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19,600 | In 2012, "Foreign Policy" magazine named Dingledine, Mathewson, and Syverson among its Top 100 Global Thinkers "for making the web safe for whistleblowers". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,601 | In 2013, Jacob Appelbaum described Tor as a "part of an ecosystem of software that helps people regain and reclaim their autonomy. It helps to enable people to have agency of all kinds; it helps others to help each other and it helps you to help yourself. It runs, it is open and it is supported by a large community spr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,602 | In June 2013, whistleblower Edward Snowden used Tor to send information about PRISM to "The Washington Post" and "The Guardian". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,603 | In 2014, the Russian government offered a $111,000 contract to "study the possibility of obtaining technical information about users and users' equipment on the Tor anonymous network". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,604 | In September 2014, in response to reports that Comcast had been discouraging customers from using the Tor Browser, Comcast issued a public statement that "We have no policy against Tor, or any other browser or software." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,605 | In October 2014, The Tor Project hired the public relations firm Thomson Communications to improve its public image (particularly regarding the terms "Dark Net" and "hidden services," which are widely viewed as being problematic) and to educate journalists about the technical aspects of Tor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,606 | In June 2015, the special rapporteur from the United Nations' Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights specifically mentioned Tor in the context of the debate in the U.S. about allowing so-called backdoors in encryption programs for law enforcement purposes in an interview for "The Washington Post". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,607 | In July 2015, the Tor Project announced an alliance with the Library Freedom Project to establish exit nodes in public libraries. The pilot program, which established a middle relay running on the excess bandwidth afforded by the Kilton Library in Lebanon, New Hampshire, making it the first library in the U.S. to host ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,608 | In August 2015, an IBM security research group, called "X-Force", put out a quarterly report that advised companies to block Tor on security grounds, citing a "steady increase" in attacks from Tor exit nodes as well as botnet traffic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,609 | In September 2015, Luke Millanta created OnionView, a web service that plots the location of active Tor relay nodes onto an interactive map of the world. The project's purpose was to detail the network's size and escalating growth rate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,610 | In December 2015, Daniel Ellsberg (of the Pentagon Papers), Cory Doctorow (of Boing Boing), Edward Snowden, and artist-activist Molly Crabapple, amongst others, announced their support of Tor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,611 | In March 2016, New Hampshire state representative Keith Ammon introduced a bill allowing public libraries to run privacy software. The bill specifically referenced Tor. The text was crafted with extensive input from Alison Macrina, the director of the Library Freedom Project. The bill was passed by the House 268–62. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,612 | Also in March 2016, the first Tor node, specifically a middle relay, was established at a library in Canada, the Graduate Resource Centre (GRC) in the Faculty of Information and Media Studies (FIMS) at the University of Western Ontario. Given that the running of a Tor exit node is an unsettled area of Canadian law, and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,613 | On 16 May 2016, CNN reported on the case of core Tor developer isis agora lovecruft, who had fled to Germany under the threat of a subpoena by the FBI during the Thanksgiving break of the previous year. The Electronic Frontier Foundation legally represented lovecruft. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,614 | On 2 December 2016, "The New Yorker" reported on burgeoning digital privacy and security workshops in the San Francisco Bay Area, particularly at the hackerspace Noisebridge, in the wake of the 2016 United States presidential election; downloading the Tor browser was mentioned. Also, in December 2016, Turkey has blocke... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,615 | Tor (and Bitcoin) was fundamental to the operation of the darkweb marketplace AlphaBay, which was taken down in an international law enforcement operation in July 2017. Despite federal claims that Tor would not shield a user, however, elementary operational security errors outside of the ambit of the Tor network led to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,616 | In June 2017 the Democratic Socialists of America recommended intermittent Tor usage. And in August 2017, according to reportage cybersecurity firms which specialize in monitoring and researching the dark Web (which relies on Tor as its infrastructure) on behalf of banks and retailers routinely share their findings wit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,617 | In June 2018, Venezuela blocked access to the Tor network. The block affected both direct connections to the network and connections being made via bridge relays. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,618 | On 20 June 2018, Bavarian police raided the homes of the board members of the non-profit Zwiebelfreunde, a member of torservers.net, which handles the European financial transactions of riseup.net in connection with a blog post there which apparently promised violence against the upcoming Alternative for Germany conven... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,619 | Since October 2018, Chinese online communities within Tor have begun to dwindle due to increased efforts to stop them by the Chinese government. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,620 | In November 2019, Edward Snowden called for a full, unabridged simplified Chinese translation of his autobiography, "Permanent Record", as the Chinese publisher had violated their agreement by expurgating all mentions of Tor and other matters deemed politically sensitive by the Chinese Communist Party. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,621 | On 8 December 2021, the Russian government agency Roskomnadzor announced it has banned Tor and six VPN services for failing to abide by the Russian Internet blacklist. Russian ISPs unsuccessfully attempted to block Tor's main website as well as several bridges beginning on 1 December 2021. The Tor Project has appealed ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,622 | In response to Internet censorship during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the BBC and VOA have directed Russian audiences to Tor. The Russian government increased efforts to block access to Tor through technical and political means, while the network reported an increase in traffic from Russia, and increased Russian u... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,623 | Iran implemented rolling internet blackouts during the Mahsa Amini protests, and Tor and Snowflake were used to circumvent them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,624 | Tor responded to earlier vulnerabilities listed above by patching them and improving security. In one way or another, human (user) errors can lead to detection. The Tor Project website provides the best practices (instructions) on how to properly use the Tor browser. When improperly used, Tor is not secure. For example... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,625 | Despite intelligence agencies' claims that 80% of Tor users would be de-anonymized within 6 months in the year 2013, that has still not happened. In fact, as late as September 2016, the FBI could not locate, de-anonymize and identify the Tor user who hacked into the email account of a staffer on Hillary Clinton's email... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,626 | The best tactic of law enforcement agencies to de-anonymize users appears to remain with Tor-relay adversaries running poisoned nodes, as well as counting on the users themselves using the Tor browser improperly. For example, downloading a video through the Tor browser and then opening the same file on an unprotected h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,627 | When properly used, odds of being de-anonymized through Tor are said to be extremely low. Tor project's co-founder Nick Mathewson explained that the problem of "Tor-relay adversaries" running poisoned nodes means that a theoretical adversary of this kind is not the network's greatest threat: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,628 | Tor does not provide protection against end-to-end timing attacks: if an attacker can watch the traffic coming out of the target computer, and also the traffic arriving at the target's chosen destination (e.g. a server hosting a .onion site), that attacker can use statistical analysis to discover that they are part of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,629 | Depending on individual user needs, Tor browser offers three levels of security located under the Security Level (the small gray shield at the top-right of the screen) icon > Advanced Security Settings. In addition to encrypting the data, including constantly changing an IP address through a virtual circuit comprising ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20556944 |
19,630 | Psilocybin ( , ) is a naturally occurring psychedelic prodrug compound produced by more than 200 species of fungi. The most potent are members of the genus "Psilocybe", such as "P. azurescens", "P. semilanceata", and "P. cyanescens", but psilocybin has also been isolated from about a dozen other genera. Psilocybin is i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,631 | Imagery found on prehistoric murals and rock paintings of modern-day Spain and Algeria suggests that human usage of psilocybin mushrooms predates recorded history. In Mesoamerica, the mushrooms had long been consumed in spiritual and divinatory ceremonies before Spanish chroniclers first documented their use in the six... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,632 | The intensity and duration of the effects of psilocybin are variable, depending on species or cultivar of mushrooms, dosage, individual physiology, and set and setting, as was shown in experiments led by Timothy Leary at Harvard University in the early 1960s. Once ingested, psilocybin is rapidly metabolized to psilocin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,633 | The effects of psilocybin are highly variable and depend on the mindset and environment in which the user has the experience, factors commonly referred to as set and setting. In the early 1960s, Timothy Leary and colleagues at Harvard University investigated the role of set and setting on the effects of psilocybin. The... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,634 | After ingesting psilocybin, a wide range of subjective effects may be experienced: feelings of disorientation, lethargy, giddiness, euphoria, joy, and depression. In one study, 31% of volunteers given a high dose reported feelings of significant fear and 17% experienced transient paranoia. In studies at Johns Hopkins a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,635 | A 2011 prospective study by Roland R. Griffiths and colleagues suggests that a single high dosage of psilocybin can cause long-term changes in the personality of its users. About half of the study participants—described as healthy, "spiritually active", and many possessing postgraduate degrees—showed an increase in the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,636 | Common responses include pupil dilation (93%); changes in heart rate (100%), including increases (56%), decreases (13%), and variable responses (31%); changes in blood pressure (84%), including hypotension (34%), hypertension (28%), and general instability (22%); changes in stretch reflex (86%), including increases (80... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,637 | Psilocybin is known to strongly influence the subjective experience of the passage of time. Users often feel as if time is slowed down, resulting in the perception that "minutes appear to be hours" or "time is standing still". Studies have demonstrated that psilocybin significantly impairs subjects' ability to gauge ti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,638 | Users having a pleasant experience can feel a sense of connection to others, nature, and the universe; other perceptions and emotions are also often intensified. Users having an unpleasant experience (a "bad trip") describe a reaction accompanied by fear, other unpleasant feelings, and occasionally by dangerous behavio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,639 | Through further anthropological studies regarding "personal insights" and the psycho-social effects of psilocybin, it can be seen in many traditional societies that powerful mind-active substances such as psilocybin are regularly "consumed ritually for therapeutic purposes or for transcending normal, everyday reality."... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,640 | Psilocybin mushrooms have been and continue to be used in indigenous New World cultures in religious, divinatory, or spiritual contexts. Reflecting the meaning of the word "entheogen" ("the god within"), the mushrooms are revered as powerful spiritual sacraments that provide access to sacred worlds. Typically used in s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,641 | Psychedelic drugs can induce states of consciousness that have lasting personal meaning and spiritual significance in individuals who are religious or spiritually inclined; these states are called mystical experiences. Some scholars have proposed that many of the qualities of a drug-induced mystical experience are indi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,642 | In the 1962 Marsh Chapel Experiment, which was run by Pahnke at the Harvard Divinity School under the supervision of Timothy Leary, almost all of the graduate degree divinity student volunteers who received psilocybin reported profound religious experiences. One of the participants was religious scholar Huston Smith, a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,643 | A group of researchers from Johns Hopkins School of Medicine led by Roland Griffiths conducted a study to assess the immediate and long-term psychological effects of the psilocybin experience, using a modified version of the mystical experience questionnaire and a rigorous double-blind procedure. When asked in an inter... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,644 | A follow-up study conducted 14 months after the original psilocybin session confirmed that participants continued to attribute deep personal meaning to the experience. Almost one-third of the subjects reported that the experience was the single most meaningful or spiritually significant event of their lives, and over t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,645 | While many recent studies have concluded that psilocybin can cause mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance, not all the medical community agree. Paul R. McHugh, formerly director of the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science at Johns Hopkins, respo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,646 | Although psilocybin may be prepared synthetically, outside of the research setting it is not typically used in this form. The psilocybin present in certain species of mushrooms can be ingested in several ways: by consuming fresh or dried fruit bodies, by preparing an herbal tea, or by combining with other foods to mask... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,647 | Most of the comparatively few fatal incidents reported in the literature that are associated with psychedelic mushroom usage involve the simultaneous use of other drugs, especially alcohol. Probably the most common cause of hospital admissions resulting from psychedelic mushroom usage involve "bad trips" or panic react... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,648 | Data is sparse, but in the decade leading up to 2020 an increasing number of psilocybin mushroom overdoses have been recorded. One analysis of mushrooms used by people hospitalized from psilocybin poisoning found high concentrations of phenethylamine (PEA), which has also been detected in the urine of people who have u... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,649 | In rats, the median lethal dose (LD) when administered orally is 280 milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg), approximately one and a half times that of caffeine. When administered intravenously in rabbits, psilocybin's LD is approximately 12.5 mg/kg. Psilocybin comprises approximately 1% of the weight of "Psilocybe cubensis" ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,650 | Panic reactions can occur after consumption of psilocybin-containing mushrooms, especially if the ingestion is accidental or otherwise unexpected. Reactions characterized by violent behavior, suicidal thoughts, schizophrenia-like psychosis, and convulsions have been reported in the literature. A 2005 survey conducted i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,651 | The similarity of psilocybin-induced symptoms to those of schizophrenia has made the drug a useful research tool in behavioral and neuroimaging studies of this psychotic disorder. In both cases, psychotic symptoms are thought to arise from a "deficient gating of sensory and cognitive information" in the brain that ulti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,652 | Tolerance to psilocybin builds and dissipates quickly; ingesting psilocybin more than about once a week can lead to diminished effects. Tolerance dissipates after a few days, so doses can be spaced several days apart to avoid the effect. A cross-tolerance can develop between psilocybin and the pharmacologically similar... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,653 | Repeated use of psilocybin does not lead to physical dependence. A 2008 study concluded that, based on US data from the period 2000–2002, adolescent-onset (defined here as ages 11–17) usage of hallucinogenic drugs (including psilocybin) did not increase the risk of drug dependence in adulthood; this was in contrast to ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,654 | Psilocybin is a psychoplastogen, which refers to a compound capable of promoting rapid and sustained neuroplasticity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,655 | Psilocybin is rapidly dephosphorylated in the body to psilocin, which is an agonist for several serotonin receptors, which are also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) receptors. In rats, psilocin binds with high affinity to 5-HT receptors and low affinity to 5-HT receptors, including 5-HT and 5-HT; effects are also me... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,656 | Serotonin receptors are located in numerous parts of the brain, including the cerebral cortex, and are involved in a wide range of functions, including regulation of mood, motivation, body temperature, appetite and sex. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,657 | Psilocybin induces region-dependent alterations in glutamate that may be associated with subjective experiences of ego dissolution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,658 | The effects of the drug begin 10–40 minutes after ingestion, and last 2–6 hours depending on dose, species, and individual metabolism. The half life of psilocybin is 163 ± 64 minutes when taken orally, or 74.1 ± 19.6 minutes when injected intravenously. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,659 | Psilocybin is metabolized mostly in the liver. As it becomes converted to psilocin, it undergoes a first-pass effect, whereby its concentration is greatly reduced before it reaches the systemic circulation. Psilocin is broken down by the enzyme monoamine oxidase to produce several metabolites that can circulate in the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,660 | Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI) have been known to prolong and enhance the effects of DMT and one study assumed that the effect on psilocybin would be similar since it is a structural analogue of DMT. Alcohol consumption may enhance the effects of psilocybin, because acetaldehyde, one of the primary breakdown metab... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,661 | Psilocybin ("O"-phosphoryl-4-hydroxy-"N,N"-dimethyltryptamine, 4-PO-Psilocin, or 4-PO-HO-DMT) is a prodrug that is converted into the pharmacologically active compound psilocin in the body by a dephosphorylation reaction. This chemical reaction takes place under strongly acidic conditions, or under physiological condit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,662 | Psilocybin is a tryptamine compound with a chemical structure containing an indole ring linked to an ethylamine substituent. It is chemically related to the amino acid tryptophan, and is structurally similar to the neurotransmitter serotonin. Psilocybin is a member of the general class of tryptophan-based compounds tha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,663 | Psilocybin is an alkaloid that is soluble in water, methanol and aqueous ethanol, but insoluble in organic solvents like chloroform and petroleum ether. Its pKa values are estimated to be 1.3 and 6.5 for the two successive phosphate OH groups and 10.4 for the dimethylamine nitrogen, so in general it exists as a zwitter... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,664 | Exposure to light is detrimental to the stability of aqueous solutions of psilocybin, and will cause it to rapidly oxidize—an important consideration when using it as an analytical standard. Osamu Shirota and colleagues reported a method for the large-scale synthesis of psilocybin without chromatographic purification i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,665 | Biosynthetically, the biochemical transformation from tryptophan to psilocybin involves several enzyme reactions: decarboxylation, methylation at the N position, 4-hydroxylation, and "O"-phosphorylation. Isotopic labeling experiments from the 1960s suggested that tryptophan decarboxylation is the initial biosynthetic s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,666 | Researchers have genetically engineered "Escherichia coli" that can manufacture large amounts of psilocybin. Psilocybin can be produced "de novo" in yeast. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,667 | Several relatively simple chemical tests—commercially available as reagent testing kits—can be used to assess the presence of psilocybin in extracts prepared from mushrooms. The drug reacts in the Marquis test to produce a yellow color, and a green color in the Mandelin reagent. Neither of these tests, however, is spec... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,668 | Various chromatographic methods have been developed to detect psilocin in body fluids: the rapid emergency drug identification system (REMEDi HS), a drug screening method based on HPLC; HPLC with electrochemical detection; GC–MS; and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Although the determination of psil... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,669 | Psilocybin is present in varying concentrations in over 200 species of Basidiomycota mushrooms. In a 2000 review on the worldwide distribution of hallucinogenic mushrooms, Gastón Guzmán and colleagues considered these to be distributed amongst the following genera: "Psilocybe" (116 species), "Gymnopilus" (14), "Panaeol... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,670 | Both the caps and the stems contain the psychoactive compounds, although the caps consistently contain more. The spores of these mushrooms do not contain psilocybin or psilocin. The total potency varies greatly between species and even between specimens of a species collected or grown from the same strain. Because most... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,671 | The psilocybin contents of dried herbarium specimens of "Psilocybe semilanceata" in one study were shown to decrease with the increasing age of the sample: collections dated 11, 33, or 118 years old contained 0.84%, 0.67%, and 0.014% (all dry weight), respectively. Mature mycelia contain some psilocybin, while young my... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,672 | There is evidence to suggest that psychoactive mushrooms have been used by humans in religious ceremonies for thousands of years. 6,000-year-old pictographs discovered near the Spanish town of Villar del Humo illustrate several mushrooms that have been tentatively identified as "Psilocybe hispanica", a hallucinogenic s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,673 | Archaeological artifacts from Mexico, as well as the so-called Mayan "mushroom stones" of Guatemala have also been interpreted by some scholars as evidence for ritual and ceremonial usage of psychoactive mushrooms in the Mayan and Aztec cultures of Mesoamerica. In Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs, the mushrooms were... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,674 | Although dozens of species of psychedelic mushrooms are found in Europe, there is little documented usage of these species in Old World history besides the use of "Amanita muscaria" among Siberian peoples. The few existing historical accounts about psilocybin mushrooms typically lack sufficient information to allow spe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,675 | American banker and amateur ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson and his wife Valentina P. Wasson, a physician, studied the ritual use of psychoactive mushrooms by the native population in the Mazatec village Huautla de Jiménez, Mexico. In 1957, Wasson described the psychedelic visions that he experienced during these ritu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,676 | Two diethyl analogs (containing two ethyl groups in place of the two methyl groups) of psilocybin and psilocin were synthesized by Hofmann: 4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-diethyltryptamine, called CEY-19, and 4-hydroxy-N,N-diethyltryptamine, called CZ-74. Because their physiological effects last only about three and a half hours ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,677 | In the early 1960s, Harvard University became a testing ground for psilocybin, through the efforts of Timothy Leary and his associates Ralph Metzner and Richard Alpert (who later changed his name to Ram Dass). Leary obtained synthesized psilocybin from Hofmann through Sandoz pharmaceutical. Some studies, such as the Co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,678 | Despite the legal restrictions on psilocybin use, the 1970s witnessed the emergence of psilocybin as the "entheogen of choice". This was due in large part to a wide dissemination of information on the topic, which included works such as those by author Carlos Castaneda, and several books that taught the technique of gr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,679 | Because of a lack of clarity about laws about psilocybin mushrooms, retailers in the late 1990s and early 2000s commercialized and marketed them in smartshops in the Netherlands and the UK, and online. Several websites emerged that have contributed to the accessibility of information on description, use, effects and ex... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,680 | In the United States, psilocybin (and psilocin) were first subjected to federal regulation by the Drug Abuse Control Amendments of 1965, a product of a bill sponsored by Senator Thomas J. Dodd. The law—passed in July 1965 and effected on February 1, 1966—was an amendment to the federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act and w... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,681 | Despite the seemingly strict provisions of the law, many people were exempt from prosecution. The statutes "permit[ted] … people to possess such drugs so long as they were for the personal use of the possessor, [for] a member of his household, or for administration to an animal". The federal law that specifically banne... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,682 | The United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances (adopted in 1971) requires its members to prohibit psilocybin, and parties to the treaty are required to restrict use of the drug to medical and scientific research under strictly controlled conditions. However, the mushrooms containing the drug were not specific... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,683 | Most national drug laws have been amended to reflect the terms of the convention; examples include the UK Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, the US Psychotropic Substances Act of 1978, Australia Poisons Standard (October 2015), the Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act of 1996, and the Japanese Narcotics and Psychotropic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,684 | Possession and use of psilocybin mushrooms, including the bluing species of "Psilocybe", is therefore prohibited by extension. However, in many national, state, and provincial drug laws, there has been a great deal of ambiguity about the legal status of psilocybin mushrooms, as well as a strong element of selective enf... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,685 | Despite being illegal in many typically Western countries, such as the UK, Australia and some US states, less conservative governments opt to nurture the legal use of psilocybin and other psychedelic drugs. In Amsterdam, Netherlands, authorities provide education and promotion on the safe use of psychedelic drugs, such... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,686 | The criminalisation of possession or use of psilocybin in countries like Australia, US, UK and Japan, causes separation between civilians in a greater sense – those who abide by the law and those who do not and should therefore be incarcerated. Legalisation of psilocybin may help embrace some of the positive impacts of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,687 | A 2009 national survey of drug use by the US Department of Health and Human Services concluded that the number of first-time psilocybin mushroom users in the United States was roughly equivalent to the number of first-time users of cannabis. In European countries, the lifetime prevalence estimates of psychedelic mushro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,688 | In modern Mexico, traditional ceremonial use survives among several indigenous groups, including the Nahuas, the Matlatzinca, the Totonacs, the Mazatecs, Mixes, Zapotecs, and the Chatino. Although hallucinogenic "Psilocybe" species are abundant in low-lying areas of Mexico, most ceremonial use takes places in mountaino... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,689 | Psilocybin has been a subject of preliminary research since the early 1960s, when the Harvard Psilocybin Project evaluated the potential therapeutic value of psilocybin for personality disorders. Beginning in the 2000s decade, research on anxiety disorders, major depression, and various addictions was conducted. Psiloc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,690 | In 2018–2019, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted Breakthrough Therapy Designation for psilocybin-assisted therapy for "treatment-resistant" depression and major depressive disorder, a review process enabling the FDA to implement an expedited review if clinical research results for psilocybin u... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38468 |
19,691 | Rocketry: The Nambi Effect is a 2022 Indian biographical drama film written, produced and directed by R. Madhavan in his directorial debut. The film is based on the life of Nambi Narayanan, played by Madhavan, a scientist at the Indian Space Research Organisation, who was accused in the ISRO espionage case and later ex... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58932491 |
19,692 | After its official announcement in October 2018, principal photography took place across several countries including India, Russia and France. The cinematography and editing were handled by Sirsha Ray and Bijith Bala, respectively, while the original score is composed by Sam C. S. "Rocketry" was filmed simultaneously i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58932491 |
19,693 | "Rocketry" premiered at the 2022 Cannes Film Festival on 19 May, and was theatrically released in India on 1 July 2022. The film opened to mostly positive reviews from critics, who praised Madhavan's performance, his screenplay and his noble intention to make the film. Made for , "Rocketry" has grossed worldwide. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58932491 |
19,694 | During the present time in a televised interview with actor Shah Rukh Khan (Hindi)/Suriya (Tamil), Nambi walks through the events leading to his rise as an eminent engineer to alleged espionage charges, physical and mental cruelty against him. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58932491 |
19,695 | Nambi starts with his experiences at the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station, where he saves A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, one of his team members from a major injury during an experiment. In 1969, he is accepted into Princeton University in the US. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58932491 |
19,696 | Nambi successfully completes his MSE program in chemical rocket propulsion under professor who recommends him for the NASA fellowship. However, after a brief stint at NASA with Barry Amaldev, he is offered a generous paycheck and other allowances. He rejects it and returns to India so that he may make use of his talent... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58932491 |
19,697 | At this point, Nambi strikes a deal with the French who need skilled scientists to help them build their own liquid fuel engine. He then moves to France with his colleagues, hoping to learn from France's advanced technology so that they may recreate it back in India. Unbeknownst to the French, Nambi and his 52 colleagu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58932491 |
19,698 | Nambi's focus is now on cryogenic engines which he believes will make India competent to participate in the world satellite market. Knowing ISRO's limitations in terms of time and resources, Nambi decides to purchase these engines from some other country. He strikes a deal with Russia (then USSR) after informing them t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58932491 |
19,699 | Back in India, Nambi is arrested out of the blue while news of his treason spreads like wildfire. He is taken to a guest house in Trivandrum where he is beaten and tortured in an attempt to make him confess to his alleged crimes. He also recognizes that the officials are trying to make him repeat their sentences and th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58932491 |
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