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`` to measure '' , `` indicat [ ing ] a functional conception of the Moon , i.e . marker of the month '' ( cf . the English words measure and menstrual ) .To give another example from a different language family, the Chinese language uses the same word (月) for moon as for month, which furthermore can be found in the symbols for the word week (星期). This lunar timekeeping gave rise to the historically dominant, but varied, lunisolar calendars. The 7th-century Islamic calendar is an example of a purely lunar calendar, where months are traditionally determined by the visual sighting of the hilal, or earliest crescent moon, over the horizon. Of particular significance has been the occasion of full moon, highlighted and celebrated in a range of calendars and cultures, an example being the Buddhist Vesak. The full moon around the southern or northern autumnal equinox is often called the harvest moon and is celebrated with festivities such as the Harvest Moon Festival of the Chinese lunar calendar, its second most important celebration after the Chinese lunisolar Lunar New Year. Furthermore, association of time with the Moon can also be found in religion, such as the ancient Egyptian temporal and lunar deity Khonsu. Cultural representation
Humans have not only observed the Moon since prehistoric times, but have also developed intricate perceptions of the Moon. Over time the Moon has been characterized and associated in many different ways, from having a spirit or being a deity, and an aspect thereof or an aspect in astrology, being made an important part of many cosmologies. This rich history of humans viewing the Moon has been evidenced starting with depictions from 40,000 BP and in written form from the 4th millennium BCE in the earliest cases of writing.
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cosmologies . This rich history of humans viewing the Moon has been evidenced starting with depictions from 40,000 BP and in written form from the 4th millennium BCE in the earliest cases of writing .The oldest named astronomer and poet Enheduanna, Akkadian high priestess to the lunar deity Nanna/Sin and daughter of Sargon the Great (c. 2334 – c. 2279 BCE), tracked the Moon and wrote poems about her divine Moon. Crescent
For the representation of the Moon, especially its lunar phases, the crescent (🌙) has been a recurring symbol in a range of cultures since at least 3,000 BCE or possibly earlier with bull horns dating to the earliest cave paintings at 40,000 BP. In writing systems such as Chinese the crescent has developed into the symbol 月, the word for Moon, and in ancient Egyptian it was the symbol 𓇹, meaning Moon and spelled like the ancient Egyptian lunar deity Iah, which the other ancient Egyptian lunar deities Khonsu and Thoth were associated with. Iconographically the crescent was used in Mesopotamia as the primary symbol of Nanna/Sîn, the ancient Sumerian lunar deity, who was the father of Inanna/Ishtar, the goddess of the planet Venus (symbolized as the eight pointed Star of Ishtar), and Utu/Shamash, the god of the Sun (symbolized as a disc, optionally with eight rays), all three often depicted next to each other. Nanna/Sîn is, like some other lunar deities, for example Iah and Khonsu of ancient Egypt, Mene/Selene of ancient Greece and Luna of ancient Rome, depicted as a horned deity, featuring crescent shaped headgears or crowns. The particular arrangement of the crescent with a star known as the star and crescent (☪️) goes back to the Bronze Age, representing either the Sun and Moon, or the Moon and the planet Venus, in combination.
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Moon
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star known as the star and crescent ( ☪️ ) goes back to the Bronze Age , representing either the Sun and Moon , or the Moon and the planet Venus , in combination .It came to represent the selene goddess Artemis, and via the patronage of Hecate, which as triple deity under the epithet trimorphos/trivia included aspects of Artemis/Diana, came to be used as a symbol of Byzantium, with Virgin Mary (Queen of Heaven) later taking her place, becoming depicted in Marian veneration on a crescent and adorned with stars. Since then the heraldric use of the star and crescent proliferated, Byzantium's symbolism possibly influencing the development of the Ottoman flag, specifically the combination of the Turkish crescent with a star, and becoming a popular symbol for Islam (as the hilal of the Islamic calendar) and for a range of nations. Other associations
The features of the Moon, the contrasting brighter highlands and darker maria, have been seen by different cultures forming abstract shapes. Such shapes are among others the Man in the Moon (e.g. Coyolxāuhqui) or the Moon Rabbit (e.g. the Chinese Tu'er Ye or in Indigenous American mythologies the aspect of the Mayan Moon goddess, from which possibly Awilix is derived, or of Metztli/Tēcciztēcatl). Occasionally some lunar deities have been also depicted driving a chariot across the sky, such as the Hindu Chandra/Soma, the Greek Artemis, which is associated with Selene, or Luna, Selene's ancient Roman equivalent. Color and material wise the Moon has been associated in Western alchemy with silver, while gold is associated with the Sun. Through a miracle, the so-called splitting of the Moon (Arabic: انشقاق القمر) in Islam, association with the Moon applies also to Muhammad.
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Moon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.
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403
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gold is associated with the Sun . Through a miracle , the so-called splitting of the Moon ( Arabic : انشقاق القمر ) in Islam , association with the Moon applies also to Muhammad .Representation in modern culture
The perception of the Moon in the modern era has been informed by telescope-enabled modern astronomy and later by spaceflight which enabled actual human activity at the Moon, particularly the culturally impactful lunar landings. These new insights inspired cultural references, connecting romantic reflections about the Moon and speculative fiction such as science-fiction dealing with the Moon. Contemporarily the Moon has been seen as a place for economic expansion into space, with missions prospecting for lunar resources. This has been accompanied with renewed public and critical reflection on humanity's cultural and legal relation to the celestial body, especially regarding colonialism, as in the 1970 poem "Whitey on the Moon". In this light the Moon's nature has been invoked, particularly for lunar conservation and as a common. In 2021 20 July, the date of the first crewed Moon landing, became the annual International Moon Day. Lunar effect
The lunar effect is an unproven correlation between specific stages of the roughly 29.5-day lunar cycle and behavior and physiological changes in living beings on Earth, including humans. The Moon has long been associated with insanity and irrationality; the words lunacy and lunatic are derived from the Latin name for the Moon, Luna. Philosophers Aristotle and Pliny the Elder argued that the full moon induced insanity in susceptible individuals, believing that the brain, which is mostly water, must be affected by the Moon and its power over the tides, but the Moon's gravity is too slight to affect any single person.
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Moon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon.
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404
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the brain , which is mostly water , must be affected by the Moon and its power over the tides , but the Moon 's gravity is too slight to affect any single person .Even today, people who believe in a lunar effect claim that admissions to psychiatric hospitals, traffic accidents, homicides or suicides increase during a full moon, but over 37 studies invalidate these claims. Lunar cycles have significant impacts on human culture but no solid evidence connects these cycles to human biology. See also
List of natural satellites
Selenography – Study of the surface and shape of the Moon
Timekeeping on the Moon
Explanatory notes
References
Further reading
External links
NASA images and videos about the Moon Archived July 13, 2023, at the Wayback Machine
Video (04:56) – The Moon in 4K (NASA, April 2018) on YouTube
Find moonrise, moonset and moon phase for a location
Cartographic resources
Unified Geologic Map of the Moon – United States Geological Survey
Moon Trek – An integrated map browser of datasets and maps for the Moon
Consolidated Lunar Atlas
3D zoomable globes:
The Moon on Google Maps, a 3-D rendition of the Moon akin to Google Earth
World Wind Central on Moon Archived May 15, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
Maps and panoramas at Apollo landing sites
earthly mission
Large image of the Moon's north pole area
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Moon
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405
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There is evidence that the formation of the Solar System began about 4.6 billion years ago with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular cloud. Most of the collapsing mass collected in the center, forming the Sun, while the rest flattened into a protoplanetary disk out of which the planets, moons, asteroids, and other small Solar System bodies formed. This model, known as the nebular hypothesis, was first developed in the 18th century by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace. Its subsequent development has interwoven a variety of scientific disciplines including astronomy, chemistry, geology, physics, and planetary science. Since the dawn of the Space Age in the 1950s and the discovery of exoplanets in the 1990s, the model has been both challenged and refined to account for new observations. The Solar System has evolved considerably since its initial formation. Many moons have formed from circling discs of gas and dust around their parent planets, while other moons are thought to have formed independently and later to have been captured by their planets. Still others, such as Earth's Moon, may be the result of giant collisions. Collisions between bodies have occurred continually up to the present day and have been central to the evolution of the Solar System. Beyond Neptune, many sub-planet sized objects formed. Several thousand trans-Neptunian objects have been observed. Unlike the planets, these trans-Neptunian objects mostly move on eccentric orbits, inclined to the plane of the planets. The positions of the planets might have shifted due to gravitational interactions. The process of planetary migration explains parts of the Solar System's current structure.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.
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to the plane of the planets . The positions of the planets might have shifted due to gravitational interactions . The process of planetary migration explains parts of the Solar System 's current structure .In roughly 5 billion years, the Sun will cool and expand outward to many times its current diameter, becoming a red giant, before casting off its outer layers as a planetary nebula and leaving behind a stellar remnant known as a white dwarf. In the distant future, the gravity of passing stars will gradually reduce the Sun's retinue of planets. Some planets will be destroyed, and others ejected into interstellar space. Ultimately, over the course of tens of billions of years, it is likely that the Sun will be left with none of the original bodies in orbit around it. History
Ideas concerning the origin and fate of the world date from the earliest known writings; however, for almost all of that time, there was no attempt to link such theories to the existence of a "Solar System", simply because it was not generally thought that the Solar System, in the sense we now understand it, existed. The first step toward a theory of Solar System formation and evolution was the general acceptance of heliocentrism, which placed the Sun at the centre of the system and the Earth in orbit around it. This concept had been developed for millennia (Aristarchus of Samos had suggested it as early as 250 BC), but was not widely accepted until the end of the 17th century. The first recorded use of the term "Solar System" dates from 1704. The current standard theory for Solar System formation, the nebular hypothesis, has fallen into and out of favour since its formulation by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace in the 18th century.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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theory for Solar System formation , the nebular hypothesis , has fallen into and out of favour since its formulation by Emanuel Swedenborg , Immanuel Kant , and Pierre-Simon Laplace in the 18th century .The most significant criticism of the hypothesis was its apparent inability to explain the Sun's relative lack of angular momentum when compared to the planets. However, since the early 1980s studies of young stars have shown them to be surrounded by cool discs of dust and gas, exactly as the nebular hypothesis predicts, which has led to its re-acceptance. Understanding of how the Sun is expected to continue to evolve required an understanding of the source of its power. Arthur Stanley Eddington's confirmation of Albert Einstein's theory of relativity led to his realisation that the Sun's energy comes from nuclear fusion reactions in its core, fusing hydrogen into helium. In 1935, Eddington went further and suggested that other elements also might form within stars. Fred Hoyle elaborated on this premise by arguing that evolved stars called red giants created many elements heavier than hydrogen and helium in their cores. When a red giant finally casts off its outer layers, these elements would then be recycled to form other star systems. Formation
Presolar nebula
The nebular hypothesis says that the Solar System formed from the gravitational collapse of a fragment of a giant molecular cloud, most likely at the edge of a Wolf-Rayet bubble. The cloud was about 20 parsecs (pc), or approximately 65 light-years (ly) across, while the fragments were roughly 1 pc (~3.26 ly) across. The further collapse of the fragments led to the formation of dense cores 0.01–0.1 parsec (2,000–20,000 AU) in size. One of these collapsing fragments (known as the presolar nebula) formed what became the Solar System.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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led to the formation of dense cores 0.01–0.1 parsec ( 2,000–20,000 AU ) in size . One of these collapsing fragments ( known as the presolar nebula ) formed what became the Solar System .The composition of this region with a mass just over that of the Sun (M☉) was about the same as that of the Sun today, with hydrogen, along with helium and trace amounts of lithium produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis, forming about 98% of its mass. The remaining 2% of the mass consisted of heavier elements that were created by nucleosynthesis in earlier generations of stars. Late in the life of these stars, they ejected heavier elements into the interstellar medium. Some scientists have given the name Coatlicue to a hypothetical star that went supernova and created the presolar nebula. The oldest inclusions found in meteorites, thought to trace the first solid material to form in the presolar nebula, are 4,568.2 million years old, which is one definition of the age of the Solar System. Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short-lived isotopes, such as iron-60, that only form in exploding, short-lived stars. This indicates that one or more supernovae occurred nearby. A shock wave from a supernova may have triggered the formation of the Sun by creating relatively dense regions within the cloud, causing these regions to collapse. The highly homogeneous distribution of iron-60 in the Solar System points to the occurrence of this supernova and its injection of iron-60 being well before the accretion of nebular dust into planetary bodies. Because only massive, short-lived stars produce supernovae, the Sun must have formed in a large star-forming region that produced massive stars, possibly similar to the Orion Nebula.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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into planetary bodies . Because only massive , short-lived stars produce supernovae , the Sun must have formed in a large star-forming region that produced massive stars , possibly similar to the Orion Nebula .Studies of the structure of the Kuiper belt and of anomalous materials within it suggest that the Sun formed within a cluster of between 1,000 and 10,000 stars with a diameter of between 6.5 and 19.5 ly and a collective mass of 3,000 M☉. This cluster began to break apart between 135 million and 535 million years after formation. Several simulations of our young Sun interacting with close-passing stars over the first 100 million years of its life produced anomalous orbits observed in the outer Solar System, such as detached objects. A recent study suggests that such a passing star is not only responsible for the orbits of the detached objects but also the hot and cold Kuiper belt population, the Sedna-like objects, the extreme TNOs and the retrograde TNOs. Because of the conservation of angular momentum, the nebula spun faster as it collapsed. As the material within the nebula condensed, the temperature rose. The center, where most of the mass collected, became increasingly hotter than the surrounding disc. Over about 100,000 years, the competing forces of gravity, gas pressure, magnetic fields, and rotation caused the contracting nebula to flatten into a spinning protoplanetary disc with a diameter of about 200 AU and form a hot, dense protostar (a star in which hydrogen fusion has not yet begun) at the centre.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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into a spinning protoplanetary disc with a diameter of about 200 AU and form a hot , dense protostar ( a star in which hydrogen fusion has not yet begun ) at the centre .Since about half of all known stars form systems of multiple stars, and because Jupiter is made of the same elements as the Sun (hydrogen and helium), it has been suggested that the Solar System might have been early in its formation a protostar system with Jupiter being the second but failed protostar, but Jupiter has far too little mass to trigger fusion in its core and so became a gas giant; it is in fact younger than the Sun and the oldest planet of the Solar System. At this point in the Sun's evolution, the Sun is thought to have been a T Tauri star. Studies of T Tauri stars show that they are often accompanied by discs of pre-planetary matter with masses of 0.001–0.1 M☉. These discs extend to several hundred AU—the Hubble Space Telescope has observed protoplanetary discs of up to 1000 AU in diameter in star-forming regions such as the Orion Nebula—and are rather cool, reaching a surface temperature of only about 1,000 K (730 °C; 1,340 °F) at their hottest. Within 50 million years, the temperature and pressure at the core of the Sun became so great that its hydrogen began to fuse, creating an internal source of energy that countered gravitational contraction until hydrostatic equilibrium was achieved. This marked the Sun's entry into the prime phase of its life, known as the main sequence. Main-sequence stars derive energy from the fusion of hydrogen into helium in their cores. The Sun remains a main-sequence star today. As the early Solar System continued to evolve, it eventually drifted away from its siblings in the stellar nursery, and continued orbiting the Milky Way's center on its own.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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today . As the early Solar System continued to evolve , it eventually drifted away from its siblings in the stellar nursery , and continued orbiting the Milky Way 's center on its own .The Sun likely drifted from its original orbital distance from the center of the galaxy. The chemical history of the Sun suggests it may have formed as much as 3 kpc closer to the galaxy core. Solar System birth environment
Like most stars, the Sun likely formed not in isolation but as part of a young star cluster. There are several indications that hint at the cluster environment having had some influence over the young, still-forming Solar System. For example, the decline in mass beyond Neptune and the extreme eccentric-orbit of Sedna have been interpreted as a signature of the Solar System having been influenced by its birth environment. Whether the presence of the isotopes iron-60 and aluminium-26 can be interpreted as a sign of a birth cluster containing massive stars is still under debate. If the Sun was part of a star cluster, it might have been influenced by close flybys of other stars, the strong radiation of nearby massive stars and ejecta from supernovae occurring close by. Formation of the planets
The various planets are thought to have formed from the solar nebula, the disc-shaped cloud of gas and dust left over from the Sun's formation. The currently accepted method by which the planets formed is accretion, in which the planets began as dust grains in orbit around the central protostar. Through direct contact and self-organization, these grains formed into clumps up to 200 m (660 ft) in diameter, which in turn collided to form larger bodies (planetesimals) of ~10 km (6.2 mi) in size. These gradually increased through further collisions, growing at the rate of centimetres per year over the course of the next few million years.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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of ~10 km ( 6.2 mi ) in size . These gradually increased through further collisions , growing at the rate of centimetres per year over the course of the next few million years .The inner Solar System, the region of the Solar System inside 4 AU, was too warm for volatile molecules like water and methane to condense, so the planetesimals that formed there could only form from compounds with high melting points, such as metals (like iron, nickel, and aluminium) and rocky silicates. These rocky bodies would become the terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars). These compounds are quite rare in the Universe, comprising only 0.6% of the mass of the nebula, so the terrestrial planets could not grow very large. The terrestrial embryos grew to about 0.05 Earth masses (M🜨) and ceased accumulating matter about 100,000 years after the formation of the Sun; subsequent collisions and mergers between these planet-sized bodies allowed terrestrial planets to grow to their present sizes. When terrestrial planets were forming, they remained immersed in a disk of gas and dust. Pressure partially supported the gas and so did not orbit the Sun as rapidly as the planets. The resulting drag and, more importantly, gravitational interactions with the surrounding material caused a transfer of angular momentum, and as a result the planets gradually migrated to new orbits. Models show that density and temperature variations in the disk governed this rate of migration, but the net trend was for the inner planets to migrate inward as the disk dissipated, leaving the planets in their current orbits. The giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) formed further out, beyond the frost line, which is the point between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where the material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.
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) formed further out , beyond the frost line , which is the point between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where the material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid .The ices that formed the Jovian planets were more abundant than the metals and silicates that formed the terrestrial planets, allowing the giant planets to grow massive enough to capture hydrogen and helium, the lightest and most abundant elements. Planetesimals beyond the frost line accumulated up to 4 M🜨 within about 3 million years. Today, the four giant planets comprise just under 99% of all the mass orbiting the Sun. Theorists believe it is no accident that Jupiter lies just beyond the frost line. Because the frost line accumulated large amounts of water via evaporation from infalling icy material, it created a region of lower pressure that increased the speed of orbiting dust particles and halted their motion toward the Sun. In effect, the frost line acted as a barrier that caused the material to accumulate rapidly at ~5 AU from the Sun. This excess material coalesced into a large embryo (or core) on the order of 10 M🜨, which began to accumulate an envelope via accretion of gas from the surrounding disc at an ever-increasing rate. Once the envelope mass became about equal to the solid core mass, growth proceeded very rapidly, reaching about 150 Earth masses ~105 years thereafter and finally topping out at 318 M🜨. Saturn may owe its substantially lower mass simply to having formed a few million years after Jupiter, when there was less gas available to consume. T Tauri stars like the young Sun have far stronger stellar winds than more stable, older stars. Uranus and Neptune are thought to have formed after Jupiter and Saturn did, when the strong solar wind had blown away much of the disc material.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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than more stable , older stars . Uranus and Neptune are thought to have formed after Jupiter and Saturn did , when the strong solar wind had blown away much of the disc material .As a result, those planets accumulated little hydrogen and helium—not more than 1 M🜨 each. Uranus and Neptune are sometimes referred to as failed cores. The main problem with formation theories for these planets is the timescale of their formation. At the current locations it would have taken millions of years for their cores to accrete. This means that Uranus and Neptune may have formed closer to the Sun—near or even between Jupiter and Saturn—later migrating or being ejected outward (see Planetary migration below). Motion in the planetesimal era was not all inward toward the Sun; the Stardust sample return from Comet Wild 2 has suggested that materials from the early formation of the Solar System migrated from the warmer inner Solar System to the region of the Kuiper belt. After between three and ten million years, the young Sun's solar wind would have cleared away all the gas and dust in the protoplanetary disc, blowing it into interstellar space, thus ending the growth of the planets. Subsequent evolution
The planets were originally thought to have formed in or near their current orbits. This has been questioned during the last 20 years. Currently, many planetary scientists think that the Solar System might have looked very different after its initial formation: several objects at least as massive as Mercury may have been present in the inner Solar System, the outer Solar System may have been much more compact than it is now, and the Kuiper belt may have been much closer to the Sun. Terrestrial planets
At the end of the planetary formation epoch, the inner Solar System was populated by 50–100 Moon-to-Mars-sized protoplanets.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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and the Kuiper belt may have been much closer to the Sun . Terrestrial planets At the end of the planetary formation epoch , the inner Solar System was populated by 50–100 Moon-to-Mars-sized protoplanets .Further growth was possible only because these bodies collided and merged, which took less than 100 million years. These objects would have gravitationally interacted with one another, tugging at each other's orbits until they collided, growing larger until the four terrestrial planets we know today took shape. One such giant collision is thought to have formed the Moon (see Moons below), while another removed the outer envelope of the young Mercury. One unresolved issue with this model is that it cannot explain how the initial orbits of the proto-terrestrial planets, which would have needed to be highly eccentric in order to collide, produced the remarkably stable and nearly circular orbits they have today. One hypothesis for this "eccentricity dumping" is that terrestrials formed in a disc of gas still not expelled by the Sun. The "gravitational drag" of this residual gas would have eventually lowered the planets' energy, smoothing out their orbits. However, such gas, if it existed, would have prevented the terrestrial planets' orbits from becoming so eccentric in the first place. Another hypothesis is that gravitational drag occurred not between the planets and residual gas but between the planets and the remaining small bodies. As the large bodies moved through the crowd of smaller objects, the smaller objects, attracted by the larger planets' gravity, formed a region of higher density, a "gravitational wake", in the larger objects' path. As they did so, the increased gravity of the wake slowed the larger objects down into more regular orbits. Asteroid belt
The outer edge of the terrestrial region, between 2 and 4 AU from the Sun, is called the asteroid belt.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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slowed the larger objects down into more regular orbits . Asteroid belt The outer edge of the terrestrial region , between 2 and 4 AU from the Sun , is called the asteroid belt .The asteroid belt initially contained more than enough matter to form 2–3 Earth-like planets, and, indeed, a large number of planetesimals formed there. As with the terrestrials, planetesimals in this region later coalesced and formed 20–30 Moon- to Mars-sized planetary embryos; however, the proximity of Jupiter meant that after this planet formed, 3 million years after the Sun, the region's history changed dramatically. Orbital resonances with Jupiter and Saturn are particularly strong in the asteroid belt, and gravitational interactions with more massive embryos scattered many planetesimals into those resonances. Jupiter's gravity increased the velocity of objects within these resonances, causing them to shatter upon collision with other bodies, rather than accrete. As Jupiter migrated inward following its formation (see Planetary migration below), resonances would have swept across the asteroid belt, dynamically exciting the region's population and increasing their velocities relative to each other. The cumulative action of the resonances and the embryos either scattered the planetesimals away from the asteroid belt or excited their orbital inclinations and eccentricities. Some of those massive embryos too were ejected by Jupiter, while others may have migrated to the inner Solar System and played a role in the final accretion of the terrestrial planets. During this primary depletion period, the effects of the giant planets and planetary embryos left the asteroid belt with a total mass equivalent to less than 1% that of the Earth, composed mainly of small planetesimals. This is still 10–20 times more than the current mass in the main belt, which is now about 0.0005 M🜨.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.
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1 % that of the Earth , composed mainly of small planetesimals . This is still 10–20 times more than the current mass in the main belt , which is now about 0.0005 M🜨 .A secondary depletion period that brought the asteroid belt down close to its present mass is thought to have followed when Jupiter and Saturn entered a temporary 2:1 orbital resonance (see below). The inner Solar System's period of giant impacts probably played a role in Earth acquiring its current water content (~6×1021 kg) from the early asteroid belt. Water is too volatile to have been present at Earth's formation and must have been subsequently delivered from outer, colder parts of the Solar System. The water was probably delivered by planetary embryos and small planetesimals thrown out of the asteroid belt by Jupiter. A population of main-belt comets discovered in 2006 has also been suggested as a possible source for Earth's water. In contrast, comets from the Kuiper belt or farther regions delivered not more than about 6% of Earth's water. The panspermia hypothesis holds that life itself may have been deposited on Earth in this way, although this idea is not widely accepted. Planetary migration
According to the nebular hypothesis, the outer two planets may be in the "wrong place". Uranus and Neptune (known as the "ice giants") exist in a region where the reduced density of the solar nebula and longer orbital times render their formation there highly implausible. The two are instead thought to have formed in orbits near Jupiter and Saturn (known as the "gas giants"), where more material was available, and to have migrated outward to their current positions over hundreds of millions of years. The migration of the outer planets is also necessary to account for the existence and properties of the Solar System's outermost regions.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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to their current positions over hundreds of millions of years . The migration of the outer planets is also necessary to account for the existence and properties of the Solar System 's outermost regions .Beyond Neptune, the Solar System continues into the Kuiper belt, the scattered disc, and the Oort cloud, three sparse populations of small icy bodies thought to be the points of origin for most observed comets. At their distance from the Sun, accretion was too slow to allow planets to form before the solar nebula dispersed, and thus the initial disc lacked enough mass density to consolidate into a planet. The Kuiper belt lies between 30 and 55 AU from the Sun, while the farther scattered disc extends to over 100 AU, and the distant Oort cloud begins at about 50,000 AU. Originally, however, the Kuiper belt was much denser and closer to the Sun, with an outer edge at approximately 30 AU. Its inner edge would have been just beyond the orbits of Uranus and Neptune, which were in turn far closer to the Sun when they formed (most likely in the range of 15–20 AU), and in 50% of simulations ended up in opposite locations, with Uranus farther from the Sun than Neptune. According to the Nice model, after the formation of the Solar System, the orbits of all the giant planets continued to change slowly, influenced by their interaction with the large number of remaining planetesimals. After 500–600 million years (about 4 billion years ago) Jupiter and Saturn fell into a 2:1 resonance: Saturn orbited the Sun once for every two Jupiter orbits. This resonance created a gravitational push against the outer planets, possibly causing Neptune to surge past Uranus and plough into the ancient Kuiper belt. The planets scattered the majority of the small icy bodies inwards, while themselves moving outwards.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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outer planets , possibly causing Neptune to surge past Uranus and plough into the ancient Kuiper belt . The planets scattered the majority of the small icy bodies inwards , while themselves moving outwards .These planetesimals then scattered off the next planet they encountered in a similar manner, moving the planets' orbits outwards while they moved inwards. This process continued until the planetesimals interacted with Jupiter, whose immense gravity sent them into highly elliptical orbits or even ejected them outright from the Solar System. This caused Jupiter to move slightly inward. Those objects scattered by Jupiter into highly elliptical orbits formed the Oort cloud; those objects scattered to a lesser degree by the migrating Neptune formed the current Kuiper belt and scattered disc. This scenario explains the Kuiper belt's and scattered disc's present low mass. Some of the scattered objects, including Pluto, became gravitationally tied to Neptune's orbit, forcing them into mean-motion resonances. Eventually, friction within the planetesimal disc made the orbits of Uranus and Neptune near-circular again. In contrast to the outer planets, the inner planets are not thought to have migrated significantly over the age of the Solar System, because their orbits have remained stable following the period of giant impacts. Another question is why Mars came out so small compared with Earth. A study by Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, published June 6, 2011 (called the Grand tack hypothesis), proposes that Jupiter had migrated inward to 1.5 AU. After Saturn formed, migrated inward, and established the 2:3 mean motion resonance with Jupiter, the study assumes that both planets migrated back to their present positions. Jupiter thus would have consumed much of the material that would have created a bigger Mars. The same simulations also reproduce the characteristics of the modern asteroid belt, with dry asteroids and water-rich objects similar to comets.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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much of the material that would have created a bigger Mars . The same simulations also reproduce the characteristics of the modern asteroid belt , with dry asteroids and water-rich objects similar to comets .However, it is unclear whether conditions in the solar nebula would have allowed Jupiter and Saturn to move back to their current positions, and according to current estimates this possibility appears unlikely. Moreover, alternative explanations for the small mass of Mars exist. Late Heavy Bombardment and after
Gravitational disruption from the outer planets' migration would have sent large numbers of asteroids into the inner Solar System, severely depleting the original belt until it reached today's extremely low mass. This event may have triggered the Late Heavy Bombardment that is hypothesised to have occurred approximately 4 billion years ago, 500–600 million years after the formation of the Solar System. However, a recent re-appraisal of the cosmo-chemical constraints indicates that there was likely no late spike ("terminal cataclysm") in the bombardment rate. If it occurred, this period of heavy bombardment lasted several hundred million years and is evident in the cratering still visible on geologically dead bodies of the inner Solar System such as the Moon and Mercury. The oldest known evidence for life on Earth dates to 3.8 billion years ago—almost immediately after the end of the Late Heavy Bombardment. Impacts are thought to be a regular (if currently infrequent) part of the evolution of the Solar System. That they continue to happen is evidenced by the collision of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994, the 2009 Jupiter impact event, the Tunguska event, the Chelyabinsk meteor and the impact that created Meteor Crater in Arizona. The process of accretion, therefore, is not complete, and may still pose a threat to life on Earth.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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the Chelyabinsk meteor and the impact that created Meteor Crater in Arizona . The process of accretion , therefore , is not complete , and may still pose a threat to life on Earth .Over the course of the Solar System's evolution, comets were ejected out of the inner Solar System by the gravity of the giant planets and sent thousands of AU outward to form the Oort cloud, a spherical outer swarm of cometary nuclei at the farthest extent of the Sun's gravitational pull. Eventually, after about 800 million years, the gravitational disruption caused by galactic tides, passing stars and giant molecular clouds began to deplete the cloud, sending comets into the inner Solar System. The evolution of the outer Solar System also appears to have been influenced by space weathering from the solar wind, micrometeorites, and the neutral components of the interstellar medium. The evolution of the asteroid belt after Late Heavy Bombardment was mainly governed by collisions. Objects with large mass have enough gravity to retain any material ejected by a violent collision. In the asteroid belt this usually is not the case. As a result, many larger objects have been broken apart, and sometimes newer objects have been forged from the remnants in less violent collisions. Moons around some asteroids currently can only be explained as consolidations of material flung away from the parent object without enough energy to entirely escape its gravity. Moons
Moons have come to exist around most planets and many other Solar System bodies. These natural satellites originated by one of three possible mechanisms:
Co-formation from a circumplanetary disc (only in the cases of the giant planets);
Formation from impact debris (given a large enough impact at a shallow angle); and
Capture of a passing object.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.
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disc ( only in the cases of the giant planets ) ; Formation from impact debris ( given a large enough impact at a shallow angle ) ; and Capture of a passing object .Jupiter and Saturn have several large moons, such as Io, Europa, Ganymede and Titan, which may have originated from discs around each giant planet in much the same way that the planets formed from the disc around the Sun. This origin is indicated by the large sizes of the moons and their proximity to the planet. These attributes are impossible to achieve via capture, while the gaseous nature of the primaries also makes formation from collision debris unlikely. The outer moons of the giant planets tend to be small and have eccentric orbits with arbitrary inclinations. These are the characteristics expected of captured bodies. Most such moons orbit in the direction opposite to the rotation of their primary. The largest irregular moon is Neptune's moon Triton, which is thought to be a captured Kuiper belt object. Moons of solid Solar System bodies have been created by both collisions and capture. Mars's two small moons, Deimos and Phobos, are thought to be captured asteroids. The Earth's moon is thought to have formed as a result of a single, large head-on collision. The impacting object probably had a mass comparable to that of Mars, and the impact probably occurred near the end of the period of giant impacts. The collision kicked into orbit some of the impactor's mantle, which then coalesced into the Moon. The impact was probably the last in a series of mergers that formed the Earth. It has been further hypothesized that the Mars-sized object may have formed at one of the stable Earth–Sun Lagrangian points (either L4 or L5) and drifted from its position.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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the Earth . It has been further hypothesized that the Mars-sized object may have formed at one of the stable Earth–Sun Lagrangian points ( either L4 or L5 ) and drifted from its position .The moons of trans-Neptunian objects Pluto (Charon) and Orcus (Vanth) may also have formed by means of a large collision: the Pluto–Charon, Orcus–Vanth and Earth–Moon systems are unusual in the Solar System in that the satellite's mass is at least 1% that of the larger body. Future
Astronomers estimate that the current state of the Solar System will not change drastically until the Sun has fused almost all the hydrogen fuel in its core into helium, beginning its evolution from the main sequence of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram and into its red-giant phase. The Solar System will continue to evolve until then. Eventually, the Sun will likely expand sufficiently to overwhelm the inner planets (Mercury, Venus, and possibly Earth) but not the outer planets, including Jupiter and Saturn. Afterward, the Sun would be reduced to the size of a white dwarf, and the outer planets and their moons would continue orbiting this diminutive solar remnant. This future development may be similar to the observed detection of MOA-2010-BLG-477L b, a Jupiter-sized exoplanet orbiting its host white dwarf star MOA-2010-BLG-477L. Long-term stability
The Solar System is chaotic over million- and billion-year timescales, with the orbits of the planets open to long-term variations. One notable example of this chaos is the Neptune–Pluto system, which lies in a 3:2 orbital resonance. Although the resonance itself will remain stable, it becomes impossible to predict the position of Pluto with any degree of accuracy more than 10–20 million years (the Lyapunov time) into the future.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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the resonance itself will remain stable , it becomes impossible to predict the position of Pluto with any degree of accuracy more than 10–20 million years ( the Lyapunov time ) into the future .Another example is Earth's axial tilt, which, due to friction raised within Earth's mantle by tidal interactions with the Moon (see below), is incomputable from some point between 1.5 and 4.5 billion years from now. The outer planets' orbits are chaotic over longer timescales, with a Lyapunov time in the range of 2–230 million years. In all cases, this means that the position of a planet along its orbit ultimately becomes impossible to predict with any certainty (so, for example, the timing of winter and summer becomes uncertain). Still, in some cases, the orbits themselves may change dramatically. Such chaos manifests most strongly as changes in eccentricity, with some planets' orbits becoming significantly more—or less—elliptical. Ultimately, the Solar System is stable in that none of the planets are likely to collide with each other or be ejected from the system in the next few billion years. Beyond this, within five billion years or so, Mars's eccentricity may grow to around 0.2, such that it lies on an Earth-crossing orbit, leading to a potential collision. In the same timescale, Mercury's eccentricity may grow even further, and a close encounter with Venus could theoretically eject it from the Solar System altogether or send it on a collision course with Venus or Earth. This could happen within a billion years, according to numerical simulations in which Mercury's orbit is perturbed. Moon–ring systems
The evolution of moon systems is driven by tidal forces. A moon will raise a tidal bulge in the object it orbits (the primary) due to the differential gravitational force across diameter of the primary.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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systems is driven by tidal forces . A moon will raise a tidal bulge in the object it orbits ( the primary ) due to the differential gravitational force across diameter of the primary .If a moon is revolving in the same direction as the planet's rotation and the planet is rotating faster than the orbital period of the moon, the bulge will constantly be pulled ahead of the moon. In this situation, angular momentum is transferred from the rotation of the primary to the revolution of the satellite. The moon gains energy and gradually spirals outward, while the primary rotates more slowly over time. The Earth and its Moon are one example of this configuration. Today, the Moon is tidally locked to the Earth; one of its revolutions around the Earth (currently about 29 days) is equal to one of its rotations about its axis, so it always shows one face to the Earth. The Moon will continue to recede from Earth, and Earth's spin will continue to slow gradually. Other examples are the Galilean moons of Jupiter (as well as many of Jupiter's smaller moons) and most of the larger moons of Saturn. A different scenario occurs when the moon is either revolving around the primary faster than the primary rotates or is revolving in the direction opposite the planet's rotation. In these cases, the tidal bulge lags behind the moon in its orbit. In the former case, the direction of angular momentum transfer is reversed, so the rotation of the primary speeds up while the satellite's orbit shrinks. In the latter case, the angular momentum of the rotation and revolution have opposite signs, so transfer leads to decreases in the magnitude of each (that cancel each other out).
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System.
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In the latter case , the angular momentum of the rotation and revolution have opposite signs , so transfer leads to decreases in the magnitude of each ( that cancel each other out ) .In both cases, tidal deceleration causes the moon to spiral in towards the primary until it either is torn apart by tidal stresses, potentially creating a planetary ring system, or crashes into the planet's surface or atmosphere. Such a fate awaits the moons Phobos of Mars (within 30 to 50 million years), Triton of Neptune (in 3.6 billion years), and at least 16 small satellites of Uranus and Neptune. Uranus's Desdemona may even collide with one of its neighboring moons. A third possibility is where the primary and moon are tidally locked to each other. In that case, the tidal bulge stays directly under the moon, there is no angular momentum transfer, and the orbital period will not change. Pluto and Charon are an example of this type of configuration. There is no consensus on the mechanism of the formation of the rings of Saturn. Although theoretical models indicated that the rings were likely to have formed early in the Solar System's history, data from the Cassini–Huygens spacecraft suggests they formed relatively late. The Sun and planetary environments
In the long term, the greatest changes in the Solar System will come from changes in the Sun itself as it ages. As the Sun burns through its hydrogen fuel supply, it gets hotter and burns the remaining fuel even faster. As a result, the Sun is growing brighter at a rate of ten percent every 1.1 billion years.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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hydrogen fuel supply , it gets hotter and burns the remaining fuel even faster . As a result , the Sun is growing brighter at a rate of ten percent every 1.1 billion years .In about 600 million years, the Sun's brightness will have disrupted the Earth's carbon cycle to the point where trees and forests (C3 photosynthetic plant life) will no longer be able to survive; and in around 800 million years, the Sun will have killed all complex life on the Earth's surface and in the oceans. In 1.1 billion years, the Sun's increased radiation output will cause its circumstellar habitable zone to move outwards, making the Earth's surface too hot for liquid water to exist there naturally. At this point, all life will be reduced to single-celled organisms. Evaporation of water, a potent greenhouse gas, from the oceans' surface could accelerate temperature increase, potentially ending all life on Earth even sooner. During this time, it is possible that as Mars's surface temperature gradually rises, carbon dioxide and water currently frozen under the surface regolith will release into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that will heat the planet until it achieves conditions parallel to Earth today, providing a potential future abode for life. By 3.5 billion years from now, Earth's surface conditions will be similar to those of Venus today. Around 5.4 billion years from now, the core of the Sun will become hot enough to trigger hydrogen fusion in its surrounding shell. This will cause the outer layers of the star to expand greatly, and the star will enter a phase of its life in which it is called a red giant. Within 7.5 billion years, the Sun will have expanded to a radius of 1.2 AU (180×10^6 km; 110×10^6 mi)—256 times its current size.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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is called a red giant . Within 7.5 billion years , the Sun will have expanded to a radius of 1.2 AU ( 180×10^6 km ; 110×10^6 mi ) —256 times its current size .At the tip of the red-giant branch, as a result of the vastly increased surface area, the Sun's surface will be much cooler (about 2,600 K (2,330 °C; 4,220 °F)) than now, and its luminosity much higher—up to 2,700 current solar luminosities. For part of its red-giant life, the Sun will have a strong stellar wind that will carry away around 33% of its mass. During these times, it is possible that Saturn's moon Titan could achieve surface temperatures necessary to support life. As the Sun expands, it will swallow the planets Mercury and Venus. Earth's fate is less clear; although the Sun will envelop Earth's current orbit, the star's loss of mass (and thus weaker gravity) will cause the planets' orbits to move farther out. If it were only for this, Venus and Earth would probably escape incineration, but a 2008 study suggests that Earth will likely be swallowed up as a result of tidal interactions with the Sun's weakly-bound outer envelope. Additionally, the Sun's habitable zone will move into the outer Solar System and eventually beyond the Kuiper belt at the end of the red-giant phase, causing icy bodies such as Enceladus and Pluto to thaw. During this time, these worlds could support a water-based hydrologic cycle, but as they were too small to hold a dense atmosphere like Earth, they would experience extreme day–night temperature differences.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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During this time , these worlds could support a water-based hydrologic cycle , but as they were too small to hold a dense atmosphere like Earth , they would experience extreme day–night temperature differences .When the Sun leaves the red-giant branch and enters the asymptotic giant branch, the habitable zone will abruptly shrink to roughly the space between Jupiter and Saturn's present-day orbits, but toward the end of the 200 million-year duration of the asymptotic giant phase, it will expand outward to about the same distance as before. Gradually, the hydrogen burning in the shell around the solar core will increase the mass of the core until it reaches about 45% of the present solar mass. At this point, the density and temperature will become so high that the fusion of helium into carbon will begin, leading to a helium flash; the Sun will shrink from around 250 to 11 times its present (main-sequence) radius. Consequently, its luminosity will decrease from around 3,000 to 54 times its current level, and its surface temperature will increase to about 4,770 K (4,500 °C; 8,130 °F). The Sun will become a horizontal giant, burning helium in its core in a stable fashion, much like it burns hydrogen today. The helium-fusing stage will last only 100 million years. Eventually, it will have to again resort to the reserves of hydrogen and helium in its outer layers. It will expand a second time, becoming what is known as an asymptotic giant. Here the luminosity of the Sun will increase again, reaching about 2,090 present luminosities, and it will cool to about 3,500 K (3,230 °C; 5,840 °F).
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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asymptotic giant . Here the luminosity of the Sun will increase again , reaching about 2,090 present luminosities , and it will cool to about 3,500 K ( 3,230 °C ; 5,840 °F ) .This phase lasts about 30 million years, after which, over the course of a further 100,000 years, the Sun's remaining outer layers will fall away, ejecting a vast stream of matter into space and forming a halo known (misleadingly) as a planetary nebula. The ejected material will contain the helium and carbon produced by the Sun's nuclear reactions, continuing the enrichment of the interstellar medium with heavy elements for future generations of stars and planets. This is a relatively peaceful event, nothing akin to a supernova, which the Sun is too small to undergo as part of its evolution. Any observer present to witness this occurrence would see a massive increase in the speed of the solar wind, but not enough to destroy a planet completely. However, the star's loss of mass could send the orbits of the surviving planets into chaos, causing some to collide, others to be ejected from the Solar System, and others to be torn apart by tidal interactions. Afterwards, all that will remain of the Sun is a white dwarf, an extraordinarily dense object, 54% of its original mass but only the size of Earth. Initially, this white dwarf may be 100 times as luminous as the Sun is now. It will consist entirely of degenerate carbon and oxygen but will never reach temperatures hot enough to fuse these elements. Thus, the white dwarf Sun will gradually cool, growing dimmer and dimmer. As the Sun dies, its gravitational pull on orbiting bodies, such as planets, comets, and asteroids, will weaken due to its mass loss.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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, growing dimmer and dimmer . As the Sun dies , its gravitational pull on orbiting bodies , such as planets , comets , and asteroids , will weaken due to its mass loss .All remaining planets' orbits will expand; if Venus, Earth, and Mars still exist, their orbits will lie roughly at 1.4 AU (210 million km; 130 million mi), 1.9 AU (280 million km; 180 million mi), and 2.8 AU (420 million km; 260 million mi), respectively. They and the other remaining planets will become dark, frigid husks, completely devoid of life. They will continue to orbit their star, their speed slowed due to their increased distance from the Sun and the Sun's reduced gravity. Two billion years later, when the Sun has cooled to the 6,000–8,000 K (5,730–7,730 °C; 10,340–13,940 °F) range, the carbon and oxygen in the Sun's core will freeze, with over 90% of its remaining mass assuming a crystalline structure. Eventually, after roughly one quadrillion years, the Sun will finally cease to shine altogether, becoming a black dwarf. Galactic interaction
The Solar System travels alone through the Milky Way in a circular orbit approximately 30,000 light years from the Galactic Center. Its speed is about 220 km/s. The period required for the Solar System to complete one revolution around the Galactic Center, the galactic year, is in the range of 220–250 million years. Since its formation, the Solar System has completed at least 20 such revolutions. Various scientists have speculated that the Solar System's path through the galaxy is a factor in the periodicity of mass extinctions observed in the Earth's fossil record. One hypothesis supposes that vertical oscillations made by the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Centre cause it to regularly pass through the galactic plane.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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extinctions observed in the Earth 's fossil record . One hypothesis supposes that vertical oscillations made by the Sun as it orbits the Galactic Centre cause it to regularly pass through the galactic plane .When the Sun's orbit takes it outside the galactic disc, the influence of the galactic tide is weaker; as it re-enters the galactic disc, as it does every 20–25 million years, it comes under the influence of the far stronger "disc tides", which, according to mathematical models, increase the flux of Oort cloud comets into the Solar System by a factor of 4, leading to a massive increase in the likelihood of a devastating impact. However, others argue that the Sun is currently close to the galactic plane, and yet the last great extinction event was 15 million years ago. Therefore, the Sun's vertical position cannot alone explain such periodic extinctions, and that extinctions instead occur when the Sun passes through the galaxy's spiral arms. Spiral arms are home not only to larger numbers of molecular clouds, whose gravity may distort the Oort cloud, but also to higher concentrations of bright blue giants, which live for relatively short periods and then explode violently as supernovae. Galactic collision and planetary disruption
Although the vast majority of galaxies in the Universe are moving away from the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy, the largest member of the Local Group of galaxies, is heading toward it at about 120 km/s. In 4 billion years, Andromeda and the Milky Way will collide, causing both to deform as tidal forces distort their outer arms into vast tidal tails. If this initial disruption occurs, astronomers calculate a 12% chance that the Solar System will be pulled outward into the Milky Way's tidal tail and a 3% chance that it will become gravitationally bound to Andromeda and thus a part of that galaxy.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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the Solar System will be pulled outward into the Milky Way 's tidal tail and a 3 % chance that it will become gravitationally bound to Andromeda and thus a part of that galaxy .After a further series of glancing blows, during which the likelihood of the Solar System's ejection rises to 30%, the galaxies' supermassive black holes will merge. Eventually, in roughly 6 billion years, the Milky Way and Andromeda will complete their merger into a giant elliptical galaxy. During the merger, if there is enough gas, the increased gravity will force the gas to the centre of the forming elliptical galaxy. This may lead to a short period of intensive star formation called a starburst. In addition, the infalling gas will feed the newly formed black hole, transforming it into an active galactic nucleus. The force of these interactions will likely push the Solar System into the new galaxy's outer halo, leaving it relatively unscathed by the radiation from these collisions. It is a common misconception that this collision will disrupt the orbits of the planets in the Solar System. Although it is true that the gravity of passing stars can detach planets into interstellar space, distances between stars are so great that the likelihood of the Milky Way–Andromeda collision causing such disruption to any individual star system is negligible. Although the Solar System as a whole could be affected by these events, the Sun and planets are not expected to be disturbed. However, over time, the cumulative probability of a chance encounter with a star increases, and disruption of the planets becomes all but inevitable. Assuming that the Big Crunch or Big Rip scenarios for the end of the Universe do not occur, calculations suggest that the gravity of passing stars will have completely stripped the dead Sun of its remaining planets within 1 quadrillion (1015) years.
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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end of the Universe do not occur , calculations suggest that the gravity of passing stars will have completely stripped the dead Sun of its remaining planets within 1 quadrillion ( 1015 ) years .This point marks the end of the Solar System. Although the Sun and planets may survive, the Solar System, in any meaningful sense, will cease to exist. Chronology
The time frame of the Solar System's formation has been determined using radiometric dating. Scientists estimate that the Solar System is 4.6 billion years old. The oldest known mineral grains on Earth are approximately 4.4 billion years old. Rocks this old are rare, as Earth's surface is constantly being reshaped by erosion, volcanism, and plate tectonics. To estimate the age of the Solar System, scientists use meteorites, which were formed during the early condensation of the solar nebula. Almost all meteorites (see the Canyon Diablo meteorite) are found to have an age of 4.6 billion years, suggesting that the Solar System must be at least this old. Studies of discs around other stars have also done much to establish a time frame for Solar System formation. Stars between one and three million years old have discs rich in gas, whereas discs around stars more than 10 million years old have little to no gas, suggesting that giant planets within them have ceased forming. Timeline of Solar System evolution
Note: All dates and times in this chronology are approximate and should be taken as an order of magnitude indicator only. See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
Duncan, Martin J.; Lissauer, Jack J. (1997). "Orbital Stability of the Uranian Satellite System". Icarus. 125 (1): 1–12. Bibcode:1997Icar..125....1D. doi:10.1006/icar.1996.5568. Zeilik, Michael A.; Gregory, Stephen A. (1998). Introductory Astronomy & Astrophysics (4th ed.).
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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: 1–12 . Bibcode:1997Icar .. 125 .... 1D . doi:10.1006/icar.1996.5568 . Zeilik , Michael A. ; Gregory , Stephen A . ( 1998 ) . Introductory Astronomy & Astrophysics ( 4th ed . ) .Saunders College Publishing. ISBN 0-03-006228-4. External links
7M animation from skyandtelescope.com showing the early evolution of the outer Solar System. QuickTime animation of the future collision between the Milky Way and Andromeda
How the Sun Will Die: And What Happens to Earth (Video at Space.com)
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Formation and evolution of the Solar System
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A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby obscuring the view of the Sun from a small part of Earth, totally or partially. Such an alignment occurs approximately every six months, during the eclipse season in its new moon phase, when the Moon's orbital plane is closest to the plane of Earth's orbit. In a total eclipse, the disk of the Sun is fully obscured by the Moon. In partial and annular eclipses, only part of the Sun is obscured. Unlike a lunar eclipse, which may be viewed from anywhere on the night side of Earth, a solar eclipse can only be viewed from a relatively small area of the world. As such, although total solar eclipses occur somewhere on Earth every 18 months on average, they recur at any given place only once every 360 to 410 years. If the Moon were in a perfectly circular orbit and in the same orbital plane as Earth, there would be total solar eclipses at every new moon. Instead, because the Moon's orbit is tilted at about 5 degrees to Earth's orbit, its shadow usually misses Earth. Solar (and lunar) eclipses therefore happen only during eclipse seasons, resulting in at least two, and up to five, solar eclipses each year, no more than two of which can be total. Total eclipses are rarer because they require a more precise alignment between the centers of the Sun and Moon, and because the Moon's apparent size in the sky is sometimes too small to fully cover the Sun. An eclipse is a natural phenomenon. In some ancient and modern cultures, solar eclipses were attributed to supernatural causes or regarded as bad omens.
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Solar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.
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too small to fully cover the Sun . An eclipse is a natural phenomenon . In some ancient and modern cultures , solar eclipses were attributed to supernatural causes or regarded as bad omens .Astronomers' predictions of eclipses began in China as early as the 4th century BC; eclipses hundreds of years into the future may now be predicted with high accuracy. Looking directly at the Sun can lead to permanent eye damage, so special eye protection or indirect viewing techniques are used when viewing a solar eclipse. Only the total phase of a total solar eclipse is safe to view without protection. Enthusiasts known as eclipse chasers or umbraphiles travel to remote locations to see solar eclipses. Predictions
Geometry
The diagrams to the right show the alignment of the Sun, Moon, and Earth during a solar eclipse. The dark gray region between the Moon and Earth is the umbra, where the Sun is completely obscured by the Moon. The small area where the umbra touches Earth's surface is where a total eclipse can be seen. The larger light gray area is the penumbra, in which a partial eclipse can be seen. An observer in the antumbra, the area of shadow beyond the umbra, will see an annular eclipse. The Moon's orbit around Earth is inclined at an angle of just over 5 degrees to the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun (the ecliptic). Because of this, at the time of a new moon, the Moon will usually pass to the north or south of the Sun. A solar eclipse can occur only when a new moon occurs close to one of the points (known as nodes) where the Moon's orbit crosses the ecliptic. As noted above, the Moon's orbit is also elliptical. The Moon's distance from Earth varies by up to about 5.9% from its average value.
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Solar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.
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438
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orbit crosses the ecliptic . As noted above , the Moon 's orbit is also elliptical . The Moon 's distance from Earth varies by up to about 5.9 % from its average value .Therefore, the Moon's apparent size varies with its distance from Earth, and it is this effect that leads to the difference between total and annular eclipses. The distance of Earth from the Sun also varies during the year, but this is a smaller effect (by up to about 0.85% from its average value). On average, the Moon appears to be slightly (2.1%) smaller than the Sun as seen from Earth, so the majority (about 60%) of central eclipses are annular. It is only when the Moon is closer to Earth than average (near its perigee) that a total eclipse occurs. The Moon orbits Earth in approximately 27.3 days, relative to a fixed frame of reference. This is known as the sidereal month. However, during one sidereal month, Earth revolves part way around the Sun, making the average time between one new moon and the next longer than the sidereal month (approximately 29.5 days). This is known as the synodic month and corresponds to what is commonly called the lunar month. The Moon crosses from south to north of the ecliptic at its ascending node, and vice versa at its descending node. However, the nodes of the Moon's orbit are gradually moving in a retrograde motion, due to the action of the Sun's gravity on the Moon's motion, and they make a complete circuit every 18.6 years. This regression means that the time between each passage of the Moon through the ascending node is slightly shorter than the sidereal month. This period is called the nodical or draconic month.
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Solar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.
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439
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. This regression means that the time between each passage of the Moon through the ascending node is slightly shorter than the sidereal month . This period is called the nodical or draconic month .Finally, the Moon's perigee is moving forwards or precessing in its orbit and makes a complete circuit in 8.85 years. The time between one perigee and the next is slightly longer than the sidereal month and known as the anomalistic month. The Moon's orbit intersects with the ecliptic at the two nodes that are 180 degrees apart. Therefore, the new moon occurs close to the nodes at two periods of the year approximately six months (173.3 days) apart, known as eclipse seasons, and there will always be at least one solar eclipse during these periods. Sometimes the new moon occurs close enough to a node during two consecutive months to eclipse the Sun on both occasions in two partial eclipses. This means that, in any given year, there will always be at least two solar eclipses, and there can be as many as five. Eclipses can occur only when the Sun is within about 15 to 18 degrees of a node, (10 to 12 degrees for central eclipses). This is referred to as an eclipse limit, and is given in ranges because the apparent sizes and speeds of the Sun and Moon vary throughout the year. In the time it takes for the Moon to return to a node (draconic month), the apparent position of the Sun has moved about 29 degrees, relative to the nodes. Since the eclipse limit creates a window of opportunity of up to 36 degrees (24 degrees for central eclipses), it is possible for partial eclipses (or rarely a partial and a central eclipse) to occur in consecutive months.
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Solar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.
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of up to 36 degrees ( 24 degrees for central eclipses ) , it is possible for partial eclipses ( or rarely a partial and a central eclipse ) to occur in consecutive months .Path
During a central eclipse, the Moon's umbra (or antumbra, in the case of an annular eclipse) moves rapidly from west to east across Earth. Earth is also rotating from west to east, at about 28 km/min at the Equator, but as the Moon is moving in the same direction as Earth's rotation at about 61 km/min, the umbra almost always appears to move in a roughly west–east direction across a map of Earth at the speed of the Moon's orbital velocity minus Earth's rotational velocity. The width of the track of a central eclipse varies according to the relative apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon. In the most favourable circumstances, when a total eclipse occurs very close to perigee, the track can be up to 267 km (166 mi) wide and the duration of totality may be over 7 minutes. Outside of the central track, a partial eclipse is seen over a much larger area of Earth. Typically, the umbra is 100–160 km wide, while the penumbral diameter is in excess of 6400 km. Besselian elements are used to predict whether an eclipse will be partial, annular, or total (or annular/total), and what the eclipse circumstances will be at any given location. Calculations with Besselian elements can determine the exact shape of the umbra's shadow on Earth's surface. But at what longitudes on Earth's surface the shadow will fall, is a function of Earth's rotation, and on how much that rotation has slowed down over time. A number called ΔT is used in eclipse prediction to take this slowing into account. As Earth slows, ΔT increases.
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Solar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.
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and on how much that rotation has slowed down over time . A number called ΔT is used in eclipse prediction to take this slowing into account . As Earth slows , ΔT increases .ΔT for dates in the future can only be roughly estimated because Earth's rotation is slowing irregularly. This means that, although it is possible to predict that there will be a total eclipse on a certain date in the far future, it is not possible to predict in the far future exactly at what longitudes that eclipse will be total. Historical records of eclipses allow estimates of past values of ΔT and so of Earth's rotation. Duration
The following factors determine the duration of a total solar eclipse (in order of decreasing importance):
The Moon being almost exactly at perigee (making its angular diameter as large as possible). Earth being very near aphelion (furthest away from the Sun in its elliptical orbit, making its angular diameter nearly as small as possible). The midpoint of the eclipse being very close to Earth's equator, where the rotational velocity is greatest and is closest to the speed of the lunar shadow moving over Earth's surface. The vector of the eclipse path at the midpoint of the eclipse aligning with the vector of Earth's rotation (i.e. not diagonal but due east). The midpoint of the eclipse being near the subsolar point (the part of Earth closest to the Sun). The longest eclipse that has been calculated thus far is the eclipse of July 16, 2186 (with a maximum duration of 7 minutes 29 seconds over northern Guyana). Types
The Sun's distance from Earth is about 400 times the Moon's distance, and the Sun's diameter is about 400 times the Moon's diameter.
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Solar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.
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over northern Guyana ) . Types The Sun 's distance from Earth is about 400 times the Moon 's distance , and the Sun 's diameter is about 400 times the Moon 's diameter .Because these ratios are approximately the same, the Sun and the Moon as seen from Earth appear to be approximately the same size: about 0.5 degree of arc in angular measure. The Moon's orbit around Earth is slightly elliptical, as is Earth's orbit around the Sun. The apparent sizes of the Sun and Moon therefore vary. The magnitude of an eclipse is the ratio of the apparent size of the Moon to the apparent size of the Sun during an eclipse. An eclipse that occurs when the Moon is near its closest distance to Earth (i.e., near its perigee) can be a total eclipse because the Moon will appear to be large enough to completely cover the Sun's bright disk or photosphere; a total eclipse has a magnitude greater than or equal to 1.000. Conversely, an eclipse that occurs when the Moon is near its farthest distance from Earth (i.e., near its apogee) can be only an annular eclipse because the Moon will appear to be slightly smaller than the Sun; the magnitude of an annular eclipse is less than 1. Because Earth's orbit around the Sun is also elliptical, Earth's distance from the Sun similarly varies throughout the year. This affects the apparent size of the Sun in the same way, but not as much as does the Moon's varying distance from Earth. When Earth approaches its farthest distance from the Sun in early July, a total eclipse is somewhat more likely, whereas conditions favour an annular eclipse when Earth approaches its closest distance to the Sun in early January.
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Solar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.
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distance from the Sun in early July , a total eclipse is somewhat more likely , whereas conditions favour an annular eclipse when Earth approaches its closest distance to the Sun in early January .There are three main types of solar eclipses:
Total eclipse
A total eclipse occurs on average every 18 months when the dark silhouette of the Moon completely obscures the bright light of the Sun, allowing the much fainter solar corona to be visible. During an eclipse, totality occurs only along a narrow track on the surface of Earth. This narrow track is called the path of totality. Annular eclipse
An annular eclipse, like a total eclipse, occurs when the Sun and Moon are exactly in line with Earth. During an annular eclipse, however, the apparent size of the Moon is not large enough to completely block out the Sun. Totality thus does not occur; the Sun instead appears as a very bright ring, or annulus, surrounding the dark disk of the Moon. Annular eclipses occur once every one or two years, not annually. The term derives from the Latin root word anulus, meaning "ring", rather than annus, for "year". Partial eclipse
A partial eclipse occurs about twice a year, when the Sun and Moon are not exactly in line with Earth and the Moon only partially obscures the Sun. This phenomenon can usually be seen from a large part of Earth outside of the track of an annular or total eclipse. However, some eclipses can be seen only as a partial eclipse, because the umbra passes above Earth's polar regions and never intersects Earth's surface. Partial eclipses are virtually unnoticeable in terms of the Sun's brightness, as it takes well over 90% coverage to notice any darkening at all. Even at 99%, it would be no darker than civil twilight.
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Solar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.
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of the Sun 's brightness , as it takes well over 90 % coverage to notice any darkening at all . Even at 99 % , it would be no darker than civil twilight .Hybrid eclipse
A hybrid eclipse (also called annular/total eclipse) shifts between a total and annular eclipse. At certain points on the surface of Earth, it appears as a total eclipse, whereas at other points it appears as annular. Hybrid eclipses are comparatively rare. A hybrid eclipse occurs when the magnitude of an eclipse changes during the event from less to greater than one, so the eclipse appears to be total at locations nearer the midpoint, and annular at other locations nearer the beginning and end, since the sides of Earth are slightly further away from the Moon. These eclipses are extremely narrow in their path width and relatively short in their duration at any point compared with fully total eclipses; the 2023 April 20 hybrid eclipse's totality is over a minute in duration at various points along the path of totality. Like a focal point, the width and duration of totality and annularity are near zero at the points where the changes between the two occur. Central eclipse
Central Eclipse is used as a generic term for a total, annular, or hybrid eclipse. This is, however, not completely correct: the definition of a central eclipse is an eclipse during which the central line of the umbra touches Earth's surface. It is possible, though rare, that part of the umbra intersects with Earth (thus creating an annular or total eclipse), but not its central line. This is then called a non-central total or annular eclipse. Gamma is a measure of how centrally the shadow strikes. The last (umbral yet) non-central solar eclipse was on April 29, 2014. This was an annular eclipse.
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eclipse . Gamma is a measure of how centrally the shadow strikes . The last ( umbral yet ) non-central solar eclipse was on April 29 , 2014 . This was an annular eclipse .The next non-central total solar eclipse will be on April 9, 2043. Eclipse phases
The visual phases observed during a total eclipse are called:
First contact—when the Moon's limb (edge) is exactly tangential to the Sun's limb. Second contact—starting with Baily's Beads (caused by light shining through valleys on the Moon's surface) and the diamond ring effect. Almost the entire disk is covered. Totality—the Moon obscures the entire disk of the Sun and only the solar corona is visible. Third contact—when the first bright light becomes visible and the Moon's shadow is moving away from the observer. Again a diamond ring may be observed. Fourth contact—when the trailing edge of the Moon ceases to overlap with the solar disk and the eclipse ends. Occurrence and cycles
A total solar eclipse is a rare event, recurring somewhere on Earth every 18 months on average, yet is estimated to recur at any given location only every 360–410 years on average. The total eclipse lasts for only a maximum of a few minutes at any location because the Moon's umbra moves eastward at over 1700 km/h (1100 mph; 470 m/s; 1500 ft/s). Totality currently can never last more than 7 min 32 s. This value changes over the millennia and is currently decreasing. By the 8th millennium, the longest theoretically possible total eclipse will be less than 7 min 2 s. The last time an eclipse longer than 7 minutes occurred was June 30, 1973 (7 min 3 sec). Observers aboard a Concorde supersonic aircraft were able to stretch totality for this eclipse to about 74 minutes by flying along the path of the Moon's umbra.
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7 min 3 sec ) . Observers aboard a Concorde supersonic aircraft were able to stretch totality for this eclipse to about 74 minutes by flying along the path of the Moon 's umbra .The next total eclipse exceeding seven minutes in duration will not occur until June 25, 2150. The longest total solar eclipse during the 11000 year period from 3000 BC to at least 8000 AD will occur on July 16, 2186, when totality will last 7 min 29 s. For comparison, the longest total eclipse of the 20th century at 7 min 8 s occurred on June 20, 1955, and there will be no total solar eclipses over 7 min in duration in the 21st century. It is possible to predict other eclipses using eclipse cycles. The saros is probably the best known and one of the most accurate. A saros lasts 6585.3 days (a little over 18 years), which means that, after this period, a practically identical eclipse will occur. The most notable difference will be a westward shift of about 120° in longitude (due to the 0.3 days) and a little in latitude (north-south for odd-numbered cycles, the reverse for even-numbered ones). A saros series always starts with a partial eclipse near one of Earth's polar regions, then shifts over the globe through a series of annular or total eclipses, and ends with a partial eclipse at the opposite polar region. A saros series lasts 1226 to 1550 years and 69 to 87 eclipses, with about 40 to 60 of them being central. Frequency per year
Between two and five solar eclipses occur every year, with at least one per eclipse season. Since the Gregorian calendar was instituted in 1582, years that have had five solar eclipses were 1693, 1758, 1805, 1823, 1870, and 1935. The next occurrence will be 2206.
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Solar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.
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Gregorian calendar was instituted in 1582 , years that have had five solar eclipses were 1693 , 1758 , 1805 , 1823 , 1870 , and 1935 . The next occurrence will be 2206 .On average, there are about 240 solar eclipses each century. Final totality
Total solar eclipses are seen on Earth because of a fortuitous combination of circumstances. Even on Earth, the diversity of eclipses familiar to people today is a temporary (on a geological time scale) phenomenon. Hundreds of millions of years in the past, the Moon was closer to Earth and therefore apparently larger, so every solar eclipse was total or partial, and there were no annular eclipses. Due to tidal acceleration, the orbit of the Moon around Earth becomes approximately 3.8 cm more distant each year. Millions of years in the future, the Moon will be too far away to fully occlude the Sun, and no total eclipses will occur. In the same timeframe, the Sun may become brighter, making it appear larger in size. Estimates of the time when the Moon will be unable to occlude the entire Sun when viewed from Earth range between 650 million and 1.4 billion years in the future. Viewing
Looking directly at the photosphere of the Sun (the bright disk of the Sun itself), even for just a few seconds, can cause permanent damage to the retina of the eye, because of the intense visible and invisible radiation that the photosphere emits. This damage can result in impairment of vision, up to and including blindness. The retina has no sensitivity to pain, and the effects of retinal damage may not appear for hours, so there is no warning that injury is occurring. Under normal conditions, the Sun is so bright that it is difficult to stare at it directly.
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Solar eclipse
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may not appear for hours , so there is no warning that injury is occurring . Under normal conditions , the Sun is so bright that it is difficult to stare at it directly .However, during an eclipse, with so much of the Sun covered, it is easier and more tempting to stare at it. Looking at the Sun during an eclipse is as dangerous as looking at it outside an eclipse, except during the brief period of totality, when the Sun's disk is completely covered (totality occurs only during a total eclipse and only very briefly; it does not occur during a partial or annular eclipse). Viewing the Sun's disk through any kind of optical aid (binoculars, a telescope, or even an optical camera viewfinder) is extremely hazardous and can cause irreversible eye damage within a fraction of a second. Partial and annular eclipses
Viewing the Sun during partial and annular eclipses (and during total eclipses outside the brief period of totality) requires special eye protection, or indirect viewing methods if eye damage is to be avoided. The Sun's disk can be viewed using appropriate filtration to block the harmful part of the Sun's radiation. Sunglasses do not make viewing the Sun safe. Only properly designed and certified solar filters should be used for direct viewing of the Sun's disk. Especially, self-made filters using common objects such as a floppy disk removed from its case, a Compact Disc, a black colour slide film, smoked glass, etc. must be avoided. The safest way to view the Sun's disk is by indirect projection.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.
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case , a Compact Disc , a black colour slide film , smoked glass , etc . must be avoided . The safest way to view the Sun 's disk is by indirect projection .This can be done by projecting an image of the disk onto a white piece of paper or card using a pair of binoculars (with one of the lenses covered), a telescope, or another piece of cardboard with a small hole in it (about 1 mm diameter), often called a pinhole camera. The projected image of the Sun can then be safely viewed; this technique can be used to observe sunspots, as well as eclipses. Care must be taken, however, to ensure that no one looks through the projector (telescope, pinhole, etc.) directly. A kitchen colander with small holes can also be used to project multiple images of the partially eclipsed Sun onto the ground or a viewing screen. Viewing the Sun's disk on a video display screen (provided by a video camera or digital camera) is safe, although the camera itself may be damaged by direct exposure to the Sun. The optical viewfinders provided with some video and digital cameras are not safe. Securely mounting #14 welder's glass in front of the lens and viewfinder protects the equipment and makes viewing possible. Professional workmanship is essential because of the dire consequences any gaps or detaching mountings will have. In the partial eclipse path, one will not be able to see the corona or nearly complete darkening of the sky. However, depending on how much of the Sun's disk is obscured, some darkening may be noticeable. If three-quarters or more of the Sun is obscured, then an effect can be observed by which the daylight appears to be dim, as if the sky were overcast, yet objects still cast sharp shadows.
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Solar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.
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of the Sun is obscured , then an effect can be observed by which the daylight appears to be dim , as if the sky were overcast , yet objects still cast sharp shadows .Totality
It is safe to observe the total phase of a solar eclipse directly only when the Sun's photosphere is completely covered by the Moon, and not before or after totality. During this period, the Sun is too dim to be seen through filters. The Sun's faint corona will be visible, and the chromosphere, solar prominences, coronal streamers and possibly even a solar flare may be seen. At the end of totality, the same effects will occur in reverse order, and on the opposite side of the Moon. Eclipse chasing
A dedicated group of eclipse chasers have pursued the observation of solar eclipses when they occur around Earth. A person who chases eclipses is known as an umbraphile, meaning shadow lover. Umbraphiles travel for eclipses and use various tools to help view the sun including solar viewing glasses, also known as eclipse glasses, as well as telescopes. Photography
The first known photograph of a solar eclipse was taken on July 28, 1851, by Julius Berkowski, using the daguerreotype process. Photographing an eclipse is possible with fairly common camera equipment. In order for the disk of the Sun/Moon to be easily visible, a fairly high magnification long focus lens is needed (at least 200 mm for a 35 mm camera), and for the disk to fill most of the frame, a longer lens is needed (over 500 mm). As with viewing the Sun directly, looking at it through the optical viewfinder of a camera can produce damage to the retina, so care is recommended. Solar filters are required for digital photography even if an optical viewfinder is not used.
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Solar eclipse
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through the optical viewfinder of a camera can produce damage to the retina , so care is recommended . Solar filters are required for digital photography even if an optical viewfinder is not used .Using a camera's live view feature or an electronic viewfinder is safe for the human eye, but the Sun's rays could potentially irreparably damage digital image sensors unless the lens is covered by a properly designed solar filter. Historical eclipses
Historical eclipses are a very valuable resource for historians, in that they allow a few historical events to be dated precisely, from which other dates and ancient calendars may be deduced. The oldest recorded solar eclipse was recorded on a clay tablet found at Ugarit, in modern Syria, with two plausible dates usually cited: 3 May 1375 BC or 5 March 1223 BC, the latter being favored by most recent authors on the topic. A solar eclipse of June 15, 763 BC, mentioned in an Assyrian text is important for the chronology of the ancient Near East. There have been other claims to date earlier eclipses. The legendary Chinese king Zhong Kang supposedly beheaded two astronomers, Hsi and Ho, who failed to predict an eclipse 4000 years ago. Perhaps the earliest still-unproven claim is that of archaeologist Bruce Masse, who putatively links an eclipse that occurred on May 10, 2807, BC with a possible meteor impact in the Indian Ocean on the basis of several ancient flood myths that mention a total solar eclipse. Eclipses have been interpreted as omens, or portents. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Thales of Miletus predicted an eclipse that occurred during a battle between the Medes and the Lydians. Both sides put down their weapons and declared peace as a result of the eclipse. The exact eclipse involved remains uncertain, although the issue has been studied by hundreds of ancient and modern authorities.
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Solar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.
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put down their weapons and declared peace as a result of the eclipse . The exact eclipse involved remains uncertain , although the issue has been studied by hundreds of ancient and modern authorities .One likely candidate took place on May 28, 585 BC, probably near the Halys river in Asia Minor. An eclipse recorded by Herodotus before Xerxes departed for his expedition against Greece, which is traditionally dated to 480 BC, was matched by John Russell Hind to an annular eclipse of the Sun at Sardis on February 17, 478 BC. Alternatively, a partial eclipse was visible from Persia on October 2, 480 BC. Herodotus also reports a solar eclipse at Sparta during the Second Persian invasion of Greece. The date of the eclipse (August 1, 477 BC) does not match exactly the conventional dates for the invasion accepted by historians. In ancient China, where solar eclipses were known as an "eating of the Sun" (rìshí 日食), the earliest records of eclipses date to around 720 BC. The 4th century BC astronomer Shi Shen described the prediction of eclipses by using the relative positions of the Moon and Sun. Attempts have been made to establish the exact date of Good Friday by assuming that the darkness described at Jesus's crucifixion was a solar eclipse. This research has not yielded conclusive results, and Good Friday is recorded as being at Passover, which is held at the time of a full moon. Further, the darkness lasted from the sixth hour to the ninth, or three hours, which is much, much longer than the eight-minute upper limit for any solar eclipse's totality. Contemporary chronicles wrote about an eclipse at the beginning of May 664 that coincided with the beginning of the plague of 664 in the British isles.
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Solar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.
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limit for any solar eclipse 's totality . Contemporary chronicles wrote about an eclipse at the beginning of May 664 that coincided with the beginning of the plague of 664 in the British isles .In the Western hemisphere, there are few reliable records of eclipses before AD 800, until the advent of Arab and monastic observations in the early medieval period. A solar eclipse took place on January 27, 632 over Arabia during Muhammad's lifetime. Muhammad denied the eclipse had anything to do with his son dying earlier that day, saying "The sun and the moon do not eclipse because of the death of someone from the people but they are two signs amongst the signs of God." The Cairo astronomer Ibn Yunus wrote that the calculation of eclipses was one of the many things that connect astronomy with the Islamic law, because it allowed knowing when a special prayer can be made. The first recorded observation of the corona was made in Constantinople in AD 968. The first known telescopic observation of a total solar eclipse was made in France in 1706. Nine years later, English astronomer Edmund Halley accurately predicted and observed the solar eclipse of May 3, 1715. By the mid-19th century, scientific understanding of the Sun was improving through observations of the Sun's corona during solar eclipses. The corona was identified as part of the Sun's atmosphere in 1842, and the first photograph (or daguerreotype) of a total eclipse was taken of the solar eclipse of July 28, 1851. Spectroscope observations were made of the solar eclipse of August 18, 1868, which helped to determine the chemical composition of the Sun. John Fiske summed up myths about the solar eclipse like this in his 1872 book Myth and Myth-Makers, the myth of Hercules and Cacus, the fundamental idea is the victory of the solar god over the robber who steals the light.
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Solar eclipse
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like this in his 1872 book Myth and Myth-Makers , the myth of Hercules and Cacus , the fundamental idea is the victory of the solar god over the robber who steals the light .Now whether the robber carries off the light in the evening when Indra has gone to sleep, or boldly rears his black form against the sky during the daytime, causing darkness to spread over the earth, would make little difference to the framers of the myth. To a chicken a solar eclipse is the same thing as nightfall, and he goes to roost accordingly. Why, then, should the primitive thinker have made a distinction between the darkening of the sky caused by black clouds and that caused by the rotation of the earth? He had no more conception of the scientific explanation of these phenomena than the chicken has of the scientific explanation of an eclipse. For him it was enough to know that the solar radiance was stolen, in the one case as in the other, and to suspect that the same demon was to blame for both robberies. Particular observations, phenomena and impact
A total solar eclipse provides a rare opportunity to observe the corona (the outer layer of the Sun's atmosphere). Normally this is not visible because the photosphere is much brighter than the corona. According to the point reached in the solar cycle, the corona may appear small and symmetric, or large and fuzzy. It is very hard to predict this in advance. Phenomena associated with eclipses include shadow bands (also known as flying shadows), which are similar to shadows on the bottom of a swimming pool. They occur only just prior to and after totality, when a narrow solar crescent acts as an anisotropic light source.
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which are similar to shadows on the bottom of a swimming pool . They occur only just prior to and after totality , when a narrow solar crescent acts as an anisotropic light source .As the light filters through leaves of trees during a partial eclipse, the overlapping leaves create natural pinholes, displaying mini eclipses on the ground. 1919 observations
The observation of a total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, helped to confirm Einstein's theory of general relativity. By comparing the apparent distance between stars in the constellation Taurus, with and without the Sun between them, Arthur Eddington stated that the theoretical predictions about gravitational lenses were confirmed. The observation with the Sun between the stars was possible only during totality since the stars are then visible. Though Eddington's observations were near the experimental limits of accuracy at the time, work in the later half of the 20th century confirmed his results. Gravity anomalies
There is a long history of observations of gravity-related phenomena during solar eclipses, especially during the period of totality. Maurice Allais reported observing unusual and unexplained movements during solar eclipses in both 1954 and 1959. The reality of this phenomenon, named the Allais effect, has remained controversial. Similarly, in 1970, Saxl and Allen observed the sudden change in motion of a torsion pendulum; this phenomenon is called the Saxl effect. Observation during the 1997 solar eclipse by Wang et al. suggested a possible gravitational shielding effect, which generated debate. In 2002, Wang and a collaborator published detailed data analysis, which suggested that the phenomenon still remains unexplained. Eclipses and transits
In principle, the simultaneous occurrence of a solar eclipse and a transit of a planet is possible. But these events are extremely rare because of their short durations.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.
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. Eclipses and transits In principle , the simultaneous occurrence of a solar eclipse and a transit of a planet is possible . But these events are extremely rare because of their short durations .The next anticipated simultaneous occurrence of a solar eclipse and a transit of Mercury will be on July 5, 6757, and a solar eclipse and a transit of Venus is expected on April 5, 15232. More common, but still infrequent, is a conjunction of a planet (especially, but not only, Mercury or Venus) at the time of a total solar eclipse, in which event the planet will be visible very near the eclipsed Sun, when without the eclipse it would have been lost in the Sun's glare. At one time, some scientists hypothesized that there may be a planet (often given the name Vulcan) even closer to the Sun than Mercury; the only way to confirm its existence would have been to observe it in transit or during a total solar eclipse. No such planet was ever found, and general relativity has since explained the observations that led astronomers to suggest that Vulcan might exist. Artificial satellites
Artificial satellites can also pass in front of the Sun as seen from Earth, but none is large enough to cause an eclipse. At the altitude of the International Space Station, for example, an object would need to be about 3.35 km (2.08 mi) across to blot the Sun out entirely. These transits are difficult to watch because the zone of visibility is very small. The satellite passes over the face of the Sun in about a second, typically. As with a transit of a planet, it will not get dark. Observations of eclipses from spacecraft or artificial satellites orbiting above Earth's atmosphere are not subject to weather conditions.
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. As with a transit of a planet , it will not get dark . Observations of eclipses from spacecraft or artificial satellites orbiting above Earth 's atmosphere are not subject to weather conditions .The crew of Gemini 12 observed a total solar eclipse from space in 1966. The partial phase of the 1999 total eclipse was visible from Mir. As of 2025, a pair of satellites launched by the European Space Agency (Proba-3 mission) began creating on-demand eclipses relative to one another. These eclipses cannot be seen from earth, but are captured by imaging from one satellite while the other interposes itself between the sun and the imaging satellite. Impact
The solar eclipse of March 20, 2015, was the first occurrence of an eclipse estimated to potentially have a significant impact on the power system, with the electricity sector taking measures to mitigate any impact. The continental Europe and Great Britain synchronous areas were estimated to have about 90 gigawatts of solar power and it was estimated that production would temporarily decrease by up to 34 GW compared to a clear sky day. Eclipses may cause the temperature to decrease by 3 °C (5 °F), with wind power potentially decreasing as winds are reduced by 0.7 meters (2.3 ft) per second. In addition to the drop in light level and air temperature, animals change their behavior during totality. For example, birds and squirrels return to their nests and crickets chirp. Recent and forthcoming solar eclipses
Eclipses occur only in the eclipse season, when the Sun is close to either the ascending or descending node of the Moon. Each eclipse is separated by one, five or six lunations (synodic months), and the midpoint of each season is separated by 173.3 days, which is the mean time for the Sun to travel from one node to the next.
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Solar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.
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lunations ( synodic months ) , and the midpoint of each season is separated by 173.3 days , which is the mean time for the Sun to travel from one node to the next .The period is a little less than half a calendar year because the lunar nodes slowly regress. Because 223 synodic months is roughly equal to 239 anomalistic months and 242 draconic months, eclipses with similar geometry recur 223 synodic months (about 6,585.3 days) apart. This period (18 years 11.3 days) is a saros. Because 223 synodic months is not identical to 239 anomalistic months or 242 draconic months, saros cycles do not endlessly repeat. Each cycle begins with the Moon's shadow crossing Earth near the north or south pole, and subsequent events progress toward the other pole until the Moon's shadow misses Earth and the series ends. Saros cycles are numbered; currently, cycles 117 to 156 are active. 2018–2021
2022–2025
2026–2029
See also
Lists of solar eclipses
List of films featuring eclipses
Apollo–Soyuz: First joint U.S.–Soviet space flight. Mission included an arranged eclipse of the Sun by the Apollo module to allow instruments on the Soyuz to take photographs of the solar corona.
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Solar eclipse
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459
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eclipses Apollo–Soyuz : First joint U.S.–Soviet space flight . Mission included an arranged eclipse of the Sun by the Apollo module to allow instruments on the Soyuz to take photographs of the solar corona .Eclipse chasing: Travel to eclipse locations for study and enjoyment
Occultation: Generic term for occlusion of an object by another object that passes between it and the observer, thus revealing (for example) the presence of an exoplanet orbiting a distant star by eclipsing it as seen from Earth
Eclipses in history and culture: treatment of solar and lunar eclipses by historical and contemporary society and religion
Solar eclipses in fiction
Solar eclipses on the Moon: Eclipse of the Sun by planet Earth, as seen from the Moon
Lunar eclipse: Solar eclipse of the Moon, as seen from Earth; the shadow cast on the Moon by that eclipse
Transit of Venus: Passage of the planet Venus between the Sun and Earth, as seen from Earth. Technically a partial eclipse. Transit of Deimos from Mars: Passage of the Martian moon Deimos between the Sun and Mars, as seen from Mars
Transit of Phobos from Mars: Passage of the Martian moon Phobos between the Sun and Mars, as seen from Mars
Footnotes
References
Bibliography
Mucke, Hermann; Meeus, Jean (1992). Canon of Solar Eclipses −2003 to +2526 (2 ed.). Vienna: Astronomisches Büro. Harrington, Philip S. (1997). Eclipse! The What, Where, When, Why and How Guide to Watching Solar and Lunar Eclipses. New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-12795-7. Steel, Duncan (1999). Eclipse: The celestial phenomenon which has changed the course of history. London: Headline. ISBN 0-7472-7385-5. Mobberley, Martin (2007). Total Solar Eclipses and How to Observe Them. Astronomers' Observing Guides. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-69827-4.
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Solar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.
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: Headline . ISBN 0-7472-7385-5 . Mobberley , Martin ( 2007 ) . Total Solar Eclipses and How to Observe Them . Astronomers ' Observing Guides . New York : Springer . ISBN 978-0-387-69827-4 .Espenak, Fred (2015). Thousand Year Canon of Solar Eclipses 1501 to 2500. Portal AZ: Astropixels Publishing. ISBN 978-1-941983-02-7. Espenak, Fred (2016). 21st Century Canon of Solar Eclipses. Portal AZ: Astropixels Publishing. ISBN 978-1-941983-12-6. Fotheringham, John Knight (1921). Historical eclipses: being the Halley lecture delivered 17 May 1921. Oxford: Clarendon Press. External links
NASA Eclipse Web Site, with information on future eclipses and eye safety information
NASA Eclipse Web Site (older version)
Eclipsewise, Fred Espenak's new eclipse site
Andrew Lowe's Eclipse Page, with maps and circumstances for 5000 years of solar eclipses
A Guide to Eclipse Activities for Educators, Explaining eclipses in educational settings
Detailed eclipse explanations and predictions, Hermit Eclipse
Eclipse Photography, Prof. Miroslav Druckmüller
Animated maps of August 21, 2017 solar eclipses, Larry Koehn
Five Millennium (−1999 to +3000) Canon of Solar Eclipses Database, Xavier M. Jubier
Animated explanation of the mechanics of a solar eclipse Archived 2013-05-25 at the Wayback Machine, University of South Wales
Eclipse Image Gallery Archived 2016-10-15 at the Wayback Machine, The World at Night
Ring of Fire Eclipse: 2012, Photos
"Sun, Eclipses of the" . Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.
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Solar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.
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Gallery Archived 2016-10-15 at the Wayback Machine , The World at Night Ring of Fire Eclipse : 2012 , Photos '' Sun , Eclipses of the '' . Collier 's New Encyclopedia . 1921 .Centered and aligned video recording of Total Solar Eclipse 20th March 2015 on YouTube
Solar eclipse photographs taken from the Lick Observatory from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, UC Santa Cruz Library’s Digital Collections Archived 2020-06-05 at the Wayback Machine
Video with Total Solar Eclipse March 09 2016 (from the beginning to the total phase) on YouTube
Total Solar Eclipse Shadow on Earth March 09 2016 CIMSSSatelite
List of all solar eclipses
National Geographic Solar Eclipse 101 video Archived 2018-08-04 at the Wayback Machine
Wikiversity has a solar eclipse lab that students can do on any sunny day.
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Solar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse.
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A lunar eclipse, also called a blood moon, is an astronomical event that occurs when the Moon orbits through Earth's shadow. Lunar eclipses occur during eclipse season, when the Moon's orbital plane is approximately in line with Earth and the Sun. The type and length of a lunar eclipse depend on the Moon's proximity to the lunar node. In contrast with illusive and short-lasting solar eclipses, lunar eclipses can be observed from anywhere on the night side of Earth and often last for an hour or longer. Lunar eclipses are safe to observe without eye protection. Lunar eclipses are notable for causing the Moon to appear orange or red. This occurs when the Moon passes through the Earth's umbra, necessitating any sunlight that reaches the Moon to first pass through the Earth's atmosphere. The resulting Rayleigh scattering removes high-wavelength colors such as violet and blue from the incoming light before it reflects off the lunar surface and is observed on Earth. Types of lunar eclipses
Penumbral lunar eclipse
A penumbral lunar eclipse occurs when Earth's silhouette partially blocks the Sun in the lunar sky but does not occlude it completely, ensuring some sunlight can still reach the Moon directly. The designation refers to the Moon being partially inside of the penumbra, which describes the region of any shadow that is cast by a light source which is not collimated and has a non-zero angular diameter. A penumbral eclipse is designated as a total penumbral eclipse if the moon lies exclusively inside of the penumbra. Penumbral eclipses are observed from Earth as a subtle dimming of the lunar surface. Of all lunar eclipses, approximately one-third are penumbral eclipses; of those, only 3% are total penumbral eclipses. Partial lunar eclipse
A partial lunar eclipse refers to the Moon lying partially inside of the umbra, where the relative size of the Earth in the lunar sky allows it to block the Sun entirely.
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Lunar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.
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eclipse A partial lunar eclipse refers to the Moon lying partially inside of the umbra , where the relative size of the Earth in the lunar sky allows it to block the Sun entirely .During a partial eclipse, the dark region covered by the umbra will appear more much more distinct than the penumbral dimming. The Moon's average orbital speed is about 1.03 km/s (2,300 mph), or a little more than its diameter per hour, so totality may last up to nearly 107 minutes. Nevertheless, the total time between the first and last contacts of the Moon's limb with Earth's shadow is much longer and could last up to 236 minutes.
Total lunar eclipse
When the Moon's near side entirely passes into the Earth's umbral shadow, a total lunar eclipse occurs. Just prior to complete entry, the brightness of the lunar limb—the curved edge of the Moon still being hit by direct sunlight—will cause the rest of the Moon to appear comparatively dim. The moment the Moon enters a complete eclipse, the entire surface will become more or less uniformly bright, being able to reveal stars surrounding it. Later, as the Moon's opposite limb is struck by sunlight, the overall disk will again become obscured. This is because, as viewed from the Earth, the brightness of a lunar limb is generally greater than that of the rest of the surface, due to reflections from the many surface irregularities within the limb: sunlight striking these irregularities is always reflected back in greater quantities than that striking more central parts, which is why the edges of full moons generally appear brighter than the rest of the lunar surface. This is similar to the effect of velvet fabric over a convex curved surface, which, to an observer, will appear darkest at the center of the curve.
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Lunar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.
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the lunar surface . This is similar to the effect of velvet fabric over a convex curved surface , which , to an observer , will appear darkest at the center of the curve .It will be true of any planetary body with little or no atmosphere and an irregular cratered surface (e.g., Mercury) when viewed opposite the Sun.
Central lunar eclipse
When, during a total lunar eclipse, the Moon passes near and through the centre of Earth's shadow, contacting the antisolar point, it is classified as a central lunar eclipse. This type of lunar eclipse is less frequent, occurring in 59.6% of all total lunar eclipses.
The relative distance of the Moon from Earth at the time of an eclipse can affect the eclipse's duration. In particular, when the Moon is near apogee, the farthest point from Earth in its orbit, its orbital speed is the slowest. The diameter of Earth's umbra does not decrease appreciably within the changes in the Moon's orbital distance. Thus, the concurrence of a totally eclipsed Moon near apogee will lengthen the duration of totality.
Selenelion
A selenelion or selenehelion, also called a horizontal eclipse, occurs where and when both the Sun and an eclipsed Moon can be observed at the same time. The event can only be observed just before sunset or just after sunrise, when both bodies will appear just above opposite horizons at nearly opposite points in the sky. A selenelion occurs during every total lunar eclipse—it is an experience of the observer, not a planetary event separate from the lunar eclipse itself. Typically, observers on Earth located on high mountain ridges undergoing false sunrise or false sunset at the same moment of a total lunar eclipse will be able to experience it.
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Lunar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.
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eclipse itself . Typically , observers on Earth located on high mountain ridges undergoing false sunrise or false sunset at the same moment of a total lunar eclipse will be able to experience it .Although during selenelion the Moon is completely within the Earth's umbra, both it and the Sun can be observed in the sky because atmospheric refraction causes each body to appear higher (i.e., more central) in the sky than its true geometric planetary position.
Timing
The timing of total lunar eclipses is determined by what are known as its "contacts" (moments of contact with Earth's shadow):
P1 (First contact): Beginning of the penumbral eclipse. Earth's penumbra touches the Moon's outer limb. U1 (Second contact): Beginning of the partial eclipse. Earth's umbra touches the Moon's outer limb. U2 (Third contact): Beginning of the total eclipse. The Moon's surface is entirely within Earth's umbra. Greatest eclipse: The peak stage of the total eclipse. The Moon is at its closest to the center of Earth's umbra. U3 (Fourth contact): End of the total eclipse. The Moon's outer limb exits Earth's umbra. U4 (Fifth contact): End of the partial eclipse. Earth's umbra leaves the Moon's surface. P4 (Sixth contact): End of the penumbral eclipse. Earth's penumbra no longer makes contact with the Moon. Danjon scale
The following scale (the Danjon scale) was devised by André Danjon for rating the overall darkness of lunar eclipses:
L = 0: Very dark eclipse. Moon almost invisible, especially at mid-totality. L = 1: Dark eclipse, gray or brownish in coloration. Details distinguishable only with difficulty. L = 2: Deep red or rust-colored eclipse.
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Lunar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.
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invisible , especially at mid-totality . L = 1 : Dark eclipse , gray or brownish in coloration . Details distinguishable only with difficulty . L = 2 : Deep red or rust-colored eclipse .Very dark central shadow, while outer edge of umbra is relatively bright. L = 3: Brick-red eclipse. Umbral shadow usually has a bright or yellow rim. L = 4: Very bright copper-red or orange eclipse. Umbral shadow is bluish and has a very bright rim. Lunar versus solar eclipses
There is often confusion between a solar eclipse and a lunar eclipse. While both involve interactions between the Sun, Earth, and the Moon, they are very different in their interactions. The Moon does not completely darken as it passes through the umbra because of the refraction of sunlight by Earth's atmosphere into the shadow cone; if Earth had no atmosphere, the Moon would be completely dark during the eclipse. The reddish coloration arises because sunlight reaching the Moon must pass through a long and dense layer of Earth's atmosphere, where it is scattered. Shorter wavelengths are more likely to be scattered by the air molecules and small particles; thus, the longer wavelengths predominate by the time the light rays have penetrated the atmosphere. Human vision perceives this resulting light as red. This is the same effect that causes sunsets and sunrises to turn the sky a reddish color. An alternative way of conceiving this scenario is to realize that, as viewed from the Moon, the Sun would appear to be setting (or rising) behind Earth. The amount of refracted light depends on the amount of dust or clouds in the atmosphere; this also controls how much light is scattered. In general, the dustier the atmosphere, the more that other wavelengths of light will be removed (compared to red light), leaving the resulting light a deeper red color.
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Lunar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.
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. In general , the dustier the atmosphere , the more that other wavelengths of light will be removed ( compared to red light ) , leaving the resulting light a deeper red color .This causes the resulting coppery-red hue of the Moon to vary from one eclipse to the next. Volcanoes are notable for expelling large quantities of dust into the atmosphere, and a large eruption shortly before an eclipse can have a large effect on the resulting color.
In culture
The symbol for a lunar eclipse (or any body in the shadow of another) is (U+1F776 🝶). Several cultures have myths related to lunar eclipses or allude to the lunar eclipse as being a good or bad omen. The Egyptians saw the eclipse as a sow swallowing the Moon for a short time; other cultures view the eclipse as the Moon being swallowed by other animals, such as a jaguar in Mayan tradition, or a mythical three-legged toad known as Chan Chu in China. Some societies thought it was a demon swallowing the Moon, and that they could chase it away by throwing stones and curses at it. Ancient Greeks understood the Earth was round, citing the Earth's shadow observed during a lunar eclipse as evidence. Some Hindus believe in the importance of bathing in the Ganges River following an eclipse because it will help to achieve salvation.
Inca
Similarly to the Mayans, the Incans believed that lunar eclipses occurred when a jaguar ate the Moon, which is why a blood moon looks red. The Incans also believed that once the jaguar finished eating the Moon, it could come down and devour all the animals on Earth, so they would take spears and shout at the Moon to keep it away.
Mesopotamians
The ancient Mesopotamians believed that a lunar eclipse was when the Moon was being attacked by seven demons.
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Lunar eclipse
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, so they would take spears and shout at the Moon to keep it away. Mesopotamians The ancient Mesopotamians believed that a lunar eclipse was when the Moon was being attacked by seven demons .This attack was more than just one on the Moon, however, for the Mesopotamians linked what happened in the sky with what happened on the land, and because the king of Mesopotamia represented the land, the seven demons were thought to be also attacking the king. In order to prevent this attack on the king, the Mesopotamians made someone pretend to be the king so they would be attacked instead of the true king. After the lunar eclipse was over, the substitute king was made to disappear (possibly by poisoning).
Chinese
In some Chinese cultures, people would ring bells to prevent a dragon or other wild animals from biting the Moon. In the 19th century, during a lunar eclipse, the Chinese navy fired its artillery because of this belief. During the Zhou dynasty (c. 1046 BC – 256 BC), according to the Book of Songs, the sight of a red moon engulfed in darkness was believed to foreshadow famine or disease.
Occurrence
In the 21st century there are 228 lunar eclipses, an average of 2.28 per year, with at least two every year. Total lunar eclipses are less common than partial lunar eclipses. Over a 5,000 year span from 2000 BCE to 3000 CE, 36.3% of lunar eclipses are penumbral, 34.9% are partial, and 28.8% are total. If the date and time of an eclipse is known, the occurrence of upcoming eclipses is predictable using an eclipse cycle, like the saros.
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Lunar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.
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are partial , and 28.8 % are total. If the date and time of an eclipse is known , the occurrence of upcoming eclipses is predictable using an eclipse cycle , like the saros .During a saros period, lasting 18 years and 11 days, there will usually be 70 eclipses, of which 29 are lunar. Eclipses occur only during an eclipse season, when the Sun appears to pass near either node of the Moon's orbit. View from the Moon
A lunar eclipse is, on the Moon, a solar eclipse. The occurrence makes Earth's atmosphere appear as a red ring around the dark Earth. One such event was captured by the Surveyor 3 camera in 1967. A second event was photographed in color by the Blue Ghost Mission 1 in 2025. During a full moon, the phase during which lunar eclipses take place, the dark side of the Earth is illuminated by the Moon and its moonlight. See also
Lists of lunar eclipses and List of lunar eclipses in the 21st century
Lunar occultation – When an object is hidden behind anotherPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Moon illusion – Perceived variation in the moon's size
Orbit of the Moon – The Moon's circuit around Earth
Solar eclipse – Natural phenomenon wherein the Sun is obscured by the Moon
Eclipses in history and culture
Notes
References
Works cited
Further reading
Bao-Lin Liu, Canon of Lunar Eclipses 1500 B.C.-A.D. 3000.
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Lunar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.
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470
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Solar eclipse – Natural phenomenon wherein the Sun is obscured by the Moon Eclipses in history and culture Notes References Works cited Further reading Bao-Lin Liu , Canon of Lunar Eclipses 1500 B.C.-A.D. 3000 .Willmann-Bell, Richmond VA, 1992
Espenak, F. Thousand Year Canon of Lunar Eclipses 1501 to 2500, Astropixels Publishing, Portal AZ, 2014
External links
Lunar Eclipse Essentials: video from NASA on YouTube
Animated explanation of the mechanics of a lunar eclipse Archived 3 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine, University of South Wales
U.S. Navy Lunar Eclipse Computer Archived 13 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine
NASA Lunar Eclipse Page
Search among the 12,064 lunar eclipses over five millennium and display interactive maps
Lunar Eclipses for Beginners
Tips on photographing the lunar eclipse from New York Institute of Photography Archived 14 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
Lunar Eclipse 8 October 2014 - NASA FULL VERSION on YouTube
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Lunar eclipse
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse.
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471
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A coronal mass ejection (CME) is a significant ejection of plasma mass from the Sun's corona into the heliosphere. CMEs are often associated with solar flares and other forms of solar activity, but a broadly accepted theoretical understanding of these relationships has not been established. If a CME enters interplanetary space, it is sometimes referred to as an interplanetary coronal mass ejection (ICME). ICMEs are capable of reaching and colliding with Earth's magnetosphere, where they can cause geomagnetic storms, aurorae, and in rare cases damage to electrical power grids. The largest recorded geomagnetic perturbation, resulting presumably from a CME, was the solar storm of 1859. Also known as the Carrington Event, it disabled parts of the newly created United States telegraph network, starting fires and electrically shocking some telegraph operators. Near solar maxima, the Sun produces about three CMEs every day, whereas near solar minima, there is about one CME every five days. Physical description
CMEs release large quantities of matter from the Sun's atmosphere into the solar wind and interplanetary space. The ejected matter is a plasma consisting primarily of electrons and protons embedded within its magnetic field. This magnetic field is commonly in the form of a flux rope, a helical magnetic field with changing pitch angles. The average mass ejected is 1.6×1012 kg (3.5×1012 lb). However, the estimated mass values for CMEs are only lower limits, because coronagraph measurements provide only two-dimensional data. CMEs erupt from strongly twisted or sheared, large-scale magnetic field structures in the corona that are kept in equilibrium by overlying magnetic fields. Origin
CMEs erupt from the lower corona, where processes associated with the local magnetic field dominate over other processes. As a result, the coronal magnetic field plays an important role in the formation and eruption of CMEs.
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Coronal mass ejection
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
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472
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corona , where processes associated with the local magnetic field dominate over other processes . As a result , the coronal magnetic field plays an important role in the formation and eruption of CMEs .Pre-eruption structures originate from magnetic fields that are initially generated in the Sun's interior by the solar dynamo. These magnetic fields rise to the Sun's surface—the photosphere—where they may form localized areas of highly concentrated magnetic flux and expand into the lower solar atmosphere forming active regions. At the photosphere, active region magnetic flux is often distributed in a dipole configuration, that is, with two adjacent areas of opposite magnetic polarity across which the magnetic field arches. Over time, the concentrated magnetic flux cancels and disperses across the Sun's surface, merging with the remnants of past active regions to become a part of the quiet Sun. Pre-eruption CME structures can be present at different stages of the growth and decay of these regions, but they always lie above polarity inversion lines (PIL), or boundaries across which the sign of the vertical component of the magnetic field reverses. PILs may exist in, around, and between active regions or form in the quiet Sun between active region remnants. More complex magnetic flux configurations, such as quadrupolar fields, can also host pre-eruption structures. In order for pre-eruption CME structures to develop, large amounts of energy must be stored and be readily available to be released. As a result of the dominance of magnetic field processes in the lower corona, the majority of the energy must be stored as magnetic energy.
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Coronal mass ejection
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
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and be readily available to be released . As a result of the dominance of magnetic field processes in the lower corona , the majority of the energy must be stored as magnetic energy .The magnetic energy that is freely available to be released from a pre-eruption structure, referred to as the magnetic free energy or nonpotential energy of the structure, is the excess magnetic energy stored by the structure's magnetic configuration relative to that stored by the lowest-energy magnetic configuration the underlying photospheric magnetic flux distribution could theoretically take, a potential field state. Emerging magnetic flux and photospheric motions continuously shifting the footpoints of a structure can result in magnetic free energy building up in the coronal magnetic field as twist or shear. Some pre-eruption structures, referred to as sigmoids, take on an S or reverse-S shape as shear accumulates. This has been observed in active region coronal loops and filaments with forward-S sigmoids more common in the southern hemisphere and reverse-S sigmoids more common in the northern hemisphere. Magnetic flux ropes—twisted and sheared magnetic flux tubes that can carry electric current and magnetic free energy—are an integral part of the post-eruption CME structure; however, whether flux ropes are always present in the pre-eruption structure or whether they are created during the eruption from a strongly sheared core field (see § Initiation) is subject to ongoing debate. Some pre-eruption structures have been observed to support prominences, also known as filaments, composed of much cooler material than the surrounding coronal plasma. Prominences are embedded in magnetic field structures referred to as prominence cavities, or filament channels, which may constitute part of a pre-eruption structure (see § Coronal signatures). Early evolution
The early evolution of a CME involves its initiation from a pre-eruption structure in the corona and the acceleration that follows. The processes involved in the early evolution of CMEs are poorly understood due to a lack of observational evidence.
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Coronal mass ejection
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
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474
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its initiation from a pre-eruption structure in the corona and the acceleration that follows . The processes involved in the early evolution of CMEs are poorly understood due to a lack of observational evidence .Initiation
CME initiation occurs when a pre-eruption structure in an equilibrium state enters a nonequilibrium or metastable state where energy can be released to drive an eruption. The specific processes involved in CME initiation are debated, and various models have been proposed to explain this phenomenon based on physical speculation. Furthermore, different CMEs may be initiated by different processes. It is unknown whether a magnetic flux rope exists prior to initiation, in which case either ideal or non-ideal magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) processes drive the expulsion of this flux rope, or whether a flux rope is created during the eruption by non-ideal process. Under ideal MHD, initiation may involve ideal instabilities or catastrophic loss of equilibrium along an existing flux rope:
The kink instability occurs when a magnetic flux rope is twisted to a critical point, whereupon the flux rope is unstable to further twisting. The torus instability occurs when the magnetic field strength of an arcade overlying a flux rope decreases rapidly with height. When this decrease is sufficiently rapid, the flux rope is unstable to further expansion. The catastrophe model involves a catastrophic loss of equilibrium. Under non-ideal MHD, initiations mechanisms may involve resistive instabilities or magnetic reconnection:
Tether-cutting, or flux cancellation, occurs in strongly sheared arcades when nearly antiparallel field lines on opposite sides of the arcade form a current sheet and reconnect with each other. This can form a helical flux rope or cause a flux rope already present to grow and its axis to rise. The magnetic breakout model consists of an initial quadrupolar magnetic topology with a null point above a central flux system.
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Coronal mass ejection
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
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475
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cause a flux rope already present to grow and its axis to rise . The magnetic breakout model consists of an initial quadrupolar magnetic topology with a null point above a central flux system .As shearing motions cause this central flux system to rise, the null point forms a current sheet and the core flux system reconnects with the overlying magnetic field. Initial acceleration
Following initiation, CMEs are subject to different forces that either assist or inhibit their rise through the lower corona. Downward magnetic tension force exerted by the strapping magnetic field as it is stretched and, to a lesser extent, the gravitational pull of the Sun oppose movement of the core CME structure. In order for sufficient acceleration to be provided, past models have involved magnetic reconnection below the core field or an ideal MHD process, such as instability or acceleration from the solar wind. In the majority of CME events, acceleration is provided by magnetic reconnection cutting the strapping field's connections to the photosphere from below the core and outflow from this reconnection pushing the core upward. When the initial rise occurs, the opposite sides of the strapping field below the rising core are oriented nearly antiparallel to one another and are brought together to form a current sheet above the PIL. Fast magnetic reconnection can be excited along the current sheet by microscopic instabilities, resulting in the rapid release of stored magnetic energy as kinetic, thermal, and nonthermal energy. The restructuring of the magnetic field cuts the strapping field's connections to the photosphere thereby decreasing the downward magnetic tension force while the upward reconnection outflow pushes the CME structure upwards. A positive feedback loop results as the core is pushed upwards and the sides of the strapping field are brought in closer and closer contact to produce additional magnetic reconnection and rise.
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Coronal mass ejection
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
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upwards . A positive feedback loop results as the core is pushed upwards and the sides of the strapping field are brought in closer and closer contact to produce additional magnetic reconnection and rise .While upward reconnection outflow accelerates the core, simultaneous downward outflow is sometimes responsible for other phenomena associated with CMEs (see § Coronal signatures). In cases where significant magnetic reconnection does not occur, ideal MHD instabilities or the dragging force from the solar wind can theoretically accelerate a CME. However, if sufficient acceleration is not provided, the CME structure may fall back in what is referred to as a failed or confined eruption. Coronal signatures
The early evolution of CMEs is frequently associated with other solar phenomena observed in the low corona, such as eruptive prominences and solar flares. CMEs that have no observed signatures are sometimes referred to as stealth CMEs. Prominences embedded in some CME pre-eruption structures may erupt with the CME as eruptive prominences. Eruptive prominences are associated with at least 70% of all CMEs and are often embedded within the bases of CME flux ropes. When observed in white-light coronagraphs, the eruptive prominence material, if present, corresponds to the observed bright core of dense material. When magnetic reconnection is excited along a current sheet of a rising CME core structure, the downward reconnection outflows can collide with loops below to form a cusp-shaped, two-ribbon solar flare. CME eruptions can also produce EUV waves, also known as EIT waves after the Extreme ultraviolet Imaging Telescope or as Moreton waves when observed in the chromosphere, which are fast-mode MHD wave fronts that emanate from the site of the CME. A coronal dimming is a localized decrease in extreme ultraviolet and soft X-ray emissions in the lower corona.
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Coronal mass ejection
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
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477
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, which are fast-mode MHD wave fronts that emanate from the site of the CME . A coronal dimming is a localized decrease in extreme ultraviolet and soft X-ray emissions in the lower corona .When associated with a CME, coronal dimmings are thought to occur predominantly due to a decrease in plasma density caused by mass outflows during the expansion of the associated CME. They often occur either in pairs located within regions of opposite magnetic polarity, a core dimming, or in a more widespread area, a secondary dimming. Core dimmings are interpreted as the footpoint locations of the erupting flux rope; secondary dimmings are interpreted as the result of the expansion of the overall CME structure and are generally more diffuse and shallow. Coronal dimming was first reported in 1974, and, due to their appearance resembling that of coronal holes, they were sometimes referred to as transient coronal holes. Propagation
Observations of CMEs are typically through white-light coronagraphs which measure the Thomson scattering of sunlight off of free electrons within the CME plasma. An observed CME may have any or all of three distinctive features: a bright core, a dark surrounding cavity, and a bright leading edge. The bright core is usually interpreted as a prominence embedded in the CME (see § Origin) with the leading edge as an area of compressed plasma ahead of the CME flux rope. However, some CMEs exhibit more complex geometry. From white-light coronagraph observations, CMEs have been measured to reach speeds in the plane-of-sky ranging from 20 to 3,200 km/s (12 to 2,000 mi/s) with an average speed of 489 km/s (304 mi/s). Observations of CME speeds indicate that CMEs tend to accelerate or decelerate until they reach the speed of the solar wind (§ Interactions in the heliosphere).
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Coronal mass ejection
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
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478
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km/s ( 304 mi/s ) . Observations of CME speeds indicate that CMEs tend to accelerate or decelerate until they reach the speed of the solar wind ( § Interactions in the heliosphere ) .When observed in interplanetary space at distances greater than about 50 solar radii (0.23 AU) away from the Sun, CMEs are sometimes referred to as interplanetary CMEs, or ICMEs. Interactions in the heliosphere
As CMEs propagate through the heliosphere, they may interact with the surrounding solar wind, the interplanetary magnetic field, and other CMEs and celestial bodies. CMEs can experience aerodynamic drag forces that act to bring them to kinematic equilibrium with the solar wind. As a consequence, CMEs faster than the solar wind tend to slow down whereas CMEs slower than the solar wind tend to speed up until their speed matches that of the solar wind. How CMEs evolve as they propagate through the heliosphere is poorly understood. Models of their evolution have been proposed that are accurate to some CMEs but not others. Aerodynamic drag and snowplow models assume that ICME evolution is governed by its interactions with the solar wind. Aerodynamic drag alone may be able to account for the evolution of some ICMEs, but not all of them. CMEs typically reach Earth one to five days after leaving the Sun. The strongest deceleration or acceleration occurs close to the Sun, but it can continue even beyond Earth orbit (1 AU), which was observed using measurements at Mars and by the Ulysses spacecraft. ICMEs faster than about 500 km/s (310 mi/s) eventually drive a shock wave. This happens when the speed of the ICME in the frame of reference moving with the solar wind is faster than the local fast magnetosonic speed. Such shocks have been observed directly by coronagraphs in the corona, and are related to type II radio bursts.
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Coronal mass ejection
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
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moving with the solar wind is faster than the local fast magnetosonic speed . Such shocks have been observed directly by coronagraphs in the corona , and are related to type II radio bursts .They are thought to form sometimes as low as 2 R☉ (solar radii). They are also closely linked with the acceleration of solar energetic particles. As ICMEs propagate through the interplanetary medium, they may collide with other ICMEs in what is referred to as CME–CME interaction or CME cannibalism. During such CME-CME interactions, the first CME may clear the way for the second one and/or when two CMEs collide it can lead to more severe impacts on Earth. Historical records show that the most extreme space weather events involved multiple successive CMEs. For example, the famous Carrington event in 1859 had several eruptions and caused auroras to be visible at low latitudes for four nights. Similarly, the solar storm of September 1770 lasted for nearly nine days, and caused repeated low-latitude auroras. The interaction between two moderate CMEs between the Sun and Earth can create extreme conditions on Earth. Recent studies have shown that the magnetic structure in particular its chirality/handedness, of a CME can greatly affect how it interacts with Earth's magnetic field. This interaction can result in the conservation or loss of magnetic flux, particularly its southward magnetic field component, through magnetic reconnection with the interplanetary magnetic field. Morphology
In the solar wind, CMEs manifest as magnetic clouds. They have been defined as regions of enhanced magnetic field strength, smooth rotation of the magnetic field vector, and low proton temperature. The association between CMEs and magnetic clouds was made by Burlaga et al. in 1982 when a magnetic cloud was observed by Helios-1 two days after being observed by the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM).
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Coronal mass ejection
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
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CMEs and magnetic clouds was made by Burlaga et al . in 1982 when a magnetic cloud was observed by Helios-1 two days after being observed by the Solar Maximum Mission ( SMM ) .However, because observations near Earth are usually done by a single spacecraft, many CMEs are not seen as being associated with magnetic clouds. The typical structure observed for a fast CME by a satellite such as the Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) is a fast-mode shock wave followed by a dense (and hot) sheath of plasma (the downstream region of the shock) and a magnetic cloud. Other signatures of magnetic clouds are now used in addition to the one described above: among other, bidirectional superthermal electrons, unusual charge state or abundance of iron, helium, carbon, and/or oxygen. The typical time for a magnetic cloud to move past a satellite at the Lagrange Point (L1 point) is 1 day corresponding to a radius of 0.15 AU with a typical speed of 450 km/s (280 mi/s) and magnetic field strength of 20 nT. Solar cycle
The frequency of ejections depends on the phase of the solar cycle: from about 0.2 per day near the solar minimum to 3.5 per day near the solar maximum. However, the peak CME occurrence rate is often 6–12 months after sunspot number reaches its maximum. Impact on Earth
Only a very small fraction of CMEs are directed toward, and reach, the Earth. A CME arriving at Earth results in a shock wave causing a geomagnetic storm that may disrupt Earth's magnetosphere, compressing it on the day side and extending the night-side magnetic tail. When the magnetosphere reconnects on the nightside, it releases power on the order of terawatts directed back toward Earth's upper atmosphere. This can result in events such as the March 1989 geomagnetic storm.
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Coronal mass ejection
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
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magnetosphere reconnects on the nightside , it releases power on the order of terawatts directed back toward Earth 's upper atmosphere . This can result in events such as the March 1989 geomagnetic storm .CMEs, along with solar flares, can disrupt radio transmissions and cause damage to satellites and electrical transmission line facilities, resulting in potentially massive and long-lasting power outages. Shocks in the upper corona driven by CMEs can also accelerate solar energetic particles toward the Earth resulting in gradual solar particle events. Interactions between these energetic particles and the Earth can cause an increase in the number of free electrons in the ionosphere, especially in the high-latitude polar regions, enhancing radio wave absorption, especially within the D-region of the ionosphere, leading to polar cap absorption events. The interaction of CMEs with the Earth's magnetosphere leads to dramatic changes in the outer radiation belt, with either a decrease or an increase of relativistic particle fluxes by orders of magnitude. The changes in radiation belt particle fluxes are caused by acceleration, scattering and radial diffusion of relativistic electrons, due to the interactions with various plasma waves. Halo coronal mass ejections
A halo coronal mass ejection is a CME which appears in white-light coronagraph observations as an expanding ring completely surrounding the occulting disk of the coronagraph. Halo CMEs are interpreted as CMEs directed toward or away from the observing coronagraph. When the expanding ring does not completely surround the occulting disk, but has an angular width of more than 120 degrees around the disk, the CME is referred to as a partial halo coronal mass ejection. Partial and full halo CMEs have been found to make up about 10% of all CMEs with about 4% of all CMEs being full halo CMEs. Frontside, or Earth-direct, halo CMEs are often associated with Earth-impacting CMEs; however, not all frontside halo CMEs impact Earth.
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Coronal mass ejection
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
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about 4 % of all CMEs being full halo CMEs . Frontside , or Earth-direct , halo CMEs are often associated with Earth-impacting CMEs ; however , not all frontside halo CMEs impact Earth .Future risk
In 2019, researchers used an alternative method (Weibull distribution) and estimated the chance of Earth being hit by a Carrington-class storm in the next decade to be between 0.46% and 1.88%. History
First traces
CMEs have been observed indirectly for thousands of years via aurora. Other indirect observations that predated the discovery of CMEs were through measurements of geomagnetic perturbations, radioheliograph measurements of solar radio bursts, and in-situ measurements of interplanetary shocks. The largest recorded geomagnetic perturbation, resulting presumably from a CME, coincided with the first-observed solar flare on 1 September 1859. The resulting solar storm of 1859 is referred to as the Carrington Event. The flare and the associated sunspots were visible to the naked eye, and the flare was independently observed by English astronomers R. C. Carrington and R. Hodgson. At around the same time as the flare, a magnetometer at Kew Gardens recorded what would become known as a magnetic crochet, a magnetic field detected by ground-based magnetometers induced by a perturbation of Earth's ionosphere by ionizing soft X-rays. This could not easily be understood at the time because it predated the discovery of X-rays in 1895 and the recognition of the ionosphere in 1902. About 18 hours after the flare, further geomagnetic perturbations were recorded by multiple magnetometers as a part of a geomagnetic storm. The storm disabled parts of the recently created US telegraph network, starting fires and shocking some telegraph operators. First optical observations
The first optical observation of a CME was made on 14 December 1971 using the coronagraph of Orbiting Solar Observatory 7 (OSO-7). It was first described by R. Tousey of the Naval Research Laboratory in a research paper published in 1973.
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Coronal mass ejection
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
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483
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14 December 1971 using the coronagraph of Orbiting Solar Observatory 7 ( OSO-7 ) . It was first described by R. Tousey of the Naval Research Laboratory in a research paper published in 1973 .The discovery image (256 × 256 pixels) was collected on a Secondary Electron Conduction (SEC) vidicon tube, transferred to the instrument computer after being digitized to 7 bits. Then it was compressed using a simple run-length encoding scheme and sent down to the ground at 200 bit/s. A full, uncompressed image would take 44 minutes to send down to the ground. The telemetry was sent to ground support equipment (GSE) which built up the image onto Polaroid print. David Roberts, an electronics technician working for NRL who had been responsible for the testing of the SEC-vidicon camera, was in charge of day-to-day operations. He thought that his camera had failed because certain areas of the image were much brighter than normal. But on the next image the bright area had moved away from the Sun and he immediately recognized this as being unusual and took it to his supervisor, Dr. Guenter Brueckner, and then to the solar physics branch head, Dr. Tousey. Earlier observations of coronal transients or even phenomena observed visually during solar eclipses are now understood as essentially the same thing. Instruments
On 1 November 1994, NASA launched the Wind spacecraft as a solar wind monitor to orbit Earth's L1 Lagrange point as the interplanetary component of the Global Geospace Science (GGS) Program within the International Solar Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) program. The spacecraft is a spin axis-stabilized satellite that carries eight instruments measuring solar wind particles from thermal to greater than MeV energies, electromagnetic radiation from DC to 13 MHz radio waves, and gamma-rays.
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Coronal mass ejection
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
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spacecraft is a spin axis-stabilized satellite that carries eight instruments measuring solar wind particles from thermal to greater than MeV energies , electromagnetic radiation from DC to 13 MHz radio waves , and gamma-rays .On 25 October 2006, NASA launched STEREO, two near-identical spacecraft which, from widely separated points in their orbits, are able to produce the first stereoscopic images of CMEs and other solar activity measurements. The spacecraft orbit the Sun at distances similar to that of Earth, with one slightly ahead of Earth and the other trailing. Their separation gradually increased so that after four years they were almost diametrically opposite each other in orbit. Notable coronal mass ejections
On 9 March 1989, a CME occurred, which struck Earth four days later on 13 March. It caused power failures in Quebec, Canada and short-wave radio interference. On 23 July 2012, a large, and potentially damaging CME occurred but missed Earth, an event that many scientists consider to be a Carrington-class event. On 14 October 2014, an ICME was photographed by the Sun-watching spacecraft PROBA2 (ESA), Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (ESA/NASA), and Solar Dynamics Observatory (NASA) as it left the Sun, and STEREO-A observed its effects directly at 1 astronomical unit (AU). ESA's Venus Express gathered data. The CME reached Mars on 17 October and was observed by the Mars Express, MAVEN, Mars Odyssey, and Mars Science Laboratory missions. On 22 October, at 3.1 AU, it reached comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, perfectly aligned with the Sun and Mars, and was observed by Rosetta. On 12 November, at 9.9 AU, it was observed by Cassini at Saturn. The New Horizons spacecraft was at 31.6 AU approaching Pluto when the CME passed three months after the initial eruption, and it may be detectable in the data.
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Coronal mass ejection
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
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485
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by Cassini at Saturn . The New Horizons spacecraft was at 31.6 AU approaching Pluto when the CME passed three months after the initial eruption , and it may be detectable in the data .Voyager 2 has data that can be interpreted as the passing of the CME, 17 months after. The Curiosity rover's RAD instrument, Mars Odyssey, Rosetta and Cassini showed a sudden decrease in galactic cosmic rays (Forbush decrease) as the CME's protective bubble passed by. Stellar coronal mass ejections
There have been a small number of CMEs observed on other stars, all of which as of 2016 have been found on red dwarfs. These have been detected mainly by spectroscopy, most often by studying Balmer lines: the material ejected toward the observer causes asymmetry in the blue wing of the line profiles due to Doppler shift. This enhancement can be seen in absorption when it occurs on the stellar disc (the material is cooler than its surroundings), and in emission when it is outside the disc. The observed projected velocities of CMEs range from ≈84 to 5,800 km/s (52 to 3,600 mi/s). There are few stellar CME candidates in shorter wavelengths in UV or X-ray data. Compared to activity on the Sun, CME activity on other stars seems to be far less common. The low number of stellar CME detections can be caused by lower intrinsic CME rates compared to the models (e.g. due to magnetic suppression), projection effects, or overestimated Balmer signatures because of the unknown plasma parameters of the stellar CMEs. See also
Forbush decrease
Health threat from cosmic rays
K-index
List of solar storms
Orbiting Solar Observatory
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
Space weather
References
Further reading
Books
Gopalswamy, Natchimuthukonar; Mewaldt, Richard; Torsti, Jarmo (2006). Gopalswamy, Natchimuthukonar; Mewaldt, Richard A.; Torsti, Jarmo (eds.).
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Coronal mass ejection
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
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Further reading Books Gopalswamy , Natchimuthukonar ; Mewaldt , Richard ; Torsti , Jarmo ( 2006 ) . Gopalswamy , Natchimuthukonar ; Mewaldt , Richard A. ; Torsti , Jarmo ( eds . ) .Solar Eruptions and Energetic Particles. Geophysical Monograph Series. Vol. 165. Washington DC: American Geophysical Union. Bibcode:2006GMS...165.....G. doi:10.1029/GM165. ISBN 0-87590-430-0. Internet articles
Bell, Trudy E.; Phillips, Tony (6 May 2008). "A Super Solar Flare". Science@NASA. Lavraud, Benoit; Masson, Arnaud (21 November 2007). "Cluster captures the impact of CMEs". European Space Agency. Odenwald, Sten F.; Green, James L. (28 July 2008). "Bracing the Satellite Infrastructure for a Solar Superstorm". Scientific American. Phillips, Tony (27 May 2008). "Cartwheel Coronal Mass Ejection". Science@NASA. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 12 July 2017. External links
NOAA/NWS Space Weather Prediction Center
Coronal Mass Ejection FAQ
STEREO and SOHO observed CME rate versus the Sunspot number (PNG plot) / (text version)
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Coronal mass ejection
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection.
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The solar wind is a stream of charged particles released from the Sun's outermost atmospheric layer, the corona. This plasma mostly consists of electrons, protons and alpha particles with kinetic energy between 0.5 and 10 keV. The composition of the solar wind plasma also includes a mixture of particle species found in the solar plasma: trace amounts of heavy ions and atomic nuclei of elements such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, magnesium, silicon, sulfur, and iron. There are also rarer traces of some other nuclei and isotopes such as phosphorus, titanium, chromium, and nickel's isotopes 58Ni, 60Ni, and 62Ni. Superimposed with the solar-wind plasma is the interplanetary magnetic field. The solar wind varies in density, temperature and speed over time and over solar latitude and longitude. Its particles can escape the Sun's gravity because of their high energy resulting from the high temperature of the corona, which in turn is a result of the coronal magnetic field. The boundary separating the corona from the solar wind is called the Alfvén surface. At a distance of more than a few solar radii from the Sun, the solar wind reaches speeds of 250–750 km/s and is supersonic, meaning it moves faster than the speed of fast magnetosonic waves. The flow of the solar wind is no longer supersonic at the termination shock. Other related phenomena include the aurora (northern and southern lights), comet tails that always point away from the Sun, and geomagnetic storms that can change the direction of magnetic field lines. History
Observations from Earth
The existence of particles flowing outward from the Sun to the Earth was first suggested by British astronomer Richard C. Carrington. In 1859, Carrington and Richard Hodgson independently made the first observations of what would later be called a solar flare.
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Solar wind
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.
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to the Earth was first suggested by British astronomer Richard C. Carrington . In 1859 , Carrington and Richard Hodgson independently made the first observations of what would later be called a solar flare .This is a sudden, localised increase in brightness on the solar disc, which is now known to often occur in conjunction with an episodic ejection of material and magnetic flux from the Sun's atmosphere, known as a coronal mass ejection. The following day, a powerful geomagnetic storm was observed, and Carrington suspected that there might be a connection; the geomagnetic storm is now attributed to the arrival of the coronal mass ejection in near-Earth space and its subsequent interaction with the Earth's magnetosphere. Irish academic George FitzGerald later suggested that matter was being regularly accelerated away from the Sun, reaching the Earth after several days. In 1910, British astrophysicist Arthur Eddington essentially suggested the existence of the solar wind, without naming it, in a footnote to an article on Comet Morehouse. Eddington's proposition was never fully embraced, even though he had also made a similar suggestion at a Royal Institution address the previous year, in which he had postulated that the ejected material consisted of electrons, whereas in his study of Comet Morehouse he had supposed them to be ions. The idea that the ejected material consisted of both ions and electrons was first suggested by Norwegian scientist Kristian Birkeland. His geomagnetic surveys showed that auroral activity was almost uninterrupted. As these displays and other geomagnetic activity were being produced by particles from the Sun, he concluded that the Earth was being continually bombarded by "rays of electric corpuscles emitted by the Sun".
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Solar wind
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.
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displays and other geomagnetic activity were being produced by particles from the Sun , he concluded that the Earth was being continually bombarded by `` rays of electric corpuscles emitted by the Sun '' .He proposed in 1916 that, "From a physical point of view it is most probable that solar rays are neither exclusively negative nor positive rays, but of both kinds"; in other words, the solar wind consists of both negative electrons and positive ions. Three years later, in 1919, British physicist Frederick Lindemann also suggested that the Sun ejects particles of both polarities: protons as well as electrons. Around the 1930s, scientists had concluded that the temperature of the solar corona must be a million degrees Celsius because of the way it extended into space (as seen during a total solar eclipse). Later spectroscopic work confirmed this extraordinary temperature to be the case. In the mid-1950s, British mathematician Sydney Chapman calculated the properties of a gas at such a temperature and determined that the corona being such a superb conductor of heat, it must extend way out into space, beyond the orbit of Earth. Also in the 1950s, German astronomer Ludwig Biermann became interested in the fact that the tail of a comet always points away from the Sun, regardless of the direction in which the comet is travelling. Biermann postulated that this happens because the Sun emits a steady stream of particles that pushes the comet's tail away. German astronomer Paul Ahnert is credited (by Wilfried Schröder) as being the first to relate solar wind to the direction of a comet's tail based on observations of the comet Whipple–Fedke (1942g).
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Solar wind
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Ahnert is credited ( by Wilfried Schröder ) as being the first to relate solar wind to the direction of a comet 's tail based on observations of the comet Whipple–Fedke ( 1942g ) .American astrophysicist Eugene Parker realised that heat flowing from the Sun in Chapman's model, and the comet tail blowing away from the Sun in Biermann's hypothesis, had to be the result of the same phenomenon which he termed the "solar wind". In 1957, Parker showed that although the Sun's corona is strongly attracted by solar gravity, it is such a good conductor of heat that it is still very hot at large distances from the Sun. As solar gravity weakens with increasing distance from the Sun, the outer coronal atmosphere is able to escape supersonically into interstellar space. Parker was also the first person to notice that the weakening influence of the Sun's gravity has the same effect on hydrodynamic flow as a de Laval nozzle, inciting a transition from subsonic to supersonic flow. There was strong opposition to Parker's hypothesis on the solar wind; the paper he submitted to The Astrophysical Journal in 1958 was rejected by two reviewers, before being accepted by the editor Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar. Observations from space
In January 1959, the Soviet spacecraft Luna 1 first directly observed the solar wind and measured its strength, using hemispherical ion traps. The discovery, made by Konstantin Gringauz, was verified by Luna 2, Luna 3, and the more distant measurements of Venera 1. Three years later, a similar measurement was performed by American geophysicist Marcia Neugebauer and collaborators using the Mariner 2 spacecraft. The first numerical simulation of the solar wind in the solar corona, including closed and open field lines, was performed by Pneuman and Kopp in 1971. The magnetohydrodynamics equations in steady state were solved iteratively starting with an initial dipolar configuration.
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Solar wind
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.
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solar corona , including closed and open field lines , was performed by Pneuman and Kopp in 1971 . The magnetohydrodynamics equations in steady state were solved iteratively starting with an initial dipolar configuration .In 1990, the Ulysses probe was launched to study the solar wind from high solar latitudes. All prior observations had been made at or near the Solar System's ecliptic plane. In the late 1990s, the Ultraviolet Coronal Spectrometer (UVCS) instrument on board the SOHO spacecraft observed the acceleration region of the fast solar wind emanating from the poles of the Sun and found that the wind accelerates much faster than can be accounted for by thermodynamic expansion alone. Parker's model predicted that the wind should make the transition to supersonic flow at an altitude of about four solar radii (approx. 3,000,000 km) from the photosphere (surface); but the transition (or "sonic point") now appears to be much lower, perhaps only one solar radius (approx. 700,000 km) above the photosphere, suggesting that some additional mechanism accelerates the solar wind away from the Sun. The acceleration of the fast wind is still not understood and cannot be fully explained by Parker's theory. However, the gravitational and electromagnetic explanation for this acceleration is detailed in an earlier paper by 1970 Nobel laureate in Physics, Hannes Alfvén. From May 10 to May 12, 1999, NASA's Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) and WIND spacecraft observed a 98% decrease of solar wind density. This allowed energetic electrons from the Sun to flow to Earth in narrow beams known as "strahl", which caused a highly unusual "polar rain" event, in which a visible aurora appeared over the North Pole. In addition, Earth's magnetosphere increased to between 5 and 6 times its normal size.
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Solar wind
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.
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unusual `` polar rain '' event , in which a visible aurora appeared over the North Pole . In addition , Earth 's magnetosphere increased to between 5 and 6 times its normal size .The STEREO mission was launched in 2006 to study coronal mass ejections and the solar corona, using stereoscopy from two widely separated imaging systems. Each STEREO spacecraft carried two heliospheric imagers: highly sensitive wide-field cameras capable of imaging the solar wind itself, via Thomson scattering of sunlight off of free electrons. Movies from STEREO revealed the solar wind near the ecliptic, as a large-scale turbulent flow. On December 13, 2010, Voyager 1 determined that the velocity of the solar wind, at its location 10.8 billion miles (17.4 billion kilometres) from Earth had slowed to zero. "We have gotten to the point where the wind from the Sun, which until now has always had an outward motion, is no longer moving outward; it is only moving sideways so that it can end up going down the tail of the heliosphere, which is a comet-shaped-like object", said Voyager project scientist Edward Stone. In 2018, NASA launched the Parker Solar Probe, named in honor of American astrophysicist Eugene Parker, on a mission to study the structure and dynamics of the solar corona, in an attempt to understand the mechanisms that cause particles to be heated and accelerated as solar wind. During its seven-year mission, the probe will make twenty-four orbits of the Sun, passing further into the corona with each orbit's perihelion, ultimately passing within 0.04 astronomical units of the Sun's surface. It is the first NASA spacecraft named for a living person, and Parker, at age 91, was on hand to observe the launch.
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Solar wind
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.
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astronomical units of the Sun 's surface . It is the first NASA spacecraft named for a living person , and Parker , at age 91 , was on hand to observe the launch .Acceleration mechanism
While early models of the solar wind relied primarily on thermal energy to accelerate the material, by the 1960s it was clear that thermal acceleration alone cannot account for the high speed of solar wind. An additional unknown acceleration mechanism is required and likely relates to magnetic fields in the solar atmosphere. The Sun's corona, or extended outer layer, is a region of plasma that is heated to over a megakelvin. As a result of thermal collisions, the particles within the inner corona have a range and distribution of speeds described by a Maxwellian distribution. The mean velocity of these particles is about 145 km/s, which is well below the solar escape velocity of 618 km/s. However, a few of the particles achieve energies sufficient to reach the terminal velocity of 400 km/s, which allows them to feed the solar wind. At the same temperature, electrons, due to their much smaller mass, reach escape velocity and build up an electric field that further accelerates ions away from the Sun. The total number of particles carried away from the Sun by the solar wind is about 1.3×1036 per second. Thus, the total mass loss each year is about (2–3)×10−14 solar masses, or about 1.3–1.9 million tonnes per second. This is equivalent to losing a mass equal to the Earth every 150 million years. However, since the Sun's formation, only about 0.01% of its initial mass has been lost through the solar wind. Other stars have much stronger stellar winds that result in significantly higher mass-loss rates.
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Solar wind
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.
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Sun 's formation , only about 0.01 % of its initial mass has been lost through the solar wind . Other stars have much stronger stellar winds that result in significantly higher mass-loss rates .Jetlets
In March 2023 solar extreme ultraviolet observations have shown that small-scale magnetic reconnection could be a driver of the solar wind as a swarm of nanoflares in the form omnipresent jetting activity a.k.a. jetlets producing short-lived streams of hot plasma and Alfvén waves at the base of the solar corona. This activity could also be connected to the magnetic switchback phenomenon of the solar wind. Properties and structure
Fast and slow solar wind
The solar wind is observed to exist in two fundamental states, termed the slow solar wind and the fast solar wind, though their differences extend well beyond their speeds. In near-Earth space, the slow solar wind is observed to have a velocity of 300–500 km/s, a temperature of ~100 kilokelvin and a composition that is a close match to the corona. By contrast, the fast solar wind has a typical velocity of 750 km/s, a temperature of 800 kilokelvin and it nearly matches the composition of the Sun's photosphere. The slow solar wind is twice as dense and more variable in nature than the fast solar wind. The slow solar wind appears to originate from a region around the Sun's equatorial belt that is known as the "streamer belt", where coronal streamers are produced by magnetic flux open to the heliosphere draping over closed magnetic loops. The exact coronal structures involved in slow solar wind formation and the method by which the material is released is still under debate. Observations of the Sun between 1996 and 2001 showed that emission of the slow solar wind occurred at latitudes up to 30–35° during the solar minimum (the period of lowest solar activity), then expanded toward the poles as the solar cycle approached maximum.
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Solar wind
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.
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495
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the slow solar wind occurred at latitudes up to 30–35° during the solar minimum ( the period of lowest solar activity ) , then expanded toward the poles as the solar cycle approached maximum .At solar maximum, the poles were also emitting a slow solar wind. The fast solar wind originates from coronal holes, which are funnel-like regions of open field lines in the Sun's magnetic field. Such open lines are particularly prevalent around the Sun's magnetic poles. The plasma source is small magnetic fields created by convection cells in the solar atmosphere. These fields confine the plasma and transport it into the narrow necks of the coronal funnels, which are located only 20,000 km above the photosphere. The plasma is released into the funnel when these magnetic field lines reconnect. Velocity and density
Near the Earth's orbit at 1 astronomical unit (AU) the plasma flows at speeds ranging from 250 to 750 km/s with a density ranging between 3 and 10 particles per cubic centimeter and temperature ranging from 104 to 106 kelvin. On average, the plasma density decreases with the square of the distance from the Sun, while the velocity decreases and flattens out at 1 AU. Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 reported plasma density n between 0.001 and 0.005 particles/cm3 at distances of 80 to 120 AU, increasing rapidly beyond 120 AU at heliopause to between 0.05 and 0.2 particles/cm3. Pressure
At 1 AU, the wind exerts a pressure typically in the range of 1–6 nPa ((1–6)×10−9 N/m2), although it can readily vary outside that range. The ram pressure is a function of wind speed and density.
|
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Solar wind
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.
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in the range of 1–6 nPa ( ( 1–6 ) ×10−9 N/m2 ) , although it can readily vary outside that range . The ram pressure is a function of wind speed and density .The formula is
P
=
m
p
⋅
n
⋅
V
2
=
1.6726
×
10
−
27
k
g
⋅
n
⋅
V
2
{\displaystyle P=m_{\text{p}}\cdot n\cdot V^{2}=\mathrm {1.6726\times 10^{-27}\,kg} \cdot n\cdot V^{2}}
where mp is the proton mass, pressure P is in Pa (pascals), n is the density in particles/cm3 and V is the speed in km/s of the solar wind. Coronal mass ejection
Both the fast and slow solar wind can be interrupted by large, fast-moving bursts of plasma called coronal mass ejections, or CMEs. CMEs are caused by a release of magnetic energy at the Sun. CMEs are often called "solar storms" or "space storms" in the popular media. They are sometimes, but not always, associated with solar flares, which are another manifestation of magnetic energy release at the Sun. CMEs cause shock waves in the thin plasma of the heliosphere, launching electromagnetic waves and accelerating particles (mostly protons and electrons) to form showers of ionizing radiation that precede the CME. When a CME impacts the Earth's magnetosphere, it temporarily deforms the Earth's magnetic field, changing the direction of compass needles and inducing large electrical ground currents in Earth itself; this is called a geomagnetic storm and it is a global phenomenon. CME impacts can induce magnetic reconnection in Earth's magnetotail (the midnight side of the magnetosphere); this launches protons and electrons downward toward Earth's atmosphere, where they form the aurora. CMEs are not the only cause of space weather.
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Solar wind
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.
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the midnight side of the magnetosphere ) ; this launches protons and electrons downward toward Earth 's atmosphere , where they form the aurora . CMEs are not the only cause of space weather .Different patches on the Sun are known to give rise to slightly different speeds and densities of wind depending on local conditions. In isolation, each of these different wind streams would form a spiral with a slightly different angle, with fast-moving streams moving out more directly and slow-moving streams wrapping more around the Sun. Fast-moving streams tend to overtake slower streams that originate westward of them on the Sun, forming turbulent co-rotating interaction regions that give rise to wave motions and accelerated particles, and that affect Earth's magnetosphere in the same way as, but more gently than, CMEs. CMEs have a complex internal structure, with a highly turbulent region of hot and compressed plasma (known as sheath) preceding an arrival of relatively cold and strongly magnetized plasma region (known as magnetic cloud or ejecta). Sheath and ejecta have very different impact on the Earth's magnetosphere and on various space weather phenomena, such as the behavior of Van Allen radiation belts. Magnetic switchbacks
Magnetic switchbacks are sudden reversals in the magnetic field of the solar wind. They can also be described as traveling disturbances in the solar wind that caused the magnetic field to bend back on itself. They were first observed by the NASA–ESA mission Ulysses, the first spacecraft to fly over the Sun's poles. Parker Solar Probe observed first switchbacks in 2018. Solar System effects
Over the Sun's lifetime, the interaction of its surface layers with the escaping solar wind has significantly decreased its surface rotation rate. The wind is considered responsible for comets' tails, along with the Sun's radiation. The solar wind contributes to fluctuations in celestial radio waves observed on the Earth, through an effect called interplanetary scintillation.
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Solar wind
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.
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responsible for comets ' tails , along with the Sun 's radiation . The solar wind contributes to fluctuations in celestial radio waves observed on the Earth , through an effect called interplanetary scintillation .Magnetospheres
Where the solar wind intersects with a planet that has a well-developed magnetic field (such as Earth, Jupiter or Saturn), the particles are deflected by the Lorentz force. This region, known as the magnetosphere, causes the particles to travel around the planet rather than bombarding the atmosphere or surface. The magnetosphere is roughly shaped like a hemisphere on the side facing the Sun, then is drawn out in a long wake on the opposite side. The boundary of this region is called the magnetopause, and some of the particles are able to penetrate the magnetosphere through this region by partial reconnection of the magnetic field lines. The solar wind is responsible for the overall shape of Earth's magnetosphere. Fluctuations in its speed, density, direction, and entrained magnetic field strongly affect Earth's local space environment. For example, the levels of ionizing radiation and radio interference can vary by factors of hundreds to thousands; and the shape and location of the magnetopause and bow shock wave upstream of it can change by several Earth radii, exposing geosynchronous satellites to the direct solar wind. These phenomena are collectively called space weather. From the European Space Agency's Cluster mission, a new study has taken place that proposes that it is easier for the solar wind to infiltrate the magnetosphere than previously believed. A group of scientists directly observed the existence of certain waves in the solar wind that were not expected. A recent study shows that these waves enable incoming charged particles of solar wind to breach the magnetopause. This suggests that the magnetic bubble forms more as a filter than a continuous barrier.
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Solar wind
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.
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A recent study shows that these waves enable incoming charged particles of solar wind to breach the magnetopause . This suggests that the magnetic bubble forms more as a filter than a continuous barrier .This latest discovery occurred through the distinctive arrangement of the four identical Cluster spacecraft, which fly in a controlled configuration through near-Earth space. As they sweep from the magnetosphere into interplanetary space and back again, the fleet provides exceptional three-dimensional insights on the phenomena that connect the sun to Earth. The research characterised variances in formation of the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) largely influenced by Kelvin–Helmholtz instability (which occur at the interface of two fluids) as a result of differences in thickness and numerous other characteristics of the boundary layer. Experts believe that this was the first occasion that the appearance of Kelvin–Helmholtz waves at the magnetopause had been displayed at high latitude downward orientation of the IMF. These waves are being seen in unforeseen places under solar wind conditions that were formerly believed to be undesired for their generation. These discoveries show how Earth's magnetosphere can be penetrated by solar particles under specific IMF circumstances. The findings are also relevant to studies of magnetospheric progressions around other planetary bodies. This study suggests that Kelvin–Helmholtz waves can be a somewhat common, and possibly constant, instrument for the entrance of solar wind into terrestrial magnetospheres under various IMF orientations. Atmospheres
The solar wind affects other incoming cosmic rays interacting with planetary atmospheres. Moreover, planets with a weak or non-existent magnetosphere are subject to atmospheric stripping by the solar wind. Venus, the nearest and most similar planet to Earth, has 100 times denser atmosphere, with little or no geo-magnetic field. Space probes discovered a comet-like tail that extends to Earth's orbit.
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Solar wind
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_wind.
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