace in other top motorsports including the World Rally Championship and MotoGP.
Acoustic dampening Electronic quieting Acoustic_dampening > Methods of quieting > Electronic quieting Noise reduction: In sound and video equipment, noise reduction is the process of removing noise from a signal. This is strictly for electronic noise or noise which has been detected and put into electronic form. Noise canceling: If both the noise and the signal are received by an electronic or digital medium, noise can be filtered from the signal electronically and retransmitted without the noise. See noise-canceling microphone. Helicopter pilots rely on this technology to speak on the radio.
Mineral species Crystal structure and habit Mineral_Deposits > Physical properties > Crystal structure and habit Crystals are restricted to 32 point groups, which differ by their symmetry. These groups are classified in turn into more broad categories, the most encompassing of these being the six crystal families.These families can be described by the relative lengths of the three crystallographic axes, and the angles between them; these relationships correspond to the symmetry operations that define the narrower point groups. They are summarized below; a, b, and c represent the axes, and α, β, γ represent the angle opposite the respective crystallographic axis (e.g. α is the angle opposite the a-axis, viz. the angle between the b and c axes): The hexagonal crystal family is also split into two crystal systems – the trigonal, which has a three-fold axis of symmetry, and the hexagonal, which has a six-fold axis of symmetry.
DnaB helicase Mechanism of initiation of replication DnaB_helicase > Mechanism of initiation of replication The tight right-handed wrapping of the DNA around this complex introduces an effective positive supercoil. The associated strain in the nearby DNA leads to denaturation in the A:T-rich 'DUE' (DNA Unwinding Element) region. The complex formed at the replication origin also includes several DNA-binding proteins- Hu, IHF and FIS that facilitate DNA bending.
Atomism Atomist renaissance Classical_atomism > History > Atomist renaissance Like the ancient atomists, Descartes claimed that sensations, such as taste or temperature, are caused by the shape and size of tiny pieces of matter. The main difference between atomism and Descartes' concept was the existence of the void. For him, there could be no vacuum, and all matter was constantly swirling to prevent a void as corpuscles moved through other matter.
Batch normalization Transformation Batch_normalization > Procedures > Transformation The empirical mean and variance of B could thus be denoted as μ B = 1 m ∑ i = 1 m x i {\displaystyle \mu _{B}={\frac {1}{m}}\sum _{i=1}^{m}x_{i}} and σ B 2 = 1 m ∑ i = 1 m ( x i − μ B ) 2 {\displaystyle \sigma _{B}^{2}={\frac {1}{m}}\sum _{i=1}^{m}(x_{i}-\mu _{B})^{2}} . For a layer of the network with d-dimensional input, x = ( x ( 1 ) , . .
HOOCCH2(OH)C(COOH)CH2COOH Chemical characteristics Citrate_ion > Chemical characteristics It decomposes with loss of carbon dioxide above about 175 °C. Citric acid is a tribasic acid, with pKa values, extrapolated to zero ionic strength, of 3.128, 4.761, and 6.396 at 25 °C.
Glucose metabolism disorder Summary Glucose_metabolism When animals and fungi consume plants, they use cellular respiration to break down these stored carbohydrates to make energy available to cells. Both animals and plants temporarily store the released energy in the form of high-energy molecules, such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), for use in various cellular processes.Humans can consume a variety of carbohydrates, digestion breaks down complex carbohydrates into simple monomers (monosaccharides): glucose, fructose, mannose and galactose. After resorption in the gut, the monosaccharides are transported, through the portal vein, to the liver, where all non-glucose monosacharids (fructose, galactose) are transformed into glucose as well. Glucose (blood sugar) is distributed to cells in the tissues, where it is broken down via cellular respiration, or stored as glycogen. In cellular (aerobic) respiration, glucose and oxygen are metabolized to release energy, with carbon dioxide and water as endproducts.
Beach morphodynamics Summary Beach_morphodynamics In highly dissipative surf zones, shoreward decay of incident waves is accompanied by shoreward growth of infragravity energy; in the inner surf zone, currents associated with infragravity standing waves dominate. On intermediate states with pronounced bar-trough (straight or crescentic) topographies, incident wave orbital velocities are generally dominant but significant roles are also played by subharmonic and infragravity standing waves, longshore currents, and rips. The strongest rips and associated feeder currents occur in association with intermediate transverse bar and rip topographies. Transitions between beach states are often caused by changes in wave energy, with storms causing reflective beach profiles to flatten (offshore movement of sediment under steeper waves), thus adopting a more dissipative profile. Morphodynamic processes are also associated with other coastal landforms, for example spur and groove formation topography on coral reefs and tidal flats in infilling estuaries.
Circular error Concept Circular_error > Concept Munition samples may not be exactly on target, that is, the mean vector will not be (0,0). This is referred to as bias. To incorporate accuracy into the CEP concept in these conditions, CEP can be defined as the square root of the mean square error (MSE).
Mycobacterium tuberculosis Pathophysiology Mycobacterium_tuberculosis > Pathophysiology As a result of having apoptosis being suppressed, it provides M. tuberculosis with a safe replicative niche, and so the bacteria are able to maintain a latent state for a prolonged time.Granulomas, organized aggregates of immune cells, are a hallmark feature of tuberculosis infection. Granulomas play dual roles during infection: they regulate the immune response and minimize tissue damage, but also can aid in the expansion of infection.The ability to construct M. tuberculosis mutants and test individual gene products for specific functions has significantly advanced the understanding of its pathogenesis and virulence factors. Many secreted and exported proteins are known to be important in pathogenesis.
Linear Regression Notation and terminology Coefficient_of_regression > Formulation > Notation and terminology In particular, x i 0 = 1 {\displaystyle x_{i0}=1} for i = 1 , … , n {\displaystyle i=1,\ldots ,n} . The corresponding element of β is called the intercept.
Isotope Use of nuclear properties Isotope > Applications of isotopes > Use of nuclear properties A technique similar to radioisotopic labeling is radiometric dating: using the known half-life of an unstable element, one can calculate the amount of time that has elapsed since a known concentration of isotope existed. The most widely known example is radiocarbon dating used to determine the age of carbonaceous materials. Several forms of spectroscopy rely on the unique nuclear properties of specific isotopes, both radioactive and stable. For example, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy can be used only for isotopes with a nonzero nuclear spin.
H2O2 Structure H2O2 > Properties > Structure The approximately 100° dihedral angle between the two O–H bonds makes the molecule chiral. It is the smallest and simplest molecule to exhibit enantiomerism. It has been proposed that the enantiospecific interactions of one rather than the other may have led to amplification of one enantiomeric form of ribonucleic acids and therefore an origin of homochirality in an RNA world.The molecular structures of gaseous and crystalline H2O2 are significantly different. This difference is attributed to the effects of hydrogen bonding, which is absent in the gaseous state. Crystals of H2O2 are tetragonal with the space group D44 or P41212.
Computational Learning Theory Overview Computational_Learning_Theory > Overview This classifier is a function that assigns labels to samples, including samples that have not been seen previously by the algorithm. The goal of the supervised learning algorithm is to optimize some measure of performance such as minimizing the number of mistakes made on new samples. In addition to performance bounds, computational learning theory studies the time complexity and feasibility of learning.
Exogenous antigen Terminology Antibody_generator > Terminology T-dependent antigen – Antigens that require the assistance of T cells to induce the formation of specific antibodies. T-independent antigen – Antigens that stimulate B cells directly. Immunodominant antigens – Antigens that dominate (over all others from a pathogen) in their ability to produce an immune response.
Hans Lewy Life Hans_Lewy > Life In 1957, his famous example of a second-order linear partial differential equation was so stunning and unexpected that the whole field steered in a new direction, as well as shaping modern analysis in a significant way. Based on this example, Louis Nirenberg, Lars Hörmander and others have outlined some important changes to the theory and structure of the field. This was adopted by many analysts and mathematicians as a major development. He also worked on several complex variables in relation to nonlinear hyperbolic equations and elliptic equations, well-posedness for initial value problems of wave fronts (now commonly called Sobolev spaces) in the early 1930s, solutions of the classical problems of Hermann Weyl and Hermann Minkowski for analytical data (the original problem was solved by Louis Nirenberg in 1949 as part of his PhD thesis), the extendibility of minimal surfaces on and analytical nature of its boundaries which is fully free or in part, free boundary problems of water wave fronts in hydrodynamics, and the proof of quadratic reciprocity theorem in number theory from 'hydrodynamical' perspective.
Hassium Cold fusion Organohassium_chemistry > Discovery > Cold fusion Nuclear reactions used in the 1960s resulted in high excitation energies that required expulsion of four or five neutrons; these reactions used targets made of elements with high atomic numbers to maximize the size difference between the two nuclei in a reaction. While this increased the chance of fusion due to the lower electrostatic repulsion between the target and the projectile, the formed compound nuclei often broke apart and did not survive to form a new element. Moreover, fusion processes inevitably produce neutron-poor nuclei, as heavier elements require more neutrons per proton to maximize stability; therefore, the necessary ejection of neutrons results in final products with typically have shorter lifetimes. As such, light beams (six to ten protons) allowed synthesis of elements only up to 106.To advance to heavier elements, Soviet physicist Yuri Oganessian at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Moscow Oblast, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union, proposed a different mechanism, in which the bombarded nucleus would be lead-208, which has magic numbers of protons and neutrons, or another nucleus close to it.
K-connected graph Computational complexity K-vertex-connected_graph > Computational complexity The vertex-connectivity of an input graph G can be computed in polynomial time in the following way consider all possible pairs ( s , t ) {\displaystyle (s,t)} of nonadjacent nodes to disconnect, using Menger's theorem to justify that the minimal-size separator for ( s , t ) {\displaystyle (s,t)} is the number of pairwise vertex-independent paths between them, encode the input by doubling each vertex as an edge to reduce to a computation of the number of pairwise edge-independent paths, and compute the maximum number of such paths by computing the maximum flow in the graph between s {\displaystyle s} and t {\displaystyle t} with capacity 1 to each edge, noting that a flow of k {\displaystyle k} in this graph corresponds, by the integral flow theorem, to k {\displaystyle k} pairwise edge-independent paths from s {\displaystyle s} to t {\displaystyle t} .
Fourier optics Optical systems: general overview and analogy with electrical signal processing systems Fourier_optics > Optical systems: general overview and analogy with electrical signal processing systems In this case, the impulse response of such a system is desired to be a close replica (picture) of that feature which is being searched for in the input plane field, so that a convolution of the impulse response (an image of the desired feature) against the input plane field will produce a bright spot at the feature location in the output plane. It is this latter type of optical image processing system that is the subject of this section. The section 6.2 presents one hardware implementation of the optical image processing operations described in this section.
Statistical significance test Use and importance Hypothesis_Testing > The testing process > Use and importance Statistics are helpful in analyzing most collections of data. This is equally true of hypothesis testing which can justify conclusions even when no scientific theory exists. In the Lady tasting tea example, it was "obvious" that no difference existed between (milk poured into tea) and (tea poured into milk). The data contradicted the "obvious".
Data collaboratives Mitigating privacy protection issues Data_collaboratives > Risks, challenges, and ethical considerations > Mitigating privacy protection issues Privacy preserving computation (PPC) presents data in forms that can be shared, analyzed, and operated on by multiple stakeholders without the raw information. To do so, PPC seeks to control the environment within which the data is operated on (Trusted Execution Environment) and strips the data of identifying traits (Differential Privacy). Protecting the data via Homomorphic Encryption techniques, PPC allows users to execute operations and see their outcomes without exposing the source data. Through secure Multi-Party Computation, different groups can combine data to work in a decentralized and collaborative manner.PPC techniques are already being leveraged by governments and large corporations.
Machine learning Data mining Machine_learning > History and relationships to other fields > Data mining Evaluated with respect to known knowledge, an uninformed (unsupervised) method will easily be outperformed by other supervised methods, while in a typical KDD task, supervised methods cannot be used due to the unavailability of training data. Machine learning also has intimate ties to optimization: many learning problems are formulated as minimization of some loss function on a training set of examples. Loss functions express the discrepancy between the predictions of the model being trained and the actual problem instances (for example, in classification, one wants to assign a label to instances, and models are trained to correctly predict the pre-assigned labels of a set of examples).
Frederick W. Lanchester Aeronautics Frederick_W._Lanchester > Work > Aeronautics In it, he developed a model for the vortices that occur behind wings during flight, which included the first full description of lift and drag. His book was not well received in England, but created interest in Germany where the scientist Ludwig Prandtl mathematically confirmed the correctness of Lanchester's vortex theory. In his second volume, Lanchester turned his attention to aircraft stability, Aerodonetics (Lanchester 1908), developing his phugoid theory which contained a description of oscillations and stalls.
Force power Critical response Force_power > Cultural impact > Critical response The A.V. Club said Rian Johnson's depiction of the Force in The Last Jedi goes "beyond George Lucas' original transcendental concept". Polygon said Johnson's film "democratize the Force", depicting Force sensitivity in characters from outside a "Force-sensitive lineage" and suggesting that the Force can be used by anyone.
Home hemodialysis Patient factors: barriers to home dialysis from non-adherence to regimes Home_hemodialysis > Barriers to home hemodialysis > Patient factors: barriers to home dialysis from non-adherence to regimes Fluid adherence is influenced by a heightened sense of thirst. Possible cognitive executive functioning issues associated with uremia condition of end state kidney disease. This may affect memory, ability to plan effectively, and keeping to schedules. High levels of depression and anxiety are also typically associated with end state kidney disease and the resulting life style changes, also contributing to reduced cognitive and behavioral functioning, and negative illness schemas. These factors may influence both motivation and capacity for adherence/compliance to regimes.
Distributed programming Complexity measures Distributed_programming > Theoretical foundations > Complexity measures In such systems, a central complexity measure is the number of synchronous communication rounds required to complete the task.This complexity measure is closely related to the diameter of the network. Let D be the diameter of the network. On the one hand, any computable problem can be solved trivially in a synchronous distributed system in approximately 2D communication rounds: simply gather all information in one location (D rounds), solve the problem, and inform each node about the solution (D rounds).
Key finding attacks Summary Key_finding_attacks Key Finding Attacks are attacks on computer systems that make use of cryptography in which computer memory or non-volatile storage is searched for private cryptographic keys that can be used to decrypt or sign data. The term is generally used in the context of attacks which search memory much more efficiently than simply testing each sequence of bytes to determine if it provides the correct answer. They are often used in combination with cold boot attacks to extract key material from computers.
Thermal cavity Black body Planck_radiation > Theory > Black body In addition, a black body is a diffuse emitter (its emission is independent of direction). Consequently, blackbody radiation may be viewed as the radiation from a black body at thermal equilibrium. Blackbody radiation becomes a visible glow of light if the temperature of the object is high enough.
Naturally occurring element Nomenclature and symbols Chemical_elements > Nomenclature and symbols The various chemical elements are formally identified by their unique atomic numbers, by their accepted names, and by their symbols.
Symmetry (geometry) Euclidean symmetries in general Euclidean_symmetries > Euclidean symmetries in general The most common group of transforms applied to objects are termed the Euclidean group of "isometries", which are distance-preserving transformations in space commonly referred to as two-dimensional or three-dimensional (i.e., in plane geometry or solid geometry Euclidean spaces). These isometries consist of reflections, rotations, translations, and combinations of these basic operations. Under an isometric transformation, a geometric object is said to be symmetric if, after transformation, the object is indistinguishable from the object before the transformation. A geometric object is typically symmetric only under a subset or "subgroup" of all isometries. The kinds of isometry subgroups are described below, followed by other kinds of transform groups, and by the types of object invariance that are possible in geometry. By the Cartan–Dieudonné theorem, an orthogonal transformation in n-dimensional space can be represented by the composition of at most n reflections.
Multivariate kernel density estimation Motivation Multivariate_kernel_density_estimation > Motivation The coloured contours correspond to the smallest region which contains the respective probability mass: red = 25%, orange + red = 50%, yellow + orange + red = 75%, thus indicating that a single central region contains the highest density. The goal of density estimation is to take a finite sample of data and to make inferences about the underlying probability density function everywhere, including where no data are observed. In kernel density estimation, the contribution of each data point is smoothed out from a single point into a region of space surrounding it. Aggregating the individually smoothed contributions gives an overall picture of the structure of the data and its density function. In the details to follow, we show that this approach leads to a reasonable estimate of the underlying density function.
Tetraisopropyl titanate Summary Titanium_isopropoxide Titanium isopropoxide, also commonly referred to as titanium tetraisopropoxide or TTIP, is a chemical compound with the formula Ti{OCH(CH3)2}4. This alkoxide of titanium(IV) is used in organic synthesis and materials science. It is a diamagnetic tetrahedral molecule. Titanium isopropoxide is a component of the Sharpless epoxidation, a method for the synthesis of chiral epoxides.The structures of the titanium alkoxides are often complex.
Carbonyl ligand Analytical characterization Metal_carbonyls > Analytical characterization NMR data provide information on "time-averaged structures", whereas IR is an instant "snapshot". Illustrative of the differing time scales, investigation of dicobalt octacarbonyl (Co2(CO)8) by means of infrared spectroscopy provides 13 νCO bands, far more than expected for a single compound. This complexity reflects the presence of isomers with and without bridging CO ligands.
Polymer concrete Summary Polymer_concrete Polymer concrete, also known as Epoxy Granite, is a type of concrete that uses a polymer to replace lime-type cements as a binder. In some cases the polymer is used in addition to Portland cement to form Polymer Cement Concrete (PCC) or Polymer Modified Concrete (PMC). Polymers in concrete have been overseen by Committee 548 of the American Concrete Institute since 1971.
Electron pair Summary Electron_pair In chemistry, an electron pair or Lewis pair consists of two electrons that occupy the same molecular orbital but have opposite spins. Gilbert N. Lewis introduced the concepts of both the electron pair and the covalent bond in a landmark paper he published in 1916. Because electrons are fermions, the Pauli exclusion principle forbids these particles from having the same quantum numbers. Therefore, for two electrons to occupy the same orbital, and thereby have the same orbital quantum number, they must have different spin quantum number.
Taylor rule Limitations Taylor_rule > Limitations For example, the output-gap cannot be precisely estimated. Forecasted variables such as the inflation and output gaps, are not accurate, depending on different scenarios of economic development. Difficult to assess the state of the economy early enough to adjust policy.
Wehrl entropy Summary Wehrl_entropy In quantum information theory, the Wehrl entropy, named after Alfred Wehrl, is a classical entropy of a quantum-mechanical density matrix. It is a type of quasi-entropy defined for the Husimi Q representation of the phase-space quasiprobability distribution. See for a comprehensive review of basic properties of classical, quantum and Wehrl entropies, and their implications in statistical mechanics.
Big data ethics Privacy Data_ethics > Principles > Privacy However, it is possible to extract the value of data without compromising privacy. Some scholars such as Jonathan H. King and Neil M. Richards are redefining the traditional meaning of privacy, and others to question whether or not privacy still exists. In a 2014 article for the Wake Forest Law Review, King and Richard argue that privacy in the digital age can be understood not in terms of secrecy but in term of regulations which govern and control the use of personal information.
Alternatives to evolution by natural selection Orthogenesis Alternatives_to_natural_selection > Alternative explanations of change > Orthogenesis Orthogenesis or Progressionism is the hypothesis that life has an innate tendency to change, developing in a unilinear fashion in a particular direction, or simply making some kind of definite progress. Many different versions have been proposed, some such as that of Teilhard de Chardin openly spiritual, others such as Theodor Eimer's apparently simply biological. These theories often combined orthogenesis with other supposed mechanisms.
Differentiated integration Types of differentiated integration Differentiated_integration > Types of differentiated integration This approach is supranational in nature. It assumes a clear integrative direction by default for all participating states with the differentiation being time.
Nasal steroid Classes Nasal_steroid > Classes Anti-proliferative effects are mediated by inhibition of DNA synthesis and epidermal cell turnover. Vasoconstrictive effects are mediated by inhibiting the action of inflammatory mediators such as histamine. Mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone are primarily involved in the regulation of electrolyte and water balance by modulating ion transport in the epithelial cells of the renal tubules of the kidney.
Key-exchange algorithm Public key infrastructure Key-exchange_algorithm > The key exchange problem > Public key infrastructure Revoked certificates are usually put in certificate revocation lists which any certificate can be matched against. Several countries and other jurisdictions have passed legislation or issued regulations encouraging PKIs by giving (more or less) legal effect to these digital certificates (see digital signature).
Chain initiation Introduction Chain_initiation > Introduction In 1953, Paul Flory first classified polymerization as "step-growth polymerization" and "chain-growth polymerization". IUPAC recommends to further simplify "chain-growth polymerization" to "chain polymerization". It is a kind of polymerization where an active center (free radical or ion) is formed, and a plurality of monomers can be polymerized together in a short period of time to form a macromolecule having a large molecular weight.
Metcalfe's law Modified models Metcalfe's_law > Modified models Within the context of social networks, many, including Metcalfe himself, have proposed modified models in which the value of the network grows as n log ⁡ n {\displaystyle n\log n} rather than n 2 {\displaystyle n^{2}} . Reed and Andrew Odlyzko have sought out possible relationships to Metcalfe's Law in terms of describing the relationship of a network and one can read about how those are related. Tongia and Wilson also examine the related question of the costs to those excluded.
Lorentz-violating neutrino oscillations Introduction Lorentz-violating_neutrino_oscillations > Introduction These coefficients, arising from the spontaneous breaking of Lorentz symmetry, lead to non-standard effects that could be observed in current experiments. Tests of Lorentz symmetry attempt to measure these coefficients. A nonzero result would indicate Lorentz violation.
Louis de Branges de Bourcia Works Louis_de_Branges_de_Bourcia > Works In a 2003 technical comment, Conrey states he does not believe the Riemann hypothesis is going to yield to functional analysis tools. De Branges, incidentally, also claims that his new proof represents a simplification of the arguments present in the removed paper on the classical Riemann hypothesis, and insists that number theorists will have no trouble checking it. Li and Conrey do not assert that de Branges' mathematics are wrong, only that the conclusions he drew from them in his original papers are, and that his tools are therefore inadequate to address the problems in question.
STEREO satellite Mission profile STEREO_satellite > Mission profile The two STEREO spacecraft were launched at 00:52 UTC on October 26, 2006, from Launch Pad 17B at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida on a Delta II 7925-10L launcher into highly elliptical geocentric orbits. The apogee reached the Moon's orbit. On December 15, 2006, on the fifth orbit, the pair swung by the Moon for a gravity assist. Because the two spacecraft were in slightly different orbits, the "ahead" (A) spacecraft was ejected to a heliocentric orbit inside Earth's orbit, while the "behind" (B) spacecraft remained temporarily in a high Earth orbit.
Antigen-antibody reaction Autoimmune disease Antigen-antibody_reaction > Autoimmune disease This results in different autoimmune diseases depending on the type of antigens and antibodies involved. Such conditions are always harmful and sometimes deadly. The exact nature of antibody-antigen interaction in autoimmune disease is not yet understood.
Socialization of animals Dogs Socialization_of_animals > Dogs Therefore, it is crucial for the safety of both parties that there is adequate training in place. Dogs experience socialization through the critical period of socialization in two main types: active and passive. Active implies the intended socialization of humans introducing their puppy to something/someone new (i.e. at obedience class or a ride in the car).
Dember effect Photoelectric effect Dember_effect > Photoelectric effect The photoelectric effect due to the illumination of the metallic surface extracts electrons (if the energy of the photon is greater than the extraction work) and excites the electrons which the photons don’t have the energy to extract. In a similar process, the electron bombardment of the metal both extracts and excites electrons inside the metal. I 3 − I 2 − I 1 = I 4 {\displaystyle I_{3}-I_{2}-I_{1}=I_{4}\,} If one considers I 1 {\displaystyle I_{1}} a constant and increases I 2 {\displaystyle I_{2}} , it can be observed that I 4 {\displaystyle I_{4}} has a maximum of about 150 times I 1 {\displaystyle I_{1}} . On the other hand, considering I 2 {\displaystyle I_{2}} a constant and increasing the intensity of the illumination I 2 {\displaystyle I_{2}} the I 4 {\displaystyle I_{4}} , supplementary current, tends to saturate. This is due to the usage in the photoelectric effect of all the electrons excited (sufficiently) by the primary electrons of I 1 {\displaystyle I_{1}} .
Statistical binary classification The eight basic ratios Binary_classifier > Evaluation of binary classifiers > The eight basic ratios These are the proportion of the population with the condition for which the test is correct. with complement the false negative rate (FNR) = (FN/(TP+FN)) true negative rate (TNR) = (TN/(TN+FP), aka specificity (SPC), with complement false positive rate (FPR) = (FP/(TN+FP)), also called independent of prevalenceThe column ratios are: positive predictive value (PPV, aka precision) (TP/(TP+FP)). These are the proportion of the population with a given test result for which the test is correct.
Photosynthate partitioning Summary Photosynthate_partitioning Photosynthate partitioning is the deferential distribution of photosynthates to plant tissues. A photosynthate is the resulting product of photosynthesis, these products are generally sugars. These sugars that are created from photosynthesis are broken down to create energy for use by the plant. Sugar and other compounds move via the phloem to tissues that have an energy demand.
Stochastic music Computer science Stochastic_music > Computer science Stochastic ray tracing is the application of Monte Carlo simulation to the computer graphics ray tracing algorithm. "Distributed ray tracing samples the integrand at many randomly chosen points and averages the results to obtain a better approximation. It is essentially an application of the Monte Carlo method to 3D computer graphics, and for this reason is also called Stochastic ray tracing.
R-spondin 4 Summary R-spondin_4 For chromosome 20, R-spondin 4 is a protein in humans that is encoded by the RSPO4 gene. This gene encodes a member of the R-spondin family of proteins that share a common domain organization consisting of a signal peptide, cysteine-rich/furin-like domain, thrombospondin domain and a C-terminal basic region. The encoded protein may be involved in activation of Wnt/beta-catenin signaling pathways. Mutations in this gene are associated with anonychia congenita. Alternate splicing results in multiple transcript variants..
Coordination geometry Table of coordination geometries Coordination_geometry > Table of coordination geometries A table of the coordination geometries encountered is shown below with examples of their occurrence in complexes found as discrete units in compounds and coordination spheres around atoms in crystals (where there is no discrete complex).

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