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11663892
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginninderra
|
Ginninderra
|
Ginninderra is the name of the former agricultural lands surrendered to urban development on the western and north-western fringes of Canberra, the capital of Australia. Ginninderra corresponds with the watershed of Ginninderra Creek, which is now in part occupied by the Canberra districts of Belconnen and Gungahlin.
The word 'Ginninderra' is one of several - Molonglo, Gold Creek and Monaro are others - that hold longstanding connections to Canberra's local history. The Ginninderra Cricket Club, Ginninderra District High School and Ginninderra Labor Club are examples. One of the local ACT electorates is called Ginninderra. The name is celebrated through the place name Ginninderra Drive, an arterial road that traverses the Canberra district of Belconnen.
Ginninderra Plain
The Ginninderra Plain is bound by the Spring Range and the NSW-ACT border to the north, by Black Mountain and the O'Connor Ridge to the east, by a line of hills leading west from Mount Payntor towards the Murrumbidgee River to the south and by the hills at Brookland (in NSW) and the Brindabella Ranges to the west. The plain contains the entire water catchment area of Ginninderra Creek, which empties into the Murrumbidgee River and forms part of the Murray-Darling Basin. The urban environs of the city of Canberra straddle the Ginninderra Plain, Molonglo Plains, the Limestone Plain, and the Tuggeranong Plain (Isabellas Plain).
History
| 2.234375
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11663892
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginninderra
|
Ginninderra
|
Indigenous Australian peoples have long inhabited what is now the ACT.[1] Anthropologist Norman Tindale has suggested the principal group occupying the region were the Ngunnawal people, while the Ngarigo and Walgalu lived immediately to the south, the Wandandian to the east, the Gandangara to the north, and the Wiradjuri to the north-west.[2]Earliest written reference to the area use the spelling 'Ginninginderry' though by mid 19th century the 'Ginninderra' variation was in general use. The name Ginninderra is derived from the Aboriginal word for the creek which flows through the district of Ginin-ginin-derry which is said to mean sparkling or throwing out little rays of light.
George Palmer established his Palmerville Estate in 1826 in Ginninginderry with a homestead located on the banks of Ginninderra Creek adjacent to the presentday suburb of Giralang. The estate encompassed much of what is now Belconnen and southern Gungahlin. It adjoined the Charnwood Estate to the west and Yarralumla Estate to the east. The combined area of the Ginninderra and Charnwood Estates was nearly 20,150 acres (8155 ha). Between the years 1830 and 1836, the colonial surveyor Robert Hoddle made several visits to the district, to survey property boundaries. He captured Ginninderra's wild beauty in watercolour and ink. The property was sold to William Davis, also from a prominent local family, and it continued to prosper.
The second wave of Ginninderra settlement began in the early 1850s with free settlers such as the Rolfe, Shumack, Southwell, Gillespie and Gribble families. These settlers established wheat and sheep properties such as 'Weetangara', 'Gold Creek','The Valley' and 'Tea Gardens'. During the mid 19th century Ginninderra was predominantly a wheat growing district especially for the smaller landholders. Much of the local produce supplied the large workforce at the region's goldfields located at Braidwood and Major's Creek. Harry Holland, the second leader of the New Zealand Labour Party, was born here in 1868.
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11663917
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwich%20Bus%20Station
|
Norwich Bus Station
|
Norwich Bus Station is situated off Surrey Street and Queen's Road, Norwich, Norfolk, England. It is served by a number of bus operators, such as Konectbus, Norse, First Eastern Counties, National Express, Megabus and City Sightseeing Norwich.
The land between Surrey Street and Bull Lane was acquired in April 1934 by the Eastern Counties Omnibus Company. The huge garage and station were designed by architect H J Starkey and it was opened in 1936 by the Lord Mayor Walter Riley. The garage had the biggest unsupported roof span in the country with no pillars or supports in the 52,000 sq ft of floor space. The garage structure was said to have weighed 220 tonnes and 650,000 bricks and nine miles of electric cable went into its construction.
The Norwich PT Major transportation project, identified the need for a new bus station as the catalyst for the regeneration of an important social and commercial area of Norwich which was previously neglected. Funding was awarded in November 2002, Planning consent granted in December 2003, Demolition and Construction commenced in February 2004, partial opening of the through road for the Park & Ride was achieved April 2005.
The new Bus Station opened on 30 August 2005 at a cost of £5 million and two months later than planned, with its distinctive steel roof it won the 2006 SCALA Civic Building of the Year Award. The roof though has caused problems and in June 2012 the bus station had to be closed for two weeks to allow contractors to replace much of the roof to fix leaks.
On average the bus station sees 7,800 bus movements, 200,000 passengers boarding, and the information centre helps 21,000 people per week.
Bus routes
Most local bus operations in Norwich depart from either Castle Meadow, near Norwich Castle, St. Stephen's Street or from Theatre Street, near Norwich's Theatre Royal, with the bus station reserved for long-distance express services, coach services or Park and Ride services, with a few local services operating out of the terminus.
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11663930
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%2C%20Greater%20Manchester
|
Newton, Greater Manchester
|
Newton is an area of Hyde, in the Tameside district, in Greater Manchester, England; it occupies a narrow strip of land from the River Tame, near Newton Hall, to Matley, between Hyde and Dukinfield.
Newton can be divided into four separate parts:
Newton Green
Flowery Field
Newton Moor
Newton
The former site of Shaw Hall factory lies on Matley Lane.
Governance
Newton is part of the Stalybridge and Hyde constituency, whose Member of Parliament is currently Jonathan Reynolds of the Labour Co-operative party. Newton was previously in the North West England European Parliament constituency.
Newton was formerly a township in the parish of Mottram-in-Langdendale and a chapelry, in 1866 Newton became a separate civil parish, on 1 October 1923 the parish was abolished and merged with Hyde. In 1921 the parish had a population of 7715.
In 1974 it became part of Tameside district in Greater Manchester.
Transport
The area is served by two railway stations: and ; both are stops on the Glossop Line between , and . Services are operated by Northern Trains.
The main bus route in the area is the 346, which links Hyde with Ashton-Under-Lyne; it is operated by Stagecoach Manchester.
Education
Newton is served by the following primary and secondary schools:
Bradley Green Primary School
Flowery Field Primary School
Oakfield Primary School
St Paul's Catholic Primary & Nursery School
Hyde Community College
Notable People
Michael Barber (1934 - 1991), chemist and mass spectrometrist, best known for his invention of fast atom bombardment ionisation; born at 166 Lodge Lane in Newton
| 1.953125
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11664080
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SimCity%20%282013%20video%20game%29
|
SimCity (2013 video game)
|
Unlike previous games in the series, the game has non-orthogonal and curved roads and zoning areas that can conform to different road types. Types of zones include residential, commercial and industrial. The density is driven by the types of roads built around these zones.
Cities in a region are connected to each other via predefined regional networks such as highways, railways, and waterways. Elements such as traffic and air pollution are visible flowing between cities. Cities can trade resources or share public services with their neighbors like garbage collection or health care. Cities can also pool their collective wealth and resources to build a "great work" to provide benefits for the entire region like a massive solar power plant or an international airport. The larger the region, the higher is the number of cities and great works that can be built.
Terraforming – Creative Director Ocean Quigley stated that all of the terraforming in the game is going to be at the civil engineering scale, and will be the natural consequences of laying out roads, developing zones, and placing buildings.
Transportation options – There are a number of options that are included, such as boats, buses, trams, and planes.
Customization – Maxis has indicated that the game will support modding, but will not do so at launch like previous versions.
Modules in SimCity are attachable structures that can add functionality to existing user-placeable buildings. One example is the extra garage for fire stations, which can provide additional fire trucks for increased protection coverage Another example is the Department of Safety for the City Hall, which unlocks more advanced medical, police and fire department buildings.
| 2.296875
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11664080
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SimCity%20%282013%20video%20game%29
|
SimCity (2013 video game)
|
The user interface, which was inspired by Google Maps and infographics, was designed to convey information to the player more clearly than in previous SimCity games. Animations and color-coded visual cues that represent how efficiently a city functions are only presented when needed at any given moment. For instance, opening up the water tower instantly changes the landscape to a clear world where the density of water is recognizable, and clicking on the sewage tab will immediately show how the waste of the citizens is flowing, and where the system is over capacity. Some of the other visualized data include air pollution, power distribution, police coverage, and zones.
Many resources in the game are finite. Some are renewable, such as groundwater. Lead gameplay engineer Dan Moskowitz stated, "If you've built up an entire city on the economic basis of extracting a certain resource, when that resource runs out your economy will collapse."
Different from some previous SimCity titles, each type of zone (residential, commercial, and industrial) is not divided into density categories. Instead, the density of the roads next to them determines the type of buildings that will be created there. This means that there is only one of each zone type, and the density of the buildings is determined by the density of the roads.
| 2.375
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11664080
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SimCity%20%282013%20video%20game%29
|
SimCity (2013 video game)
|
Roads in SimCity are one of the most fundamental elements of the mechanics. Unlike previous SimCity games, roads carry water, power, and sewage. There are also many new tools for drawing roads. They include a straight line tool, one for making rectangular road squares, one for making sweeping arcs, one for making circles, and one for making free-form roads. There is also a more diverse range of roads to choose from. Starting at dirt roads and going up to six-lane avenues with streetcar tracks, the density of the roads determines the density of the buildings next to them, so dirt roads will only develop low-density buildings. There are two different categories of roads, streets and avenues. Streets are 24 meters wide and avenues are 48 meters wide. Since all streets are the same width, a dirt road can be upgraded to a high-density street. In order to upgrade a street to an avenue, one would need to fully demolish the old street and replace it with a larger avenue. When high and low-capacity roads intersect, the higher density roads have the right-of-way, thus stop lights and stop signs will be automatically placed. In order to space the roads so there will be enough room for buildings to develop, road guides are shown when hovering over an existing road.
| 2.453125
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11664080
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SimCity%20%282013%20video%20game%29
|
SimCity (2013 video game)
|
Players will be able to specialize cities on certain industries, such as manufacturing, tourism, education, or others. Each have distinct appearances, simulation behavior, and economic strategies. Players have the option to heavily specialize on one or build multiple specializations in any given city for diversity. The game will feature a simulated global economy. Prices of key resources like oil or food will fluctuate depending on the game world's supply and demand. In particular, if players all over the world are predominantly selling drilled oil from within their game onto the global market, this will drive the price for this resource down. Conversely, a resource that has experienced very little exposure on the world market will be a scarce resource, driving the price up.
Multi-player
This version of SimCity is the first to feature full online play since SimCity 2000 Network Edition (1996), allowing for regions to house multiple cities from different players. Regions can alternatively be set to private/invite-only. SimCity requires players to be logged into Electronic Arts (EA)'s Origin gaming service to play the game, even when playing in single-player mode. At release, an active internet connection was required every time the game was launched, and had to be maintained throughout gameplay, until an offline single-player mode was added later via a patch. The connection is asynchronous, so any brief network disturbance will not interrupt the gameplay though outages of longer than 19 minutes, as an editor posted on Kotaku, will cause loss of gamestate when playing online.
Cities in a region can share or sell resources, and work together to build a "Great Works", such as an Arcology.
| 1.953125
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11664080
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SimCity%20%282013%20video%20game%29
|
SimCity (2013 video game)
|
The new features in Cities of Tomorrow are divided into three categories: "MegaTowers", "Academy" and the "OmegaCo". The MegaTowers are massive buildings built floor by floor with each floor having a specific purpose, being residential, commercial, or to provide services like schools, security, power, and entertainment. Each floor can provide jobs, services, or housing for hundreds of citizens at the same time. The Academy is a futuristic research center that provides a signal called "ControlNet" to power up structures and improvements developed there and the OmegaCo is composed of factories used to produce an elusive commodity from crude oil and ore only known as "Omega" to increase the profits from residential, commercial and industrial buildings alike and manufacture drones to further improve the coverage of healthcare, police, fire services or just be used by citizens to perform shopping in their places, thus reducing traffic. Over time, it is revealed that Omega has several downsides including causing people to fall ill, creating excess garbage and making buildings spontaneously combust.
The expansion also supports "futurization", in which futuristic buildings tend to "futurize" the buildings, roads, and services around them by significantly blending the roads and buildings to simply make them look more futuristic, such as differences in traffic lights (they have a different sprite), turning service cars more futuristic (futurizing a police station will significantly change the cars and architecture), and so on. Buildings that will futurize the vicinity are distinguished with a hexagon pattern at the lower part of the building when viewed in the Construction screen.
Cities of Tomorrow was released in three editions: the standard edition, the Limited Edition which contains the Launch Arcology DLC set, and an Origin edition which contains the Skyclops Coaster Crown DLC set.
Reception
| 2.03125
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11664139
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk%20%28UK%20Parliament%20constituency%29
|
Norfolk (UK Parliament constituency)
|
Norfolk was a County constituency of the House of Commons of the Parliament of England from 1290 to 1707, then of the Parliament of Great Britain from 1707 to 1800 and of the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1801 to 1832. It was represented by two Members of Parliament. In 1832 the county was divided for parliamentary purposes into two new two member divisions – East Norfolk and West Norfolk.
History
Boundaries
The constituency consisted of the historic county of Norfolk in the East of England, excluding the city of Norwich which had the status of a county corporate after 1404. (Although Norfolk contained four other parliamentary boroughs – Castle Rising, Great Yarmouth, King's Lynn and Thetford – each of which elected two MPs in its own right for part of the period when Norfolk was a constituency, these were not excluded from the county constituency: owning property within a borough could confer a vote at the county election. This was not the case, though, for Norwich.)
Franchise and electorate
As in other county constituencies the franchise between 1430 and 1832 was defined by the Forty Shilling Freeholder Act, which gave the right to vote to every man who possessed freehold property within the county valued at £2 or more per year for the purposes of land tax; it was not necessary for the freeholder to occupy his land, nor even in later years to be resident in the county at all.
Except during the period of the Commonwealth, Norfolk had two MPs elected by the bloc vote method, under which each voter had two votes. In the nominated Barebones Parliament of 1653, five members represented Norfolk. In the First and Second Parliaments of Oliver Cromwell's Protectorate, however, there was a general redistribution of seats and Norfolk elected ten members, while the two smallest of the county's boroughs (Castle Rising and Thetford) lost their seats. The traditional arrangements were restored from 1659.
| 2.453125
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11664139
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk%20%28UK%20Parliament%20constituency%29
|
Norfolk (UK Parliament constituency)
|
At the time of the Great Reform Act in 1832, Norfolk had a population of approximately 390,000, though only a fraction of these could vote: the highest recorded turnouts in Norfolk were at the 1802 and 1806 elections, at each of which under 12,000 votes were cast, even though each voter could cast two votes.
Political character
Norfolk's electorate was predominantly rural, partly as an effect of the Norwich freeholders voting in the city rather than the county. It has been estimated from the pollbooks that in the early 19th century only around one in six of the voters lived in towns, with Great Yarmouth and King's Lynn contributing the largest numbers of these. Fittingly for such a constituency, the families of two of the best-known pioneers of the agrarian revolution, Coke of Holkham and "Turnip" Townshend, frequently provided the county's Members of Parliament.
Nevertheless, no one or two families controlled the constituency, and competition was fostered by the leading families lining up on different sides of the partisan divide. The leading Whig families around the turn of the 18th century were those of Walpole and Townshend, while the most important Tory interests were those of the Wodehouse and Astley families, until Sir Jacob Astley defected to the Whigs before the 1715 election. By the middle of the 18th century, the list of local peerage families who could expect to exert influence at Norfolk elections had grown to include the Hobart Earls of Buckinghamshire, the Earls Cholmondeley and the Lord Suffield, but these magnates remained divided, with contention between support for the "court" and "country" factions within the Whigs as well as between Whigs and Tories.
| 2.515625
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11664143
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S.%20R.%20Bommai
|
S. R. Bommai
|
Somappa Rayappa Bommai (6 June 1924 – 10 October 2007) was an Indian Politician who was the 4th Chief Minister of Karnataka. He was also the Human Resource Development Minister in the United Front government from 1996 to 1998. He is widely remembered as the champion for the landmark judgment of the Supreme Court of India, S. R. Bommai v. Union of India.
His son Basavaraj Bommai became the Chief Minister of Karnataka in 2021 making them only the second father and son duo after H. D. Devegowda and H. D. Kumaraswamy to become the Chief Ministers of Karnataka.
Early life and political career
S. R. Bommai was born on 6 June 1924 in a Sadar Lingayat family at Karadagi village of Shiggaon taluk of the then undivided Dharwad District. He took part in the Quit India movement of 1942. He also played an active role in the unification (Ekikarana in Kannada) of Karnataka which had been spread among Mysore kingdom, Bombay Presidency, Hyderabad, and Madras Presidency, during the British rule.
A lawyer by profession, he was elected to the Karnataka Legislative assembly many times from the Hubballi rural constituency and was also a member of the Karnataka Legislative council from 1972 to 1978.
He along with Ramakrishna Hegde, J. H. Patel and H. D. Deve Gowda — was instrumental in the Janata Party forming a government in the State for the first time in the State in 1983. He was given the weighty portfolio of Industries in the Ramakrishna Hegde government. After Hegde quit on moral grounds, Mr. Bommai took charge as Chief Minister of the State on 13 August 1988 and his government was dismissed by the then Governor, P. Venkatasubbaiah, on 21 April 1989. The dismissal was on the grounds that his government had lost its majority following large-scale defections engineered by several Janata Party leaders of the day. Bommai had sought some time from the Governor to prove his majority on the floor of the Legislature and he was denied this. He challenged this order in the Supreme Court.
| 2.046875
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11664229
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Pullin
|
John Pullin
|
John Vivian Pullin (1 November 1941 – 5 February 2021) was an England international rugby union player. A hooker, he played club rugby for Bristol Rugby and captained the England national rugby union team for which he played 42 times between 1966 and 1976. He also won 7 full caps for the British & Irish Lions and has the distinction of having beaten the All Blacks with three different sides, England, the Lions and the Barbarians.
Rugby career
Pullin's career reached the highest levels of achievement possible in rugby union prior to the establishment of the Rugby World Cup. As an international, his first match was in 1966, and two years later he was selected for the South Africa Lions tour, in which he played three tests. In 1971, he was again selected for the Lions, and was part of the side that defeated New Zealand.
Then, in an eighteen-month period, he captained England to victories over South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, the first time a European national captain had ever done this. South Africa were beaten at home 18–9 at Ellis Park in 1972, Australia defeated by 20 points to 3 at Twickenham, and then New Zealand 16–10 in Auckland. Pullin proved to be a talisman for defeating the All Blacks as in the same year, he was also in the Barbarians side that defeated the All Blacks 23–11.
Pullin was also the England captain who took England to Ireland after both the Welsh and Scots had refused to play their 1972 Five Nations matches in Dublin because of the Troubles. Of the 18–9 defeat suffered at the hands of the Irish, he later said, to great acclaim at a post-match dinner – "We're not much good but at least we turned up". Pullin's speech has become part of rugby folklore, and features as the title of the film The Team That Turned Up.
He is the first of four England captains to lead and beat all of the "Big Three" Southern Hemisphere sides: , and . As captain, he had 1 win each against Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
Death
Pullin died on 5 February 2021, aged 79.
| 2.421875
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11664252
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dromiidae
|
Dromiidae
|
Dromiidae is a family of crabs, often referred to as sponge crabs. They are small or medium-sized crabs which get their name from the ability to shape a living sponge into a portable shelter for themselves. A sponge crab cuts out a fragment from a sponge and trims it to its own shape using its claws. The last two pairs of legs are shorter than other legs and bend upward over the crab's carapace, to hold the sponge in place. The sponge grows along with the crab, providing a consistent shelter.
Subfamilies and genera
The family Dromiidae contains the following subfamilies and genera:
Dromiinae
Alainodromia
Ameridromia
Ascidiophilus
Austrodromidia
Barnardomia
Conchoecetes
Costadromia
Cryptodromia
Cryptodromiopsis
Desmodromia
Dromia
Dromidia
Dromidiopsis
Dromilites
Epigodromia
Epipedodromia
Eudromidia
Exodromidia
Foredromia
Fultodromia
Haledromia
Hemisphaerodromia
Homalodromia
Kerepesia
Kromtitis
Lamarckdromia
Lauridromia
Lewindromia
Lucanthonisia
Mclaydromia
Metadromia
Moreiradromia
Noetlingia
Paradromia
Petalomera
Platydromia
Pseudodromia
Speodromia
Stebbingdromia
Sternodromia
Stimdromia
Takedromia
Tumidodromia
Tunedromia
Hypoconchinae
Hypoconcha
Sphaerodromiinae
Eodromia
Frodromia
Sphaerodromia
| 2.515625
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11664366
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalbergia%20sissoo
|
Dalbergia sissoo
|
Dalbergia sissoo, known commonly as North Indian rosewood or shisham, is a fast-growing, hardy, deciduous rosewood tree native to the Indian subcontinent and southern Iran. D. sissoo is a large, crooked tree with long, leathery leaves and whitish or pink flowers.
Description
Dalbergia sissoo is a medium to large deciduous tree with a light crown, which reproduces by seeds and suckers. It can grow up to in height and in diameter, but is usually smaller. Trunks are often crooked when grown in the open. Leaves are leathery, alternate, pinnately compound, and about long. Flowers are whitish to pink, fragrant, nearly sessile, up to long, and in dense clusters in length. Pods are oblong, flat, thin, strap-like, long, wide, and light brown. They contain one to five flat, bean-shaped seeds, long. They have a long taproot and numerous surface roots that produce suckers. Young shoots are downy and drooping; established stems have light brown to dark gray bark, up to thick, shed in narrow strips; large upper branches support a spreading crown.
Distribution and habitat
Dalbergia sissoo is native to the foothills of the Himalayas ranging from Afghanistan in the west to Bihar, India, in the east. It also occurs naturally in Iran. It is primarily found growing along river banks above elevation, but can range naturally up to . The temperature in its native range is typically , but varies from just below freezing to nearly . It can withstand average annual rainfall up to and droughts of three to four months. Soils range from pure sand and gravel to rich alluvium of river banks; shisham can grow in slightly saline soils. Seedlings are intolerant of shade.
Ecology
Dalbergia sissoo is the larval food plant of the black rajah (Charaxes solon).
Uses
Timber
| 2.5
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11664366
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalbergia%20sissoo
|
Dalbergia sissoo
|
It is the best known economic timber species of the rosewood genus sold internationally, but it is also used as fuel wood and for shade and shelter. After teak, it is the most important cultivated timber tree of Bihar, which is the largest producer of shisham timber in India. In Bihar, the tree is planted on roadsides, along canals, and as a shade tree for tea plantations. It is also commonly planted in southern Indian cities such as Bangalore as a street tree.
North Indian rosewood is usually dried before being used in furniture manufacturing, a process commonly known as seasoning. Locally, it is left in open areas to dry under the sun for about six months. Commercially, it is dried in closed chambers with hot-air circulation for about 7 to 15 days, depending on weather conditions. The ideal moisture level is around 5 to 6% for thinner pieces and up to 11% for thicker ones, depending on use. Any level lower than this can cause sudden cracking of the final products.
North Indian rosewood is among the finest cabinet and veneer timbers. It is the wood from which 'mridanga', the Rajasthani percussion instrument, is often made. In addition to musical instruments, it is used for plywood, agricultural tools, flooring, as a bentwood, and for turning.
The heartwood is golden to dark brown; the sapwood is white to pale brownish white. The heartwood is durable (its specific gravity is 0.7 – 0.8) and is very resistant to fungi, but the sapwood is readily attacked by dry-wood termites and borers. D. sissoo is known to contain the neoflavonoid dalbergichromene in its stem bark and heartwood.
Fuel wood
The calorific value of both the sapwood and heartwood is excellent, being reported to be 4,908 kcal/kg and 5,181 kcal/kg, respectively. As a fuel wood, it is grown on a 10- to 15-year rotation. The tree has excellent coppicing ability, although a loss of vigor after two or three rotations has been reported. The wood makes excellent charcoal for heating and cooking.
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11664367
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greta%20Johansson
|
Greta Johansson
|
Anna Teresa Margareta "Greta" Johansson (9 January 1895 – 28 January 1978) was a Swedish diver and swimmer, who competed at the 1912 Summer Olympics. She won the gold medal in the 10 m platform and finished fourth with the Swedish 4 × 100 m freestyle relay team.
Johansson learned to swim and dive in Stockholm's municipal baths. She attended them on free tickets given at her public school, as all Swedish children were then required to learn swimming and diving. She won the Swedish titles in 1910, in the breaststroke, and in 1911, in the 100 m freestyle and high diving. In 1913 she emigrated to the United States, where she first worked as a shop assistant. There she married the Swedish diver Ernst Brandsten who also competed at the 1912 Olympics. The couple trained divers, swimmers, and the water polo team at Stanford University from 1915 to 1948 and operated the sports and recreation Searsville Lake Park. They were both inducted into the International Swimming Hall of Fame: Brandsten as a diving coach in 1966 and Johansson as a diver in 1973.
| 2.53125
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11664391
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jumilla%20%28DO%29
|
Jumilla (DO)
|
Jumilla is a Spanish Denominación de Origen Protegida (DOP) for wines that extends over the north of the region of Murcia, Spain. The area includes the municipality of Jumilla, from which it takes its name, and the contiguous southeast of the Albacete province (municipalities of Montealegre del Castillo, Fuente-Álamo, Ontur, Hellin, Albatana and Tobarra) in the Castile-La Mancha region. It is one of Spain's leading wine regions.
History
During the outbreak of the phylloxera plague in the 19th century the region surprisingly escaped contamination and so entered a period of economic expansion as wine merchants from France came in great numbers to buy wine. For this reason the vines were never regrafted onto resistant rootstock from the New World as was the case in the rest of Europe.
However, the phylloxera pest unexpectedly struck in 1989, devastating the vineyards and reducing production by 60% over the next five years. Replanting and grafting was slow and expensive but allowed the region to adopt the new methods of grape growing and wine making that were already proving successful in the neighbouring DOPs of Alicante and Almansa.
Geography
This DOP is characterised by wide valleys and plateaus in the presence of mountains. It is a transition zone between the Mediterranean coastal area and the high central plateau of Castile-La Mancha, and so the altitude of the vineyards varies between .
Climate
The climate is continental (long hot summers and cold winters), tempered by the closeness of the Mediterranean Sea. The area is arid. Rainfall is low (around per year) and irregular, though it mostly falls during spring and autumn, often in the form of violent storms which can sometimes cause damage to the vines.
The average annual temperature is . A maximum of can be reached in summer, and minimums below in winter. There is a risk of frost up to the month of March, exceptionally until April. The vines receive over 3,000 hours of sunlight per year.
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11664391
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jumilla%20%28DO%29
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Jumilla (DO)
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Soils
The soils are dark, lime bearing and sometimes with a hard lime crust. In general, they are permeable and have good moisture retaining properties, which allows the vines to survive during periods of prolonged drought. They are poor in organic material and their structure does not favour the propagation of phylloxera. They are quite sandy, allowing good aeration, have a high pH value and are low in salinity.
Grape varieties
The authorised grape varieties are:
Red grapes: Monastrell, Tempranillo (known locally as Cencibel), Garnacha Tintorera, Garnacha, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah and Petit Verdot.
White grapes: Airén, Macabeo, Chardonnay, Sauvignon blanc, Moscatel de Grano Menudo, Pedro Ximénez and Malvasía.
Of these varieties, Monastrell is the most significant for Jumilla DOP, as it represents over 85% of the vines planted. Monastrell is in fact the fourth most widely planted red grape variety in Spain. Like Airén, it has good resistance to drought.
The planning density is between 1,100 vines/ha to 1,600 vines/ha for extensive planting formations, and the maximum authorised yield is 4,000 kg/ha for red varieties and 4,500 kg/ha for white varieties. For intensive planting formations the density ranges from 1,600 vines/ha to 3,200 vines/ha with maximum yields of 7,000 kg/ha for both red and white varieties.
Jumilla labeling laws
Spanish wines are often labeled according to the amount of aging the wine has received. When the label says vino joven ("young wine") or sin crianza, the wines will have undergone very little, if any, wood aging. Depending on the producer, some of these wines will be meant to be consumed very young - often within a year of their release. Others will benefit from some time aging in the bottle. For the vintage year (vendimia or cosecha) to appear on the label, a minimum of 85% of the grapes must be from that year's harvest. The three most common aging designations on Spanish wine labels are Crianza, Reserva and Gran Reserva.
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11664412
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context-adaptive%20binary%20arithmetic%20coding
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Context-adaptive binary arithmetic coding
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Context-adaptive binary arithmetic coding (CABAC) is a form of entropy encoding used in the H.264/MPEG-4 AVC and High Efficiency Video Coding (HEVC) standards. It is a lossless compression technique, although the video coding standards in which it is used are typically for lossy compression applications. CABAC is notable for providing much better compression than most other entropy encoding algorithms used in video encoding, and it is one of the key elements that provides the H.264/AVC encoding scheme with better compression capability than its predecessors.
In H.264/MPEG-4 AVC, CABAC is only supported in the Main and higher profiles (but not the extended profile) of the standard, as it requires a larger amount of processing to decode than the simpler scheme known as context-adaptive variable-length coding (CAVLC) that is used in the standard's Baseline profile. CABAC is also difficult to parallelize and vectorize, so other forms of parallelism (such as spatial region parallelism) may be coupled with its use. In HEVC, CABAC is used in all profiles of the standard.
Algorithm
CABAC is based on arithmetic coding, with a few innovations and changes to adapt it to the needs of video encoding standards:
It encodes binary symbols, which keeps the complexity low and allows probability modelling for more frequently used bits of any symbol.
The probability models are selected adaptively based on local context, allowing better modelling of probabilities, because coding modes are usually locally well correlated.
It uses a multiplication-free range division by the use of quantized probability ranges and probability states.
CABAC has multiple probability modes for different contexts. It first converts all non-binary symbols to binary. Then, for each bit, the coder selects which probability model to use, then uses information from nearby elements to optimize the probability estimate. Arithmetic coding is finally applied to compress the data.
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11664412
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context-adaptive%20binary%20arithmetic%20coding
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Context-adaptive binary arithmetic coding
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History
In 1986, IBM researchers Kottappuram M. A. Mohiuddin and Jorma Johannes Rissanen filed a patent for a multiplication-free binary arithmetic coding algorithm. In 1988, an IBM research team including R.B. Arps, T.K. Truong, D.J. Lu, W. B. Pennebaker, L. Mitchell and G. G. Langdon presented an adaptive binary arithmetic coding (ABAC) algorithm called Q-Coder.
The above patents and research papers, along several others from IBM and Mitsubishi Electric, were later cited by the CCITT and Joint Photographic Experts Group as the basis for the JPEG image compression format's adaptive binary arithmetic coding algorithm in 1992. However, encoders and decoders of the JPEG file format, which has options for both Huffman encoding and arithmetic coding, typically only support the Huffman encoding option, which was originally because of patent concerns, although JPEG's arithmetic coding patents have since expired due to the age of the JPEG standard. The first reported use of adaptive binary arithmetic coding in motion video compression was in a proposal by IBM researchers to the MPEG group in 1989. This proposal extended the use of arithmetic coding from intraframe JPEG to interframe video coding.
In 1999, Youngjun Yoo (Texas Instruments), Young Gap Kwon and Antonio Ortega (University of Southern California) presented a context-adaptive form of binary arithmetic coding. The modern context-adaptive binary arithmetic coding (CABAC) algorithm was commercially introduced with the H.264/MPEG-4 AVC format in 2003. The majority of patents for the AVC format are held by Panasonic, Godo Kaisha IP Bridge and LG Electronics.
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11664440
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Osprey%20%28AM-56%29
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USS Osprey (AM-56)
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USS Osprey (AM–56), was a of the United States Navy, laid down on 28 June 1939 at the Norfolk Navy Yard, Virginia; launched on 24 August 1940; sponsored by Ms. Margaret Kays; and commissioned on 16 December 1940.
Service career
The United States' entrance into World War II extended Ospreys coastal patrol and escort duties first to the Caribbean area, and by 8 November to North Africa. On "D-Day" of "Operation Torch" she helped direct and protect the waves of landing craft moving shoreward at Port Lyautey, Morocco. Anti-submarine patrol off Casablanca preceded her return to another year of coastal escort assignments out of Norfolk, Virginia.
On 3 April 1944, the minesweeper departed for England to take part in "Operation Overlord". With other units of Minesweeper Squadron 7 (MinRon 7), she had successfully conducted sweeping operations off Tor Bay, England. "At about 1700 on 5 June, minesweeper USS Osprey hit a mine that blew a large hole in the forward engine room. Fires broke out and at 1815 the ship had to be abandoned. Osprey sank soon after with the loss of six men." These were the first casualties of the D-Day invasion. She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 22 August.
The wreck was first dived and identified by a team including nautical archaeologist Innes McCartney in 1997. It was found to be lying on its side.
In 2019, the Osprey's ships bell was turned in to British authorities after pictures of it appeared on line.
Awards
Osprey received two battle stars for World War II service.
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11664594
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belle%20White
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Belle White
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Isabelle Mary White (1 September 1894 – 24 June 1972) was the first British diver to win a medal at the Olympic Games, and the first to win a European championship. She competed in four Olympics, including the 1912 Summer Olympics, where she won a bronze medal in the women's plain high diving event, as well as the 1920 Summer Olympics, 1924 Summer Olympics, and 1928 Summer Olympics. She also won a gold medal at the European Aquatics Championships in 1927.
Belle White has been inducted into the Swim England Hall of Fame. The Belle White Trophy was named in her honour in 1935. Now known as the Belle White National Memorial Trophy, the cup is awarded each year to "the female team with the highest aggregate score at the Swim England Diving National Age Group Championships."
Early life and training
White was born in London. She start diving eight years before women's aquatics events became part of the Olympic Games, and trained at Highgate Ponds, for many years the only local highboard facility available, where women were admitted only once a week. According to the Encyclopedia of Swimming, "Much of her training from 33-foot boards, was done from tiny platforms attached to unsteady ladders, rising from the end of seaside piers at Brighton and Clacton".
One year before the 1912 Olympics, White went to Sweden to practice diving from wooden highboards, and was awarded Swedish magister degrees in both swimming and diving in 1911. She became a member of the Hammersmith Ladies Swimming Club, which was founded in 1916, as well as the Ilford Ladies' Swimming Club.
Diving career
Olympic Games
In the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm, Belle White won a bronze medal in the plain high diving event, which required two dives from 5 metres and three dives from 10 metres. It was the first year that diving and swimming events for women were included in the Olympics. Twelve out of 14 competitors in the plain high platform diving event, including the gold and silver medalists, were Swedish.
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11664640
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidoro%20Malmierca%20Peoli
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Isidoro Malmierca Peoli
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Isidoro Octavia Malmierca Peoli (25 September 193011 August 2001) was a Cuban politician who was Cuba's foreign minister from 1976 to 1992 and founder of the Cuban Communist Party.
Early life
Born in Havana, he became involved in Cuba's turbulent left-wing politics as a young man, joining the tiny Popular Socialist Party, the Moscow-line predecessor of the Communist Party, during the years of right-wing regimes that preceded the 1959 revolution. The PSP had only a few thousand members, but was well-organized and had strong links with the urban unions.
Role in Cuban Revolution
The PSP at first played little part in Fidel Castro's armed struggle against the dictatorship of General Fulgencio Batista, which took place mainly in the countryside, and only threw its weight behind Castro's guerrilla campaign a few months before Batista finally fled the country. Until then, it had tended to denounce the young rebels' "adventurism."
Despite this background of mistrust, when Castro moved the revolution sharply to the left in the early 1960s, he found a use for the PSP apparatus, and for young but experienced activists such as Malmierca, in giving a disciplined organizational underpinning to his embryonic regime.
Malmierca was one of the founders of the powerful state security apparatus — a role for which his lack of any discernible personality and reluctance to reveal even the most innocuous details about his personal life, must have been a positive advantage. He was also one of the functionaries who supervised the merger of the PSP with Castro's July 26 Movement to form the Cuban Communist Party in 1965.
In both of these functions, Malmierca had to balance the professional politicians and the young idealists who had followed Castro into the hills in the mid-1950s. He performed this difficult task well enough to earn advancement, becoming a member of the new party's central committee and being made editor of its official organ, the daily newspaper Granma.
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11664690
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetofection
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Magnetofection
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Magnetofection is a transfection method that uses magnetic fields to concentrate particles containing vectors to target cells in the body. Magnetofection has been adapted to a variety of vectors, including nucleic acids, non-viral transfection systems, and viruses. This method offers advantages such as high transfection efficiency and biocompatibility which are balanced with limitations.
Mechanism
Principle
The term magnetofection, currently trademarked by the company OZ Biosciences, combines the words magnetic and transfection. Magnetofection uses nucleic acids associated with magnetic nanoparticles. These molecular complexes are then concentrated and transported into cells using an applied magnetic field.
Synthesis
The magnetic nanoparticles are typically made from iron oxide, which is fully biodegradable, using methods such as coprecipitation or microemulsion.
The nanoparticles are then combined with gene vectors (DNA, siRNA, ODN, virus, etc.). One method involves linking viral particles to magnetic particles using an avidin-biotin interaction. Viruses can also bind to the nanoparticles via hydrophobic interaction.
Another synthesis method involves coating magnetic nanoparticles with cationic lipids or polymers via salt-induced aggregation. For example, nanoparticles may be conjugated with the polyethylenimine (PEI), a positively charged polymer used commonly as a transfection agent. The PEI solution must have a high pH during synthesis to encourage high gene expression. The positively charged nanoparticles can then associate with negatively charged nucleic acids via electrostatic interaction.
Cellular uptake
Magnetic particles loaded with vectors are concentrated on the target cells by the influence of an external magnetic field. The cells then take up genetic material naturally via endocytosis and pinocytosis. Consequently, membrane architecture and structure stays intact, in contrast to other physical transfection methods such as electroporation or gene guns that damage the cell membrane.
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11664690
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetofection
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Magnetofection
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The nucleic acids are then released into the cytoplasm by different mechanisms depending upon the formulation used:
the proton sponge effect caused by cationic polymers coated on the nanoparticles that promote endosome osmotic swelling, disruption of the endosome membrane and intracellular release of DNA form,
the destabilization of endosome by cationic lipids coated on the particles that release the nucleic acid into cells by flip-flop of cell negative lipids and charge neutralization and
the viral infection mechanism.
Magnetofection works with cells that are not dividing or slowly dividing, meaning that the genetic materials can go to the cell nucleus without cell division.
Applications
Magnetofection has been tested on a broad range of cell lines, hard-to-transfect and primary cells. Several optimized and efficient magnetic nanoparticle formulations have been specifically developed for several types of applications such as DNA, siRNA, and primary neuron transfection as well as viral applications.
Magnetofection research is currently in the preclinical stage. This technique has primarily been tested in vivo using plasmid DNA in mouse, rat, and rabbit models for applications in the hippocampus, subcutaneous tumors, lungs, spinal cord, and muscle.
Some applications include:
Delivery of GFP gene into primary neural stem cells, which are typically difficult to transfect, with 18% efficacy with a static magnetic field and 32% efficacy with an oscillating field.
Delivery of oligodesoxynucleotides (ODN) into human umbilical vein endothelial cells with 84% efficiency.
Delivery of siRNA to HeLa cells to knock down luciferase reporter gene.
Delivery of adenoviral vectors to primary human peripheral blood lymphocytes.
Advantages
Magnetofection attempts to unite the advantages of biochemical (cationic lipids or polymers) and physical (electroporation, gene gun) transfection methods. It allows for local delivery with high transfection efficiency, faster incubation time, and biocompatibility.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetofection
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Magnetofection
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Transfection efficiency
Coupling magnetic nanoparticles to gene vectors results in hundreds-fold increase of the uptake of these vectors on a time scale of minutes, thus leading to high transfection efficiency. Gene vector and magnetic nanoparticle complexes are transfected into cells after 10–15 minutes, which is faster than the 2–4 hours that other transfection methods require. After 24, 48 or 72 hours, most of the particles are localized in the cytoplasm, in vacuoles (membranes surrounded structure into cells) and occasionally in the cell nucleus.
Biocompatibility
Magnetic nanoparticles do not aggregate easily once the magnet is removed, and therefore are unlikely to block capillaries or cause thrombosis. In addition, iron oxide is biodegradable, and the iron can be reused in hemoglobin or iron metabolism pathways.
Disadvantages
Particle variability
Magnetic nanoparticle synthesis can sometimes lead to a wide range of differently sized particles. The size of particles can influence their usefulness. Specifically, nanoparticles that are less than 10 nm or greater than 200 nm in size tend to be cleared from the body more quickly.
Localization in vivo
While magnets can be used to localize magnetic nanoparticles to desired cells, this mechanism may be difficult to maintain in practice. The nanoparticles can be concentrated in 2D space such as on a culture plate or at the surface of the body, but it can be more difficult to localize them in the 3D space of the body. Magnetofection does not work well for organs or blood vessels far from the surface of the body, since the magnetic field weakens as distance increases. In addition, the user must consider the frequency and timing of applying the magnetic field, as the particles will not necessarily stay in the desired location once the magnet is removed.
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11664695
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breton%20Democratic%20Union
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Breton Democratic Union
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Breton Democratic Union (, , UDB) is a Breton nationalist, autonomist, and regionalist political party in Brittany () and Loire-Atlantique. The UDB advocates devolution for Brittany as well as the promotion of its regional languages (Breton and Gallo) and its associated culture.
The Breton Democratic Union has presently four seats in the Regional council of Brittany.
History
Foundation
The UDB was founded in 1964 in Rennes by a group of about fifteen young people, most of them students, often from cultural organizations (Ar Falz, Bagadou, etc.) and influenced by socialist ideas. They included Ronan Leprohon (1939–2017) and Pierre Le Moine (1927-2023).
The majority belonged to the "Mouvement pour l'organisation de la Bretagne" organization which also included former militants of Breton Nationalist Party and supporters of French Algeria, which was a cause of tensions.
The first congress of the UDB took place in December 1964 in Quimper, with a mere 18 participants.
The UDB was founded in opposition to the practice of torture in Algeria and compared the decolonization of the Maghreb to Brittany.
The structure of the new party was then close to that of those of the far-left with a strict internal discipline. Its charter, elaborated in 1964, supported a planned economy and the creation of a European Federation. It claimed to be hostile to militarism and colonialism, which was an innovation in the Breton movement at the time.
The creation of the UDB marked a rupture in the history of the Breton nationalist movement which, until then, was rather right-wing.
It took part in the 1965 local elections. Jean-Paul Berre was elected on a list of the Union of the left dominated by the French Communist Party in Guilvinec and becomes deputy-mayor and first elected official of the UDB.
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11664716
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartwood%20Acres%20Park
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Hartwood Acres Park
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Hartwood Acres is a county park in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania in the United States. Hartwood is considered the crown jewel of the county's network of nine distinct parks.
Purchased by the county in 1969, its special feature is one of the largest and most spectacular country estates in the region. Hartwood consists of a stately Tudor mansion (begun in 1927 and completed in 1929), an English style Formal Garden, a cottage, a stable complex, and a gate lodge (erected in 1927). The mansion, designed by Alfred Hopkins for John and Mary Flinn Lawrence, houses a collection of original English and American antiques.
Hartwood is sited northeast of Downtown Pittsburgh on largely forested land in both Hampton and Indiana townships. The park also offers a large-stage concert area where the Free Summer Concert Series is held, as well as the Allegheny County Music Festival, and of trails—horse riding, walking, hiking, biking, and cross country skiing. Hartwood is especially well-known because of its now-defunct "Festival of Lights," a large outdoor light display once held during the holiday season to benefit local charities.
History
Mary Flinn Lawrence, a Pittsburgh philanthropist, created Hartwood with money she inherited from her father, Senator William Flinn. In the 1920s, she and her husband John Lawrence asked architect Alfred Hopkins to borrow design elements from a manor house the Lawrences had seen in Broadway, Oxfordshire, England. The result was a stately 31-room slate-roofed stone house constructed around a great hall.
Mary transformed the grounds of her estate into an equestrian arts showcase, building riding trails that extend for miles, show rings, steeplechase layouts, and ivy-covered stables. The stalls of the stables are made of varnished oak.
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11664784
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizeau%20experiment
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Fizeau experiment
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The Fizeau experiment was carried out by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1851 to measure the relative speeds of light in moving water. Fizeau used a special interferometer arrangement to measure the effect of movement of a medium upon the speed of light.
According to the theories prevailing at the time, light traveling through a moving medium would be dragged along by the medium, so that the measured speed of the light would be a simple sum of its speed through the medium plus the speed of the medium. Fizeau indeed detected a dragging effect, but the magnitude of the effect that he observed was far lower than expected. When he repeated the experiment with air in place of water he observed no effect. His results seemingly supported the partial aether-drag hypothesis of Augustin-Jean Fresnel, a situation that was disconcerting to most physicists. Over half a century passed before a satisfactory explanation of Fizeau's unexpected measurement was developed with the advent of Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity. Einstein later pointed out the importance of the experiment for special relativity, in which it corresponds to the relativistic velocity-addition formula when restricted to small velocities.
Although it is referred to as the Fizeau experiment, Fizeau was an active experimenter who carried out a wide variety of different experiments involving measuring the speed of light in various situations.
Background
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11664784
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizeau%20experiment
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Fizeau experiment
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As scientists in the 1700's worked on a theory of light and of electromagnetism, luminiferous aether, a medium that would support waves, was the focus of many experiments. Two critical issues were the relation of aether to motion and its relation to matter. For example, astronomical aberration, the apparent motion of stars observed at different times of year, was proposed to be related to starlight propagated through an aether. In 1846 Fresnel proposed that the portion aether that will move with an object relates to the object's index of refraction of light, which was take to be the ratio of the speed of light in the material to the speed of light in interstellar space.
Having recently measured the speed of light in air and water, Fizeau set out to measure the speed of light in moving water.
Experimental setup
A highly simplified representation of Fizeau's 1851 experiment is presented in Fig. 2. Incoming light is split into two beams by a beam splitter (BS) and passed through two columns of water flowing in opposite directions. The two beams are then recombined to form an interference pattern that can be interpreted by an observer.
The simplified arrangement illustrated in Fig. 2 would have required the use of monochromatic light, which would have enabled only dim fringes. Because of white light's short coherence length, use of white light would have required matching up the optical paths to an impractical degree of precision, and the apparatus would have been extremely sensitive to vibration, motion shifts, and temperature effects.
Fizeau's actual apparatus, illustrated in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, was set up as a common-path interferometer. This guaranteed that the opposite beams would pass through equivalent paths, so that fringes readily formed even when using the sun as a light source.
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11664784
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizeau%20experiment
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Fizeau experiment
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A light ray emanating from the source is reflected by a beam splitter G and is collimated into a parallel beam by lens L. After passing the slits O1 and O2, two rays of light travel through the tubes A1 and A2, through which water is streaming back and forth as shown by the arrows. The rays reflect off a mirror m at the focus of lens , so that one ray always propagates in the same direction as the water stream, and the other ray opposite to the direction of the water stream. After passing back and forth through the tubes, both rays unite at S, where they produce interference fringes that can be visualized through the illustrated eyepiece. The interference pattern can be analyzed to determine the speed of light traveling along each leg of the tube.
Result
Fizeau's experiment showed a faster speed of light in water moving in the same direction and a slower speed when the water moved opposite the light. However the amount of difference in the speed of light was only a fraction of the water speed. Interpreted in terms of the aether theory, the water seemed to drag the aether and thus the light propagation, but only partially.
Impact
At the time of Fizeau's experiment, two different models of how aether related to moving bodies were discussed, Fresnel's partial drag hypothesis and George Stokes' complete aether drag hypothesis. Fresnel had Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1818) proposed his model to explain an 1810 experiment by Arago. In 1845 Stokes showed that complete aether drag could also explain it. Since Fresnel had no model to explain partial drag, scientists favored Stokes explanation.
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11664784
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizeau%20experiment
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Fizeau experiment
|
According to the Stokes' hypothesis, the speed of light should be increased or decreased when "dragged" along by the water through the aether frame, dependent upon the direction. The overall speed of a beam of light should be a simple additive sum of its speed through the water plus the speed of the water.
That is, if n is the index of refraction of water, so that c/n is the speed of light in stationary water, then the predicted speed of light w in one arm would be
and the predicted speed in the other arm would be
for water with velocity .
Hence light traveling against the flow of water should be slower than light traveling with the flow of water.
The interference pattern between the two beams when the light is recombined at the observer depends upon the transit times over the two paths.
However Fizeau found that
In other words, light appeared to be dragged by the water, but the magnitude of the dragging was much lower than expected.
The Fizeau experiment forced physicists to accept the empirical validity of an Fresnel's model, that a medium moving through the stationary aether drags light propagating through it with only a fraction of the medium's speed, with a dragging coefficient f related to the index of refraction:
Although Fresnel's hypothesis was empirically successful in explaining Fizeau's results, many experts in the field, including Fizeau himself, found Fresnel's hypothesis partial aether-dragging unsatisfactory. Fresnel had found an empirical formula that worked but no mechanical model of the aether was used to derive it.
Confirmation
Wilhelm Veltmann's colors of light
In 1870 Wilhelm Veltmann demonstrated that Fresnel's formula worked for different frequencies (colors) of light. According the Fresnel's model this would imply different amounts of eather drag for different colors of light. The velocity with white light, a mixture of colors, would be unexplained.
Hoek experiment
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11664784
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizeau%20experiment
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Fizeau experiment
|
An indirect confirmation of Fresnel's dragging coefficient was provided by Martin Hoek (1868).
His apparatus was similar to Fizeau's, though in his version only one arm contained an area filled with resting water, while the other arm was in the air. As seen by an observer resting in the aether, Earth and hence the water is in motion. So the following travel times of two light rays traveling in opposite directions were calculated by Hoek (neglecting the transverse direction, see image):
The travel times are not the same, which should be indicated by an interference shift. However, if Fresnel's dragging coefficient is applied to the water in the aether frame, the travel time difference (to first order in v/c) vanishes. Upon turning the apparatus table 180 degrees, altering the direction of a hypothetical aether wind, Hoek obtained a null result, confirming Fresnel's dragging coefficient.
In the particular version of the experiment shown here, Hoek used a prism P to disperse light from a slit into a spectrum which passed through a collimator C before entering the apparatus. With the apparatus oriented parallel to the hypothetical aether wind, Hoek expected the light in one circuit to be retarded 7/600 mm with respect to the other. Where this retardation represented an integral number of wavelengths, he expected to see constructive interference; where this retardation represented a half-integral number of wavelengths, he expected to see destructive interference. In the absence of dragging, his expectation was for the observed spectrum to be continuous with the apparatus oriented transversely to the aether wind, and to be banded with the apparatus oriented parallel to the aether wind. His actual experimental results were completely negative.
| 2.125
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11664784
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizeau%20experiment
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Fizeau experiment
|
Mascart's birefringence experiment
Éleuthère Mascart (1872) demonstrated a result for polarized light traveling through a birefringent medium gives different velocities in accordance with Fresnel's empirical formula. However, the result in terms of Fresnel's physical model requires different aether drag in different direction in the medium.
Michelson and Morley confirmation
Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley (1886) repeated Fizeau's experiment with improved accuracy, addressing several concerns with Fizeau's original experiment: (1) Deformation of the optical components in Fizeau's apparatus could cause artifactual fringe displacement; (2) observations were rushed, since the pressurized flow of water lasted only a short time; (3) the laminar flow profile of water flowing through Fizeau's small diameter tubes meant that only their central portions were available, resulting in faint fringes; (4) there were uncertainties in Fizeau's determination of flow rate across the diameter of the tubes. Michelson redesigned Fizeau's apparatus with larger diameter tubes and a large reservoir providing three minutes of steady water flow. His common-path interferometer design provided automatic compensation of path length, so that white light fringes were visible at once as soon as the optical elements were aligned. Topologically, the light path was that of a Sagnac interferometer with an even number of reflections in each light path. This offered extremely stable fringes that were, to first order, completely insensitive to any movement of its optical components. The stability was such that it was possible for him to insert a glass plate at h or even to hold a lighted match in the light path without displacing the center of the fringe system. Using this apparatus, Michelson and Morley were able to completely confirm Fizeau's results not just in water, but also in air.
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11664784
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizeau%20experiment
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Fizeau experiment
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Zeeman and Lorentz's improved formula
In 1895, Hendrik Lorentz predicted the existence of an extra term due to dispersion:
Since the medium is flowing towards or away from the observer, the light traveling through the medium is Doppler-shifted, and the refractive index used in the formula has to be that appropriate to the Doppler-shifted wavelength. Zeeman verified the existence of Lorentz' dispersion term in 1915. Using a scaled-up version of Michelson's apparatus connected directly to Amsterdam's main water conduit, Zeeman was able to perform extended measurements using monochromatic light ranging from violet (4358 Å) through red (6870 Å) to confirm Lorentz's modified coefficient.
Later confirmations
In 1910, Franz Harress used a rotating device and overall confirmed Fresnel's dragging coefficient. However, he additionally found a "systematic bias" in the data, which later turned out to be the Sagnac effect.
Since then, many experiments have been conducted measuring such dragging coefficients in a diversity of materials of differing refractive index, often in combination with the Sagnac effect. For instance, in experiments using ring lasers together with rotating disks, or in neutron interferometric experiments. Also a transverse dragging effect was observed, i.e. when the medium is moving at right angles to the direction of the incident light.
Lorentz's interpretation
In 1892, Hendrik Lorentz proposed a modification of Fresnel's model, in which the aether is completely stationary. He succeeded in deriving Fresnel's dragging coefficient as the result of an interaction between the moving water with an undragged aether. He also discovered that the transition from one to another reference frame could be simplified by using an auxiliary time variable which he called local time:
| 2.25
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11664784
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizeau%20experiment
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Fizeau experiment
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In 1895, Lorentz more generally explained Fresnel's coefficient based on the concept of local time. However, Lorentz's theory had the same fundamental problem as Fresnel's: a stationary aether contradicted the Michelson–Morley experiment. So in 1892 Lorentz proposed that moving bodies contract in the direction of motion (FitzGerald-Lorentz contraction hypothesis, since George FitzGerald had already arrived in 1889 at this conclusion). The equations that he used to describe these effects were further developed by him until 1904. These are now called the Lorentz transformations in his honor, and are identical in form to the equations that Einstein was later to derive from first principles. Unlike Einstein's equations, however, Lorentz's transformations were strictly ad hoc, their only justification being that they seemed to work.
Einstein's use of Fizeau's experiment
Einstein showed how Lorentz's equations could be derived as the logical outcome of a set of two simple starting postulates. In addition Einstein recognized that the stationary aether concept has no place in special relativity, and that the Lorentz transformation concerns the nature of space and time. Together with the moving magnet and conductor problem, the negative aether drift experiments, and the aberration of light, the Fizeau experiment was one of the key experimental results that shaped Einstein's thinking about relativity. Robert S. Shankland reported some conversations with Einstein, in which Einstein emphasized the importance of the Fizeau experiment:
Modern interpretation
Max von Laue (1907) demonstrated
that the Fresnel drag coefficient can be explained as a natural consequence of the relativistic formula for addition of velocities.
The speed of light in immobile water is c/n. From the velocity composition law it follows that the speed of light observed in the laboratory, where water is flowing with speed v (in the same direction as light) is
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11664800
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20Stuart%20%28daughter%20of%20Charles%20I%29
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Elizabeth Stuart (daughter of Charles I)
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Elizabeth Stuart (28 December 1635 – 8 September 1650) was the second daughter of Charles I, King of England, Scotland and Ireland, and his wife, Henrietta Maria of France.
From age six until her death at age 14, Elizabeth was a prisoner of the English Parliament during the English Civil War. Her emotional written account of her final meeting with her father on the eve of his execution and his final words to his children have been published in numerous histories about the Civil War and Charles I.
Failed betrothal
Elizabeth was born on 28 December 1635 at St James's Palace and was baptised there five days later, on 2 January, by William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury. In 1636, Maria de' Medici, Elizabeth's maternal grandmother, attempted to have the infant princess betrothed to the son of the Prince of Orange, the future William II of Orange. Despite the fact that Charles I thought the marriage of an English princess to a Prince of Orange beneath her rank, the king's financial and political troubles forced him to send Elizabeth's sister, Mary, Princess Royal, to marry him instead.
Civil war
On the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642, Elizabeth, and her brother, the Duke of Gloucester, were placed under the care of Parliament. Over the coming years, Parliament assigned their guardianships to several nobles, among them Philip Herbert, 4th Earl of Pembroke.
In 1642, Parliament assigned guardianship of Elizabeth and Henry to the Earl of Northumberland. That same year, their brother, James, Duke of York, the future James II, came to visit them. However, Elizabeth supposedly advised him to leave out of concern about their enemies.
In 1643, the seven-year-old Elizabeth broke her leg. That same year, she and Henry moved to Chelsea. She was tutored by Bathsua Makin until 1644. By then, Elizabeth could read and write in Hebrew, Greek, Italian, Latin and French. Other prominent scholars dedicated works to her, and were amazed by her flair for religious reading.
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11664800
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20Stuart%20%28daughter%20of%20Charles%20I%29
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Elizabeth Stuart (daughter of Charles I)
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In 1647, Parliament allowed Elizabeth and her brothers Henry and James to travel to Maidenhead to meet their father Charles I and spent two days with him. After the Parliament moved Charles I to Hampton Court Palace, he visited his children under the care of the Northumberlands at Syon House. These visits ended when he fled to Carisbrooke Castle on the Isle of Wight; ten-year-old Elizabeth supposedly helped James to escape once again, dressed as a woman.
Elizabeth's family called her "Temperance" for her kind nature. When she was eleven, the French ambassador described Elizabeth as a "budding young beauty" who had "grace, dignity, intelligence and sensibility" that enabled her to judge the different people she met and understand different points of view. Elizabeth suffered from poor health. A Victorian-era examination of her remains revealed that she had suffered from rickets, which caused shoulder and back deformities, knock knees and pigeon toes. These problems would have made it difficult for Elizabeth to walk. The adolescent Elizabeth had a long face with a protruding jaw and reddish-brown hair.
| 2.59375
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11664800
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20Stuart%20%28daughter%20of%20Charles%20I%29
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Elizabeth Stuart (daughter of Charles I)
|
Death
During the move to the Isle of Wight, Elizabeth caught a cold that quickly developed into pneumonia. She died on 8 September 1650, at Carisbrooke Castle.
Some accounts say that Elizabeth was found dead with her head on the Bible from her father. In her last days, she was described as a sad child by those who had been around her. Three days after she was found dead, the Council of State granted permission for Elizabeth to join her sister Mary in the Netherlands. She was buried at St. Thomas's Church, Newport, on the Isle of Wight. Elizabeth's grave stone was only marked with the initials "ES" for Elizabeth Stuart.
Two hundred years later, Queen Victoria, who had settled at Osborne House nearby, commissioned a white marble sculpture of Elizabeth by the sculptor Carlo Marochetti. The sculpture depicts Elizabeth as a beautiful young woman, lying with her cheek on a Bible. The Bible is open to words from the Gospel of Matthew: "Come unto Me, all ye that labor and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest." Above the sculpture is a grating, indicating that Elizabeth was a prisoner; however, the bars are broken to show that the prisoner has now escaped to "a greater rest." The plaque on the sculpture reads: "To the memory of The Princess Elizabeth, daughter of King Charles I, who died at Carisbrooke Castle on 8 September 1650, and is interred beneath the chancel of this church, this monument is erected as a token of respect for her virtues and of sympathy for her misfortunes, by Victoria R., 1856."
The concluding lines from The Death of The Princess Elizabeth in the 1866 book Lays of the English Cavaliers by John Jeremiah Daniel commemorated Victoria's actions:
Ancestors
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11664810
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s%20Gambit%2C%20Rice%20Gambit
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King's Gambit, Rice Gambit
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The Rice Gambit is a chess opening that arises from the King's Gambit Accepted. An offshoot of the Kieseritzky Gambit, it is characterized by the moves 1. e4 e5 2. f4 exf4 3. Nf3 g5 4. h4 g4 5. Ne5 Nf6 6. Bc4 d5 7. exd5 Bd6 8. 0-0 (instead of the normal 8.d4). White offers the sacrifice of the knight on e5 in order to get his king to safety and prepare a rook to join the attack against Black's underdeveloped position.
History
The Rice Gambit was heavily promoted by wealthy German-born, American businessman Isaac Rice towards the end of the 19th century. He sponsored numerous theme tournaments where the diagram position became the starting point of every game played. Such giants of the chess world as Emanuel Lasker, Mikhail Chigorin, Carl Schlechter, Frank Marshall, and David Janowski were among the participants. These events stretched from Monte Carlo, Saint Petersburg, and Ostend, to Brooklyn and Trenton Falls. In a 1905 Pillsbury National Correspondence Chess Association event, 230 amateurs played the gambit by mail. So fascinated was Rice with his pet line, he formed The Rice Gambit Association in 1904, at his home in New York. With Dr. Lasker as Secretary, the Association even published a book of all the games played in the theme tournaments.
Concrete analysis has long since shown the gambit to be "neither good nor necessary", so it has been abandoned in serious play and stands only as "a grotesque monument to a rich man's vanity".
Gallagher (1992) states "Basically, White sacrifices a piece and castles into a raging attack, but according to theory, he miraculously holds the balance. Nevertheless, I still advise you to steer well clear of it."
| 2.109375
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11664864
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamiya%20RZ67
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Mamiya RZ67
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The Mamiya RZ67 is a professional medium format single-lens reflex camera manufactured by Mamiya. There are three successive models: the RZ67 Professional (released in 1982), RZ67 Professional II (released in 1993) and RZ67 Professional IID (released in 2004). It is primarily designed for studio use, but can also be used in the field.
Details
The RZ67 is a modular camera system, meaning the lenses, viewfinders, ground glass, film winders and film backs designed for the system are all interchangeable. The RZ67's Sekor lenses have built-in electronic leaf shutters which are cocked and triggered from the body. Focusing is performed with a set of bellows.
The camera accepts 120 and 220 film film with film backs configurable for 6×7 cm, 6×6 cm and 6×4.5 cm exposures. These backs are rotating, allowing for both landscape and portrait orientation without removing the back. Special-purpose backs allow for the use of Polaroid film as well as Quadra 72 4×5 sheet film. Mamiya RB67 backs are also supported via the G-Adapter. The film speed is set on each RZ back via a dial. There are two versions of the 6×7 and 6×4.5 backs. The model II versions have a second film counter to always show the film count on the top, regardless of the back orientation.
The RZ67 operates on one 6V 4SR44 silver oxide battery, or 6V 4LR44 alkaline battery. It can be used in an emergency with a mechanical mode fixed at 1/400 sec shutter speed. Multiple exposures are possible in the M-mode. Mirror lock up is supported for long exposures and macro photography. The body has one standard flash hot shoe on its left side, one plug for a standard shutter cable release, and a PC socket for an electronic shutter trigger. The RZ67 measures 104mm (W) × 133.5mm (H) × 211.5mm (L) with the 110mm lens, and weighs approximately 2.4 kg (5.29 lbs). The flange distance is 105mm.
| 2.15625
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11664880
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meir%20Margalit
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Meir Margalit
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Dr. Meir Margalit (born 1952) is a human and civil rights activist in Jerusalem. He received a Ph.D. in history from Haifa University. Dr. Margalit is a researcher of the history of the Jewish community during the period of Mandatory Palestine, specializing in the early peace and bi-national movements within the population prior to the U.N. mandated partition of Palestine in 1947, and the subsequent creation of the State of Israel in 1948. Dr. Margalit is a founder of the Israeli Committee Against Housing Demolitions, and CAPI, The Committee for the Advancement of Peace Initiatives.
Meir Margalit was born in Argentina and moved to Israel in 1972. During his military service he served in a Jewish settlement in Gaza Strip. He was injured in the Yom Kippur War of 1973. During his recovery he began to gradually adopt a radical progressive and pacifist position. He was an elected member of the Jerusalem City Council, representing the Left-Wing Meretz Party between 1998 and 2002. Elected again for Meretz in 2008, he is currently a member of the city council, officially in charge of the East Jerusalem portfolio. He is known for his staunch criticism of the various Jerusalem mayors for their policies of perceived and realized discrimination towards the Palestinian residents of the city. Margalit is the author of various books on municipal policy and a frequent speaker and lecturer in many countries around the world.
| 2.40625
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11664881
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Church%20Brownell
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Thomas Church Brownell
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Thomas Church Brownell (October 19, 1779 – January 13, 1865) was founder of Trinity College in Hartford, Connecticut, and Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church from 1852 to 1865.
Biography
Brownell was born in Westport, Massachusetts, on October 19, 1779. He was a descendant on his mother's side from Colonel Benjamin Church, an early settler in Little Compton, Rhode Island, and the father of American ranging. He studied at Union College, Schenectady, New York, receiving his degree in 1804.
Brownell was ordained to the diaconate and priesthood by Bishop John Henry Hobart. He was consecrated Bishop of Connecticut in New Haven on October 27, 1819. Brownell's extensive writings include diocesan charges, liturgical material, scriptural commentaries and other works. He founded Washington College (now known as Trinity College), Hartford as part of the Episcopal Church's goal of educating its young men the college would serve as the churches seminary. Brownell served as its first president for nearly a decade.
In the 1830s, Brownell worked tirelessly to expand the Episcopal Church in Louisiana, Alabama, and Mississippi, places beginning to flourish due to the expansion of American slavery.
Brownell served as Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church from 1852 until his death, succeeding Philander Chase.
Brownell was buried at Cedar Hill Cemetery, next to Samuel and Elizabeth Colt. Brownell had presided over their wedding in 1856.
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11664881
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Church%20Brownell
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Thomas Church Brownell
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American Colonization Society
The American Colonization Society would add a chapter in Connecticut when the Connecticut Colonization Society was founded in May of 1827. Rev. Brownell is voted as a manager of the chapter, which is a board of director position. In their Address to the Public by the Managers of the Colonization Society of Connecticut, Brownell and his fellow managers stated that the " African in this country belongs by birth to the very lowest station in society; and from that station he can never rise, be his talents, his enterprise, his virtues, what they may. In consequence of this it is that they are what they are.” The rigid racial order upheld by the Connecticut managers thus justified the sole purpose of their national organization. “The simple object of the American Colonization Society,” they announced, “is to plant Colonies of free blacks from the United States upon the coast of Africa.”
The CCS would thus work to raise monies for the removal of Black Americans to a colony in Liberia. Moving Black persons from the United States to Africa, the members of the CCS believed, would solve the issue of American slavery. And by educating African-Americans to go to Africa as missionaries and bring the knowledge of Christ to native Africans, CCS leaders believed they were righting a moral wrong that started with the African slave trade. However, many Black Americans in Connecticut opposed the goals of the CCS. By the start of the American Civil War, the Colonization Societies would diminish in power and influence. Between 1821 and 1867, only 10,000 Black Americans would migrate to Liberia. In 1847, the colony would declare its independence from the American Colonization Society. This led to the society declining in popularity and in 1964 it would officially dissolve.
| 2.875
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11664929
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramayyan%20Dalawa
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Ramayyan Dalawa
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Ramayyan Dalawa was the Dalawa of Travancore state, India, during 1737 and 1756 and was responsible for the consolidation and expansion of that kingdom after the defeat of the Dutch at the 1741 Battle of Colachel during the reign of Maharajah Marthanda Varma, the creator of modern Travancore.
Early life
Ramayyan, was born in a Tamil Brahmin family in Yerwadi, a village in Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu to which his family originally belonged. When he was six years of age his poor father gave up his native village and came to Thiruvattar and settled at a hamlet known as Aruvikara in the Kalkulam Taluka in the modern-day Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu state. When he was twenty years old he lost his parents, who he survived along with their other three sons and one daughter.
After the death of his parents, Ramayyan frequently visited Trivandrum, attracted to it by the never ending festivities and celebrations, which always drew great crowds of Tamil Brahmins from all over Travancore and neighbouring regions of modern-day Tamil Nadu. On one occasion he decided to stay back and seek some employment in Trivandrum in which, owing to his superior intelligence and ability, he was successful. He was employed as an assistant to the Attiyara Pohtty Brahmin of Vanchiyoor, a member of the Ettara Yogam or the Council of Eight and a Half who controlled the Temple of Padmanabhapuram and a man of great power and influence.
Association with the Maharajah
While employed with the Attiyara Pohtty one evening, when the Maharajah Marthanda Varma was dining at Attiyara, he noticed Ramayyan who impressed him by dealing with a minor yet significant incident with great sense and intelligence. The pleased Marthanda Varma asked the Attiyara Pohtty to let him take the young boy into his service which being permitted Ramayyan became a servant of the Maharajah of Travancore.
| 2.078125
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11665017
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airman%20%28novel%29
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Airman (novel)
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Airman, by Eoin Colfer, is a best-selling historical adventure novel set in the 19th century. It was released in the UK, Ireland and US in January 2008. The novel was shortlisted for the 2009 Carnegie Medal.
Colfer was inspired to write the book after a frightening skydiving experience. He combined this with his childhood observation that the Saltee Islands would make an excellent prison.
Most of the story is fictional. The Saltee Islands have been uninhabited since the 19th century and all of the main characters in the story are fictional.
Plot summary
Declan Broekhart and his wife Catherine are attending the Paris World's Fair of 1878. They are there mainly to take a ride in a new hot air balloon. While they are in the air, along with one Victor Vigny, the balloon is shot at by men from the ground. During the forced landing, Conor Broekhart is born, flying over Paris.
It is 1887. Conor and his family live on the sovereign Saltee Islands, off the Irish coast, which are ruled by King Nicholas Trudeau. Nicholas is a progressive leader who is helping the islands adapt to the industrialized world.
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11665071
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy%20Cross%20High%20School%20%28Kurla%29
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Holy Cross High School (Kurla)
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Holy Cross High School is a school located in Kurla, a suburb of Mumbai, India. It prepares students for the Secondary School Leaving Certificate examinations conducted by the Maharashtra State Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education.
About Holy Cross School and its history
Holy Cross High School (affiliated to Archdiocesan Board of Education) is a private, aided, minority school. It is a coeducational school. The school was established in the year 1901.
The school is run by the Catholic parish of Holy Cross Church, Kurla and teaches in English and Marathi. Its primary school (standards 1st to 4th) is privately run while the secondary section (5th to 10th standard) is government-aided.
The School has a total strength of approximate 6000 students from the KG, primary and secondary section. The number of children in the KG section is around 1000. The primary has over 2000 students and the secondary section has over 3000 students.
Management
The school is run by the Catholic parish of Holy Cross Church, Kurla and teaches in English and Marathi. Its primary school (standards 1st to 4th) is privately run while the secondary section (5th to 10th standard) is government-aided.
Location
Holy Cross High School is situated on Premier Road, off Lal Bahadur Shastri Marg, opposite Kohinoor city in Kurla (West), 2.5 km from Kurla railway station and 1.6 km from Vidyavihar railway station (west). This school is very close to the popular Phoenix Market City Mumbai.
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11665101
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre%20Dame%20Catholic%20School%20%28Wichita%20Falls%2C%20Texas%29
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Notre Dame Catholic School (Wichita Falls, Texas)
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Notre Dame Catholic School was a Roman Catholic high school, middle school, and elementary school in Wichita Falls, Texas. It was located in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Fort Worth.
Notre Dame Catholic School was one school on two campuses. The lower campus accommodated pre-K through 5th grade. The upper campus accommodated 6th through 12th grade. The traditions of the institution were drawn from the Sisters of Saint Mary of Namur who, in 1904, founded the original school which was known as the Academy of Mary Immaculate. The Congregation of the Holy Cross who joined the Sisters of Saint Mary when the school was broadened to include high school age boys. The original school, which stood on the corner of Holliday and Ninth Streets, was the center of Catholic education in North Central Texas, being the only Catholic school from Fort Worth, 114 miles to the southeast, to Clarendon, 118 miles to the northwest. The present elementary school campus opened in the Fall of 1954 and was known as Our Lady Queen of Peace Parish School. In 1968, Sacred Heart Parish School merged with Our Lady Queen of Peace Parish School, creating a multi-parish school. Today, students attend from these parishes, as well as most of the Catholic parishes in the three-county metro area.
Nate Blakeslee of Texas Monthly stated that as Michael Fors Olson began his term as bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Fort Worth, Notre Dame "had suffered waning attendance and was in need of major repairs."
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11665131
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwardian%20musical%20comedy
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Edwardian musical comedy
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The chief glories of Edwardian musical comedies lie in their musical scores. At their best, these combined the delicacy and sophistication of operetta with the robust tunefulness of the music hall. The major composers of the genre were Sidney Jones (The Geisha), Ivan Caryll (Our Miss Gibbs), Lionel Monckton (The Quaker Girl), Howard Talbot (A Chinese Honeymoon), Leslie Stuart (Florodora) and Paul Rubens (Miss Hook of Holland). Scores were constantly refreshed with "additional" or "specialty" numbers and re-arranged, often by several different composers and lyricists, to keep audiences coming back. Important writers included Adrian Ross, Harry Greenbank, Percy Greenbank, Owen Hall, Charles H. Taylor and Oscar Asche. Generally, the book, lyrics and music were each written by different people, which was a first for the musical stage, although now this is the usual way of doing things. Adrian Ross wrote the lyrics for well over 50 Edwardian musicals.
Besides Edwardes, American producer Charles Frohman and actor-managers like Seymour Hicks, Robert Evett and George Grossmith, Jr. were responsible for many of these shows. The musicals were frequently built around a resident company of artists, and the greatest stars of the era included actresses Marie Tempest, Gertie Millar, Lily Elsie, Ellaline Terriss and Phyllis Dare, leading men such as Hayden Coffin and Harry Grattan, and comics such as Rutland Barrington, George Grossmith, Jr., Huntley Wright and Edmund Payne. One critic wrote of Joseph Coyne that, like other stars of musical comedy, "It is no good their pretending to be any one else. We go to see themselves, and all we ask is that the authors and others shall give them every chance of being themselves in the most pronounced and personal fashion".
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11665159
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%20Sale%C5%A1ki%20Fin%C5%BEgar
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Fran Saleški Finžgar
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Fran Saleški Finžgar (February 9, 1871 – June 2, 1962) was perhaps the most popular Slovene folk writer. He is particularly known for his novels and short stories, although he also wrote poems and plays.
Life
Fran Saleški Finžgar was born into a poor peasant family in the Upper Carniolan village of Doslovče, in what was then the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and his baptismal name was recorded as France Finžgar. His full name Fran Saleški refers to the saint he was named after, Francis de Sales. After finishing primary education in the town of Radovljica, he attended secondary school in Ljubljana between 1882 and 1891, continuing his education at the theological college. He was ordained priest in 1894 and worked in various parishes in Upper Carniola and Ljubljana until 1936, when he retired. He died in Ljubljana at the age of 91 and was buried at the Žale cemetery.
Politically, Finžgar was close to the Christian Socialist ideals of the Slovenian Catholic political activist and leader Janez Evangelist Krek. He was an admirer and friend of the prominent Social Democratic author Ivan Cankar, whom he attended at his deathbed in 1918. During World War II, he collaborated with the Communist-led Liberation Front of the Slovenian People, which led him to some conflict with the collaborationist bishop of Ljubljana, Gregorij Rožman.
The Finžgar House in Doslovče was frequented by many intellectuals from the area, particularly by his best friend Izidor Cankar, an influential art historian. The ethnologist Janez Bogataj, whose mother was Finžgar's niece, spent his first 15 years in Finžgar's company and arranged his birth house for public in 1971. Finžgar's close friend and personal advisor was also the architect Jože Plečnik. When Finžgar served as a priest in the parish of Trnovo in Ljubljana, Plečnik was his neighbour. In the late 1920s, Finžgar commissioned the renovation of the Trnovo parish church to his architect friend.
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11665159
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%20Sale%C5%A1ki%20Fin%C5%BEgar
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Fran Saleški Finžgar
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Work
Finžgar started his literary career as a poet, but later turned to prose. He wrote novels in the Neo-Romantic style, depicting rural and small-town life. He is best known for his patriotic historical novel (), written between 1906 and 1907 and partially modelled on Quo Vadis. The narrative was set during the late Migration Era of the 6th century AD, and depicted a three-way conflict between the primitive but vital South Slavic tribes, the advanced but decadent Byzantine Empire, and the brutal and culturally-alien Avars. The central character is the young Slavic prince Iztok, who makes his way incognito to Constantinople and joins the army in order to learn Roman military tactics, but also falls in love with a Greek noblewoman, navigates Byzantine court intrigue, and converts to Christianity.
Finžgar also wrote short stories and tales for children, the best known of which is Mr. Squall (), a set interlinked humorous adventures of a city-dweller who delights in holidaying in the high Karawanks. In addition, he wrote a number of plays, none of them particularly successful. He translated several works of the Austrian poet Peter Rosegger, whom he admired, into Slovene. He was the editor of the family magazine Mladika (The Shoot) and member of the Slovene Academy of Sciences and Arts.
In 1939, Finžgar participated in the opening of the Prešeren House, the birth house of France Prešeren in Vrba, a village near Doslovče as a museum. In 1940, the Prešeren House and the village were filmed for the black and white sound documentary O, Vrba. It was directed by and produced in 1941. The house was presented by Finžgar, whereas Oton Župančič read the poem "O Vrba".
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11665172
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yankalilla%2C%20South%20Australia
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Yankalilla, South Australia
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Yankalilla is an agriculturally based town situated on the Fleurieu Peninsula in South Australia, located 72 km south of the state's capital of Adelaide. The town is nestled in the Bungala River valley, overlooked by the southern Mount Lofty Ranges and acts as a service centre for the surrounding agricultural district.
In the early stages of the colonisation of the state, Yankalilla was a highly important location, but its close proximity to Adelaide and the advent of fast transport has greatly diminished this position.
Etymology
The origin of the town's name is unclear, but it is known that Governor Hindmarsh recorded the Kaurna pronunciation of "Yoongalilla", as applied to the District and noted this in dispatches of 1837. Colonel Light, however wrote about it as Yanky-lilly and Yanky Point, giving rise to the unsubstantiated idea that it was named after an American whaler or an American ship named 'Lilly' which was wrecked off the coast.
According to Geoff Manning, Norman Tindale said that the word is "derived from the Aboriginal word jankalan, meaning "falling", from an incident in the myth of Tjilbruke, whose sister's [sic] mummified body began to fall into pieces here, as he was carrying it from Brighton to Cape Jervis for burial".
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11665172
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yankalilla%2C%20South%20Australia
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Yankalilla, South Australia
|
In 2002, Kaurna scholar Georgina Yambo Williams, in a paper co-authored by University of Adelaide linguist Robert Amery, drew from her own knowledge and various literary sources from the period of British colonisation of South Australia. In it, she relates that Yankalilla comes from the words yerkandi, meaning "to fall to, to join onto", much in the way a disease does, and lya and illa, which means "place". Thus "Yankalilla" is literally "place of the fallen bits". This is considered by Yambo Williams to be in reference to the Dreaming story of Tjilbruke, who carried his dead nephew's disintegrating body from (what is now called) the Sturt River (Warriparinga) to Yankalilla and then collapsed. One version of the story of Tjilbruke spells it Yarnkalyilla ("place of the falling bits"), and describes a cave where Tjilbruke deposits his nephew's body. Recent scholarly research by Chester Schulz has concluded that the original site of Yankalilla was Lady Bay, at the mouth of the Yankalilla River just south of Normanville.
Other references to the meaning of Yankalilla come from Kallangoo (Kalunggu) recorded in Robinson's journal on 2 June 2, 1837 "Said the country where she came from was called BAT.BUN.GER [Patpangga = Rapid Bay] YANG.GAL.LALE.LAR [Yankalilla]. It is situate at the west point of St. Vincents Gulf. Said that Emue’s brother was her husband. It is on the sea coast; there is a long sandy beach with three rivers.". All of the "Adelaide tribe" – Kaurna language – words starting with "Yanga" mean something to do with wife or women in the 1840 Outlines of a grammar, vocabulary, and phraseology of the Aboriginal language of South Australia by Teichelmann and Schurmann. Yankalilla is the Place of Fallen Bits and the crumbling cliff line in Yankalilla Bay tells this but the meaning of the name Yankalilla is recorded as something to do with a women's place.
History
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11665172
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yankalilla%2C%20South%20Australia
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Yankalilla, South Australia
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Aboriginal history
The Yankalilla area was originally inhabited by the Kaurna, an Aboriginal Australian people, who occupied an area of land stretching from Cape Jervis, up the western side of the Fleurieu Peninsula, to the top of Gulf St Vincent. The Kaurna occasionally met with the Ramindjeri people from the Encounter Bay and Fleurieu Peninsula for trade and exchange.
Aboriginal mythology credits the formation of the land forms of the Fleurieu Peninsula to the travels of Tjilbruke, the Kaurna ancestor creator as he grieved carrying the body of his nephew from the Sturt River to Cape Jervis.
European history
The Yankalilla district has European history dating back to the first settlement in South Australia, with coastal areas colonised in the late 1830s. In 1838 over of land around Yankalilla was surveyed for sheep and dairy activities, but the current location of the town came into being four years later.
The actual town of Yankalilla was established in 1839 when The Reverend Father Henry Kemmis, came to live on land allocated to him be his cousin Governor George Grey. His wife died shortly after they landed in Adelaide, his children were left with servants, who built their home, the Reverend remarried and later travelled throughout Australia, establishing schools. Shortly afterward in 1842 Septimane Herbert and George Worthington took up land and built houses in the town. The farmers planted wheat and barley in the land they had cleared, paving the way for future agricultural developments.
The town grew rapidly between 1850 and 1870 and during this time Yankalilla became one of the five major towns in the colony of South Australia. A jetty was constructed on the coast to export the wheat grown in the district. The district council was officially proclaimed in 1854 and by the late 1860s the Yankalilla and Normanville had three flour mills, five stores, two breweries, four blacksmiths, three hotels and five churches.
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Yankalilla, South Australia
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The town's Anglican church, 'Christ Church', has a marble font which has its origins in the Middle Ages, once gracing Salisbury Cathedral in England. It was given to a former Christ Church rector during a visit to England. The former owners subsequently regretted their generosity and requested its return, but this was denied.
Another point of interest is the Shrine of Our Lady of Yankalilla in the Anglican church. In August 1994 an image was thought to have become visible on a wall behind the altar of the 137-year-old stone church. It was interpreted as an image of the Virgin Mary, depicting her face and body and appearing to be holding the crucified Christ in the manner of a pietà. Two years after the image appeared on the wall the local press covered the story in the Adelaide Advertiser, bringing international tourists to the town.
A number of buildings in the town are heritage listed, including the Anglican church, Manor Farm and The Olives. A number of previously listed buildings are no longer standing.
Geography
Yankalilla lies inland on the Fleurieu Peninsula, a small protruding stretch of land south of the Adelaide Plains. It is situated in the valley carved by the Bungala River, which meets the sea at the coast not far from the town, at nearby Normanville. The natural vegetation is dominated by Eucalypts and other southern natives, although grasses and weeds have taken their toll on many species.
Geology
Most of the region lies on sedimentary rock, with sandstone, mudstone and limestone deposited on an ancient sea floor between 1000 million and 600 million years ago during the Proterozoic. The youngest rocks in the region are in deposits laid down during the Cambrian period (600 to 500 million years ago) when fossils first appeared in the record. Fossils in the Normanville Group of rocks, which outcrop on the coast from Myponga Beach to Carrickalinga, were the first proof of Cambrian-age rocks in the Mount Lofty Ranges.
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Yankalilla, South Australia
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The area was impacted during the Delamerian Orogeny around 500 Million Years ago, forming mountain ranges, which have long since eroded away. During the Permian ice ages, many of the areas rocks were left with striation pavements, showing the direction of glacial movement, with Glacier Rock at Inman Valley, South Australia a well studied example. During the Triassic, Laterite, an iron-rich formation was deposited, and is now of economic value in road metals.
The landscape came to its present form only around two million years ago, after a period of subsidence, followed by uplift from intraplate movements, the same disturbance that formed the Flinders Ranges.
Climate
Yankalilla has a warm-summer mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csb), with lukewarm, dry summers and cool, rainy winters. The town is notably cooler and wetter than Adelaide due to the Southern Ocean's influence. Mean maxima vary from in January to in July, while mean minima fluctuate between in January and February and in July. Annual precipitation is moderate, averaging between 173.8 precipitation days. Extreme temperatures have ranged from on 24 January 2019 to on 20 July 2015. Since the town has no weather station, climate data was sourced from Parawa, a small settlement south of Yankalilla.
Economy
The economy of the town is based mostly on the surrounding agricultural lands, with industry and tourism also supplementing the town's economy.
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Since its establishment, Yankalilla has had cereal crops such as wheat and barley as a major agricultural component, and today this still remains the case. Dairy farming and livestock grazing, including sheep and cattle have also become important to the economy, with dairy products one of the towns biggest exports. Forestry has been attempted in the area and is still occurring in the district.
Tourism has been a rapidly increasing facet of the town economy, with a little over 12,500 tourists visiting the Yankalilla Tourist Information Centre in 2006, a figure increasing at around 12% each year. The Shrine and the country atmosphere draw tourists to the area, with others passing through the town on drives.
Community
Yankalilla has a number of community-based facilities and organisations, including health, education and sporting facilities. There are a number of festivals throughout the year also.
The Southern Fleurieu Health Service covers the town, with no hospital in Yankalilla. The Yankalilla Area school supplies the town's educational needs, with R-12 level teaching. A public library is also located in the town, with membership and borrowing free of charge.
There are many sporting clubs in the town, with Yankalilla having facilities for, and active teams in the local bowls, football (Yankalilla Football Club), netball, cricket, hockey, and tennis leagues. There is also a golf club, gym, and skate park located within the town.
There are a large number of environmental groups in the district, with some based in Yankalilla. Most aim to restore the land to the original conditions, with animal conservation, river and soil monitoring groups well established.
A number of events occur annually, including the Yankalilla Agricultural show, the Easter Art Show and the New Year's Eve Pageant notable.
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Finnish Lakeland
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Finnish Lakeland or Finnish lake district ( , "Lake Finland", ) is the largest of the four landscape regions into which the geography of Finland is divided.
The hilly, forest-covered landscape of the lake plateau is dominated by drumlins and by long sinuous eskers. Both are glacial remnants deposited after the continental glaciers that scoured and gouged the country's surface receded about 10,000 years ago.
The lake basins of the lakeland originate from the joint work of weathering and erosion of fractures in the bedrock. The erosion that made the depressions occurred before and during the Quaternary ice ages. Erosion along fractures has produced linear inlets among the lakes.
Demarcation
The district occupies most of the central and East Finland and is bounded to the south by the Salpausselkä Ridges. These ridges are terminal moraines, which trap networks of thousands of lakes separated by hilly forested countryside.
The lake district turns into the Coastal Finland district to the West and Northwest, and is bounded by the Upland Finland to the North.
The lake landscape continues to the East and extends into Russia (Karelian Isthmus and Republic of Karelia).
Lakes
Lakes occupy about 25% of the Lakeland. Much of the territory is forested and has a low population density. The cities in the region are Imatra, Joensuu, Jyväskylä, Kuopio, Lappeenranta, Mikkeli, Pieksämäki, Savonlinna and Varkaus. Since lakes formed the main transport route in earlier times, urban areas are often located on lakeshore, occasionally even on isthmuses or peninsulas, e.g. Varkaus, Savonlinna and Kuopio. The lakes often have extremely convoluted coastlines and consist of several nearly separate stretches of open water (selkä) connected by narrow sounds. Thus, they can connect large areas along shores and their hinterlands.
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Because no set definition of what constitutes a lake and no procedures for counting the number of lakes exist, it has been impossible to ascertain exactly how many lakes the region has. There are, however, at least 55,000 lakes that are at least 200 metres wide.
If lake is defined to be a body of standing water larger than 500 square metres, then there are 187,888 lakes in Finland. On average, there are 40 lakes per 100 square kilometres in the district. The lake number density is largest north of the Lake Inari, up to 1,000 per 100 square kilometres, so that the area is sometimes called Lampi-Suomi (Pond Finland, Finnish pond district).
The largest is Lake Saimaa, which, with a surface area of more than 4,400 square kilometres, is the fourth largest natural freshwater lake in Europe. Lake Saimaa itself contains 5,484 islands, and islands in the greater Saimaa region () number up to 13,710. The deepest lake, Päijänne, has a maximum depth of only 95.3 metres; the depth of the average lake is 7 metres.
The Saimaa Canal connects the Lake Saimaa to the Vyborg Bay of the Gulf of Finland, Baltic Sea. Another connection to the Baltic Sea is the Vuoksi River, which flows from Saimaa to Lake Ladoga, from where the water subsequently flows through Neva River into the Gulf of Finland, bypassing the Salpausselkä.
Lake Päijänne is the second largest lake in Finland, which drains into the Gulf of Finland via the Kymi River and which is used as a drinking water supply for Helsinki.
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Presidency of George H. W. Bush
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George H. W. Bush's tenure as the 41st president of the United States began with his inauguration on January 20, 1989, and ended on January 20, 1993. Bush, a Republican from Texas and the incumbent vice president for two terms under President Ronald Reagan, took office following his landslide victory over Democratic nominee Michael Dukakis in the 1988 presidential election. His presidency ended following his defeat in the 1992 presidential election to Democrat Bill Clinton, after one term in office. Bush was the father of the 43rd president, George W. Bush.
International affairs drove the Bush presidency, which navigated the end of the Cold War and a new era of U.S.–Soviet relations. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, Bush successfully pushed for the reunification of Germany in close cooperation with West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, overcoming the reluctance of Gorbachev. He also led an international coalition of countries which invaded and defeated Iraq after it invaded Kuwait in the Gulf War. On a smaller scale he directed a military invasion to overthrow a dictator in Panama. Bush signed the North American Free Trade Agreement, which created a trilateral trade bloc consisting of the United States, Canada, and Mexico.
In domestic affairs, Bush faced a large federal budget deficit. Despite insisting he was pledged to not raise taxes, Bush agreed to a budget with the Democratic-controlled Congress that raised taxes and cut spending.
In the aftermath of allied victory in the Gulf War, Bush was widely considered likely to win re-election, but Clinton defeated Bush with third party candidate Ross Perot taking a large chunk of the electorate. Despite his defeat, Bush left office with a 56 percent job approval rating, and he remained popular with the public until his death in 2018. In polls of historians and political scientists, George H.W. Bush is generally ranked as an above-average president.
1988 election
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Having served in various government positions, particularly the position of Director of the CIA, Bush sought the presidential nomination in the 1980 Republican primaries. He was defeated by Ronald Reagan, a conservative former governor from California. Seeking to balance the ticket with an ideological moderate, Reagan selected Bush as his running mate. Reagan triumphed over incumbent Democratic President Jimmy Carter in the 1980 presidential election, and Bush took office as vice president in 1981. Bush enjoyed warm relations with Reagan, and the vice president served as an important adviser and made numerous public appearances on behalf of the Reagan administration.
Bush entered the 1988 Republican presidential primaries in October 1987. He promised to provide "steady, experienced leadership", and Reagan privately supported his candidacy. Bush's major rivals for the Republican nomination were Senate Minority Leader Bob Dole of Kansas, Congressman Jack Kemp of New York, and Christian televangelist Pat Robertson. Though considered the early front-runner for the nomination, Bush came in third in the Iowa caucus, behind Dole and Robertson. Due in part to a financial advantage over Dole, Bush rebounded with a victory in the New Hampshire primary, then won South Carolina and 16 of the 17 states holding a primary on Super Tuesday. Bush's competitors dropped out of the race soon after Super Tuesday.
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Bush's first major appointment was that of James Baker as Secretary of State; Baker was Bush's closest friend and had served as Reagan's White House Chief of Staff. Bush's first pick for Defense Secretary, John Tower, was rejected by the Senate, becoming the first cabinet nominee of an incoming president to be rejected. Leadership of the Department of Defense instead went to Dick Cheney, who had previously served as Gerald Ford's Chief of Staff and would later serve as vice president under George W. Bush. Kemp joined the administration as Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, while Elizabeth Dole, the wife of Bob Dole and a former Secretary of Transportation, became the Secretary of Labor under Bush. Bush retained several Reagan officials, including Secretary of the Treasury Nicholas F. Brady, Attorney General Dick Thornburgh, and Secretary of Education Lauro Cavazos.
Like most of his predecessors since Richard Nixon, Bush concentrated executive power in the Executive Office of the President. New Hampshire Governor John H. Sununu, a strong supporter of Bush during the 1988 campaign, became chief of staff. Sununu would oversee the administration's domestic policy until his resignation in 1991. Richard Darman, who had previously served in the Treasury Department, became the Director of the Office of Management and Budget. Brent Scowcroft was appointed as the National Security Advisor, a role he had also held under Ford. In the aftermath of the Reagan era Iran–Contra affair, Bush and Scowcroft reorganized the National Security Council, vesting power in it as an important policy-making body. Scowcroft's deputy, Robert Gates, emerged as an influential member of the National Security Council. Another important foreign policy adviser was General Colin Powell, a former National Security Advisor who Bush selected as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1989.
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End of the Cold War: The most significant foreign policy achievement of the Bush administration was overseeing the peaceful end of the Cold War. Bush played a crucial role in managing the transition as the Soviet Union dissolved, ensuring stability and avoiding a potential conflict between the two superpowers.
Strategic Arms Reduction: Bush pursued arms control agreements with the Soviet Union to reduce the nuclear weapons arsenals of both countries. He signed the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I) with Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev, leading to substantial reductions in nuclear weapons stockpiles.
Gulf War: Bush led an international coalition in response to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990. The Gulf War aimed to liberate Kuwait and protect regional stability. The operation, known as Operation Desert Storm, successfully expelled Iraqi forces from Kuwait but stopped short of removing Saddam Hussein from power.
Multilateralism and Coalition-Building: Bush emphasized the importance of multilateralism and building international coalitions to address global challenges. This approach was evident in the Gulf War, where he garnered support from numerous nations and assembled a coalition of forces.
Support for Democracy and Human Rights: Bush advocated for democracy and human rights worldwide. He backed democratic transitions in Eastern Europe after the fall of the Berlin Wall and supported pro-democracy movements in countries like China and Myanmar (formerly Burma). He invaded Panama to remove a dictator who violated human rights.
Free Trade: Bush was a strong advocate for free trade. He negotiated and signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between the United States, Canada, and Mexico, aiming to enhance economic cooperation and remove trade barriers.
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Panama: Operation Just Cause
During the 1980s, the U.S. had supplied aid to Manuel Noriega, an anti-Communist dictator of Panama who engaged in drug trafficking. In May 1989, Noriega annulled the results of a democratic presidential election. Bush objected to the annulment of the election and worried about the status of the Panama Canal seeing Noriega as a threat. After an American serviceman was killed by Noriega forces in December 1989, Bush ordered 24,000 troops into the country with an objective of removing Noriega from power. The United States invasion of Panama, known as "Operation Just Cause", was the first large-scale American military operation in more than 40 years that was not related to the Cold War. American forces quickly took control of the Panama Canal Zone and Panama City. Noriega surrendered on January 3, and was quickly transported for trial in the United States. Twenty-three Americans died in the operation, while another 394 were wounded. Noriega was convicted and imprisoned on racketeering and drug trafficking charges in April 1992. Historian Stewart Brewer argues that the invasion "represented a new era in American foreign policy" because Bush did not justify the invasion under the Monroe Doctrine or the threat of Communism, but rather on the grounds that it was in the best interests of the United States.
End of the Cold War
Fall of the Eastern Bloc
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Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev had eased Cold War tensions during Reagan's second term, but Bush was initially skeptical of Soviet intentions. During the first year of his tenure, Bush pursued what Soviets referred to as the pauza, a break in Reagan's détente policies. While Bush implemented his pauza policy in 1989, Soviet satellites in Eastern Europe challenged Soviet domination. In 1989, Communist governments fell in Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, while the governments of Bulgaria and Romania instituted major reforms. In November 1989, the government of East Germany opened the Berlin Wall, and it was subsequently demolished by gleeful Berliners. Many Soviet leaders urged Gorbachev to crush the dissidents in Eastern Europe, but Gorbachev declined to send in the Soviet military, effectively abandoning the Brezhnev Doctrine. The U.S. was not directly involved in these upheavals, but the Bush administration avoided the appearance of gloating over the demise of the Eastern Bloc to avoid undermining further democratic reforms. Bush also helped convince Polish leaders to allow democratic elections and became the first sitting U.S. president to visit Hungary.
By mid-1989, as unrest blanketed Eastern Europe, Bush requested a meeting with Gorbachev, and the two agreed to hold the December 1989 Malta Summit. After the Malta summit, Bush sought cooperative relations with Gorbachev throughout the remainder of his term, believing that the Soviet leader was the key to peacefully ending the Soviet domination of Eastern Europe. In May 1990 Bush identified free elections, political pluralism, and the rule of law as the cornerstones of freedom and urged that they be enshrined among the principles of the 35-nation Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). By June, with the help of Max Kampelman, this major historic achievement the security architecture of Europe was anchored.
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While Britain and France were wary of a re-unified Germany, Bush pushed for German reunification alongside West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl. Gorbachev also resisted the idea of a reunified Germany, especially if it became part of NATO, but the upheavals of the previous year had sapped his power at home and abroad. "Two-Plus-Four" talks among the U.S., the Soviet Union, France, Britain, West Germany, and East Germany began in 1990. After extensive negotiations, Gorbachev eventually agreed to allow a reunified Germany to be a part of NATO. With the signing of the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany, Germany officially reunified in October 1990.
Dissolution of the Soviet Union
Gorbachev suppressed nationalist movements within the Soviet Union itself. The Soviet Union had occupied and annexed the Baltic states of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia in the 1940s, and many of the residents had never accepted Soviet rule. Lithuania's March 1990 proclamation of independence was strongly opposed by Gorbachev, who feared that the Soviet Union could fall apart if he allowed Lithuania's independence. The United States had never recognized the Soviet incorporation of the Baltic states, and the crisis in Lithuania left Bush in a difficult position. Bush needed Gorbachev's cooperation in the reunification of Germany, and he feared that the collapse of the Soviet Union could leave nuclear arms in dangerous hands. Bush warned independence movements of the disorder that could come with secession from the Soviet Union; in a 1991 address that critics labeled the "Chicken Kiev speech", he cautioned against "suicidal nationalism".
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After Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, Bush imposed economic sanctions on Iraq and assembled a multi-national coalition opposed to the invasion. The administration feared that a failure to respond to the invasion would embolden Hussein to attack Saudi Arabia or Israel, and wanted to discourage other countries from similar aggression. Many in the international community agreed; Margaret Thatcher stated that "if Iraq wins, no small state is safe." Bush also wanted to ensure continued access to oil, as Iraq and Kuwait collectively accounted for 20 percent of the world's oil production, and Saudi Arabia produced another 26 percent of the world's oil supply.
In preparation for a military operation against Iraq, the United States transferred thousands of soldiers to Saudi Arabia, and General Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. developed an invasion plan. For several weeks, the Bush administration considered the possibility of foregoing the use of force against Iraq, with the hope that economic sanctions and international pressure would eventually convince Hussein to withdraw from Kuwait. At Bush's insistence, in November 1990, the United Nations Security Council approved a resolution authorizing the use of force if Iraq did not withdrawal from Kuwait by January 15, 1991. Gorbachev's support, as well as China's abstention, helped ensure passage of the UN resolution. Bush convinced Britain, France, and other nations to commit soldiers to an operation against Iraq, and he won important financial backing from Germany, Japan, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.
Operation Desert Storm
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In January 1991, Bush asked Congress to approve a joint resolution authorizing a war against Iraq. Bush believed that the UN resolution had already provided him with the necessary authorization to launch a military operation against Iraq, but he wanted to show that the nation was united behind a military action. Speaking before a joint session of the Congress regarding the authorization of air and land attacks, Bush laid out four immediate objectives: "Iraq must withdraw from Kuwait completely, immediately, and without condition. Kuwait's legitimate government must be restored. The security and stability of the Persian Gulf must be assured. And American citizens abroad must be protected." He then outlined a fifth, long-term objective: "Out of these troubled times, our fifth objective – a new world order – can emerge: a new era – freer from the threat of terror, stronger in the pursuit of justice, and more secure in the quest for peace. An era in which the nations of the world, East and West, North and South, can prosper and live in harmony.... A world where the rule of law supplants the rule of the jungle. A world in which nations recognize the shared responsibility for freedom and justice. A world where the strong respect the rights of the weak." Despite the opposition of a majority of Democrats in both the House and the Senate, Congress approved the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 1991.
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After the January 15 deadline passed without an Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait, U.S. and coalition forces began a 39-day bombing of the Iraqi capital of Baghdad and other Iraqi positions. The bombing devastated Iraq's power grid and communications network, and resulted in the desertion of about 100,000 Iraqi soldiers. In retaliation, Iraq launched Scud missiles at Israel and Saudi Arabia, but most of the missiles did little damage. On February 23, coalition forces began a ground invasion into Kuwait, evicting Iraqi forces by the end of February 27. About 300 Americans, as well as approximately 65 soldiers from other coalition nations, died during the military action. A cease fire was arranged on March 3, and the UN passed a resolution establishing a peacekeeping force in a demilitarized zone between Kuwait and Iraq. A March 1991 Gallup poll showed that Bush had an approval rating of 89 percent, the highest presidential approval rating in the history of Gallup polling.
During the military action, the coalition forces did not pursue Iraqi forces across the border, leaving Hussein and his elite Republican Guard in control of Iraq. Bush explained that he did not give the order to overthrow the Iraqi government because it would have "incurred incalculable human and political costs.... We would have been forced to occupy Baghdad and, in effect, rule Iraq." His decision not to press the attack remains controversial. As Secretary of Defense Cheney noted, "Once we had rounded Hussein up and gotten rid of his government, then the question is what do you put in his place?" In the aftermath of the war, the Bush administration encouraged rebellions against Iraq, and Kurds and Shia Arabs both rose against Hussein. The U.S. declined to intervene in the rebellion, and Hussein violently suppressed the uprisings. After 1991, the UN maintained economic sanctions against Iraq, and the United Nations Special Commission was assigned to ensure that Iraq did not revive its weapons of mass destruction program.
China
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One of Bush's priorities was strengthening relations between the U.S. and the People's Republic of China (PRC), and Bush had developed a warm relationship with Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping prior to taking office. Despite the personal rapport between Bush and Deng, human rights issues presented a serious challenge to Bush's China policy. In mid-1989, students and other individuals protested in favor of democracy and intellectual freedom across two hundred cities in the PRC. In June 1989, the People's Liberation Army violently suppressed a demonstration in Beijing in what became known as the Tiananmen Square Massacre. Bush was eager to maintain good relations with the PRC, which had drawn increasingly closer to the United States since the 1970s, but he was outraged by the PRC's handling of the protests. In response to the Tiananmen Square Massacre, the United States imposed economic sanctions and cut military ties. However, Bush also decided that Tiananmen should not interrupt Sino-U.S. relations. Thus he secretly sent special envoy Brent Scowcroft to Beijing to meet with Deng, and, the economic sanctions that had been levied against China were lifted. George Washington University revealed that, through high-level secret channels on 30 June 1989, the US government conveyed to the government of the People's Republic of China that the events around the Tiananmen Square protests were an "internal affair". Fang Lizhi and his wife remained in the US Embassy until 25 June 1990, when they were allowed by Chinese authorities to leave the embassy and board a U.S. Air Force C-135 transport plane to Britain. This resolution partly came about after confidential negotiations between Henry Kissinger, acting on behalf of US President Bush, and Deng. Other factors were a false confession by Fang, an attempted intervention by Scowcroft, and an offer from the Japanese government to resume loans to the PRC in return for the resolution of "the Fang Lizhi problem."
NAFTA
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The U.S. economy had generally performed well since emerging from recession in late 1982, but finally slipped into a mild recession in 1990. The unemployment rate rose from 5.9 percent in 1989 to a high of 7.8 percent in mid-1991. A number of highly publicized early layoffs by companies like Aetna led some to call it a "white-collar recession". In point of fact, by late 1991 there had been more than a million blue-collar jobs lost compared to approximately 200,000 white-collar jobs lost for a 5-to-1 ratio. Even so, this was still more of a "white collar" recession by comparison than the early 1980s double-dip recession had been. Explanations for the economic slowdown varied; some Bush supporters blamed Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan for failing to lower interest rates.
The large federal deficits, spawned during the Reagan years, rose from $152.1 billion in 1989 to $220 billion for 1990; the $220 billion deficit represented a threefold increase since 1980. The chief factors pushing the federal deficit upward going in to 1991 were the weak economy, which was depressing both corporate profits and household incomes, and a bailout for the savings and loans industry, which cost more than $100 billion over multiple years. By the end of 1991, polls showed significant public discontent with Bush's handling of the economy. As the public became increasingly concerned about the economy and other domestic affairs, Bush's well-received handling of foreign affairs became less of an issue for most voters. Several congressional Republicans and economists urged Bush to respond to the recession, but the administration was unable to develop an economic plan.
1990 budget reconciliation process
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In September 1990, Bush and Congressional Democrats announced a compromise to cut funding for mandatory and discretionary programs while also raising revenue, partly through a higher gas tax. The compromise additionally included a "pay as you go" provision that required that new programs be paid for at the time of implementation. Though he had previously promised to support the bill, House Minority Whip Newt Gingrich led the conservative opposition to the bill. Liberals also criticized the budget cuts in the compromise, and in October, the House rejected the deal, resulting in a brief government shutdown. Without the strong backing of the Republican Party, Bush was forced to agree to another compromise bill, this one more favorable to Democrats. The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990 (OBRA-90), enacted on October 27, 1990, dropped much of the gasoline tax increase in favor of higher income taxes on top earners. It included cuts to domestic spending, but the cuts were not as deep as those that had been proposed in the original compromise. Bush's decision to sign the bill damaged his standing with conservatives and the general public, but it also laid the groundwork for the budget surpluses of the late 1990s.
Education
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Though Bush generally refrained from making major proposals for new domestic programs, he stated his intention to be an education and environmental president. A 1983 report, titled A Nation at Risk, had raised concern about the quality of the American educational system. Bush proposed the Educational Excellence Act of 1989, a plan to reward high-performing schools with federal grants and provide support for the establishment of magnet schools. Bush's education platform consisted mainly of offering federal support for a variety of innovations, such as open enrollment, incentive pay for outstanding teachers, and rewards for schools that improve performance with underprivileged children. Conservatives, who generally sought to shrink the role of the federal government in education, opposed the bill. Liberals opposed the proposed vouchers for private schools, were wary of the student testing designed to ensure higher educational standards, and favored higher levels of federal spending on educational programs for minorities and the economically disadvantaged. Bush believed that educational costs should primarily be borne by state and local governments, and he did not favor dramatically raising the overall level of federal funding for education. Because of the lack of support from both liberals and conservatives, Congress did not act on his education proposals. Bush later introduced the voluntary "America 2000" program, which sought to rally business leaders and local governments around education reform. Though Bush did not pass a major educational reform package during his presidency, his ideas influenced later reform efforts, including Goals 2000 and the No Child Left Behind Act.
Civil rights
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Presidency of George H. W. Bush
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The disabled had not received legal protections under the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964, and many faced discrimination and segregation as Bush took office. In 1988, Lowell P. Weicker Jr. and Tony Coelho had introduced the Americans with Disabilities Act, which barred employment discrimination against qualified individuals with disabilities. The bill had passed the Senate but not the House, and it was reintroduced in 1989. Though some conservatives opposed the bill due to its costs and potential burdens on businesses, Bush strongly supported it, partly because his son, Neil, had struggled with dyslexia. After the bill passed both houses of Congress, Bush signed the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 into law in July 1990. The act required employers and public accommodations to make "reasonable accommodations" for the disabled, while providing an exception when such accommodations imposed an "undue hardship".
After the Supreme Court handed down rulings that limited the enforcement of employment discrimination, Senator Ted Kennedy led passage of a bill known as the Civil Rights Act of 1990 which was designed to facilitate launching employment discrimination lawsuits. In vetoing the bill, Bush argued that it would lead to racial quotas in hiring. Congress failed to override the veto, but re-introduced the bill in 1991. In November 1991, Bush signed the Civil Rights Act of 1991, which was largely similar to the bill he had vetoed in the previous year.
Environment
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Presidency of George H. W. Bush
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In 1982, Congress had passed the Garn–St. Germain Depository Institutions Act, which deregulated savings and loans associations and increased FDIC insurance for savings and loans associations. As the real estate market declined in the late 1980s, hundreds of savings and loans associations collapsed. In February 1989, Bush proposed a $50 billion package to rescue the saving and loans industry, the creation of the Office of Thrift Supervision to regulate the industry, and establishment the Resolution Trust Corporation to liquidate the assets of insolvent companies. Congress passed the Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery, and Enforcement Act of 1989, which incorporated most of Bush's proposals. In the wake of the savings and loan crisis, the Senate Ethics Committee investigated five senators, collectively referred to as the "Keating Five", for allegedly providing improper aid to Charles Keating, the chairman of the Lincoln Savings and Loan Association.
Points of Light
President Bush devoted attention to voluntary service as a means of solving some of America's most serious social problems. He often used the "thousand points of light" theme to describe the power of citizens to solve community problems. In his 1989 inaugural address, President Bush said, "I have spoken of a thousand points of light, of all the community organizations that are spread like stars throughout the Nation, doing good." Four years later, in his report to the nation on The Points of Light Movement, President Bush said, "Points of Light are the soul of America. They are ordinary people who reach beyond themselves to touch the lives of those in need, bringing hope and opportunity, care and friendship. By giving so generously of themselves, these remarkable individuals show us not only what is best in our heritage but what all of us are called to become."
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In 1990, the Points of Light Foundation was created as a nonprofit organization in Washington to promote this spirit of volunteerism. In 2007, the Points of Light Foundation merged with the Hands On Network with the goal of strengthening volunteerism, streamlining costs and services and deepening impact. Points of Light, the organization created through this merger, has approximately 250 affiliates in 22 countries and partnerships with thousands of nonprofits and companies dedicated to volunteer service around the world. In 2012, Points of Light mobilized 4 million volunteers in 30 million hours of service worth $635 million.
Other initiatives
Bush signed the Immigration Act of 1990, which led to a 40 percent increase in legal immigration to the United States. The bill more than doubled the number of visas given to immigrants on the basis of job skills, and advocates of the bill argued that it would help fill projected labor shortages for various jobs. Bush had opposed an earlier version of the bill that allowed for higher immigration levels, but supported the bill that Congress ultimately presented to him.
Bush became a member of the National Rifle Association of America (NRA) early in 1988 and had campaigned as a "pro-gun" candidate with the NRA's endorsement during the 1988 election. In March 1989, he placed a temporary ban on the import of certain semiautomatic rifles. This action cost him endorsement from the NRA in 1992. In 1995, after leaving office, Bush publicly resigned his life membership in the organization after receiving a form letter from the NRA depicting agents of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms as "jack-booted thugs".
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Presidency of George H. W. Bush
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In early 1992, the race took an unexpected twist when Texas billionaire Ross Perot launched a third party bid, claiming that neither Republicans nor Democrats could eliminate the deficit and make government more efficient. His message appealed to voters across the political spectrum disappointed with both parties' perceived fiscal irresponsibility. Perot later bowed out of the race for a short time, then reentered. Perot also attacked NAFTA, which he claimed would lead to major job losses. Perot dropped out of the race in July 1992, but rejoined the race in early October.
Lost re-election and transition period
Clinton won the election, taking 43 percent of the popular vote and 370 electoral votes, while Bush won 37.5 percent of the popular vote and 168 electoral votes. Perot won 19% of the popular vote, one of the highest totals for a third-party candidate in U.S. history, drawing equally from both major candidates, according to exit polls. Clinton performed well in the Northeast, the Midwest, and the West Coast, while also waging the strongest Democratic campaign in the South since the 1976 election. Bush won a majority of the Southern states and also carried most of the Mountain States and the Plains states. In the concurrent congressional elections, Democrats retained control of both the House of Representatives and the Senate.
Several factors were important in Bush's defeat. The ailing economy which arose from recession may have been the main factor in Bush's loss, as 7 in 10 voters said on election day that the economy was either "not so good" or "poor". On the eve of the 1992 election, the unemployment rate stood at 7.8%, which was the highest it had been since 1984. Bush's re-election campaign, which could no longer rely on Lee Atwater due to Atwater's incapacity in 1990 and death in 1991, was far less effective than the 1988 Bush campaign. The president was also damaged by his alienation of many conservatives in his party.
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Presidency of George H. W. Bush
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Despite his defeat, Bush climbed back from low election day approval ratings to leave office in 1993 with a 56% job approval rating. Bush's oldest son, George W. Bush, served as the country's 43rd president from 2001 to 2009. The Bushes were the second father and son pair to serve as president, following John Adams and John Quincy Adams. By December 2008, 60% of Americans gave George H. W. Bush's presidency a positive rating. In the 2010s, Bush was fondly remembered for his willingness to compromise, which contrasted with the intensely partisan era that followed his presidency. Polls of historians and political scientists have generally ranked Bush as an average president. A 2018 poll of the American Political Science Association’s Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Bush as the 17th best president. A 2017 C-SPAN poll of historians ranked Bush as the 20th best president.
Richard Rose described Bush as a "guardian" president, and many other historians and political scientists have similarly described Bush as a passive, hands-off president who was "largely content with things as they were". Historian John Robert Greene notes, however, that Bush's frequent threat of a veto allowed him to influence legislation. Bush is widely regarded as a realist in international relations; Scowcroft labeled Bush as a practitioner of "enlightened realism". Greene argues that the Bush administration's handling of international issues was characterized by a "flexible response to events" influenced by Nixon's realism and Reagan's idealism.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alella%20%28DO%29
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Alella (DO)
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Alella is a Spanish Denominación de Origen (DO) (Denominació d'Origen in Catalan) for wines produced in Maresme county in the province of Barcelona in the Spanish autonomous communities of Catalonia, located on the Mediterranean coast, 15 km to the north of the city of Barcelona.
It is one of the smallest DOs in Spain as the vineyards have been encroached upon by urban development. At the present time it only covers one third of the area that it covered in 1956 when it was established, despite a territorial extension in 1989.
History
Wines have been produced in this area since the time of the ancient Romans, and were mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia and by Martial in his Epigrams, when they were known as vins laietans. Structures have been found at the archaeological site of Veral de Vallmora, near Teià, showing that wine was made there from the 1st to 4th centuries AD. During the Middle Ages Alella wine was served at the court of the Kings of Aragón.
The region suffered the effects of the phylloxera virus at the end of the 19th century but the vineyards were successfully replanted using phylloxera resistant rootstock from the New World.
In 1906 the wine cooperative, Alella Vinícola, was founded which is renowned for its traditional Marfil brand. The wine cellars were designed by the modernist architect Jeroni Martorell i Terrats.
During the 1920s the region was famous for its cava (sparkling wine).
During the 1980s new varieties were introduced and the wine-making methods modernized. The wineries are urban mansions that are built on the slopes overlooking the sea. The height above sea level of the vineyards determines the variety grown and thus the type of wine produced.
Geography
The vineyards grow on the Serra de Parpers foothills, from the coast up the slopes of the mountains. The Besòs river forms the western boundary. There are two distinct areas within the DO:
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Alella (DO)
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Maresme, on the foothills overlooking the sea, is influenced by the sun and the Mediterranean breezes. The hills protect the vines from the cold winds and condense the humidity caused by the sea. The wines from this area are smooth with low acidity levels.
Vallès, on the interior slopes facing inland, has a more continental climate. The wines are stronger and more acidic.
The DO covers the following municipalities:
Maresme: Alella, Argentona, Cabrils, El Masnou, Montgat, Òrrius, Premià de Dalt, Premià de Mar, Teià, Tiana, Vilassar de Dalt
Vallès: La Roca del Vallès, Martorelles, Montornès del Vallès, Santa Maria de Martorelles, Sant Fost de Campsentelles, Vallromanes, Vilanova del Vallès
Climate
The oldest vineyards, close to the coast at an altitude of between 60 – 90 m above sea level enjoy a totally Mediterranean climate (mild winters, hot summers), whereas the younger ones, located higher up in cooler areas have a more continental climate.
The average temperature is about 15 °C (max 35 °C in summer, min -3 °C in winter) and there is a risk of frost during the winter and spring months especially at the higher altitudes. Rainfall is sparse to average falling mainly at the end of summer and autumn in the form of violent storms. Average of 600 mm per year.
Soils
The lowest vineyards, at 60 m above sea level, are on dark soils over igneous rocks in an open valley overlooking the sea. The highest ones, in a new district known as Vallés, are on lime bearing rock sheltered by the mountains.
The most interesting feature of Allella DO is the distinctive topsoil which is known as sauló in Catalan. It is basically a white granite-based sand which is very porous and retains heat very well. This helps the grapes to ripen, while the low water retention properties are compensated by the local humid microclimate.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistan%E2%80%93Uzbekistan%20border%20minefields
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Tajikistan–Uzbekistan border minefields
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The Uzbekistan–Tajikistan border minefields are the result of Uzbekistan's unilateral decision to indiscriminately mine rural areas along its border region with Tajikistan. This action is aimed at hindering drug trafficking and cross-border infiltrations of terrorists of the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, but the mines have caused many civilian casualties. Uzbekistan asserted that it is placing mines in its territory, but so far not all the boundaries between Uzbekistan and Tajikistan have been delineated. By 2004 Tajikistan and Uzbekistan had settled almost 86% of their 1,283-km border dispute following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. In 2018, the new Uzbekistan President Shavkat Mirziyoyev promised in an agreement with Tajikistan to de-mine the border. As of January 2020, reports emerged in Tajik media claiming that the de-mining was completed on the border.
Opinions on the minefields
International Committee of the Red Cross – The former head of the International Committee of the Red Cross in Tajikistan, George Gunz, said "Any government taking such steps must inform the population of mine locations and types of mines." He said that all international humanitarian norms were being violated so long as the mine locations were not marked, posing a constant threat to the lives of civilians living in border areas. Gunz said that such incidents would continue until governments agreed to sign the Ottawa Convention prohibiting the use of antipersonnel mines.
Uzbekistan's defence minister, Qodyr Pulatov, has defended his country's actions: "All mines laid have been marked with special plates warning of danger," (an assertion Tajik authorities in Dushanbe dismiss after recent official missions to the area failed to locate any such notices).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake%20Tawakoni
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Lake Tawakoni
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Lake Tawakoni ( ) is a reservoir located in Northeast Texas, about east of Dallas. It lies within three Texas counties, Hunt, Rains, and Van Zandt. It is used for water supply and recreation. It is under the Sabine River Authority of Texas and the original headwaters of the Sabine are converged under the lake surface.
Etymology
The lake was named for the Tawakoni Native American peoples, who were a larger part of the Caddo Nation. The Caddos inhabited a large swath of North and East Texas, including where the lake is located.
History
The reservoir was constructed in 1960 with the Iron Bridge Dam. The area was chosen due to its location to the growing Dallas area and the growth east of the city and its respective suburbs. The South Fork, Cowleech Fork, and Caddo Forks that all formed the Sabine River headwaters are now submerged under the lake and the lake now serves as the headwaters of the Sabine. It covers and has a storage capacity of at conservation pool level. It is owned by the Sabine River Authority of Texas.
Flora and fauna
The lake has a diverse array of wildlife. It features deer, feral hogs, snakes, raccoons, bobcats, and over 200 species of birds. Sightings of the American alligator in certain areas of the lake have not been uncommon. The lake mainly has post oak hardwood timber and plants native to the Texas Blackland Prairies.
In the summer of 2007, Lake Tawakoni State Park was the site of a large, rare spider web. The web stretched over a 200-yard path and attracted considerable attention from entomologists. The smaller Greenville Club Lake is situated north of the lake.
Gallery
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/33rd%20Illinois%20Infantry%20Regiment
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33rd Illinois Infantry Regiment
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The 33rd Illinois Infantry Regiment (nicknamed the Teacher's Regiment) was an infantry regiment from Illinois that served in the Union Army during the American Civil War. A number of the soldiers were college students and graduates, and for a time the regiment included a 17-piece band. The unit fought at Fredericktown in 1861, Cotton Plant in 1862, the Vicksburg campaign and Fort Esperanza in 1863, and at Spanish Fort in 1865. The original enlistees were mustered out in October 1864 while the veterans and recruits were mustered out in December 1865.
Formation
The 33rd Illinois Infantry was originally formed from many college students on the campus of the Illinois State Normal School and became known as the "Teacher's Regiment". In one company there were 13 college graduates and all were privates. The soldiers were so well educated that the standard joke was that men discharged for mental incapacity would have made officers in other regiments. The unit formally organized between 15 August and 29 September 1861 at Camp Butler near Springfield, Illinois, and mustered into federal service on 3 September 1861.
The original field officers were Colonel Charles Edward Hovey of Bloomington, Lieutenant Colonel William R. Lockwood of Quincy, and Major Edward R. Roe of Bloomington. After Lockwood's resignation, Charles E. Lippincott of Chandlerville was promoted lieutenant colonel on 1 March 1862. After Hovey was promoted brigadier general on 5 September 1862, Lippincott was promoted colonel and Roe was promoted lieutenant colonel. Roe resigned on 29 May 1863 and was replaced as lieutenant colonel by Leander H. Potter of Bloomington. Potter resigned on 12 September 1864 and was replaced by Isaac H. Elliott of Princeton. Lippincott resigned on 10 September 1865 and Elliott briefly became colonel before the regiment was discharged. At discharge, Henry H. Pope of Taylorville was lieutenant colonel and Elijah H. Gray of Winchester was major.
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33rd Illinois Infantry Regiment
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Facing a supply shortage, Curtis marched south along the White River in an attempt to make contact with a Union fleet. While crossing the Cache River on 7 July 1862, Curtis sent Hovey with 400 soldiers to make a reconnaissance. Hovey's force included one cannon and four companies each of the 33rd Illinois and the 11th Wisconsin Infantry Regiments. The Battle of Cotton Plant (Hill's Plantation) began when the 11th Wisconsin began skirmishing with 1,000 Confederates from the 12th Texas and 16th Texas Cavalry Regiments led by Colonel William H. Parsons. As the Wisconsin troops began to fall back, Hovey ordered three companies of the 33rd Illinois to take cover in a cornfield. When the Confederate horsemen galloped after the retreating Federals, the Illinois soldiers opened fire from ambush, routing Parsons' cavalry. Later, 200 Union cavalry and two artillery pieces arrived as reinforcements and Hovey's troops began pressing back their adversaries. After Brigadier General William Plummer Benton's Union brigade arrived, the Confederates retreated rapidly. During the battle, Edward M. Pike of the 33rd Illinois earned the Medal of Honor for saving a cannon from falling into enemy hands. After failing to make contact with the Union fleet, Curtis occupied Helena, Arkansas.
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33rd Illinois Infantry Regiment
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The regiment sustained losses of 13 wounded at Port Gibson, 1 killed and 2 wounded at Champion Hill, and 13 wounded at Big Black River Bridge. The highest casualties were suffered during the 22 May assault: 15 killed and 87 wounded. Captain Henry M. Kellogg was killed in action on 20 May. At Port Gibson, Benton's brigade fought on the far right flank. At Champion Hill, Carr's division marched on the center road behind Brigadier General Peter J. Osterhaus' division and was only lightly engaged. At Big Black River Bridge, Benton's brigade attacked north of the railroad. Carr's other brigade under Brigadier General Michael Kelly Lawler make the decisive breakthrough. The 33rd Illinois captured 14 pieces of artillery. During the 22 May assault, Benton's brigade unsuccessfully attacked the 2nd Texas Lunette. Attacking at 10:00 am, the 33rd Illinois reached the ditch in front of the Confederate defenses but could go no farther. The soldiers took cover in the ditch while the Confederates tossed lighted shells down the slope. It was not until 7:00 pm that they were able to withdraw. During the siege, the soldiers of the 33rd Illinois found that eating blackberries alleviated a case of dysentery. Through 1 June, losses totaled 19 killed and 102 wounded, but 10 of the wounded men died. Vicksburg surrendered to Grant on 4 July 1863.
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33rd Illinois Infantry Regiment
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Department of the Gulf
The 33rd Illinois took part in the Jackson Expedition, which involved continuous fighting during 9–16 July 1863. While skirmishing on 13 July, Private Joseph W. Fifer from the regiment was wounded. Fifer would later become governor of Illinois. The Confederate defenders evacuated Jackson, Mississippi, a few days later. The 33rd Illinois was part of 1st Brigade, 1st Division, XIII Corps in July–August 1863. The unit had garrison duty at Vicksburg until August 20 when it was transferred to the Department of the Gulf, where it served until June 1864. The regiment garrisoned New Orleans, Brashear City, and Berwick, Louisiana, until October 1863. The unit participated in the Western Louisiana Campaign on 3 October–10 November. For the 33rd Illinois, this operation up the Bayou Teche was a lark in which the soldiers stole "wagonloads" of chickens from the inhabitants. While marching through New Iberia the men of the regiment began howling. The men claimed that this scared the townspeople so badly that they began to fly French flags from their homes. The regiment served with Union troops from eastern states. According to one 33rd Illinois soldier, the easterners, "wore more feathers and less dust than those from the West." When soldiers of the 33rd Illinois and the 3rd Rhode Island Cavalry Regiment got into a drunken fistfight, the Illinoisans ended with fewer injuries.
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33rd Illinois Infantry Regiment
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On 10 November 1863, the 33rd Illinois was ordered to New Orleans where it embarked for the Texas coast two days later. The expedition's goals were to raise the national flag in Texas, to cut off the cotton trade with Mexico, to damage the Texas economy, and to serve warning to the French occupation force in Mexico. On 22 November, the regiment landed on St. Joseph's Island with every soldier carrying three days of rations and 80 rounds of ammunition. The Union forces marched north on St. Joseph's Island and crossed to Matagorda Island. Fort Esperanza guarded the Pass Cavallo inlet. In the Battle of Fort Esperanza, the fort was abandoned by its Confederate garrison on 29–30 November. One soldier claimed that the flag of the 33rd Illinois was the first to fly over the abandoned fort. Its capture gave the Union control of Matagorda Bay. First Lieutenant George H. Fifer was mortally wounded in the fighting and died 26 December 1863. The 33rd Illinois performed garrison duty at Indianola and Lavaca until March 1864. During this period, the regiment was part of Brigadier General Fitz Henry Warren's brigade.
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33rd Illinois Infantry Regiment
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On 8 January 1864, most of the soldiers of the 33rd Illinois reenlisted as veterans; a bounty of $402 was offered. The men who chose to reenlist left Texas on 28 January 1864 while those who chose not to reenlist were transferred to the 99th Illinois Infantry Regiment. The men who reenlisted reached Bloomington on 14 March and received their veterans' furlough. On 18 April, the regiment reorganized at Camp Butler and proceeded first to St. Louis and then to New Orleans, arriving on 29 April. The unit moved to Brashear City on 17 May where it was parceled out to defend the railroad. Companies A and D were ordered to Tigerville, Company B to Bayou Lafourche, Companies C, F, and K to Bayou Boeuf, Company E to Terre Bonne, Company G to Chacahoula, Company H to Boutte, and Company I to Bayou L'Ourse. The unit was assigned to the District of LaFourche in June 1864 – February 1865. The men temporarily assigned to the 99th Illinois rejoined the 33rd Illinois on 3 July 1864.
On 18 September 1864, the more than 100 soldiers of the 33rd Illinois who had not reenlisted embarked on the steamer Cassandra along with 300 Confederate prisoners that they were assigned to guard. After reaching New York City, the Illinoisans traveled by railroad to Camp Butler on 3 October and were mustered out on 11 October. On 5 March 1865, the regiment boarded a railroad train to join the XVI Corps. That day, the train derailed at Boutte and nine men from Companies A, D, and G were killed in the wreck. Another 72 men were injured of whom 2–3 men later died. The injured soldiers were mostly in Companies A and D, but all companies had injured men except C and F at the rear of the train. A number of injured men had to be discharged because they were disabled.
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33rd Illinois Infantry Regiment
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The 33rd Illinois participated in the Mobile campaign on 18 March–12 April 1865. The regiment was assigned to Colonel William L. McMillen's 1st Brigade, Brigadier General John McArthur's 1st Division, Major General Andrew Jackson Smith's XVI Corps, Major General Edward Canby's Army of West Mississippi. McArthur's Division engaged in the Battle of Spanish Fort starting on 27 March. On the night of 8 April, the Confederate defenders evacuated Spanish Fort. Smith planned to have McArthur's 1st and Carr's 3rd Division at Spanish Fort join Brigadier General Kenner Garrard's 2nd Division for the Battle of Fort Blakeley on 9 April, but the fort was quickly captured by assault and they were not needed.
Mobile, Alabama, was occupied by Canby's army on 12 April 1865. The 33rd Illinois marched to the Alabama state capital at Montgomery on 13–25 April. Entering the statehouse, the soldiers of the 33rd Illinois held a mock legislative session in which they voted for Jefferson Davis to be hanged for treason, army rations to be changed to roast beef and turkey with cranberries, and their army pay to be increased to $100 per month. The regiment marched to Selma on 10 May and rode the railroad to Meridian, Mississippi, on 17 May. While at Meridian in July, the unit was filled up with soldiers transferred from the 72nd Illinois, 117th Illinois, 122nd Illinois, and 124th Illinois. Later, the regiment moved to Vicksburg where the soldiers were mustered out of service on 24 November. They traveled to Camp Butler where the enlisted men were discharged on 6 December and the officers discharged on 7 December 1865. A total of 1,924 men were carried on the muster rolls during the war. The 33rd Illinois Infantry Regiment suffered the loss of 2 officers and 56 enlisted men who were killed in action or who died of their wounds; and 1 officer and 250 enlisted men who died of disease, giving a total of 309 war fatalities.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracy%20Sugarman
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Tracy Sugarman
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Tracy A. Sugarman (1921 – January 20, 2013) was an American illustrator. He illustrated hundreds of books and record covers in a career lasting over 50 years. He authored an annotated work on his sketches from World War II.
He was a naval officer on D-Day when he led his troops on an amphibious assault of Utah beach. Following his service in the U.S. Navy in World War II, Sugarman moved to Connecticut, United States and embarked on a career in illustration. He illustrated books and articles for more than 50 years, including numerous children's books.
He was also an illustrator of record covers, primarily for Waldorf Music Hall Records/Grand Award Records. The early ten inch records on Waldorf Music Hall are apparently also designed by him. The later covers on Grand Award use his illustrations in the middle of a frame design. Many illustrations from the earlier series reappear on the later records. He designed more than 100 covers in the years 1950-1959. Perhaps the best known are the covers for albums by "Knuckles O'Toole", a ragtime piano player made up by the Grand Award company. The real pianist is either Billy Rowland or Dick Hyman. These have been reissued on CD with the original covers on Siggnal Sounds records. His illustrations appeared in hundreds of magazines and books, and was featured on PBS, ABC TV, NBC TV, and CBS TV. Along with his career as an illustrator, he also was a talented artist, scriptwriter, civil rights activist, producer, and author. He won numerous awards from the Society of Illustrators in New York and the Art Directors Club in Washington, D.C.
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Tracy Sugarman
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Sugarman's earlier career was a U.S. Navy Reserve ensign who served on an amphibious boat during the D-Day invasion of Normandy June 6, 1944. Among Tracy's many works is “My War.” In 2000 he published a collection of over 400 letters, drawings and watercolours he sent to his young wife, during the harrowing days of World War II. His collection from this period was acquired by the Veterans History Project, at the Library of Congress.
Some of his most iconic work involved the civil-rights movement in the 1960s. As a visual journalist, he covered the appalling conditions in Rikers Island jail for the New York Times and the Malcolm X trial for the Saturday Evening Post.
Sugarman left his Connecticut home to join the students heading south in the summer of 1964. He decided to use his talents to tell their stories to the American public. He attended the orientation in Oxford, Ohio, and spent ten weeks in Ruleville in the heart of the Delta. There he formed close friendships with veteran activists Fannie Lou Hamer and Charles McLaurin. He also befriended the college students working on voter registration and teaching in Freedom Schools. "They were terrified every day, but they went out and did their job," he observed. Stranger at the Gates, published in 1966, is Sugarman's deeply personal account of that summer, illustrated with dozens of his evocative drawings. In the preface he wrote, "No one who went to Mississippi in 1964 returned the same. I came home from the dusty roads of the Delta with a deeper understanding of patriotism, an unshakable respect for commitment, and an abiding belief in the power of love."
We Had Sneakers, They Had Guns, published in 2009, is a sequel to his earlier work in which Sugarman reflected on the relationships formed that summer and how his life and the lives of his fellow volunteers were shaped by their experiences. It is both a personal memoir and a collective biography of the people he met in Mississippi.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Barker
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Arthur Barker
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Arthur Raymond "Doc" Barker (June 4, 1899 – January 13, 1939) was an American criminal, the son of Ma Barker and a member of the Barker-Karpis gang, founded by his brother Fred Barker and Alvin Karpis. Barker was typically called on for violent action, while Fred and Karpis planned the gang's crimes. He was arrested and convicted of kidnapping in 1935. Sent to Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary in 1936, he was killed three years later while attempting to escape.
Barker is described by one writer as "a dimwit and a drunk", who was not much more than a brutal thug. However, fellow Alcatraz inmate Henri Young said of him that he was "determined and ruthless, and that once he started on anything nothing could stop him but death."
Early life
Barker was born in Aurora, Missouri, the son of George Elias Barker and Arizona "Ma" Barker (née Clark). Circa 1910, the family moved to Tulsa, Oklahoma. Through the 1920s and 1930s, Barker, with his brothers Herman, Lloyd and Fred, committed numerous crimes such as theft, robbery and murder. On July 18, 1918, Barker was arrested for stealing a car on the highway and was sent to serve prison time in Joplin, Missouri. On February 19, 1920, he escaped from Joplin prison. Using the pseudonym "Claude Dade", Barker was involved in robberies in Oklahoma. He was arrested and imprisoned at Oklahoma State Penitentiary under the name "Bob Barker" from January to June 1921.
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11665389
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Barker
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Arthur Barker
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On August 25, 1921, Barker and three other men robbed a woman at a hospital construction site in Tulsa. The three men were surprised by the night watchman, Thomas Sherill. When Sherill saw them he opened fire. Sherill was fatally shot when two of the men shot at him while fleeing the scene. After Sherill's family hired a private investigator, Barker and another man, Volney "Curley" Davis, who worked at the construction site and was friendly with the Barker family, were arrested for Sherill's murder. On January 14, 1922, Barker was convicted of Sherill's murder and sentenced to a life term at Oklahoma State Penitentiary. Barker appealed the conviction and always maintained his innocence of this crime. He was paroled ten years later, on September 10, 1932.
Reunion with the Barker Gang
After his release, Barker joined up with his brother Fred and Karpis. By this time, Barker was described as a morose, heavy drinking man and a "stone eyed" killer. According to one woman associated with the Barker–Karpis gang, Barker had little interest in female company and was awkward around women, something she attributed to his institutionalized life in prison.
On December 16, 1932, Barker participated in the robbery of the Third Northwestern Bank in Minneapolis. Two policemen were killed in that robbery and a civilian was murdered by Barker's brother Fred during the getaway. On August 30, 1933, the Barker–Karpis gang robbed a payroll at Stockyards National Bank of South St. Paul. Barker fatally shot policeman Leo Pavlak after he had already surrendered.
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11665389
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Barker
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Arthur Barker
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Barker also helped the gang kidnap two wealthy St. Paul men: William Hamm in June 1933 and Edward Bremer in January 1934. Barker personally grabbed both Hamm and Bremer, intimidating them with his brutality. However, it was Barker who made a slip-up that led to the gang's capture. Having collected the ransom for Bremer, Barker was driving the captive to a drop-off point. Along the way he stopped to refuel from a gas can, and removed a glove while doing so. The discarded can was recovered and Barker's fingerprint was identified.
Arrest
Unaware that police had identified them in Hamm and Bremer's kidnapping, the Barker–Karpis gang attempted to launder the money they had extorted, convinced (correctly) that the FBI had recorded the serial numbers. They briefly relocated to Cuba, then moved to Florida, where they rented a house near Lake Weir. Barker devised a plan for a new robbery, but other members of the gang rejected the idea, believing that they should keep a low profile. Bored, Barker left for Chicago.
While in Chicago, Barker met Byron Bolton, a former associate of Fred Goetz. On January 8, 1935, Barker was identified and was arrested in the street by FBI agents. When asked "Where's your gun?"; Barker replied, "Home—and ain't that a hell of a place for it?". He was interviewed by Melvin Purvis, who later wrote, "he sat in a chair, jaw clenched, looking straight ahead. He was not impressive-looking. Only his eyes told the story of an innate savagery". Bolton was also taken into custody. While Barker refused to speak, Bolton revealed that the other members of the gang were in Florida. A map found in Barker's room provided more detail. Shortly afterwards, Fred and Ma Barker were located and killed in a shootout with FBI agents.
Barker was charged with the kidnapping of Bremer. He attempted to intimidate Bremer to stop his testimony, telling him, "I have plenty of contacts out there who would get you". Nevertheless, Barker was convicted of the kidnapping and sentenced to life in prison.
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11665432
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washburn%20Island%2C%20Massachusetts
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Washburn Island, Massachusetts
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Washburn Island is a island off the coast of East Falmouth, Massachusetts within Waquoit Bay. It is home to some primitive campsites and is part of the Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve. It is part of the Town of Falmouth, in Barnstable County in the village of Waquoit.
During World War II, the island was home to Camp Washburn.
Ecosystem
Washburn Island contains marshes, sand dunes, and small ponds, and pine and oak trees make up the woods of the island.
History
Washburn Island was originally named Menauhant by the native people. At some points in time the island was owned as land by people. The island at one point had three farms on the island in the mid-nineteenth century, and parts of the island were cleared of trees in order to fit the farms as well as space for cattle to graze. Two of the three farms didn't last to see the end of the century.
The island was one of the last undeveloped coastal properties on Cape Cod. Washburn Island is bordered by the Seapit River and Eel Pond.
Various coastal storms caused the island to reconnect and separate from the mainland on and off, but, as of now, it is a true island.
Artifacts dating back 450–1000 years, including hammer flakes and shell middens, have been found on the island.
In 1983, The Commonwealth of Massachusetts acquired the island in order to make it a state park of the state park system.
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11665452
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Margate
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History of Margate
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In 1820 it was said that "the inhabitants of Margate ought to eulogise the name of Watt, as the founder of their good fortune; and steam vessels as the harbingers of their prosperity".
Railways
The railway came to Margate via two separate companies. The South Eastern Railway (SER) was the first to reach the town when its branch line from the main line at Ashford, having opened to Ramsgate on 13 April 1846, was continued to a station called Margate Sands on 1 December the same year. It was not direct, however: trains had to reverse from the terminus at Ramsgate to reach Margate. In spite of that, crowds of people added to the already high numbers coming by sea. The SER had the rail monopoly until 5 October 1863, the London, Chatham and Dover Railway completed its North Kent coast line and opened a station at Margate West. Once the Southern Railway had been formed, in 1923, there was a major rationalisation of the Isle of Thanet railways: the old route from Ramsgate was closed completely and a new railway connection, looping round the Isle of Thanet, meant that trains could pass through the town from either direction. Margate West (renamed simply Margate) Station became the only railway station in the town. The Railway is now run by Southeastern.
Royal School for Deaf Children
England's first public institution for deaf children known as 'London Asylum for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb Children of the Poor' was started in London in 1792. The School opened its branch in Margate (August 1876) and later on, moved the entire operation from London to Margate. The School's Westgate College for Deaf People, for students aged 16 and over, closed on 11 December 2015. An inspection the previous month by the Care Quality Commission uncovered what the inspectors called "shocking examples of institutionalised failings and abuse" and the trust running the schools subsequently went into administration.
Margate Jetty
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11665477
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical%20Church%20of%20the%20Deaf
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Evangelical Church of the Deaf
|
The Evangelical Church of the Deaf is a congregation of the United Church of Canada for the deaf. It is located at the Bob Rumball Centre for the Deaf in Toronto, Ontario. Services, conducted entirely by signing, draw deaf worshipers who were reared in Catholic churches and in an array of Protestant denominations.
History
From 1925 to 1973, the church used the historic Paul Kane House as its church hall. The former footballer Bob Rumball was appointed as the church's pastor in 1956, and became a noted advocate for the deaf community.
In about 1960 the church purchased property in the country and opened the Ontario Camp of the Deaf, using army surplus tents. The camp prospered; in 2000 it could serve 212 campers in a "sunny dining hall", and hosted 300 campers every summer.
The church meets at a dedicated multipurpose centre on Bayview Avenue. It was constructed in the late 1970s on a 6.1-acre property purchased from General Bruce Matthews and includes a sanctuary seating 300. The Toronto Maple Leafs founder Conn Smythe, the team owner Harold Ballard, and the wrestler Whipper Billy Watson helped Rumball to raise the $7.6 million to open the centre. Initially known as the Ontario Community Centre for the Deaf, it was renamed the Bob Rumball Canadian Centre of Excellence for the Deaf after Rumball's death in 2016.
In 2009, the Toronto Star reported, "The centre includes a 75-room residence for seniors and special needs adults, a daycare, a non-denominational church, a library, a skills-training facility, sign language classes for new Canadians, a host of community service programs and a welcoming space for social functions of all kinds."
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11665519
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/27th%20Illinois%20Infantry%20Regiment
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27th Illinois Infantry Regiment
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The 27th Regiment Illinois Volunteer Infantry was an infantry regiment that served in the Union Army during the American Civil War. The 27th Illinois Infantry was organized at Camp Butler, Illinois and mustered into Federal service 10 August 1861. The regiment fought in the Battles of Belmont [Missouri], Island No. 10, Corinth, Farmington, LaVerne, Stone's River, and the Tullahoma Campaign; at Chickamauga, the Battles for Chattanooga, the Relief of Knoxville, and in the Atlanta Campaign, including the Battles of Buzzards Roost, New Hope Church, and Kennesaw Mountain where the 27th Illinois spearheaded the uphill assault. Pulled out of the line at Atlanta 24 August 1864, the regiment was sent via Nashville to Springfield, Illinois, where 20 September 1864 it was mustered out.
However, 90 reenlistees (most reenlisted 1 January 1864 at Blain's Cross Road [today Blaine], Tennessee) of the 27th Illinois Infantry were kept together at Atlanta as the 27th Illinois Veteran Detachment under the command of Capt. William B. Young, 1st Lt. Israel Heaps adjutant, and were attached for logistic purposes to the 79th Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment as Company I. Armed with 20 new Henry repeating rifles, the 27th Illinois Veteran Detachment distinguished itself at the Battles of Spring Hill, Franklin (Heaps was captured in the debacle of Wagner's Advance Line) and Nashville (Young was killed in the impromptu and successful IV Corps charge up Overton Hill). The 27th Illinois Veteran Detachment was disbanded 26 May 1865, with its survivors assigned to Company G, 9th Illinois Consolidated Mounted Infantry (essentially dragoons). A few of the 27th Illinois Veterans elected to remain with the 79th Illinois Infantry. Most were discharged in June 1865.
Total strength and casualties through 24 September 1864
The regiment suffered 7 officers and 96 enlisted men who were killed in action or who died of their wounds and 2 officers and 83 enlisted men who died of disease, for a total of 188 fatalities.
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11665540
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobb%20Point%20Bar%20Light
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Cobb Point Bar Light
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The Cobb Point Bar Light (also called Cobb Island Bar Light) was a screw-pile lighthouse located in the Potomac River.
History
A light at Cobb Point was first requested in 1875 to mark the entrance to the tricky channel leading into the Wicomico River (not to be confused with the river of the same name on the Eastern Shore). After two additional requests, funds were finally appropriated in 1887. Construction was delayed, however, and the light was not commissioned until Christmas 1889.
A fire in 1939 caused by light keeper Matthew Wicke, resulted in heavy damage, and in the following year the house was torn down, replaced by a beacon set on the same foundation.
In the late 1800s, they built some new lighthouses on the Potomac River. This was because more ships were using the river, and the ships were getting bigger and needed deeper water. Around that time, there were steamships, like big boats, that operated on the Chesapeake Bay and its smaller rivers. They carried people and stuff on regular routes, sort of like how airplanes do today.
In the Wicomico River, which had a narrow and tricky entrance, three steamship lines and many smaller boats regularly stopped. People started asking for a lighthouse at Cob Island Bar (also known as Cob Point Bar) in 1875. They asked again in 1885 and 1887. Finally, in 1889, Congress gave $15,000 to build the lighthouse.
They didn't start building it until November 1889. They collected the materials and built the lighthouse in a factory at Lazaretto Depot, using the same plans as another lighthouse in Virginia. They brought all the parts to the site in November, and in a little over a month, they put it together. It started working on Christmas Day in 1889 and had a special type of lens called a fourth order Fresnel lens.
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