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planets . One result of this axis orientation is that , averaged over the Uranian year , the near-polar regions of Uranus receive a greater energy input from the Sun than its equatorial regions .Nevertheless, Uranus is hotter at its equator than at its poles. The underlying mechanism that causes this is unknown. The cause of Uranus's unusual axial tilt is also not known with certainty, but the usual speculation is that during the formation of the Solar System, an Earth-sized protoplanet collided with Uranus, causing the skewed orientation. Research by Jacob Kegerreis of Durham University suggests that the tilt resulted from a protoplanet larger than Earth crashing into the planet 3 to 4 billion years ago. Uranus's south pole was pointed almost directly at the Sun at the time of Voyager 2's flyby in 1986. Uranus's unusual axis of rotation had been surmised by astronomers since Herschel's discovery of Titania and Oberon, with Laplace calculating the inclination of the moons' orbits to the planet's equatorial plane in 1805. Visibility from Earth
The mean apparent magnitude of Uranus is 5.68 with a standard deviation of 0.17, while the extremes are 5.38 and 6.03. This range of brightness is near the limit of naked eye visibility. Much of the variability is dependent upon the planetary latitudes being illuminated from the Sun and viewed from the Earth. Its angular diameter is between 3.4 and 3.7 arcseconds, compared with 16 to 20 arcseconds for Saturn and 32 to 45 arcseconds for Jupiter. At opposition, Uranus is visible to the naked eye in dark skies, and becomes an easy target even in urban conditions with binoculars. On larger amateur telescopes with an objective diameter of between 15 and 23 cm, Uranus appears as a pale cyan disk with distinct limb darkening.
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Uranus
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target even in urban conditions with binoculars . On larger amateur telescopes with an objective diameter of between 15 and 23 cm , Uranus appears as a pale cyan disk with distinct limb darkening .With a large telescope of 25 cm or wider, cloud patterns, as well as some of the larger satellites, such as Titania and Oberon, may be visible. Internal structure
Uranus's mass is roughly 14.5 times that of Earth, making it the least massive of the giant planets. Its diameter is slightly larger than Neptune's at roughly four times that of Earth. A resulting density of 1.27 g/cm3 makes Uranus the second least dense planet, after Saturn. This value indicates that it is made primarily of various ices, such as water, ammonia, and methane. The total mass of ice in Uranus's interior is not precisely known, because different figures emerge depending on the model chosen; it must be between 9.3 and 13.5 Earth masses. Hydrogen and helium constitute only a small part of the total, with between 0.5 and 1.5 Earth masses. The remainder of the non-ice mass (0.5 to 3.7 Earth masses) is accounted for by rocky material. The standard model of Uranus's structure is that it consists of three layers: a rocky (silicate/iron–nickel) core in the centre, an icy mantle in the middle, and an outer gaseous hydrogen/helium envelope. The core is relatively small, with a mass of only 0.55 Earth masses and a radius less than 20% of the planet; the mantle comprises its bulk, with around 13.4 Earth masses, and the upper atmosphere is relatively insubstantial, weighing about 0.5 Earth masses and extending for the last 20% of Uranus's radius.
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Uranus
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302
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comprises its bulk , with around 13.4 Earth masses , and the upper atmosphere is relatively insubstantial , weighing about 0.5 Earth masses and extending for the last 20 % of Uranus 's radius .Uranus's core density is around 9 g/cm3, with a pressure in the centre of 8 million bars (800 GPa) and a temperature of about 5000 K. The ice mantle is not in fact composed of ice in the conventional sense, but of a hot and dense fluid consisting of water, ammonia and other volatiles. This fluid, which has a high electrical conductivity, is sometimes called a water–ammonia ocean. The extreme pressure and temperature deep within Uranus may break up the methane molecules, with the carbon atoms condensing into crystals of diamond that rain down through the mantle like hailstones. This phenomenon is similar to diamond rains that are theorised by scientists to exist on Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune. Very-high-pressure experiments at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory suggest that an ocean of metallic liquid carbon, perhaps with floating solid 'diamond-bergs', may comprise the base of the mantle. The bulk compositions of Uranus and Neptune are different from those of Jupiter and Saturn, with ice dominating over gases, hence justifying their separate classification as ice giants. There may be a layer of ionic water where the water molecules break down into a soup of hydrogen and oxygen ions, and deeper down superionic water in which the oxygen crystallises but the hydrogen ions move freely within the oxygen lattice. Although the model considered above is reasonably standard, it is not unique; other models also satisfy observations. For instance, if substantial amounts of hydrogen and rocky material are mixed in the ice mantle, the total mass of ices in the interior will be lower, and, correspondingly, the total mass of rocks and hydrogen will be higher.
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Uranus
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material are mixed in the ice mantle , the total mass of ices in the interior will be lower , and , correspondingly , the total mass of rocks and hydrogen will be higher .Presently available data does not allow a scientific determination of which model is correct. The fluid interior structure of Uranus means that it has no solid surface. The gaseous atmosphere gradually transitions into the internal liquid layers. For the sake of convenience, a revolving oblate spheroid set at the point at which atmospheric pressure equals 1 bar (100 kPa) is conditionally designated as a "surface". It has equatorial and polar radii of 25,559 ± 4 km (15,881.6 ± 2.5 mi) and 24,973 ± 20 km (15,518 ± 12 mi), respectively. This surface is used throughout this article as a zero point for altitudes. Internal heat
Uranus's internal heat appears markedly lower than that of the other giant planets; in astronomical terms, it has a low thermal flux. Why Uranus's internal temperature is so low is still not understood. Neptune, which is Uranus's near twin in size and composition, radiates 2.61 times as much energy into space as it receives from the Sun, but Uranus radiates hardly any excess heat at all. The total power radiated by Uranus in the far infrared (i.e. heat) part of the spectrum is 1.06±0.08 times the solar energy absorbed in its atmosphere. Uranus's heat flux is only 0.042±0.047 W/m2, which is lower than the internal heat flux of Earth of about 0.075 W/m2. The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus's tropopause is 49 K (−224.2 °C; −371.5 °F), making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System.
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Uranus
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Earth of about 0.075 W/m2 . The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus 's tropopause is 49 K ( −224.2 °C ; −371.5 °F ) , making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System .One of the hypotheses for this discrepancy suggests the Earth-sized impactor theorised to be behind Uranus's axial tilt left the planet with a depleted core temperature, as the impact caused Uranus to expel most of its primordial heat. Another hypothesis is that some form of barrier exists in Uranus's upper layers that prevents the core's heat from reaching the surface. For example, convection may take place in a set of compositionally different layers, which may inhibit upward heat transport; perhaps double diffusive convection is a limiting factor. In a 2021 study, the ice giants' interior conditions were mimicked by compressing water that contained minerals such as olivine and ferropericlase, thus showing that large amounts of magnesium could be dissolved in the liquid interiors of Uranus and Neptune. If Uranus has more of this magnesium than Neptune, it could form a thermal insulation layer, thus potentially explaining the planet's low temperature. Atmosphere
Although there is no well-defined solid surface within Uranus's interior, the outermost part of Uranus's gaseous envelope that is accessible to remote sensing is called its atmosphere. Remote-sensing capability extends down to roughly 300 km below the 1 bar (100 kPa) level, with a corresponding pressure around 100 bar (10 MPa) and temperature of 320 K (47 °C; 116 °F). The tenuous thermosphere extends over two planetary radii from the nominal surface, which is defined to lie at a pressure of 1 bar.
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Uranus
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305
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320 K ( 47 °C ; 116 °F ) . The tenuous thermosphere extends over two planetary radii from the nominal surface , which is defined to lie at a pressure of 1 bar .The Uranian atmosphere can be divided into three layers: the troposphere, between altitudes of −300 and 50 km (−186 and 31 mi) and pressures from 100 to 0.1 bar (10 MPa to 10 kPa); the stratosphere, spanning altitudes between 50 and 4,000 km (31 and 2,485 mi) and pressures of between 0.1 and 10−10 bar (10 kPa to 10 μPa); and the thermosphere extending from 4,000 km to as high as 50,000 km from the surface. There is no mesosphere. Composition
The composition of Uranus's atmosphere is different from its bulk, consisting mainly of molecular hydrogen and helium. The helium molar fraction, i.e. the number of helium atoms per molecule of gas, is 0.15±0.03 in the upper troposphere, which corresponds to a mass fraction 0.26±0.05. This value is close to the protosolar helium mass fraction of 0.275±0.01, indicating that helium has not settled in its centre as it has in the gas giants. The third-most-abundant component of Uranus's atmosphere is methane (CH4). Methane has prominent absorption bands in the visible and near-infrared (IR), making Uranus aquamarine or cyan in colour. Methane molecules account for 2.3% of the atmosphere by molar fraction below the methane cloud deck at the pressure level of 1.3 bar (130 kPa); this represents about 20 to 30 times the carbon abundance found in the Sun. The mixing ratio is much lower in the upper atmosphere due to its extremely low temperature, which lowers the saturation level and causes excess methane to freeze out. The abundances of less volatile compounds such as ammonia, water, and hydrogen sulfide in the deep atmosphere are poorly known.
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Uranus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.
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lowers the saturation level and causes excess methane to freeze out . The abundances of less volatile compounds such as ammonia , water , and hydrogen sulfide in the deep atmosphere are poorly known .They are probably also higher than solar values. Along with methane, trace amounts of various hydrocarbons are found in the stratosphere of Uranus, which are thought to be produced from methane by photolysis induced by the solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation. They include ethane (C2H6), acetylene (C2H2), methylacetylene (CH3C2H), and diacetylene (C2HC2H). Spectroscopy has also uncovered traces of water vapour, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide in the upper atmosphere, which can only originate from an external source such as infalling dust and comets. Troposphere
The troposphere is the lowest and densest part of the atmosphere and is characterised by a decrease in temperature with altitude. The temperature falls from about 320 K (47 °C; 116 °F) at the base of the nominal troposphere at −300 km to 53 K (−220 °C; −364 °F) at 50 km. The temperatures in the coldest upper region of the troposphere (the tropopause) actually vary in the range between 49 and 57 K (−224 and −216 °C; −371 and −357 °F) depending on planetary latitude. The tropopause region is responsible for the vast majority of Uranus's thermal far infrared emissions, thus determining its effective temperature of 59.1 ± 0.3 K (−214.1 ± 0.3 °C; −353.3 ± 0.5 °F).
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Uranus
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responsible for the vast majority of Uranus 's thermal far infrared emissions , thus determining its effective temperature of 59.1 ± 0.3 K ( −214.1 ± 0.3 °C ; −353.3 ± 0.5 °F ) .The troposphere is thought to have a highly complex cloud structure; water clouds are hypothesised to lie in the pressure range of 50 to 100 bar (5 to 10 MPa), ammonium hydrosulfide clouds in the range of 20 to 40 bar (2 to 4 MPa), ammonia or hydrogen sulfide clouds at between 3 and 10 bar (0.3 and 1 MPa) and finally directly detected thin methane clouds at 1 to 2 bar (0.1 to 0.2 MPa). The troposphere is a dynamic part of the atmosphere, exhibiting strong winds, bright clouds, and seasonal changes. Upper atmosphere
The middle layer of the Uranian atmosphere is the stratosphere, where temperature generally increases with altitude from 53 K (−220 °C; −364 °F) in the tropopause to between 800 and 850 K (527 and 577 °C; 980 and 1,070 °F) at the base of the thermosphere. The heating of the stratosphere is caused by absorption of solar UV and IR radiation by methane and other hydrocarbons, which form in this part of the atmosphere as a result of methane photolysis. Heat is also conducted from the hot thermosphere. The hydrocarbons occupy a relatively narrow layer at altitudes of between 100 and 300 km corresponding to a pressure range of 1,000 to 10 Pa and temperatures of between 75 and 170 K (−198 and −103 °C; −325 and −154 °F). The most abundant hydrocarbons are methane, acetylene, and ethane with mixing ratios of around 10−7 relative to hydrogen. The mixing ratio of carbon monoxide is similar at these altitudes. Heavier hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide have mixing ratios three orders of magnitude lower. The abundance ratio of water is around 7×10−9.
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Uranus
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308
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The mixing ratio of carbon monoxide is similar at these altitudes . Heavier hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide have mixing ratios three orders of magnitude lower . The abundance ratio of water is around 7×10−9 .Ethane and acetylene tend to condense in the colder lower part of the stratosphere and tropopause (below 10 mBar level) forming haze layers, which may be partly responsible for the bland appearance of Uranus. The concentration of hydrocarbons in the Uranian stratosphere above the haze is significantly lower than in the stratospheres of the other giant planets. The outermost layer of the Uranian atmosphere is the thermosphere and corona, which has a uniform temperature of around 800 K (527 °C) to 850 K (577 °C). The heat sources necessary to sustain such a high level are not understood, as neither the solar UV nor the auroral activity can provide the necessary energy to maintain these temperatures. The weak cooling efficiency due to the lack of hydrocarbons in the stratosphere above 0.1 mBar pressure levels may contribute too. In addition to molecular hydrogen, the thermosphere-corona contains many free hydrogen atoms. Their small mass and high temperatures explain why the corona extends as far as 50,000 km (31,000 mi), or two Uranian radii, from its surface. This extended corona is a unique feature of Uranus. Its effects include a drag on small particles orbiting Uranus, causing a general depletion of dust in the Uranian rings. The Uranian thermosphere, together with the upper part of the stratosphere, corresponds to the ionosphere of Uranus. Observations show that the ionosphere occupies altitudes from 2,000 to 10,000 km (1,200 to 6,200 mi). The Uranian ionosphere is denser than that of either Saturn or Neptune, which may arise from the low concentration of hydrocarbons in the stratosphere. The ionosphere is mainly sustained by solar UV radiation and its density depends on the solar activity.
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Uranus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.
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Saturn or Neptune , which may arise from the low concentration of hydrocarbons in the stratosphere . The ionosphere is mainly sustained by solar UV radiation and its density depends on the solar activity .Auroral activity is insignificant as compared to Jupiter and Saturn. Climate
At ultraviolet and visible wavelengths, Uranus's atmosphere is bland in comparison to the other giant planets, even to Neptune, which it otherwise closely resembles. When Voyager 2 flew by Uranus in 1986, it observed a total of 10 cloud features across the entire planet. One proposed explanation for this dearth of features is that Uranus's internal heat is markedly lower than that of the other giant planets, being the coldest planet in the Solar System. Banded structure, winds and clouds
In 1986, Voyager 2 found that the visible southern hemisphere of Uranus can be subdivided into two regions: a bright polar cap and dark equatorial bands. Their boundary is located at about −45° of latitude. A narrow band straddling the latitudinal range from −45 to −50° is the brightest large feature on its visible surface. It is called a southern "collar". The cap and collar are thought to be a dense region of methane clouds located within the pressure range of 1.3 to 2 bar. Besides the large-scale banded structure, Voyager 2 observed ten small bright clouds, most lying several degrees to the north from the collar. In all other respects, Uranus looked like a dynamically dead planet in 1986. Voyager 2 arrived during the height of Uranus's southern summer and could not observe the northern hemisphere. At the beginning of the 21st century, when the northern polar region came into view, the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and Keck telescope initially observed neither a collar nor a polar cap in the northern hemisphere.
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Uranus
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century , when the northern polar region came into view , the Hubble Space Telescope ( HST ) and Keck telescope initially observed neither a collar nor a polar cap in the northern hemisphere .So Uranus appeared to be asymmetric: bright near the south pole and uniformly dark in the region north of the southern collar. In 2007, when Uranus passed its equinox, the southern collar almost disappeared, and a faint northern collar emerged near 45° of latitude. In 2023, a team employing the Very Large Array observed a dark collar at 80° latitude, and a bright spot at the north pole, indicating the presence of a polar vortex. In the 1990s, the number of the observed bright cloud features grew considerably, partly because new high-resolution imaging techniques became available. Most were found in the northern hemisphere as it started to become visible. An early explanation—that bright clouds are easier to identify in its dark part, whereas in the southern hemisphere the bright collar masks them—was shown to be incorrect. Nevertheless, there are differences between the clouds of each hemisphere. The northern clouds are smaller, sharper and brighter. They appear to lie at a higher altitude. The lifetime of clouds spans several orders of magnitude. Some small clouds live for hours; at least one southern cloud may have persisted since the Voyager 2 flyby. Recent observation also discovered that cloud features on Uranus have a lot in common with those on Neptune. For example, the dark spots common on Neptune had never been observed on Uranus before 2006, when the first such feature dubbed Uranus Dark Spot was imaged. The speculation is that Uranus is becoming more Neptune-like during its equinoctial season. The tracking of numerous cloud features allowed determination of zonal winds blowing in the upper troposphere of Uranus.
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Uranus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.
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imaged . The speculation is that Uranus is becoming more Neptune-like during its equinoctial season . The tracking of numerous cloud features allowed determination of zonal winds blowing in the upper troposphere of Uranus .At the equator winds are retrograde, which means that they blow in the reverse direction to the planetary rotation. Their speeds are from −360 to −180 km/h (−220 to −110 mph). Wind speeds increase with the distance from the equator, reaching zero values near ±20° latitude, where the troposphere's temperature minimum is located. Closer to the poles, the winds shift to a prograde direction, flowing with Uranus's rotation. Wind speeds continue to increase reaching maxima at ±60° latitude before falling to zero at the poles. Wind speeds at −40° latitude range from 540 to 720 km/h (340 to 450 mph). Because the collar obscures all clouds below that parallel, speeds between it and the southern pole are impossible to measure. In contrast, in the northern hemisphere maximum speeds as high as 860 km/h (540 mph) are observed near +50° latitude. In 1986, the Voyager 2 Planetary Radio Astronomy (PRA) experiment observed 140 lightning flashes, or Uranian electrostatic discharges with a frequency of 0.9-40 MHz. The UEDs were detected from 600,000 km of Uranus over 24 hours, most of which were not visible . However, microphysical modelling suggests that Uranian lightning occurs in convective storms occurring in deep troposphere water clouds. If this is the case, lightning will not be visible due to the thick cloud layers above the troposphere. Uranian lightning has a power of around 108 W, emits 1×10^7 J - 2×10^7 J of energy, and lasts an average of 120 ms.
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Uranus
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312
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the thick cloud layers above the troposphere . Uranian lightning has a power of around 108 W , emits 1×10^7 J - 2×10^7 J of energy , and lasts an average of 120 ms .There is a possibility that the power of Uranian lightning varies greatly with the seasons caused by changes in convection rates in the clouds Uranian lightning is much more powerful than lightning on Earth and comparable to Jovian lightning. During the Ice Giant flybys, "Voyager 2" detected lightning more clearly on Uranus than on Neptune due to the planet's lower gravity and possible warmer deep atmosphere. Seasonal variation
For a short period from March to May 2004, large clouds appeared in the Uranian atmosphere, giving it a Neptune-like appearance. Observations included record-breaking wind speeds of 820 km/h (510 mph) and a persistent thunderstorm referred to as "Fourth of July fireworks". On 23 August 2006, researchers at the Space Science Institute (Boulder, Colorado) and the University of Wisconsin observed a dark spot on Uranus's surface, giving scientists more insight into Uranus atmospheric activity. Why this sudden upsurge in activity occurred is not fully known, but it appears that Uranus's extreme axial tilt results in extreme seasonal variations in its weather. Determining the nature of this seasonal variation is difficult because good data on Uranus's atmosphere has existed for less than 84 years, or one full Uranian year. Photometry over the course of half a Uranian year (beginning in the 1950s) has shown regular variation in the brightness in two spectral bands, with maxima occurring at the solstices and minima occurring at the equinoxes. A similar periodic variation, with maxima at the solstices, has been noted in microwave measurements of the deep troposphere begun in the 1960s. Stratospheric temperature measurements beginning in the 1970s also showed maximum values near the 1986 solstice.
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Uranus
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at the solstices , has been noted in microwave measurements of the deep troposphere begun in the 1960s . Stratospheric temperature measurements beginning in the 1970s also showed maximum values near the 1986 solstice .The majority of this variability is thought to occur owing to changes in viewing geometry. There are some indications that physical seasonal changes are happening in Uranus. Although Uranus is known to have a bright south polar region, the north pole is fairly dim, which is incompatible with the model of the seasonal change outlined above. During its previous northern solstice in 1944, Uranus displayed elevated levels of brightness, which suggests that the north pole was not always so dim. This information implies that the visible pole brightens some time before the solstice and darkens after the equinox. Detailed analysis of the visible and microwave data revealed that the periodical changes in brightness are not completely symmetrical around the solstices, which also indicates a change in the meridional albedo patterns. In the 1990s, as Uranus moved away from its solstice, Hubble and ground-based telescopes revealed that the south polar cap darkened noticeably (except the southern collar, which remained bright), whereas the northern hemisphere demonstrated increasing activity, such as cloud formations and stronger winds, bolstering expectations that it should brighten soon. This indeed happened in 2007 when it passed an equinox: a faint northern polar collar arose, and the southern collar became nearly invisible, although the zonal wind profile remained slightly asymmetric, with northern winds being somewhat slower than southern. The mechanism of these physical changes is still not clear. Near the summer and winter solstices, Uranus's hemispheres lie alternately either in full glare of the Sun's rays or facing deep space. The brightening of the sunlit hemisphere is thought to result from the local thickening of the methane clouds and haze layers located in the troposphere.
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Uranus
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the Sun 's rays or facing deep space . The brightening of the sunlit hemisphere is thought to result from the local thickening of the methane clouds and haze layers located in the troposphere .The bright collar at −45° latitude is also connected with methane clouds. Other changes in the southern polar region can be explained by changes in the lower cloud layers. The variation of the microwave emission from Uranus is probably caused by changes in the deep tropospheric circulation, because thick polar clouds and haze may inhibit convection. Now that the spring and autumn equinoxes are arriving on Uranus, the dynamics are changing and convection can occur again. Magnetosphere
Before the arrival of Voyager 2, no measurements of the Uranian magnetosphere had been taken, so its nature remained a mystery. Before 1986, scientists had expected the magnetic field of Uranus to be in line with the solar wind, because it would then align with Uranus's poles that lie in the ecliptic. Voyager's observations revealed that Uranus's magnetic field is peculiar, both because it does not originate from its geometric centre, and because it is tilted at 59° from the axis of rotation. In fact, the magnetic dipole is shifted from Uranus's centre towards the south rotational pole by as much as one-third of the planetary radius. This unusual geometry results in a highly asymmetric magnetosphere, where the magnetic field strength on the surface in the southern hemisphere can be as low as 0.1 gauss (10 μT), whereas in the northern hemisphere it can be as high as 1.1 gauss (110 μT). The average field at the surface is 0.23 gauss (23 μT). Studies of Voyager 2 data in 2017 suggest that this asymmetry causes Uranus's magnetosphere to connect with the solar wind once a Uranian day, opening the planet to the Sun's particles.
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Uranus
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315
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Studies of Voyager 2 data in 2017 suggest that this asymmetry causes Uranus 's magnetosphere to connect with the solar wind once a Uranian day , opening the planet to the Sun 's particles .In comparison, the magnetic field of Earth is roughly as strong at either pole, and its "magnetic equator" is roughly parallel with its geographical equator. The dipole moment of Uranus is 50 times that of Earth. Neptune has a similarly displaced and tilted magnetic field, suggesting that this may be a common feature of ice giants. One hypothesis is that, unlike the magnetic fields of the terrestrial and gas giants, which are generated within their cores, the ice giants' magnetic fields are generated by motion at relatively shallow depths, for instance, in the water–ammonia ocean. Another possible explanation for the magnetosphere's alignment is that there are oceans of liquid diamond in Uranus's interior that would deter the magnetic field. It is, however, unclear whether the observed asymmetry of Uranus's magnetic field represents the typical state of the magnetosphere, or a coincidence of observing it during unusual space weather conditions. A post-analysis of Voyager data from 2024 suggests that the strongly asymmetric shape of the magnetosphere observed during the fly-by represents an anomalous state, as the measured values of solar wind density at the time were unusually high, which could have compressed Uranus's magnetosphere. The interaction with the solar wind event could also explain the apparent paradox of presence of strong electron radiation belts despite the otherwise low magnetospheric plasma density measured. Such conditions are estimated to occur less than 5% of the time. Despite its curious alignment, in other respects the Uranian magnetosphere is like those of other planets: it has a bow shock at about 23 Uranian radii ahead of it, a magnetopause at 18 Uranian radii, a fully developed magnetotail, and radiation belts.
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Uranus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.
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those of other planets : it has a bow shock at about 23 Uranian radii ahead of it , a magnetopause at 18 Uranian radii , a fully developed magnetotail , and radiation belts .Overall, the structure of Uranus's magnetosphere is different from Jupiter's and more similar to Saturn's. Uranus's magnetotail trails behind it into space for millions of kilometres and is twisted by its sideways rotation into a long corkscrew.Uranus's magnetosphere contains charged particles: mainly protons and electrons, with a small amount of H2+ ions. Many of these particles probably derive from the thermosphere. The ion and electron energies can be as high as 4 and 1.2 megaelectronvolts, respectively. The density of low-energy (below 1 kiloelectronvolt) ions in the inner magnetosphere is about 2 cm−3. The particle population is strongly affected by the Uranian moons, which sweep through the magnetosphere, leaving noticeable gaps. The particle flux is high enough to cause darkening or space weathering of their surfaces on an astronomically rapid timescale of 100,000 years. This may be the cause of the uniformly dark colouration of the Uranian satellites and rings. Uranus has relatively well developed aurorae, which are seen as bright arcs around both magnetic poles. Unlike Jupiter's, Uranus's aurorae seem to be insignificant for the energy balance of the planetary thermosphere. They, or rather their trihydrogen cations' infrared spectral emissions, have been studied in-depth as of late 2023. In March 2020, NASA astronomers reported the detection of a large atmospheric magnetic bubble, also known as a plasmoid, released into outer space from the planet Uranus, after reevaluating old data recorded by the Voyager 2 space probe during a flyby of the planet in 1986. Moons
Uranus has 29 known natural satellites. The names of these satellites are chosen from characters in the works of William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope.
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Uranus
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a flyby of the planet in 1986 . Moons Uranus has 29 known natural satellites . The names of these satellites are chosen from characters in the works of William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope .The five main satellites are Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon. The Uranian satellite system is the least massive among those of the giant planets; the combined mass of the five major satellites would be less than half that of Triton (largest moon of Neptune) alone. The largest of Uranus's satellites, Titania, has a radius of only 788.9 km (490.2 mi), or less than half that of the Moon, but slightly more than Rhea, the second-largest satellite of Saturn, making Titania the eighth-largest moon in the Solar System. Uranus's satellites have relatively low albedos; ranging from 0.20 for Umbriel to 0.35 for Ariel (in green light). They are ice–rock conglomerates composed of roughly 50% ice and 50% rock. The ice may include ammonia and carbon dioxide. Among the Uranian satellites, Ariel appears to have the youngest surface, with the fewest impact craters, and Umbriel the oldest. Miranda has fault canyons 20 km (12 mi) deep, terraced layers, and a chaotic variation in surface ages and features. Miranda's past geologic activity is thought to have been driven by tidal heating at a time when its orbit was more eccentric than currently, probably as a result of a former 3:1 orbital resonance with Umbriel. Extensional processes associated with upwelling diapirs are the likely origin of Miranda's 'racetrack'-like coronae. Ariel is thought to have once been held in a 4:1 resonance with Titania. Uranus has at least one horseshoe orbiter occupying the Sun–Uranus L3 Lagrangian point—a gravitationally unstable region at 180° in its orbit, 83982 Crantor. Crantor moves inside Uranus's co-orbital region on a complex, temporary horseshoe orbit.
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Uranus
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horseshoe orbiter occupying the Sun–Uranus L3 Lagrangian point—a gravitationally unstable region at 180° in its orbit , 83982 Crantor . Crantor moves inside Uranus 's co-orbital region on a complex , temporary horseshoe orbit .2010 EU65 is also a promising Uranus horseshoe librator candidate. Rings
The Uranian rings are composed of extremely dark particles, which vary in size from micrometres to a fraction of a metre. Thirteen distinct rings are presently known, the brightest being the ε ring. All except the two rings of Uranus are extremely narrow—they are usually a few kilometres wide. The rings are probably quite young; the dynamics considerations indicate that they did not form with Uranus. The matter in the rings may once have been part of a moon (or moons) that was shattered by high-speed impacts. From numerous pieces of debris that formed as a result of those impacts, only a few particles survived, in stable zones corresponding to the locations of the present rings. William Herschel described a possible ring around Uranus in 1789. This sighting is generally considered doubtful, because the rings are quite faint, and in the two following centuries none were noted by other observers. Still, Herschel made an accurate description of the epsilon ring's size, its angle relative to Earth, its red colour, and its apparent changes as Uranus travelled around the Sun. The ring system was definitively discovered on 10 March 1977 by James L. Elliot, Edward W. Dunham, and Jessica Mink using the Kuiper Airborne Observatory. The discovery was serendipitous; they planned to use the occultation of the star SAO 158687 (also known as HD 128598) by Uranus to study its atmosphere. When their observations were analysed, they found that the star had disappeared briefly from view five times both before and after it disappeared behind Uranus. They concluded that there must be a ring system around Uranus.
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Uranus
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analysed , they found that the star had disappeared briefly from view five times both before and after it disappeared behind Uranus . They concluded that there must be a ring system around Uranus .Later, they detected four additional rings. The rings were directly imaged when Voyager 2 passed Uranus in 1986. Voyager 2 also discovered two additional faint rings, bringing the total number to eleven. In December 2005, the Hubble Space Telescope detected a pair of previously unknown rings. The largest is located twice as far from Uranus as the previously known rings. These new rings are so far from Uranus that they are called the "outer" ring system. Hubble also spotted two small satellites, one of which, Mab, shares its orbit with the outermost newly discovered ring. The new rings bring the total number of Uranian rings to 13. In April 2006, images of the new rings from the Keck Observatory yielded the colours of the outer rings: the outermost is blue and the other one red. One hypothesis concerning the outer ring's blue colour is that it is composed of minute particles of water ice from the surface of Mab that are small enough to scatter blue light. In contrast, Uranus's inner rings appear grey. Although the Uranian rings are very difficult to directly observe from Earth, advances in digital imaging have allowed several amateur astronomers to successfully photograph the rings with red or infrared filters; telescopes with apertures as small as 36 cm (14 inches) may be able to detect the rings with proper imaging equipment. Exploration
Launched in 1977, Voyager 2 made its closest approach to Uranus on 24 January 1986, coming within 81,500 km (50,600 mi) of the cloudtops, before continuing its journey to Neptune.
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Uranus
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in 1977 , Voyager 2 made its closest approach to Uranus on 24 January 1986 , coming within 81,500 km ( 50,600 mi ) of the cloudtops , before continuing its journey to Neptune .The spacecraft studied the structure and chemical composition of Uranus's atmosphere, including its unique weather, caused by its extreme axial tilt. It made the first detailed investigations of its five largest moons and discovered 10 new ones. Voyager 2 examined all nine of the system's known rings and discovered two more. It also studied the magnetic field, its irregular structure, its tilt and its unique corkscrew magnetotail caused by Uranus's sideways orientation. No other spacecraft has flown by Uranus since then, though there have been many proposed missions to revisit the Uranus system. The possibility of sending the Cassini spacecraft from Saturn to Uranus was evaluated during a mission extension planning phase in 2009, but was ultimately rejected in favour of destroying it in the Saturnian atmosphere, as it would have taken about twenty years to get to the Uranian system after departing Saturn. A Uranus entry probe could use Pioneer Venus Multiprobe heritage and descend to 1–5 atmospheres. The Uranus Orbiter and Probe was recommended by the 2013–2022 Planetary Science Decadal Survey published in 2011; the proposal envisaged launch during 2020–2023 and a 13-year cruise to Uranus. The committee's opinion was reaffirmed in 2022, when a Uranus probe/orbiter mission was placed at the highest priority, due to the lack of knowledge about ice giants. Most recently, the CNSA's Tianwen-4 Jupiter orbiter, launching in 2029, is planned to have a subprobe that will detach and get a gravity assist instead of entering orbit, flying by Uranus in March 2045 before heading to interstellar space. China also has plans for a potential Tianwen-5 that may orbit either Uranus or Neptune that have yet to come to fruition.
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Uranus
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flying by Uranus in March 2045 before heading to interstellar space . China also has plans for a potential Tianwen-5 that may orbit either Uranus or Neptune that have yet to come to fruition .In culture
As well as being a popular subject in fiction, Uranus has inspired artistic works including Lydia Sigourney's 1827 poem The Georgian Planet and a movement in Gustav Holst's orchestral suite The Planets, written between 1914 and 1916. Herschel's discovery of the planet is also referenced in the lines "Then felt I like some watcher of the skies/When a new planet swims into his ken", from John Keats's poem "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer". The planet's discovery also inspired the naming of the chemical element uranium, itself discovered in 1789 by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth. In modern astrology, the planet Uranus (symbol ) is the ruling planet of Aquarius; prior to the discovery of Uranus, the ruling planet of Aquarius was Saturn. Because Uranus is cyan and Uranus is associated with electricity, the colour electric blue, which is close to cyan, is associated with the sign Aquarius. See also
Notes
References
Further reading
Pultarova, Tereza (1 October 2021). "Stinky 'mushball' hailstones on Uranus may explain an atmospheric anomaly there (and on Neptune, too)". Space.com. Miner, Ellis D. (1998). Uranus: The Planet, Rings and Satellites. New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-97398-0. Gore, Rick (August 1986). "Uranus: Voyager Visits a Dark Planet". National Geographic. Vol. 170, no. 2. pp. 178–194. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454. Alexander, Arthur Francis O'Donel (1965). The Planet Uranus: A History of Observation, Theory and Discovery. New York: American Elsevier Publ. Comp.
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Uranus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus.
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. OCLC 643483454 . Alexander , Arthur Francis O'Donel ( 1965 ) . The Planet Uranus : A History of Observation , Theory and Discovery . New York : American Elsevier Publ . Comp .Bode, Johann Elert (1784). Von Dem Neu Entdeckten Planeten [From the Newly Discovered Planet] (in German). Berlin: Bey dem Verfasser. Bibcode:1784vdne.book.....B. doi:10.3931/e-rara-1454. External links
Uranus at European Space Agency
Uranus at NASA's Solar System Exploration site
Uranus at Jet Propulsion Laboratory's planetary photojournal (photos)
Voyager at Uranus Archived 4 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine (photos)
Uranian system montage (photo)
Gray, Meghan; Merrifield, Michael (2010). "Uranus". Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham. Interactive 3D gravity simulation of the Uranian system Archived 11 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine
"Uranus Rings photos", James Webb Space Telescope, NASA, 18 December 2023, retrieved 19 December 2023
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Uranus
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Neptune is the eighth and farthest known planet orbiting the Sun. It is the fourth-largest planet in the Solar System by diameter, the third-most-massive planet, and the densest giant planet. It is 17 times the mass of Earth. Compared to Uranus, its neighbouring ice giant, Neptune is slightly smaller, but more massive and denser. Being composed primarily of gases and liquids, it has no well-defined solid surface. Neptune orbits the Sun once every 164.8 years at an orbital distance of 30.1 astronomical units (4.5 billion kilometres; 2.8 billion miles). It is named after the Roman god of the sea and has the astronomical symbol , representing Neptune's trident. Neptune is not visible to the unaided eye and is the only planet in the Solar System that was not initially observed by direct empirical observation. Rather, unexpected changes in the orbit of Uranus led Alexis Bouvard to hypothesise that its orbit was subject to gravitational perturbation by an unknown planet. After Bouvard's death, the position of Neptune was mathematically predicted from his observations, independently, by John Couch Adams and Urbain Le Verrier. Neptune was subsequently directly observed with a telescope on 23 September 1846 by Johann Gottfried Galle within a degree of the position predicted by Le Verrier. Its largest moon, Triton, was discovered shortly thereafter, though none of the planet's remaining moons were located telescopically until the 20th century. The planet's distance from Earth gives it a small apparent size, and its distance from the Sun renders it very dim, making it challenging to study with Earth-based telescopes. Only the advent of the Hubble Space Telescope and of large ground-based telescopes with adaptive optics allowed for detailed observations. Voyager 2, which flew by Neptune on 25 August 1989, remains the only spacecraft to ever visit the planet.
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and of large ground-based telescopes with adaptive optics allowed for detailed observations . Voyager 2 , which flew by Neptune on 25 August 1989 , remains the only spacecraft to ever visit the planet .Like the gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), Neptune's atmosphere is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium, along with traces of hydrocarbons and possibly nitrogen, but contains a higher proportion of ices such as water, ammonia and methane. Similar to Uranus, its interior is primarily composed of ices and rock; both planets are normally considered "ice giants" to distinguish them. Along with Rayleigh scattering, traces of methane in the outermost regions make Neptune appear faintly blue. In contrast to the strongly seasonal atmosphere of Uranus, which can be featureless for long periods of time, Neptune's atmosphere has active and consistently visible weather patterns. At the time of the Voyager 2 flyby in 1989, the planet's southern hemisphere had a Great Dark Spot comparable to the Great Red Spot on Jupiter. In 2018, a newer main dark spot and smaller dark spot were identified and studied. These weather patterns are driven by the strongest sustained winds of any planet in the Solar System, as high as 2,100 km/h (580 m/s; 1,300 mph). Because of its great distance from the Sun, Neptune's outer atmosphere is one of the coldest places in the Solar System, with temperatures at its cloud tops approaching 55 K (−218 °C; −361 °F). Temperatures at the planet's centre are approximately 5,400 K (5,100 °C; 9,300 °F). Neptune has a faint and fragmented ring system (labelled "arcs"), discovered in 1984 and confirmed by Voyager 2.
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Neptune
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approximately 5,400 K ( 5,100 °C ; 9,300 °F ) . Neptune has a faint and fragmented ring system ( labelled `` arcs '' ) , discovered in 1984 and confirmed by Voyager 2 .History
Discovery
Some of the earliest known telescopic observations ever, Galileo's drawings on 28 December 1612 and 27 January 1613 (New Style) contain plotted points that match what is now known to have been the positions of Neptune on those dates. Both times, Galileo seems to have mistaken Neptune for a fixed star when it appeared close—in conjunction—to Jupiter in the night sky. Hence, he is not credited with Neptune's discovery. At his first observation in December 1612, Neptune was almost stationary in the sky because it had just turned retrograde that day. This apparent backward motion is created when Earth's orbit takes it past an outer planet. Because Neptune was only beginning its yearly retrograde cycle, the motion of the planet was far too slight to be detected with Galileo's small telescope. In 2009, a study suggested that Galileo was at least aware that the "star" he had observed had moved relative to fixed stars. In 1821, Alexis Bouvard published astronomical tables of the orbit of Uranus. Subsequent observations revealed substantial deviations from the tables, leading Bouvard to hypothesize that an unknown body was perturbing the orbit through gravitational interaction. In 1843, John Couch Adams began work on the orbit of Uranus using the data he had. He requested extra data from Sir George Airy, the Astronomer Royal, who supplied it in February 1844. Adams continued to work in 1845–1846 and produced several different estimates for the position of an undiscovered planet beyond Uranus. Independently from Adams, Urbain Le Verrier developed his own calculations in 1845–1846 that pointed to an undiscovered planet, but aroused no enthusiasm among his compatriots.
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Neptune
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of an undiscovered planet beyond Uranus . Independently from Adams , Urbain Le Verrier developed his own calculations in 1845–1846 that pointed to an undiscovered planet , but aroused no enthusiasm among his compatriots .In June 1846, upon seeing Le Verrier's first published estimate of a suspected undiscovered planet's longitude and its similarity to Adams's estimate, Airy persuaded James Challis to search for it. Challis vainly scoured the sky throughout August and September. Challis had, in fact, observed Neptune a year before the planet's subsequent discoverer, Johann Gottfried Galle, and on two occasions, 4 and 12 August 1845. However, his out-of-date star maps and poor observing techniques meant that he failed to recognize the observations as such until he carried out later analysis. Challis was full of remorse but blamed his neglect on his maps and the fact that he was distracted by his concurrent work on comet observations. Meanwhile, Le Verrier sent a letter and urged Berlin Observatory astronomer Galle to search with the observatory's refractor. Heinrich d'Arrest, a student at the observatory, suggested to Galle that they could compare a recently drawn chart of the sky in the region of Le Verrier's predicted location with the current sky to seek the displacement characteristic of a planet, as opposed to a fixed star. On the evening of 23 September 1846, the day Galle received the letter, he discovered Neptune just northeast of Iota Aquarii, 1° from the "five degrees east of Delta Capricorn" position Le Verrier had predicted it to be, about 12° from Adams's prediction, and on the border of Aquarius and Capricornus according to the modern IAU constellation boundaries. In the wake of the discovery, there was a nationalistic rivalry between the French and the British over who deserved credit for the discovery. Eventually, an international consensus emerged that Le Verrier and Adams deserved joint credit.
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, there was a nationalistic rivalry between the French and the British over who deserved credit for the discovery . Eventually , an international consensus emerged that Le Verrier and Adams deserved joint credit .Since 1966, Dennis Rawlins has questioned the credibility of Adams's claim to co-discovery, and the issue was re-evaluated by historians with the return in 1998 of the "Neptune papers" (historical documents) to the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Naming
Shortly after its discovery, Neptune was referred to simply as "the planet exterior to Uranus" or as "Le Verrier's planet". The first suggestion for a name came from Galle, who proposed the name Janus. In England, Challis put forward the name Oceanus. Claiming the right to name his discovery, Le Verrier quickly proposed the name Neptune for this new planet, though falsely stating that this had been officially approved by the French Bureau des Longitudes. In October, he sought to name the planet Le Verrier, after himself, and he had loyal support in this from the observatory director, François Arago. This suggestion met with stiff resistance outside France. French almanacs quickly reintroduced the name Herschel for Uranus, after that planet's discoverer Sir William Herschel, and Leverrier for the new planet. Struve came out in favour of the name Neptune on 29 December 1846, to the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences, after the colour of the planet as viewed through a telescope. Soon, Neptune became the internationally accepted name. In Roman mythology, Neptune was the god of the sea, identified with the Greek Poseidon. The demand for a mythological name seemed to be in keeping with the nomenclature of the other planets, all of which were named for deities in Greek and Roman mythology. Most languages today use some variant of the name "Neptune" for the planet.
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nomenclature of the other planets , all of which were named for deities in Greek and Roman mythology . Most languages today use some variant of the name `` Neptune '' for the planet .In Chinese, Vietnamese, Japanese, and Korean, the planet's name was translated as "sea king star" (海王星). In Mongolian, Neptune is called Dalain van (Далайн ван), reflecting its namesake god's role as the ruler of the sea. In modern Greek, the planet is called Poseidon (Ποσειδώνας, Poseidonas), the Greek counterpart of Neptune. In Hebrew, Rahab (רהב), from a Biblical sea monster mentioned in the Book of Psalms, was selected in a vote managed by the Academy of the Hebrew Language in 2009 as the official name for the planet, even though the existing Latin term Neptun (נפטון) is commonly used. In Māori, the planet is called Tangaroa, named after the Māori god of the sea. In Nahuatl, the planet is called Tlāloccītlalli, named after the rain god Tlāloc. In Thai, Neptune is referred to by the Westernised name Dao Nepchun/Nepjun (ดาวเนปจูน) but is also called Dao Ket (ดาวเกตุ, lit. 'star of Ketu'), after Ketu (केतु), the descending lunar node, who plays a role in Hindu astrology. In Malay, the name Waruna, after the Hindu god of seas, is attested as far back as the 1970s, but was eventually superseded by the Latinate equivalents Neptun (in Malaysian) or Neptunus (in Indonesian). The usual adjectival form is Neptunian. The nonce form Poseidean (), from Poseidon, has also been used, though the usual adjectival form of Poseidon is Poseidonian (). Status
From its discovery in 1846 until the discovery of Pluto in 1930, Neptune was the farthest known planet.
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used , though the usual adjectival form of Poseidon is Poseidonian ( ) . Status From its discovery in 1846 until the discovery of Pluto in 1930 , Neptune was the farthest known planet .When Pluto was discovered, it was considered a planet, and Neptune thus became the second-farthest known planet, except for a 20-year period between 1979 and 1999 when Pluto's elliptical orbit brought it closer than Neptune to the Sun, making Neptune the ninth planet from the Sun during this period. The increasingly accurate estimations of Pluto's mass from ten times that of Earth's to far less than that of the Moon and the discovery of the Kuiper belt in 1992 led many astronomers to debate whether Pluto should be considered a planet or as part of the Kuiper belt. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union defined the word "planet" for the first time, reclassifying Pluto as a "dwarf planet" and making Neptune once again the outermost-known planet in the Solar System. Physical characteristics
Neptune's mass of 1.024×1026 kg is intermediate between Earth and the larger gas giants: it is 17.15 times that of Earth but just 1/19th that of Jupiter. Its gravity at 1 bar is 11.27 m/s2, 1.15 times the surface gravity of Earth, and surpassed only by Jupiter. Neptune's equatorial radius of 24,764 km is nearly four times that of Earth. Neptune, like Uranus, is an ice giant, a subclass of giant planet, because they are smaller and have higher concentrations of volatiles than Jupiter and Saturn. In the search for exoplanets, Neptune has been used as a metonym: discovered bodies of similar mass are often referred to as "Neptunes", just as scientists refer to various extrasolar bodies as "Jupiters". Internal structure
Neptune's internal structure resembles that of Uranus.
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similar mass are often referred to as `` Neptunes '' , just as scientists refer to various extrasolar bodies as `` Jupiters '' . Internal structure Neptune 's internal structure resembles that of Uranus .Its atmosphere forms about 5 to 10% of its mass and extends perhaps 10 to 20% of the way towards the core. Pressure in the atmosphere reaches about 10 GPa, or about 105 atmospheres. Increasing concentrations of methane, ammonia and water are found in the lower regions of the atmosphere. The mantle is equivalent to 10 to 15 Earth masses and is rich in water, ammonia and methane. As is customary in planetary science, this mixture is called icy even though it is a hot, dense supercritical fluid. This fluid, which has a high electrical conductivity, is sometimes called a water–ammonia ocean. The mantle may consist of a layer of ionic water in which the water molecules break down into a soup of hydrogen and oxygen ions, and deeper down superionic water in which the oxygen crystallizes but the hydrogen ions float around freely within the oxygen lattice. At a depth of 7,000 km, the conditions may be such that methane decomposes into diamond crystals that rain downwards like hailstones. Scientists believe that this kind of diamond rain occurs on Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus. Very-high-pressure experiments at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory suggest that the top of the mantle may be an ocean of liquid carbon with floating solid 'diamonds'. The core of Neptune is likely composed of iron, nickel and silicates, with an interior model giving a mass about 1.2x that of Earth. The pressure at the centre is 7 Mbar (700 GPa), about twice as high as that at the centre of Earth, and the temperature may be 5,400 K (5,100 °C; 9,300 °F).
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Neptune
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.
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is 7 Mbar ( 700 GPa ) , about twice as high as that at the centre of Earth , and the temperature may be 5,400 K ( 5,100 °C ; 9,300 °F ) .Atmosphere
At high altitudes, Neptune's atmosphere is 80% hydrogen and 19% helium. A trace amount of methane is present. Prominent absorption bands of methane exist at wavelengths above 600 nm, in the red and infrared portion of the spectrum. As with Uranus, this absorption of red light by atmospheric methane is part of what gives Neptune its faint blue hue, which is more pronounced for Neptune's due to concentrated haze in Uranus's atmosphere. Neptune's atmosphere is subdivided into two main regions: the lower troposphere, where temperature decreases with altitude, and the stratosphere, where temperature increases with altitude. The boundary between the two, the tropopause, lies at a pressure of 0.1 bars (10 kPa). The stratosphere then gives way to the thermosphere at a pressure lower than 10−5 to 10−4 bars (1 to 10 Pa). The thermosphere gradually transitions to the exosphere. Models suggest that Neptune's troposphere is banded by clouds of varying compositions depending on altitude. The upper-level clouds lie at pressures below one bar, where the temperature is suitable for methane to condense. For pressures between one and five bars (100 and 500 kPa), clouds of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide are thought to form. Above a pressure of five bars, the clouds may consist of ammonia, ammonium sulfide, hydrogen sulfide and water. Deeper clouds of water ice should be found at pressures of about 50 bars (5.0 MPa), where the temperature reaches 273 K (0 °C; 32 °F). Underneath, clouds of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide may be found. High-altitude clouds on Neptune have been observed casting shadows on the opaque cloud deck below.
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Neptune
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0 °C ; 32 °F ) . Underneath , clouds of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide may be found . High-altitude clouds on Neptune have been observed casting shadows on the opaque cloud deck below .There are high-altitude cloud bands that wrap around the planet at constant latitudes. These circumferential bands have widths of 50–150 km and lie about 50–110 km above the cloud deck. These altitudes are in the layer where weather occurs, the troposphere. Weather does not occur in the higher stratosphere or thermosphere. In August 2023, the high-altitude clouds of Neptune vanished, prompting a study spanning thirty years of observations by the Hubble Space Telescope and ground-based telescopes. The study found that Neptune's high-altitude cloud activity is bound to Solar cycles, and not to the planet's seasons. Neptune's spectra suggest that its lower stratosphere is hazy due to condensation of products of ultraviolet photolysis of methane, such as ethane and ethyne. The stratosphere is home to trace amounts of carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide. The stratosphere of Neptune is warmer than that of Uranus due to the elevated concentration of hydrocarbons. For reasons that remain obscure, the planet's thermosphere is at an anomalously high temperature of about 750 K (477 °C; 890 °F). The planet is too far from the Sun for this heat to be generated by ultraviolet radiation. One candidate for a heating mechanism is atmospheric interaction with ions in the planet's magnetic field. Other candidates are gravity waves from the interior that dissipate in the atmosphere. The thermosphere contains traces of carbon dioxide and water, which may have been deposited from external sources such as meteorites and dust. Colour
Neptune's atmosphere is faintly blue in the optical spectrum, only slightly more saturated than the blue of Uranus's atmosphere.
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Neptune
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been deposited from external sources such as meteorites and dust . Colour Neptune 's atmosphere is faintly blue in the optical spectrum , only slightly more saturated than the blue of Uranus 's atmosphere .Early renderings of the two planets greatly exaggerated Neptune's colour contrast "to better reveal the clouds, bands and winds", making it seem deep blue compared to Uranus's off-white. The two planets had been imaged with different systems, making it hard to directly compare the resulting composite images. This was revisited with the colour normalised over time, most comprehensively in late 2023. Magnetosphere
Neptune's magnetosphere consists of a magnetic field that is strongly tilted relative to its rotational axis at 47° and offset of at least 0.55 radius (~13,500 km) from the planet's physical centre—resembling Uranus's magnetosphere. Before the arrival of Voyager 2 to Neptune, it was hypothesised that Uranus's sideways rotation caused its tilted magnetosphere. In comparing the magnetic fields of the two planets, scientists now think the extreme orientation may be characteristic of flows in the planets' interiors. This field may be generated by convective fluid motions in a thin spherical shell of electrically conducting liquids (probably a combination of ammonia, methane and water), resulting in a dynamo action. The dipole component of the magnetic field at the magnetic equator of Neptune is about 14 microteslas (0.14 G). The dipole magnetic moment of Neptune is about 2.2 × 1017 T·m3 (14 μT·RN3, where RN is the radius of Neptune). Neptune's magnetic field has a complex geometry that includes relatively large contributions from non-dipolar components, including a strong quadrupole moment that may exceed the dipole moment in strength. By contrast, Earth, Jupiter and Saturn have only relatively small quadrupole moments, and their fields are less tilted from the polar axis.
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Neptune
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.
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that may exceed the dipole moment in strength . By contrast , Earth , Jupiter and Saturn have only relatively small quadrupole moments , and their fields are less tilted from the polar axis .The large quadrupole moment of Neptune may be the result of an offset from the planet's centre and geometrical constraints of the field's dynamo generator. Neptune's bow shock, where the magnetosphere begins to slow the solar wind, occurs at a distance of 34.9 times the radius of the planet. The magnetopause, where the pressure of the magnetosphere counterbalances the solar wind, lies at a distance of 23–26.5 times the radius of Neptune. The tail of the magnetosphere extends out to at least 72 times the radius of Neptune, and likely much farther. Measurements by Voyager 2 in extreme-ultraviolet and radio frequencies revealed that Neptune has faint and weak but complex and unique aurorae; however, these observations were limited in time and did not contain infrared. Subsequent astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope have not glimpsed the aurorae, in contrast to the more well-defined aurorae of Uranus. In March 2025, aurorae on Neptune were pictured for the first time by combining visible light images from the Hubble Space Telescope with near-infrared (NIR) images from the James Webb Space Telescope. The relevant data were taken in June 2023. The James Webb Space Telescope attempted to learn the spectrography of Neptune's atmosphere and it was able to find trihydrogen cations (H+3) which is generated during an aurora and is considered as a clear indicator of auroral activity on both gas giants and ice giants. The nature of Neptune's aurorae is greatly influenced by the peculiar nature of its magnetic field.
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Neptune
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.
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is considered as a clear indicator of auroral activity on both gas giants and ice giants . The nature of Neptune 's aurorae is greatly influenced by the peculiar nature of its magnetic field .Unlike the Earth, Jupiter or Saturn, Neptune's magnetic poles are not aligned with the planet's rotational poles which is why Neptune's aurorae mostly occur around its mid-latitude areas instead of its poles like on Earth or Jupiter. Climate
Neptune's weather is characterized by extremely dynamic storm systems, with winds reaching speeds of almost 600 m/s (2,200 km/h; 1,300 mph)—exceeding supersonic flow. More typically, by tracking the motion of persistent clouds, wind speeds have been shown to vary from 20 m/s in the easterly direction to 325 m/s westward. At the cloud tops, the prevailing winds range in speed from 400 m/s along the equator to 250 m/s at the poles. Most of the winds on Neptune move in a direction opposite the planet's rotation. The general pattern of winds showed prograde rotation at high latitudes vs. retrograde rotation at lower latitudes. The difference in flow direction is thought to be a "skin effect" and not due to any deeper atmospheric processes. At 70°S latitude, a high-speed jet travels at a speed of 300 m/s. Due to seasonal changes, the cloud bands in the southern hemisphere of Neptune have been observed to increase in size and albedo. This trend was first seen in 1980. The long orbital period of Neptune results in seasons lasting 40 Earth years. Neptune differs from Uranus in its typical level of meteorological activity. Voyager 2 observed weather phenomena on Neptune during its 1989 flyby, but no comparable phenomena on Uranus during its 1986 flyby. The abundance of methane, ethane and acetylene at Neptune's equator is 10–100 times greater than at the poles.
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Neptune
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1989 flyby , but no comparable phenomena on Uranus during its 1986 flyby . The abundance of methane , ethane and acetylene at Neptune 's equator is 10–100 times greater than at the poles .This is interpreted as evidence for upwelling at the equator and subsidence near the poles, as photochemistry cannot account for the distribution without meridional circulation. In 2007, it was discovered that the upper troposphere of Neptune's south pole was about 10 K warmer than the rest of its atmosphere, which averages about 73 K (−200 °C). The temperature differential is enough to let methane, which elsewhere is frozen in the troposphere, escape into the stratosphere near the pole. The relative "hot spot" is due to Neptune's axial tilt, which has exposed the south pole to the Sun for the last quarter of Neptune's year, or roughly 40 Earth years. As Neptune slowly moves towards the opposite side of the Sun, the south pole will be darkened and the north pole illuminated, causing the methane release to shift to the north pole. Storms
In 1989, the Great Dark Spot, an anticyclonic storm system spanning 13,000 km × 6,600 km (8,100 mi × 4,100 mi), was discovered by NASA's Voyager 2 spacecraft. The storm resembled the Great Red Spot of Jupiter. Some five years later, on 2 November 1994, the Hubble Space Telescope did not see the Great Dark Spot on the planet. Instead, a new storm similar to the Great Dark Spot was found in Neptune's northern hemisphere. The Scooter is another storm, a white cloud group farther south than the Great Dark Spot.
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a new storm similar to the Great Dark Spot was found in Neptune 's northern hemisphere . The Scooter is another storm , a white cloud group farther south than the Great Dark Spot .This nickname first arose during the months leading up to the Voyager 2 encounter in 1989, when they were observed moving at speeds faster than the Great Dark Spot (and images acquired later would subsequently reveal the presence of clouds moving even faster than those that had initially been detected by Voyager 2). The Small Dark Spot is a southern cyclonic storm, the second-most-intense storm observed during the 1989 encounter. It was initially completely dark, but as Voyager 2 approached the planet, a bright core developed, which can be seen in most of the highest-resolution images. In 2018, a newer main dark spot and smaller dark spot were identified and studied. In 2023, the first ground-based observation of a dark spot on Neptune was announced. Neptune's dark spots are thought to occur in the troposphere at lower altitudes than the brighter cloud features, so they appear as holes in the upper cloud decks. As they are stable features that can persist for several months, they are thought to be vortex structures. Often associated with dark spots are brighter, persistent methane clouds that form around the tropopause layer. The persistence of companion clouds shows that some former dark spots may continue to exist as cyclones even though they are no longer visible as a dark feature. Dark spots may dissipate when they migrate too close to the equator or possibly through some other, unknown mechanism. In 1989, Voyager 2's Planetary Radio Astronomy (PRA) experiment observed around 60 lightning flashes, or Neptunian electrostatic discharges emitting energies over 7×108 J. A plasma wave system (PWS) detected 16 electromagnetic wave events with a frequency range of 50–12 kHz at magnetic latitudes 7–33˚.
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, or Neptunian electrostatic discharges emitting energies over 7×108 J . A plasma wave system ( PWS ) detected 16 electromagnetic wave events with a frequency range of 50–12 kHz at magnetic latitudes 7–33˚ .These plasma wave detections were possibly triggered by lightning over 20 minutes in the ammonia clouds of the magnetosphere. During Voyager 2's closest approach to Neptune, the PWS instrument provided Neptune's first plasma wave detections at a sample rate of 28,800 samples per second. The measured plasma densities range from 10−3 – 10−1 cm3. Neptunian lightning may occur in three cloud layers, with microphysical modelling suggesting that most of these occurrences happen in the water clouds of the troposphere or the shallow ammonia clouds of the magnetosphere. Neptune is predicted to have 1/19 the lightning flash rate of Jupiter and to display most of its lightning activity at high latitudes. However, lightning on Neptune seems to resemble lightning on Earth rather than Jovian lightning. Internal heating
Neptune's more varied weather when compared to Uranus is due in part to its higher internal heating. The upper regions of Neptune's troposphere reach a low temperature of 51.8 K (−221.3 °C). At a depth where the atmospheric pressure equals 1 bar (100 kPa), the temperature is 72.00 K (−201.15 °C). Deeper inside the layers of gas, the temperature rises steadily. As with Uranus, the source of this heating is unknown, but the discrepancy is larger: Uranus only radiates 1.1 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun; whereas Neptune radiates about 2.61 times as much energy as it receives from the Sun. Neptune is over 50% farther from the Sun than Uranus and receives only ~40% of Uranus's amount of sunlight; however, its internal energy is still enough for the fastest planetary winds in the Solar System.
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from the Sun than Uranus and receives only ~40 % of Uranus 's amount of sunlight ; however , its internal energy is still enough for the fastest planetary winds in the Solar System .Depending on the thermal properties of its interior, the heat left over from Neptune's formation may be sufficient to explain its current heat flow, though it is harder to explain Uranus's lack of internal heat while preserving the apparent similarity between the two planets. Orbit and rotation
The average distance between Neptune and the Sun is 4.5 billion km (about 30.1 astronomical units (AU), the mean distance from the Earth to the Sun), and it completes an orbit on average every 164.79 years, subject to a variability of around ±0.1 years. The perihelion distance is 29.81 AU, and the aphelion distance is 30.33 AU. Neptune's orbital eccentricity is only 0.008678, making it the planet in the Solar System with the second most circular orbit after Venus. The orbit of Neptune is inclined 1.77° compared to that of Earth. On 11 July 2011, Neptune completed its first full barycentric orbit since its discovery in 1846; it did not appear at its exact discovery position in the sky because Earth was in a different location in its 365.26-day orbit. Because of the motion of the Sun in relation to the barycentre of the Solar System, on 11 July, Neptune was not at its exact discovery position in relation to the Sun—if the more common heliocentric coordinate system is used, the discovery longitude was reached on 12 July 2011. The axial tilt of Neptune is 28.32°, which is similar to the tilts of Earth (23°) and Mars (25°). As a result, Neptune experiences seasonal changes similar to those on Earth. The long orbital period of Neptune means that the seasons last for forty Earth years.
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Neptune
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.
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Mars ( 25° ) . As a result , Neptune experiences seasonal changes similar to those on Earth . The long orbital period of Neptune means that the seasons last for forty Earth years .Its sidereal rotation period (day) is roughly 16.11 hours. Because its axial tilt is comparable to Earth's, the variation in the length of its day over the course of its long year is not any more extreme. Because Neptune is not a solid body, its atmosphere undergoes differential rotation. The wide equatorial zone rotates with a period of about 18 hours, which is slower than the 16.1-hour rotation of the planet's magnetic field. By contrast, the reverse is true for the polar regions where the rotation period is 12 hours. This differential rotation is the most pronounced of any planet in the Solar System, and it results in strong latitudinal wind shear. Formation and resonances
Formation
The formation of the ice giants, Neptune and Uranus, has been difficult to model precisely. Current models suggest that the matter density in the outer regions of the Solar System was too low to account for the formation of such large bodies from the traditionally accepted method of core accretion, and various hypotheses have been advanced to explain their formation. One is that the ice giants were not formed by core accretion but from instabilities within the original protoplanetary disc and later had their atmospheres blasted away by radiation from a nearby massive OB star. An alternative concept is that they formed closer to the Sun, where the matter density was higher, and then subsequently migrated to their current orbits after the removal of the gaseous protoplanetary disc. This hypothesis of migration after formation is favoured due to its ability to better explain the occupancy of the populations of small objects observed in the trans-Neptunian region.
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Neptune
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of the gaseous protoplanetary disc . This hypothesis of migration after formation is favoured due to its ability to better explain the occupancy of the populations of small objects observed in the trans-Neptunian region .The current most widely accepted explanation of the details of this hypothesis is known as the Nice model, which is a dynamical evolution scenario that explores the potential effect of a migrating Neptune and the other giant planets on the structure of the Kuiper belt. Orbital resonances
Neptune's orbit has a profound impact on the region directly beyond it, known as the Kuiper belt. The Kuiper belt is a ring of small icy worlds, similar to the asteroid belt but far larger, extending from Neptune's orbit at 30 AU out to about 55 AU from the Sun. Much in the same way that Jupiter's gravity dominates the asteroid belt, Neptune's gravity dominates the Kuiper belt. Over the age of the Solar System, certain regions of the Kuiper belt became destabilised by Neptune's gravity, creating gaps in its structure. The region between 40 and 42 AU is an example. There do exist orbits within these empty regions where objects can survive for the age of the Solar System. These resonances occur when Neptune's orbital period is a precise fraction of that of the object, such as 1:2, or 3:4. If, say, an object orbits the Sun once for every two Neptune orbits, it will only complete half an orbit by the time Neptune returns to its original position. The most heavily populated resonance in the Kuiper belt, with over 200 known objects, is the 2:3 resonance. Objects in this resonance complete 2 orbits for every 3 of Neptune, and are known as plutinos because the largest of the known Kuiper belt objects, Pluto, is among them.
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Neptune
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.
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. Objects in this resonance complete 2 orbits for every 3 of Neptune , and are known as plutinos because the largest of the known Kuiper belt objects , Pluto , is among them .Although Pluto crosses Neptune's orbit regularly, the 2:3 resonance makes it so that they can never collide. The 3:4, 3:5, 4:7 and 2:5 resonances are less populated. Neptune has a number of known trojan objects occupying both the Sun–Neptune L4 and L5 Lagrangian points—gravitationally stable regions leading and trailing Neptune in its orbit, respectively. Neptune trojans can be viewed as being in a 1:1 resonance with Neptune. Some Neptune trojans are remarkably stable in their orbits, and are likely to have formed alongside Neptune rather than being captured. The first object identified as associated with Neptune's trailing L5 Lagrangian point was 2008 LC18. Neptune has a temporary quasi-satellite, (309239) 2007 RW10. The object has been a quasi-satellite of Neptune for about 12,500 years and it will remain in that dynamical state for another 12,500 years. Moons
Neptune has 16 known moons. Triton is the largest Neptunian moon, accounting for more than 99.5% of the mass in orbit around Neptune, and is the only one massive enough to be spheroidal. Triton was discovered by William Lassell just 17 days after the discovery of Neptune itself. Unlike all other large planetary moons in the Solar System, Triton has a retrograde orbit, indicating that it was captured rather than forming in place; it was probably once a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt. It is close enough to Neptune to be locked into a synchronous rotation, and it is slowly spiralling inward because of tidal acceleration. It will eventually be torn apart, in about 3.6 billion years, when it reaches the Roche limit.
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Neptune
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a synchronous rotation , and it is slowly spiralling inward because of tidal acceleration . It will eventually be torn apart , in about 3.6 billion years , when it reaches the Roche limit .In 1989, Triton was the coldest object that had yet been measured in the Solar System, with estimated temperatures of 38 K (−235 °C). This very low temperature is due to Triton's very high albedo which causes it to reflect a lot of sunlight instead of absorbing it. Neptune's second-known satellite (by order of discovery), the irregular moon Nereid, has one of the most eccentric orbits of any satellite in the Solar System. The eccentricity of 0.7512 gives it an apoapsis that is seven times its periapsis distance from Neptune. From July to September 1989, Voyager 2 discovered six moons of Neptune. Of these, the irregularly shaped Proteus is notable for being as large as a body of its density can be without being pulled into a spherical shape by its own gravity. Although the second-most-massive Neptunian moon, it is only 0.25% the mass of Triton. Neptune's innermost four moons—Naiad, Thalassa, Despina and Galatea—orbit close enough to be within Neptune's rings. The next-farthest out, Larissa, was originally discovered in 1981 when it had occulted a star. This occultation had been attributed to ring arcs, but when Voyager 2 observed Neptune in 1989, Larissa was found to have caused it. Five new irregular moons discovered between 2002 and 2003 were announced in 2004. A new moon and the smallest yet, Hippocamp, was found in 2013 by combining multiple Hubble images. Because Neptune was the Roman god of the sea, Neptune's moons have been named after lesser sea gods. Planetary rings
Neptune has a planetary ring system, though one much less substantial than that of Saturn and Uranus.
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Neptune
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the sea , Neptune 's moons have been named after lesser sea gods . Planetary rings Neptune has a planetary ring system , though one much less substantial than that of Saturn and Uranus .The rings may consist of ice particles coated with silicates or carbon-based material, which most likely gives them a reddish hue. The three main rings are the narrow Adams Ring, 63,000 km from the centre of Neptune, the Le Verrier Ring, at 53,000 km, and the broader, fainter Galle Ring, at 42,000 km. A faint outward extension to the Le Verrier Ring has been named Lassell; it is bounded at its outer edge by the Arago Ring at 57,000 km. The first of these planetary rings was detected in 1968 by a team led by Edward Guinan. In the early 1980s, analysis of this data along with newer observations led to the hypothesis that this ring might be incomplete. Evidence that the rings might have gaps first arose during a stellar occultation in 1984 when the rings obscured a star on immersion but not on emersion. Images from Voyager 2 in 1989 settled the issue by showing several faint rings. The outermost ring, Adams, contains five prominent arcs now named Courage, Liberté, Egalité 1, Egalité 2 and Fraternité (Courage, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity). The existence of arcs was difficult to explain because the laws of motion would predict that arcs would spread out into a uniform ring over short timescales. Astronomers now estimate that the arcs are corralled into their current form by the gravitational effects of Galatea, a moon just inward from the ring. Earth-based observations announced in 2005 appeared to show that Neptune's rings were much more unstable than previously thought. Images taken from the W. M. Keck Observatory in 2002 and 2003 show considerable decay in the rings when compared to images by Voyager 2.
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rings were much more unstable than previously thought . Images taken from the W. M. Keck Observatory in 2002 and 2003 show considerable decay in the rings when compared to images by Voyager 2 .In particular, it seems that the Liberté arc might disappear in as little as one century. Observation
Neptune brightened about 10% between 1980 and 2000 mostly due to the changing of the seasons. Neptune may continue to brighten as it approaches perihelion in 2042. The apparent magnitude currently ranges from 7.67 to 7.89 with a mean of 7.78 and a standard deviation of 0.06. Prior to 1980, the planet was as faint as magnitude 8.0. Neptune is too faint to be visible to the naked eye. It can be outshone by Jupiter's Galilean moons, the dwarf planet Ceres and the asteroids 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, 7 Iris, 3 Juno, and 6 Hebe. A telescope or strong binoculars will resolve Neptune as a small blue disk, similar in appearance to Uranus. Because of the distance of Neptune from Earth, its angular diameter only ranges from 2.2 to 2.4 arcseconds, the smallest of the Solar System planets. Its small apparent size makes it challenging to study visually. Most telescopic data was fairly limited until the advent of the Hubble Space Telescope and large ground-based telescopes with adaptive optics (AO). The first scientifically useful observation of Neptune from ground-based telescopes using adaptive optics was commenced in 1997 from Hawaii. Neptune is currently approaching perihelion (closest approach to the Sun) and has been shown to be heating up, with increased atmospheric activity and brightness as a consequence. Combined with technological advancements, ground-based telescopes with adaptive optics are recording increasingly more detailed images of it.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune.
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shown to be heating up , with increased atmospheric activity and brightness as a consequence . Combined with technological advancements , ground-based telescopes with adaptive optics are recording increasingly more detailed images of it .Both Hubble and the adaptive-optics telescopes on Earth have made many new discoveries within the Solar System since the mid-1990s, with a large increase in the number of known satellites and moons around the outer planet, among others. In 2004 and 2005, five new small satellites of Neptune with diameters between 38 and 61 kilometres were discovered. From Earth, Neptune goes through apparent retrograde motion every 367 days, resulting in a looping motion against the background stars during each opposition. These loops carried it close to the 1846 discovery coordinates in April and July 2010 and again in October and November 2011. Neptune's 164-year orbital period means that the planet takes an average of 13 years to move through each constellation of the zodiac. In 2011, it completed its first full orbit of the Sun since being discovered and returned to where it was first spotted northeast of Iota Aquarii. Observation of Neptune in the radio-frequency band shows that it is a source of both continuous emission and irregular bursts. Both sources are thought to originate from its rotating magnetic field. In the infrared part of the spectrum, Neptune's storms appear bright against the cooler background, allowing the size and shape of these features to be readily tracked. Exploration
Voyager 2 is the only spacecraft that has visited Neptune. The spacecraft's closest approach to the planet occurred on 25 August 1989. Because this was the last major planet the spacecraft could visit, it was decided to make a close flyby of the moon Triton, regardless of the consequences to the trajectory, similarly to what was done for Voyager 1's encounter with Saturn and its moon Titan.
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to make a close flyby of the moon Triton , regardless of the consequences to the trajectory , similarly to what was done for Voyager 1 's encounter with Saturn and its moon Titan .The images relayed back to Earth from Voyager 2 became the basis of a 1989 PBS all-night program, Neptune All Night. During the encounter, signals from the spacecraft required 246 minutes to reach Earth. Hence, for the most part, Voyager 2's mission relied on preloaded commands for the Neptune encounter. The spacecraft performed a near-encounter with the moon Nereid before it came within 4,400 km of Neptune's atmosphere on 25 August, then passed close to the planet's largest moon Triton later the same day. The spacecraft verified the existence of a magnetic field surrounding the planet and discovered that the field was offset from the centre and tilted in a manner similar to the field around Uranus. Neptune's rotation period was determined using measurements of radio emissions and Voyager 2 showed that Neptune had a surprisingly active weather system. Six new moons were discovered, and the planet was shown to have more than one ring. The flyby provided the first accurate measurement of Neptune's mass which was found to be 0.5 per cent less than previously calculated. The new figure disproved the hypothesis that an undiscovered Planet X acted upon the orbits of Neptune and Uranus. Since 2018, the China National Space Administration has been studying a concept for a pair of Voyager-like interstellar probes tentatively known as Shensuo. Both probes would be launched in the 2020s and take differing paths to explore opposing ends of the heliosphere; the second probe, IHP-2, would fly by Neptune in January 2038, passing only 1,000 km above the cloud tops, and potentially carry an atmospheric impactor to be released during its approach.
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second probe , IHP-2 , would fly by Neptune in January 2038 , passing only 1,000 km above the cloud tops , and potentially carry an atmospheric impactor to be released during its approach .Afterward, it will continue its mission throughout the Kuiper belt toward the heliosphere tail, which is so far unexplored. After Voyager 2 and IHP-2's flybys, the next step in scientific exploration of the Neptunian system is considered to be an orbital mission; most proposals have been by NASA, most often for a Flagship orbiter. In 2003, there was a proposal in NASA's "Vision Missions Studies" for a "Neptune Orbiter with Probes" mission that does Cassini-level science. A subsequent proposal, that was not selected, was for Argo, a flyby spacecraft to be launched in 2019, that would visit Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, and a Kuiper belt object. The focus would have been on Neptune and its largest moon Triton to be investigated around 2029. The proposed New Horizons 2 mission might have done a close flyby of the Neptunian system, but it was later scrapped. Currently a pending proposal for the Discovery Program, the Trident spacecraft would conduct a flyby of Neptune and Triton; however, the mission was not selected for Discovery 15 or 16. Neptune Odyssey is another concept for a Neptune orbiter and atmospheric probe that was studied as a possible large strategic science mission by NASA; it would have launched between 2031 and 2033, and arrive at Neptune by 2049. However, for logistical reasons the Uranus Orbiter and Probe mission was selected as the ice giant orbiter mission recommendation, with top priority ahead of the Enceladus Orbilander.
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at Neptune by 2049 . However , for logistical reasons the Uranus Orbiter and Probe mission was selected as the ice giant orbiter mission recommendation , with top priority ahead of the Enceladus Orbilander .Two notable proposals for a Triton-focused Neptune orbiter mission that would be costed right between the Trident and Odyssey missions (under the New Frontiers program) are Triton Ocean World Surveyor and Nautilus, with cruise stages taking place in the 2031–47 and 2041–56 time periods, respectively. Neptune is a potential target for China's Tianwen-5, which could arrive in 2058. See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
Burgess, Eric (1991). Far Encounter: The Neptune System. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-07412-4. Moore, Patrick (2000). The Data Book of Astronomy. Baton Rouge: Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-0-7503-0620-1. Further reading
Miner, Ellis D.; Wessen, Randii R. (2002). Neptune: The Planet, Rings, and Satellites. Springer-Praxis books in astronomy and space sciences. London; New York: Springer. ISBN 978-1-85233-216-7. Standage, Tom (2000). The Neptune File: A Story of Astronomical Rivalry and the Pioneers of Planet Hunting. New York: Walker. ISBN 978-0-8027-1363-6. External links
NASA's Neptune fact sheet Archived 1 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine
Neptune from Bill Arnett's nineplanets.org
Neptune Astronomy Cast episode No. 63, includes full transcript. Neptune Profile (archived 15 November 2002) at NASA's Solar System Exploration site
Interactive 3D gravity simulation of Neptune and its inner moons Archived 22 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine
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The Moon is the only natural satellite orbiting Earth. It orbits around Earth at an average distance of 384,399 kilometres (238,854 mi), a distance roughly 30 times the width of Earth, and completes an orbit (lunar month) in relation to Earth and the Sun (synodically) every 29.5 days. The Moon and Earth gravitationally pull on each other. The resulting tidal forces are the main drivers of Earth's tides, and have forced the Moon to face Earth with always the same near side, effectively synchronizing the Moon's rotation period (lunar day) to its orbital period (lunar month). This makes the Moon tidally locked to Earth. In geophysical terms, the Moon is a planetary-mass object or satellite planet. Its mass is 1.2% that of the Earth, and its diameter is 3,474 km (2,159 mi), roughly one-quarter of Earth's (about as wide as the contiguous United States). Within the Solar System, it is larger and more massive than any known dwarf planet, and the fifth-largest and fifth-most massive moon, as well as the largest and most massive in relation to its parent planet. Its surface gravity is about one-sixth of Earth's, about half that of Mars, and the second-highest among all moons in the Solar System after Jupiter's moon Io. The body of the Moon is differentiated and terrestrial, with only a minuscule hydrosphere, atmosphere, and magnetic field. The lunar surface is covered in regolith dust, which mainly consists of the fine material ejected from the lunar crust by impact events. The lunar crust is marked by impact craters, with some younger ones featuring bright ray-like streaks.
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, which mainly consists of the fine material ejected from the lunar crust by impact events . The lunar crust is marked by impact craters , with some younger ones featuring bright ray-like streaks .The Moon was volcanically active until 1.2 billion years ago, surfacing lava mostly on the thinner near side of the Moon, filling ancient craters, which through cooling formed the today prominently visible dark plains of basalt called maria ('seas'). The Moon formed out of material from Earth, ejected by a giant impact into Earth of a hypothesized Mars-sized body named Theia 4.51 billion years ago, not long after Earth's formation. From a distance, the day and night phases of the lunar day are visible as the lunar phases, and when the Moon passes through Earth's shadow a lunar eclipse is observable. The Moon's apparent size in Earth's sky is about the same as that of the Sun, which causes it to cover the Sun completely during a total solar eclipse. The Moon is the brightest celestial object in Earth's night sky because of its large apparent size, while the reflectance (albedo) of its surface is comparable to that of asphalt. About 59% of the surface of the Moon is visible from Earth owing to the different angles at which the Moon can appear in Earth's sky (libration), making parts of the far side of the Moon visible. The Moon has been an important source of inspiration and knowledge in human history, having been crucial to cosmography, mythology, religion, art, time keeping, natural science and spaceflight. The first human-made objects to fly to an extraterrestrial body were sent to the Moon, starting in 1959 with the flyby of the Soviet Union's Luna 1 probe and the intentional impact of Luna 2.
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Moon
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objects to fly to an extraterrestrial body were sent to the Moon , starting in 1959 with the flyby of the Soviet Union 's Luna 1 probe and the intentional impact of Luna 2 .In 1966, the first soft landing (by Luna 9) and orbital insertion (by Luna 10) followed. Humans arrived for the first time at the Moon, or any extraterrestrial body, in orbit on December 24, 1968, with Apollo 8 of the United States, and on the surface at Mare Tranquillitatis on July 20, 1969, with the lander Eagle of Apollo 11. By 1972, six Apollo missions had landed twelve humans on the Moon and stayed up to three days. Renewed robotic exploration of the Moon, in particular to confirm the presence of water on the Moon, has fueled plans to return humans to the Moon, starting with the Artemis program in the late 2020s. Names and etymology
The English proper name for Earth's natural satellite is typically written as Moon, with a capital M. The noun moon is derived from Old English mōna, which stems from Proto-Germanic *mēnōn, which in turn comes from Proto-Indo-European *mēnsis ('month') – from earlier *mēnōt (genitive *mēneses), which may be related to a verb meaning 'to measure [time]'. The Latin name for the Moon is lūna. The English adjective lunar was ultimately borrowed from Latin, likely through French. In scientific writing and science fiction, the Moon is sometimes referred to as Luna to distinguish it from other moons. In poetry, Luna may also refer to the personification of the Moon as a woman. The Ancient Greek word selḗnē referred to the Moon as a celestial body, and also to the moon goddess Selene .
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Moon
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may also refer to the personification of the Moon as a woman . The Ancient Greek word selḗnē referred to the Moon as a celestial body , and also to the moon goddess Selene .The rare English adjective selenian is used to describe the Moon as a world, as opposed to a celestial object. Its cognate selenic, originally a rare synonym, now almost always refers to the chemical element selenium. The corresponding prefix seleno- appears in terms including selenography (the study of the lunar surface). Artemis, the Greek goddess of the wilderness and the hunt, also came to be identified with Selene, and was sometimes called Cynthia after her birthplace on Mount Cynthus. Her Roman equivalent is Diana. The astronomical symbols for the Moon are the crescent and decrescent , for example in M☾ 'lunar mass'. Natural history
Formation
Isotope dating of lunar samples suggests the Moon formed around 50 million years after the origin of the Solar System. Historically, several formation mechanisms have been proposed, but none satisfactorily explains the features of the Earth–Moon system. A fission of the Moon from Earth's crust through centrifugal force would require too great an initial rotation rate of Earth. Gravitational capture of a pre-formed Moon depends on an unfeasibly extended atmosphere of Earth to dissipate the energy of the passing Moon. A co-formation of Earth and the Moon together in the primordial accretion disk does not explain the depletion of metals in the Moon. None of these hypotheses can account for the high angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system. The prevailing theory is that the Earth–Moon system formed after a giant impact of a Mars-sized body (named Theia) with the proto-Earth. The oblique impact blasted material into orbit about the Earth and the material accreted and formed the Moon just beyond the Earth's Roche limit of ~2.56 R🜨. Giant impacts are thought to have been common in the early Solar System.
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Moon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.
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the Earth and the material accreted and formed the Moon just beyond the Earth 's Roche limit of ~2.56 R🜨 . Giant impacts are thought to have been common in the early Solar System .Computer simulations of giant impacts have produced results that are consistent with the mass of the lunar core and the angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system. These simulations show that most of the Moon derived from the impactor, rather than the proto-Earth. However, models from 2007 and later suggest a larger fraction of the Moon derived from the proto-Earth. Other bodies of the inner Solar System such as Mars and Vesta have, according to meteorites from them, very different oxygen and tungsten isotopic compositions compared to Earth. However, Earth and the Moon have nearly identical isotopic compositions. The isotopic equalization of the Earth–Moon system might be explained by the post-impact mixing of the vaporized material that formed the two, although this is debated. The impact would have released enough energy to liquefy both the ejecta and the Earth's crust, forming a magma ocean. The liquefied ejecta could have then re-accreted into the Earth–Moon system. The newly formed Moon would have had its own magma ocean; its depth is estimated from about 500 km (300 miles) to 1,737 km (1,079 miles). While the giant-impact theory explains many lines of evidence, some questions are still unresolved, most of which involve the Moon's composition. Models that have the Moon acquiring a significant amount of the proto-Earth are more difficult to reconcile with geochemical data for the isotopes of zirconium, oxygen, silicon, and other elements. A study published in 2022, using high-resolution simulations (up to 108 particles), found that giant impacts can immediately place a satellite with similar mass and iron content to the Moon into orbit far outside Earth's Roche limit.
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Moon
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355
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simulations ( up to 108 particles ) , found that giant impacts can immediately place a satellite with similar mass and iron content to the Moon into orbit far outside Earth 's Roche limit .Even satellites that initially pass within the Roche limit can reliably and predictably survive, by being partially stripped and then torqued onto wider, stable orbits. On November 1, 2023, scientists reported that, according to computer simulations, remnants of Theia could still be present inside the Earth. Natural development
The newly formed Moon settled into a much closer Earth orbit than it has today. Each body therefore appeared much larger in the sky of the other, eclipses were more frequent, and tidal effects were stronger. Due to tidal acceleration, the Moon's orbit around Earth has become significantly larger, with a longer period. Following formation, the Moon has cooled and most of its atmosphere has been stripped. The lunar surface has since been shaped by large impact events and many small ones, forming a landscape featuring craters of all ages. The Moon was volcanically active until 1.2 billion years ago, which laid down the prominent lunar maria. Most of the mare basalts erupted during the Imbrian period, 3.3–3.7 billion years ago, though some are as young as 1.2 billion years and some as old as 4.2 billion years. The distribution of the mare basalts is uneven, with the basalts predominantly appearing on the Moon's near-side hemisphere. The reasons for this are not yet known, although the relative thinness of the crust on the near side of the Moon is hypothesized to be a factor. Causes of the distribution of the lunar highlands on the far side are also not well understood. Topological measurements show the near side crust is thinner than the far side.
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Moon
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356
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a factor . Causes of the distribution of the lunar highlands on the far side are also not well understood . Topological measurements show the near side crust is thinner than the far side .One possible scenario then is that large impacts on the near side may have made it easier for lava to flow onto the surface. Lunar geologic timescale
The lunar geological periods are named after their characteristic features, from most impact craters outside the dark mare, to the mare and later craters, and finally the young, still bright and therefore readily visible craters with ray systems like Copernicus or Tycho. Future
In 5 billion years the Moon will have wandered 40% further away from Earth than it is now. However at a similar time the Sun will have become a red giant. Assuming the Sun envelopes the Earth-Moon system, the consequent drag from the Sun's atmosphere may cause the orbital distance between the Earth and the Moon to decay to the point where the Moon comes within the Earth's Roche limit, leading it to disintegrate. Physical characteristics
The Moon is a very slightly scalene ellipsoid due to tidal stretching, with its long axis displaced 30° from facing the Earth, due to gravitational anomalies from impact basins. Its shape is more elongated than current tidal forces can account for. This 'fossil bulge' indicates that the Moon solidified when it orbited at half its current distance to the Earth, and that it is now too cold for its shape to restore hydrostatic equilibrium at its current orbital distance. Today tidal crust deformation is limited to lobate thrust fault scarps formation. Size and mass
The Moon is by size and mass the fifth largest natural satellite of the Solar System, categorizable as one of its planetary-mass moons, making it a satellite planet under the geophysical definitions of the term.
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Moon
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by size and mass the fifth largest natural satellite of the Solar System , categorizable as one of its planetary-mass moons , making it a satellite planet under the geophysical definitions of the term .It is smaller than Mercury but considerably larger than the largest dwarf planet of the Solar System, Pluto. The Moon is the largest natural satellite in the Solar System relative to its primary planet. The Moon's diameter is about 3,500 km, more than one-quarter of Earth's, with the face of the Moon comparable to the width of either mainland Australia, Europe or the contiguous United States. The whole surface area of the Moon is about 38 million square kilometers, comparable to that of the Americas. The Moon's mass is 1⁄81 of Earth's, being the second densest among the planetary moons, and having the second highest surface gravity, after Io, at 0.1654 g and an escape velocity of 2.38 km/s (8600 km/h; 5300 mph). Structure
The Moon is a differentiated body that was initially in hydrostatic equilibrium but has since departed from this condition. It has a geochemically distinct crust, mantle, and core. The Moon has a solid iron-rich inner core with a radius possibly as small as 240 kilometres (150 mi) and a fluid outer core primarily made of liquid iron with a radius of roughly 300 kilometres (190 mi). Around the core is a partially molten boundary layer with a radius of about 500 kilometres (310 mi). This structure is thought to have developed through the fractional crystallization of a global magma ocean shortly after the Moon's formation 4.5 billion years ago.
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about 500 kilometres ( 310 mi ) . This structure is thought to have developed through the fractional crystallization of a global magma ocean shortly after the Moon 's formation 4.5 billion years ago .Crystallization of this magma ocean would have created a mafic mantle from the precipitation and sinking of the minerals olivine, clinopyroxene, and orthopyroxene; after about three-quarters of the magma ocean had crystallized, lower-density plagioclase minerals could form and float into a crust atop. The final liquids to crystallize would have been initially sandwiched between the crust and mantle, with a high abundance of incompatible and heat-producing elements. Consistent with this perspective, geochemical mapping made from orbit suggests a crust of mostly anorthosite. The Moon rock samples of the flood lavas that erupted onto the surface from partial melting in the mantle confirm the mafic mantle composition, which is more iron-rich than that of Earth. The crust is on average about 50 kilometres (31 mi) thick. The Moon is the second-densest satellite in the Solar System, after Io. However, the inner core of the Moon is small, with a radius of about 350 kilometres (220 mi) or less, around 20% of the radius of the Moon. Its composition is not well understood but is probably metallic iron alloyed with a small amount of sulfur and nickel. Analyses of the Moon's time-variable rotation suggest that it is at least partly molten. The pressure at the lunar core is estimated to be 5 GPa (49,000 atm). Gravitational field
On average the Moon's surface gravity is 1.62 m/s2 (0.1654 g; 5.318 ft/s2), about half of the surface gravity of Mars and about a sixth of Earth's. The Moon's gravitational field is not uniform. The details of the gravitational field have been measured through tracking the Doppler shift of radio signals emitted by orbiting spacecraft.
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Moon
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of Earth 's . The Moon 's gravitational field is not uniform . The details of the gravitational field have been measured through tracking the Doppler shift of radio signals emitted by orbiting spacecraft .The main lunar gravity features are mascons, large positive gravitational anomalies associated with some of the giant impact basins, partly caused by the dense mare basaltic lava flows that fill those basins. The anomalies greatly influence the orbit of spacecraft about the Moon. There are some puzzles: lava flows by themselves cannot explain all of the gravitational signature, and some mascons exist that are not linked to mare volcanism. The sphere of influence, of the Moon's gravity field, in which it dominates over Earth's has a Hill radius of 60,000 km (i.e., extending less than one-sixth the distance of the 378,000 km between the Moon and the Earth), extending to the Earth-Moon lagrange points. This space is called cislunar space. Magnetic field
The Moon has an external magnetic field of less than 0.2 nanoteslas, or less than one hundred thousandth that of Earth. The Moon does not have a global dipolar magnetic field and only has crustal magnetization likely acquired early in its history when a dynamo was still operating. Early in its history, 4 billion years ago, its magnetic field strength was likely close to that of Earth today. This early dynamo field apparently expired by about one billion years ago, after the lunar core had crystallized. Theoretically, some of the remnant magnetization may originate from transient magnetic fields generated during large impacts through the expansion of plasma clouds. These clouds are generated during large impacts in an ambient magnetic field. This is supported by the location of the largest crustal magnetizations situated near the antipodes of the giant impact basins.
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Moon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.
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360
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. These clouds are generated during large impacts in an ambient magnetic field . This is supported by the location of the largest crustal magnetizations situated near the antipodes of the giant impact basins .Additionally the Moon moves ~27% of the time, or 5–6 days per lunar month in Earth's magnetotail, replacing solar wind with Earth wind. Atmosphere
The Moon has an atmosphere consisting of only an exosphere, which is so tenuous as to be nearly vacuum, with a total mass of less than 10 tonnes (9.8 long tons; 11 short tons). The surface pressure of this small mass is around 3 × 10−15 atm (0.3 nPa); it varies with the lunar day. Its sources include outgassing and sputtering, a product of the bombardment of lunar soil by solar wind ions. Elements that have been detected include sodium and potassium, produced by sputtering (also found in the atmospheres of Mercury and Io); helium-4 and neon from the solar wind; and argon-40, radon-222, and polonium-210, outgassed after their creation by radioactive decay within the crust and mantle. The absence of such neutral species (atoms or molecules) as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and magnesium, which are present in the regolith, is not understood. Water vapor has been detected by Chandrayaan-1 and found to vary with latitude, with a maximum at ~60–70 degrees; it is possibly generated from the sublimation of water ice in the regolith. These gases either return into the regolith because of the Moon's gravity or are lost to space, either through solar radiation pressure or, if they are ionized, by being swept away by the solar wind's magnetic field. A permanent Moon dust cloud exists around the Moon, generated by small particles from comets.
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Moon
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, if they are ionized , by being swept away by the solar wind 's magnetic field . A permanent Moon dust cloud exists around the Moon , generated by small particles from comets .5 tons of comet particles are estimated to strike the Moon's surface every 24 hours, resulting in the ejection of dust particles. The dust stays above the Moon for approximately 10 minutes, taking 5 minutes to rise, and 5 minutes to fall. On average, 120 kilograms of dust are present above the Moon, rising up to 100 kilometers above the surface. Dust counts made by LADEE's Lunar Dust EXperiment (LDEX) found particle counts peaked during the Geminid, Quadrantid, Northern Taurid, and Omicron Centaurid meteor showers, when the Earth, and Moon pass through comet debris. The lunar dust cloud is asymmetric, being denser near the boundary between the Moon's dayside and nightside. Studies of Moon magma samples retrieved by the Apollo missions demonstrate that the Moon had once possessed a relatively thick atmosphere for a period of 70 million years between 3 and 4 billion years ago. This atmosphere, sourced from gases ejected from lunar volcanic eruptions, was twice the thickness of that of present-day Mars. The ancient lunar atmosphere was eventually stripped away by solar winds and dissipated into space. Surface conditions
Ionizing radiation from cosmic rays, their resulting neutron radiation, and the Sun results in an average radiation level of 1.369 millisieverts per day during lunar daytime, which is about 2.6 times more than the level on the International Space Station, 5–10 times more than the level during a trans-Atlantic flight, and 200 times more than the level on Earth's surface.
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2.6 times more than the level on the International Space Station , 5–10 times more than the level during a trans-Atlantic flight , and 200 times more than the level on Earth 's surface .For further comparison, radiation levels average about 1.84 millisieverts per day on a flight to Mars and about 0.64 millisieverts per day on Mars itself, with some locations on Mars possibly having levels as low as 0.342 millisieverts per day. Solar radiation also electrically charges the highly abrasive lunar dust and makes it levitate. This effect contributes to the easy spread of the sticky, lung- and gear-damaging lunar dust. The Moon's axial tilt with respect to the ecliptic is only 1.5427°, much less than the 23.44° of Earth. This small axial tilt means that the Moon's solar illumination varies much less with season than Earth's, and it also allows for the existence of some peaks of eternal light at the Moon's north pole, at the rim of the crater Peary. The lunar surface is exposed to temperature differences ranging from 120 °C to −171 °C depending on the solar irradiance. Because of the lack of atmosphere, temperatures of different areas vary particularly upon whether they are in sunlight or shadow, making topographical details play a decisive role on local surface temperatures. Parts of many craters, particularly the bottoms of many polar craters, are permanently shadowed. These craters of eternal darkness have extremely low temperatures. The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter measured the lowest summer temperatures in craters at the southern pole at 35 K (−238 °C; −397 °F) and just 26 K (−247 °C; −413 °F) close to the winter solstice in the north polar crater Hermite. This is the coldest temperature in the Solar System ever measured by a spacecraft, colder even than the surface of Pluto.
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Moon
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363
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close to the winter solstice in the north polar crater Hermite . This is the coldest temperature in the Solar System ever measured by a spacecraft , colder even than the surface of Pluto .Blanketed on top of the Moon's crust is a highly comminuted (broken into ever smaller particles) and impact gardened mostly gray surface layer called regolith, formed by impact processes. The finer regolith, the lunar soil of silicon dioxide glass, has a texture resembling snow and a scent resembling spent gunpowder. The regolith of older surfaces is generally thicker than for younger surfaces: it varies in thickness from 10–15 m (33–49 ft) in the highlands and 4–5 m (13–16 ft) in the maria. Beneath the finely comminuted regolith layer is the megaregolith, a layer of highly fractured bedrock many kilometers thick. These extreme conditions are considered to make it unlikely for spacecraft to harbor bacterial spores at the Moon for longer than just one lunar orbit. Surface features
The topography of the Moon has been measured with laser altimetry and stereo image analysis. Its most extensive topographic feature is the giant far-side South Pole–Aitken basin, some 2,240 km (1,390 mi) in diameter, the largest crater on the Moon and the second-largest confirmed impact crater in the Solar System. At 13 km (8.1 mi) deep, its floor is the lowest point on the surface of the Moon, reaching −9.178 kilometres (−5.703 mi) at 70.368°S 172.413°W / -70.368; -172.413 in a crater within Antoniadi crater. The highest elevations of the Moon's surface, with the so-called Selenean summit at 10.629 kilometres (6.605 mi) , are located directly to the northeast (5.441°N 158.656°W / 5.441; -158.656), which might have been thickened by the oblique formation impact of the South Pole–Aitken basin.
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Moon
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364
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6.605 mi ) , are located directly to the northeast ( 5.441°N 158.656°W / 5.441 ; -158.656 ) , which might have been thickened by the oblique formation impact of the South Pole–Aitken basin .Other large impact basins such as Imbrium, Serenitatis, Crisium, Smythii, and Orientale possess regionally low elevations and elevated rims. The far side of the lunar surface is on average about 1.9 km (1.2 mi) higher than that of the near side. The discovery of fault scarp cliffs suggest that the Moon has shrunk by about 90 metres (300 ft) within the past billion years. Similar shrinkage features exist on Mercury. Mare Frigoris, a basin near the north pole long assumed to be geologically dead, has cracked and shifted. Since the Moon does not have tectonic plates, its tectonic activity is slow, and cracks develop as it loses heat. Scientists have confirmed the presence of a cave on the Moon near the Sea of Tranquillity, not far from the 1969 Apollo 11 landing site. The cave, identified as an entry point to a collapsed lava tube, is roughly 45 meters wide and up to 80 m long. This discovery marks the first confirmed entry point to a lunar cave. The analysis was based on photos taken in 2010 by NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. The cave's stable temperature of around 17 °C could provide a hospitable environment for future astronauts, protecting them from extreme temperatures, solar radiation, and micrometeorites. However, challenges include accessibility and risks of avalanches and cave-ins. This discovery offers potential for future lunar bases or emergency shelters. Volcanic features
The main features visible from Earth by the naked eye are dark and relatively featureless lunar plains called maria (sing. mare; from Latin meaning 'seas', as they were once believed to be filled with water) which are vast solidified pools of ancient basaltic lava.
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Moon
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plains called maria ( sing . mare ; from Latin meaning 'seas ' , as they were once believed to be filled with water ) which are vast solidified pools of ancient basaltic lava .Although similar to terrestrial basalts, lunar basalts have more iron and no minerals altered by water. The majority of these lava deposits erupted or flowed into the depressions associated with impact basins, though the Moon's largest expanse of basalt flooding, Oceanus Procellarum, does not correspond to an obvious impact basin. Different episodes of lava flow in maria can often be recognized by variations in surface albedo and distinct flow margins. As the maria formed, cooling and contraction of the basaltic lava created wrinkle ridges in some areas. These low, sinuous ridges can extend for hundreds of kilometers and often outline buried structures within the mare. Another result of maria formation is the creation of concentric depressions along the edges, known as arcuate rilles. These features occur as the mare basalts sink inward under their own weight, causing the edges to fracture and separate. In addition to the visible maria, the Moon has mare deposits covered by ejecta from impacts. Called cryptomares, these hidden mares are likely older than the exposed ones. Conversely, mare lava has obscured many impact melt sheets and pools. Impact melts are formed when intense shock pressures from collisions vaporize and melt zones around the impact site. Where still exposed, impact melt can be distinguished from mare lava by its distribution, albedo, and texture. Sinuous rilles, found in and around maria, are likely extinct lava channels or collapsed lava tubes. They typically originate from volcanic vents, meandering and sometimes branching as they progress.
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. Sinuous rilles , found in and around maria , are likely extinct lava channels or collapsed lava tubes . They typically originate from volcanic vents , meandering and sometimes branching as they progress .The largest examples, such as Schroter's Valley and Rima Hadley, are significantly longer, wider, and deeper than terrestrial lava channels, sometimes featuring bends and sharp turns that again, are uncommon on Earth. Mare volcanism has altered impact craters in various ways, including filling them to varying degrees, and raising and fracturing their floors from uplift of mare material beneath their interiors. Examples of such craters include Taruntius and Gassendi. Some craters, such as Hyginus, are of wholly volcanic origin, forming as calderas or collapse pits. Such craters are relatively rare and tend to be smaller (typically a few kilometers wide), shallower, and more irregularly shaped than impact craters. They also lack the upturned rims characteristic of impact craters. Several geologic provinces containing shield volcanoes and volcanic domes are found within the near side maria. There are also some regions of pyroclastic deposits, scoria cones and non-basaltic domes made of particularly high viscosity lava. Almost all maria are on the near side of the Moon, and cover 31% of the surface of the near side compared with 2% of the far side. This is likely due to a concentration of heat-producing elements under the crust on the near side, which would have caused the underlying mantle to heat up, partially melt, rise to the surface and erupt. Most of the Moon's mare basalts erupted during the Imbrian period, 3.3–3.7 billion years ago, though some are as young as 1.2 billion years and as old as 4.2 billion years.
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Moon
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367
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Most of the Moon 's mare basalts erupted during the Imbrian period , 3.3–3.7 billion years ago , though some are as young as 1.2 billion years and as old as 4.2 billion years .In 2006, a study of Ina, a tiny depression in Lacus Felicitatis, found jagged, relatively dust-free features that, because of the lack of erosion by infalling debris, appeared to be only 2 million years old. Moonquakes and releases of gas indicate continued lunar activity. Evidence of recent lunar volcanism has been identified at 70 irregular mare patches, some less than 50 million years old. This raises the possibility of a much warmer lunar mantle than previously believed, at least on the near side where the deep crust is substantially warmer because of the greater concentration of radioactive elements. Evidence has been found for 2–10 million years old basaltic volcanism within the crater Lowell, inside the Orientale basin. Some combination of an initially hotter mantle and local enrichment of heat-producing elements in the mantle could be responsible for prolonged activities on the far side in the Orientale basin. The lighter-colored regions of the Moon are called terrae, or more commonly highlands, because they are higher than most maria. They have been radiometrically dated to having formed 4.4 billion years ago and may represent plagioclase cumulates of the lunar magma ocean. In contrast to Earth, no major lunar mountains are believed to have formed as a result of tectonic events. The concentration of maria on the near side likely reflects the substantially thicker crust of the highlands of the Far Side, which may have formed in a slow-velocity impact of a second moon of Earth a few tens of millions of years after the Moon's formation. Alternatively, it may be a consequence of asymmetrical tidal heating when the Moon was much closer to the Earth.
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Moon
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368
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Earth a few tens of millions of years after the Moon 's formation . Alternatively , it may be a consequence of asymmetrical tidal heating when the Moon was much closer to the Earth .Impact craters
A major geologic process that has affected the Moon's surface is impact cratering, with craters formed when asteroids and comets collide with the lunar surface. There are estimated to be roughly 300,000 craters wider than 1 km (0.6 mi) on the Moon's near side. Lunar craters exhibit a variety of forms, depending on their size. In order of increasing diameter, the basic types are simple craters with smooth bowl shaped interiors and upturned rims, complex craters with flat floors, terraced walls and central peaks, peak ring basins, and multi-ring basins with two or more concentric rings of peaks. The vast majority of impact craters are circular, but some, like Cantor and Janssen, have more polygonal outlines, possibly guided by underlying faults and joints. Others, such as the Messier pair, Schiller, and Daniell, are elongated. Such elongation can result from highly oblique impacts, binary asteroid impacts, fragmentation of impactors before surface strike, or closely spaced secondary impacts. The lunar geologic timescale is based on the most prominent impact events, such as multi-ring formations like Nectaris, Imbrium, and Orientale that are between hundreds and thousands of kilometers in diameter and associated with a broad apron of ejecta deposits that form a regional stratigraphic horizon. The lack of an atmosphere, weather, and recent geological processes mean that many of these craters are well-preserved. Although only a few multi-ring basins have been definitively dated, they are useful for assigning relative ages. Because impact craters accumulate at a nearly constant rate, counting the number of craters per unit area can be used to estimate the age of the surface.
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Moon
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useful for assigning relative ages . Because impact craters accumulate at a nearly constant rate , counting the number of craters per unit area can be used to estimate the age of the surface .However care needs to be exercised with the crater counting technique due to the potential presence of secondary craters. Ejecta from impacts can create secondary craters that often appear in clusters or chains but can also occur as isolated formations at a considerable distance from the impact. These can resemble primary craters, and may even dominate small crater populations, so their unidentified presence can distort age estimates. The radiometric ages of impact-melted rocks collected during the Apollo missions cluster between 3.8 and 4.1 billion years old: this has been used to propose a Late Heavy Bombardment period of increased impacts. High-resolution images from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter in the 2010s show a contemporary crater-production rate significantly higher than was previously estimated. A secondary cratering process caused by distal ejecta is thought to churn the top two centimeters of regolith on a timescale of 81,000 years. This rate is 100 times faster than the rate computed from models based solely on direct micrometeorite impacts. Lunar swirls
Lunar swirls are enigmatic features found across the Moon's surface. They are characterized by a high albedo, appear optically immature (i.e. have the optical characteristics of a relatively young regolith), and often have a sinuous shape. Their shape is often accentuated by low albedo regions that wind between the bright swirls. They are located in places with enhanced surface magnetic fields and many are located at the antipodal point of major impacts. Well known swirls include the Reiner Gamma feature and Mare Ingenii. They are hypothesized to be areas that have been partially shielded from the solar wind, resulting in slower space weathering. Presence of water
Liquid water cannot persist on the lunar surface.
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They are hypothesized to be areas that have been partially shielded from the solar wind , resulting in slower space weathering . Presence of water Liquid water can not persist on the lunar surface .When exposed to solar radiation, water quickly decomposes through a process known as photodissociation and is lost to space. However, since the 1960s, scientists have hypothesized that water ice may be deposited by impacting comets or possibly produced by the reaction of oxygen-rich lunar rocks, and hydrogen from solar wind, leaving traces of water which could possibly persist in cold, permanently shadowed craters at either pole on the Moon. Computer simulations suggest that up to 14,000 km2 (5,400 sq mi) of the surface may be in permanent shadow. The presence of usable quantities of water on the Moon is an important factor in rendering lunar habitation as a cost-effective plan; the alternative of transporting water from Earth would be prohibitively expensive. In years since, signatures of water have been found to exist on the lunar surface. In 1994, the bistatic radar experiment located on the Clementine spacecraft, indicated the existence of small, frozen pockets of water close to the surface. However, later radar observations by Arecibo, suggest these findings may rather be rocks ejected from young impact craters. In 1998, the neutron spectrometer on the Lunar Prospector spacecraft showed that high concentrations of hydrogen are present in the first meter of depth in the regolith near the polar regions. Volcanic lava beads, brought back to Earth aboard Apollo 15, showed small amounts of water in their interior. The 2008 Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft has since confirmed the existence of surface water ice, using the on-board Moon Mineralogy Mapper. The spectrometer observed absorption lines common to hydroxyl, in reflected sunlight, providing evidence of large quantities of water ice, on the lunar surface.
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Moon
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371
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, using the on-board Moon Mineralogy Mapper . The spectrometer observed absorption lines common to hydroxyl , in reflected sunlight , providing evidence of large quantities of water ice , on the lunar surface .The spacecraft showed that concentrations may possibly be as high as 1,000 ppm. Using the mapper's reflectance spectra, indirect lighting of areas in shadow confirmed water ice within 20° latitude of both poles in 2018. In 2009, LCROSS sent a 2,300 kg (5,100 lb) impactor into a permanently shadowed polar crater, and detected at least 100 kg (220 lb) of water in a plume of ejected material. Another examination of the LCROSS data showed the amount of detected water to be closer to 155 ± 12 kg (342 ± 26 lb). In May 2011, 615–1410 ppm water in melt inclusions in lunar sample 74220 was reported, the famous high-titanium "orange glass soil" of volcanic origin collected during the Apollo 17 mission in 1972. The inclusions were formed during explosive eruptions on the Moon approximately 3.7 billion years ago. This concentration is comparable with that of magma in Earth's upper mantle. Although of considerable selenological interest, this insight does not mean that water is easily available since the sample originated many kilometers below the surface, and the inclusions are so difficult to access that it took 39 years to find them with a state-of-the-art ion microprobe instrument. Analysis of the findings of the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) revealed in August 2018 for the first time "definitive evidence" for water-ice on the lunar surface. The data revealed the distinct reflective signatures of water-ice, as opposed to dust and other reflective substances.
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Moon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.
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372
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2018 for the first time `` definitive evidence '' for water-ice on the lunar surface . The data revealed the distinct reflective signatures of water-ice , as opposed to dust and other reflective substances .The ice deposits were found on the North and South poles, although it is more abundant in the South, where water is trapped in permanently shadowed craters and crevices, allowing it to persist as ice on the surface since they are shielded from the sun. In October 2020, astronomers reported detecting molecular water on the sunlit surface of the Moon by several independent spacecraft, including the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA). Earth–Moon system
Orbit
The Earth and the Moon form the Earth–Moon satellite system with a shared center of mass, or barycenter. This barycenter is 1,700 km (1,100 mi) (about a quarter of Earth's radius) beneath the Earth's surface. The Moon's orbit is slightly elliptical, with an orbital eccentricity of 0.055. The semi-major axis of the geocentric lunar orbit, called the lunar distance, is approximately 400,000 km (250,000 miles or 1.28 light-seconds), comparable to going around Earth 9.5 times. The Moon makes a complete orbit around Earth with respect to the fixed stars, its sidereal period, about once every 27.3 days. However, because the Earth–Moon system moves at the same time in its orbit around the Sun, it takes slightly longer, 29.5 days, to return to the same lunar phase, completing a full cycle, as seen from Earth. This synodic period or synodic month is commonly known as the lunar month and is equal to the length of the solar day on the Moon. Due to tidal locking, the Moon has a 1:1 spin–orbit resonance. This rotation–orbit ratio makes the Moon's orbital periods around Earth equal to its corresponding rotation periods.
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Moon
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on the Moon . Due to tidal locking , the Moon has a 1:1 spin–orbit resonance . This rotation–orbit ratio makes the Moon 's orbital periods around Earth equal to its corresponding rotation periods .This is the reason for only one side of the Moon, its so-called near side, being visible from Earth. That said, while the movement of the Moon is in resonance, it still is not without nuances such as libration, resulting in slightly changing perspectives, making over time and location on Earth about 59% of the Moon's surface visible from Earth. Unlike most satellites of other planets, the Moon's orbital plane is closer to the ecliptic plane than to the planet's equatorial plane. The Moon's orbit is subtly perturbed by the Sun and Earth in many small, complex and interacting ways. For example, the plane of the Moon's orbit gradually rotates once every 18.61 years, which affects other aspects of lunar motion. These follow-on effects are mathematically described by Cassini's laws. Tidal effects
The gravitational attraction that Earth and the Moon (as well as the Sun) exert on each other manifests in a slightly greater attraction on the sides closest to each other, resulting in tidal forces. Ocean tides are the most widely experienced result of this, but tidal forces also considerably affect other mechanics of Earth, as well as the Moon and their system. The lunar solid crust experiences tides of around 10 cm (4 in) amplitude over 27 days, with three components: a fixed one due to Earth, because they are in synchronous rotation, a variable tide due to orbital eccentricity and inclination, and a small varying component from the Sun.
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Moon
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components : a fixed one due to Earth , because they are in synchronous rotation , a variable tide due to orbital eccentricity and inclination , and a small varying component from the Sun .The Earth-induced variable component arises from changing distance and libration, a result of the Moon's orbital eccentricity and inclination (if the Moon's orbit were perfectly circular and un-inclined, there would only be solar tides). According to recent research, scientists suggest that the Moon's influence on the Earth may contribute to maintaining Earth's magnetic field. The cumulative effects of stress built up by these tidal forces produces moonquakes. Moonquakes are much less common and weaker than are earthquakes, although moonquakes can last for up to an hour – significantly longer than terrestrial quakes – because of scattering of the seismic vibrations in the dry fragmented upper crust. The existence of moonquakes was an unexpected discovery from seismometers placed on the Moon by Apollo astronauts from 1969 through 1972. The most commonly known effect of tidal forces is elevated sea levels called ocean tides. While the Moon exerts most of the tidal forces, the Sun also exerts tidal forces and therefore contributes to the tides as much as 40% of the Moon's tidal force; producing in interplay the spring and neap tides. The tides are two bulges in the Earth's oceans, one on the side facing the Moon and the other on the side opposite. As the Earth rotates on its axis, one of the ocean bulges (high tide) is held in place "under" the Moon, while another such tide is opposite. The tide under the Moon is explained by the Moon's gravity being stronger on the water close to it.
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Moon
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375
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place `` under '' the Moon , while another such tide is opposite . The tide under the Moon is explained by the Moon 's gravity being stronger on the water close to it .The tide on the opposite side can be explained either by the centrifugal force as the Earth orbits the barycenter or by the water's inertia as the Moon's gravity is stronger on the solid Earth close to it and it is pulled away from the farther water. Thus, there are two high tides, and two low tides in about 24 hours. Since the Moon is orbiting the Earth in the same direction of the Earth's rotation, the high tides occur about every 12 hours and 25 minutes; the 25 minutes is due to the Moon's time to orbit the Earth. If the Earth were a water world (one with no continents) it would produce a tide of only one meter, and that tide would be very predictable, but the ocean tides are greatly modified by other effects:
the frictional coupling of water to Earth's rotation through the ocean floors
the inertia of water's movement
ocean basins that grow shallower near land
the sloshing of water between different ocean basins
As a result, the timing of the tides at most points on the Earth is a product of observations that are explained, incidentally, by theory. System evolution
Delays in the tidal peaks of both ocean and solid-body tides cause torque in opposition to the Earth's rotation. This "drains" angular momentum and rotational kinetic energy from Earth's rotation, slowing the Earth's rotation. That angular momentum, lost from the Earth, is transferred to the Moon in a process known as tidal acceleration, which lifts the Moon into a higher orbit while lowering orbital speed around the Earth.
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Moon
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376
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, lost from the Earth , is transferred to the Moon in a process known as tidal acceleration , which lifts the Moon into a higher orbit while lowering orbital speed around the Earth .This has resulted in the length of a anomalistic month having increased from 20 days to today's 27.55 days over the course of 3.2 billion years. Thus the distance between Earth and Moon is increasing, and the Earth's rotation is slowing in reaction. Measurements from laser reflectors left during the Apollo missions (lunar ranging experiments) have found that the Moon's distance increases by 38 mm (1.5 in) per year (roughly the rate at which human fingernails grow). Atomic clocks show that Earth's Day lengthens by about 17 microseconds every year, slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted by leap seconds. This tidal drag makes the rotation of the Earth, and the orbital period of the Moon very slowly match. This matching first results in tidally locking the lighter body of the orbital system, as is already the case with the Moon. Theoretically, in 50 billion years, the Earth's rotation will have slowed to the point of matching the Moon's orbital period, causing the Earth to always present the same side to the Moon. However, the Sun will become a red giant, most likely engulfing the Earth–Moon system long before then. If the Earth–Moon system is not engulfed by the enlarged Sun, the drag from the solar atmosphere can cause the orbit of the Moon to decay. Once the orbit of the Moon closes to a distance of 18,470 km (11,480 mi), it will cross Earth's Roche limit, meaning that tidal interaction with Earth would break apart the Moon, turning it into a ring system. Most of the orbiting rings will begin to decay, and the debris will impact Earth.
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Moon
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that tidal interaction with Earth would break apart the Moon , turning it into a ring system . Most of the orbiting rings will begin to decay , and the debris will impact Earth .Hence, even if the Sun does not swallow up Earth, the planet may be left moonless. Orientation and appearance
The Moon appears in Earth's sky differently depending on the position of observation on Earth and the time of lunar year, lunar month and day on Earth. During a year the Moon culminates during a day at different altitudes. The Moon appears highest in the sky unlike the Sun during winter and lowest during summer, which is true for the seasons of each of Earth's northern and southern hemispheres. At the North and South Poles the Moon is 24 hours above the horizon for two weeks every tropical month (about 27.3 days), comparable to the polar day of the tropical year. Zooplankton in the Arctic use moonlight when the Sun is below the horizon for months on end. The apparent orientation of the Moon depends on its position in the sky and the hemisphere of the Earth from which it is being viewed. In the Northern Hemisphere it appears upside down compared to the view from the Southern Hemisphere. Sometimes the "horns" of a crescent moon appear to be pointing more upwards than sideways. This phenomenon is called a wet moon and occurs more frequently in the tropics. The distance between the Moon and Earth varies from around 356,400 km (221,500 mi) (perigee) to 406,700 km (252,700 mi) (apogee), making the Moon's distance and apparent size fluctuate up to 14%. On average the Moon's angular diameter is about 0.52°, roughly the same apparent size as the Sun (see § Eclipses).
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Moon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.
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distance and apparent size fluctuate up to 14 % . On average the Moon 's angular diameter is about 0.52° , roughly the same apparent size as the Sun ( see § Eclipses ) .In addition, a purely psychological effect, known as the Moon illusion, makes the Moon appear larger when close to the horizon. Rotation
The tidally locked synchronous rotation of the Moon as it orbits the Earth results in it always keeping nearly the same face turned towards the planet. The side of the Moon that faces Earth is called the near side, and the opposite the far side. The far side is often inaccurately called the "dark side", but it is in fact illuminated as often as the near side: once every 29.5 Earth days. During dark moon to new moon, the near side is dark. The Moon originally rotated at a faster rate, but early in its history its rotation slowed and became tidally locked in this orientation as a result of frictional effects associated with tidal deformations caused by Earth. With time, the energy of rotation of the Moon on its axis was dissipated as heat, until there was no rotation of the Moon relative to Earth. In 2016, planetary scientists using data collected on the 1998–99 NASA Lunar Prospector mission found two hydrogen-rich areas (most likely former water ice) on opposite sides of the Moon. It is speculated that these patches were the poles of the Moon billions of years ago before it was tidally locked to Earth. Illumination and phases
The Moon rotates, as it orbits Earth, changing orientation toward the Sun, experiencing a lunar day. A lunar day is equal to one lunar month (one synodic orbit around Earth) due to it being tidally locked to Earth. Since the Moon is not tidally locked to the Sun, lunar daylight and night times both occur around the Moon.
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Moon
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379
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orbit around Earth ) due to it being tidally locked to Earth . Since the Moon is not tidally locked to the Sun , lunar daylight and night times both occur around the Moon .The changing position of the illumination of the Moon by the Sun during a lunar day is observable from Earth as the changing lunar phases, waxing crescent being the sunrise and the waning crescent the sunset phase of a day observed from afar. Lunar night is the darkest on the far side and during lunar eclipses on the near side (and darker than a moonless night on Earth). During its night, the near side is illuminated by Earthlight to the extent that lunar surface features may be observable from Earth. Earthshine makes the night on the near side about 43 times brighter, and sometimes even 55 times brighter than a night on Earth illuminated by the light of the full moon. In Earth's sky brightness and apparent size of the Moon changes also due to its elliptic orbit around Earth. At perigee (closest), since the Moon is up to 14% closer to Earth than at apogee (most distant), it subtends a solid angle which is up to 30% larger. Consequently, given the same phase, the Moon's brightness also varies by up to 30% between apogee and perigee. A full (or new) moon at such a position is called a supermoon. Each of the four intermediate phases of the Moon lasts, on average, about seven days (approximately 7.38 days), but this duration can vary by about ±11% due to the change in the distance between the Moon and Earth between apogee (farthest point) and perigee (closest point). The number of days since the most recent new moon is called the Moon's age. A complete cycle of lunar phases is known as a lunation.
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Moon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.
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380
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perigee ( closest point ) . The number of days since the most recent new moon is called the Moon 's age . A complete cycle of lunar phases is known as a lunation .The approximate age and phase of the Moon for any date can be calculated by determining the number of days since a known new moon (e.g., January 1, 1900, or August 11, 1999) and dividing that value by the average length of a synodic month (29.53059 days). The remainder of the division represents the Moon's age. This method assumes a perfectly circular orbit and does not consider the exact time of the new moon, so results may be off by a few hours. Accuracy decreases as the date moves away from the reference date. This simplified calculation is suitable for general or decorative purposes, such as moon phase clocks. More precise applications that take into account the Moon's apogee and perigee require more complex methods. Due to lunar libration, it is sometimes possible to see slightly more than the full moon (up to about 101%) or a small part of its far side (up to 5%). As it orbits, the Moon moves an average of 13° eastward on the celestial sphere every day. This means that from new moon onward, the moon will become increasingly distant from the Sun, becoming more prominent until full moon, when it appears to be on the opposite side of the Sun. Thereafter, the Moon appears to move closer to the Sun until a new moon occurs. The position and time at which the Moon rises on the eastern horizon vary continually, primarily due to the inclination of the lunar orbit , which is more than 5° relative to the Earth's equator, which in turn is inclined more than 23° to the ecliptic.
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Moon
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, primarily due to the inclination of the lunar orbit , which is more than 5° relative to the Earth 's equator , which in turn is inclined more than 23° to the ecliptic .Observational phenomena
There has been historical controversy over whether observed features on the Moon's surface change over time. Today, many of these claims are thought to be illusory, resulting from observation under different lighting conditions, poor astronomical seeing, or inadequate drawings. However, outgassing does occasionally occur and could be responsible for a minor percentage of the reported lunar transient phenomena. Recently, it has been suggested that a roughly 3 km (1.9 mi) diameter region of the lunar surface was modified by a gas release event about a million years ago. Albedo and true color of the surface
The Moon's appearance is shaped by its reflective properties and surface composition. Its albedo is about 0.12, comparable to worn asphalt, making it relatively dark despite its brightness in the night sky. This low albedo represents the reflectance of the lunar regolith, a layer of fine rock fragments created by meteorite impacts. Light scattering by the regolith causes the Moon to appear much brighter at full moon than at quarter phases. The Moon's true color, without atmospheric effects, is a muted brownish-gray. This results from silicate minerals in the regolith, with darker basaltic plains (maria) and lighter feldspar-rich highlands. The maria, formed by ancient volcanic flows, contain more iron and titanium, giving them a darker tone. From Earth, the Moon's color can be altered by the atmosphere, appearing red during lunar eclipses or occasionally blue due to volcanic particles. The Moon also exhibits retro-reflection, scattering light back toward its source and creating a uniform brightness across its disc without significant limb darkening.
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Moon
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lunar eclipses or occasionally blue due to volcanic particles . The Moon also exhibits retro-reflection , scattering light back toward its source and creating a uniform brightness across its disc without significant limb darkening .Its apparent size and brightness vary due to its elliptical orbit, appearing up to 30% brighter and 14% larger at perigee compared to apogee, a phenomenon known as a "Supermoon". At times, the Moon can appear red or blue. It may appear red during a lunar eclipse, because of the red spectrum of the Sun's light being refracted onto the Moon by Earth's atmosphere. Because of this red color, lunar eclipses are also sometimes called blood moons. The Moon can also seem red when it appears at low angles and through a thick atmosphere. The Moon may appear blue depending on the presence of certain particles in the air, such as volcanic particles, in which case it can be called a blue moon. Because the words "red moon" and "blue moon" can also be used to refer to specific full moons of the year, they do not always refer to the presence of red or blue moonlight. Eclipses
Eclipses only occur when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are all in a straight line (termed "syzygy"). Solar eclipses occur at new moon, when the Moon is between the Sun and Earth. In contrast, lunar eclipses occur at full moon, when Earth is between the Sun and Moon. The apparent size of the Moon is roughly the same as that of the Sun, with both being viewed at close to one-half a degree wide. The Sun is much larger than the Moon, but it is the vastly greater distance that gives it the same apparent size as the much closer and much smaller Moon from the perspective of Earth.
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Moon
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383
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is much larger than the Moon , but it is the vastly greater distance that gives it the same apparent size as the much closer and much smaller Moon from the perspective of Earth .The variations in apparent size, due to the non-circular orbits, are nearly the same as well, though occurring in different cycles. This makes possible both total (with the Moon appearing larger than the Sun) and annular (with the Moon appearing smaller than the Sun) solar eclipses. In a total eclipse, the Moon completely covers the disc of the Sun and the solar corona becomes visible to the naked eye. Because the distance between the Moon and Earth is very slowly increasing over time, the angular diameter of the Moon is decreasing. As it evolves toward becoming a red giant, the size of the Sun, and its apparent diameter in the sky, are slowly increasing. The combination of these two changes means that hundreds of millions of years ago, the Moon would always completely cover the Sun on solar eclipses, and no annular eclipses were possible. Likewise, hundreds of millions of years in the future, the Moon will no longer cover the Sun completely, and total solar eclipses will not occur. As the Moon's orbit around Earth is inclined by about 5.145° (5° 9′) to the orbit of Earth around the Sun, eclipses do not occur at every full and new moon. For an eclipse to occur, the Moon must be near the intersection of the two orbital planes. The periodicity and recurrence of eclipses of the Sun by the Moon, and of the Moon by Earth, is described by the saros, which has a period of approximately 18 years.
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Moon
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384
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The periodicity and recurrence of eclipses of the Sun by the Moon , and of the Moon by Earth , is described by the saros , which has a period of approximately 18 years .Because the Moon continuously blocks the view of a half-degree-wide circular area of the sky, the related phenomenon of occultation occurs when a bright star or planet passes behind the Moon and is occulted: hidden from view. In this way, a solar eclipse is an occultation of the Sun. Because the Moon is comparatively close to Earth, occultations of individual stars are not visible everywhere on the planet, nor at the same time. Because of the precession of the lunar orbit, each year different stars are occulted. Moon illusion
History of exploration and human presence
Pre-telescopic observation (before 1609)
It is believed by some that the oldest cave paintings from up to 40,000 BP of bulls and geometric shapes, or 20–30,000 year old tally sticks were used to observe the phases of the Moon, keeping time using the waxing and waning of the Moon's phases. Aspects of the Moon were identified and aggregated in lunar deities from prehistoric times and were eventually documented and put into symbols from the very first instances of writing in the 4th millennium BC. One of the earliest-discovered possible depictions of the Moon is a 3,000 BCE rock carving Orthostat 47 at Knowth, Ireland. The crescent depicting the Moon as with the lunar deity Nanna/Sin have been found from the 3rd millennium BCE. The oldest named astronomer and poet Enheduanna, Akkadian high priestess to the lunar deity Nanna/Sin and pricess, daughter of Sargon the Great (c. 2334 – c. 2279 BCE), had the Moon tracked in her chambers.
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Moon
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Enheduanna , Akkadian high priestess to the lunar deity Nanna/Sin and pricess , daughter of Sargon the Great ( c. 2334 – c. 2279 BCE ) , had the Moon tracked in her chambers .The oldest found and identified depiction of the Moon in an astronomical relation to other astronomical features is the Nebra sky disc from c. 1800–1600 BCE, depicting features like the Pleiades next to the Moon. The ancient Greek philosopher Anaxagoras (d. 428 BC) reasoned that the Sun and Moon were both giant spherical rocks, and that the latter reflected the light of the former. Elsewhere in the 5th century BC to 4th century BC, Babylonian astronomers had recorded the 18-year Saros cycle of lunar eclipses, and Indian astronomers had described the Moon's monthly elongation. The Chinese astronomer Shi Shen (fl. 4th century BC) gave instructions for predicting solar and lunar eclipses. In Aristotle's (384–322 BC) description of the universe, the Moon marked the boundary between the spheres of the mutable elements (earth, water, air and fire), and the imperishable stars of aether, an influential philosophy that would dominate for centuries. Archimedes (287–212 BC) designed a planetarium that could calculate the motions of the Moon and other objects in the Solar System. In the 2nd century BC, Seleucus of Seleucia correctly thought that tides were due to the attraction of the Moon, and that their height depends on the Moon's position relative to the Sun. In the same century, Aristarchus computed the size and distance of the Moon from Earth, obtaining a value of about twenty times the radius of Earth for the distance.
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Moon
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the Sun . In the same century , Aristarchus computed the size and distance of the Moon from Earth , obtaining a value of about twenty times the radius of Earth for the distance .The Chinese of the Han dynasty believed the Moon to be energy equated to qi and their 'radiating influence' theory recognized that the light of the Moon was merely a reflection of the Sun; Jing Fang (78–37 BC) noted the sphericity of the Moon. Ptolemy (90–168 AD) greatly improved on the numbers of Aristarchus, calculating a mean distance of 59 times Earth's radius and a diameter of 0.292 Earth diameters, close to the correct values of about 60 and 0.273 respectively. In the 2nd century AD, Lucian wrote the novel A True Story, in which the heroes travel to the Moon and meet its inhabitants. In 510 AD, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata mentioned in his Aryabhatiya that reflected sunlight is the cause of the shining of the Moon. The astronomer and physicist Ibn al-Haytham (965–1039) found that sunlight was not reflected from the Moon like a mirror, but that light was emitted from every part of the Moon's sunlit surface in all directions. Shen Kuo (1031–1095) of the Song dynasty created an allegory equating the waxing and waning of the Moon to a round ball of reflective silver that, when doused with white powder and viewed from the side, would appear to be a crescent. During the Middle Ages, before the invention of the telescope, the Moon was increasingly recognized as a sphere, though many believed that it was "perfectly smooth". Telescopic exploration (1609–1959)
The telescope was developed and reported on in 1608. The first record of telescopic astronomy and rough mapping of the Moon's features is from early summer 1609 by Thomas Harriot, but which he did not publish.
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reported on in 1608 . The first record of telescopic astronomy and rough mapping of the Moon 's features is from early summer 1609 by Thomas Harriot , but which he did not publish .At the same time Galileo Galilei too started to use telescopes to observe the sky and the Moon, recording later that year more detailed observations and crucial conclusions, such as that the Moon was not smooth, featuring mountains and craters, which he published in 1610 in his ground-breaking and soon widely discussed book Sidereus Nuncius. Later in the 17th century, the efforts of Giovanni Battista Riccioli and Francesco Maria Grimaldi led to the system of naming of lunar features in use today. The more exact 1834–1836 Mappa Selenographica of Wilhelm Beer and Johann Heinrich von Mädler, and their associated 1837 book Der Mond, the first trigonometrically accurate study of lunar features, included the heights of more than a thousand mountains, and introduced the study of the Moon at accuracies possible in earthly geography. Lunar craters, first noted by Galileo, were thought to be volcanic until the 1870s proposal of Richard Proctor that they were formed by collisions. This view gained support in 1892 from the experimentation of geologist Grove Karl Gilbert, and from comparative studies from 1920 to the 1940s, leading to the development of lunar stratigraphy, which by the 1950s was becoming a new and growing branch of astrogeology. First missions to the Moon (1959–1976)
After World War II the first launch systems were developed and by the end of the 1950s they reached capabilities that allowed the Soviet Union and the United States to launch spacecraft into space. The Cold War fueled a closely followed development of launch systems by the two states, resulting in the so-called Space Race and its later phase the Moon Race, accelerating efforts and interest in exploration of the Moon.
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Moon
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closely followed development of launch systems by the two states , resulting in the so-called Space Race and its later phase the Moon Race , accelerating efforts and interest in exploration of the Moon .After the first spaceflight of Sputnik 1 in 1957 during International Geophysical Year the spacecraft of the Soviet Union's Luna program were the first to accomplish a number of goals. Following three unnamed failed missions in 1958, the first human-made object Luna 1 escaped Earth's gravity and passed the Moon on 4 January 1959. Later that year the first human-made object Luna 2 reached the Moon's surface by intentionally impacting. By the end of the year Luna 3 reached as the first human-made object the normally occluded far side of the Moon, taking the first photographs of it. The first spacecraft to perform a successful lunar soft landing was Luna 9 and the first vehicle to orbit the Moon was Luna 10, both in 1966. Following President John F. Kennedy's 1961 commitment to a crewed Moon landing before the end of the decade, the United States, under NASA leadership, launched a series of uncrewed probes to develop an understanding of the lunar surface in preparation for human missions: the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's Ranger program, the Lunar Orbiter program and the Surveyor program. The crewed Apollo program was developed in parallel; after a series of uncrewed and crewed tests of the Apollo spacecraft in Earth orbit, and spurred on by a potential Soviet lunar human landing, in 1968 Apollo 8 made the first human mission to lunar orbit (the first Earthlings, two tortoises, had circled the Moon three months earlier on the Soviet Union's Zond 5, followed by turtles on Zond 6).
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mission to lunar orbit ( the first Earthlings , two tortoises , had circled the Moon three months earlier on the Soviet Union 's Zond 5 , followed by turtles on Zond 6 ) .The first time a person landed on the Moon and any extraterrestrial body was when Neil Armstrong, the commander of the American mission Apollo 11, set foot on the Moon at 02:56 UTC on July 21, 1969. Considered the culmination of the Space Race, an estimated 500 million people worldwide watched the transmission by the Apollo TV camera, the largest television audience for a live broadcast at that time. While at the same time another mission, the robotic sample return mission Luna 15 by the Soviet Union had been in orbit around the Moon, becoming together with Apollo 11 the first ever case of two extraterrestrial missions being conducted at the same time. The Apollo missions 11 to 17 (except Apollo 13, which aborted its planned lunar landing) removed 380.05 kilograms (837.87 lb) of lunar rock and soil in 2,196 separate samples. Scientific instrument packages were installed on the lunar surface during all the Apollo landings. Long-lived instrument stations, including heat flow probes, seismometers, and magnetometers, were installed at the Apollo 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17 landing sites. Direct transmission of data to Earth concluded in late 1977 because of budgetary considerations, but as the stations' lunar laser ranging corner-cube retroreflector arrays are passive instruments, they are still being used. Apollo 17 in 1972 remains the last crewed mission to the Moon. Explorer 49 in 1973 was the last dedicated U.S. probe to the Moon until 1994.
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they are still being used . Apollo 17 in 1972 remains the last crewed mission to the Moon . Explorer 49 in 1973 was the last dedicated U.S. probe to the Moon until 1994 .The Soviet Union continued sending robotic missions to the Moon until 1976, deploying in 1970 with Luna 17 the first remote controlled rover Lunokhod 1 on an extraterrestrial surface, and collecting and returning 0.3 kg of rock and soil samples with three Luna sample return missions (Luna 16 in 1970, Luna 20 in 1972, and Luna 24 in 1976). Moon Treaty and explorational absence (1976–1990)
Following the last Soviet mission to the Moon of 1976, there was little further lunar exploration for fourteen years. Astronautics had shifted its focus towards the exploration of the inner (e.g. Venera program) and outer (e.g. Pioneer 10, 1972) Solar System planets, but also towards Earth orbit, developing and continuously operating, beside communication satellites, Earth observation satellites (e.g. Landsat program, 1972), space telescopes and particularly space stations (e.g. Salyut program, 1971). Negotiation in 1979 of Moon treaty, and its subsequent ratification in 1984 was the only major activity regarding the Moon until 1990. Renewed exploration (1990–present)
In 1990 Hiten – Hagoromo, the first dedicated lunar mission since 1976, reached the Moon. Sent by Japan, it became the first mission that was not a Soviet Union or U.S. mission to the Moon. In 1994, the U.S. dedicated a mission to fly a spacecraft (Clementine) to the Moon again for the first time since 1973. This mission obtained the first near-global topographic map of the Moon, and the first global multispectral images of the lunar surface.
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Moon
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391
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) to the Moon again for the first time since 1973 . This mission obtained the first near-global topographic map of the Moon , and the first global multispectral images of the lunar surface .In 1998, this was followed by the Lunar Prospector mission, whose instruments indicated the presence of excess hydrogen at the lunar poles, which is likely to have been caused by the presence of water ice in the upper few meters of the regolith within permanently shadowed craters. The next years saw a row of first missions to the Moon by a new group of states actively exploring the Moon. Between 2004 and 2006 the first spacecraft by the European Space Agency (ESA) (SMART-1) reached the Moon, recording the first detailed survey of chemical elements on the lunar surface. The Chinese Lunar Exploration Program reached the Moon for the first time with the orbiter Chang'e 1 (2007–2009), obtaining a full image map of the Moon. India reached, orbited and impacted the Moon in 2008 for the first time with its Chandrayaan-1 and Moon Impact Probe, becoming the fifth and sixth state to do so, creating a high-resolution chemical, mineralogical and photo-geological map of the lunar surface, and confirming the presence of water molecules in lunar soil. The U.S. launched the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) and the LCROSS impactor on June 18, 2009. LCROSS completed its mission by making a planned and widely observed impact in the crater Cabeus on October 9, 2009, whereas LRO is currently in operation, obtaining precise lunar altimetry and high-resolution imagery. China continued its lunar program in 2010 with Chang'e 2, mapping the surface at a higher resolution over an eight-month period, and in 2013 with Chang'e 3, a lunar lander along with a lunar rover named Yutu (Chinese: 玉兔; lit. 'Jade Rabbit').
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Moon
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392
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an eight-month period , and in 2013 with Chang ' e 3 , a lunar lander along with a lunar rover named Yutu ( Chinese : 玉兔 ; lit . 'Jade Rabbit ' ) .This was the first lunar rover mission since Lunokhod 2 in 1973 and the first lunar soft landing since Luna 24 in 1976, making China the third country to achieve this. In 2014 the first privately funded probe, the Manfred Memorial Moon Mission, reached the Moon. Another Chinese rover mission, Chang'e 4, achieved the first landing on the Moon's far side in early 2019. Also in 2019, India successfully sent its second probe, Chandrayaan-2 to the Moon. In 2020, China carried out its first robotic sample return mission (Chang'e 5), bringing back 1,731 grams of lunar material to Earth. The U.S. developed plans for returning to the Moon beginning in 2004, and with the signing of the U.S.-led Artemis Accords in 2020, the Artemis program aims to return the astronauts to the Moon in the 2020s. The Accords have been joined by a growing number of countries. The introduction of the Artemis Accords has fueled a renewed discussion about the international framework and cooperation of lunar activity, building on the Moon Treaty and the ESA-led Moon Village concept. 2022 South Korea launched Danuri successfully, its first mission to the Moon, from the US. In 2023 and 2024 India and Japan became the fourth and fifth country to soft land a spacecraft on the Moon, following the Soviet Union and United States in the 1960s, and China in the 2010s. Notably, Japan's spacecraft, the Smart Lander for Investigating Moon, survived 3 lunar nights. The IM-1 lander became the first commercially built lander to land on the Moon in 2024.
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Moon
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Notably , Japan 's spacecraft , the Smart Lander for Investigating Moon , survived 3 lunar nights . The IM-1 lander became the first commercially built lander to land on the Moon in 2024 .China launched the Chang'e 6 on May 3, 2024, which conducted another lunar sample return from the far side of the Moon. It also carried a Chinese rover to conduct infrared spectroscopy of lunar surface. Pakistan sent a lunar orbiter called ICUBE-Q along with Chang'e 6. Nova-C 2, iSpace Lander and Blue Ghost were all launched to the Moon in 2024. Future
Beside the progressing Artemis program and supporting Commercial Lunar Payload Services, China is continuing its ambitious Chang'e program, having announced with Russia's struggling Luna-Glob program joint missions. Both the Chinese and US lunar programs have the goal to establish in the 2030s a lunar base with their international partners, though the US and its partners will first establish an orbital Lunar Gateway station in the 2020s, from which Artemis missions will land the Human Landing System to set up temporary surface camps. While the Apollo missions were explorational in nature, the Artemis program plans to establish a more permanent presence. To this end, NASA is partnering with industry leaders to establish key elements such as modern communication infrastructure. A 4G connectivity demonstration is to be launched aboard an Intuitive Machines Nova-C lander in 2024. Another focus is on in situ resource utilization, which is a key part of the DARPA lunar programs. DARPA has requested that industry partners develop a 10–year lunar architecture plan to enable the beginning of a lunar economy. Human presence
In 1959 the first extraterrestrial probes reached the Moon (Luna program), just a year into the space age, after the first ever orbital flight. Since then, humans have sent a range of probes and people to the Moon.
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Luna program ) , just a year into the space age , after the first ever orbital flight . Since then , humans have sent a range of probes and people to the Moon .The first stay of people on the Moon was conducted in 1969, in a series of crewed exploration missions (the Apollo Program), the last having taken place in 1972. Uninterrupted presence has been the case through the remains of impactors, landings and lunar orbiters. Some landings and orbiters have maintained a small lunar infrastructure, providing continuous observation and communication at the Moon. Longterm missions continuing to be active are some orbiters such as the 2009-launched Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter surveilling the Moon for future missions, as well as some Landers such as the 2013-launched Chang'e 3 with its Lunar Ultraviolet Telescope still operational. Five retroreflectors have been installed on the Moon since the 1970s and since used for accurate measurements of the physical librations through laser ranging to the Moon. Increasing human activity in cislunar space as well as on the Moon's surface, particularly missions at the far side of the Moon or the lunar north and south polar regions, are in need for a lunar infrastructure. For that purpose, orbiters in orbits around the Moon or the Earth–Moon Lagrange points, have since 2006 been operated. With highly eccentric orbits providing continuous communication, as with the orbit of Queqiao and Queqiao-2 relay satellite or the planned first extraterrestrial space station, the Lunar Gateway. There are several missions by different agencies and companies planned to establish a long-term human presence on the Moon, with the Lunar Gateway as the currently most advanced project as part of the Artemis program. Human impact
While the Moon has the lowest planetary protection target-categorization, its degradation as a pristine body and scientific place has been discussed.
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Moon
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395
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most advanced project as part of the Artemis program . Human impact While the Moon has the lowest planetary protection target-categorization , its degradation as a pristine body and scientific place has been discussed .If there is astronomy performed from the Moon, it will need to be free from any physical and radio pollution. While the Moon has no significant atmosphere, traffic and impacts on the Moon causes clouds of dust that can spread far and possibly contaminate the original state of the Moon and its special scientific content. Scholar Alice Gorman asserts that, although the Moon is inhospitable, describing the Moon as dead negates its dynamics, which requires sustainable human activity to treat the Moon's ecology as a co-participant. The so-called "Tardigrade affair" of the 2019 crashed Beresheet lander and its carrying of tardigrades has been discussed as an example for lacking measures and lacking international regulation for planetary protection. Space debris beyond Earth around the Moon has been considered as a future challenge with increasing numbers of missions to the Moon, particularly as a danger for such missions. As such lunar waste management has been raised as an issue which future lunar missions, particularly on the surface, need to tackle. Human remains have been transported to the Moon, including by private companies such as Celestis and Elysium Space. Because the Moon has been sacred or significant to many cultures, the practice of space burials have attracted criticism from indigenous peoples leaders. For example, then–Navajo Nation president Albert Hale criticized NASA for sending the cremated ashes of scientist Eugene Shoemaker to the Moon in 1998. Beside the remains of human activity on the Moon, there have been some intended permanent installations like the Moon Museum art piece, Apollo 11 goodwill messages, six lunar plaques, the Fallen Astronaut memorial, and other artifacts. Astronomy from the Moon
The Moon has been used as a site for astronomical and Earth observations.
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Moon
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396
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11 goodwill messages , six lunar plaques , the Fallen Astronaut memorial , and other artifacts . Astronomy from the Moon The Moon has been used as a site for astronomical and Earth observations .The Earth appears in the Moon's sky with an apparent size of 1° 48′ to 2°, three to four times the size of the Moon or Sun in Earth's sky, or about the apparent width of two little fingers at an arm's length away. Observations from the Moon started as early as 1966 with the first images of Earth from the Moon, taken by Lunar Orbiter 1. Of particular cultural significance is the 1968 photograph called Earthrise, taken by Bill Anders of Apollo 8 in 1968. In April 1972 the Apollo 16 mission set up the first dedicated telescope, the Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph, recording various astronomical photos and spectra. The Moon is recognized as an excellent site for telescopes. It is relatively nearby; certain craters near the poles are permanently dark and cold and especially useful for infrared telescopes; and radio telescopes on the far side would be shielded from the radio chatter of Earth. The lunar soil, although it poses a problem for any moving parts of telescopes, can be mixed with carbon nanotubes and epoxies and employed in the construction of mirrors up to 50 meters in diameter. A lunar zenith telescope can be made cheaply with an ionic liquid. With increased human activity on the surface of the Moon the atmospheric circulation of lunar dust will increase, reducing the favourable conditions for astronomy from the surface depending on meassures to mitigate the spread of lunar dust. Living on the Moon
Humans have lived on the Moon in groups of two and for up to three days. Altogether twelve people have stayed on the Moon over the course of six visits. They all lived in one type of surface habitat, the Apollo Lunar Module.
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Moon
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up to three days . Altogether twelve people have stayed on the Moon over the course of six visits . They all lived in one type of surface habitat , the Apollo Lunar Module .In the course of these stays some people have spent in total up to one day roaming the surface. Challenges when roaming the surface arise from lunar dust sticking to suits and tools, and has been carried inside the habitats. Astronauts could taste and smell the dust, which smells like gunpowder and was called the "Apollo aroma". This fine lunar dust can cause health issues. In 2019, at least one plant seed sprouted in an experiment on the Chang'e 4 lander. It was carried from Earth along with other small life in its Lunar Micro Ecosystem. Legal status
Although Luna landers scattered pennants of the Soviet Union on the Moon, and U.S. flags were symbolically planted at their landing sites by the Apollo astronauts, no nation claims ownership of any part of the Moon's surface. Likewise no private ownership of parts of the Moon, or as a whole, is considered credible. The 1967 Outer Space Treaty defines the Moon and all outer space as the "province of all mankind". It restricts the use of the Moon to peaceful purposes, explicitly banning military installations and weapons of mass destruction. A majority of countries are parties of this treaty. The 1979 Moon Agreement was created to elaborate, and restrict the exploitation of the Moon's resources by any single nation, leaving it to a yet unspecified international regulatory regime. As of January 2020, it has been signed and ratified by 18 nations, none of which have human spaceflight capabilities. Since 2020, countries have joined the U.S. in their Artemis Accords, which are challenging the treaty.
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been signed and ratified by 18 nations , none of which have human spaceflight capabilities . Since 2020 , countries have joined the U.S. in their Artemis Accords , which are challenging the treaty .The U.S. has furthermore emphasized in a presidential executive order ("Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources.") that "the United States does not view outer space as a 'global commons'" and calls the Moon Agreement "a failed attempt at constraining free enterprise". With Australia signing and ratifying both the Moon Treaty in 1986 as well as the Artemis Accords in 2020, there has been a discussion if they can be harmonized. In this light an Implementation Agreement for the Moon Treaty has been advocated for, as a way to compensate for the shortcomings of the Moon Treaty and to harmonize it with other laws and agreements such as the Artemis Accords, allowing it to be more widely accepted. In the face of such increasing commercial and national interest, particularly prospecting territories, U.S. lawmakers have introduced in late 2020 specific regulation for the conservation of historic landing sites and interest groups have argued for making such sites World Heritage Sites and zones of scientific value protected zones, all of which add to the legal availability and territorialization of the Moon. In 2021, the Declaration of the Rights of the Moon was created by a group of "lawyers, space archaeologists and concerned citizens", drawing on precedents in the Rights of Nature movement and the concept of legal personality for non-human entities in space. Coordination and regulation
Increasing human activity at the Moon has raised the need for coordination to safeguard international and commercial lunar activity. Issues from cooperation to mere coordination, through for example the development of a shared Lunar time, have been raised.
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Moon
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raised the need for coordination to safeguard international and commercial lunar activity . Issues from cooperation to mere coordination , through for example the development of a shared Lunar time , have been raised .In particular the establishment of an international or United Nations regulatory regime for lunar human activity has been called for by the Moon Treaty and suggested through an Implementation Agreement, but remains contentious. Current lunar programs are multilateral, with the US-led Artemis program and the China-led International Lunar Research Station. For broader international cooperation and coordination, the International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG), the Moon Village Association (MVA) and more generally the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG) has been established. In culture and life
Timekeeping
Since pre-historic times people have taken note of the Moon's phases and its waxing and waning cycle and used it to keep record of time. Tally sticks, notched bones dating as far back as 20–30,000 years ago, are believed by some to mark the phases of the Moon. The counting of the days between the Moon's phases eventually gave rise to generalized time periods of lunar cycles as months, and possibly of its phases as weeks. The words for the month in a range of different languages carry this relation between the period of the month and the Moon etymologically. The English month as well as moon, and its cognates in other Indo-European languages (e.g. the Latin mensis and Ancient Greek μείς (meis) or μήν (mēn), meaning "month") stem from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root of moon, *méh1nōt, derived from the PIE verbal root *meh1-, "to measure", "indicat[ing] a functional conception of the Moon, i.e. marker of the month" (cf. the English words measure and menstrual).
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Moon
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