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Basal animal metabolic rate Aerobic vs. anaerobic exercise Basal_metabolism > Biochemistry > Aerobic vs. anaerobic exercise Resistance training causes injuries at a much higher rate than aerobic training. Compared to resistance training, it was found that aerobic training resulted in a significantly more pronounced reduction of body weight by enhancing the cardiovascular system which is what is the principal factor in metabolic utilization of fat substrates. Resistance training if time is available is also helpful in post-exercise metabolism, but it is an adjunctive factor because the body needs to heal sufficiently between resistance training episodes, whereas with aerobic training, the body can accept this every day.
Brain disorder Signs and symptoms Brain_disorder > Signs and symptoms Every disease has different signs and symptoms. Some of them are persistent headache; pain in the face, back, arms, or legs; an inability to concentrate; loss of feeling; memory loss; loss of muscle strength; tremors; seizures; increased reflexes, spasticity, tics; paralysis; and slurred speech. One should seek medical attention if affected by these.
Clonal deletion Complete vs. incomplete clonal deletion Clonal_deletion > Complete vs. incomplete clonal deletion Complete clonal deletion results in apoptosis of all B and T lymphocytes expressing high affinity for self antigen. Incomplete clonal deletion results in apoptosis of most autoreactive B and T lymphocytes. Complete clonal deletion can lead to opportunities for molecular mimicry, which has adverse effects for the host. Therefore, incomplete clonal deletion allows for a balance between the host’s ability to recognize foreign antigens and self antigens.
Outliers in statistics Summary Outliers_in_statistics Outliers, being the most extreme observations, may include the sample maximum or sample minimum, or both, depending on whether they are extremely high or low. However, the sample maximum and minimum are not always outliers because they may not be unusually far from other observations. Naive interpretation of statistics derived from data sets that include outliers may be misleading.
Fractional factorial design Summary Fractional_factorial_design In statistics, fractional factorial designs are experimental designs consisting of a carefully chosen subset (fraction) of the experimental runs of a full factorial design. The subset is chosen so as to exploit the sparsity-of-effects principle to expose information about the most important features of the problem studied, while using a fraction of the effort of a full factorial design in terms of experimental runs and resources. In other words, it makes use of the fact that many experiments in full factorial design are often redundant, giving little or no new information about the system.
Collective decision making Formal systems Collective_decision_making > Formal systems They exchanged ideas with complete anonymity. (ii) Feedback This method requires 3 to 4 rounds of information feedback. In the hourly feedback, both the investigation team and the expert team can conduct in-depth research, so the final results can basically reflect the basic ideas of the experts and the understanding of the information.
Face Dancers Atomics Ixian_Probe > Atomics Atomics is the term used to refer to nuclear weapons in the Dune universe. Like real-world nuclear weapons, atomics presumably derive their destructive force from nuclear reactions of fission or fusion, and Herbert notes that "radiation lingers" after their use. However, the author never delves into the specifics of the technology or explores in detail how it may have evolved by the time of Dune's far-future setting. In the initial Dune novels, the Great Houses of the Landsraad own "family atomics" as heirlooms, keeping a secure, hidden cache as weapons of last resort in their wars.
General set theory Axioms General_set_theory > Axioms The symbolic axioms below are from Boolos (1998: 196), and govern how sets behave and interact. As with Z, the background logic for GST is first order logic with identity. Indeed, GST is the fragment of Z obtained by omitting the axioms Union, Power Set, Elementary Sets (essentially Pairing) and Infinity and then taking a theorem of Z, Adjunction, as an axiom. The natural language versions of the axioms are intended to aid the intuition.
Elementary arithmetic Subtraction Basic_arithmetic > Subtraction Three of the apples are green, and the rest are red. How many are red?" represents combination.
Biochemical analysis Proteins Physiological_chemistry > Biomolecules > Proteins Not all proteins have more than one subunit. Ingested proteins are usually broken up into single amino acids or dipeptides in the small intestine and then absorbed. They can then be joined to form new proteins.
Summation method Analytic continuation of Dirichlet series Summability_theory > Analytic continuation > Analytic continuation of Dirichlet series This method defines the sum of a series to be the value of the analytic continuation of the Dirichlet series f ( s ) = a 1 1 s + a 2 2 s + a 3 3 s + ⋯ {\displaystyle f(s)={\frac {a_{1}}{1^{s}}}+{\frac {a_{2}}{2^{s}}}+{\frac {a_{3}}{3^{s}}}+\cdots } at s = 0, if this exists and is unique. This method is sometimes confused with zeta function regularization. If s = 0 is an isolated singularity, the sum is defined by the constant term of the Laurent series expansion.
Social power Clegg Power_literacy > Theories > Clegg Stewart Clegg proposes another three-dimensional model with his "circuits of power" theory. This model likens the production and organizing of power to an electric circuit board consisting of three distinct interacting circuits: episodic, dispositional, and facilitative. These circuits operate at three levels, two are macro and one is micro. The episodic circuit is the micro level and is constituted of irregular exercise of power as agents address feelings, communication, conflict, and resistance in day-to-day interrelations.
Event queue Summary Event_queue In computer science, message queues and mailboxes are software-engineering components typically used for inter-process communication (IPC), or for inter-thread communication within the same process. They use a queue for messaging – the passing of control or of content. Group communication systems provide similar kinds of functionality. The message queue paradigm is a sibling of the publisher/subscriber pattern, and is typically one part of a larger message-oriented middleware system. Most messaging systems support both the publisher/subscriber and message queue models in their API, e.g. Java Message Service (JMS).
Sexually transmitted infection Main types Sexually_transmitted_infection > Cause > Main types There are now antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) available to treat HIV infections. There is no known cure for HIV or AIDS but the drugs help suppress the virus. By suppressing the amount of virus in the body, people can lead longer and healthier lives. Even though their virus levels may be low they can still spread the virus to others.
Bio-inspired computing History Biologically-inspired_computing > History The book also showed that a large amount of systems cannot be represented as such meaning that a large amount of systems cannot be modeled by neural networks. Another book by James Rumelhart and David McClelland in 1986 brought neural networks back to the spotlight by demonstrating the linear back-propagation algorithm something that allowed the development of multi-layered neural networks that did not adhere to those limits.Ant Colonies Douglas Hofstadter in 1979 described an idea of a biological system capable of performing intelligent calculations even though the individuals comprising the system might not be intelligent. More specifically, he gave the example of an ant colony that can carry out intelligent tasks together but each individual ant cannot exhibiting something called "emergent behavior."
Control by deprivation Summary Control_by_deprivation Control deprivation describes the act of not giving an individual their desires, wants and needs in a deliberate way to control that individual. This is often achieved through acts such as lack of affection, acts indifferent and detached, failure to respond, emotionally distant, deliberately with holding sex, shifts blame to the individual and other techniques. Control deprivation can lead to a wide range of effects, such as causing depression, leading people to aggression, increased social class effects and the use of social stereotypes in making judgements on people as well as product acquisition. Lack of control over a situation can significantly affect a person, changing the way a person thinks and acts. This is often exploited by individuals, businesses and in other situations, however individuals are also very capable of finding alternative means to regain the control that was previously lost and regaining personal control.
Mechanical valve Disadvantages of mechanical valves Heart_valve_prosthesis > Mechanical valves > Disadvantages of mechanical valves From an engineering perspective, an ideal heart valve would produce minimal pressure drops, have small regurgitation volumes, minimize turbulence, reduce prevalence of high stresses, and not create flow separations in the vicinity of the valve.Implanted mechanical valves can cause foreign body rejection. The blood may coagulate and eventually result in a hemostasis. The usage of anticoagulation drugs will be interminable to prevent thrombosis.
Flight dynamics Summary Flight_dynamics Flight dynamics in aviation and spacecraft, is the study of the performance, stability, and control of vehicles flying through the air or in outer space. It is concerned with how forces acting on the vehicle determine its velocity and attitude with respect to time. For a fixed-wing aircraft, its changing orientation with respect to the local air flow is represented by two critical angles, the angle of attack of the wing ("alpha") and the angle of attack of the vertical tail, known as the sideslip angle ("beta").
List of uncertainty propagation software Software List_of_uncertainty_propagation_software > Software MATLAB Runtime required. Mathos Core Library Uncertainty package Open source (.NET targeting library). MC-Ed is a native Windows software to perform uncertainty calculations according to the Supplement 1 to the Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement using Monte-Carlo method.
Molecular Simulations Molecular mechanics Molecular_modeling > Molecular mechanics Molecular mechanics is one aspect of molecular modelling, as it involves the use of classical mechanics (Newtonian mechanics) to describe the physical basis behind the models. Molecular models typically describe atoms (nucleus and electrons collectively) as point charges with an associated mass. The interactions between neighbouring atoms are described by spring-like interactions (representing chemical bonds) and Van der Waals forces.
Matrix determinant Calculation Determinant_of_a_matrix > Calculation . The Laplace expansion is similarly inefficient. Therefore, more involved techniques have been developed for calculating determinants.
TimesTen Caching TimesTen > Technology > Caching A cache group is a set of one or more related database tables and allows for subsets of its rows and/or columns. Database tables in a cache group must each have a defined primary key or a unique index declared across a set of non-nullable columns and must be related in a parent-child hierarchy via primary key-foreign key constraints. SQL predicates can be used to control what data is to be cached.
Horizontal gene transfer Organelle to nuclear genome Horizontal_gene_transfer > Eukaryotes > Organelle to nuclear genome Analysis of DNA sequences suggests that horizontal gene transfer has occurred within eukaryotes from the chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes to the nuclear genome. As stated in the endosymbiotic theory, chloroplasts and mitochondria probably originated as bacterial endosymbionts of a progenitor to the eukaryotic cell.
Modelling biological systems Brain model Modelling_biological_systems > Particular tasks > Human biological systems > Brain model The Blue Brain Project is an attempt to create a synthetic brain by reverse-engineering the mammalian brain down to the molecular level. The aim of this project, founded in May 2005 by the Brain and Mind Institute of the École Polytechnique in Lausanne, Switzerland, is to study the brain's architectural and functional principles. The project is headed by the Institute's director, Henry Markram. Using a Blue Gene supercomputer running Michael Hines's NEURON software, the simulation does not consist simply of an artificial neural network, but involves a partially biologically realistic model of neurons.
Equidimensional (geology) In geology Equidimensional_(geology) > In geology Make axis b any shorter and the object becomes prolate. Make axis b any longer and it becomes oblate. Bring a and c closer to b and the object becomes equidimensional. Separate a and c further from b and it becomes bladed. For example, the convex envelope for some humans might plot near the black dot in the upper left of the figure.
Fusion gene Purine biosynthesis Fusion_genes > Evolution > Purine biosynthesis The purines adenine and guanine are two of the four information encoding bases of the universal genetic code. Biosynthesis of these purines occurs by similar, but not identical, pathways in different species of the three domains of life, the Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotes. A major distinctive feature of the purine biosynthetic pathways in Bacteria is the prevalence of gene fusions where two or more purine biosynthetic enzymes are encoded by a single gene. Such gene fusions are almost exclusively between genes that encode enzymes that perform sequential steps in the biosynthetic pathway. Eukaryotic species generally exhibit the most common gene fusions seen in the Bacteria, but in addition have new fusions that potentially increase metabolic flux.
Central dogma of molecular biology Use of the term dogma Central_dogma_of_genetics > Use of the term dogma I did apprehend this in a vague sort of way but since I thought that all religious beliefs were without foundation, I used the word the way I myself thought about it, not as most of the world does, and simply applied it to a grand hypothesis that, however plausible, had little direct experimental support." Similarly, Horace Freeland Judson records in The Eighth Day of Creation: "My mind was, that a dogma was an idea for which there was no reasonable evidence.
Immutable class Violating immutability Mutable_variable > Concepts > Violating immutability Immutability does not imply that the object as stored in the computer's memory is unwriteable. Rather, immutability is a compile-time construct that indicates what a programmer can do through the normal interface of the object, not necessarily what they can absolutely do (for instance, by circumventing the type system or violating const correctness in C or C++).
Value and Capital Outline and details Value_and_Capital > Outline and details That hypothesis drives the theoretical outcome of a price change in one of the goods on the quantity demanded of each good. The book decomposes the change into the substitution effect and the income effect. The latter is the change in real income in theoretical terms without which the distinction between real and nominal values would be more problematic.
Drug therapy Evidence-based medicine Drug_therapy > Evidence-based medicine Example: Clinical Guideline for controlling blood pressure (hypertension) If there is an Asian male patient who is 40 years old and has recently been diagnosed with high blood pressure (with a blood pressure of 140/90) and without any other chronic diseases (comorbidities), such as type-2 diabetes, gout, benign prostatic hyperplasia, etc. His estimated 10-year risk of cardiovascular disease is 15%. According to the NICE 2019 Hypertension guideline, the healthcare professional can consider starting anti-hypertensive therapy after a discussion with the patient. The first-line therapy will be either an Angiotensin Converting Enzyme Inhibitor (ACEi) or an Angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) (if the patient cannot tolerate ACEi). If the blood pressure of the patient is not well controlled, the healthcare professionals can consider adding a calcium channel blocker (CCB) or a Thiazide-like diuretic to the previous therapy, i,e, ACEi or ARBs with a CCB or a thiazide-like diuretic.
Heat illness Overview of diseases Heat_illness > Overview of diseases Symptoms may include diarrhea, headache, nausea and vomiting, dizziness, tachycardia, malaise, and myalgia. Definitive therapy includes removing patients from the heat and replenishing their fluids. Most patients will require fluid replacement with IV isotonic fluids at first.
The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory Summary The_Physical_Principles_of_the_Quantum_Theory The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory (German: Physikalischen Prinzipien der Quantentheorie publisher: S. Hirzel Verlag, 1930) by Nobel laureate (1932) Werner Heisenberg and subsequently translated by Carl Eckart and Frank C. Hoyt. The book was first published in 1930 by University of Chicago Press. Then in 1949, according to its copyright page, Dover Publications reprinted the "unabridged and unaltered" 1930's version. The book is collection of 1929 university lectures by Heisenberg but with more detailed mathematics.
Period 3 element Atomic structure Period_3_element > Atomic structure In a quantum mechanical description of atomic structure, this period corresponds to the buildup of electrons in the third (n = 3) shell, more specifically filling its 3s and 3p subshells. There is a 3d subshell, but—in compliance with the Aufbau principle—it is not filled until period 4. This makes all eight elements analogs of the period 2 elements in the same exact sequence. The octet rule generally applies to period 3 in the same way as to period 2 elements, because the 3d subshell is normally non-acting.
Psychrometric chart Summary Psychrometric_chart Psychrometrics (or psychrometry, from Greek ψυχρόν (psuchron) 'cold', and μέτρον (metron) 'means of measurement'; also called hygrometry) is the field of engineering concerned with the physical and thermodynamic properties of gas-vapor mixtures.
Study of animal locomotion Neuromechanical models Study_of_animal_locomotion > Modeling animal locomotion > Neuromechanical models Additionally, the joints between rigid bodies need to be defined, both in terms of type (e.g. hinge and ball-in-socket) and degrees of freedom (i.e. how the rigid bodies move relative to one another). The final step is to assign a mesh object to each rigid body that determines the appearance (e.g. outer surface of a bone) and other contact properties of the rigid bodies. These skeletal models can be built using a variety of 3D modeling programs, such as Blender and Opensim Creator.
Prp24 Summary Prp24 Prp24 (precursor RNA processing, gene 24) is a protein part of the pre-messenger RNA splicing process and aids the binding of U6 snRNA to U4 snRNA during the formation of spliceosomes. Found in eukaryotes from yeast to E. coli, fungi, and humans, Prp24 was initially discovered to be an important element of RNA splicing in 1989. Mutations in Prp24 were later discovered in 1991 to suppress mutations in U4 that resulted in cold-sensitive strains of yeast, indicating its involvement in the reformation of the U4/U6 duplex after the catalytic steps of splicing.
Anti-CRISPR Mechanisms Anti-CRISPR > Mechanisms Within all the Anti-CRISPR proteins that have been discovered so far, mechanisms have been described for only 15 of among them. These mechanisms can be divided into three different types: crRNA loading interference, DNA binding blockage and DNA cleavage prevention.
Fission fragment reactor Direct energy conversion Fission_fragment_reactor > Direct energy conversion In the early 2000s, research was undertaken by Sandia National Laboratories, Los Alamos National Laboratory, The University of Florida, Texas A&M University and General Atomics to use direct conversion to extract energy from fission reactions. Essentially, attempting to extract energy from the linear motion of charged particles coming off a fission reaction. == References ==
Glossary of mechanical engineering A Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering > A On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to the vehicle, with the wheels rotating around the axle. In the former case, bearings or bushings are provided at the mounting points where the axle is supported. In the latter case, a bearing or bushing sits inside a central hole in the wheel to allow the wheel or gear to rotate around the axle. Sometimes, especially on bicycles, the latter type axle is referred to as a spindle.
Influence function (statistics) Estimation of scale Resistant_statistic > Examples > Estimation of scale The distribution of standard deviation is erratic and wide, a result of the outliers. The MAD is better behaved, and Qn is a little bit more efficient than MAD. This simple example demonstrates that when outliers are present, the standard deviation cannot be recommended as an estimate of scale.
Metabolism Thermodynamics of living organisms Biosynthetic_pathway > Thermodynamics of living organisms Living organisms must obey the laws of thermodynamics, which describe the transfer of heat and work. The second law of thermodynamics states that in any isolated system, the amount of entropy (disorder) cannot decrease. Although living organisms' amazing complexity appears to contradict this law, life is possible as all organisms are open systems that exchange matter and energy with their surroundings.
Momentum conservation René Descartes Momentum > History of the concept > Quantity of motion > René Descartes This should not be read as a statement of the modern law of momentum, since he had no concept of mass as distinct from weight and size. (The concept of mass, as distinct from weight, was introduced by Newton in 1686.)
Systems immunology GINsim Systems_immunology > Computer tools > GINsim GINsim is a computer tool that generates and simulates genetic networks based on discrete variables. Based on the regulatory graphs and logical parameters, GINsim calculates the temporal evolution of the system which is returned as a State Transition Graph (STG) where the states are represented by nodes and transitions by arrows. It was used to examine how T cells respond upon activation of the TCR and TLR5 pathway. These processes were observed both separately and in combination.
Consequential strangers Benefits and drawbacks Consequential_stranger > Benefits and drawbacks And because of the lack of familiarity in these various situations, it is necessary to communicate in more "elaborated" patterns of speech with consequential strangers than with loved ones. Relating to assorted others forces an individual to "negotiate, exercise judgment, reconcile, compromise, and take account of the intentions, purposes, motivations, and perspective" of his or her assorted role partners. "Weak ties also provide benefits not available in close ties: information, resources, and novelty, as well as a sense of being "known" in the larger community.
Notability (application) Features Notability_(application) > Features Like other note-taking software, Notability supports typing and drawing on a virtual notepad. The app supports directly editing and exporting to the PDF file format, and supports many other document file formats. Files are synced to iCloud and users can share files with other users via a link-based system. The app also supports multiple other features including simultaneous audio recording and the conversion of handwriting and math equations to text.Notability supports the usage of a stylus on desktop platforms and the Apple Pencil on the iPad.
Competitive gaming Data analytics and machine learning Competitive_video_games > Criticisms and legal problems > Data analytics and machine learning With the growing popularity of machine learning in data analytics, esports has been the focus of several software programs that analyze the plethora of game data available. Based on the huge number of matches played on a daily basis globally (League of Legends alone had a reported 100 million active monthly players worldwide in 2016 and an average of 27 million League of Legends games played per day reported in 2014), these games can be used for applying big-data machine learning platforms. Several games make their data publicly available, so websites aggregate the data into easy-to-visualize graphs and statistics. In addition, several programs use machine learning tools to predict the win probability of a match based on various factors, such as team composition. In 2018, the DotA team Team Liquid partnered with a software company to allow players and coaches to predict the team's success rate in each match and provide advice on what needs to be changed to improve performance.
Schrödinger’s cat Summary Schrödinger_cat In quantum mechanics, Schrödinger's cat is a thought experiment that illustrates a paradox of quantum superposition. In the thought experiment, a hypothetical cat may be considered simultaneously both alive and dead, while it is unobserved in a closed box, as a result of its fate being linked to a random subatomic event that may or may not occur. This thought experiment was devised by physicist Erwin Schrödinger in 1935 in a discussion with Albert Einstein to illustrate what Schrödinger saw as the problems of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. In Schrödinger's original formulation, a cat, a flask of poison, and a radioactive source are placed in a sealed box.
The speed of light Fundamental role in physics Velocity_of_light > Fundamental role in physics The special theory of relativity explores the consequences of this invariance of c with the assumption that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference. One consequence is that c is the speed at which all massless particles and waves, including light, must travel in vacuum.
Multitarget stool DNA screening test Recommendations Metastatic_colorectal_cancer > Prevention > Screening > Recommendations For those at high risk, screenings usually begin at around 40.Several screening methods are recommended including stool-based tests every 2 years, sigmoidoscopy every 10 years with fecal immunochemical testing every two years, and colonoscopy every 10 years. It is unclear which of these two methods is better. Colonoscopy may find more cancers in the first part of the colon, but is associated with greater cost and more complications.
Multi-link suspension Advantages Multi-link_suspension > Advantages A multi-link suspension allows the vehicle to flex more; this means simply that the suspension is able to move more easily to conform to the varying angles of off-road driving. Multi-link-equipped vehicles are ideally suited for sports such as desert racing. In desert racing, the use of a good sway bar is needed to counter body roll.
Elastic force Revisions of the force concept Force_vector > Revisions of the force concept At the beginning of the 20th century, new physical ideas emerged to explain experimental results in astronomical and submicroscopic realms. As discussed below, relativity alters the definition of momentum and quantum mechanics reuses the concept of "force" in microscopic contexts where Newton's laws do not apply directly.
Multiple comparisons problem Definition Multiple_comparisons_problem > Definition However, if 100 tests are each conducted at the 5% level and all corresponding null hypotheses are true, the expected number of incorrect rejections (also known as false positives or Type I errors) is 5. If the tests are statistically independent from each other (i.e. are performed on independent samples), the probability of at least one incorrect rejection is approximately 99.4%. The multiple comparisons problem also applies to confidence intervals.
Flywheel energy storage Counterbalancing of angular momentum Flywheel_energy_storage > Physical characteristics > Effects of angular momentum in vehicles > Counterbalancing of angular momentum Strictly speaking, the two flywheels would exert a huge torqueing moment at the central point, trying to bend the axle. However, if the axle were sufficiently strong, no gyroscopic forces would have a net effect on the sealed container, so no torque would be noticed. To further balance the forces and spread out strain, a single large flywheel can be balanced by two half-size flywheels on each side, or the flywheels can be reduced in size to be a series of alternating layers spinning in opposite directions. However this increases housing and bearing complexity.
Posner cueing task Summary Posner_cueing_task The Posner cueing task, also known as the Posner paradigm, is a neuropsychological test often used to assess attention. Formulated by Michael Posner, it assesses a person's ability to perform an attentional shift. It has been used and modified to assess disorders, focal brain injury, and the effects of both on spatial attention.
Hypnic headache Summary Hypnic_headache Hypnic headaches are benign primary headaches that affect the elderly, with an average age of onset at 63 ± 11 years. They are moderate, throbbing, bilateral or unilateral headaches that wake the sufferer from sleep once or multiple times a night. They typically begin a few hours after sleep begins and can last from 15–180 min. There is normally no nausea, photophobia, phonophobia or autonomic symptoms associated with the headache. They commonly occur at the same time every night possibly linking the headaches with circadian rhythm, but polysomnography has recently revealed that the onset of hypnic headaches may be associated with REM sleep.
Vibration testing Forced vibration with damping Vibration > Analysis > Forced vibration with damping More damping actually reduces the effects of vibration isolation when r ≫ 1 because the damping force (F = cv) is also transmitted to the base. Whatever the damping is, the vibration is 90 degrees out of phase with the forcing frequency when the frequency ratio r = 1, which is very helpful when it comes to determining the natural frequency of the system. Whatever the damping is, when r ≫ 1, the vibration is 180 degrees out of phase with the forcing frequency Whatever the damping is, when r ≪ 1, the vibration is in phase with the forcing frequency
Light-field Display Summary Integral_imaging Integral imaging is a three-dimensional imaging technique that captures and reproduces a light field by using a two-dimensional array of microlenses (or lenslets), sometimes called a fly's-eye lens, normally without the aid of a larger overall objective or viewing lens. In capture mode, in which a film or detector is coupled to the microlens array, each microlens allows an image of the subject as seen from the viewpoint of that lens's location to be acquired. In reproduction mode, in which an object or source array is coupled to the microlens array, each microlens allows each observing eye to see only the area of the associated micro-image containing the portion of the subject that would have been visible through that space from that eye's location. The optical geometry can perhaps be visualized more easily by substituting pinholes for the microlenses, as has actually been done for some demonstrations and special applications.
Plate girder bridge Overview Plate_girder_bridge > Overview In a plate girder bridge, the plate girders are typically I-beams made up from separate structural steel plates (rather than rolled as a single cross-section), which are welded or, in older bridges, bolted or riveted together to form the vertical web and horizontal flanges of the beam. In some cases, the plate girders may be formed in a Z-shape rather than I-shape. The first tubular wrought iron plate girder bridge was built in 1846-47 by James Millholland for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad.Plate girder bridges are suitable for short to medium spans and may support railroads, highways, or other traffic. Plate girders are usually prefabricated and the length limit is frequently set by the mode of transportation used to move the girder from the bridge shop to the bridge site.
Standard Model Weak nuclear force Minimal_standard_model > Fundamental interactions > Weak nuclear force Z bosons are neutral and mediate neutral current interactions, which do not change particle flavour. Thus Z bosons are similar to the photon, aside from them being massive and interacting with the neutrino.
Stocks and flows More general uses Stocks_and_flows > More general uses A flow (or "rate") changes a stock over time. Usually we can clearly distinguish inflows (adding to the stock) and outflows (subtracting from the stock). Flows typically are measured over a certain interval of time – e.g., the number of births over a day or month. Synonyms
Higgs particle Overview of Higgs boson and field properties Higgs_Boson > Introduction > Overview of Higgs boson and field properties (Technically the non-zero expectation value converts the Lagrangian's Yukawa coupling terms into mass terms.) When this happens, three components of the Higgs field are "absorbed" by the SU(2) and U(1) gauge bosons (the "Higgs mechanism") to become the longitudinal components of the now-massive W and Z bosons of the weak force. The remaining electrically neutral component either manifests as a Higgs boson, or may couple separately to other particles known as fermions (via Yukawa couplings), causing these to acquire mass as well.
A/B test Common test statistics A/B_test > Overview > Common test statistics "Two-sample hypothesis tests" are appropriate for comparing the two samples where the samples are divided by the two control cases in the experiment. Z-tests are appropriate for comparing means under stringent conditions regarding normality and a known standard deviation. Student's t-tests are appropriate for comparing means under relaxed conditions when less is assumed.
Glossary of fishery terms O Glossary_of_fishery_terms > O Ocean basin – geologically an ocean basin is a large geologic basin which is below sea level. Ocean currents – Oceanic currents can be divided into surface and deep ocean currents. Surface currents are generally wind driven and develop typical clockwise spirals in the northern hemisphere and counter-clockwise spirals in the southern hemisphere. Surface currents can operate to a depth of 400 meters and apply to about ten percent of water in the ocean.
Protein biosynthesis Summary Protein_biosynthesis Protein biosynthesis (or protein synthesis) is a core biological process, occurring inside cells, balancing the loss of cellular proteins (via degradation or export) through the production of new proteins. Proteins perform a number of critical functions as enzymes, structural proteins or hormones. Protein synthesis is a very similar process for both prokaryotes and eukaryotes but there are some distinct differences.Protein synthesis can be divided broadly into two phases—transcription and translation.
Zero point energy Necessity of the vacuum field in QED Zero_point_energy > Quantum field theory > The quantum electrodynamic vacuum > Necessity of the vacuum field in QED The vacuum state of the "free" electromagnetic field (that with no sources) is defined as the ground state in which nkλ = 0 for all modes (k, λ). The vacuum state, like all stationary states of the field, is an eigenstate of the Hamiltonian but not the electric and magnetic field operators. In the vacuum state, therefore, the electric and magnetic fields do not have definite values. We can imagine them to be fluctuating about their mean value of zero.
Infrared spectra Uses and applications Infra-red_(IR)_spectroscopy > Uses and applications Infrared spectroscopy is a simple and reliable technique widely used in both organic and inorganic chemistry, in research and industry. In catalysis research it is a very useful tool to characterize the catalyst, as well as to detect intermediates and products during the catalytic reaction. It is used in quality control, dynamic measurement, and monitoring applications such as the long-term unattended measurement of CO2 concentrations in greenhouses and growth chambers by infrared gas analyzers. It is also used in forensic analysis in both criminal and civil cases, for example in identifying polymer degradation.
Interatomic potential Summary Interatomic_potentials Interatomic potentials are mathematical functions to calculate the potential energy of a system of atoms with given positions in space. Interatomic potentials are widely used as the physical basis of molecular mechanics and molecular dynamics simulations in computational chemistry, computational physics and computational materials science to explain and predict materials properties. Examples of quantitative properties and qualitative phenomena that are explored with interatomic potentials include lattice parameters, surface energies, interfacial energies, adsorption, cohesion, thermal expansion, and elastic and plastic material behavior, as well as chemical reactions.
Deuterium isotope effect Experiments Deuterium_isotope_effect > Experiments (A smaller value could indicate an isotope effect due to a pre-equilibrium, so that the C-H bond cleavage occurs somewhere before the rate-determining step.) B) KIE determined from an intermolecular competitionIn this type of experiment, the same substrates that are used in Experiment A are employed, but they are allowed in to react in the same container, instead of two separate containers.
Sulfide indole motility test Summary Sulfide_indole_motility_test Sulphide Indole Motility (SIM) medium is a bacterial growth medium which tests for the ability to reduce sulfates, the ability to produce indoles, and motility. This combination of challenges in one mixture is convenient and commercially available in stab tubes. Inoculated needles are then punctured into the culture and incubated, if the culture becomes cloudy the bacteria were able to infiltrate the media and survive. This method is particularly useful for pathogenic bacteria which are dangerous to handle on wet mount slides == References ==
Federated learning Federated learning variations Federated_learning > Federated learning variations In this section, the notation of the paper published by H. Brendan McMahan and al. in 2017 is followed.To describe the federated strategies, let us introduce some notations: K {\displaystyle K}: total number of clients; k {\displaystyle k}: index of clients; n k {\displaystyle n_{k}}: number of data samples available during training for client k {\displaystyle k} ; k t {\displaystyle k_{t}}: model's weight vector on client k {\displaystyle k} , at the federated round t {\displaystyle t} ; ℓ ( w , b ) {\displaystyle \ell (w,b)}: loss function for weights w {\displaystyle w} and batch b {\displaystyle b} ; E {\displaystyle E}: number of local updates;
No-cloning theorem Theorem and proof No_cloning_theorem > Theorem and proof Take a qubit for example. It can be represented by two complex numbers, called probability amplitudes (normalised to 1), that is three real numbers (two polar angles and one radius). Copying three numbers on a classical computer using any copy and paste operation is trivial (up to a finite precision) but the problem manifests if the qubit is unitarily transformed (e.g. by the Hadamard quantum gate) to be polarised (which unitary transformation is a surjective isometry).
Block copolymers Characterization Block_polymer > Characterization Characterization techniques for copolymers are similar to those for other polymeric materials. These techniques can be used to determine the average molecular weight, molecular size, chemical composition, molecular homogeneity, and physiochemical properties of the material. However, given that copolymers are made of base polymer components with heterogeneous properties, this may require multiple characterization techniques to accurately characterize these copolymers.Spectroscopic techniques, such as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, and UV spectroscopy, are often used to identify the molecular structure and chemical composition of copolymers. In particular, NMR can indicate the tacticity and configuration of polymeric chains while IR can identify functional groups attached to the copolymer.
A-star algorithm Description A_algorithm > Description Specifically, A selects the path that minimizes f ( n ) = g ( n ) + h ( n ) {\displaystyle f(n)=g(n)+h(n)} where n is the next node on the path, g(n) is the cost of the path from the start node to n, and h(n) is a heuristic function that estimates the cost of the cheapest path from n to the goal. A* terminates when the path it chooses to extend is a path from start to goal or if there are no paths eligible to be extended. The heuristic function is problem-specific.
Energiewende 2015 DIW study Energiewende > Computer studies > 2015 DIW study A 2015 study uses DIETER or Dispatch and Investment Evaluation Tool with Endogenous Renewables, developed by the German Institute for Economic Research (DIW), Berlin, Germany. The study examines the power storage requirements for renewables uptake ranging from 60% to 100%. Under the baseline scenario of 80% (the German government target for 2050), grid storage requirements remain moderate and other options on both the supply side and demand side offer flexibility at low cost. Nonetheless, storage plays an important role in the provision of reserves. Storage becomes more pronounced under higher shares of renewables, but strongly depends on the costs and availability of other flexibility options, particularly on biomass availability. The model is fully described in the study report.
Reproductive success Humans Reproductive_success > Humans The Blurnton-Jones 'backload model' "tested a hypothesis that the length of the birth intervals of !Kung hunter-gatherers allowed women to balance optimally the energetic demands of child bearing and foraging in a society where women had to carry small children and foraged substantial distances". Behind this hypothesis is the fact that spacing birth intervals allowed for a better chance of child survival and that ultimately promoted evolutionary fitness. This hypothesis goes along with the evolutionary trend of having three areas to divide up one's individual energy: growth, maintenance, and reproduction. This hypothesis is good for gaining an understanding of "individual-level variation in fertility in small-scale, high fertility, societies( sometimes referred to by demographers as 'natural-fertility' populations". Reproduction success is hard to study as there are many different variables, and a lot of the concept is subject to each condition and environment.
Metric scale Engineer's scale Architect's_scale > Engineer's scale An engineer's scale is a tool for measuring distances and transferring measurements at a fixed ratio of length. It is commonly made of plastic or aluminum and is just over 300 millimetres (12 in) long, but with the only 300 mm of markings, leaving the ends unmarked so that the first and last measuring ticks do not wear off. It is used in making engineering drawings, commonly called blueprints, blue lines, or plans on a specific scale. For example, "one-tenth size" would appear on a drawing to indicate a part larger than the drawing on the paper itself.
Fish respiration Respiration Fish_physiology > Respiration Loaches, trahiras, and many catfish breathe by passing air through the gut. Mudskippers breathe by absorbing oxygen across the skin (similar to frogs). A number of fish have evolved so-called accessory breathing organs that extract oxygen from the air.
Dead space (physiology) Physiological dead space Dead_space_(physiology) > Calculating > Physiological dead space The Bohr equation is used to measure physiological dead space. Unfortunately, the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in alveoli is required to use the equation but this is not a single value as the ventilation-perfusion ratio is different in different lung units both in health and in disease. In practice, the arterial partial pressure of CO2 is used as an estimate of the average alveolar partial pressure of CO2, a modification introduced by Henrik Enghoff in 1938 (Enghoff H. Volumen inefficax. Bemerkungen zur Frage des schadlichen Raumes.
Kernel-based Virtual Machine Summary Linux_KVM Kernel-based Virtual Machine (KVM) is a free and open-source virtualization module in the Linux kernel that allows the kernel to function as a hypervisor. It was merged into the mainline Linux kernel in version 2.6.20, which was released on February 5, 2007. KVM requires a processor with hardware virtualization extensions, such as Intel VT or AMD-V. KVM has also been ported to other operating systems such as FreeBSD and illumos in the form of loadable kernel modules.
Representation theory of SU(2) The Casimir element Representation_theory_of_SU(2) > Lie algebra representations > The Casimir element The eigenvalue of C {\displaystyle \,C\,} in the representation with highest weight m {\displaystyle \,m\,} can be computed by applying C {\displaystyle \,C\,} to the highest weight vector, which is annihilated by X ; {\displaystyle \,X\;;} thus, we get c m = m 2 + 2 m = m ( m + 2 ) . {\displaystyle c_{m}=m^{2}+2m=m(m+2)~.} In the physics literature, the Casimir is normalized as C ′ = 1 4 C .
Radical hysterectomy Premature menopause and its effects Radical_hysterectomy > Risks and adverse effects > Premature menopause and its effects This has been attributed to the modulatory effect of estrogen on calcium metabolism and the drop in serum estrogen levels after menopause can cause excessive loss of calcium leading to bone wasting. Hysterectomies have also been linked with higher rates of heart disease and weakened bones. Those who have undergone a hysterectomy with both ovaries removed typically have reduced testosterone levels as compared to those left intact. Reduced levels of testosterone in women are predictive of height loss, which may occur as a result of reduced bone density, while increased testosterone levels in women are associated with a greater sense of sexual desire.Oophorectomy before the age of 45 is associated with a fivefold mortality from neurologic and mental disorders.
Hemostasis Steps of mechanism Hemostasis > Steps of mechanism Collagen is exposed at the site of injury, the collagen promotes platelets to adhere to the injury site. Platelets release cytoplasmic granules which contain serotonin, ADP and thromboxane A2, all of which increase the effect of vasoconstriction. The spasm response becomes more effective as the amount of damage is increased.
Population fragmentation Genetic effects Population_fragmentation > Genetic effects Population fragmentation causes inbreeding depression, which leads to a decrease in genetic variability in the species involved. This decreases the fitness of the population for several reasons. First, inbreeding forces competition with relatives, which decreases the evolutionary fitness of the species. Secondly, the decrease in genetic variability causes an increased possibility a lethal homozygous recessive trait may be expressed; this decreases the average litter size reproduced, indirectly decreasing the population.
Small boundary property Summary Small_boundary_property In mathematics, the small boundary property is a property of certain topological dynamical systems. It is dynamical analog of the inductive definition of Lebesgue covering dimension zero.
Exogenous growth model Background Solow–Swan_model > Background The Solow–Swan model was an extension to the 1946 Harrod–Domar model that dropped the restrictive assumption that only capital contributes to growth (so long as there is sufficient labor to use all capital). Important contributions to the model came from the work done by Solow and by Swan in 1956, who independently developed relatively simple growth models. Solow's model fitted available data on US economic growth with some success.
Pregnancy complication Hypothyroidism Pregnancy_complication > Maternal problems > Hypothyroidism The infant may be seriously affected and have a variety of birth defects. Complications in the mother and fetus can include pre-eclampsia, anemia, miscarriage, low birth weight, still birth, congestive heart failure, impaired neurointellectual development, and if severe, congenital iodine deficiency syndrome. This complication is treated by iodine supplementation, levothyroxine which is a form of thyroid hormone replacement, and close monitoring of thyroid function.
Functional Programming History Functional_language > History Lisp first introduced many paradigmatic features of functional programming, though early Lisps were multi-paradigm languages, and incorporated support for numerous programming styles as new paradigms evolved. Later dialects, such as Scheme and Clojure, and offshoots such as Dylan and Julia, sought to simplify and rationalise Lisp around a cleanly functional core, while Common Lisp was designed to preserve and update the paradigmatic features of the numerous older dialects it replaced.Information Processing Language (IPL), 1956, is sometimes cited as the first computer-based functional programming language. It is an assembly-style language for manipulating lists of symbols.
One-shot learning in computer vision Background One-shot_learning_in_computer_vision > Background Categories are first learned on numerous training examples, then new categories are learned using transformations of model parameters from those initial categories or selecting relevant parameters for a classifier. Feature sharing: Shares parts or features of objects across categories. One algorithm extracts "diagnostic information" in patches from already learned categories by maximizing the patches' mutual information, and then applies these features to the learning of a new category.
Absorption band Rotational transitions Absorption_band > Types > Rotational transitions Rotational transitions take place in the far infrared and microwave regions.
D* Summary D*_search_algorithm It repeats the process until it reaches the goal coordinates or determines that the goal coordinates cannot be reached. When traversing unknown terrain, new obstacles may be discovered frequently, so this replanning needs to be fast.
Inverse function theorem Statements Inverse_function_theorem > Statements Assuming this, the inverse derivative formula follows from the chain rule applied to f − 1 ∘ f = I {\displaystyle f^{-1}\circ f=I} . (Indeed, I = ( f − 1 ∘ f ) ′ ( a ) = ( f − 1 ) ′ ( b ) ∘ f ′ ( a ) .
Symmetry in mathematics Symmetries of differential equations Mathematical_symmetry > Symmetries of differential equations Knowledge of a Line symmetry can be used to simplify an ordinary differential equation through reduction of order.For ordinary differential equations, knowledge of an appropriate set of Lie symmetries allows one to explicitly calculate a set of first integrals, yielding a complete solution without integration. Symmetries may be found by solving a related set of ordinary differential equations. Solving these equations is often much simpler than solving the original differential equations.
Behavioral repertoire Theory levels Behavioral_repertoire > The paradigm > Theory levels The basic learning principles constitute another level of theory, as do the human learning principles that specify cumulative learning. How the principles work—in areas like child development, personality, abnormal personality, clinical treatment, education, and human evolution—compose additional levels of study. Staats sees the overarching theory of PB as basic for additional levels that compose the social sciences of sociology, linguistics, political science, anthrology, and paleoanthropology.
Perpetual motion machine of the second kind Techniques Perpetual_machine > Basic principles > Techniques A typical application of gravity in a perpetual motion machine is Bhaskara's wheel in the 12th century, whose key idea is itself a recurring theme, often called the overbalanced wheel: moving weights are attached to a wheel in such a way that they fall to a position further from the wheel's center for one half of the wheel's rotation, and closer to the center for the other half. Since weights further from the center apply a greater torque, it was thought that the wheel would rotate forever. However, since the side with weights further from the center has fewer weights than the other side, at that moment, the torque is balanced and perpetual movement is not achieved.
Simple Harmonic Motion Summary Simple_Harmonic_Motion In mechanics and physics, simple harmonic motion (sometimes abbreviated SHM) is a special type of periodic motion an object experiences due to a restoring force whose magnitude is directly proportional to the distance of the object from an equilibrium position and acts towards the equilibrium position. It results in an oscillation that is described by a sinusoid which continues indefinitely (if uninhibited by friction or any other dissipation of energy). Simple harmonic motion can serve as a mathematical model for a variety of motions, but is typified by the oscillation of a mass on a spring when it is subject to the linear elastic restoring force given by Hooke's law.
Massive heart attack Atherosclerosis Massive_heart_attack > Mechanism > Atherosclerosis The most common cause of a myocardial infarction is the rupture of an atherosclerotic plaque on an artery supplying heart muscle. Plaques can become unstable, rupture, and additionally promote the formation of a blood clot that blocks the artery; this can occur in minutes. Blockage of an artery can lead to tissue death in tissue being supplied by that artery. Atherosclerotic plaques are often present for decades before they result in symptoms.The gradual buildup of cholesterol and fibrous tissue in plaques in the wall of the coronary arteries or other arteries, typically over decades, is termed atherosclerosis.
Cancer genomics Source of cancer driver mutations, cancer mutagenesis Genetics_of_cancer > Source of cancer driver mutations, cancer mutagenesis Such mutations and epigenetic alterations can give rise to cancer. DDR genes are often repressed in human cancer by epigenetic mechanisms. Such repression may involve DNA methylation of promoter regions or repression of DDR genes by a microRNA.
Relative homology Examples Local_homology > Examples Because the disk is contractible, we know its reduced homology groups vanish in all dimensions, so the above sequence collapses to the short exact sequence: 0 → H n ( D n , S n − 1 ) → H ~ n − 1 ( S n − 1 ) → 0. {\displaystyle 0\rightarrow H_{n}(D^{n},S^{n-1})\rightarrow {\tilde {H}}_{n-1}(S^{n-1})\rightarrow 0.} Therefore, we get isomorphisms H n ( D n , S n − 1 ) ≅ H ~ n − 1 ( S n − 1 ) {\displaystyle H_{n}(D^{n},S^{n-1})\cong {\tilde {H}}_{n-1}(S^{n-1})} .
Sedimentary depositional environment Types of depositional environments Depositional_environment > Types of depositional environments Common sediments are carbonates (in tropical climates). Beach – Area of loose particles at the edge of the sea or other body of water. Caused by waves and longshore currents.
Dye-sensitized solar cell Dye-sensitized solar cells Dye-sensitized_solar_cells > Dye-sensitized solar cells In the late 1960s it was discovered that illuminated organic dyes can generate electricity at oxide electrodes in electrochemical cells. In an effort to understand and simulate the primary processes in photosynthesis the phenomenon was studied at the University of California at Berkeley with chlorophyll extracted from spinach (bio-mimetic or bionic approach). On the basis of such experiments electric power generation via the dye sensitization solar cell (DSSC) principle was demonstrated and discussed in 1972.

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