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Collision detection A posteriori (discrete) versus a priori (continuous) Continuous_collision_detection > Collision detection in computer simulation > A posteriori (discrete) versus a priori (continuous) In the a posteriori case, the physical simulation is advanced by a small step, then checked to see if any objects are intersecting or visibly considered intersecting. At each simulation step, a list of all intersecting bodies is created, and the positions and trajectories of these objects are "fixed" to account for the collision. This method is called a posteriori because it typically misses the actual instant of collision, and only catches the collision after it has actually happened. In the a priori methods, there is a collision detection algorithm which will be able to predict very precisely the trajectories of the physical bodies.
Paper machine Glossary Paper_machines > Glossary The white water from the table is usually stored in a white water chest from which it is pumped by the fan pump to the headbox. wire: the woven mesh fabric loop that is used for draining the pulp slurry from the headbox. Until the 1970s bronze wires were used but now they are woven from coarse mono-filament synthetics similar to fishing line but very stiff.
Ray (geometry) Linear equation Euclidean_line > Definition > Linear equation Lines in a Cartesian plane or, more generally, in affine coordinates, are characterized by linear equations. More precisely, every line L {\displaystyle L} (including vertical lines) is the set of all points whose coordinates (x, y) satisfy a linear equation; that is, where a, b and c are fixed real numbers (called coefficients) such that a and b are not both zero. Using this form, vertical lines correspond to equations with b = 0.
Adenylyl-sulfate reductase Summary Adenylyl-sulfate_reductase Adenylyl-sulfate reductase (EC 1.8.99.2) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction of the reduction of adenylyl-sulfate/adenosine-5'-phosphosulfate (APS) to sulfite through the use of an electron donor cofactor. The products of the reaction are AMP and sulfite, as well as an oxidized electron donor cofactor.
Precursor messenger RNA Production Precursor_mRNA > Production The steps contributing to the production of primary transcripts involve a series of molecular interactions that initiate transcription of DNA within a cell's nucleus. Based on the needs of a given cell, certain DNA sequences are transcribed to produce a variety of RNA products to be translated into functional proteins for cellular use. To initiate the transcription process in a cell's nucleus, DNA double helices are unwound and hydrogen bonds connecting compatible nucleic acids of DNA are broken to produce two unconnected single DNA strands.
S2n Summary S2n s2n is an open-source C99 implementation of the Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocol developed by Amazon Web Services (AWS) and released in 2015. It was developed to ensure the code—about 6,000 lines long—would be easier to review than that of OpenSSL—with 500,000 lines, 70,000 of which are involved in processing TLS.
Relative error Summary Relative_uncertainty The approximation error in a data value is the discrepancy between an exact value and some approximation to it. This error can be expressed as an absolute error (the numerical amount of the discrepancy) or as a relative error (the absolute error divided by the data value). An approximation error can occur for a variety of reasons, among them a computing machine precision or measurement error (e.g. the length of a piece of paper is 4.53 cm but the ruler only allows you to estimate it to the nearest 0.1 cm, so you measure it as 4.5 cm). In the mathematical field of numerical analysis, the numerical stability of an algorithm indicates the extent to which errors in the input of the algorithm will lead to large errors of the output; numerically stable algorithms to not yield a significant error in output when the input is malformed and vice versa.
Homoplasy Summary Homoplasy Homoplasy, in biology and phylogenetics, is the term used to describe a feature that has been gained or lost independently in separate lineages over the course of evolution. This is different from homology, which is the term used to characterize the similarity of features that can be parsimoniously explained by common ancestry. Homoplasy can arise from both similar selection pressures acting on adapting species, and the effects of genetic drift. Most often, homoplasy is viewed as a similarity in morphological characters. However, homoplasy may also appear in other character types, such as similarity in the genetic sequence, life cycle types or even behavioral traits.
Datagram History IP_datagram > History In 1999, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) officialised the use of the already largely deployed Network address translation (NAT) whereby each public address can be shared by several private devices. With it, the forthcoming Internet Address exhaustion was delayed, leaving enough time to introduce IPv6, the new generation of Internet packets supporting longer addresses. The initial principle of full end to end network transparency to datagrams was for this relaxed: NAT nodes had to manage per-connection states, making them in part connection oriented.
Aerosol propellant History Aerosol_sprays > History Congress passed amendments to the Clean Air Act in 1977 authorizing the Environmental Protection Agency to regulate the presence of CFCs in the atmosphere. The United Nations Environment Programme called for ozone layer research that same year, and, in 1981, authorized a global framework convention on ozone layer protection. In 1985, Joe Farman, Brian G. Gardiner, and Jon Shanklin published the first scientific paper detailing the hole in the ozone layer.
Iodine deficiency Goiter Iodine_deficiency > Signs and symptoms > Goiter A low amount of thyroxine (one of the two thyroid hormones) in the blood, due to lack of dietary iodine to make it, gives rise to high levels of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the thyroid gland to increase many biochemical processes; the cellular growth and proliferation can result in the characteristic swelling or hyperplasia of the thyroid gland, or goiter. In mild iodine deficiency, levels of triiodothyronine (T3) may be elevated in the presence of low levels of levothyroxine, as the body converts more of the levothyroxine to triiodothyronine as a compensation. Some such patients may have a goiter, without an elevated TSH. The introduction of iodized salt since the early 1900s has eliminated this condition in many affluent countries; however, in Australia, New Zealand, and several European countries, iodine deficiency is a significant public health problem.
Time hierarchy theorem Summary Time_hierarchy In computational complexity theory, the time hierarchy theorems are important statements about time-bounded computation on Turing machines. Informally, these theorems say that given more time, a Turing machine can solve more problems. For example, there are problems that can be solved with n2 time but not n time. The time hierarchy theorem for deterministic multi-tape Turing machines was first proven by Richard E. Stearns and Juris Hartmanis in 1965.
Cayley–Purser algorithm Security Cayley–Purser_algorithm > Security If d {\displaystyle d} is known, d I + γ = χ ′ {\displaystyle d\mathrm {I} +\gamma =\chi '} — a multiple of χ {\displaystyle \chi } . Any multiple of χ {\displaystyle \chi } yields λ = κ − 1 = v − 1 χ − 1 ϵ v χ {\displaystyle \lambda =\kappa ^{-1}=v^{-1}\chi ^{-1}\epsilon v\chi } . This presents a fatal weakness for the system, which has not yet been reconciled. This flaw does not preclude the algorithm's use as a mixed private-key/public-key algorithm, if the sender transmits ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } secretly, but this approach presents no advantage over the common approach of transmitting a symmetric encryption key using a public-key encryption scheme and then switching to symmetric encryption, which is faster than Cayley-Purser.
ALGOL 68 Comparisons with other languages ALGOL_68 > Comparisons with other languages 1980 – A Critical Comparison of Several Programming Language Implementations – Algol 60, FORTRAN, Pascal and Algol 68. 1993 – Five Little Languages and How They Grew – BLISS, Pascal, Algol 68, BCPL & C – Dennis M. Ritchie – April 1993. 1999 – On Orthogonality: Algol68, Pascal and C 2000 – A Comparison of Arrays in ALGOL 68 and BLISS – University of Virginia – Michael Walker – Spring 2000 2009 – On Go – oh, go on – How well will Google's Go stand up against Brand X programming language? – David Given – November 2009 2010 – Algol and Pascal from "Concepts in Programming Languages – Block-structured procedural languages" – by Marcelo Fiore Comparison of ALGOL 68 and C++
CBS domain Associated domains CBS_domain > Associated domains CBS domains are often found in proteins that contain other domains. These domains are usually enzymatic, membrane transporters or DNA-binding domains. However, proteins that contain only CBS domains are also often found, particularly in prokaryotes. These standalone CBS domain proteins might form complexes upon binding to other proteins such as kinases to which they interact with and regulate.
Mean-value theorem Second mean value theorem for definite integrals Cauchy's_mean_value_theorem > Mean value theorems for definite integrals > Second mean value theorem for definite integrals There are various slightly different theorems called the second mean value theorem for definite integrals. A commonly found version is as follows: If G: → R is a positive monotonically decreasing function and φ: → R is an integrable function, then there exists a number x in (a, b] such that ∫ a b G ( t ) φ ( t ) d t = G ( a + ) ∫ a x φ ( t ) d t . {\displaystyle \int _{a}^{b}G(t)\varphi (t)\,dt=G(a^{+})\int _{a}^{x}\varphi (t)\,dt.} Here G ( a + ) {\displaystyle G(a^{+})} stands for lim x → a + G ( x ) {\textstyle {\lim _{x\to a^{+}}G(x)}} , the existence of which follows from the conditions. Note that it is essential that the interval (a, b] contains b. A variant not having this requirement is: If G: → R is a monotonic (not necessarily decreasing and positive) function and φ: → R is an integrable function, then there exists a number x in (a, b) such that ∫ a b G ( t ) φ ( t ) d t = G ( a + ) ∫ a x φ ( t ) d t + G ( b − ) ∫ x b φ ( t ) d t . {\displaystyle \int _{a}^{b}G(t)\varphi (t)\,dt=G(a^{+})\int _{a}^{x}\varphi (t)\,dt+G(b^{-})\int _{x}^{b}\varphi (t)\,dt.}
Wright Flyer Influence Wright_Flyer > Influence The Wright patent included the use of hinged rather than warped surfaces for the forward elevator and rear rudder. Other features that made the Flyer a success were highly efficient wings and propellers, which resulted from the Wrights' exacting wind tunnel tests and made the most of the marginal power delivered by their early homebuilt engines; slow flying speeds (and hence survivable accidents); and an incremental test/development approach. The future of aircraft design lay with rigid wings, ailerons and rear control surfaces.
MAC address anonymization Ali and Dyo approach MAC_address_anonymization > Ali and Dyo approach Due to the pitfalls of existing approaches, more robust anonymization approaches have been developed by academics. In particular, Junade Ali and Vladimir Dyo developed an approach which works by: Using computationally expensive hash functions like Bcrypt to prevent background knowledge attacks Truncating the resulting hash to achieve K-anonymityThe degree to which a resulting hash is truncated is a balancing act between the privacy offered and the desired collision rate (the probability that one anonymised MAC Address will overlap with another). Previous work has suggested that it is therefore difficult to control the anonymity set size when using approximations of the Birthday Paradox.
Electrically conducting Band theory simplified Ohm_metre > Causes of conductivity > Band theory simplified Electric current consists of a flow of electrons. In metals there are many electron energy levels near the Fermi level, so there are many electrons available to move. This is what causes the high electronic conductivity of metals.
Geometry of special relativity Summary Spacelike_vector While the individual components in Euclidean space and time might differ due to length contraction and time dilation, in Minkowski spacetime, all frames of reference will agree on the total interval in spacetime between events. Minkowski space differs from four-dimensional Euclidean space insofar as it treats time differently than the three spatial dimensions. In 3-dimensional Euclidean space, the isometry group (the maps preserving the regular Euclidean distance) is the Euclidean group.
Light-front computational methods Renormalization group procedure for effective particles Light-front_computational_methods > Renormalization group procedure for effective particles In principle, the RGPEP is now defined without a need to refer to some perturbative expansion. The most recent explanation of the RGPEP is given by Glazek in terms of an elementary and exactly solvable model for relativistic fermions that interact through a mass mixing term of arbitrary strength in their Hamiltonian.The effective particles can be seen as resulting from a dynamical transformation akin to the Melosh transformation from current to constituent quarks. Namely, the RGPEP transformation changes the bare quanta in a canonical theory to the effective quanta in an equivalent effective theory with a Hamiltonian that has the energy bandwidth λ {\displaystyle \lambda } ; see #Similarity transformations and references therein for an explanation of the band.
Glutamic acid decarboxylase Parkinson disease Glutamic_acid_decarboxylase > Role in pathology > Parkinson disease The bilateral delivery of glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) by an adeno-associated viral vector into the subthalamic nucleus of patients between 30 and 75 years of age with advanced, progressive, levodopa-responsive Parkinson disease resulted in significant improvement over baseline during the course of a six-month study.
Comparison of vector algebra and geometric algebra Basic concepts and operations Comparison_of_vector_algebra_and_geometric_algebra > Basic concepts and operations Elements of GA are graded multivectors: scalars are grade 0, usual vectors are grade 1, bivectors are grade 2 and the highest grade (3 in the 3D case) is traditionally called the pseudoscalar and designated I {\displaystyle I} . The ungeneralized 3D vector form of the geometric product is: a b = a ⋅ b + a ∧ b {\displaystyle ab=a\cdot b+a\wedge b} that is the sum of the usual dot (inner) product and the outer (exterior) product (this last is closely related to the cross product and will be explained below). In VA, entities such as pseudovectors and pseudoscalars need to be bolted on, whereas in GA the equivalent bivector and pseudovector respectively exist naturally as subspaces of the algebra.
Maker Movement Computers DIY_technology > Tools and hardware > Computers Programmable microcontrollers and single-board computers like the Arduino, Raspberry Pi, BeagleBone Black, and Intel's Galileo and Edison, many of which are open source, are easy to program and connect to devices such as sensors, displays, and actuators. This lowers the barrier to entry for hardware development. Combined with the cloud, this technology enables the Internet of Things.
Intramolecular reaction Examples Molecular_tether > Examples intramolecular hydride transfer (transfer of a hydride ion from one part to another within the same molecule) intramolecular hydrogen bond (a hydrogen bond formed between two functional groups of the same molecule) cyclization of ω-haloalkylamines and alcohols to form the corresponding saturated nitrogen and oxygen heterocycles, respectively (an SN2 reaction within the same molecule)In intramolecular organic reactions, two reaction sites are contained within a single molecule. This creates a very high effective concentration (resulting in high reaction rates), and, therefore, many intramolecular reactions that would not occur as an intermolecular reaction between two compounds take place. Examples of intramolecular reactions are the Smiles rearrangement, the Dieckmann condensation and the Madelung synthesis.
Invention of radio The Branly detector Invention_of_radio > Development of radio waves > The Branly detector In 1890, Édouard Branly demonstrated what he later called the "radio-conductor," which Lodge in 1893 named the coherer, the first sensitive device for detecting radio waves. Shortly after the experiments of Hertz, Branly discovered that loose metal filings, which in a normal state have a high electrical resistance, lose this resistance in the presence of electric oscillations and become practically conductors of electricity. This Branly showed by placing metal filings in a glass box or tube, and making them part of an ordinary electric circuit. According to the common explanation, when electric waves are set up in the neighborhood of this circuit, electromotive forces are generated in it which appear to bring the filings more closely together, that is, to cohere, and thus their electrical resistance decreases, from which cause this piece of apparatus was termed by Sir Oliver Lodge a coherer.
Centre of rotation Instant center of rotation and mechanisms Instantaneous_axis_of_rotation > Instant center of rotation and mechanisms Point A, at distance P1-A from P1, moves in a circular motion in a direction perpendicular to the link P1-A, as indicated by vector VA. The same applies to link P2-B: point P2 is the instant center of rotation for this link and point B moves in the direction as indicated by vector VB. For determining the instant center of rotation of the third element of the linkage, the body BAC, the two points A and B are used because its moving characteristics are known, as derived from the information about the links P1-A and P2-B.
Virtual leak M Glossary_of_engineering:_M–Z > M During the early modern period, scientists such as Galileo, Kepler, and Newton laid the foundation for what is now known as classical mechanics. It is a branch of classical physics that deals with particles that are either at rest or are moving with velocities significantly less than the speed of light. It can also be defined as a branch of science which deals with the motion of and forces on bodies not in the quantum realm.
Tracing garbage collection Precise vs. conservative and internal pointers Tracing_garbage_collection > Implementation strategies > Precise vs. conservative and internal pointers Some collectors can correctly identify all pointers (references) in an object; these are called precise (also exact or accurate) collectors, the opposite being a conservative or partly conservative collector. Conservative collectors assume that any bit pattern in memory could be a pointer if, interpreted as a pointer, it would point into an allocated object. Conservative collectors may produce false positives, where unused memory is not released because of improper pointer identification. This is not always a problem in practice unless the program handles a lot of data that could easily be misidentified as a pointer.
Photosynthesis Overview Photosynthesis > Overview Most photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs, which means that they are able to synthesize food directly from carbon dioxide and water using energy from light. However, not all organisms use carbon dioxide as a source of carbon atoms to carry out photosynthesis; photoheterotrophs use organic compounds, rather than carbon dioxide, as a source of carbon. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen. This oxygenic photosynthesis is by far the most common type of photosynthesis used by living organisms.
Weak neutral current Definition Neutral_currents > Definition The Z boson can couple to any Standard Model particle, except gluons and photons (sterile neutrinos would also be an exception, if they were found to exist). However, any interaction between two charged particles that can occur via the exchange of a virtual Z boson can also occur via the exchange of a virtual photon. Unless the interacting particles have energies on the order of the Z boson mass (91 GeV) or higher, the virtual Z boson exchange has an effect of a tiny correction, ( E / M Z ) 2 , {\displaystyle ~(E/M_{\text{Z}})^{2}~,} to the amplitude of the electromagnetic process.
Flipped classroom Examples Flipped_learning > Examples Programming: The flipped classroom was successfully used in 2013 to teach a programming class at a university. Students watched video lectures and attempted self-check quizzes before classroom contact time. During class time, students worked on programming problems and other active learning activities instead of traditional lectures. Student feedback on this pedagogy was generally very positive with many respondents considering it effective and helpful for learning.
Nørlund–Rice integral Riesz mean Nørlund–Rice_integral > Riesz mean A closely related integral frequently occurs in the discussion of Riesz means. Very roughly, it can be said to be related to the Nörlund–Rice integral in the same way that Perron's formula is related to the Mellin transform: rather than dealing with infinite series, it deals with finite series.
Glycoside hydrolase family 37 Summary Glycoside_hydrolase_family_37 Trehalase is the enzyme responsible for the degradation of the disaccharide alpha,alpha-trehalose yielding two glucose subunits. It is an enzyme found in a wide variety of organisms and whose sequence has been highly conserved throughout evolution. == References ==
Body symmetry Evolution of symmetry Body_symmetry > Evolution of symmetry Like all the traits of organisms, symmetry (or indeed asymmetry) evolves due to an advantage to the organism – a process of natural selection. This involves changes in the frequency of symmetry-related genes throughout time.
Stochastic game Theory Stochastic_games > Theory Whether every stochastic game with finitely many players, states, and actions, has a uniform equilibrium payoff, or a limiting-average equilibrium payoff, or even a liminf-average equilibrium payoff, is a challenging open question. A Markov perfect equilibrium is a refinement of the concept of sub-game perfect Nash equilibrium to stochastic games. Stochastic games have been combined with Bayesian games to model uncertainty over player strategies. The resulting stochastic Bayesian game model is solved via a recursive combination of the Bayesian Nash equilibrium equation and the Bellman optimality equation.
Biofilm Rhizosphere Bio_film > Habitats > Rhizosphere Cell envelope components such as bacterial flagella and lipopolysaccharides, which are recognized by plant cells as components of pathogens. Certain iron metabolites produced by Pseudomonas have also been shown to create an induced systemic response. This function of the biofilm helps plants build stronger resistance to pathogens.
Structure mining Summary Database_mining Structure mining or structured data mining is the process of finding and extracting useful information from semi-structured data sets. Graph mining, sequential pattern mining and molecule mining are special cases of structured data mining.
Coordinated management of meaning Coordination Coordinated_management_of_meaning > Basics > Coordination In order to avoid this pitfall in communication, people work together to share meanings. Research shows that sense-making is the foundation of coordination. By tokens within the information connected by means of a channel can the logic relationship emerge, then it contributes to the sense-making.
Organic soil Base saturation percentage Soil_evaporation > Chemistry > Reactivity (pH) > Base saturation percentage It is of use in calculating the amount of lime needed to neutralise an acid soil (lime requirement). The amount of lime needed to neutralize a soil must take account of the amount of acid forming ions on the colloids (exchangeable acidity), not just those in the soil water solution (free acidity). The addition of enough lime to neutralize the soil water solution will be insufficient to change the pH, as the acid forming cations stored on the soil colloids will tend to restore the original pH condition as they are pushed off those colloids by the calcium of the added lime.
Practical criticism Theory I._A._Richards > Contributions > Aesthetics and literary criticism > Theory Richards elaborated an approach to literary criticism in The Principles of Literary Criticism (1924) and Practical Criticism (1929) which embodied aspects of the scientific approach from his study of psychology, particularly that of Charles Scott Sherrington.In The Principles of Literary Criticism, Richards discusses the subjects of form, value, rhythm, coenesthesia (an awareness of inhabiting one's body, caused by stimuli from various organs), literary infectiousness, allusiveness, divergent readings, and belief. He starts from the premise that "A book is a machine to think with, but it need not, therefore, usurp the functions either of the bellows or the locomotive. "Practical Criticism (1929), is an empirical study of inferior response to a literary text.
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle Modes of operation Plug-in_hybrid_vehicle > Technology > Modes of operation This period is the vehicle's all-electric range. This is the only mode that a battery electric vehicle can operate in, hence their limited range.Mixed mode describes a trip using a combination of multiple modes. For example, a car may begin a trip in low speed charge-depleting mode, then enter onto a freeway and operate in blended mode.
Adiabatic heating Conceptual significance in thermodynamic theory Adiabatic_principle > Conceptual significance in thermodynamic theory In 1854, Rankine used a quantity that he called "the thermodynamic function" that later was called entropy, and at that time he wrote also of the "curve of no transmission of heat", which he later called an adiabatic curve. Besides its two isothermal limbs, Carnot's cycle has two adiabatic limbs.
Norman Riley (professor) Research contributions Norman_Riley_(professor) > Research contributions His research contributions in the field of fluid mechanics, over five decades, have included: unsteady flows with application to acoustic levitation and the loading on the submerged horizontal pontoons of tethered leg platforms; the aerodynamics of wings including leading-edge separation from slender wings and supercritical flow over multi-element wings; heat transfer and combustion including diffusion flames and detonation-wave generation; vortex ring dynamics; crystal growth, in particular the Czochralski crystal growth process. Throughout these investigations complementary numerical and asymptotic methods have featured.
Compartmental neuron models Information processing Compartmental_neuron_models > Some applications > Information processing Considering the accuracy in prediction of different input patterns by a two-layer neural network, it is assumed that a simple mathematical equation can be used to describe the model. This allows the development of network models in which each neuron, instead of being modelled as a full blown compartmental cell, it is modelled as a simplified two layer neural network. The firing pattern of the cell might contain the temporal information about incoming signals.
Anabolic pathways Cofactors Anabolic_pathways > Pathway > Cofactors The reducing agents NADH, NADPH, and FADH2, as well as metal ions, act as cofactors at various steps in anabolic pathways. NADH, NADPH, and FADH2 act as electron carriers, while charged metal ions within enzymes stabilize charged functional groups on substrates.
State space (computer science) Exploration State_space_(dynamical_system) > Exploration Exploring a state space is the process of enumerating possible states in search of a goal state. The state space of Pacman, for example, contains a goal state whenever all food pellets have been eaten, and is explored by moving Pacman around the board.
Refrigeration Thermoelectric refrigeration Refrigeration > Methods of refrigeration > Thermoelectric refrigeration Thermoelectric cooling uses the Peltier effect to create a heat flux between the junction of two types of material. This effect is commonly used in camping and portable coolers and for cooling electronic components and small instruments. Peltier coolers are often used where a traditional vapor-compression cycle refrigerator would be impractical or take up too much space, and in cooled image sensors as an easy, compact and lightweight, if inefficient, way to achieve very low temperatures, using two or more stage peltier coolers arranged in a cascade refrigeration configuration, meaning that two or more Peltier elements are stacked on top of each other, with each stage being larger than the one before it, in order to extract more heat and waste heat generated by the previous stages. Peltier cooling has a low COP (efficiency) when compared with that of the vapor-compression cycle, so it emits more waste heat (heat generated by the Peltier element or cooling mechanism) and consumes more power for a given cooling capacity.
Hippocampal prosthesis Role Hippocampal_prosthesis > Hippocampus > Role The hippocampus is part of the human limbic system, which interacts with the neocortex and other parts of the brain to produce emotions. As a part of the limbic system, the hippocampus plays its part in the formation of emotion in addition to its other roles, such as consolidation of new memories, navigation, and spatial orientation. The hippocampus is responsible for the formation of long term recognition memories. In other words, this is the part of the brain that allows us to associate a face with a name. Because of its close relationship with memory formation, damage to the hippocampus is closely related to Alzheimer's disease.
Participative decision-making in organizations Consensus Participative_decision-making > Types > Consensus In a consensus participative decision-making style, the leader gives up complete control and responsibility of the decision and leaves it to the members of the organization. Everyone must agree and come to the same decision. This might take a while, but the decisions are among the best since it involves the ideas and skills of many other people. Teamwork is important in this style and brings members closer together while trust and communication increase.
Physical organic chemistry Quantum chemistry Physical_organic_chemistry > Quantum chemistry Instead of four discrete σ-bonds from carbon to each hydrogen atom, theory predicts a set of four bonding molecular orbitals which are delocalized across the entire molecule. Similarly, the true electronic structure of 1,3-butadiene shows delocalized π-bonding molecular orbitals stretching through the entire molecule rather than two isolated double bonds as predicted by a simple Lewis structure.A complete electronic structure offers great predictive power for organic transformations and dynamics, especially in cases concerning aromatic molecules, extended π systems, bonds between metal ions and organic molecules, molecules containing nonstandard heteroatoms like selenium and boron, and the conformational dynamics of large molecules such as proteins wherein the many approximations in chemical formalisms make structure and reactivity prediction impossible. An example of how electronic structure determination is a useful tool for the physical organic chemist is the metal-catalyzed dearomatization of benzene.
Epitranscriptome Role of N6-Methyladenosine (m6A) in alternative splicing Epitranscriptome > Chemical Modifications of RNA > N6-Methyladenosine (m6A) > Role of N6-Methyladenosine (m6A) in alternative splicing Stem loop structures can sometimes be found in introns. m6A residues located in these stem-loops weaken base-pairing interactions within the stem, thus altering the structure of the mRNA. This phenomenon is known as m6A-Switch.
Autonomous Navigation System Design Autonomous_Navigation_System > Design ANS was an on board, integrated suite of sensors and technology that enabled autonomous navigation, perception, path-planning and vehicle-following capabilities for unmanned ground vehicles, allowing them to move on the battlefield with minimal human oversight. Some tasks the system already performed in tests included move-on-route, obstacle detection and avoidance and leader/follower capabilities in both day and night conditions. Originally designed by the Army for integration on the Armed Robotic Vehicle-Assault (Light) (ARV-A(L)), the ANS has also been tested on vehicles including Strykers, MULE Engineering Evaluation Units, and Light Medium Tactical Vehicles (LMTV).
Quadrature (mathematics) Medieval mathematics Quadrature_(mathematics) > History > Medieval mathematics In medieval Europe, quadrature meant the calculation of area by any method. Most often the method of indivisibles was used; it was less rigorous than the geometric constructions of the Greeks, but it was simpler and more powerful. With its help, Galileo Galilei and Gilles de Roberval found the area of a cycloid arch, Grégoire de Saint-Vincent investigated the area under a hyperbola (Opus Geometricum, 1647),: 491 and Alphonse Antonio de Sarasa, de Saint-Vincent's pupil and commentator, noted the relation of this area to logarithms. : 492
CD4 T-cell Structure and function Th1_cell > Structure and function Th cells are not a monolithic immunological entity because they are diverse in terms of function and their interaction with partner cells. In general, mature naive T cells are stimulated by professional antigen presenting cells to acquire an effector module. These are defined by the presence of a lineage-determining (or lineage-specifying) transcription factor (also called master regulator, though the term has been criticized for being too reductive). The loss of function in a lineage specifying transcription factor results in the absence of the corresponding class of helper T cell which can be devastating for the health of the host.
History of mathematical notation Modern mathematical notation History_of_mathematical_notation > Symbolic stage > Contemporary notation and topics > Modern mathematical notation In 1967, Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam incorporated the Higgs mechanism into Glashow's electroweak theory, giving it its modern form. The Higgs mechanism is believed to give rise to the masses of all the elementary particles in the Standard Model. This includes the masses of the W and Z bosons, and the masses of the fermions – i.e. the quarks and leptons.
Use-wear analysis Summary Use-wear_analysis Fractures are differentiated by looking at both fracture initiation and propagation. Fracture initiation is defined as where and how the fracture of an edge begins. Fracture propagation is defined by the path a crack follows, and the degree of the crack's growth.
Nomogram Chi-squared test computation Nomogram > Examples > Chi-squared test computation For example, an observed value of 9 would use the tick mark above the 9 in range A, and curved scale A would be used for the expected value. An observed value of 81 would use the tick mark above 81 in range E, and curved scale E would be used for the expected value. This allows five different nomograms to be incorporated into a single diagram. In this manner, the blue line demonstrates the computation of: (9 − 5)2 / 5 = 3.2 and the red line demonstrates the computation of: (81 − 70)2 / 70 = 1.7 In performing the test, Yates's correction for continuity is often applied, and simply involves subtracting 0.5 from the observed values. A nomogram for performing the test with Yates's correction could be constructed simply by shifting each "observed" scale half a unit to the left, so that the 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, ... graduations are placed where the values 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, ... appear on the present chart.
Die forming (plastics) Fiber drawing (polymers) Die_forming_(plastics) > Fiber drawing (polymers) If curing is needed, two methods are available: dry and wet spinning. In wet spinning, the polymer is dissolved and extruded through a spinneret into a chemical bath. In dry spinning, a solvent is allowed to evaporate as the fibers are cooled.
Monte Carlo tree search Monte Carlo method Monte_Carlo_tree_search > History > Monte Carlo method The Monte Carlo method, which uses random sampling for deterministic problems which are difficult or impossible to solve using other approaches, dates back to the 1940s. In his 1987 PhD thesis, Bruce Abramson combined minimax search with an expected-outcome model based on random game playouts to the end, instead of the usual static evaluation function. Abramson said the expected-outcome model "is shown to be precise, accurate, easily estimable, efficiently calculable, and domain-independent." He experimented in-depth with tic-tac-toe and then with machine-generated evaluation functions for Othello and chess.
Mean opinion score Rating scales and mathematical definition Mean_opinion_score > Rating scales and mathematical definition For example, one could use a continuous scale ranging between 1–100. Which scale is used depends on the purpose of the test. In certain contexts there are no statistically significant differences between ratings for the same stimuli when they are obtained using different scales.The MOS is calculated as the arithmetic mean over single ratings performed by human subjects for a given stimulus in a subjective quality evaluation test. Thus: M O S = ∑ n = 1 N R n N {\displaystyle MOS={\frac {\sum _{n=1}^{N}{R_{n}}}{N}}} Where R {\displaystyle R} are the individual ratings for a given stimulus by N {\displaystyle N} subjects.
Solar Cells Theory Photoelectric_cells > Theory An inverter can convert the power to alternating current (AC). The most commonly known solar cell is configured as a large-area p–n junction made from silicon. Other possible solar cell types are organic solar cells, dye sensitized solar cells, perovskite solar cells, quantum dot solar cells etc. The illuminated side of a solar cell generally has a transparent conducting film for allowing light to enter into the active material and to collect the generated charge carriers. Typically, films with high transmittance and high electrical conductance such as indium tin oxide, conducting polymers or conducting nanowire networks are used for the purpose.
Weighing matrices Optical measurement Weighing_matrix > Applications > Optical measurement Weighing matrices appear in the engineering of spectrometers, image scanners, and optical multiplexing systems. The design of these instruments involve an optical mask and two detectors that measure the intensity of light. The mask can either transmit light to the first detector, absorb it, or reflect it toward the second detector. The measurement of the second detector is subtracted from the first, and so these three cases correspond to weighing matrix elements of 1, 0, and -1 respectively. As this is essentially the same measurement problem as in the previous section, the usefulness of weighing matrices also applies.
Group A streptococcal infection Severe infections Group_A_streptococci > Types of infection > Severe infections GAS is an important cause of puerperal fever worldwide, causing serious infection and, if not promptly diagnosed and treated, death in newly delivered mothers. Severe GAS disease may also occur in healthy persons with no known risk factors. All severe GAS infections may lead to shock, multisystem organ failure, and death.
Relaxation (NMR) Solomon equations NMR_relaxation > Solomon equations Solomon equations are used to calculate the transfer of magnetization as a result of relaxation in a dipolar system. They can be employed to explain the nuclear Overhauser effect, which is an important tool in determining molecular structure.
Binary Synchronous Communications Topology Binary_Synchronous_Communications > Topology In some cases connection of a terminal to multiple hosts is possible via the dial telephone network. Multi-drop is part of the initial Bisync protocol. A master station, normally a computer, can sequentially poll terminals which are attached via analog bridges to the same communication line. This is accomplished by sending a message consisting only of an ENQ character addressed to each device in turn. The selected station then transmits a message to the master or reply with EOT to indicate that it has no data to transmit.
Peer pressure Social media Peer_pressure > Social media Social media provides a massive new digital arena for peer pressure and influence. Research suggests there are a variety of benefits from social media use, such as increased socialization, exposure to ideas, and greater self-confidence. However, there is also evidence of negative influences such as advertising pressure, exposure to inappropriate behavior and/or dialogue, and fake news. These versions of digital peer pressure exist between youth, adults and businesses.
Herschel Leibowitz Research Herschel_Leibowitz > Research Leibowitz's research investigated basic issues of visual psychophysics, perception of size, distance & motion, peripheral vision and oculomotor functioning. He also studied problems of aviation, traffic safety, motion sickness, postural instability (especially during stair descent), and the effects of stress on perception. Indeed, one of the striking characteristics of Leibowitz's research was his symbiotic view of “basic” and “applied” science. In the early 1970s, for example, Leibowitz's lab developed the laser optometer and used it to advance our basic understanding of the eyes’ focusing behavior (visual accommodation); these “basic” experiments simultaneously addressed real-world difficulties such as night myopia (Leibowitz & Owens, 1978) and visual fatigue (Tyrrell & Leibowitz, 1990).
Stuart Hameroff Theory Stuart_Hameroff > Theory On the basis of Gödel's incompleteness theorems, he argued that the brain could perform functions that no computer or system of algorithms could. From this it could follow that consciousness itself might be fundamentally non-algorithmic, and incapable of being modeled as a classical Turing machine type of computer. This ran counter to the belief that it is explainable mechanistically, which remains the prevailing view among neuroscientists and artificial intelligence researchers.
Design and analysis of experiments Discussion topics when setting up an experimental design Designed_experiment > Discussion topics when setting up an experimental design Manipulation checks: did the manipulation really work? What are the background variables? What is the sample size?
Functional symptom Weakness Functional_symptom > Weakness To the patient and the doctor it often looks as if there has been a stroke or have symptoms of multiple sclerosis. However, unlike these conditions, with functional weakness there is no permanent damage to the nervous system which means that it can get better or even go away completely.
Lua programming language Functions Lua_programming_language > Features > Functions Lua's treatment of functions as first-class values is shown in the following example, where the print function's behavior is modified: Any future calls to print will now be routed through the new function, and because of Lua's lexical scoping, the old print function will only be accessible by the new, modified print. Lua also supports closures, as demonstrated below: A new closure for the variable x is created every time addto is called, so that each new anonymous function returned will always access its own x parameter. The closure is managed by Lua's garbage collector, just like any other object.
RNA vaccines Efficacy RNA_vaccine > Efficacy The COVID-19 mRNA vaccines from Moderna and Pfizer–BioNTech have efficacy rates of 90 to 95 percent. Prior mRNA, drug trials on pathogens other than COVID-19 were not effective and had to be abandoned in the early phases of trials. The reason for the efficacy of the new mRNA vaccines is not clear.Physician-scientist Margaret Liu stated that the efficacy of the new COVID-19 mRNA vaccines could be due to the "sheer volume of resources" that went into development, or that the vaccines might be "triggering a nonspecific inflammatory response to the mRNA that could be heightening its specific immune response, given that the modified nucleoside technique reduced inflammation but hasn't eliminated it completely", and that "this may also explain the intense reactions such as aches and fevers reported in some recipients of the mRNA SARS-CoV-2 vaccines". These reactions though severe were transient and another view is that they were believed to be a reaction to the lipid drug delivery molecules.
Concept learning Explanation-based Concept_learning > Modern psychological theories > Explanation-based The basic idea of explanation-based learning suggests that a new concept is acquired by experiencing examples of it and forming a basic outline.1 Put simply, by observing or receiving the qualities of a thing the mind forms a concept which possesses and is identified by those qualities. The original theory, proposed by Mitchell, Keller, and Kedar-Cabelli in 1986 and called explanation-based generalization, is that learning occurs through progressive generalizing.2 This theory was first developed to program machines to learn. When applied to human cognition, it translates as follows: the mind actively separates information that applies to more than one thing and enters it into a broader description of a category of things. This is done by identifying sufficient conditions for something to fit in a category, similar to schematizing.
Joint probability density function Absolutely continuous univariate distributions Joint_density_function > Absolutely continuous univariate distributions A probability density function is most commonly associated with absolutely continuous univariate distributions. A random variable X {\displaystyle X} has density f X {\displaystyle f_{X}} , where f X {\displaystyle f_{X}} is a non-negative Lebesgue-integrable function, if: Hence, if F X {\displaystyle F_{X}} is the cumulative distribution function of X {\displaystyle X} , then: and (if f X {\displaystyle f_{X}} is continuous at x {\displaystyle x} ) Intuitively, one can think of f X ( x ) d x {\displaystyle f_{X}(x)\,dx} as being the probability of X {\displaystyle X} falling within the infinitesimal interval {\displaystyle } .
Secure Erase Data sanitization policy best practices Secure_Erase > Data sanitization policy in public and private sectors > Data sanitization policy best practices This policy champion will include defining concepts such as the Information System Owner and Information Owner to define the chain of responsibility for data creation and eventual sanitization. The CISO or other policy champion should also ensure funding is allocated to additional cybersecurity workers to implement and enforce policy compliance.
Molecular vibrations Normal coordinates Molecular_vibration > Vibrational coordinates > Normal coordinates Q = q1 + q2 asymmetric stretching: the difference of the two C–O stretching coordinates; one C–O bond length increases while the other decreases. Q = q1 − q2When two or more normal coordinates belong to the same irreducible representation of the molecular point group (colloquially, have the same symmetry) there is "mixing" and the coefficients of the combination cannot be determined a priori. For example, in the linear molecule hydrogen cyanide, HCN, The two stretching vibrations are principally C–H stretching with a little C–N stretching; Q1 = q1 + a q2 (a << 1) principally C–N stretching with a little C–H stretching; Q2 = b q1 + q2 (b << 1)The coefficients a and b are found by performing a full normal coordinate analysis by means of the Wilson GF method.
Rust Oxidation of iron Rust_removal > Chemical reactions > Oxidation of iron The conversion of the passivating ferrous oxide layer to rust results from the combined action of two agents, usually oxygen and water. Other degrading solutions are sulfur dioxide in water and carbon dioxide in water. Under these corrosive conditions, iron hydroxide species are formed.
Nash Equilibrium Proof using the Kakutani fixed-point theorem Nash_Equilibrium > Proof of existence > Proof using the Kakutani fixed-point theorem Therefore, there exists a fixed point in r {\displaystyle r} and a Nash equilibrium.When Nash made this point to John von Neumann in 1949, von Neumann famously dismissed it with the words, "That's trivial, you know. That's just a fixed-point theorem." (See Nasar, 1998, p. 94.)
Claas Selbstfahrer Technical description Claas_Selbstfahrer > Technical description Like later Claas combine harvesters, the Selbstfahrer has a three-speed-gearbox with an additional reverse gear. It also has a hydraulically controlled continuously variable transmission (CVT) that uses a belt to transfer the torque. The driving speed is adjustable within the three gears using the CVT.
Liver protein production Breakdown Colic_impression > Functions > Breakdown It plays a key role in breaking down or modifying toxic substances (e.g., methylation) and most medicinal products in a process called drug metabolism. This sometimes results in toxication, when the metabolite is more toxic than its precursor. Preferably, the toxins are conjugated to avail excretion in bile or urine. The liver converts ammonia into urea as part of the ornithine cycle or the urea cycle, and the urea is excreted in the urine.
Hierarchical state machine Internal transitions Hierarchical_finite-state_machine > UML extensions to the traditional FSM formalism > Internal transitions In fact, in a classical Mealy machine, actions are associated exclusively with state transitions, so the only way to execute actions without changing state is through a self-transition (depicted as a directed loop in Figure 1 from the top of this article). However, in the presence of entry and exit actions, as in UML statecharts, a self-transition involves the execution of exit and entry actions and therefore it is distinctively different from an internal transition. In contrast to a self-transition, no entry or exit actions are ever executed as a result of an internal transition, even if the internal transition is inherited from a higher level of the hierarchy than the currently active state. Internal transitions inherited from superstates at any level of nesting act as if they were defined directly in the currently active state.
Partially conserved axial vector current Gradient coupling QCD_vacuum > Experimental evidence > Motivating results > Gradient coupling The way nature fixes this in the pseudoscalar model is by simultaneous rotation of the proton-neutron and shift of the pion field. This, when the proper axial SU(2) symmetry is included, is the Gell-Mann Levy σ-model, discussed below. The modern explanation for the shift symmetry is now understood to be the Nambu-Goldstone non-linear symmetry realization mode, due to Yoichiro Nambu and Jeffrey Goldstone. The pion field is a Goldstone boson, while the shift symmetry is a manifestation of a degenerate vacuum.
Accessibility apps Accessibility features in iPhones and computers Accessibility_apps > Accessibility features in iPhones and computers Accessibility should be highly prioritized by smartphone makers to give disabled people easy access to communicate with their device. In recent years, progress are being made and more tools are constantly being developed to aid accessibility in mobile devices. Especially the Apple iPhones.
Method of Indivisibles Cycloids Method_of_Indivisibles > 2-dimensional > Cycloids Calculate the area within this rectangle that lies above the cycloid arch by bisecting the rectangle at the midpoint where the arch meets the rectangle, rotate one piece by 180° and overlay the other half of the rectangle with it. The new rectangle, of area twice that of the circle, consists of the "lens" region between two cycloids, whose area was calculated above to be the same as that of the circle, and the two regions that formed the region above the cycloid arch in the original rectangle. Thus, the area bounded by a rectangle above a single complete arch of the cycloid has area equal to the area of the circle, and so, the area bounded by the arch is three times the area of the circle.
Introduction to electromagnetism Electric and magnetic fields Introduction_to_electromagnetism > Electric and magnetic fields The direction of the force on a moving charge from a magnetic field is perpendicular to both the direction of motion and the direction of the magnetic field lines and can be found using the right-hand rule. The strength of the force is given by the equation F = q v B sin ⁡ θ {\displaystyle F=qvB\sin \theta } where F is the force on a charge q with speed v in a magnetic field B which is pointing in a direction of angle θ from the direction of motion of the charge. The combination of the electric and magnetic forces on a charged particle is called the Lorentz force.
Entropy: A New World View Summary Entropy:_A_New_World_View Entropy: A New World View is a non-fiction book by Jeremy Rifkin and Ted Howard, with an Afterword by Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen. It was first published by Viking Press, New York in 1980 (ISBN 0-670-29717-8). A paperback edition was published by Bantam in 1981, in a paperback revised edition, by Bantam Books, in 1989 (ISBN 0-553-34717-9). The 1989 revised edition was titled: Entropy: Into the Greenhouse World (ISBN 978-0-553-34717-3).
Twenty Questions Computers, scientific method and situation puzzles Twenty_Questions > Computers, scientific method and situation puzzles Both games involve asking yes/no questions, but Twenty Questions places a greater premium on efficiency of questioning. A limit on their likeness to the scientific process of trying hypotheses is that a hypothesis, because of its scope, can be harder to test for truth (test for a "yes") than to test for falsity (test for a "no") or vice versa. In developing the participatory anthropic principle (PAP), which is an interpretation of quantum mechanics, theoretical physicist John Archibald Wheeler used a variant on twenty questions, called surprise twenty questions, to show how the questions we choose to ask about the universe may dictate the answers we get.
Accident data recorder Technology Accident_data_recorder > Technology Accident data recorders work to measure the accelerations, depending on the equipment in two or three spatial directions, with micromechanical sensors. Often several sensor systems with different resolutions are used in order to be able to log the driving dynamic processes on the one hand and the collision dynamics themselves on the other. Higher-class systems also offer a possibility for measuring the rotational movements as well as the vehicle speed. The latter can e.g. be calculated from the signal of the vehicle's wheel speed sensor.
Cooling tower system Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) Cooling_towers > Classification by use > Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) The equivalent ton on the cooling tower side actually rejects about 15,000 British thermal units per hour (4.4 kW) due to the additional waste heat-equivalent of the energy needed to drive the chiller's compressor. This equivalent ton is defined as the heat rejection in cooling 3 US gallons per minute (11 litres per minute) or 1,500 pounds per hour (680 kg/h) of water by 10 °F (5.6 °C), which amounts to 15,000 British thermal units per hour (4.4 kW), assuming a chiller coefficient of performance (COP) of 4.0. This COP is equivalent to an energy efficiency ratio (EER) of 14.
CTCF Protein-protein interactions CTCF > Protein-protein interactions CTCF binds to itself to form homodimers. CTCF has also been shown to interact with Y box binding protein 1. CTCF also co-localizes with cohesin, which extrudes chromatin loops by actively translocating one or two DNA strands through its ring-shaped structure, until it meets CTCF in a proper orientation. CTCF is also known to interact with chromatin remodellers such as Chd4 and Snf2h (SMARCA5).
Scientific credibility In the Web Scientific_credibility > In the Web In case of the Web pages, vast majority of researchers identifies two key components of credibility: Trustworthiness - related to well-intentioned, truthful, unbiased information and perceived goodness or morality of the source. Expertise - connected with such terms as knowledgeable, experienced, competent and captures the perceived knowledge and skill of the source.
Niche construction Humans Niche_construction > Humans This interaction is known as gene-culture coevolution. There is now little doubt that human cultural niche construction has co-directed human evolution. Humans have modified selection, for instance, by dispersing into new environments with different climatic regimes, devising agricultural practices or domesticating livestock.
Parasocial interaction Explaining increases in growth Parasocial_interaction > Parasocial relationships during the COVID-19 pandemic > Explaining increases in growth When utilizing these mediated communications, users can perceive greater distance (as compared to real-life interactions), leading them to cognitively process their actual friends in a similar manner as liked media persona. This could lead to processing parasocial interactions with greater intention, which could develop into greater and stronger parasocial relationships. Another explanation would be that individuals who need higher amounts social connection increased their parasocial relationships, while still maintaining their social relationships online.
Production reactor Electrical power generation Reactor_design > Operation > Electrical power generation The energy released in the fission process generates heat, some of which can be converted into usable energy. A common method of harnessing this thermal energy is to use it to boil water to produce pressurized steam which will then drive a steam turbine that turns an alternator and generates electricity.
Intelsat VI On station Intelsat_VI > Launch > On station Upon arrival on station (assigned geostationary orbital location) and after correct orientation, the payload (and antenna) section of the satellite would be de-spun and pointed at the desired location on the earth, the solar array would be deployed, and the communications antenna would be deployed.
ADP ribosylation Gene regulation ADP-ribosylation > Function > Gene regulation ADP-ribosylation can affect gene expression at nearly every level of regulation, including chromatin organization, transcription factor recruitment and binding, and mRNA processing. The organization of nucleosomes is key to regulation of gene expression: the spacing and organization of nucleosomes changes what regions of DNA are available for transcription machinery to bind and transcribe DNA. PARP1, a poly-ADP ribose polymerase, has been shown to affect chromatin structure and promote changes in the organization of nucleosomes through modification of histones. PARPs have been shown to affect transcription factor structure and cause recruitment of many transcription factors to form complexes at DNA and elicit transcription.
Effective input noise temperature Summary Effective_input_noise_temperature In telecommunications, effective input noise temperature is the source noise temperature in a two-port network or amplifier that will result in the same output noise power, when connected to a noise-free network or amplifier, as that of the actual network or amplifier connected to a noise-free source. If F is the noise factor numeric and 290 K the standard noise temperature, then the effective noise temperature is given by T n = 290(F − 1).
Respiration in plant Efficiency of ATP production Aerobic_metabolism > Efficiency of ATP production Pyruvate is taken up by a specific, low Km transporter to bring it into the mitochondrial matrix for oxidation by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. The phosphate carrier (PiC) mediates the electroneutral exchange (antiport) of phosphate (H2PO4−; Pi) for OH− or symport of phosphate and protons (H+) across the inner membrane, and the driving force for moving phosphate ions into the mitochondria is the proton motive force. The ATP-ADP translocase (also called adenine nucleotide translocase, ANT) is an antiporter and exchanges ADP and ATP across the inner membrane.
Long non-coding RNA Conservation Long_noncoding_RNA > Conservation Initial studies into lncRNA conservation noted that as a class, they were enriched for conserved sequence elements, depleted in substitution and insertion/deletion rates and depleted in rare frequency variants, indicative of purifying selection maintaining lncRNA function. However, further investigations into vertebrate lncRNAs revealed that while lncRNAs are conserved in sequence, they are not conserved in transcription. In other words, even when the sequence of a human lncRNA is conserved in another vertebrate species, there is often no transcription of a lncRNA in the orthologous genomic region.

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