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Collision Perfect inelastic collision Collision_of_bodies > Examples of collisions that can be solved analytically > Perfect inelastic collision In a perfect inelastic collision, i.e., a zero coefficient of restitution, the colliding particles coalesce. It is necessary to consider conservation of momentum: m a u a + m b u b = ( m a + m b ) v {\displaystyle m_{a}\mathbf {u} _{a}+m_{b}\mathbf {u} _{b}=\left(m_{a}+m_{b}\right)\mathbf {v} \,} where v is the final velocity, which is hence given by v = m a u a + m b u b m a + m b {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} ={\frac {m_{a}\mathbf {u} _{a}+m_{b}\mathbf {u} _{b}}{m_{a}+m_{b}}}} The reduction of total kinetic energy is equal to the total kinetic energy before the collision in a center of momentum frame with respect to the system of two particles, because in such a frame the kinetic energy after the collision is zero. In this frame most of the kinetic energy before the collision is that of the particle with the smaller mass. In another frame, in addition to the reduction of kinetic energy there may be a transfer of kinetic energy from one particle to the other; the fact that this depends on the frame shows how relative this is. With time reversed we have the situation of two objects pushed away from each other, e.g. shooting a projectile, or a rocket applying thrust (compare the derivation of the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation). |
Fixed-point computation Algorithms for differentiable functions Fixed-point_computation > Contractive functions > Algorithms for differentiable functions When the function f is differentiable, and the algorithm can evaluate its derivative (not only f itself), the Newton method can be used and it is much faster. |
Continuous Random Variables Absolutely continuous probability distribution Continuous_probability_distribution > Absolutely continuous probability distribution An absolutely continuous probability distribution is a probability distribution on the real numbers with uncountably many possible values, such as a whole interval in the real line, and where the probability of any event can be expressed as an integral. More precisely, a real random variable X {\displaystyle X} has an absolutely continuous probability distribution if there is a function f: R → {\displaystyle f:\mathbb {R} \to } such that for each interval ⊂ R {\displaystyle \subset \mathbb {R} } the probability of X {\displaystyle X} belonging to {\displaystyle } is given by the integral of f {\displaystyle f} over I {\displaystyle I}: This is the definition of a probability density function, so that absolutely continuous probability distributions are exactly those with a probability density function. In particular, the probability for X {\displaystyle X} to take any single value a {\displaystyle a} (that is, a ≤ X ≤ a {\displaystyle a\leq X\leq a} ) is zero, because an integral with coinciding upper and lower limits is always equal to zero. If the interval {\displaystyle } is replaced by any measurable set A {\displaystyle A} , the according equality still holds: An absolutely continuous random variable is a random variable whose probability distribution is absolutely continuous. There are many examples of absolutely continuous probability distributions: normal, uniform, chi-squared, and others. |
Angular momentum Examples Introduction_to_angular_momentum > Examples In the case of a uniform rigid sphere rotating around its axis, if, instead of its mass, its density is known, the angular momentum L {\displaystyle L} is given by where ρ {\displaystyle \rho } is the sphere's density, f {\displaystyle f} is the frequency of rotation and r {\displaystyle r} is the sphere's radius. In the simplest case of a spinning disk, the angular momentum L {\displaystyle L} is given by where M {\displaystyle M} is the disk's mass, f {\displaystyle f} is the frequency of rotation and r {\displaystyle r} is the disk's radius. If instead the disk rotates about its diameter (e.g. coin toss), its angular momentum L {\displaystyle L} is given by |
Optical spectroscopy Other types Spectroscopy > Other types The techniques are widely used by organic chemists, mineralogists, and planetary scientists. Transient grating spectroscopy measures quasiparticle propagation. It can track changes in metallic materials as they are irradiated. Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy Vibrational circular dichroism spectroscopy Video spectroscopy X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy |
Wheelchair ramp Summary Wheelchair_ramp However, they consume more space and require traveling a greater distance to go up. Hence, in some cases it is preferable to include an elevator or other type of wheelchair lift.In many countries, wheelchair ramps and other features to facilitate universal access are required by building code when constructing new facilities which are open to the public. Internationally, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities mandates nations take action to "enable persons with disabilities to live independently and participate fully in all aspects of life." Among other requirements, it compels countries to institute "minimum standards and guidelines..." for accessibility. |
Antiperiplanar geometry Molecular orbitals Antiperiplanar_geometry > Molecular orbitals An important factor in the antiperiplanar conformer is the interaction between molecular orbitals. Anti-periplanar geometry will put a bonding orbital and an anti-bonding orbital approximately parallel to each other, or syn-periplanar. Figure 6 is another representation of 2-chloro-2,3-dimethylbutane (Figure 5), showing the C–H bonding orbital, σC–H, and the C–Cl anti-bonding orbital, σ*C–Cl, syn-periplanar. The parallel orbitals can overlap and become involved in hyperconjugation. |
Catalytic reformer Weaknesses and Competition Catalytic_reformer > Weaknesses and Competition The sensitivity of catalytic reforming to contamination by sulfur and nitrogen requires hydrotreating the naphtha before it enters the reformer, adding to the cost and complexity of the process. Dehydrogenation, an important component of reforming, is a strongly endothermic reaction, and as such, requires the reactor vessel to be externally heated. This contributes both to costs and the emissions of the process. Catalytic reforming has a limited ability to process naphthas with a high content of normal paraffins, e.g. naphthas from the gas-to-liquids (GTL) units. |
Exobase Summary Thermopause The thermopause is the atmospheric boundary of Earth's energy system, located at the top of the thermosphere. The temperature of the thermopause could range from nearly absolute zero to 987.547 °C (1,810 °F). Below this, the atmosphere is defined to be active on the insolation received, due to the increased presence of heavier gases such as monatomic oxygen. The solar constant is thus expressed at the thermopause. |
Markov Chains Stationary distribution relation to eigenvectors and simplices Transition_probabilities > Formal definition > Finite state space > Stationary distribution relation to eigenvectors and simplices A stationary distribution π is a (row) vector, whose entries are non-negative and sum to 1, is unchanged by the operation of transition matrix P on it and so is defined by π P = π . {\displaystyle \pi \mathbf {P} =\pi .} By comparing this definition with that of an eigenvector we see that the two concepts are related and that π = e ∑ i e i {\displaystyle \pi ={\frac {e}{\sum _{i}{e_{i}}}}} is a normalized ( ∑ i π i = 1 {\textstyle \sum _{i}\pi _{i}=1} ) multiple of a left eigenvector e of the transition matrix P with an eigenvalue of 1. If there is more than one unit eigenvector then a weighted sum of the corresponding stationary states is also a stationary state. |
RDNA 2 Cache and memory subsystem RDNA_2 > Architectural details > Cache and memory subsystem The Infinity Cache is made up of two sets of 64 MB cache that can run on its own clock rate independent from the GPU cores. The Infinity Cache has a peak internal transfer bandwidth of 1986.6 GB/s and results in less reliance being placed on the GPU's GDDR6 controllers. Each Shader Engine now has two sets of L1 caches. The large cache of RDNA 2 GPUs give them a higher overall memory bandwidth compared to Nvidia's GeForce RTX 30 series GPUs. |
Plasma glucose High blood sugar Blood_sugar_levels > Abnormalities > High blood sugar The most common cause of hyperglycemia is diabetes. When diabetes is the cause, physicians typically recommend an anti-diabetic medication as treatment. From the perspective of the majority of patients, treatment with an old, well-understood diabetes drug such as metformin will be the safest, most effective, least expensive, and most comfortable route to managing the condition. Treatment will vary for the distinct forms of Diabetes and can differ from person to person based on how they are reacting to treatment. Diet changes and exercise implementation may also be part of a treatment plan for diabetes.Some medications may cause a rise in blood sugars of diabetics, such as steroid medications, including cortisone, hydrocortisone, prednisolone, prednisone, and dexamethasone. |
Mesenchymal stromal cells Clinical significance Mesenchymal_cells > Clinical significance Mesenchymal stem cells can be activated and mobilized in reaction to injury and infection. As of May 2023, ClinicalTrials.gov lists more than 1,100 studies featuring MSCs for more than 920 conditions. |
Adiabatic engine Summary Carnot_heat_engine A Carnot heat engine is a theoretical heat engine that operates on the Carnot cycle. The basic model for this engine was developed by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824. The Carnot engine model was graphically expanded by Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron in 1834 and mathematically explored by Rudolf Clausius in 1857, work that led to the fundamental thermodynamic concept of entropy. The Carnot engine is the most efficient heat engine which is theoretically possible. |
Combo washer dryer Description Washer-dryer > Description Combination washer-dryers are popular among those living in smaller urban properties as they only need half the amount of space usually required for a separate washing machine and clothes dryer, and may not require an external air vent. Additionally, combination washer-dryers allow clothes to be washed and dried "in one go", saving time and effort from the user. Many washer dryer combo units are also designed to be portable so it can be attached to a sink instead of requiring a separate water line. Washer-dryer combinations are a type of home appliance that handles the basic laundering duties of washing and drying clothes. |
Integral equations Homogeneity Singular_integral_equations > Classification and overview > Homogeneity Homogenous: An integral equation is called homogeneous if the known function f {\displaystyle f} is identically zero.Inhomogenous: An integral equation is called inhomogeneous if the known function f {\displaystyle f} is nonzero. |
Functional relationship General properties Function_notation > General properties This section describes general properties of functions, that are independent of specific properties of the domain and the codomain. |
Granulin Other diseases Granulin > Clinical significance > Other diseases While progranulin may be anti-atherogenic, granulins may be pro-atherogenic. Increased serum and plasma progranulin levels in patients with type 2 diabetes and visceral obesity implicating progranulin in metabolic diseases.A recent genome-wide association study (GWAS) has found that genetic variations in GRN are associated with late-onset sporadic Alzheimer’s disease (LOAD). These genetic variations change the degradation pathways of misfolded protein contributing misfolded β-amyloid accumulation and plaque formation. |
Radical polymerisation Summary Free_radical_polymerization In polymer chemistry, free-radical polymerization (FRP) is a method of polymerization by which a polymer forms by the successive addition of free-radical building blocks (repeat units). Free radicals can be formed by a number of different mechanisms, usually involving separate initiator molecules. Following its generation, the initiating free radical adds (nonradical) monomer units, thereby growing the polymer chain. |
Osmoconformer Craniates Osmoconformer > Examples > Craniates Rather than ingesting sea water in order to change their internal salinity, sharks are able to absorb sea water directly. This is due to the high concentration of urea kept inside their bodies. This high concentration of urea creates a diffusion gradient which permits the shark to absorb water in order to equalize the concentration difference. |
Smoothing problem (stochastic processes) The confusion in terms and the relation between Filtering and Smoothing problems Smoothing_problem > The confusion in terms and the relation between Filtering and Smoothing problems In smoothing (also sense 2) all observation samples (from future) are used. Filtering is causal but smoothing is batch processing of the same problem, namely, estimation of a time-series process based on serial incremental observations. But the usual and more common smoothing and filtering (in the sense of 1.) |
Health risk assessment Providers Health_risk_assessment > Providers There are reportedly over 50 different HRA providers in the market, offering a variety of versions and formats. Major vendors generally have National Committee for Quality Assurance (NCQA) Wellness and Health Promotion (WHP) Certification or Health Information Products (HIP) Certification. |
Special function Special functions of matrix arguments Special_functions > Special functions of matrix arguments Analogues of several special functions have been defined on the space of positive definite matrices, among them the power function which goes back to Atle Selberg, the multivariate gamma function, and types of Bessel functions.The NIST Digital Library of Mathematical Functions has a section covering several special functions of matrix arguments. |
1,2-rearrangement Summary 1,2-rearrangement The rearrangement is intramolecular and the starting compound and reaction product are structural isomers. The 1,2-rearrangement belongs to a broad class of chemical reactions called rearrangement reactions. A rearrangement involving a hydrogen atom is called a 1,2-hydride shift. If the substituent being rearranged is an alkyl group, it is named according to the alkyl group's anion: i.e. 1,2-methanide shift, 1,2-ethanide shift, etc. |
Cell cycle withdrawal Significance Cell_cycle_withdrawal > Permanent cell cycle withdrawal > Significance After senescence, body cells would start to become old, and several functions would be lost during the process. As these cells with limited functions are inefficient in performing body activities, they are programmed to self demolition under the presence of apoptotic signals, such as caspase proteins and Bcl-2 family regulation proteins. Before such process, the cell cycle withdrawal ensures that these aged cells are not divided into other daughter cells before death, so as to maintain the age level of cells in organisms to perform efficient body activities. |
Professor's Cube Permutations Professor's_Cube > Permutations This gives a total number of permutations of 8 ! × 3 7 × 12 ! × 2 10 × 24 ! |
Equivalent (chemistry) Formal definition Molar_equivalent > Formal definition In a more formal definition, the equivalent is the amount of a substance needed to do one of the following: react with or supply one mole of hydrogen ions (H+) in an acid–base reaction react with or supply one mole of electrons in a redox reaction.The "hydrogen ion" and the "electron" in these examples are respectively called the "reaction units." By this definition, the number of equivalents of a given ion in a solution is equal to the number of moles of that ion multiplied by its valence. For example, consider a solution of 1 mole of NaCl and 1 mole of CaCl2. The solution has 1 mole or 1 equiv Na+, 1 mole or 2 equiv Ca2+, and 3 mole or 3 equiv Cl−. An earlier definition, used especially for chemical elements, holds that an equivalent is the amount of a substance that will react with 1 g (0.035 oz) of hydrogen, 8 g (0.28 oz) of oxygen, or 35.5 g (1.25 oz) of chlorine—or that will displace any of the three. |
Ionic charge Formation of monatomic ions Ion_notation > Chemistry > Formation > Formation of monatomic ions Monatomic ions are formed by the gain or loss of electrons to the valence shell (the outer-most electron shell) in an atom. The inner shells of an atom are filled with electrons that are tightly bound to the positively charged atomic nucleus, and so do not participate in this kind of chemical interaction. The process of gaining or losing electrons from a neutral atom or molecule is called ionization. Atoms can be ionized by bombardment with radiation, but the more usual process of ionization encountered in chemistry is the transfer of electrons between atoms or molecules. |
De Broglie-Bohm theory Bohmian mechanics Bohmian_Mechanics > History > Bohmian mechanics Bohmian mechanics is the same theory, but with an emphasis on the notion of current flow, which is determined on the basis of the quantum equilibrium hypothesis that the probability follows the Born rule. The term "Bohmian mechanics" is also often used to include most of the further extensions past the spin-less version of Bohm. While de Broglie–Bohm theory has Lagrangians and Hamilton-Jacobi equations as a primary focus and backdrop, with the icon of the quantum potential, Bohmian mechanics considers the continuity equation as primary and has the guiding equation as its icon. |
Tree Overview Tree > Overview Wood gives structural strength to the trunk of most types of tree; this supports the plant as it grows larger. The vascular system of trees allows water, nutrients and other chemicals to be distributed around the plant, and without it trees would not be able to grow as large as they do. Trees, as relatively tall plants, need to draw water up the stem through the xylem from the roots by the suction produced as water evaporates from the leaves. |
Asymptotic series Formal definition Asymptotic_growth > Formal definition First we define an asymptotic scale, and then give the formal definition of an asymptotic expansion. If φ n {\displaystyle \ \varphi _{n}\ } is a sequence of continuous functions on some domain, and if L {\displaystyle \ L\ } is a limit point of the domain, then the sequence constitutes an asymptotic scale if for every n, φ n + 1 ( x ) = o ( φ n ( x ) ) ( x → L ) . {\displaystyle \varphi _{n+1}(x)=o(\varphi _{n}(x))\quad (x\to L)\ .} ( L {\displaystyle \ L\ } may be taken to be infinity.) |
SAP IQ SAP HANA for operational reporting with SAP IQ for big data processing (NLS) SAP_IQ > In-memory data fabric > SAP HANA for operational reporting with SAP IQ for big data processing (NLS) In this scenario, SAP Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) data goes into SAP HANA which acts as an operational data store for immediate analysis. Once the data is analyzed it is integrated into SAP IQ via Near-line storage mechanisms (as described above). Here SAP IQ acts as an enterprise data warehouse that receives data from a variety of traditional sources (such as OLTP Databases and files systems), and SAP HANA Operational Data Store(ODS)https://blogs.sap.com/2019/05/22/q-the-easy-installer-for-sap-iq/ |
History of the Haber process A new approach History_of_the_Haber_process > A new approach I know exactly what the steel industry can do. We should risk it." In July 1909, BASF employees came to check on Haber's success again: the laboratory equipment fixed the nitrogen from the air, in the form of liquid ammonia, at a rate of about 250 milliliters every two hours. BASF decided to industrialize the process, although it was associated with Norsk Hydro to operate the Schönherr process. Carl Bosch, future head of industrialization of the process, reported that the key factor that prompted BASF to embark on this path was the improvement of the efficiency of the catalyst. |
Secondary hypothyroidism Causes Secondary_hypothyroidism > Causes After women give birth, about 5% develop postpartum thyroiditis which can occur up to nine months afterwards. This is characterized by a short period of hyperthyroidism followed by a period of hypothyroidism; 20–40% remain permanently hypothyroid.Autoimmune thyroiditis (Hashimoto's) is associated with other immune-mediated diseases such as diabetes mellitus type 1, pernicious anemia, myasthenia gravis, celiac disease, rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. It may occur as part of autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome (type 1 and type 2).Iatrogenic hypothyroidism can be surgical (a result of thyroidectomy, usually for thyroid nodules or cancer) or following radioiodine ablation (usually for Graves' disease). |
Organization design Five principles of good design Organizational_design > Design > Five principles of good design Specialization principle - the primary concern in the specialization principle how to group responsibilities into units. The unit boundaries should be defined to achieve the important benefits available. Coordination principle - this principle links closely with the specialization principle, to ensure the links are established between the units. Knowledge and competence principle - the primary concern in this principle is determining which responsibilities to decentralize and what hierarchical levels to create. Control and commitment principle - the primary concern in this principle is insuring managers have a process to effectively discharge decentralized principles. Innovation and adaptation principle - the primary concern in this principle is insuring the organization can change and evolve in the future. |
Global optimisation Heuristics and metaheuristics Global_optimization > Heuristics and metaheuristics Other approaches include heuristic strategies to search the search space in a more or less intelligent way, including: Ant colony optimization (ACO) Simulated annealing, a generic probabilistic metaheuristic Tabu search, an extension of local search capable of escaping from local minima Evolutionary algorithms (e.g., genetic algorithms and evolution strategies) Differential evolution, a method that optimizes a problem by iteratively trying to improve a candidate solution with regard to a given measure of quality Swarm-based optimization algorithms (e.g., particle swarm optimization, social cognitive optimization, multi-swarm optimization and ant colony optimization) Memetic algorithms, combining global and local search strategies Reactive search optimization (i.e. integration of sub-symbolic machine learning techniques into search heuristics) Graduated optimization, a technique that attempts to solve a difficult optimization problem by initially solving a greatly simplified problem, and progressively transforming that problem (while optimizing) until it is equivalent to the difficult optimization problem. |
Epigenetic regulation of neurogenesis Parkinson’s disease Epigenetic_regulation_of_neurogenesis > Epigenetic dysregulation and neurological disorders > Parkinson’s disease As mitochondria plays a role in the development of the PD, further research into the area will help uncover any implications that mitochondrial DNA methylation plays in the pathogenesis of PD. The use of dopaminergic neurons that have been isolated from the PD patients indicated that there were increases in acetylation (at H2A, H3 and H4) when compared to the age-control group. Another study involving MPP+ (a compound that can cause a disease state resembling mammals and humans with PD)-treated cells and (MPP+)-treated mouse brains showed decreased HDAC levels, as well as in midbrain samples from patients with PD. |
Reactive oxygen Endogenous sources Reactive_oxygen_intermediate > Sources of ROS production > Endogenous sources To cope with this natural source of ROS, the steroidogenic tissues, ovary and testis, have a large concentration of antioxidants such as vitamin C (ascorbate) and β-carotene and anti-oxidant enzymes.If too much damage is present in mitochondria, a cell undergoes apoptosis or programmed cell death.In addition, ROS are produced in immune cell signaling via the NOX pathway. Phagocytic cells such as neutrophils, eosinophils, and mononuclear phagocytes produce ROS when stimulated.In chloroplasts, the carboxylation and oxygenation reactions catalyzed by rubisco ensure that the functioning of the electron transport chain (ETC) occurs in an environment rich in O2. The leakage of electrons in the ETC will inevitably produce ROS within the chloroplasts. |
Vaccine Generations of vaccines Delivery_system > History > Generations of vaccines These are subunit vaccines, consisting of specific protein antigens (such as tetanus or diphtheria toxoid) or recombinant protein components (such as the hepatitis B surface antigen). They can generate TH and antibody responses, but not killer T cell responses.RNA vaccines and DNA vaccines are examples of third generation vaccines. In 2016 a DNA vaccine for the Zika virus began testing at the National Institutes of Health. |
Common octopus Osmoregulation Common_octopus > Physiology > Osmoregulation The fact that the organism can maintain hypoionic concentrations suggests not only that a form of ionic regulation exists within cephalopods, but also that they also actively excrete certain ions such as potassium and sulfate to maintain homeostasis.O. vulgaris has a mollusc-style kidney system, which is very different from mammals. |
Architectural conservation Agents of Deterioration Architectural_conservation > Agents of Deterioration Physical forces also include shocks and vibrations that can damage the fragile structure of the building, such as vibrations stemming from construction or large events. Building restoration and damage prevention can include training staff on proper object handling within the space, performing evaluations on structural integrity and measuring the levels of vibration that are deemed safe in and around the building. Understanding the structural health of the building, including vibration measuring, can help in determining restoration work that is safe to perform. |
Boom/bust cycle Cycles or fluctuations? Boom/bust_cycle > Identifying > Cycles or fluctuations? At the same time, the presence of nominal restrictions in price setting behavior might impact the short-term course of inflation.In recent years economic theory has moved towards the study of economic fluctuation rather than a "business cycle" – though some economists use the phrase 'business cycle' as a convenient shorthand. For example, Milton Friedman said that calling the business cycle a "cycle" is a misnomer, because of its non-cyclical nature. Friedman believed that for the most part, excluding very large supply shocks, business declines are more of a monetary phenomenon. |
A Boy and His Atom Creation A_Boy_and_His_Atom > Creation "This movie is a fun way to share the atomic-scale world," said project leader Andreas J. Heinrich. "The reason we made this was not to convey a scientific message directly, but to engage with students, to prompt them to ask questions." In addition, the researchers created three still images to promote Star Trek Into Darkness—the Federation logo, the starship Enterprise, and a Vulcan salute. |
Alkene metathesis Applications Alkene_metathesis > Applications Rhenium and molybdenum catalysts are used. Nowadays, only the reverse reaction, i.e., the conversion of ethylene and 2-butene to propylene is industrially practiced, however. Shell higher olefin process (SHOP) produces (alpha-olefins) for conversion to detergents. |
Alternating harmonic series Analyzing algorithms Harmonic_series_(mathematics) > Applications > Analyzing algorithms The quicksort algorithm for sorting a set of items can be analyzed using the harmonic numbers. The algorithm operates by choosing one item as a "pivot", comparing it to all the others, and recursively sorting the two subsets of items whose comparison places them before the pivot and after the pivot. In either its average-case complexity (with the assumption that all input permutations are equally likely) or in its expected time analysis of worst-case inputs with a random choice of pivot, all of the items are equally likely to be chosen as the pivot. For such cases, one can compute the probability that two items are ever compared with each other, throughout the recursion, as a function of the number of other items that separate them in the final sorted order. |
Glossary of genetics (M–Z) T Glossary_of_genetics_(M–Z) > T Like the transcriptome, it is often used as a proxy for quantifying levels of gene expression, though the transcriptome also includes many RNA molecules that are never translated. translocation A type of chromosomal abnormality caused by the structural rearrangement of large sections of one or more chromosomes. |
Quantum Bayesianism Technical developments and reconstructing quantum theory Quantum_Bayesianism > Technical developments and reconstructing quantum theory P ( D j ) {\displaystyle P(D_{j})} is the probability that an agent assigns for obtaining outcome D j {\displaystyle D_{j}} on her second of two planned measurements, that is, for obtaining outcome D j {\displaystyle D_{j}} after first making the SIC measurement and obtaining one of the H i {\displaystyle H_{i}} outcomes. Q ( D j ) {\displaystyle Q(D_{j})} , on the other hand, is the probability an agent assigns for obtaining outcome D j {\displaystyle D_{j}} when she does not plan to first make the SIC measurement. The law of total probability is a consequence of coherence within the operational context of performing the two measurements as described. |
Cane sugar Metabolism of sucrose Cane_sugar > Consumption > Metabolism of sucrose In humans and other mammals, sucrose is broken down into its constituent monosaccharides, glucose and fructose, by sucrase or isomaltase glycoside hydrolases, which are located in the membrane of the microvilli lining the duodenum. The resulting glucose and fructose molecules are then rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream. In bacteria and some animals, sucrose is digested by the enzyme invertase. |
Magnetic field lines Magnetic field of permanent magnets Magnetic_vector > Magnetic field of permanent magnets The monopole model has no experimental support. The Amperian loop model explains some, but not all of a material's magnetic moment. The model predicts that the motion of electrons within an atom are connected to those electrons' orbital magnetic dipole moment, and these orbital moments do contribute to the magnetism seen at the macroscopic level. However, the motion of electrons is not classical, and the spin magnetic moment of electrons (which is not explained by either model) is also a significant contribution to the total moment of magnets. |
Ferromagnetic material Magnetized materials Ferromagnetism > Explanation > Magnetized materials Thus, a piece of iron in its lowest energy state ("unmagnetized") generally has little or no net magnetic field. However, the magnetic domains in a material are not fixed in place; they are simply regions where the spins of the electrons have aligned spontaneously due to their magnetic fields, and thus can be altered by an external magnetic field. If a strong enough external magnetic field is applied to the material, the domain walls will move by the process of the spins of the electrons in atoms near the wall in one domain turning under the influence of the external field to face in the same direction as the electrons in the other domain, thus reorienting the domains so more of the dipoles are aligned with the external field. The domains will remain aligned when the external field is removed, creating a magnetic field of their own extending into the space around the material, thus creating a "permanent" magnet. |
Spoiler (car) Active spoilers Spoiler_(car) > Active spoilers Often the driver can manually deploy the spoiler if desired, but may not be able to retract the spoiler above a certain speed because doing so could dangerously diminish the high-speed handling qualities of the vehicle. Active spoilers can offer additional benefits over fixed spoilers. Cosmetically, they can allow a cleaner or less cluttered appearance when the vehicle is parked or traveling at low speeds when it is most likely to be observed. |
Op code mnemonic Current usage Assembler_code > Use of assembly language > Current usage Programs that need to use processor-specific instructions not implemented in a compiler. A common example is the bitwise rotation instruction at the core of many encryption algorithms, as well as querying the parity of a byte or the 4-bit carry of an addition. |
Hirschman uncertainty Summary Hirschman_uncertainty A tighter bound, was conjectured by Hirschman and Everett, proven in 1975 by W. Beckner and in the same year interpreted as a generalized quantum mechanical uncertainty principle by Białynicki-Birula and Mycielski. The equality holds in the case of Gaussian distributions. Note, however, that the above entropic uncertainty function is distinctly different from the quantum Von Neumann entropy represented in phase space. |
Inorganic chemical reaction Synthetic inorganic chemistry Inorganic_chemical_reaction > Synthetic inorganic chemistry Volatile compounds and gases are manipulated in "vacuum manifolds" consisting of glass piping interconnected through valves, the entirety of which can be evacuated to 0.001 mm Hg or less. Compounds are condensed using liquid nitrogen (b.p. 78K) or other cryogens. Solids are typically prepared using tube furnaces, the reactants and products being sealed in containers, often made of fused silica (amorphous SiO2) but sometimes more specialized materials such as welded Ta tubes or Pt "boats". Products and reactants are transported between temperature zones to drive reactions. |
Computational Fluid Dynamics Hierarchy of fluid flow equations Computational_fluid_mechanics > Hierarchy of fluid flow equations Furthermore, assume that this perturbation f ′ {\displaystyle f'} is very small in comparison with some reference value. Finally, assume that f 0 {\displaystyle f_{0}} satisfies "its own" equation, such as the EE. The LEE and its many variations are widely used in computational aeroacoustics. |
Polymer fractionation Literature Polymer_fractionation > Literature M.J.R Cantow Polymer Fractionation Academic Press, New York (1967) L.H. Tung Fractionation of Synthetic Polymers Marcel Dekker, New York (1977) F. Francuskiewicz Polymer Fractionation Springer, Berlin (1994) R. Koningsveld, L.D. Kleintjens, H. Geerissen, P. Schützeichel, B.A. Wolf „Fractionation“ in: Comprehensive Polymer Science Volume 1 Pergamon Press, Oxford (1989) 293-312 |
Congestive heart disease Summary ESC_algorithm Heart failure (HF), also known as congestive heart failure (CHF), is a syndrome, a group of signs and symptoms, caused by an impairment of the heart's blood pumping function. Symptoms typically include shortness of breath, excessive fatigue, and leg swelling. The shortness of breath may occur with exertion or while lying down, and may wake people up during the night. Chest pain, including angina, is not usually caused by heart failure, but may occur if the heart failure was caused by a heart attack. |
Tokenization (data security) Difference from encryption Tokenization_(data_security) > Difference from encryption In many situations, the encryption process is a constant consumer of processing power, hence such a system needs significant expenditures in specialized hardware and software.Another difference is that tokens require significantly less computational resources to process. With tokenization, specific data is kept fully or partially visible for processing and analytics while sensitive information is kept hidden. This allows tokenized data to be processed more quickly and reduces the strain on system resources. This can be a key advantage in systems that rely on high performance. In comparison to encryption, tokenization technologies reduce time, expense, and administrative effort while enabling teamwork and communication. |
History of biotechnology Genetic engineering History_of_biotechnology > Genetic engineering The origins of biotechnology culminated with the birth of genetic engineering. There were two key events that have come to be seen as scientific breakthroughs beginning the era that would unite genetics with biotechnology. One was the 1953 discovery of the structure of DNA, by Watson and Crick, and the other was the 1973 discovery by Cohen and Boyer of a recombinant DNA technique by which a section of DNA was cut from the plasmid of an E. coli bacterium and transferred into the DNA of another. This approach could, in principle, enable bacteria to adopt the genes and produce proteins of other organisms, including humans. |
Autoreactive lymphocyte Association with COVID-19 Reactive_lymphocyte > Causes > Association with COVID-19 The presence of Downey cells were observed in many COVID-19 cases, together with the atypical plasmacytoid lymphocytes (which could be one of the less usual atypical lymphocyte types).Some observations even suggest that the presence of particular reactive lymphocytes in some of the infected patients could be an indicator of a better prognosis of the disease. |
Constructive development (biology) Constructive development and evolution Constructive_development_(biology) > Constructive development and evolution Therefore, ‘plasticity-led evolution’ reduces to the standard evolutionary explanation of natural selection acting on genetic variation. Conversely, ‘plasticity-led evolution’ gains greater significance if development is constructive and open-ended. New functional phenotypes can emerge with little or no initial genetic modification (see facilitated variation), and provide the new raw material on which natural selection can act (e.g.). |
Geometry of Complex Numbers Topics Geometry_of_Complex_Numbers > Topics The book is divided into three chapters, corresponding to the three parts of its subtitle: circle geometry, Möbius transformations, and non-Euclidean geometry. Each of these is further divided into sections (which in other books would be called chapters) and sub-sections. An underlying theme of the book is the representation of the Euclidean plane as the plane of complex numbers, and the use of complex numbers as coordinates to describe geometric objects and their transformations.The chapter on circles covers the analytic geometry of circles in the complex plane. It describes the representation of circles by 2 × 2 {\displaystyle 2\times 2} Hermitian matrices, the inversion of circles, stereographic projection, pencils of circles (certain one-parameter families of circles) and their two-parameter analogue, bundles of circles, and the cross-ratio of four complex numbers.The chapter on Möbius transformations is the central part of the book, and defines these transformations as the fractional linear transformations of the complex plane (one of several standard ways of defining them). |
Computer representation of surfaces Visualization and display Computer_representation_of_surfaces > Visualization and display Surfaces may be displayed in many ways: Wireframe mode. In this representation the surface is drawn as a series of lines and curves, without hidden-line removal. The boundaries and flow lines (isoparametric curves) may each be shown as solid or dashed curves. The advantage of this representation is that a great deal of geometry may be displayed and rotated on the screen with no delay needed for graphics processing. |
Indeterminism Prigogine Indeterminism > Science > Prigogine This led to the field of statistical mechanics and the realization that gases undergo irreversible processes. In deterministic physics, all processes are time-reversible, meaning that they can proceed backward as well as forward through time. As Prigogine explains, determinism is fundamentally a denial of the arrow of time. |
Chaos Theory Other areas Classical_chaos > Applications > Other areas The various phase trajectory plots and spectral analyses, on the other hand, do not match up well enough with the other graphs or with the overall theory to lead inexorably to a chaotic diagnosis. For example, the phase trajectories do not show a definite progression towards greater and greater complexity (and away from periodicity); the process seems quite muddied. Also, where Metcalf and Allen saw periods of two and six in their spectral plots, there is room for alternative interpretations. |
Agent-based models 1970s and 1980s: the first models Multiple-agent_system > History > 1970s and 1980s: the first models One of the earliest agent-based models in concept was Thomas Schelling's segregation model, which was discussed in his paper "Dynamic Models of Segregation" in 1971. Though Schelling originally used coins and graph paper rather than computers, his models embodied the basic concept of agent-based models as autonomous agents interacting in a shared environment with an observed aggregate, emergent outcome. In the early 1980s, Robert Axelrod hosted a tournament of Prisoner's Dilemma strategies and had them interact in an agent-based manner to determine a winner. Axelrod would go on to develop many other agent-based models in the field of political science that examine phenomena from ethnocentrism to the dissemination of culture. |
RocketMotorOne Vehicle description RocketMotorOne > Design > Vehicle description All can be controlled manually. See the separate section below concerning the rocket engine. The reaction control system is the only way to control spacecraft attitude outside the atmosphere. |
Autoinflammatory diseases Persistent macrophage activation Autoinflammatory_diseases > Mechanisms of the origin > Persistent macrophage activation This macrophage activation can be caused by increased activity of intracellular sensor NLRC4 and subsequent constitutive NLRC4 inflammasome activation. The macrophage activation can be due to the loss of negative regulatory effect of cytotoxicity. == References == |
Balanced circuit Balance and symmetry Balanced_circuit > Balance and symmetry A balanced circuit will normally show a symmetry of its components about a horizontal line midway between the two conductors (example in figure 3). This is different from what is normally meant by a symmetrical circuit, which is a circuit showing symmetry of its components about a vertical line at its midpoint. An example of a symmetrical circuit is shown in figure 2. Circuits designed for use with balanced lines will often be designed to be both balanced and symmetrical as shown in figure 4. |
Apprenticeship learning Mapping function approach Apprenticeship_learning > Mapping function approach Mapping methods try to mimic the expert by forming a direct mapping either from states to actions, or from states to reward values. For example, in 2002 researchers used such an approach to teach an AIBO robot basic soccer skills. |
Ritz method Applications in mechanical engineering Ritz_method > Applications in mechanical engineering Thus, if we knew the mode shape Y ( x ) {\displaystyle Y(x)} , we would be able to calculate A {\displaystyle A} and B {\displaystyle B} , and in turn get the eigenfrequency. However, we do not yet know the mode shape. In order to find this, we can approximate Y ( x ) {\displaystyle Y(x)} as a combination of a few approximating functions Y i ( x ) {\displaystyle Y_{i}(x)} where c 1 , c 2 , ⋯ , c N {\displaystyle c_{1},c_{2},\cdots ,c_{N}} are constants to be determined. |
Acidosis Summary Acidosis The rate of cellular metabolic activity affects and, at the same time, is affected by the pH of the body fluids. In mammals, the normal pH of arterial blood lies between 7.35 and 7.50 depending on the species (e.g., healthy human-arterial blood pH varies between 7.35 and 7.45). Blood pH values compatible with life in mammals are limited to a pH range between 6.8 and 7.8. Changes in the pH of arterial blood (and therefore the extracellular fluid) outside this range result in irreversible cell damage. |
Euler's summation formula The formula Euler's_summation_formula > The formula If m and n are natural numbers and f(x) is a real or complex valued continuous function for real numbers x in the interval , then the integral can be approximated by the sum (or vice versa) (see rectangle method). The Euler–Maclaurin formula provides expressions for the difference between the sum and the integral in terms of the higher derivatives f(k)(x) evaluated at the endpoints of the interval, that is to say x = m and x = n. Explicitly, for p a positive integer and a function f(x) that is p times continuously differentiable on the interval , we have where Bk is the kth Bernoulli number (with B1 = 1/2) and Rp is an error term which depends on n, m, p, and f and is usually small for suitable values of p. The formula is often written with the subscript taking only even values, since the odd Bernoulli numbers are zero except for B1. In this case we have or alternatively |
Direct policy search Inverse reinforcement learning Direct_policy_search > Comparison of reinforcement learning algorithms > Inverse reinforcement learning In inverse reinforcement learning (IRL), no reward function is given. Instead, the reward function is inferred given an observed behavior from an expert. The idea is to mimic observed behavior, which is often optimal or close to optimal. |
Forced vibration Testing Vibration_testing > Testing Vibration testing is accomplished by introducing a forcing function into a structure, usually with some type of shaker. Alternately, a DUT (device under test) is attached to the "table" of a shaker. Vibration testing is performed to examine the response of a device under test (DUT) to a defined vibration environment. The measured response may be ability to function in the vibration environment, fatigue life, resonant frequencies or squeak and rattle sound output (NVH). |
Bilateral Laplace transform Relationship to the Fourier transform Two-sided_Laplace_transform > Relationship to the Fourier transform The Fourier transform can be defined in terms of the two-sided Laplace transform: F { f ( t ) } = F ( s = i ω ) = F ( ω ) . {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}\{f(t)\}=F(s=i\omega )=F(\omega ).} Note that definitions of the Fourier transform differ, and in particular F { f ( t ) } = F ( s = i ω ) = 1 2 π B { f ( t ) } ( s ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}\{f(t)\}=F(s=i\omega )={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2\pi }}}{\mathcal {B}}\{f(t)\}(s)} is often used instead. |
Breech block Rotating bolt Breechblock > Variants > Rotating bolt With the breech locked, an initial rearward movement of the bolt carrier causes the bolt to rotate and unlock. Similarly, when closing the breech, the final forward movement of the carrier causes the bolt to rotate and lock the breech. This action is commonly achieved by a slot cut in the carrier that engages a pin through the bolt perpendicular to the axis of the barrel. |
Mitochondrial unfolded protein response Relationship to inflammatory bowel disease Mitochondrial_unfolded_protein_response > Relationship to inflammatory bowel disease Inflammatory bowel diseases (Crohn´s disease and ulcerative colitis) have been associated with mitochondrial dysfunction in the intestinal epithelium. In mouse models of intestinal inflammation and in IBD patients, signs of UPRmt -activation have been demonstrated. In particular, mitochondrial dysfunction and UPRmt -activation have been linked to intestinal stemness and Paneth cell (dys-)function. |
Cryptococcal disease Cryptococcal meningitis Cryptococcosis > Cryptococcal meningitis Cryptococcal meningitis (infection of the meninges, the tissue covering the brain) is believed to result from dissemination of the fungus from either an observed or unappreciated pulmonary infection. Often there is also silent dissemination throughout the brain when meningitis is present. People with defects in their cell-mediated immunity, for example, people with AIDS, are especially susceptible to disseminated cryptococcosis. Cryptococcosis is often fatal, even if treated. |
Hund's rules Summary Hund's_rules In atomic physics, Hund's rules refers to a set of rules that German physicist Friedrich Hund formulated around 1925, which are used to determine the term symbol that corresponds to the ground state of a multi-electron atom. The first rule is especially important in chemistry, where it is often referred to simply as Hund's Rule. The three rules are: For a given electron configuration, the term with maximum multiplicity has the lowest energy. The multiplicity is equal to 2 S + 1 {\displaystyle 2S+1\ } , where S {\displaystyle S} is the total spin angular momentum for all electrons. |
Stem-cell niche Hematopoietic stem cell niche Stem_cell_niche > Examples > Vertebrate adult stem cell niches > Hematopoietic stem cell niche Vertebrate hematopoietic stem cells niche in the bone marrow is formed by cells subendosteal osteoblasts, sinusoidal endothelial cells and bone marrow stromal (also sometimes called reticular) cells which includes a mix of fibroblastoid, monocytic and adipocytic cells (which comprise marrow adipose tissue). |
Factorial number system Fractional values Factorial_number_system > Fractional values In the following selection of examples, spaces are used to separate the place values, otherwise represented in decimal. The rational numbers on the left are also in decimal: 1 / 2 = 0.0 1 ! {\displaystyle 1/2=0.0\ 1_{!}} |
Expected satiety Measurement Expected_satiety > Measurement A conceptually similar alternative is to use a 'method of adjustment'. Participants are shown a picture of a standard food next to a picture of a comparison food. Using specialist software, participants change the size of the comparison portion using keyboard responses. |
Donor atom Summary Complex_compound A coordination complex is a chemical compound consisting of a central atom or ion, which is usually metallic and is called the coordination centre, and a surrounding array of bound molecules or ions, that are in turn known as ligands or complexing agents. Many metal-containing compounds, especially those that include transition metals (elements like titanium that belong to the periodic table's d-block), are coordination complexes. |
Reward system Learning Reward_system > Learning Rewarding stimuli can drive learning in both the form of classical conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning) and operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning). In classical conditioning, a reward can act as an unconditioned stimulus that, when associated with the conditioned stimulus, causes the conditioned stimulus to elicit both musculoskeletal (in the form of simple approach and avoidance behaviors) and vegetative responses. In operant conditioning, a reward may act as a reinforcer in that it increases or supports actions that lead to itself. |
Geochemical research Cycles Geochemical_research > Cycles For a given component C, if the input to a reservoir is a constant a and the output is kC for some constant k, then the mass balance equation is This expresses the fact that any change in mass must be balanced by changes in the input or output. On a time scale of t = 1/k, the system approaches a steady state in which Csteady = a/k. The residence time is defined as τ r e s = C steady / I = C steady / O , {\displaystyle \tau _{\mathrm {res} }=C^{\text{steady}}/I=C^{\text{steady}}/O,} where I and O are the input and output rates. |
Dynamic priority scheduling Summary Dynamic_priority_scheduling Dynamic priority scheduling is a type of scheduling algorithm in which the priorities are calculated during the execution of the system. The goal of dynamic priority scheduling is to adapt to dynamically changing progress and to form an optimal configuration in a self-sustained manner. It can be very hard to produce well-defined policies to achieve the goal depending on the difficulty of a given problem. Earliest deadline first scheduling and Least slack time scheduling are examples of Dynamic priority scheduling algorithms. |
Redox (operating system) Components Redox_(operating_system) > Components Redox provides packages (memory allocator, file system, display manager, core utilities, etc.) that together make up a functional operating system. Redox relies on an ecosystem of software written in Rust by members of the project. Redox kernel – derives from the concept of microkernels, with inspiration from MINIX Ralloc – memory allocator TFS file system – inspired by the ZFS file system Ion shell – the underlying library for shells and command execution in Redox, and the default shell pkgutils – package manager Orbital windowing system – display and window manager, sets up the orbital: scheme, manages the display, and handles requests for window creation, redraws, and event polling relibc – C standard library |
RNR4 Summary RNR4 RNA, ribosomal 4, also known as RNR4, is a human gene. |
Paper capacitor Inductance (ESL) and self-resonant frequency Types_of_capacitor > Electrical characteristics > Inductance (ESL) and self-resonant frequency The self-resonant frequency is the lowest frequency at which the impedance passes through a minimum. For any AC application the self-resonant frequency is the highest frequency at which capacitors can be used as a capacitive component. This is critically important for decoupling high-speed logic circuits from the power supply. |
Cryptography standards Hash standards Cryptography_standards > Hash standards MD5 128-bit (obsolete) SHA-1 160-bit (obsolete) SHA-2 available in 224, 256, 384, and 512-bit variants HMAC keyed hash PBKDF2 Key derivation function (RFC 2898) |
RNA hydrolysis Possible applications RNA_hydrolysis > Possible applications Researchers are developing and using various applications for RNA hydrolysis that can be carried out in a controlled way. Applications include the use of ribozymes in gene therapy to control gene expression in bacteria and eukaryotes, and to inhibit viral replication. Hammerhead ribozymes, in particular, can be designed such that they will cleave a desired RNA. These ribozymes can be designed to prevent expression of a particular gene, for example.In addition to inhibiting gene expression, splicing ribozymes can be used to repair damaged or defective RNA. |
Lorentz ether theory Aether Lorentz_ether_theory > Principles and conventions > Aether And those who are not of this opinion can legitimately retain the old one in order not to disturb their old habits, I believe, just between us, that this is what they shall do for a long time to come." Also Lorentz argued during his lifetime that in all frames of reference this one has to be preferred, in which the aether is at rest. Clocks in this frame are showing the "real“ time and simultaneity is not relative. However, if the correctness of the relativity principle is accepted, it is impossible to find this system by experiment. |
Tryptophan operon leader Summary Tryptophan_operon_leader The Tryptophan operon leader is an RNA element found at the 5′ of some bacterial tryptophan operons. The leader sequence can form two different structures known as the terminator and the anti-terminator, based on the Tryptophan amounts in the cell. The leader also codes for very short peptide sequence that is rich in tryptophan. The terminator structure is recognised as a termination signal for RNA polymerase and the operon is not transcribed. |
Social behavior Biological correlates Social_behavior > Neural and biological correlates of social behavior > Biological correlates Along with neural correlates, research has investigated what happens within the body (and potentially modulates) social behavior. Vasopressin is a posterior pituitary hormone that is seen to potentially play a role in affiliation for young rats. Along with young rats, vasopressin has also been associated with paternal behavior in prairie voles. Efforts have been made to connect animal research to humans, and found that vasopressin may play a role in the social responses of males in human research.Oxytocin has also been seen to be correlated with positive social behavior, and elevated levels have been shown to potentially help improve social behavior that may have been suppressed due to stress. |
Kinematic quantity Siano's extension: orientational analysis Dimension_(physical_quantity) > Geometry: position vs. displacement > Siano's extension: orientational analysis Siano distinguishes between geometric angles, which have an orientation in 3-dimensional space, and phase angles associated with time-based oscillations, which have no spatial orientation, i.e. the orientation of a phase angle is 1 0 {\displaystyle 1_{0}} . The assignment of orientational symbols to physical quantities and the requirement that physical equations be orientationally homogeneous can actually be used in a way that is similar to dimensional analysis to derive more information about acceptable solutions of physical problems. In this approach, one solves the dimensional equation as far as one can. |
Dancing links Main ideas Dancing_links > Implementation > Main ideas The idea of DLX is based on the observation that in a circular doubly linked list of nodes, x.left.right ← x.right; x.right.left ← x.left; will remove node x from the list, while x.left.right ← x; x.right.left ← x; will restore x's position in the list, assuming that x.right and x.left have been left unmodified. This works regardless of the number of elements in the list, even if that number is 1. Knuth observed that a naive implementation of his Algorithm X would spend an inordinate amount of time searching for 1's. When selecting a column, the entire matrix had to be searched for 1's. |
Kalman decomposition Summary Kalman_decomposition In control theory, a Kalman decomposition provides a mathematical means to convert a representation of any linear time-invariant (LTI) control system to a form in which the system can be decomposed into a standard form which makes clear the observable and controllable components of the system. This decomposition results in the system being presented with a more illuminating structure, making it easier to draw conclusions on the system's reachable and observable subspaces. |
Finite difference Newton's series Calculus_of_finite_differences > Newton's series The Newton series consists of the terms of the Newton forward difference equation, named after Isaac Newton; in essence, it is the Gregory–Newton interpolation formula (named after Isaac Newton and James Gregory), first published in his Principia Mathematica in 1687, namely the discrete analog of the continuous Taylor expansion, which holds for any polynomial function f and for many (but not all) analytic functions. (It does not hold when f is exponential type π {\displaystyle \pi } . This is easily seen, as the sine function vanishes at integer multiples of π {\displaystyle \pi } ; the corresponding Newton series is identically zero, as all finite differences are zero in this case. Yet clearly, the sine function is not zero.) |
Physiomics Modelling and simulation software Physiomics > Research applications > Modelling and simulation software Collaborative physiomics research is promoted in part by the open availability of bioinformatics software such as simulation programs and modelling environments. There are many institutions and research groups that make their software available to the public. Examples of openly available software include: JSim and Systems Biology Workbench – bioinformatics tools offered by The University of Washington. BISEN – a simulation environment made available by The Medical College of Wisconsin. |
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