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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/aquatic-invasive-species/alabama-aquatic-nuisance-species-amazonian-apple-snail/ | Alabama Aquatic Nuisance Species: Amazonian Apple Snail | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Bill Walton",
"Eve Brantley",
"Russell Wright"
] | 2018-09-06 | [
"Aquatic Invasive Species",
"Apple Snail",
"Environmental Management"
] | AL | ## Alabama Aquatic Nuisance Species: Amazonian Apple Snail
Learn about the basic biology of the Amazonian apple snail ( Pomacea maculate ), how to identify it, how it was likely introduced, and the impacts of this aquatic nuisance. Also provided are instructions on what to do if this species is found.
## Species Profile
Scientific Name : Pomacaea maculata
Common Names: Amazonian apple snail, island apple snail
Native Region: South America
Date of U.S. Introduction: 1978
First Observed in Alabama: 2008
Known U.S. Range: Florida, Texas, Georgia, Mississippi, Louisiana, South Carolina, and Alabama
Presumed Means of Introduction: Aquarium trade
Recognized Impacts: Agricultural pest, especially in ricegrowing areas; consumption of native wetland vegetation; potential human disease vector (nematodes and trematodes)
## Identification
The Amazonian apple snail can grow quite large (up to 4 inches across) and has very round shells with 4 to 5 whorls. The shells are often yellow-brown, and the snail has an oculperum, which it uses to seal up the shell opening. The Amazonian apple snail can be difficult to distinguish from the Florida apple snail, although this snail has rarely been found in Alabama. One of the most distinctive aspects of the Amazonian apple snail is the bright pink egg casings that they deposit near the waterline, usually in the springtime.
## How Did They Get Here?
An Amazonian apple snail depositing an egg mass. (Photo credit Anthony Ford, US Fish and Wildlife Service. Daphne, Alabama)
The Amazonian apple snail is one of several large apple snails that are popular with aquarists. Unfortunately, when the snails become too large, too abundant, or the aquarium owner no longer wishes to care for the aquarium, the snails, plants, and other animals in the aquarium are sometimes dumped in local waterways. This practice has led to the spread of several invasive, exotic species such as the aquarium plants hydrilla (Hydriella verticillata) and Eurasian watemilfoil ( Myriophyllum spicatum ) that have cost many millions of dollars in control and management. The Amazonian apple snail was first found in Mobile County in 2008 and later at one site in Baldwin County. While it is not possible to know for certain, it is likely that the introduction of this invasive snail was from an aquarium source. Instead of using this method of disposal, aquarium owners should allow unwanted aquarium plants to dry thoroughly and then dispose of compost them. Aquarium animals should never be released alive in Alabama's waters, and it is illegal to intentionally stock or release aquatic organisms into the public waters of Alabama.
## Why Are They a Problem?
Apple snails cause several problems. First, they can deystatiate rice crops, causing economic losses to farmers in neighboring states and reducing food supply in the southeastern United States. Second, they voraciously consume wetland plants. The
Distinctive pink egg masses of the Amazoninian apple snail (Photo credit: Ben Ricks)
damage the snails do by eating the plants can negatively affect all the important functions of our marshes and wetlands. Fish and wildlife (especially waterfowl) habitat can be severely damaged by these aggressive grazers, and they can directly compete with native wildlife for and essential habitat. Damage to plants reduces the ability of moss to absorb nutrients and stabilize sediments, leading to poor water quality in critical areas such as Mobile Bay and otters coastal waters. A loss of these critical wetland plants can also reduce the ability of marshes to buffer the effects of large storms such as floods and hurricanes. Apple snails also serve as hosts of disease-causing ternatodes and nematodes, including the rat ringworm ( Angiotongylus cantonensis ), intestinal fluke ( Echinostoma ilicamum ), and the human endoparasite rat lungworm ( Eosinophilic meningoencephalitis ).
Invasive apple snails mature quickly; reaching sexual maturity with 60 to 80 days. They can lay more than 2,000 eggs per mass and can lay new clutches of eggs nearly every 2 weeks. Eggs are laid on hard vertical surfaces near but above water surfaces and incubate for 1 to 2 weeks, at which point the newly hatched young snails fall into the water. In newly invaded regions, apple snails can spread by natural migration upstream and downstream, as well as through transport by people.
## Control Efforts
Apple snails can be extremely difficult to control and virtually impossible to eliminate once they have become established and are reproducing. Chemical control methods using copper-based compounds have been used to treat large areas. Unfortunately, the chemicals do not just kill the apple snails -copper can be toxic to algae, fish, and other snails and clams. Physical traps are often used to collect adult apple snails. These traps help monitor the snails to determine if they continue to spread. Removing or killing the eggs also reduces the reproduction of snails. While the public can be vital in reporting the presence of this snail and not moving them to new areas, actual control is best done by trained professionals.
## What To Do If You Find an Apple Snail or Egg Mass
Do not transport or move them. It is illegal to transport nuisance, invasive species in the state of Alabama.
Record the location and date you find the snail. Take a picture of the animal, and use a geo-tag if possible. Ideally include something in the photograph for scale (a coin, for example).
Report the finding immediately to the Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries. You can find your local fisheries biologist at http://www.outdooralabama.com/fishing/freshwater/staff/staff.pdf .
Note: If you are interested in doing more, state agencies periodically may have opportunities for volunteers to assist with control programs. Ask about these opportunities to learn more.
Any person, company, government agency, or other entity desiring to stock or release any fish, mussel, snail, crayfish, or their embryos into Alabama's public freshwaters must obtain approval to do so by the Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries at 334-242-3471 or by email by contacting Nick Nichols, Fisheries Section, at nick.nichols@dcrnl.alabama.gov or by mail at the following address:
Albama Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries Division
64 North Union Street, Montgomery, AL 36104.
## Additional Reading
Ako, H. and C. Tamarun. 2007. Efforts at golden apple snail control in Hawaii. Department of Molecular Biosciences and Bioengineering and Sea Grant Extension Service, University of Hawaii.
Burlakova, L. E., A. Y. Karatyev, D. K. Padilla, L. D. Cartwright, and D. N. Hollas. 2008. Wetland restoration and invasive species: Apple snail ( Pomacae insularum ) feeding on native and invasive aquatic plants. Restoration Ecology 1-8.
Burch, J. B. 1989. North American Freshwater Snails. Malocalcological Publications, Hamburg, Michigan, 365 pp.
Joshi, R. C. 2005. The golden apple snail: Raiders of the rice fields. Outlooks on Pest Management. pp 23-26.
Levin, P, and O. N. Huil Kalo. 2006. Statewide Strategic Control Plan for Apple Snail in Hawaii. The Hawaii Land Restoration Institute.
Ramakrishnan, V. 2007. Salinity, pH, temperature, desiccation and hypoxia tolerance in the invasive freshwater apple snail, Pomacea insularum . Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas. 245 pp.
Rawlings, T. A., K. A. Hayes, R. H. Cowie, and T. M. Collins. 2007. The identity, distribution and impacts of non-native apple snails in the continental United States. BMC Evolutionary Biology 7:97.
We are grateful to David Armstrong and Thomas Purcell of the Alabama Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries for their assistance with this publication.
Bill Walton, Extension Specialist and Assistant Professor, Aquaculture and Recreational Pond Management; Eve Brantley, Extension Specialist and Assistant Professor, Agronomy (https://www.wright.edu/student-affiliations/acopt/privacy.php) Professor, Fisheries and Allied Aquaculture
## Download this article as a PDF
- [ -(https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/ANR-2130\_REV.\_2.pdf ) Alabama Aquatic Nuisance Species: Amazonian Apple Snail, ANR-2130 (https://www.acs.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/ANR-2130.REV.\_2.pdf) |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/ipm-farming/cowpea-curculio-in-alabama/ | Integrated Pest Management (IPM) | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Ayanava Majumdar"
] | 2022-07-06 | [
"Integrated Pest Management",
"Farming",
"Agriculture"
] | AL | ## Cowpea Curculio Management
This video discusses cowpea curculio scouting methods and management. Producers should consult the main author or any of the Alabama Extension commercial horticulture regional agents for new IPM recommendations.
## Additional Information on Cowpea Curculio
- · Cowpea Curculio Management in Alabama, ANR-2313. (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/ipm-farming/cowpeacurcula-management-in-alabama/)
- · Cowpea curculio biology (University of Florida/IFAS Extension Bulletin EENY-223)
## More Information
For further information or immediate consultation about curculio or insecticide resistance concerns, contact Ayanava Majumdar at 251-331-8416 or azam0024@aces.edu. Also, like and follow the Alabama Vegetable IPM Facebook page ( https://www.facebook.com/Alabama-Vegetable-IPM -110601312341489 ) for more information.
This video is dedicated to ongoing research on cowpea curculio management in southern peas or cowpeas. Research on this major insect pest started in 2014 and has continued expand with grower demand for information. Funding agency: USDA-NIFA Extension IPM Coordination Funds (2014-2016 and 2010-2013)
Cookie Notice |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/hla/squash-and-pumpkin-production-hla-6026.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20190604153720-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Lynn Brandenberger Extension Vegetable Specialist
James Shrefter Extension Horticulture Specialist
## John Damicone
Extension Plant Pathologist
Eric Rebek
Extension Entomologist
## Origin and Families
Squash and pumpkin originating in the Americas including parts of South America, Mexico and Central America. Well before they were adopted by Europeans, the seed of these important crops were carried into northern regions of the Americas by Native Americans to be grown as important food crops (Percirce, 1987). This group of cucumbers includes members from Cucurbita maxima (i.e., winter squash), C. pepo (summer squash, pumpkin), C. moschata (cushaws and pumpkins with narrow necks) and C. mixta (cushaws and pear-shaped pumpkins).
## Nutritional Content
Orange-fleshed pumpkins contain significant levels of vitaminA along with calcium and folate. Other squash relatives, including summer and zucchini squashes, have lower levels of calcium, folate and vitamin A (https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/ search/list/). Additionally, pumpkin seeds can be roasted and eaten as a nutritious snack that contains both energy and protein.
## Production Requirements
Squash is grown in Oklahoma for both fresh and processing markets and can be grown in all areas of the state. These crops prefer low humidity conditions due to lower incidence of fruit and foliar disease. In general, cucurbits such as squash and pumpkin perform best during warm weather, flowering and fruiting during the heat of summer, while less heat-tolerant crops cease to flower or fruit.
## Squash and Pumpkin Production
Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Fact Sheets are also available on our website at: facts.okstate.edu
Flowering is monoicous, meaning there are separate male and female flowers on the same plant. What that means for fruit production is that pollen from the male flowers must be transferred onto the stigma of the female flower primarily by insect pollinators, therefore, protecting and managing pollinator insects is critical for fruiting. Better pollination translates to more seeds formed in the fruit, and therefore larger fruit within a given species.
Squash and pumpkin production are limited by high labor requirements for harvesting and difficulty in controlling virus diseases. There is evidence that the use of sorghum x Sudangrass or other annual warm-season forage grasses can reduce the level of virus in cucumber bitts when planted as windows between rows of squash.
Good yield for summer squash under irrigation in Oklahoma is 8 tons per acre or 400 bushel cartons. With good management and growing conditions, winter squash and pumpkin will yield 12 tons per acre or more. Yields of 15 to 20 tons per acre of pumpkin are possible.
## Sites and Soils
Soil types for squash production can vary, with loams and sandy loams preferred. If soil drainage is less than optimal, squash will benefit from the formation of free-standing raised soil beds. These beds can be formed by using a commercial bed-shaper. Drip irrigation tape can be installed with most bedshapers during bedding. Squash will produce higher yields if supplemental irrigation is available during drought conditions, which occurduringmostsummergrowingseasons.Nematodes can be a problem and producers should rotate squash fields to non-host species such as annual grasses or cereal grains to reduce the chances of nematode populations increasing.
## Soil pH and Fertilizer
Squash is tolerant to a wide range of soil pH, but soil with a pH between 6.0 and 6.8 is preferred. If the soil pH is below 5.8, it should be limited to increase the pH to 6.0 or above. Based on OSU soil test results, recommended amounts of phosphorus (P$\_{2}$O$\_{3}$) and potassium (K$\_{2}$O) are given in Table 1. Nitrogen - The nitrate-N value given by the soil test report should be used to determine nitrogen fertilizer needs on a particular soil. Subtract the available nitrogen given in
June 2019
| Phosphorous Requirements (lbs. P$_{2}$O$_{5}$/Acre) | Phosphorous Requirements (lbs. P$_{2}$O$_{5}$/Acre) | Phosphorous Requirements (lbs. P$_{2}$O$_{5}$/Acre) | Phosphorous Requirements (lbs. P$_{2}$O$_{5}$/Acre) | Phosphorous Requirements (lbs. P$_{2}$O$_{5}$/Acre) |
|-------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|
| When test shows | 0 | 10 | 20 | 40 |
| Add lbs. P$_{2}$O$_{5}$ | 120 | 100 | 80 | 45 |
## Potassium Requirements (lbs. K$\_{2}$O/Acre)
When test shows Add lbs. K$\_{2}$ O
=
75 100
125 80
200 40
> >250 0
120
100
80
40
0
the soil test results from that needed initially by the crop. For example, if the soil test indicates 15 pounds of available nitrogen, subtract that 15 pounds from the pre-plant nitrogen application of 50 pounds, meaning 35 pounds of nitrogen would need to be applied prior to planting. On soils with low levels (5 pounds or less) of nitrogen, apply 50 pounds nitrogen per acre pre-plant incorporated, along with recommended P$\_{2}$O$\_{5}$ and K$\_{2}$O (Table 1) prior to planting. Alternatively, band all fertilizer with the planter 3 to 4 inches below and 2 to 3 inches to the side of the seed row. High levels of N in the soil will cause excessive growth and delayed flowering and fruit set; therefore, do not over-apply nitrogen. Squash will respond to N fertilizer, so top-dressing (applying fertilizer to the soil surface) with N fertilizer is advised. Two-tresses of 40 pounds nitrogen per acre for each top-dress, with the first at three weeks after seedling emergence and the last three weeks later should supply ample nitrogen for the crop.
Another method of managing nitrogen is to inject it through a drip irrigation system, if an irrigation system is used for crop watering. The advantage of applying nitrogen through the drip system is that smaller amounts of nitrogen can be applied on a more regular basis, thereby reducing the risk of over-applying nitrogen and reducing nitrogen loss from leaching by heavy rains. In addition, less nitrogen will be available for weedy competitors since nitrogen applied through the drip system is applied down the row, not broadcast over a wider area. Even if fertilizer is injected through the drip irrigation system, it is wise to make a pre-plant application of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium based upon soil test recommendations, or apply all of them through the drip irrigation system if a water-soluble complete fertilizer (fertilizer containing N-P-K) is used.
## Soil Preparation
Conventional clean tillage methods can be used for soil preparation including deep-plowing, disking and narrowing.An alternative to tilling the entire field area would be to strip-till, where a cool season cover crop strip is left between every two to four rows of squash, allowing for wind-breaks and later for harvest and spray alleys if spraying is necessary.
One potential challenge with conventional clean tillage is the loss of soil organic matter due to the physical cutting-up of organic residues and the increase of soil microbial activity in breaking down organic residues. One solution to this loss of organic matter would be the use of winter cover crops to increase soil organic matter. When a winter legume such as Austrian winter pea or winter clovers, etc. are included with a cereal grass in the cover crop mix, not only will soil organic
matter be increased, but there will also be a gain in available nitrogen for subsequent warm-season crops such as squash. Research has indicated a direct benefit to using cover crops with at least one legume in the cover crop mix in the winter prior to planting a warm-season crop such as squash or pumpkin. In an organic system, legume cover crops are a good source of nitrogen that will be available for an extended period during the growing season.
## Planting and Plant Spacing
A key aspect of establishing squash is waiting until the soil temperature at planting depth is at least 60 F (70 to 90 F for optimal germination temperature), otherwise plants will be slow to emerge and crop stands will be variable, with plants in various stages of growth. In addition, cold soil temperatures early in the season can result in blossom end rot (BER). Blossom end rot is a physiological condition where calcium is reduced in availability during flowering and fruiting, resulting in a brown, leathery area on the bottom (blossom end) of the fruit, rendering the fruit unsaleable. Blossom end rot usually occurs at early set fruit and is related to several conditions, with cold soils being a major factor.
Direct seeding is the primary method used for crop establishment. Seed squash approximately % ¾ to 1 inch in depth in rows 42 inches apart for dwarf types and 48 to 60 inches
apart for medium to large types. Seed should be spaced 3 to 4 inches apart in the row, then thinned to 12 to 15 inches apart for dwarf types and 18 to 24 inches apart for standard and large types. Summer and winter squash and pumpkin varieties are provided in Table 2. The most recent OSU variety recommendations can be found in HLA-6035, Commercial Vegetable Varieties for Oklahoma.
Transplants of squash can also be used for establishment and will take approximately four weeks to produce prior to transplanting in the field. See HLA-6020, Growing Vegetable Transplants for more information. Unless the producer is targeting a very early market, transplants aren't normally used as the large-seeded squash and pumpkins germinate and grow rapidly when soil temperatures are conducive to germination. Transplanting into raised beds covered with black plastic mulch will reduce the time to harvest, particularly during cool, wet springs.
## Weed Management
Whether using conventional clean tillage, strip tillage or mulches, producers will encounter weed competition when producing squash and pumpkin. Weed control will be critical in the early growth stages, while seedlings or transplants are small. Shallow cultivation by tractor-drawn cultivators, hoering by hand or walk-behind tillers will be required in the early stages of crop development in an organic system and also may be needed in conventional production. When cultivating, be certain to cultivate at a depth that is shallow, but deep enough to be
| Summer squash varieties | Type | Green scallop |
|---------------------------|---------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Peter Pan | Yellow scallop | effective for weed control, since deep cultivation will damage |
| Sunburst | Yellow scallop | crop roots and bring more weed seed to the surface. After the |
| Prelude II | Yellow crookneck | crop begins to shade the soil surface, less cultivation will be |
| Sunglo | Yellow crookneck | needed to maintain the field due to the ability of squash and |
| Supersett | Yellow crookneck | pumpkins to shade the soil surface. Further control of weedy |
| Fortune | Yellow straight-neck | once soil temperature has increased and crop growth is |
| Superpik | Yellow straight-neck | rapid. Some organic mulching materials during decomposition can compete directly with the crop for nitrogen, therefore |
| CashFlow | Green zucchini | don't use mulches with high carbon-to-nitrogen ratios (bark, |
| Dividend | Green zucchini | wood chips or ground wood products). In addition, the need |
| Payroll | Green zucchini | |
| Winter squash varieties | Type | for tillage can be reduced considerably if pre-emergence or |
| Autumn Delight | Green acorn | post-emergence herbicides are a viable option for the farm. |
| TayBelle | Green acorn PM resistant* | Registered herbicides for squash and pumpkin can be found in |
| Bonbon | Buttercup | E-832, Extension Agents' Handbook of Insect, Plant Disease, |
| Burgess Buttercup | Buttercup | and Weed Control. As with any pesticide, be certain to read |
| Chieftain | Butternut PM resistant | and follow label instructions pertaining to what crops it can |
| Ultra HP Premium | Butternut | been used with and how to safely store and use the material. |
| Waltham Butternut | Butternut | Irrigation |
| Pumpkin Varieties | Type | Adequate moisture is needed by all crops to grow and |
| Howden | Field | flourish. Moisture stress during summer squash harvest can |
| Mustang | Field PM resistant | seriously reduce yield.When overhead irrigation is used, water |
| Charisma | Field PM resistant | should be applied early in the day so leaves can dry before |
| Magician | Field | nightfall to reduce the incidence of fruit rot and foliar diseases. |
| Orange Smoothie | Pie | Although squash and pumpkin are crops that can tolerate both |
| Winter Luxury | Pie | heat and some drought, these crops will not maximize their |
| Touch of Autumn | Small | potential for yield and profitability if they are drought stressed. |
PM resistant* = Powdery Mildew resistance
rainfall to meet its needs. If adequate rainfall is lacking, it will be necessary to provide supplemental irrigation totaling 1.5 inches of water every 10 days during the hottest months of the summer.
Water can be delivered to the crop in a number of ways, including overhead sprinklers, furrow irrigation and drip sy stems. Drip irrigation often is used in situations where there is not adequate water volume or pressure to meet the higher use requirements for overhead systems. Drip sy stems are a very efficient means of distributing irrigation water, since water is either applied to the surface of the soil or subsurface with buried drip tape. Other benefits to drip irrigation include being able to carry on other field operations during irrigation; not wetting the crop foliage, thereby reducing crop disease pressure; and being able to fertilize through the drip system. Irrigate summer squash with moderate amounts of water since they root only 3 to 4 feet deep, but have many shallow roots. Winter squash and pumpkin root deeper and require less frequent irrigation.
## Field Scouting for Plant and Pest Development
Fields should be scouted at a minimum of once per week after planting by walking across the entire field in a V-shape or X-shape pattern and recording plant development and weed and insect occurrence and numbers. Results of surveys will be needed to make decisions regarding projection of harvest date, the need to bring in honey bees for pollination and pest control.
If known, scout for diseases in areas of a field in which diseases tend to appear first. Otherwise, use the V-shape or X-shape sampling pattern outlined for insects. Some foliar diseases will appear where air circulation is reduced and leaves remain wet, such as in low areas and along borders sheltered by trees. Foliar diseases typically appear first on crown leaves close to the base of the main stem. Root diseases tend to appear where soil remains wettest, such as in low areas and in heavier soils.
## Insects
Fields previously in sod or having heavy infestations of weeds the prior year should be treated with a soil-applied insecticide at planting to control soil insect pests, including cutworms.Small seedlings are extremely susceptible to feeding damage from striped and spotted cucumber beetles, which transmit bacterial wilt. Seedlings may need to be treated with a foliar-applied insecticide to prevent complete defoliation and/or infection from bacterial wilt.
Squash bug is the key pest of squash and pumpkins and will destroy the crop if not controlled. Squash bugs must be controlled early in the growing season and can best be located by examining the underside of leaves for eggs, which are laid in groups. Young nymphs are the easiest life stage to control and should be targeted for insecticide applications. Nymphs are most easily located in close proximity to egg clusters just after hatching. Aphids and mites can cause damage to leaves and they leave deposits on fruit, reducing marketable yield. Low numbers can be tolerated throughout most of the season, and scouting results will indicate whether populations are increasing and should be controlled.
Good fruit set and development on squash and pumpkins are dependent upon insects, primarily honey bees and bumble bees, to adequately pollinate the female flowers. Flowers are most receptive to pollination during the morning hours. Flowers should be examined to determine activity of bees. If less than one bee per 10 flowers is noted during the morning hours, the producer should bring bee hives into the field to ensure adequate pollination.
## Diseases
Squash and pumpkin are susceptible to several diseases that attack the roots, foliage and fruit. The most common diseases in Oklahoma have been powdery mildew and virus diseases. Angular leaf spot, downy mildew, Phytophthora rot, other fruit rots, bacterial wilt, root rots/vine declines and root knot nematode also have been problems.
Disease control is essential in the production of highquality squash and pumpkin. A preventive program that combines the use of cultural practices, genetic resistance and chemical control as needed, usually provides the best results.
Cultural practices are useful for limiting the establishment, spread and survival of pathogen that cause squash and pumpkin diseases. Many of the fungal, bacterial and nematode pathogens survive in old crop debris and in the soil. Fields should be rotated with non-cucurbit crops for at least three years to reduce pathogen levels. Grass crops are ideal for rotations where nematodes are a problem.Fieldswith the proper soil characteristics should be selected. Avoid acid soils or fields with a history of Phytophthora rot or root rots/ vine declines. The selection of well-drained soils is essential for minimizing fruit rots. Late plantings should not be situated nearby and downwind of early planted cucurbit fields, where foliar or virus diseases already exist. Avoid the movement of contaminated soil or plant debris on workers or farm equipment into clean fields. Diseases such as angular leaf spot are known to be carried on seed. This can lead to the introduction of disease into fields. Purchase seed from reputable sources and apply a fungicide seed treatment prior to planting. Most foliar diseases are spread by water-splash or favored by long periods of leaf wetness. Utilize drip irrigation or avoid frequent sprinkler irrigation with small amounts of water. Finally, use tillage practices that promote the rapid decomposition of old vines and fruit soon after harvest. The use of disease-resistant varieties is an economical means of managing diseases. Unfortunately, only a few disease-resistant varieties are available for squash and pumpkin. Varieties have been recently developed and released with either virus or powdery mildew resistance. These should be tested for local adaptation until trials result become available.
Management of foliar diseases such as powdery mildew may require fungicide sprays. Fields should be monitored at least weekly for early disease detection.Late-planted fields are most vulnerable to powdery mildew. Spray programs should be initiated shortly after the first appearance of disease, or beginning at flowering to prevent disease in late plantings. A 14-day schedule has been effective in most instances, although a 7-day schedule may be required where powdery mildew is severe. Management of bacterial wilt may require the use of insecticide to control cucumber beetles, which spread the disease. Consult OSU Extension Circular E-832, Extension Agents' Handbook of Insect, Plant Disease, and
Weed Control for a listing of fungicides approved for use on squash and pumpkin.
## Pesticide Applications
Insecticide applications should be made only when necessary, as determined using results of field surveys. For control of diseases, fungicides are most effective when applied before disease pressure begins to increase. The potential for very rapid increase is greatest shortly before harvest when the canopy is most dense or anytime during prolonged periods of rainfall. Effective squash bug control depends on sufficient penetration of the leaf canopy by insecticides to contact and kill the bugs. Insecticides and fungicides should be selected based on proven effectiveness. Ground applications should be made in a minimum spray volume of 20 gallons per acre at 40 psi to ensure adequate canopy penetration and foliar coverage. Aerial applications should be in a minimum spray volume of 5 gallons per acre. Chemigation is an effective method for applying some fungicides.
Bee hives maintained near fields for pollination must be protected from spray drift by removing the hives or covering them. Additionally, the bees working the fields must be protected by using insecticides with a low toxicity to bees and by withholding applications until late in the day when bees are less active.
## Harvesting and Handling
Summer squash are harvested over several weeks and must be harvested every other day during the peak production season. They are harvested as soon as fruit is of edible size, but before the skin begins to harden. Varieties with long fruits are harvested when less than 3 inches in diameter and up to 6 to 8 inches long. Scallop squash are harvested when they reach 3 to 4 inches in diameter. Summer squash are very tender and must be handled with great care to prevent physical damage. Some producers will supply their harvest crews with freshly laundered cotton work gloves each day to
help prevent damage to the fruit from fingernail punctures. Defective and large summer squash fruits should not be allowed to remain on the plant, as this reduces additional fruit set. Summer squash should be cooled before shipment to maintain quality.
Winter squash and pumpkin are harvested when mature, and are normally harvested in one or two pickings. Fruit are mature and ready for harvest when the skin is hard and resists denting by thumbnail pressure when mature.Winter squash and pumpkin can remain in the field through a very light vine-killing frost but should not remain in the field during a hard freeze. When harvesting, the stem is cut with either a sharp knife or with pruning shears, leaving a stub attached to the fruit. They should be handled carefully to avoid breaking the stub or skin or bruising the fruit. Summer squash is usually packed in 1/2 or 5/9 bushel crates or cartons weighing 21 pounds or in 11/9 bushels crates weighing 42 to 45 pounds. Winter squash are commonly packed in 11/2 bushel crates weighing 40 to 45 pounds.
## Curing and Storage
Summer squash are perishable and should not be stored. They can be held up to one week before marketing at 45 to 50 F and 90 to 95 percent relative humidity. Do not store at cooler temperatures because this can result in fruit injury. Winter squash and pumpkin can be stored for later marketing. If stored, they should be cured to harden the shell, ensure maturity and to heal any cuts and scratches. To cure, winter squash and pumpkin are held for 10 days at 80 to 85 F and 80 percent relative humidity. Winter squash and pumpkins are stored at 50 to 55 F and to 75 percent relative humidity. Acorn squash can be stored up to two months and butternut squash and pumpkin for two to three months.
## Related Extension Publications
E-832 OSU Extension Agent's Handbook of Insect, Plant Disease, and Weed Control
## The Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service WE ARE OKLAHOMA
The Cooperative Extension Service is the largest, most successful informal educational organization in the world.Itisanationallyfundedandguided by a partnership of federal, state, and local governments that delivers information to help people help themselves through the land-grant university system.
Extension carries outprogramsinthebroadcategories of agriculture, natural resources and environment; family and consumer sciences; 4-H and other youth; and community resource development. Extension staff members live and work among the people they serve to help stimulate and educate Americans to plan ahead and cope with their problems.
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- · It isnota regulatory agency,butitdoesinform peopleofregulationsandsothefriendsomeintestingthem.
- · Localprogramsaredevelopedandcarriedoutinfullrecognitionofnationalproblemsandgoals.
- · The Extension staff educates peoplethrough personal contacts, meetings,demonstrations, and the mass media.
- · Extension has the built-in flexibility to adjustits programsandsubjectmattertometemewntneeds. Activities shift fromyear to yearas citizengroups and Extension workers close to the problems advise changes.
The original fact sheet was developedby Jim Motes, Warren Roberts, Jonathan Edelson and John Damicone.
Oklahoma State University, as an equal opportunity employer, complieswith all applicable federal and state laws regardingnon-discrimination and affirmative action. Oklahoma State University is committed to a policy of equal opportunity for all individuals and does not discriminate based on race, religion, age, sex, color, national origin, marital status, sexual orientation, gender identity/ expression, disability, or veteran status with regard to employment, educational programs and activities, andor admissions. For more information, visit https://eee.okstate.edu .
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Director of Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma. This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Vice President for Agricultural Programs and has been prepared and distributed at a cost of 20 cents per copy. Revised 0619 GH. | |
https://extension.okstate.edu/e-pest-alerts/site-files/documents/2007/soybean-rust-alert-july-23-2007.pdf | Microsoft Word - PDIA6-21.doc | Oklahoma State University | [
"rgranth"
] | Error: time data "D:20070723082410-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## PLANT DISEASE AND
Entomology and Plant Pathology Oklahoma State University 127 Noble Research Center Stillwater, OK 74078
STATE UNIVERSITY EXTENSION
Vol. 6, No. 21
http://entoplop.okstate.edu/Pddl/
July 23, 2007
## Soybean Rust Alert John Damicone, Extension Plant Pathologist
Soybean rust was identified for the first time in Oklahoma on 20 July in a sentinel plot sample taken in Bryan Co. on 13 July. It was found on one leaf out of 100 sampled. Just a day or two earlier, Tom I sakeit, Texas A&M Extension Plant Pathologist, found rust to be widespread in commercial soybean fields around the Dallas, TX area. We have sent our sample in for conformation with APHIS. Following confirmation, we will be able to mark Bryan Co. as positive for rust on the soybean rust website ( http://www.sbrusa.net ). The sample was from MG 3.9 soybeans planted in June, probably at or near the R3 growth stage. Based on the Texas situation, experimental rust forecasts from X.B. Yang at Iowa State University, the old age of the infection observed in the positive sample, and the prolonged favorable weather for rust we experienced in June and July, I suspect that rust is present in other areas of southern and central Oklahoma. I will be making a tour this week to get a better handle on the rust situation.
R5 are not likely to provide a yield benefit. Fields sprayed before R3 (beginning pod) will likely require a second application.
| Stage | Name | Description |
|---------|--------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| V1 | first node | first node with fully expanded leaves |
| V2 | 2 nd node | two nodes on main stem with fully expanded leaves |
| V5 | 5 th nodes | five nodes with fully expanded leaves |
| Vn | nodes | n=total number of nodes with fully expanded leaves (note: vegetative stages continue until first flowering, some varieties may develop as many as 20 nodes) |
| R1 | beginning flower | open flower at any node on the main stem |
| R2 | full flower | open flower at one of the two uppermost nodes on the main stem with a fully expanded leaf |
| R3 | beginning pod | pod 5 mm (3/16 inch) long at one of four uppermost nodes on the main stem with a fully expanded leaf |
| R4 | full pod | pod 3/4 inch long at one of the four uppermost nodes on the main stem with a fully expanded leaf |
| R5 | beginning seed | seed 1/8 inch long in a pod at one of the four uppermost nodes on the main stem with a fully expanded leaf |
| R6 | full seed | pod containing a green seed that fills the pod cavity at one of the four uppermost nodes on the main stem with a fully expanded leaf |
| R7 | beginning maturity | one normal pod on the main stem that has reached its mature pod color |
| R8 | full maturity | 95% of the pods have reached their mature pod color |
There are numerous fungicides registered in oklahoma for use on soybeans to control rust either with a full label or through emergency exemption registration (Section 18). The most effective are either strobilurins or triazoles, or combinations of these two fungicide classes. Use the lowest labeled rate when making two applications or the higher rate when making a single application. The following are suggested fungicides for soybean rust control:
| Chemical names | Trade names |
|---------------------------------|--------------------------|
| Strobilurins | |
| pyraclostrobin | Headline |
| Triazoles | |
| cyproconazole | Alto |
| flusilazole | Punch |
| metconazole | Caramba |
| myclobutanil | Laredo |
| propiconazole | Tilt, Bumper, PropiMax |
| tebuconazole | Folicur, Orius, Uppercut |
| tetracanazole | Domark |
| Combinations | Combinations |
| azoxystrobin + cyproconazole | Quadris Xtra |
| azoxystrobin + propiconazole | Quit |
| trifloxystrobin + propiconazole | Stratego |
| pyraclostrobin + propiconazole | Deadline SBR |
Availability and price will be important factors in selecting fungicides for soybean rust. I do not recommend use of a spray adjuvant, particularly with some of the triazoles, because of the potential for increasing levels of leaf injury. I will learn more this week and may revise these recommendations as the need arises.
Dr. Richard Grantham Director, Plant Disease and Insect Diagnostic Laboratory
Oklahoma State University, in compliance with Title IV and VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Executive Order of 11246 as amended. Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, and other federal laws and regulations, does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, age, religion, disability, or status as a veteran in any of its policies, practices or procedures. This includes but is not limited to admissions, employment, financial aid, and educational services.
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Robert E. Whitson, VP, Dean, and Director for Agricultural Programs, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma. This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Dean of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources. |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/fredept/2021/05/07/science-by-the-slice-podcast-featuring-dr-christa-court/ | Science By the Slice Podcast Featuring Dr. Christa Court | University of Florida | [
"Savannah Linzmaier"
] | 2021-05-07 | [
"UF/IFAS",
"UF/IFAS Teaching",
"Center for Public Issues Education",
"COVID",
"economics",
"Food and Resource Economics",
"podcast",
"UF PIE",
"UF-IFAS"
] | FL | ## Science By the Slice Podcast Featuring Dr. Christa Court
Dr. Christa Court was recently a guest on the UF/IFAS Center for Public Issues Education's (PIE) podcast, Science by the Slice . Dr. Court is an Assistant Professor of Regional Economics and the Director of the Economic Impact Analysis Program in the Food and Resource Economics Department. She was featured on the April Series: Covid-19 Food Systems, in "Part 2: Combating Interruptions in the Food System", where they discussed research related to the pandemic and the impacts it has had on the U.S. food system.
The podcast is available on Apple Podcasts, Spotify, and Google Podcasts. Or, listen now at: https://piecenter.com/media/scienceby-the-slice-podcast/.
1
by Savannah Linzmaier
Posted: May 7, 2021
Category: UF/IFAS, UF/IFAS Teaching
Tags: Center For Public Issues Education, COVID, Economics, Food And Resource Economics, Podcast, UF PIE, Uf/ifas
## More From Blogs.IAS
- · Buying Into Bigfoot: How Cryptid Tourism Boosts Local Economies
- · UF Graduate Student Wins Award From The Southern Economic Association
- · FRE Graduate Student Faith Aiya Awarded Outstanding Student Poster In AAEA Competition
- · Congratulations Danielle Shu |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/building-construction-plans/garbage-cooker-garbage-cooking-outlawed-0 | Garbage Cooker (garbage cooking outlawed) | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [] | null | [] | MS | " Publications " Building & Construction Plans Archive "
Garbage Cooker (garbage cooking outlawed)
## Garbage Cooker (garbage cooking outlawed)
BUILDING&CONSTRUCTION PLANSARCHIVE
Publication Number: 5820
View as PDF: 5820.pdf
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/marionco/2023/08/22/less-salt-sugar-and-fat-more-herbs-and-spices/ | How to Substitute Herbs and Spices for Excess Salt, Sugar, and Fat | University of Florida | [
"Rebecca Elliott"
] | 2023-08-22 | [
"Health & Nutrition",
"CookingWithHerbsAndSpices",
"HealthBenefitsOfHerbsAndSpices",
"Herbs and Spices"
] | FL | Home » UF/IFAS Extension Marion County» How To Substitute Herbs And Spices For Excess Salt, Sugar, And Fat
## How to Substitute Herbs and Spices for Excess Salt, Sugar, and Fat
Excess fat, salt, and sugar in foods
contribute to several health problems. However, we do not have to compromise taste. Just substitute excess salt, sugar, and fat for herbs and spices when cooking.
## How to Substitute Salt for Herbs
The spices most used to replace the taste of salt are black pepper, onion, ginger, garlic and curry powder, cumin, dill seeds, and basil. Or you can make a home mae salt-free bleed. See recipe below:
Salt-Free Blend -makes about % cup
1 tablespoon mustard powder
2 teaspoons parsley
2 teaspoons onion powder
2 teaspoons thyme
1 tablespoon garlic powder
2 teaspoons dill weed
2 teaspoons savory
2 teaspoons paprika
2 teaspoons lemon peel
Recipe retrieved from the article "Cooking with Fresh Herbs", please see below
## Best herbs and spices to Substitute Excess Sugar
Allspice, cloves, Cinnamon, Nutmeg, Anise, Cardamom, ginger and mace
## Adding Flavor without adding BAD fat
- · Add fresh basil leaves on top of tomato soup before serving it.
- · Season lentils and cauliflower with turmeric and pepper.
- · Warm up carrots with ground nutmeg and cinnamon.
- · Make popcorn with garlic powder and cayenne.
## Pairing Herbs and Spices with Dishes
Please refer to the table below for more culinary information and pairing herbs and spices with dishes.
Table retrieved from the article "Shopping for Health: Herbs and Spices", to see the full table, please click the article below
Please check the other blogs on herbs and spices series :)
6
by Rebecca Elliott
Posted: August 22, 2023
Category: Health & Nutrition
Tags: CookingWithHerbsAndSpices,
HealthBenefitsOfHerbsAndSpices, Herbs And Spices
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Microgreens
- · Nurturing Emotional Wellness
- · Planning Healthful Vegetarian Diets
- · Killing The Number One Killer - Part I In A Series: The Leading Cause Of Death In The United States |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/ST114 | Calophyllum brasiliense: Santa Maria | University of Florida | [
"Edward F. Gilman",
"Dennis G. Watson"
] | 2014-05-08 | [] | FL | ## Calophyllum brasiliense : Santa Maria
Edward F. Gilman and Dennis G. Watson
## Introduction
This upright, bushy, medium- to coarse-textured evergreen tree is densely foliated with 4-inch long, leathery leaves. Although able to reach 50-feet in height in the forest, Santa Maria tends to be a slow-growing, moderately sized tree about 30- to 40-feet tall with a 40- to 50-foot spread. It is well suited for planting beneath power lines 40-feet high. Small, white, fragrant flowers appear on 1- to 2-inch long racemes among the 4- to 6-inch long, glossy leaves. Well suited as a street, parking lot, patio or small shade tree, especially for coastal areas, Santa Maria can also be used as a screen, and can be maintained as a shrub. The stems bleed a yellow latex when injured, and the wood of the Santa Maria tree is valuable for ship building and cabinet work. The bark is almost black and is longitudinally furrowed and quite attractive.
Figure 1. Middle-aged Calophyllum brasiliense : Santa Maria. Credit: Ed Gilman
## General Information
Scientific name: Calophyllum brasiliense Pronunciation: kal-oh-FILL-um bruh-sill-ee-EN-see Common name(s): Santa Maria
Family: Clusiacae
USDA hardiness zones:
10B through 11 (Fig. 2)
Origin: not native to North America
## Invasive potential: little invasive potential
Uses: sidewalk cutout (tree pit); reclamation; specimen; street without sidewalk; deck or patio; screen; shade; hedge; espalier; parking lot island 100-200 sq. ft.; parking lot island > 200 sq. ft.; tree lawn 4-6 feet wide; tree lawn > 6 ft. wide; urban tolerant; highway median; container or planter
## Description
| Height: 30 to 40 feet |
|-------------------------------------|
| Spread: 40 to 50 feet |
| Crown uniformity: irregular |
| Crown shape: oval, round, pyramidal |
| Crown density: dense |
| Growth rate: moderate |
| Texture: coarse |
## Foliage
Leaf arrangement: opposite/subpopposite (Fig. 3)
Leaf type: simple
Leaf margin: entire
Leaf shape: oblong, elliptic (oval)
Leaf venation: pinnate
Leaf type and persistence: evergreen, broadleaf evergreen
Leaf blade length: 2 to 4 inches
Leaf color:
green
Fall color:
no color change
Fall characteristic: not showy
## Flower
Flower color: white/cream/gray
Flower characteristics: showy
## Fruit
Fruit shape: round
Fruit length: 1 to 3 inches
Fruit covering: dry or hard
Fruit color:
green
Fruit characteristics:
does not attract wildlife; showy; fruit/leaves a litter problem
## Trunk and Branches
Trunk/bark/branches:
branches droop; showy; typically one trunk; thorns
Pruning requirement: little required
Breakage: resistant
Current year twig color: green
Current year twig thickness: thick
Wood specific gravity: unknown
## Culture
Light requirement: full sun, partial sun or partial shade
Soil tolerances: clay; sand; loam; alkaline; acidic; well-drained
Drought tolerance: high
Aerosol salt tolerance:
high
## Other
Roots: not a problem
Winter interest: no
Outstanding tree: yes
Ozone sensitivity: unknown
Verticillium wilt susceptibility: unknown
Pest resistance: free of serious pests and diseases
## Use and Management
Santa Maria should be planted in full sun or partial shade on well-drained soil. It has good salt-tolerance and is often seen along the beach. Grows well in confined soil spaces, such as along a street, and the tree should be propagated, sold, and planted in urban areas much more often. Remember that the golfball-sized fruit is poisonous and hard, and this could be undesirable in the landscape under some circumstances. The trunk grows to about two feet in diameter.
Propagation is by seeds or cuttings.
## Pests and Diseases
No pests or diseases are of major concern.
View PDF
## Related Pages
Southern Trees Fact Sheets
676 Publication(s)
Clusiaceae
Andreu, Michael G.
Specialist
University of Florida
Gilman, Edward F.
external
University of Florida
## Southern Trees Fact Sheets
676 Publication(s) |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/ipm-farming/cowpea-curculio-management-in-alabama/ | Cowpea Curculio Management in Alabama | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Ayanava Majumdar",
"Neil Kelly",
"Larry Well"
] | 2018-08-08 | [
"Integrated Pest Management",
"Agriculture",
"Cowpea Curculio"
] | AL | Cowpeas or southern peas (Vigna unguiculata) are a popular vegetable crop in the southern United States due to their high heat tolerance and rapid growth. In Alabama, southern peas frequently attract a multitude of insect pests; these include chewing insects, such as the cowpea curculio (Chalcodemus aureus Boehman, figure 1) and caterpillar (various species), and sucking insect pests, such as stink bugs, leaf-footed bugs, aphids, and thrips.
## Cookie Notice
## Key identification characters
Adult's (https://www.waubburg.edu/adminsltration/oacp/privacy.php) avoid the hot afternoons and may drop to the base of the plant for shade. Adults are black and oval, similar in shape to the cotton boll weevil and plum curculio. Numerous adults feed with their chewing mouthparts, which causes the most damage to the pods. Adults feign death when approached, making it challenging to scout. Adult emergence (first generation) can be sudden, with a rapid second generation that develops in a month. This creates tremendous pest pressure in the southern pea-producing areas of Alabama.
## Curculio behavior
Adults prefer to walk from plant to plant, and they spread rapidly through the field. Curculios may first be seen on field edges, creating an edge effect. Due to their feigning behavior, crop scouts must look at the bottom of the plant for true insect counts. Adults can fly in order to infest new production areas, as seen in Alabama where curculios are spreading westward.
## Scouting and monitoring
The best way to estimate population levels is to conduct direct crop scoting at weekly intervals or more frequently during production season. Use a beat sheet under the plant and shake off the adults for counts. Scout at numerous locations across the field and keep a record of curculio populations before and after insecticide applications to document successes.
During production season it is a good idea to directly check southern pea plants and weeds (e.g., sicklepod) located along the field edges. Scouting may become challenging, however, if aphids and other sucking pests make the plants sticky. Caterpillars also feed directly on peas and leave small, round holes on developing pods. Keep a record of all insect pests seen in the field and consult with a regional Extension agent to develop a site-specific IPM plan. Scouting accuracy improves with sampling size.
## Lessons from IPM studies in Alabama
Results reported here should be considered preliminary, as our studies are ongoing. In Alabama, the cowpea curculio seems to be the most damaging south of Interstate 85, where most of the southern peas are grown and winters are warmer than in northern parts of the state. It may take several years for curculio populations to develop in a new production area, so producers need to rotate crops to avoid monoculture with the same variety of peas.
The first year of our small plot tests at the Wiregrass Research and Extension Center (Headland, AL, 2014) was challenged by the sudden emergence of a large number of curculios in this new field. In 2015 we observed a more gradual emergence of adults, with two overlapping generations (figure 3).
included a new premix insecticide (Besiege), synthetic pyrethroid (bifenthiran); synergist (PBO-8), microbial insecticide (Botanigard), and a tank mix (Botanigard + bifenthrin). Untreated check plots did not receive any insecticide applications. Test plots with the Elite southern pea variety were scouted once every week, and pod samples were collected for assessing external and internal pod damage. Weekly insecticide applications (during flowering stage) appeared to delay curculio establishment; with the greatest benefit accredit from several bifenthrin and synergist applications (figure 3). Microbial insecticides may be effective in suppressing adults (figure 4), but they are slow-acting and require complete plant coverage during routine spray.
## Percent Seed Damage from Larval Feeding Heald, AL 91.5 91.4 2015
and cyfuthrin (Baythroid) even after nine applications. Cowpea curculio research in Alabama will continue to **expand widi collaborativa from productione (https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php
## Overall IPM recommendations
IPM recommendations are based on field experiences and research data available from Alabama and Georgia. Producers should keep in touch with Extension agents for updates. A cowpea curculio management video is available on the Alabama vegetable IPM website.
- · Plant southern peas carefully in relation to other crops White Acre pea variety seems to be more resistant to curculio than the Pinkeye Purple Hull variety (University of Georgia observation).
- · Fall tillage and field sanitation may be helpful to slow population buildup (puppe live in soil), although we have not evaluated these methods in Alabama. Keep weeds under check at all times.
- · Start insecticide treatments ahead of pod formation, preferably targeting the first generation of adults before flower initiation. Apply insecticides frequently at 3-to 5-day intervals depending on the insecticide label. Avoid overusing insecticides if you do not have curculios.
· Add a synergist (at the high rate) with synthetic pyrethroid insecticides to improve control. Weichor for spider nite outbreaks that can be induced by using synthetic pyrethroids
## Alabama Extension IPM
## Resources
- · Cowpea Curculio in Alabama: Lessons from the Field Part 1; video (https://www.access.edu/blog/topics/ipm-farming/cowpeacurculio-in-alabama-lessons-from-the-field-part-1/), and PowerPoint presentation.
- (https://www.slideshare.net/MPMAALABAMA/cowpea-curculio-in -alabama-lessons-from-the-field-part-1)
- · Alabama Vegetable IPM Facebook page (https://www.facebook.com/Alabama-Vegetable-IPM110601312341489/)
- · IPM Communicator e-newsletter
Download a PDF of Cowpea Curculio Management in Alabama, ANR-2313.(https://www.aces.edu/wpcontent/uploads/2018/12/ANR-2313.pdf) |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/paden-covid-19-sales-subject-sales-tax-analysis | Paden COVID 19 Sales Subject to Sales Tax Analysis | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | " Publications " Publication s Paden COVID 19 Sales Subject to Sales Tax Analysis
## Paden COVID 19 Sales Subject to Sales Tax Analysis
PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P3480-279
View as PDF: P3480-279.pdf
Department: MSU Extension- Tishomingo County
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Your Extension Experts
Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor
Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II
Dr. Devon Patricia Mills Assistant Professor
Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor
OCTOBER 3, 2024
Crosby Arboretum earns Outpost Business recognition
FEBRUARY 1, 2024
Extension provides training for tourism professionals
Filed Under: Economic Development
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842 Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998 Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374 Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796 Talking Retail Trade |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/pinkeye-in-cattle/ | Pinkeye in Cattle | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Soren P. Rodning",
"Julie A. Gard",
"Misty A. Edmondson",
"Paul H. Walz",
"Thomas Passler",
"Kim Mullenix"
] | 2018-09-21 | [
"Beef",
"Cattle",
"Health",
"Animal Sciences"
] | AL | <!-- This page is cached by the Hummingbird Performance plugin v3.6.0 - https://wordpress.org/plugins/hummingbird-performance/. --><!DOCTYPE html>
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margin: 0;
padding: .5em;
}
.footable.table>thead>tr>th {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 2px solid #888;
}
tr:last-child {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 1px solid #888;
}
tbody tr:nth-of-type(odd) {
background-color: #c6ebb7 !important;
}
.ninja_button, ninja_button_print {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
line-height: 1.3333333;
padding: 14px 20px !important;
border-radius: 0;
display: inline-block;
text-align: center;
white-space: nowrap;
vertical-align: middle;
touch-action: manipulation;
cursor: pointer;
user-select: none;
background-image: none;
border: 1px solid #0000;
margin-bottom: 10px;
}
.screen-reader-text {
clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px);
height: 1px;
overflow: hidden;
position: absolute !important;
width: 1px;
word-wrap: normal !important;
}
/* slide show below nav home page */
body.home header#header {
position: relative !important;
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (min-height:770px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 82vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (max-height:769px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 150vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
.dae-headline img {
max-height: 18vh !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 42vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 55% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 6vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth, #rev_slider_24_1_wrapper {
height:42% !important;
max-height:42% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) and (max-width:600px) {
.tp-caption.tp-resizeme {
font-size: 22px!important;
line-height: 22px!important;
}
}
/*slide show text area shadow*/
.rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 35%;
top: 65%;
background: linear-gradient(to top, rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .5), rgba(0, 0, 0, .4), rgba(0, 0, 0, .2), rgba(0, 0, 0, 0));
}
.category .rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .category .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 100%;
top: 100%;
}
.category .tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 0;
}
/*Topic page slider*/
.Newspaper-Button, tp-caption.Newspaper-Button {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-width: 0 !important;
color: #424242!important;
padding: 13px 18px!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase!important;
letter-spacing: 0 !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, sans-serif !important;
}
/*GDPR cookie notice*/
#cookie-notice {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
background-color: #fff;
letter-spacing: .5px;
}
/* Remove underline in footer logos */
.logo-wrapper a {
border: none !important;
}
/*MY ACES Add Bookmark*/
.btn-add-bookmark {
display: none;
}
/* after slider padding for lead*/
.lead {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/*header-top*/
.header-top .top-menu-right {
background-color: #f9f9f9cc!important;
}
/*header-top blue link text*/
.header-top .top-menu-right a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
}
/*recent articles*/
.work-entry {
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*recent articles blue link text*/
.work-entry a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*topic page link color (needs to be darker over gray backgorund)*/
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added p {
min-height: inherit;
/*(old)color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #366d21;
}
/*We Grow Alabama cards*/
.sb-value-added {
color:#fff;
background-color: #00000090!important;
}
/*Grow green*/
.green-color {
/*color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #76CF3A;
}
/*we Grow Alabama numbers*/
.sb-value-added h5 {
padding-top:0;
font-size: 1.4em;
}
/*after numbers*/
h5 .small, h5 small {
font-weight: 400;
line-height: 1;
color: #959595 !important;
}
/*calendar band background*/
.event-ticker {
/*(old)background-color: #4f9c2e;*/
background-color: #438528;
}
/*calendar band event name*/
#vertical-ticker li h5.event-name {
/*#fff;
margin: 8px 0 2px;*/
font-size: 1em;
}
body.home header#header {
top: 0;
}
.gform_wrapper ul.gfield_checkbox li label, .gform_wrapper ul.gfield_radio li label {padding-left: 30px !important;}
.anchor {
position: absolute;
padding-top: 36px;
margin-top: -36px;
}
/*Gravity Form submit button*/
.gform_footer .btn-primary {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
}
.post-info-header-category, .post-info-header-logo, .footer-print {
display: none;
}
/*printer icon*/
a.aces-print-article {
cursor:pointer;
text-decoration:underline;
}
li.aces-print i.fa-cloud-download, li.aces-print i.fa-print {
padding-right: 7px !important;
}
/*byline line break for mobile*/
@media (min-width: 991px) {
.byline-mobile-line-break {
display:none;
}
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
.read-time {
text-align: center;
border: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
background: #f9f9f9;
color: #000!important;
border-radius: 4px;
padding: 10px 4px 3px;
font-weight: 700!important;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
}
/*About Us card deck*/
.card-margin-top {
margin-top: 1em;
}
/*About Us category text adjustment*/
.category-about-us .subcat-content, .category-aamu .subcat-content {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
padding: 20px 0;
}
/*About Us category remove dateline*/
.category-about-us.post-meta-info-content ul:first-child {
display: none !important;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.cat-4h, .cat-about-4-h, .cat-family-resources-4-h, .cat-volunteer-resources-4-h, .cat-programs-4-h, .cat-animals-4-h, .cat-arts-4-h, .cat-healthy-living-4-h, .cat-leadership-4-h, .cat-outdoor-education-4-h, .cat-science-technology-4-h, .cat-how-to-give-4-h, .cat-support-4-h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.post-format.cat-4h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* Gravity Forms OTHER spacing 2023-05-23 JMH*/
.gform_wrapper input:not([type=radio]):not([type=checkbox]):not([type=submit]):not([type=button]):not([type=image]):not([type=file]) {
padding: 5px 2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size for line height is fixed error*/
.topic-list .sb-value-added p {
line-height: 1.2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size adjustment when there is not an image for the topic link. 2019-08-16 RFF & JMH */
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added .service-block-title-large {
margin: 0 !important;
font-size: inherit !important;
}
/* Alert Menu */
.header-alert, .bg-alert {
background: #ee2400;
color: white;
}
.header-alert .navbar-nav>li>a {
text-transform: none;
}
.alert-btn {
background-color: #ee2400;
border-color: #ee2400;
color: white;
margin: 5px;
}
.nav>li>a.alert-link {
display: none;
background-color: #ee2400;
}
/*Ex TV*/
.navbar-nav>li>a.extv-link {
text-transform: none;
}
/*page icon for video pages*/
.page-header .post-format {
background-size: 65%;
}
/*video embed resposive*/
.embed-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden; max-width: 100%;
}
.embed-container iframe, .embed-container object, .embed-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
/* ExTV dark */
.category-extv .main-wrapper, .category-extv .association, .category-extv .assoc-entry, .category-extv .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv .association h1, .category-extv .association h2, .category-extv .association h3, .category-extv .association h4, .category-extv .association h5, .category-extv .association h6,
.category-extv-dark .main-wrapper, .category-extv-dark .association, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv-dark .association h1, .category-extv-dark .association h2, .category-extv-dark .association h3, .category-extv-dark .association h4, .category-extv-dark .association h5, .category-extv-dark .association h6 {
background: rgb(31, 31, 31);
color: #fff;
}
.category-extv .association .sub-divider-new, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new {
border-color: rgb(31, 31, 31);
}
.category-extv .main-wrapper a, .category-extv .association a, .category-extv .assoc-entry a, .category-extv-dark .main-wrapper a, .category-extv-dark .association a, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry a {
color:white;
}
.category-extv-dark article.assoc-entry::first-child, .category-extv article.assoc-entry::first-child {
visibility:hidden;
}
.post-grid-assoc {
border: 1px solid #454545;
}
.directory-listing, .event-listing, .search-results {
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
/*mobile phone inline image fix 07-12-2021 JMH*/
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
margin: 10px !important;
}
}
/*counties*/
.subcat-content {
padding-top: 20px;
}
.county-columns {
columns: 140px 5;
line-height: 3em;
padding: 20px 0 20px;
}
@media (min-width: 768px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 2em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 992px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.7em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 1200px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.6em;
}
}
/* end counties */
/* Custom Gallery */
.custom-gallery {
margin: auto;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-item {
float: left;
margin-top: 10px;
text-align: center;
width: 33%;
}
.custom-gallery img {
border: 2px solid #cfcfcf;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-caption {
margin-left: 0;
}
/* Decision Tree CSS */
.dt_display_title {
color: #1D63AB !important;
font: 700 1.5em Helvetica Nue,sans-serif !important;
font-size: 44px !important;
line-height: 1.2 !important;
}
.dt_display_question {
font-size: 16px !important;
line-height: 1.5 !important;
letter-spacing: .5px !important;
}
.dt_display_subtext {
font-style:italic !important;
padding: 10px 0 !important;
}
.dt_button, .answer-restart {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-color: #f39c12 !important;
color: #424242!important;
font-family: Helvetica Nue, sans-serif !important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
}
/* end Decision Tree CSS */
/* cookie notice container */
#cookie-notice .cookie-notice-container a {
color:#5EA1E4 !important;
}
/* footer bottom left*/
.footer-menu-left {
float: left;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.footer-menu-left li {
border-left: 1px solid rgba(255,255,255,.6);
padding: 0 10px;
line-height: 1.2;
}
.footer-menu-left li:first-child {
border-left: none;
padding-left: 0;
}
.footer-bottom-left {
color: #fff;
padding-bottom: 0;
}
.footer-bottom .footer-menu {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/* Print Stylesheet - LEAVE AT BOTTOM */
@media print {
*, ::after, ::before {
color: #000!important;
text-shadow: none !important;
background: 0 0 !important;
box-shadow: none !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, san-serif;
}
body {
--webkit-hyphens: auto;
--moz-hyphens: auto;
hyphens: auto;
}
.row-print {
min-height: 20px;
}
.post-info-header-category {
display: block;
position: absolute;
top: 13pt;
left: 15px;
max-width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-category h1 {
color: green !important;
display: inline;
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-weight: lighter;
letter-spacing: 2pt;
text-align: left;
text-transform: uppercase;
}
.post-info-header-category hr {
position: absolute;
margin-top: 0 !important;
margin-bottom: 0 !important;
width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-logo {
display: block;
padding: 0 !important;
position: absolute;
top: 0;
right: 45pt;
width: 190px !important;
text-align: right !important;
}
.main-cat-title, h1 {
font-size: 28pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
.main-cat-title {
margin-bottom: auto;
}
h1 {
font-size: 18pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
h2 {
font-size: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
color: #001a96 !important;
}
p, ul, li {
font-size: 10pt !important;
line-height: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
}
/*p img {
display: none;
}*/
img.wp-image-46702 {
display: block !important;
}
.post-media {
margin: 0 0 10px 0;
padding: 0;
border: none;
}
.image-overlay {
display: inline-block;
}
.header, .page-wrapper, div.container div.row, .forcefullwidth_wrapper_tp_banner, .post-format, .subcat-title, .breadcrumb, .read-time, .post-meta-info-content, .at-below-post, .addthis_tool .alignright, .like-dislike, span.small, .tags, aside.related-posts, .footer-inner, table, .ninja_button_print, .nt_edit_link, .btn {
display: none;
}
table.display-print {display: inline-block !important }
/*remove URL from gallery images*/
.gallery a[href]:after {
content: none;
}
.aces-pub a[href]:after {
content: " (" attr(href) ")" !important;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
.page-header {
border-bottom: none !important;
}
.logo {
margin-top: 0;
}
.subact-title {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.subact-title a {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.content-print {
column-count: 2 !important;
-webkit-column-count: 2 !important;
column-gap: 40px !important;
-webkit-column-gap: 40px !important;
}
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
}
.wp-caption-text {
font-size: 8pt !important;
line-height: 11pt !important;
}
.footer-print {
display: block !important;
}
.footer-print-logo {
max-width: 190px;
padding-bottom: 7pt;
}
.footer-print-content p {
font-family: Times New Roman, serif;
font-size: 7pt !important;
line-height: 6pt !important;
/*letter-spacing: -.1pt;*/
margin: 1pt 0 3pt !important;
}
.footer-print-content h2 {
font-size: 11pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
margin-top: 7px;
}
.footer-print-content hr {
padding: 0 !important;
margin: 0 !important;
}
h3.table_title:before {
content: 'Print "';
}
h3.table_title:after {
content:'" table from our website.';
}
/*video in print*/
iframe {
display:none;
}
iframe[src]:after {
content: " (" attr(src) ")" !important;
}
#cookie-notice {
display: none !important;
}
.cookie-notice-container {
display: none !important;
}
}
/*end print stylesheet*/
/* siteimprove suggested edits */
/* vendor.min.css:18 */
.form-background, .contact-bar {
background-color: #106522 !important;
}
blockquote {
color: #595959 !important;}
.subcat-content {
font-size: 1.3125em !important;
}
.tribe-events-content ol, .tribe-events-content p, .tribe-events-content ul {
font-size:1.125em !important;
}
/*end siteimprove suggested edits*/
</style>
</head>
<body class="aces_content_piece-template-default single single-aces_content_piece postid-6843 tribe-no-js">
<a class="skip-main" href="#main">Skip to main content</a>
<header id="header" class="header" role="banner" aria-label="site header">
<div class="page-wrapper">
<script>
function closeAlert() {
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=aces.edu; Path=/";
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=acesag.auburn.edu; Path=/";
jQuery("#headerAlert").css("display","none");
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
function showAlertMenu() {
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
</script>
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top header-top-desktop">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
<div ></div>
</li>
<div class="gtranslate_wrapper" id="gt-wrapper-25052094"></div> <li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/calendar/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o" aria-hidden="true"></i>Calendar</a></li>
<!-- 2023-11-18 RFF & JMH -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/discover/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>Discover</a></li>
<!-- <li> --> <!-- <a href="javascript:getLocation()">(Find Nearest)</a> -->
<!-- <span class="top-header-list visible-lg-inline-block hidden-md">, Hours: 7:45-11:45; 12:45-4:45 ~ Phone: (334) 844-4444</span> -->
<!-- </li> -->
<!-- 2019-08-06 JMH & RFF add store link and cart -->
<li><a href="https://secure.touchnet.net/C20021_ustores/web/store_main.jsp?STOREID=244&SINGLESTORE=true" target="_blank" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-shopping-cart" aria-hidden="true"></i>Store</a></li>
<!-- 2022-09-22 JMH add Be Prepared link and circle with exclaimation mark -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/alabama-ready/" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-exclamation-triangle" aria-hidden="true"></i>Be Prepared</a></li>
<!-- RFF removed MY ACES
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/login" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>
Sign In</a></li>
<li class="visible-xs-inline-block"><a href="https://www.aces.edu/my-aces" class="toggle-link"><i
class="fa fa-book" aria-hidden="true"></i> My ACES</a></li>
-->
</ul>
</nav>
</div><!-- /Top Menu right -->
</div>
</div> <!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
</div>
<div id="header-inner" class="header-inner">
<div class="header-middle">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<div class="left-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn btn-primary" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".header-top">
<span class="sr-only" aria-label="search category options">Toggle navigation</span>
<i class="fa fa-bars"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-8 col-xs-offset-0 col-sm-4 col-sm-offset-0 col-md-4 col-md-offset-0">
<div class="logo">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/" aria-label="Select to go to the home page"><img
src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/themes/aces-theme/assets/images/ACES-Logo.svg"
height="auto"
class="img-responsive"
style="display:inline-block;"
alt="Alabama Extension"></a>
</div>
</div>
<div class="right-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn primary-d alignright" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".search-row">
<span class="sr-only">Toggle search</span>
<i class="fa fa-search"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-2 col-md-2 search-row mobile-collapse collapse"></div><!-- 2019-12-10 RFF -->
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-6 col-md-6 search-row mobile-collapse collapse">
<div class="row">
<div class="col-lg-12">
<form id="aces-primary-search" action="https://www.aces.edu">
<div class="input-group search-wrapper" id="header-search" role="search" aria-label="search the site">
<label for="main-search" class="visually-hidden"><!-- Search articles, publications, and events -->Tell me about...</label>
<input type="text" class="form-control search-header" id="aces-primary-search-s" name="s" placeholder="Tell me about..." id="main-search" value="">
<input type="hidden" id="aces-primary-search-q" name="q">
<span class="input-group-btn right-home-search">
<button class="btn primary-d" type="submit">Search</button>
</span>
</div>
<!-- <input type="hidden" name="cat" value=""> -->
</form>
<script>
/** Applies the category selection to form. */
jQuery(document).ready(function ($) {
/* 2019-12-11 RFF - turned off.
var el = $('.search-category').on('click', function () {
var id = $(this).data('id'),
el = $('form input[name="cat"]');
el.val(id);
el.attr('value', id);
$('form span.cat-name').text($(this).text());
});
*/
/* 2020-04-23 RFF - added */
$('#aces-primary-search').submit(function(event) {
$('#aces-primary-search-q').val($('#aces-primary-search-s').val());
});
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Pinkeye in Cattle </div>
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<li>September 21, 2018</li>
<li class="meta-author">Posted by: Soren P. Rodning, Julie A. Gard, Misty A. Edmondson, Paul H. Walz, Thomas Passler, and Kim Mullenix</li>
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<p>Learn about the signs of pinkeye in cattle, how it is transmitted, and what you can do to help prevent, control, and treat this infection.</p>
<p>Pinkeye, also known as infectious bovine keratoconjunctivitis, is a bacterial infection on the surface of the eye and the inner surfaces of the eyelids. <em>Kerato</em> refers to the cornea of the eye; <em>conjunctiv</em> to the pink tissues on the inside of the eyelids; and <em>itis</em> to inflammation.</p>
<h1>Infectious Organism(s)</h1>
<p>The organism historically and most often associated with pinkeye is the bacteria <em>Moraxella bovis</em>. However, diagnostic laboratories have also identified viruses (e.g., bovine herpesvirus) and other bacteria that cause similar symptoms (e.g., <em>Branhamella ovis, Moraxella bovoculi</em>, and <em>Mycoplasma bovoculi</em>).</p>
<h1>Clinical Signs</h1>
<p>The first clinical sign of pinkeye is excessive tearing of one or both eyes followed by conjunctivitis (inflammation of the eyelid), photophobia (aversion to light), and corneal ulcers. As the disease progresses, the animal holds the eye partially or completely closed due to pain and sensitivity to light. If untreated, the cornea (clear surface of the eye) becomes inflamed, turns white, and often develops an ulcer in the middle of the cornea. Depending on the severity of the disease, a white scar may remain in the center of the affected eye and can result in permanent blindness. Affected animals may refuse to eat because of pain or blindness. Pinkeye is primarily a summertime disease, but it can be seen during all seasons of the year and affects all breeds and all ages of cattle.</p>
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<h1>Transmission</h1>
<p>The bacteria that cause pinkeye are usually carried by a few animals that show no symptoms and are, therefore, not easily identifiable. These animals are then effectively able to (1) introduce the bacteria to a new herd when purchased as replacement animals, or (2) serve as a source to keep the bacteria on the farm and routinely expose susceptible animals to the bacteria. However, most animals that recover from the disease clear the infection from their eye(s) and do not become carriers. Face flies are responsible for most animal-to- animal transfer of the infectious bacteria associated with pinkeye. They feed on eye secretions of infected animals and then mechanically transfer the bacteria from animal to animal.</p>
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<h1>Predisposing Factors</h1>
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<p>Like many infectious diseases, pinkeye occurs when there is a susceptible host (in this case a nonimmune cow, calf, bull, etc.), an infectious agent (e.g., <em>Moraxella bovis</em>), and usually some combination of predisposing environmental conditions favoring infection of the host (irritation of the eye to create tears attracting face flies and facilitating attachment of the bacteria to the eye). Predisposing factors for pinkeye include excessive sunlight, dust, pollen, face flies, weed and grass seeds or awns, etc. Anything causing eye irritation is a predisposing factor for pinkeye. Face flies transmit the bacteria to the eye, and if the eye is irritated, the bacteria can more easily colonize the surface of the eye.</p>
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<h1>Prevention and Control</h1>
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<p>The keys to preventing pinkeye are controlling face flies and eliminating eye irritation:</p>
<ul>
<li>Control face flies with appropriate use of insecticides (ear tags, sprays, back rubbers, dust bags, systemic pour-on products, mineral supplements, etc.). For more information about fly control, please refer to Extension publication ANR-2083, “Fly Control for Alabama Cattle Operations.”</li>
<li>Tall grasses and coarse seed heads can irritate the eyes of cattle, so a pasture management plan, including mowing, should be part of an overall pinkeye-prevention program.</li>
<li>Proper nutrition—low vitamin A, copper, and selenium can predispose and exacerbate pinkeye, so appropriate mineral supplementation is important.</li>
<li>When possible, provide enough shade so animals can limit their exposure to ultraviolet light without being overcrowded.</li>
<li>Several pinkeye vaccines are available, but success is variable.</li>
</ul>
<h1>Vaccination</h1>
<p>Pinkeye vaccines are available and, in some cases, are very beneficial. However, there are multiple strains of <em>Moraxella bovis</em> in the United States, and vaccines do not protect against all strains. Also, no available pinkeye vaccines protect against <em>Branhamella ovis, Moraxella bovoculi</em>, or <em>Mycoplasma bovoculi</em>. Currently available vaccines can be very helpful, but not always completely protective. To optimize protection, vaccines should always be administered according to manufacturer’s directions and completed 4 to 6 weeks before the typical pinkeye season to allow adequate time for development of immunity.</p>
<h1>Treatment</h1>
<p>Pinkeye can be successfully treated, but treatment must begin early to reduce the chance of permanent damage to the eye. Multiple products are approved to treat pinkeye in cattle. Contact your veterinarian for specific treatment recommendations in your area.</p>
<p> </p>
<hr />
<p><strong>Soren P. Rodning</strong>, <em>Extension Veterinarian</em>, Associate Professor, Department of Animal Sciences; <strong>Julie A. Gard</strong>, Associate Professor, Department of Clinical Sciences; <strong>Misty A. Edmondson</strong>, Associate Professor, Department of Clinical Sciences; <strong>Paul H. Walz</strong>, Associate Professor, Departments of Pathobiology and Clinical Sciences;<strong> Thomas Passler</strong>, Assistant Professor, Department of Clinical Sciences; and <strong>Kim Mullenix</strong>, <em>Beef Cattle Systems Extension Specialist</em>, Assistant Professor, Department of Animal Sciences, all with Auburn University</p>
<p>Reviewed May 2022, <strong>Pinkeye in Cattle</strong>, ANR-2227</p>
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https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/information-sheets/using-poultry-products-forage-production | Using Poultry By-Products in Forage Production | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Larry Oldham, PhD, Extension Professor (retired), Plant and Soil Sciences"
] | null | [
"Forages",
"Soils"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Using Poultry By-Products in Forage Production
## Using Poultry By-Products in Forage Production
PUBLICATIONS
Filed Under: Forages, Soils
Publication Number: P3864
View as PDF: P3864.pdf
Poultry by-products have long been recognized as a valuable fertilizer for pasture and forage production. Poultry litter is the shavings, manure, and other materials removed from poultry houses during total clean-out operations. Cake is the wetter material removed between individual flocks. Both are excellent soil amendments that provide nutrients for growing crops and improve soil quality when applied wisely.
Environmental concerns and shifting land use have focused attention on more widespread litter uses. All farmers who use fertilizer, whether poultry litter or commercial, should be aware of the principles of nutrient management. This simply means you know what is applied, where it's going, how much is applied, and how to apply it.
Using nutrient management planning and implementing the prepared plan is good business and makes the fertilizer program efficient and effective. Soil and poultry by-product testing is the foundation for a good nutrient management program using poultry litter.
Each farm should develop a sound, regular soil-testing program. Soil testing is an inexpensive, easyto-do best management practice. It is an extremely powerful management aid. The test report will include pH, lime requirement, and nutrient levels in the soil.
One interesting effect of using litter in soil fertility management is the increased pH levels and decreased lime requirements over time in many soils. These changes are attributed to dicalcium phosphate in the poultry diet, which leads to significant calcium levels in the litter. Therefore, when litter is land-applied, it has a limiting effect.
Increasing the pH levels by meeting recommended lime requirements will have the extra benefit of increasing availability of native nutrients in the soil. The recommendations accompanying the soil test results will offer suggestions for economically maximizing crop yields.
Poultry litter and other animal by-products, such as cattle manure, are slow-release nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers. However, research has shown that a high percentage of the total potash from litter is available to growing plants soon after land application. Testing the nutrient content of the litter helps to manage the plant nutrients in the litter more efficiently. About half of the total nitrogen in the litter is available to growing crops in the year of application. The phosphate plants use in the year after application varies widely, from 20 to 80 percent of total applied, depending on soil types and other factors.
Enough litter applied to meet the nitrogen needs of a healthy, growing crop means more phosphate added to the soil than the plants can use. We used to think that soils had unlimited capacity to store this unused phosphate. Now we know that, in certain situations, there is a limit to how much
phosphate soils can store, and the phosphate may move through or from the soil where it was applied.
Another laboratory analysis that is necessary for optimum litter management is moisture. Recent Mississippi State University research has found that moisture content of litter can vary from 10 to 40 percent of the total weight, so it is critical to know the moisture content of purchased litter. With the moisture content and nutrient percentages of the litter, you can calculate the actual pounds of nutrient in the litter (see example calculation).
Application quantities should be based on common-sense, reasonable yield goals for the particular pasture or forage crop. On long-term poultry/cattle farms, there is concern about phosphate removal rates. Cutting hay will remove much more phosphate (as well as potash) than grazing cattle on the same acreage.
Litter weighs about 31 pounds per cubic foot, much lighter than inorganic fertilizers. Existing inorganic fertilizer application equipment on many farms may not be able to adequately spread the material. Spreaders should feed evenly and have a good pattern that covers the throw path well.
You should avoid applying on wet soils to lessen soil compaction and nutrient loss through runoff and other pathways. Be careful to avoid any direct application to water along creeks and other water bodies. It is best to maintain good application offsets along property lines, since most complaints to authorities about litter application in Mississippi come from annoyed neighbors.
Time applications, when possible, to coincide with active crop growth. This is not always possible because of scheduling concerns. If you cannot remove by-products during active crop growth, develop options for storage. You must manage the storage facilities to lessen offsite movement of materials caused by weather. You can do this by using covers, berms, or other techniques.
For more information about using poultry litter in Mississippi farming systems, contact your local MSU Extension office.
The Mississippi Phosphorus Index was developed by the Mississippi Natural Resources Conservation Service and the Mississippi State University Extension Service with input from many stakeholders to address conditions in the state. Phosphorus Index-based risk analysis looks at factors such as soiltest phosphorus levels, soil permeability, field slopes, litter application rates, and distance to surface water to determine the probability of nutrient movement in the landscape.
Farms with a history of poultry litter application or farms that will be used as part of a poultry grower's site permit Waste Management Plan should do an environmental risk analysis using the Phosphorus Index. The analysis determines the potential of each field on a farm to contribute to nutrient movement to adjacent waters. In the planning process, you can evaluate the results of various management options to find the best economically and environmentally protective plan for a specific field and farm.
County Natural Resource Conservation Service offices and certified third-party vendors of conservation planning services use this tool in working with poultry growers. Contact your local Extension office for more information on how you can use the Phosphorus Index in your situation.
## Sample calculation using litter analysis results:
water content = 25% (therefore, dry matter = 75%)
nitrogen content = 4%
phosphate content = 2%
potash content = 3%
## Calculations:
2,000 pounds litter per ton times 0.75 dry matter
= 1,500 pounds dry matter per ton
1,500 pounds dry matter per ton times 0.04 nitrogen content = 60 pounds nitrogen per ton
1,500 pounds dry matter per ton times 0.02 phosphate content
= 30 pounds phosphate per ton
1,500 pounds dry matter per ton times 0.03 potash content
= 45 pounds potash per ton
In this case, one ton of litter contains 500 pounds of water, 1,500 pounds of dry matter, 60 pounds of nitrogen, 30 pounds of phosphate, and 45 pounds of potash.
This is just an example. You should use data from your own situation.
Publication 3864 (POD-07-21)
By Larry Oldham, PhD, Extension Professor (retired), Plant and Soil Sciences.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
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| Your Extension Experts Dr. Rocky Lemus Extension/Research Professor | |
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## Recent Issues
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/quick-guide-to-forestry-herbicides-used-for-softwood-and-hardwood-site-preparation-and-release | 2020 Quick Guide to Forestry Herbicides Used for Softwood and Hardwood Site Preparation and Release | NC State Extension | [
"Colby Lambert",
"Kelly Oten",
"Mark Megalos"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Site Preparation",
"Forest",
"Herbicide",
"Forest Herbicide"
] | NC | 2020 Quick Guide to Forestry Herbicides Used for Softwood and Hardwood Site Preparation and Release
A quick guide providing commonly used herbicides used in forest site preparation and release treatments. Tables are broken into (1) confer site preparation, (2) hardwood plantation site preparation, (3) hardwood natural regeneration site preparation, (4) conifer early release, (5) early hardwood release, (6) cut surface herbicides used for intermediate or crop tree release.
Each table provides the herbicide active ingredient, trade names of labels approved for forestry applications, best time of year to use the herbicide, target species, and species that are resistant to the herbicide. The trade names are linked to the most recent specimen label so users may look up the details of that brand for safety, mixing, and delivery methods. The links use the CDMS database for specimen labels.
## Common Herbicides for Conifer Site Preparation
| | Herbicide Trade Name(s) and Links to Specimen Labels Use to get details of delivery, mix rates, and safety requirements | Time of Year | Target | Resistant |
|----------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Imazapyr | ArsenalAC, Polaris AC | Summer, in advance of regeneration | Most hardwoods, annual and perennial grasses and forbs, Bermuda, fescue, crabgrass, dog fennel, pigweed, greenbriar, morning glory | Elms, woody legumes, wax myrtle, croton spp., rubus, budckeye, barcharis, pine |
| Imazapyr | Chopper, Polaris SP (surfactant) | Growing season following full leaf expansion | Most hardwoods, annual and perennial grasses and forbs, Bermuda, fescue, crabgrass, dog fennel, pigweed, greenbriar, morning glory | Elms, woody legumes, wax myrtle, croton spp., rubus, budckeye, barcharis, hickory, pine |
| Glyphosate | Accord XRT III, Razor and Razor Pro, Rodeo, Roundup Pro Conc | Prior to planting, active growth following full leaf expansion | Most hardwoods (black locust, persimmon, sassafras, sumac, sweetgum, yellow-poplar) most annual grasses and forbs | Red maple*, oaks*, ash*, hickory*, dogwood*, rubus, greenbriar, Virginia creeper, trumpet vine | Reeds | Gylphosate | |
|--------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------|
| Glyphosate and Imazapyr | Prep-It | During periods of active growth | Control most annual and perennial grasses, broadleaf weeds, vines, and woody vegetation | Grasses, yellow poplar, loblolly pine | glyphosate | Metsulfuron Methyl Patriot | |
| | | | Outst. XP, Spyder | Early spring, before herbaceous weeds emerge or shortly thereafter | Annual grasses and forbs and certain perennials | Bermuda, broomsege, cronon spp., truper vine, micums, pines, most hardwoods | Sulfometuron |
| Sulfometuron Methyl and Metsulfuron Methyl | Qust Extra | After full leaf expansion in spring and before normal defoliation in fall. Herbaceous weeds: apply pre- emergence or shortly thereafter | Various woody plants, vines and herbaceous weeds | Loblolly pine |
|-------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------|
| Triclopyr | Element 3A, Garlon 3A, Tahoe 3A, Element 4, Garlon 4 Ultra, Tahoe 4E, Forestry. Garlon XRT | During periods of active growth | Most hardwoods, southern pine, waxy species such as bay, gallberry, wax myrtle, and yaupon, forbs, dog fennel, pigweed, greenbriar, and morning glory, rubus | Grasses |
| Aminopyralid | Milestone | Anytime during the growing season. Preferred when weeds are small and actively growing | Rubus, morning glory; horseweed, pigweed, sicklepod, raggedwe, wilding pines | Grasses |
| Clopyralid | Clean Slate, Transline | Anytime during the growing season. Preferred when weeds are small and actively growing | certain broadleaf weeds including thistle, kudzu, sicklepod, morning glory, raggedwe, coffee weed most legume species | Most established grasses and woody plants |
| Dicamba | Vanquish | During periods of active growth | Many annual and perennial broadleaf weeds, woody brush (including hardwoods and pines), multiflora rose (when dormant) | Non-woody plants (usually) and waxy leafed species |
|------------|--------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Fosamine | Krenite_S | Apply during the growing season | Postharvest control of pine and hardwood species for southern pine planting site preparation | Yellow-poplar, eastern redcedar, sasafras, blackgum, hollies, American beautyberry, Bermudagrass, white snakeroot, bromsedge, Johnsongrass, sicklepod, trumpet vine, morning glory |
| Hexazinone | Velpar DF (dispersible granules), Velossa, Velpar L (liquid) | Early spring - early summer after bud break and before hardening off | Most hardwoods, rubus, crabgrass, fescue, l espadeza, horseweed, dog fennel, annual and perennial rye grass | yellow-poplar, eastern redcedar, sasafras, blackgum, holliess, American beautyberry, Bermudagrass, white snakeroot, bromsedge, Johnsongrass, sicklepod, trumpet vine, morning glory |
| Picloram | Tordon K, Trooper 22K (Restricted Use) | During periods of active growth | Annual and perennial broadleaf weeds, woody plants especially legumes and southern pine speciesand vines | most grasses are resistant |
## Common Herbicides for Hardwood Plantation Site Preparation
| Active Ingredient | Herbicide Trade Name(s) and Links to Specimen Labels Use to get details of delivery, mix rates, and safety requirements | Time of Year | Target | Resistant |
|----------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|
| Clopyralid | Clean Slate, Transline | Anytime during the growing season. Preferred when weeds are small and actively growing | Certain broadleaf weeds including thistle, kudzu, sicklepod, morning glory, ragweed, coffee weed most legume species | Most established grasses and woody plants |
| Glyphosate | Accord XRT II, Razor and Razor Pro, Rodeo, Roundup Pro Conc | Prior to planting, active growth following full leaf expansion | Most hardwoods (black locust, persimmon, sassafras, sumac, sweetgum, yellow-poplar) and southern pine, most annual and perennial grasses and forbs | most grasses, yellow poplar |
| Metsulfuron Methyl | Esport XP, Patriot | During periods of active growth following full leaf expansion | wide range of annual and perennial broadleaf weeds and woody plants, kudzu, multiflora rose | most grasses, yellow poplar |
## Common Herbicides for Natural Hardwood Regeneration Site Preparation
| Active Ingredient | Herbicide Trade Name(s) and Links to Specimen Labels Use to get details of delivery, mix rates, and safety requirements | Time of Year | Target | Target |
|----------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------|
| Glyphosate | Accord XRT III, Foresters, Rodeo | Growing season following full leaf expansion. Broadcast foliar or spray to wet foliage (but not to point of runoff). | Most hardwoods (black locust, persimmon, sassafras, sumac, sweetgum, yellow-poplar), southern pine, most annual and perennial grasses and forbs | Resistant |
| Sulfometuron Methyl | Oust XP | Growing season during active herbaceous weed growth. Broadcast foliar application following shelterwood seed cut. | Annual grasses and forbs and certain perennial herbs | Bermuda, broomse dge, croton spp., trumper vine, panicums |
## Common Herbicides for Early Conifer Release
| Active Ingredient | Herbicide Trade Name(s) and Links to Specimen Labels Use to get details of delivery, mix rates, and safety requirements | Time of Year | Target | Resistant |
|----------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Imazapyr | Arsenal AC, Polaris AC | Late in second growing season following planting. Broadcast foliar application or directed foliar. | Most hardwood, annual and grasses and forbs, Bermuda, fescue, crabgrass, dog fennel, pigweed, greenbriar, morning glory | Elms, woody legumes, wax myrtle, croton spp., rubus, budckeye, bacccharis, hickory, pine |
| Imazapyr | Chopper, Polaris SP (surfactant) | Late in growing season after formation of final conifer resting bud. Directed foliar spray applications. | Most hardwood, annual and perennial grasses and forbs, Bermuda, fescue, crabgrass, dog fennel, pigweed, greenbriar, morning glory | Elms, woody legumes, wax myrtle, croton spp., rubus, budckeye, bacccharis, hickory, pine |
| Glyphosate | Razor, Rodeo, Roundup Pro Conc | Later summer or early fall, after formation of final conifer resting bud. Broadcast foliar application. | Most hardwoods (black locust, persimmon, sassafras, sumac, sweetgum, yellow- poplar), most annual and perennial grasses and forbs | Gasses, yellow poplar |
|-----------------------------------------------|------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Metsulfuron Methyl | Escort XP. Patriot | Active growth following full leaf expansion. Herbaceous weeds: apply pre-emergence or shortly thereafter. Broadcast foliar application. | wide range of annual and perennial broadleaf weeds and woody plants, kudzu, multiflora rose | Grasses, yellow poplar |
| Sulfometuron Methyl | Oust XP. Spyder | Dormant season prior to conifer bud break. Broadcast foliar spray for herbaceous weed control. | Annual grasses and forbs and certain perennials | Bermuda, bromosedge, cronon spp., trumer vine, Johnsongrass, paricums |
| Sulfometuron Methyl and Metsulfuron Methyl | Oust Extra | Active growth following full leaf expansion. Herbaceous weeds: apply pre-emergence or shortly thereafter. Broadcast foliar spray, loblolly pine only. | Various woody plants, vines and herbaceous weeds | Conifers somewhat |
| Triclopyr | Element 3A, Garlon 3A, Tahoe 3A, Element 4, Garlon 4 Ultra, Tahoe 4E, Forestry. Garlon XRT | During periods of active growth. Directed spray application only. | Most hardwoods, vines, and broadleaf weeds such as dog fennel, pigweed, greenbrier, morning glory | Young longleaf Pine |
|--------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------|
| Aminopyralid | Milestone | Spring to late summer: broadcast foliar overtop only on longleaf. Do not use over the top of lobolly or slash pine Directed, spot treatment only. | Broadleaf weeds such as Rubus, morning glory; vetch, horseweed, pigweed, sicklepod, ragweed, and wilding pine suppression | You |
| Clopyralid | Clean Slate, Transline | Mid to late summer, after confiers have hardened off. Broadcast foliar application made over the top of tolerant tree species or directed spray to wet spot applications for broadleaf weed control. | certain broadleaf weeds including thistle, sicklepod, morning glory, ragweed, coffeeweed, wisteria and kudzuMany legume species | Graises and many woody plants |
## Common Herbicides for Early Hardwood Release
| Active Ingredient | Herbicide Trade Name(s) and Links to Specimen Labels Use to get details of delivery, mix rates, and safety requirements | Time of Year | Target | Resistant |
|----------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------|
| Clopyralid | Clean Slate, Transline | Anytime during the growing season. Preferred when weeds are small and actively growing. Broadcast foliar application made over the top of tolerant tree species or directed wet spot applications | many broadleaf weeds such as sicklepod, morning glory, ragweed, coffeeweed, thistle, wisteria, and kudzu | Grasses and most hardwood species |
| Glyphosate | Rodeo, Refuge | Summer, during periods of active growth, after full leaf expansion and before fall color. Directed spot treatments only avoiding contact with desirable species or broadcast during dormant period when hardwood crop trees are dormant. Only certain adjuvants recommended. | Most hardwoods (black locust, sassafras, sumac, sweetgum, yellow- poplar) most annual and perennial grasses and forbs | stirlish, wisteria, and kudzu |
| Hexazinone (yellow poplar only) | Velossa, Velpar L | Early spring, after soil has settled around planting slit and before but break. Broadcast foliar application over top of planted seedlings | Most hardwoods, rubus, fescue, lespadeza, horseweed, dog fennel, annual and perennial rye grass | Grasses, yellow- poplar, eastern reedcedar, cassavafs, blackgum, hollies, American beauty berry, Bermuda grass, white snakeroot, roostsege, Johnsongrass, sicklepod, trumpet vine, morning glory |
|-----------------------------------------|---------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Metsulfuron Methyl (yellow poplar only) | Es Cort XP, Patriot | Early spring, after soil has settled around root system and prior to bud break. Herbaceous weeds: apply pre- emergence or shortly thereafter. Broadcast foliar application over top of yellow poplar seedlings only. | Wide range of annual and perennial broadleaf weeds and woody plants, kudzu, multiflora rose | Grasses, yellow poplar |
| Sulfometuron Methyl | Oust XP, Spyder | Early spring, after soil has settled around planting slit and before bud swell stage. Broadcast foliar application over top of planted seedlings | Annual grasses and forbs and certain perennials | Bermuda, broomseedge, roton spp., trumper vine, johnsongrass, panicums |
## Common Herbicides for Cut Surface Methods Used in Intermediate or Crop Tree Release
| Active Ingredient | Herbicide Trade Name(s) and Links to Specimen Labels Use to get details of delivery, mix rates, and safety requirements | Time of Year | Target | Resistant |
|-----------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------|
| Aminopyralid and Triclopyr | Capstone | Any season except during spring sap flow. Injection or hatchet frill girdle and spray bottle | Most woody species | Elms, woody legumes, hickory, pine |
| Imazapyr | ArsenalAC, Polaris AC | Any season, except during heavy sap flow in spring. Injection or hatchet frill girdle and spray bottle. Non-target injury could result through root grafting. | Many hardwoods | Red maple, hickory, dogwood, black gum |
| Glyphosate | Accord XRT II., Razor and Razor Pro, Rodeo, Roundup Pro Conc | During active growth after full leaf expansion. Injection or hatchet frill girdle and spray bottle. | Most woody species including oak, poplar, sweet gum, sycamore; pine | Red maple, hickory, dogwood, black gum |
| Triclopyr | Element 3A, Garlon 3A, Tahoe 3A | Any season, except during heavy sap flow in spring. Injection or hatchet frill girdle and spray bottle. Non-target injury could result through root grafting. | Most woody species | Woody legumes | Hardwoods, pine |
|-------------|-------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------|
| Clopyralid | Clean Slate, Transline | Periods of active growth. Injection or axe frill girdle and spray bottle. Non-target injury could result through root grafting. | Very Any season, except during heavy sap flow in spring. Injection or hatchet frill girdle and spray bottle. | Many hardwoods and pines | Sweetgut, oak, maple |
| Dicamba | Vanquish | Any season, except during heavy sap flow in spring. Injection or hatchet frill girdle and spray bottle. | Summer. Injector or Hypo-Hatchet. Non-target injury could result through root grafting. | Myelowoplar, leastern redcedar, cassafras, blackgum, hollies, pines, sourwood, dogwood, red maple | Yellow-poplar, eastern sassafras, blackgum, sourwood, redd |
## Authors
Colby Lambert
Area Specialized Agent, Forestry NC State Extension
Kelly Oten
Assistant Professor and Extension Specialist in Forest Health Forestry & Environmental Resources
## Mark Megalos
Extension Forestry Specialist Forestry & Environmental Resources
Publication date: July 14, 2016
Reviewed/Revised: Sept. 1, 2020
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C. A&T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
URL of this page |
https://extension.okstate.edu/coronavirus/media/food-safety/grocery-store-and-employee-faq-covid-19.pdf | Frocery Store FAQ | Oklahoma State University | [
"Safe Plates"
] | Error: time data 'D:20200323131136Z' does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## COVID-19 FAQ FOR GROCERY STORES
## GENERAL QUESTIONS AND EMPLOYEE HEALTH
IS COVID-19 TRANSMITTED THROUGH FOOD?
- · There is no report from CDC that food is a source of the virus.
- · Always practice safe food preparation practices to avoid foodborne illness as well.
CAN THE VIRUS BE CARRIED ON HAIR/BEARDS?
- · Particulate matter coming from coughs and sneezes could remain on any human surface.
- · If you feel you've had someone cough or sneeze near your face and hair, care should be taken to wash there.
## WHAT SOME BEST PRACTICES I CAN IMPLEMENT IN MY Grocery STORE?
- · Consider moving self-service areas, such as condiment stations, to behind employee counters.
- · Encourage customer use of credit cards and contactless payments.
- · Masks are not necessary, as they are not protective to healthy people, but prevent the spread of the virus from sick people.
## WHAT IF AN EMPLOYEER REFUES TO COME TO WORK FOR FEAR OF INFECTION OR REFUSES TO SERVE A SICK PATRON? WHAT IF EMPLOYEES HAVE USED ALL THEIR SICK LEAVE?
- · Your policies, that have been clearly communicated, should address this.
- · Educating your workforce is a critical part of your responsibility.
- Local and state regulations may address what you have to do and you should align with them.
extension.okstate.edu |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/fruits-vegetables-urban/gmo-food-facts-bioengineered-crops/ | GMO Food Facts: Bioengineered Crops | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Rudy Pacumbaba"
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padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
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color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
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text-align: center;
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font-size: 14pt!important;
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padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
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height: 2em;
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color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
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font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
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content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
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font-size: 14pt!important;
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padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
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padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout a{
text-decoration: underline !important;}</style><link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo-150x150.png" sizes="32x32" />
<link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" sizes="192x192" />
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<style id='ninja_table_custom_css_3785' type='text/css'>
#footable_3785 {
font-family: ;
font-size: px;
}
#footable_3785 th.ninja_column_0 { text-align: end; } </style>
<style type="text/css" id="wp-custom-css">
/*gtranlate*/
a.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink img {
height:18!important;
width:18!important;
}
/*video container*/
.video-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
padding-top: 30px;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden;
}
.video-container iframe, .video-container object, .video-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
.entry-content img, .entry-content iframe, .entry-content object, .entry-content embed {
max-width: 100%;
}
/* table css */
h3.table_title, h3.footable_title {
background-color: #117b2a;
color: #fff;
font-weight: bold;
margin: 0;
padding: .5em;
}
.footable.table>thead>tr>th {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 2px solid #888;
}
tr:last-child {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 1px solid #888;
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tbody tr:nth-of-type(odd) {
background-color: #c6ebb7 !important;
}
.ninja_button, ninja_button_print {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
line-height: 1.3333333;
padding: 14px 20px !important;
border-radius: 0;
display: inline-block;
text-align: center;
white-space: nowrap;
vertical-align: middle;
touch-action: manipulation;
cursor: pointer;
user-select: none;
background-image: none;
border: 1px solid #0000;
margin-bottom: 10px;
}
.screen-reader-text {
clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px);
height: 1px;
overflow: hidden;
position: absolute !important;
width: 1px;
word-wrap: normal !important;
}
/* slide show below nav home page */
body.home header#header {
position: relative !important;
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (min-height:770px) {
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.tp-parallax-wrap {
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.tp-caption a.btn {
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}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (max-height:769px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 150vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
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}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
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max-height:83% !important;
}
.dae-headline img {
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@media (orientation: portrait) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
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}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 55% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 6vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth, #rev_slider_24_1_wrapper {
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max-height:42% !important;
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}
@media (orientation: portrait) and (max-width:600px) {
.tp-caption.tp-resizeme {
font-size: 22px!important;
line-height: 22px!important;
}
}
/*slide show text area shadow*/
.rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 35%;
top: 65%;
background: linear-gradient(to top, rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .5), rgba(0, 0, 0, .4), rgba(0, 0, 0, .2), rgba(0, 0, 0, 0));
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.category .rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .category .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
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top: 100%;
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.category .tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 0;
}
/*Topic page slider*/
.Newspaper-Button, tp-caption.Newspaper-Button {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-width: 0 !important;
color: #424242!important;
padding: 13px 18px!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase!important;
letter-spacing: 0 !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, sans-serif !important;
}
/*GDPR cookie notice*/
#cookie-notice {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
background-color: #fff;
letter-spacing: .5px;
}
/* Remove underline in footer logos */
.logo-wrapper a {
border: none !important;
}
/*MY ACES Add Bookmark*/
.btn-add-bookmark {
display: none;
}
/* after slider padding for lead*/
.lead {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/*header-top*/
.header-top .top-menu-right {
background-color: #f9f9f9cc!important;
}
/*header-top blue link text*/
.header-top .top-menu-right a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
}
/*recent articles*/
.work-entry {
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*recent articles blue link text*/
.work-entry a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*topic page link color (needs to be darker over gray backgorund)*/
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added p {
min-height: inherit;
/*(old)color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #366d21;
}
/*We Grow Alabama cards*/
.sb-value-added {
color:#fff;
background-color: #00000090!important;
}
/*Grow green*/
.green-color {
/*color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #76CF3A;
}
/*we Grow Alabama numbers*/
.sb-value-added h5 {
padding-top:0;
font-size: 1.4em;
}
/*after numbers*/
h5 .small, h5 small {
font-weight: 400;
line-height: 1;
color: #959595 !important;
}
/*calendar band background*/
.event-ticker {
/*(old)background-color: #4f9c2e;*/
background-color: #438528;
}
/*calendar band event name*/
#vertical-ticker li h5.event-name {
/*#fff;
margin: 8px 0 2px;*/
font-size: 1em;
}
body.home header#header {
top: 0;
}
.gform_wrapper ul.gfield_checkbox li label, .gform_wrapper ul.gfield_radio li label {padding-left: 30px !important;}
.anchor {
position: absolute;
padding-top: 36px;
margin-top: -36px;
}
/*Gravity Form submit button*/
.gform_footer .btn-primary {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
}
.post-info-header-category, .post-info-header-logo, .footer-print {
display: none;
}
/*printer icon*/
a.aces-print-article {
cursor:pointer;
text-decoration:underline;
}
li.aces-print i.fa-cloud-download, li.aces-print i.fa-print {
padding-right: 7px !important;
}
/*byline line break for mobile*/
@media (min-width: 991px) {
.byline-mobile-line-break {
display:none;
}
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
.read-time {
text-align: center;
border: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
background: #f9f9f9;
color: #000!important;
border-radius: 4px;
padding: 10px 4px 3px;
font-weight: 700!important;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
}
/*About Us card deck*/
.card-margin-top {
margin-top: 1em;
}
/*About Us category text adjustment*/
.category-about-us .subcat-content, .category-aamu .subcat-content {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
padding: 20px 0;
}
/*About Us category remove dateline*/
.category-about-us.post-meta-info-content ul:first-child {
display: none !important;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.cat-4h, .cat-about-4-h, .cat-family-resources-4-h, .cat-volunteer-resources-4-h, .cat-programs-4-h, .cat-animals-4-h, .cat-arts-4-h, .cat-healthy-living-4-h, .cat-leadership-4-h, .cat-outdoor-education-4-h, .cat-science-technology-4-h, .cat-how-to-give-4-h, .cat-support-4-h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.post-format.cat-4h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* Gravity Forms OTHER spacing 2023-05-23 JMH*/
.gform_wrapper input:not([type=radio]):not([type=checkbox]):not([type=submit]):not([type=button]):not([type=image]):not([type=file]) {
padding: 5px 2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size for line height is fixed error*/
.topic-list .sb-value-added p {
line-height: 1.2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size adjustment when there is not an image for the topic link. 2019-08-16 RFF & JMH */
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added .service-block-title-large {
margin: 0 !important;
font-size: inherit !important;
}
/* Alert Menu */
.header-alert, .bg-alert {
background: #ee2400;
color: white;
}
.header-alert .navbar-nav>li>a {
text-transform: none;
}
.alert-btn {
background-color: #ee2400;
border-color: #ee2400;
color: white;
margin: 5px;
}
.nav>li>a.alert-link {
display: none;
background-color: #ee2400;
}
/*Ex TV*/
.navbar-nav>li>a.extv-link {
text-transform: none;
}
/*page icon for video pages*/
.page-header .post-format {
background-size: 65%;
}
/*video embed resposive*/
.embed-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden; max-width: 100%;
}
.embed-container iframe, .embed-container object, .embed-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
/* ExTV dark */
.category-extv .main-wrapper, .category-extv .association, .category-extv .assoc-entry, .category-extv .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv .association h1, .category-extv .association h2, .category-extv .association h3, .category-extv .association h4, .category-extv .association h5, .category-extv .association h6,
.category-extv-dark .main-wrapper, .category-extv-dark .association, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv-dark .association h1, .category-extv-dark .association h2, .category-extv-dark .association h3, .category-extv-dark .association h4, .category-extv-dark .association h5, .category-extv-dark .association h6 {
background: rgb(31, 31, 31);
color: #fff;
}
.category-extv .association .sub-divider-new, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new {
border-color: rgb(31, 31, 31);
}
.category-extv .main-wrapper a, .category-extv .association a, .category-extv .assoc-entry a, .category-extv-dark .main-wrapper a, .category-extv-dark .association a, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry a {
color:white;
}
.category-extv-dark article.assoc-entry::first-child, .category-extv article.assoc-entry::first-child {
visibility:hidden;
}
.post-grid-assoc {
border: 1px solid #454545;
}
.directory-listing, .event-listing, .search-results {
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
/*mobile phone inline image fix 07-12-2021 JMH*/
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
margin: 10px !important;
}
}
/*counties*/
.subcat-content {
padding-top: 20px;
}
.county-columns {
columns: 140px 5;
line-height: 3em;
padding: 20px 0 20px;
}
@media (min-width: 768px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 2em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 992px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.7em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 1200px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.6em;
}
}
/* end counties */
/* Custom Gallery */
.custom-gallery {
margin: auto;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-item {
float: left;
margin-top: 10px;
text-align: center;
width: 33%;
}
.custom-gallery img {
border: 2px solid #cfcfcf;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-caption {
margin-left: 0;
}
/* Decision Tree CSS */
.dt_display_title {
color: #1D63AB !important;
font: 700 1.5em Helvetica Nue,sans-serif !important;
font-size: 44px !important;
line-height: 1.2 !important;
}
.dt_display_question {
font-size: 16px !important;
line-height: 1.5 !important;
letter-spacing: .5px !important;
}
.dt_display_subtext {
font-style:italic !important;
padding: 10px 0 !important;
}
.dt_button, .answer-restart {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-color: #f39c12 !important;
color: #424242!important;
font-family: Helvetica Nue, sans-serif !important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
}
/* end Decision Tree CSS */
/* cookie notice container */
#cookie-notice .cookie-notice-container a {
color:#5EA1E4 !important;
}
/* footer bottom left*/
.footer-menu-left {
float: left;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.footer-menu-left li {
border-left: 1px solid rgba(255,255,255,.6);
padding: 0 10px;
line-height: 1.2;
}
.footer-menu-left li:first-child {
border-left: none;
padding-left: 0;
}
.footer-bottom-left {
color: #fff;
padding-bottom: 0;
}
.footer-bottom .footer-menu {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/* Print Stylesheet - LEAVE AT BOTTOM */
@media print {
*, ::after, ::before {
color: #000!important;
text-shadow: none !important;
background: 0 0 !important;
box-shadow: none !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, san-serif;
}
body {
--webkit-hyphens: auto;
--moz-hyphens: auto;
hyphens: auto;
}
.row-print {
min-height: 20px;
}
.post-info-header-category {
display: block;
position: absolute;
top: 13pt;
left: 15px;
max-width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-category h1 {
color: green !important;
display: inline;
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-weight: lighter;
letter-spacing: 2pt;
text-align: left;
text-transform: uppercase;
}
.post-info-header-category hr {
position: absolute;
margin-top: 0 !important;
margin-bottom: 0 !important;
width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-logo {
display: block;
padding: 0 !important;
position: absolute;
top: 0;
right: 45pt;
width: 190px !important;
text-align: right !important;
}
.main-cat-title, h1 {
font-size: 28pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
.main-cat-title {
margin-bottom: auto;
}
h1 {
font-size: 18pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
h2 {
font-size: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
color: #001a96 !important;
}
p, ul, li {
font-size: 10pt !important;
line-height: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
}
/*p img {
display: none;
}*/
img.wp-image-46702 {
display: block !important;
}
.post-media {
margin: 0 0 10px 0;
padding: 0;
border: none;
}
.image-overlay {
display: inline-block;
}
.header, .page-wrapper, div.container div.row, .forcefullwidth_wrapper_tp_banner, .post-format, .subcat-title, .breadcrumb, .read-time, .post-meta-info-content, .at-below-post, .addthis_tool .alignright, .like-dislike, span.small, .tags, aside.related-posts, .footer-inner, table, .ninja_button_print, .nt_edit_link, .btn {
display: none;
}
table.display-print {display: inline-block !important }
/*remove URL from gallery images*/
.gallery a[href]:after {
content: none;
}
.aces-pub a[href]:after {
content: " (" attr(href) ")" !important;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
.page-header {
border-bottom: none !important;
}
.logo {
margin-top: 0;
}
.subact-title {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.subact-title a {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.content-print {
column-count: 2 !important;
-webkit-column-count: 2 !important;
column-gap: 40px !important;
-webkit-column-gap: 40px !important;
}
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
}
.wp-caption-text {
font-size: 8pt !important;
line-height: 11pt !important;
}
.footer-print {
display: block !important;
}
.footer-print-logo {
max-width: 190px;
padding-bottom: 7pt;
}
.footer-print-content p {
font-family: Times New Roman, serif;
font-size: 7pt !important;
line-height: 6pt !important;
/*letter-spacing: -.1pt;*/
margin: 1pt 0 3pt !important;
}
.footer-print-content h2 {
font-size: 11pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
margin-top: 7px;
}
.footer-print-content hr {
padding: 0 !important;
margin: 0 !important;
}
h3.table_title:before {
content: 'Print "';
}
h3.table_title:after {
content:'" table from our website.';
}
/*video in print*/
iframe {
display:none;
}
iframe[src]:after {
content: " (" attr(src) ")" !important;
}
#cookie-notice {
display: none !important;
}
.cookie-notice-container {
display: none !important;
}
}
/*end print stylesheet*/
/* siteimprove suggested edits */
/* vendor.min.css:18 */
.form-background, .contact-bar {
background-color: #106522 !important;
}
blockquote {
color: #595959 !important;}
.subcat-content {
font-size: 1.3125em !important;
}
.tribe-events-content ol, .tribe-events-content p, .tribe-events-content ul {
font-size:1.125em !important;
}
/*end siteimprove suggested edits*/
</style>
</head>
<body class="aces_content_piece-template-default single single-aces_content_piece postid-3774 tribe-no-js">
<a class="skip-main" href="#main">Skip to main content</a>
<header id="header" class="header" role="banner" aria-label="site header">
<div class="page-wrapper">
<script>
function closeAlert() {
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=aces.edu; Path=/";
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=acesag.auburn.edu; Path=/";
jQuery("#headerAlert").css("display","none");
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
function showAlertMenu() {
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
</script>
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top header-top-desktop">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
<div ></div>
</li>
<div class="gtranslate_wrapper" id="gt-wrapper-78673591"></div> <li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/calendar/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o" aria-hidden="true"></i>Calendar</a></li>
<!-- 2023-11-18 RFF & JMH -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/discover/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>Discover</a></li>
<!-- <li> --> <!-- <a href="javascript:getLocation()">(Find Nearest)</a> -->
<!-- <span class="top-header-list visible-lg-inline-block hidden-md">, Hours: 7:45-11:45; 12:45-4:45 ~ Phone: (334) 844-4444</span> -->
<!-- </li> -->
<!-- 2019-08-06 JMH & RFF add store link and cart -->
<li><a href="https://secure.touchnet.net/C20021_ustores/web/store_main.jsp?STOREID=244&SINGLESTORE=true" target="_blank" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-shopping-cart" aria-hidden="true"></i>Store</a></li>
<!-- 2022-09-22 JMH add Be Prepared link and circle with exclaimation mark -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/alabama-ready/" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-exclamation-triangle" aria-hidden="true"></i>Be Prepared</a></li>
<!-- RFF removed MY ACES
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/login" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>
Sign In</a></li>
<li class="visible-xs-inline-block"><a href="https://www.aces.edu/my-aces" class="toggle-link"><i
class="fa fa-book" aria-hidden="true"></i> My ACES</a></li>
-->
</ul>
</nav>
</div><!-- /Top Menu right -->
</div>
</div> <!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
</div>
<div id="header-inner" class="header-inner">
<div class="header-middle">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<div class="left-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn btn-primary" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".header-top">
<span class="sr-only" aria-label="search category options">Toggle navigation</span>
<i class="fa fa-bars"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-8 col-xs-offset-0 col-sm-4 col-sm-offset-0 col-md-4 col-md-offset-0">
<div class="logo">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/" aria-label="Select to go to the home page"><img
src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/themes/aces-theme/assets/images/ACES-Logo.svg"
height="auto"
class="img-responsive"
style="display:inline-block;"
alt="Alabama Extension"></a>
</div>
</div>
<div class="right-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn primary-d alignright" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".search-row">
<span class="sr-only">Toggle search</span>
<i class="fa fa-search"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-2 col-md-2 search-row mobile-collapse collapse"></div><!-- 2019-12-10 RFF -->
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-6 col-md-6 search-row mobile-collapse collapse">
<div class="row">
<div class="col-lg-12">
<form id="aces-primary-search" action="https://www.aces.edu">
<div class="input-group search-wrapper" id="header-search" role="search" aria-label="search the site">
<label for="main-search" class="visually-hidden"><!-- Search articles, publications, and events -->Tell me about...</label>
<input type="text" class="form-control search-header" id="aces-primary-search-s" name="s" placeholder="Tell me about..." id="main-search" value="">
<input type="hidden" id="aces-primary-search-q" name="q">
<span class="input-group-btn right-home-search">
<button class="btn primary-d" type="submit">Search</button>
</span>
</div>
<!-- <input type="hidden" name="cat" value=""> -->
</form>
<script>
/** Applies the category selection to form. */
jQuery(document).ready(function ($) {
/* 2019-12-11 RFF - turned off.
var el = $('.search-category').on('click', function () {
var id = $(this).data('id'),
el = $('form input[name="cat"]');
el.val(id);
el.attr('value', id);
$('form span.cat-name').text($(this).text());
});
*/
/* 2020-04-23 RFF - added */
$('#aces-primary-search').submit(function(event) {
$('#aces-primary-search-q').val($('#aces-primary-search-s').val());
});
});
</script>
<div class="mission-statement" id="header-mission" style="display:none;"><p>The <strong>Alabama
Cooperative Extension System</strong> operates as the primary outreach organization
that ensures all people have access to information that improves their quality of life
and economic well-being.</p></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div><!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
<div class="page-wrapper">
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top-mobile">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
<div ></div>
</li>
<div class="gtranslate_wrapper" id="gt-wrapper-83791092"></div> <li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/calendar/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o" aria-hidden="true"></i>Calendar</a></li>
<!-- 2023-11-18 RFF & JMH -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/discover/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>Discover</a></li>
<!-- <li> --> <!-- <span class="top-header-list visible-lg-inline-block hidden-md">, Hours: 7:45-11:45; 12:45-4:45 ~ Phone: (334) 844-4444</span> -->
<!-- </li> -->
<!-- 2019-08-06 JMH & RFF add store link and cart -->
<li><a href="https://secure.touchnet.net/C20021_ustores/web/store_main.jsp?STOREID=244&SINGLESTORE=true" target="_blank" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-shopping-cart" aria-hidden="true"></i>Store</a></li>
<!-- 2022-09-22 JMH add Be Prepared link and circle with exclaimation mark -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/alabama-ready/" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-exclamation-triangle" aria-hidden="true"></i>Be Prepared</a></li>
<!-- RFF Removed MY ACES
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/login" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>
Sign In</a></li>
<li class="visible-xs-inline-block"><a href="https://www.aces.edu/my-aces" class="toggle-link"><i
class="fa fa-book" aria-hidden="true"></i> My ACES</a></li>
-->
</ul>
</nav>
</div><!-- /Top Menu right -->
</div>
</div> <!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
</div>
<!-- Header Bottom Container -->
<div class="header-bottom header-top mobile-collapse collapse">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row">
<!-- Navigation -->
<div class="navbar navbar-inverse bg-primary">
<nav class=" navbar-collapse js-navbar-collapse pull-left" role="navigation"
aria-label="main navigation">
<ul class="nav navbar-nav nav-mobile">
<li class="dropdown mega-dropdown">
<a href="#" class="dropdown-toggle nav-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown">Topics <i class="fa fa-caret-down"></i> </a>
<div id="topics-dropdown" class="container dropdown-menu mega-dropdown-menu">
<ul class="container mega-nav-wrapper">
<li class="col-xs-12 col-sm-3">
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GMO Food Facts: Bioengineered Crops </div>
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<li>July 19, 2018</li>
<li class="meta-author">Posted by: Rudy Pacumbaba</li>
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<div class="at-above-post addthis_tool" data-url="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/fruits-vegetables-urban/gmo-food-facts-bioengineered-crops/"></div><p>Methods of plant breeding are tools to address the increasing pressures of disease, pests, and environmental disasters on crop production and food security.</p>
<h1>Introduction</h1>
<div id="attachment_3776" style="width: 410px" class="wp-caption alignright"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-3776" decoding="async" fetchpriority="high" class="wp-image-3776" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/iStock-964095076-600x400.jpg" alt="Figure 1. Most of our food has not been bioengineered. Stock image by piyaset." width="400" height="267" srcset="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/iStock-964095076-600x400.jpg 600w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/iStock-964095076-768x512.jpg 768w, https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/iStock-964095076.jpg 2048w" sizes="(max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px" /><p id="caption-attachment-3776" class="wp-caption-text">Figure 1. Most of our food has not been bioengineered. Stock image by piyaset.</p></div>
<p class="p3">Farmers have purposefully changed the genetic makeup of crops since the beginning of domestic agriculture over 10,000 years ago. The variety of food choices we have today is a direct result of past and present methods of genetic modification to build diversity in agricultural food crops. Genetic engineering is one method used in modern agriculture to create bioengineered crops (BE crops). The varied methods of plant breeding are modern agriculture’s tools to address the increasing pressures of disease, pests, and environmental disasters on crop production and food security.</p>
<h1 class="p1"><span class="s2">Agriculture & Crop Domestication</span></h1>
<ul>
<li class="p6">Agriculture began more than 10,000 years ago when farmers cultivated crops for consumption and livelihood. Domestic agriculture allowed farmers to begin genetically modifying plants to improve crop production.</li>
<li class="p6">Cultivating crops allowed early farmers to choose crops with characteristics that suited their needs. Subsequent seasons of selecting crops with particular characteristics and saving their seeds for planting led to the domestication of current food sources. This process is known as selective breeding.</li>
<li class="p6">During the 1700s farmers learned to increase genetic diversity and introduce new beneficial characteristics into crops by ‘pairing’ similar species to produce several generations of hybrid offspring. This process is known as cross breeding.</li>
</ul>
<h1 class="p1"><span class="s2">History of Genetic Coding & Bioengineered Crops</span></h1>
<ul>
<li class="p7">During the 1940s and 1950s, scientists discovered deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that provides the genetic code or genes of all living organisms. DNA allowed researchers to explore and develop methods that would introduce or enhance desirable traits into plant gene pools. These methods involved using chemicals or radiation as a means to mutate plants.</li>
<li class="p7">During the 1980s, genetic engineering technology was applied to introduce or to enhance traits in plants. Initial research efforts looked at introducing pests, disease, and herbicide resistance traits. Already being used in the medical industry, genetic engineering was another tool used to develop new and/or enhanced traits to crops and included such methods as RNA interference and transgenesis. RNA interference prevents genetic information or expression (messenger RNA/mRNA), while transgenesis allows a living organism to exhibit a new property or trait that can be carried to its offspring.</li>
<li class="p7">After rigorous testing by federal agencies such as the United States Department of Agriculture, the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the United States Food and Drug Administration, the first BE crops such as papaya, corn, soybean, and cotton were introduced in the 1990s.</li>
<li class="p7">Since the early 2000s, the technology of gene editing has the potential to turn genes on and off or precisely remove them to create desirable traits in crops. This technology does not introduce foreign DNA into the host plant genome like transgenesis. Instead, it works with the existing host (plant) genome.</li>
</ul>
<p> </p>
<div id="footable_parent_3785"
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<h3 class="table_title footable_title">Figure 2. Crop modification methods currently used in agriculture.</h3>
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class=" foo-table ninja_footable foo_table_3785 ninja_table_unique_id_882853995_3785 table nt_type_legacy_table table-striped table-bordered vertical_centered footable-paging-right ninja_table_search_disabled ninja_table_pro">
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<col class="ninja_column_0 ">
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<col class="ninja_column_2 ">
<col class="ninja_column_3 ">
<col class="ninja_column_4 ">
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<thead>
<tr class="footable-header">
<th scope="col" class="ninja_column_0 ninja_clmn_nm_traditional_breeding "><p><img class="aligncenter wp-image-3788" title="Graphic icon: Seedling" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/TRaditional-Breeding-e1532023509414.png" alt="" width="100" height="93" /></p>
<p style="text-align: center"><strong>Traditional Breeding</strong></p></th><th scope="col" class="ninja_column_1 ninja_clmn_nm_mutagenesis "><p><img class="aligncenter wp-image-3786" title="Graphic icon: Chemistry beaker with Seedling inside." src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Mutagenesis-e1532023618345.png" alt="" width="100" height="92" /></p>
<p style="text-align: center"><strong>Mutagenesis</strong></p></th><th scope="col" class="ninja_column_2 ninja_clmn_nm_rna_interference "><p><img class="aligncenter wp-image-3787" title="Graphic icon: RNA Structure" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/RNA-Interference-e1532023554528.png" alt="" width="100" height="92" /></p>
<p style="text-align: center"><strong>RNA Interference</strong></p></th><th scope="col" class="ninja_column_3 ninja_clmn_nm_transgenesis "><p><img class="aligncenter wp-image-3789" title="Graphic icon: Needle piercing cell with new gene" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Transgenesis-e1532023477518.png" alt="" width="100" height="92" /></p>
<p style="text-align: center"><strong>Transgenesis</strong></p></th><th scope="col" class="ninja_column_4 ninja_clmn_nm_gene_editing "><p><img class="aligncenter wp-image-3790" title="Graphic icon: Leaves growing from DNA helix" src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Gene-Editing-e1532023784650.png" alt="" width="100" height="93" /></p>
<p style="text-align: center"><strong>Gene Editing</strong></p></th></tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr data-row_id="5777" class="ninja_table_row_0 nt_row_id_5777">
<td><p>Plants with desired traits are selected/crossed to produce offspring.</p></td><td>Changes in genome using chemicals or radiation, very unpredictable</td><td>Inhibit gene expression by neutralizing mRNA.</td><td>Desired gene(s) inserted into specific locations</td><td>Specific alterations to plant genome.</td> </tr>
<tr data-row_id="5778" class="ninja_table_row_1 nt_row_id_5778">
<td><p>No testing required</p></td><td>No testing required</td><td>Testing required</td><td>Testing required</td><td>Testing required</td> </tr>
<tr data-row_id="5779" class="ninja_table_row_2 nt_row_id_5779">
<td><p>Yes for organic use</p></td><td>Yes for organic use</td><td>Unknown for organic use</td><td>No for organic use</td><td>Unknown for organic use</td> </tr>
<tr data-row_id="45476" class="ninja_table_row_3 nt_row_id_45476">
<td></td><td></td><td><b>Number of Genes Affected</b></td><td></td><td></td> </tr>
<tr data-row_id="5780" class="ninja_table_row_4 nt_row_id_5780">
<td><p>10K to >300K</p></td><td>Unknown</td><td>1-2</td><td>1-3</td><td>1-3</td> </tr>
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<p> </p>
<h1 class="p1"><span class="s2">Modern Agriculture & Genetic Engineering Facts</span></h1>
<ul>
<li class="p7">The United States food supply is considered one of the safest & most abundant food supplies in the world.</li>
<li class="p7">Approximately 1.4% of the United States population produces food for the remaining population.</li>
<li class="p7">Most Americans are currently three or more generations removed from the farm and no longer have first-hand knowledge of how food is produced.</li>
<li class="p7">Modern food production has developed into several different breeding and growing methods, all of which compete for market share.</li>
<li class="p7">Misinformation, marketing and increased awareness of food insecurity have led to confusion as to the nutrition, health, and safety of modern agricultural food products.</li>
<li>Bioengineered (BE) crops developed with genetic engineering enable scientists to take useful traits found in nature and transfer them to a plant of interest, or to make changes to an existing trait in a plant.</li>
<li>The methods used to create BE crops are the most researched and regulated ever used in agriculture for crop development and improvement.</li>
<li>BE crops are created with a specific, desired trait in mind. For example, resistance to a pest, disease, chemical or to enhance nutritional value.</li>
<li>Farmers will choose seeds and cropping methods that are best suited for their farms and businesses. They determine which seeds, inputs and management practices are best for their land, business and growing conditions. There are a variety of seed options for farmers to choose from, including genetically modified, conventional and organic seeds.</li>
<li>Farmers need good tools to g row their crops and food productively while optimizing their inputs while assuring food security and safety.</li>
<li>BE crop development is a costly and timely enterprise for corporations to invest in (13 years /$138 million). The use of genetic engineering for crop development is a last resort when all other modification techniques are not feasible.</li>
</ul>
<h1 class="p1"><span class="s2">Safety of Bioengineered Crops</span></h1>
<ul>
<li> The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine reviewed more than 900 scientific studies and publications based on 20+ years of data and determined that genetically engineered or modified crops (GMOs) were safe for humans, the environment, animals, and beneficial insects and pollinators.</li>
</ul>
<blockquote><p>“No substantiated evidence of a difference in risk to human health between currently commercially available genetically engineered (GMO) crops and conventionally bred crops.” – National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine.</p></blockquote>
<ul>
<li>Food derived from BE crops are nutritionally the same and safe as their conventional counterparts.</li>
<li>Health, growth and performance of animals fed BE crops are the same as animals fed with conventional source feed. Nutrition and safety is the same whether animals are fed BE feed or non-BE feed.</li>
<li>The use of BE crops with modern agriculture conservation practices and integrated pest management (IMP) has allowed farmers to grow more with less impact on the environment. It has been estimated that without the use of BE crops, more land (48 million acres) would need to be planted to produce the same amount of food.</li>
<li>The use of BE crops helps to reduce CO2 emissions by 59 million pounds, which is equivalent to removing 12 million cars from the road for a year.</li>
<li>Using BE crops helps to reduce the need for pesticides, thus reducing environmental harm or risk by 19 percent.</li>
<li style="list-style-type: none"></li>
</ul>
<h1 class="p1">References</h1>
<p class="p12">Brookes, G., & Barfoot, P. (2017, June.). GM crops: Global, socio-economic and environmental impacts 1996-2015. Retrieved from <a href="https://www.pgeconomics.co.uk/pdf/2017globalimpactstudy.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">https://www.pgeconomics.co.uk/pdf/2017globalimpactstudy.pdf</a>.</p>
<p class="p12">National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2016). Genetically engineered crops: Experiences and prospects. The National Academies Press. Retrieved from <a href="https://doi.org/10.17226/23395" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">https://doi.org/10.17226/23395</a>.</p>
<p> </p>
<hr />
<p><strong>Rudy Pacumbaba</strong>, PhD, <em>Horticulture Specialist</em>, Alabama A&M University</p>
<p>Reviewed February 2022,<strong> GMO Food Facts: Bioengineered Crops</strong>, UNP-2135</p>
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry/common-forestry-terms-for-the-forest-landowner/ | Common Forestry Terms for the Forest Landowner | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Janice Dyer",
"Becky Barlow",
"Beau Broadbeck"
] | 2018-08-31 | [
"Forestry",
"Land Management",
"Education"
] | AL | ## Forest Management
Growing trees on land where there were none. Cost-share programs usually require that the land has not been in forest for at least several decades.
## agroforestry
The practice of growing trees and agricultural or horticultural crops on the same site.
## alley cropping
The practice of growing crops between rows of planted trees.
## conservation buffers
The practice of growing trees in rows to alter wind flow and protect crops, reduce erosion, improve irrigation efficiency, improve water quality, and provide habitat for wildlife.
## Cookie Notice
The practices of cultivating species in the forests are subject to environmental review. (https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp privacy.php)
Slvopasture (photo credit: MediaAssociates)
The practice of grazing livestock among forest trees.
## best management practices (BMPs)
Guidelines to minimize negative impacts on the environment, such as soil erosion and water pollution, before, during, and after a timber harvest or other forest management activities.
## competition
The interaction between trees (of the same or different species) in which one will usually have an advantage and dominate or suppress the other.
## den tree
A living or dead tree, often containing a cavity, used by animals for shelter, roosting, food supply or storage, or as a nursery.
## disturbance
An event that disrupts stand structure and changes the landscape; this may be natural or human-made.
## ephemeral stream
A stream that runs intermittently in response to precipitation or snowmelt. An ephemeral stream lacks a well-defined channel.
A stream with a well-defined channel that has water flowing during the wet season.
mast
nonpoint source pollution
Water pollution frequently caused by water runoff from different sources and locations. Best management practices (BMPs) can be used to help control nonpoint source pollution.
## overtopping
When trees of undesirable species grow faster than those of the target species, blocking sunlight and slowing their growth.
## perennial stream
A stream that has a well-defined channel and flows year-round, except during times of extreme drought.
## plantation
A stand of trees planted or artificially seeded and usually grown to be uniform in structure and for a specific product class.
## prescribed burning
The use of fire, under specific conditions, to achieve a variety of management objectives, including prepping a site for planting, reducing material that could fuel fires, improving wildlife habitat, and controlling vegetation competing for forest resources.
## reforestation
Establishing forest cover through seeding or planting of seedlings on land where forests have been depleted through harvesting or failure to restore naturally.
## slash
Branches, wood chips, foliage, and other residue on the forest floor remaining after a harvesting operation.
Window (Photo credit: Janice Dyer)
## window
A pile Cookie Notice at logging operations or site preparation; often later burned.
windt h : c r
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php)
## Forest Measurements
## acre
An area of land measuring 43,560 square feet or 10 (66-foot) surveyor's chains by 1 (66-foot) chain.
## basal area
The measurement taken, usually reported in square feet per acre, of the area of the cross sections of tree trunks at 4. feet above the ground and inclusive of the bark. Basal area gives an idea of the stocking of trees in a stand.
## board foot
The measurement unit for lumber equaling 1 inch thick and 12 inches square. This measurement is most often used for measuring sawtimber.
## chain
The unit of length used by surveyors measuring 66 feet.
## chip-n-saw
The class size for mid-sized trees (larger than pulpwood, but smaller than sawtimber) that produce both chips and dimensional lumber.
## cord
The standard unit of measurement for a pile of stacked wood. A full cord stands 4 feet high by 4 feet wide and 8 feet long, a total of 128 cubic feet of space. For southern pine, there are approximately 90 cubic feet of solid wood per cord. This measurement is most often used for pulpwood.
## crown
The upper part of a tree that includes branches and foliage.
## crown class
A category of tree based on crown position relative to those of adjacent trees.
## dominant
Trees with full crowns, receiving light from the top and sides.
## codominant
Trees receiving light from the top and a little from the sides.
## intermediate
Trees with crown not located in the main or upper category; receive some light from the top, but none from the sides.
Trees receiving no direct sunlight from any direction; often do
not make it to the upper level canopy.
## dead
Trees that are no longer living but are still standing. These help to provide habitat for some wildlife species.
## cubic foot
A volume of wood equivalent to a solid cube measuring 12 x 12 x 12 inches.
Defect (Photo credit: Janice Dyer)
## cunit
A volume of wood containing 100 cubic feet; usually used to measure pulwood.
## diameter breast height (DBH)
Measurement of the diameter of a tree stem, outside the bark, taken 4 feet above the ground on the uphill side of the tree.
## defect
Characteristics of a tree that may decrease its value for lumber. These can include rot, scars, or crooked stems. In forest inventories, this is often expressed as a percentage of the total volume.
## dendrochronology
The history of a tree; can be determined by examining the growth rings from an extracted core, stump, or cross section of a tree.
## dendrometers
Instruments used to measure height and diameter of trees.
## Cookie Notice Biltmøx stick
The weight of wood immediately after it has been cut, before drying.
## growing stock
The number or volume of all trees growing in a given area and meeting size and quality specifications.
live crown ratio (LCR)
The ratio of the length of the tree's crown (upper portion of the tree consisting of healthy, green foliage) to its total aboveground height. Often reported as percentage, LCR is an indicator of tree health.
## log grade
A classification of logs based on specifications, such as length, diameter, or pith location, as well as imperfections or defects, that indicate the quality or relative value of a log.
## MBF
Abbreviation indicating 1,000 board feet. This measurement unit is often used in the trade of dimensional lumber.
## point sampling
A method of inventorying a forested area based on tree size to determine basal area of a stand. Samples are taken using a prism or angle gauge to determine which trees will be counted in the inventory. Point sampling does not require direct measurement of tree diameter or plot area.
## poles
When referring to product classification, poles are generally trees ranging from 10 to 24 inches DBH, are at least 30 feet tall, and have a top diameter of 6 inches or greater. Additionally, they must be very straight and free of imperfections such as catfaces, forks, or fusiform rust. They generally have the highest value of any forest product and are considered a premium product.
## pulpwood
A smaller class size of trees that are usually chipped and made into paper products. Larger-diameter trees of lower quality may also be purchased by mills as pulpwood.
## saplings
Young trees, usually between 1 and 5 inches DBH and often have no merchantable value.
## sawlog
A log (usually at least 16 feet long) from which lumber can be sawn.
## sawtimber
Trees 10 inches DBH or greater and 24 feet or taller to a 6-inch top that are free of major defects such as branches, forks, or diseased stem and can yield dimensional lumber.
site
## Increment borer (Photo credit: Janice Dyer)
## increment borer
Used to determine the age of a tree, an increment borer includes an extractor tray within a long skinny tube. Once augured into the trunk, a sample of tree tissue is extracted and the rings are counted to determine age. For some species, additional years are added to the number of rings; for example, for loblolly pine 3 years are added, and for longleaf 7 years are added.
## legal description
Information contained in documents, such as deeds and tax records, that identifies the location of land; usually uses a grid system employed by the Public Land Survey System.
## metes and bounds
A system for describing property boundary lines using physical features of the land, directions, and distances; often found on tax records and deeds.
## range
Designation indicating whether a parcel is located east or west of the principal meridian (an arbitrary line that runs north-south and is used for surveys in a given region).
## section
An area of land measuring 1 square mile (or 640 acres); sections are broken down further into quarter sections.
## town cookie Notice
An area of land, 6 miles square, subdivide into 36 sections and containing 23,040 acres. Trewsin designates vwhather a nercel is located south?www.af.aubaine.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php )
A measure of the quality of a site and the land's potential to produce trees.
## site index
A measure of the quality of a site and its productivity based on the average heights of the tallest (dominant and co-dominant) trees in a stand at a given base age (usually 25 or 50 years). Site index is specific to particular species, climates, and regions, and is used to prescribe silvicultural practices and project future tree growth.
## site quality
A measurement, based on standard indicators, of the land's potential to grow trees. Usually refers to the productive potential of a particular species at a given time and location.
## stand density
A direct measure of crowding of trees in a stand; can be measured in terms of trees per acre, basal area, or volume per acre. Measurements of stand density are used to determine silvicultural prescriptions.
## stand growth
A change in the volume and productivity of trees.
## stand improvement
Forest management practices, usually involving the removal of undesirable trees, that allow the best trees to develop more quickly and improve overall growth, composition, structure, and health.
## How trees are spatially distributed across a site (either vertically)
or spatially in groups or clusters).
## timber cruise
A statistical sample of a forest area to determine the location, volume, and other characteristics of timber, usually in preparation for a harvest or to guide management decisions.
## ton
A measurement of gross weight, usually given for green (not yet dried) material. This measurement is often used to determine the amount of wood delivered to the mill.
## yield
The volume of standing trees on a site.
## wedge prism
A small, slightly angular piece of glass used when sampling variable radius points to determine whether a tree is to be included in an inventory.
## Silviculture
## bedding
A mechanical method used to prepare a site for planting seedlings, bedding involves plowing the ground to form cultivated ridges. This technique is often done in conjunction with subsoling.
## copping
A management method, usually used to regenerate hardwoods, in which tree stems are cut near the ground and shoots emerge from the stump.
## disking
Preparing a site for reseeding or planting by plowing the ground with disksi to nix organic material into the sca . This method may also be used to encourage regrowth of native understory plants.
drum chopping
A mechanical site preparation technique used to break up slash material and other vegetation above the soil surface.
## even-aged management
A method of maintaining a stand of same-age trees.
## clear cut
Harvesting all commercially valuable trees in a forest stand during a single operation.
## seed tree method
An even-age reproduction practice in which only a few widely spaced seed-bearing trees are left standing in each acre as a seed source for regeneration.
## shelterwood method
An even-age reproduction practice in which multiple successive cuttings remove the majority of trees, but some of the older trees are left standing to be a seed source and provide protection for regeneration.
## rake and pile
A mechanical site preparation technique in which material is raked, pulling up roots, and piled into windrows; usually not appropriate for highly erodible soils.
## scalping
A practice used when preparing a site for planting or seeding; the top layer of vegetation is cut with a mechanical plow, and then pulled up, exposing the soil. Scaling generally occurs on old pastures, heavy in grasses, being converted to forest.
## scarification
A technique in which the soil surface layer is broken up in preparation for planting or regeneration.
## seedbed
An area of soil prepared (naturally or artificially) to encourage the germination of seeds and growth of seedlings.
## seedslings
Young trees; size varies by species and can range from only a few inches in height to taller, but usually less than breast height (4½ feet).
## shearing
A mechanical site preparation used to remove standing, decorative tablecloth, often following a clearcut.
silvics
silviculture
The manipulation of a forest stand to achieve desired production outcomes.
Longleaf pine seedlings (Photo credit: Becky Barlow)
Longleaf pine seedlings (Photo credit: Becky Barlow)
Snag (Photo credit: Janice Dyer)
Streamside management zone (SMZ) (Photo credit: Janice Dyer) snags
Standing trees that are dead or dying. Snags provide habitat for various plant and animal species.
## stagnation
Occurs when growing space between trees is limited, increasing competition for resources. The result is a forest stand with slow growth that makes trees susceptible to disease and insects.
## stand
A group of trees or vegetation with the same structure and similar growing conditions. Other criteria include tree age and species composition (e.g., longleaf pine or a pine-hardwood mix).
## streamside management zone (SMZ)
Strip of forested land alongside a stream that is maintained to protect water quality.
## subsoling
A practice used in site preparation that involves breaking up deep, dense soil layers, and alleviating effects of compaction. Subsolishing is often conducted following scaling or a controlled burn.
## thinning
A management practice of removing selected trees to encourage the growth and health of remaining trees. This practice should occur before a stand stagnates and becomes susceptible to pests and disease.
## uneven-aged management
A method of maintaining a stand of different tree ages through periodic thinning. Stands under this management technique have no beginning or end and attempt to mimic a more natural system.
## single-tree selection method
A uneven-aged reproduction practice in which individual trees of the oldest-age class are removed to create openings in the stand and to allow regeneration to occur naturally.
## watershed
An area of land where water from rain or melting snow drains through a system of streams into a body of water, such as a river or lake. The boundaries of a watershed are defined by topographical features, such as hills or ridges.
## Timber Harvesting and Road
## Construction
## broadGaokie Notice
An erosion control; precautions for raiding, a shallow depression
constructed dredging across a road 's ' called a 'will' at the site 's final off the https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php )(Piotc\_credit: Janice Eyra)
## buffer strip
An area of land in vegetation that is (a) located downslope from forest activities that protects from sediment runoff, especially along vulnerable water sources; or (b) used in forest aesthetics to improve the visual quality of forestry practices, such as clearingt.
## constructed ford
A stream crossing -usually made of rocks placed across a forest road-that can be driven across when the water level is low.
## culvert
A pipe usually made of metal, PVC, or concrete that allows surface water to flow beneath roads.
## aseement
A right to the use of property by another party.
## firebreak
A gap in vegetation, either natural or human-made, that may help to prevent ground fires from advancing.
pivots at its center, used to accommodate tight-turning radiuses in the forest settings.
## skidding
Dragging fallen trees along the forest floor; during harvest, trees are skidded to the logging deck, where they are loaded on trucks for transport.
## stumpage
The value of standing timber in a woodlot, determined by a number of factors, including species, size and quality of trees, and market conditions.
## water bar
A road feature consisting of a shallow channel or hump running diagonally across the road surface to divert water and prevent erosion. Water bars are often a more rudimentary method for diverting surface water, while broad base dips allow for easier crossing of vehicular traffic.
For more information on words defined in this publication, as well as other forestry terms, visit the online Dictionary of Forestry provided by the Society of American Foresters, or consult the Alabama Forestry Commission's Best Management Practices manual.
## Janice Dyer. Research Associate, Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology and School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, Becky Barlow, Extension Specialist and Assistant Professor, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, and Beau Broadbeck, Regional Extension Agent
Reviewed October 2022, Common Forestry Terms for the Forest Landowner, ANR-1373
Reviewed October 2022, Common Forestry Terms for the Forest Landowner, ANR-1373
## Download this article as a PDF
(https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/ANR-1373.REV\_2.pdf) Common Forestry Terms for the Forest Landowner,
Cookie Notice
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php) |
https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2016/03/24/tulip-tales/ | Tulip Tales | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2016-03-24 | [
"Europe",
"Gardening & Farming"
] | GA | ## Tulip Tales
Written by
March 24, 2016
Pamela Turner
Last spring I had the opportunity to visit Holland when the tulips were blooming. It was beautiful! My journey began in Vienna. My husband gave me a single tulip. With the tulip along for the ride, we started our journey. The first stop was in western Austria. Not a tulip in sight but beautiful primrose s.
The story of tulips is quite interesting. According to tulip history, the flowers grew wild in Central Asia and were first cultivated around 1,000 AD by the Turkish people. They were introduced in Vienna and beyond in the 1500s. Historians say tulips became popular in part because of their flamboyant appearance, and intense and varied colors, such as the yellow and white flamelike streaks on bright red, yellow or purple flower. In the 1630s in the Netherlands, tulip bulb prices rose rapidly as demand increased and speculators entered the market. This is sometimes referred to as "tulip mania" or "tulip fever." The bubble burst in February 1637, but that was not the end of the connection between tulips and the Netherlands. In 2014, the country exported
Our second stop was in the Netherlands to see these beautiful flowers. Unfortunately, it was cold, rainy and a little too early to see many fields of tulips in bloom. No loss, Keukenhof provided a wonderful display and I still had my lone tulip.
To learn more about growing tulips in the United States, contact Cooperative Extension or go to https://extension.org/. Other resources:
- · State-by-state gardening
- · The Georgia Gardener Walter Reeves on tulips
- Spring-flowering bulbs in the south - Clemson Cooperative Extension
Posted in: Europe, Gardening & Farming
Tags: Cooperative Extension, Extension, gardening, Georgia, Holland, southern gardening, The Netherlands, tulip fever, tulip mania, tulips, UGA Extension
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https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/land-application-of-biosolids.html | Land Application of Biosolids: A Review of Research Concerning Benefits, Environmental Impacts, and Regulations of Applying Treated Sewage Sludge - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [
"Nicholas T. Basta",
"W.R. Raun",
"G.V. Johnson",
"K.S. Lusby",
"D.J. Turton",
"M.D. Smolen",
"R.L. Gillen",
"J.J. Sloan",
"E.R. Allen"
] | 2017-01-05 | [] | OK | ## Land Application of Biosolids: A Review of Research Concerning Benefits, Environmental Impacts, and Regulations of Applying Treated Sewage Sludge
Published May. 2017 |
Id: B-808
By Nicholas T. Basta, W.R. Raun, G.W. Johnson, K.S. Lusby, D.J. Turton, M.D. Smolen, R.L. Gillen, J.J. Sloan, E.R. Allen
Print-friendly PDF (/factsheets/print-publications/b/landapplication-of-biosolids-b-808.pdf)
Share Fact Sheet
The Water Quality Act of 1972 that mandated development of technologies to treat, dispose, and recycle nutrients in wastewater and sludges dramatically increased land application of sewage sludge by municipalities across the nation. Sewage sludge is produced from wastewater treatment plants operated by municipalities. Land-applied sewage sludge undergoes chemical and biological transformations that affect plant nutrient availability and determine the environmental fate of its constituents. After land application, most organics are rapidly adsorbed, volatilized, or decomposed and present little risk to the food chain. Land application of sewage sludge benefits crop production by supplying a wide range of plant nutrients. Forages grown on sludge-fertilized lands have been utilized by grazing ruminants, principally beef cattle, while grain crops from these sites have been used by both monogastrics and
ruminants. Sludge utilization projects on forestland for reforestation, biomass production, and fertilization have been established in 23 states. Several research studies have examined the effect of land application of sewage sludge because of the concern that it could contaminate surface or ground waters. Use of sewage sludge as a source of plant nutrients and as a soil amendment on native ecosystems such as forest and grassland has been studied. Because native ecosystems are sensitive to mechanical disturbances and may show long-term effects of such treatments, sewage sludge should be surface-applied. Land application of sewage sludge has been used to reclaim coal strip-mine spoils, gravel spoils, coal refuse, clay strip-mine spoils, iron ore tailings, abandoned pyrite mine spoils, and sites devastated by toxic fumes. Many of the trends associated with land application of sewage sludge established during the last 25 years are likely to continue. Land application will increase, and incineration, landfilling, and other alternative sludge disposal methods will decrease. The next 25 years will bring an increase in beneficial land application of new waste materials including municipal solid waste and possibly "designer sludges." Knowledge gained from sewage sludge research and methods used to regulate land application will be essential for beneficial land application of new materials. B-(/fact-sheets/print-publications/b/land-application808of-biosolids-b-808.pdf) Print-friendly PDF (/fact sheets/print-publications/b/land- application-of-biosolids-b-808.pdf)
## Topics:
Septic Systems & Sewage /topics/environment-and-natural-resources/wastemanagement/septic-systems-and-sewage/)
Waste Management /topics/environment-and-natural-resources/wastemanagement/)
YES |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/research-reports/site-files/documents/1985/85-50.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20090305104020-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## EFFECT OF PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTATION ON STOCKERS GRAZING NATIVE GRASS IN SOUTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA
Jim Cantrell$^{1}$, Gerald Bryan$^{1 }$and K.S., Lusby$^{2}$
## Story in Brief
A cooperative field trial was conducted to determine the effect of supplemental protein on the performance of calves grazing native grass on reclaimed timber land in southeastern Oklahoma. Forty calves were assigned to either a control group receiving no supplement, or a supplement, mented group which received 1.07 lbs/day of soybean meal cubes (44% CP) per day (2.5 lbs/head fed Monday, Wednesday and Friday). For the 56 day trial period in late summer, the supplemented calves gained .49 lbs/day more than control calves (1.32 lbs/day -vs.-.83 bs/day, respectively). The results of this trial indicate that protein supplementation can significantly increase gain of stocker calves grazing native grass in southeastern Oklahoma.
(Key Words: Protein, Stocker Cattle, Brushland.)
## Introduction
Several studies have been conducted in central and north-central Oklahoma to determine the effectiveness of protein supplementation in improving the gains of stocker calves grazing native grass pastures. The harvesting of timber and the use of herbicides to remove forest cover have released a substantial amount of land to forage production. Much of this land is too rough to plant improved forages, and consequently is typically covered by native grasses released after removal of the forest canopy. The objective of this field trial was to determine if protein supplementation would economically increase gains of stockers grazing native grasses grown on reclaimed forest land.
## Materials and Methods
Forty Angus and Angus X exotic crossbred steers, approximately 10 months old, were assigned to either a control or a supplemented treatment group. The supplemented group received 1.07 lb/head/day of soybean meal cubes and were fed 2.5 lbs/head on Monday, Wednesday and Friday. Both treatment groups had access to a free choice salt/mineral mix.
This trial was conducted on the Kerr Foundation Ranch in southeastern Oklahoma, and utilized 160 acres of land that had been treated four years earlier with Graslan' herbicide. This tract was divided into two pastures of 80 acres each, and stocked at a rate of four acres per calf. Pastures were rotated at the intermediate weigh period to reduce any pasture effects.
## Results and Discussion
The results of this trial are in agreement with similar trials conducted in other sections of Oklahoma (Lusby et al., 1982; Lusby and Horn, 1983). Feeding small amounts of high protein supplement resulted in a significant improvement in stocker performance (Table 1). This trial was conducted August 16 to October 11, and as the season progres-sed the control calves showed a dramatic drop in performance. This drop in performance was partially offset by the use of the high protein sup-
| | Treatments | Treatments |
|-----------------------------|------------------------------|-------------------------|
| | Control | Supplement |
| Number steers | 20 | 20 |
| Initial wt, lb (8/16) | 494 | 489 |
| Gain, lb/day (total) | 9/16 to 9/18, 33 days, lbs | 1.41 (46) a 1.73 (57) b |
| 9/18 to 10/11, 23 days, lbs | 18/16 to 10/11, 56 days, lbs | .01 (.28) a .75 (17) b |
abMeans with different superscript letters differ (PK.05).
## Literature Cited
Lusby, K.S. et al. 1982. Energy -vs- protein supplementation of steers grazing native range in late summer and early fall. OSU MP-112:36. Lusby, K.S. and G.W. Horn. 1983. Energy -vs- protein supplementation of steers grazing native range in late summer. OSU MP-114:209. | |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/citrusco/2021/06/09/improving-head-and-neck-cancer-treatment/ | Improving Head and Neck Cancer Treatment | University of Florida | [
"sellis"
] | 2021-06-09 | [
"Health & Nutrition",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"UF/IFAS Research",
"citrus County",
"health and wellness",
"UF Health",
"UF/IFAS Extension Citrus County"
] | FL | ## Improving Head and Neck Cancer Treatment
Did you know that head and neck cancer is the seventh most common cancer in the world? Sixty percent of Florida counties are above the national rate.
UF/IFAS Extension is pleased to partner with UF Health in a research project on making it easier for individuals with head and neck cancer to participate in clinical trials. Research shows that patient participation in clinical trials improves survival rates, yet only 8% of cancer patients choose to participate in trials.
The research team is recruiting head and neck cancer patients and survivors to participate in a 30-minute phone interview to learn how you think clinical trials can be made more acceptable and reasonable to participate in.
For more information or to participate in the study, contact Marta Hansen at: 1-877-272-74C9 or m.hansen1@ufl.edu
UF/IFAS is committed to diversity of people, thought and opinion, to inclusiveness and to equal opportunity.
O
by sellis
Posted: June 9, 2021
Category: Health & Nutrition, UE/IFAS Extension, UE/IFAS Research
Tags: Citrus County, Health And Wellness, UE Health, UE/IFAS Extension, UE/IFAS Extension Citrus County
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/beef-conformation-hooves/ | Beef Conformation: Hooves | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"David L. Daniel Jr.",
"Lisa A. Kriese-Anderson"
] | 2018-09-20 | [
"Beef",
"Agriculture",
"Livestock"
] | AL | ## Beef Conformation: Hooves
"This is an excerpt from Beef Conformation Basics, ANR-1452.
The hoof is one of the more complex aspects to consider when evaluating structural soundness. Problems with the hoof, such as excessive or uneven toe growth, may be caused by genetic, nutritional, or environmental factors or may be indicative of other concerns the animal may face structurally. The ideal hoof is free of cracks and other abnormalities and has two symmetrical claws that both point forward. The hoof shown in Figure 1 is an example of good structure in regard to symmetry and toe alignment. Adequate attention should also be paid to the amount of heel depth because cattle with too much angle to their hocks and pastemals can be very shallow in the heel. The hoof should be dense and able to support the weight of the animal without cracking, as this can lead to lameness.
Another condition to look out for when evaluating the hoof is corkscrew claw, or screw claw, which is the twisting of the toe in a way that places the side wall of the hoof in direct contact with the ground. Sometimes the condition begins to show itself with the toes pointing inward instead of forward. The feet shown in Figure 2 exhibit the classical symptoms of this disorder, which is usually seen in cattle more than 2 years old. It can affect all hooves or be present in just one hoof. Although the mode of inheritance is not completely understood, this disorder is believed to be a heritable trait. The condition can lead to lameness due to improper distribution of weight within the toe. Cattle with this disorder should be culled and eliminated from the herd as soon as possible.
Read here to learn more about beef conformation basics. (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/beef-conformation-basics/)
Download a PDF of Beef Conformation Basics .ANR-1452. ( https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/ANR: 1452.REV\_3.pdf )
- ■ Read More
(https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/beef-conformation-basics/)
Beef Conformation Basics (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/beef-conformation-basics/). Sep 20, 2018
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/about-4-h/what-do-we-teach-outdoor-education/ | About 4-H | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Molly Gregg"
] | 2018-08-23 | [
"4-H",
"Outdoor Education",
"Youth Programs"
] | AL | ## What Do We Teach? Outdoor Education
The Alabama 4-H outdoor education curriculum grid provides a snapshot of what we teach. Please note, not all programs are available in every county.
Growing Alabama's Future: Alabama 4-H seeks to empower youth with the skills to lead our communities, our state, our nation, and our world. Alabama 4-H will reflect the population
extension ALANAAAM & UBERN UNIVERSITIES
demographics, vulnerable populations, diverse needs, and social conditions of the state.
## Grid Key
Delivery Modes: CL=Clubs, IS=In School, E=Enrichment, I=Independent, CP=Camping
Print "4-H Curriculum-Outdoor Education" table from our website.
Outdoor Education Events: State 4-H Air Rifle, BB Gun and Air Pistol Championship, State 4-H Archery Championship, State 4- H Shotgun Championship, 4-H Invitational at Buckmasters Expo, and Senior Achievement: Natural Resources
Click here to view additional national 4-H curriculum resources.(https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/about-4-h/national-4-h curriculum-resources/) |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/mississippi-kite/ | Mississippi Kite | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Deforrest R. Allgood",
"Mark D. Smith"
] | 2018-09-20 | [
"Forestry",
"Wildlife",
"Bird Watching"
] | AL | ## Mississippi Kite
Cookie Notice
With https://www.acas.edu/alabama/education/oaca/prieaseyippap) pii xie is a fairi uncorrir: rator. As with the swallow-tailed kite, they are also present in the United States only during the summer breeding season. Identifying features include a light gray head, darker gray wings and body, and a long blackish tail. Mississippi kites are slightly smaller than the swallowtail kite and can be distinguished by their shorter, squared tails. Mississippi kits are most frequently seen in and around sparse woodlands and adjacent open areas.
Read here to learn more about common birds of prey of Alabama.(https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/bird-watching/common-birds-ofprey-of-alabama/)
Download a PDF of Common Birds of Prey of Alabama.ANR - 1386 .(https://www.acs.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/ANR1386\_BirdsofPrey\_092120L\_A.pdf)
## ■ Read More
(https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/common-birds-of-prey-of-alabama/)
Common Birds of Prey of Alabama (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forestry-wildlife/common-birdsof-prey-of-alabama/). Sep 20, 2018 |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/plant-id/plant-profiles/hyacinth-bean/index.html | Hyacinth Bean - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2020-10-22 | [] | OK | ## HYACINTH BEAN
Common Name: Hyacinth Bean
Species Name: Lablab purpureus
Family Name: Fabaceae
Family Name: Fabaceae
Plant Facts
| Origin | Tropical Africa |
|----------------|-------------------|
| Sun Preference | Full Sun |
| Susceptibility | Leaf Spot |
## ID Characteristics
Leaf and Stem Characteristics
+
## Habitat/ Ecology
Well-drained
USDA Cold Hardiness Zone
Notes
Topics: |
https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2012/07/20/st-kildas-community-garden/ | St. Kilda’s Community Garden | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2012-07-20 | [
"Uncategorized"
] | GA | ## St. Kilda's Community Garden
Written by
July 20, 2012
Pamela Turner
St.Kilda's "Veg Out"CommunityGarden is built on the site of the old St. Kilda Bowling Club in the Port Phillip Council area. The facilities are also home to artist studios, rented on a month to month basis, with garden plots are rented for a $100 annually.
The site is overseen by the Local environment office and the EcoCentre coordinator, who works with the local garden committees. The design features pathways based on a compass rose with the water taps at the center. There are garden plots maintained by the members and a common green for community gatherings.
The garden has a very eclectic feel, which is tranquil touched off with repurposed fancy. St. Kilda's is open to the public, but you are asked to respect the private property (vegetables, chickens and budgies). Garden plots are so popular here, they're absolutely snapped up when available!
Posted in: Uncategorized
Tags: Australia, community, conservation, energy, garden, gardening, green, green living, Melbourne,
nature, simple ideas, St. Kilda's Community Garden, UGA, UGAA GreenWay, University of Georgia, Veg
Out
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## Recent Comments
Thank you for everything and for the valuable information.
Thanks for posting when you've got the opportunity.Thank you so much for sharing this. Very interesting.
As a professional declutterr in London, I see health benefits around decluttering all the time. From people who are depressed...
These tips are really helpful! I never thought about putting my luggage on a stand or unpacking outside. It's good...
Check with you local county Extension Office to learn more about trees that grow well in your state. Find an...
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https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/news/2024/09/30/media-alert-florida-agricultural-sector-asked-to-share-adverse-impacts-of-hurricane-helene/ | Media Alert: Florida agricultural sector asked to share adverse impacts of Hurricane Helene | University of Florida | [
"Meredith Bauer"
] | 2024-09-30 | [
"Agriculture",
"UF/IFAS",
"UF/IFAS Extension"
] | FL | ## Media Alert: Florida agricultural sector asked to share adverse impacts of Hurricane Helene
Media Alert: Florida agricultural sector asked to share adverse impacts of
Hurricane Helene
What: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (UF/IFAS) Economic Impact Analysis Program (EIAP) survey for losses and damages associated with Hurricane Helene.
Where: Agricultural producers can complete the survey
at go.ufl.edu/helenegimagpacts or report information to their local
UE/IFAS Extension county office by calling or visiting in person. Some offices may be closed due to the storm, but agents will be available to assist.
About: UF/IFAS requests agricultural producers affected by Hurricane
Helene, which made landfall on Sept. 26 as a Category 4 storm near Perry, Florida, to complete the UF/IFAS EIAP survey on agricultural losses and damages.
The survey is part of on-going UF/IFAS research tracking the effects of severe weather and other hazards on the state's agricultural industry. Participants are asked to assess their production losses and asset damages due to Hurricane Helene. Responses will be used to improve estimations of the state's collective agricultural losses from such events and inform decision-making related to disaster declaration, response and relief.
Survey participation should take between 10 and 20 minutes. Answers are confidential.
For additional information, visit the UF/IFAS EIAP frequently asked
questions webpage.
Contact: Meredith Bauer, UF/IFAS public relations specialist, 352-2943303 or meredithbauer@ufl.edu.
Para accesar a esta información en español., por favor utilice este
enlace\_
O
by Meredith Bauer
Posted: September 30, 2024
Category: Agriculture, UF/IFAS, UE/IFAS, UF/IFAS Extension, UF/IFA S Extensión
## More From Blogs.IFAS
UF scientist tries to reduce heat stress, improve beef production in cattle
uf researchers' new outreach strategy succeeds, sets blueprint for detecting invasive species in Flo… |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/building-construction-plans/hog-loading-chute-0 | Hog Loading Chute | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [] | null | [] | MS | ' Publications » Building & Construction Plans Archive » Hog Loading Chute
## Hog Loading Chute
BUILDING & CONSTRUCTION PLANS ARCHIVE
Publication Number: 5960-A
View as PDF: 5960-A.pdf
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/madisonco/2020/08/06/steam-canning-safety-tips/ | Steam Canning Safety Tips | University of Florida | [
"Samantha Kennedy"
] | 2020-08-06 | [
"Food Safety",
"Health & Nutrition",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"Work & Life",
"Canning",
"Families & Consumers",
"Family and Consumer Sciences",
"food preservation",
"home canning",
"home food preservation",
"steam canning",
"Wakulla"
] | FL | ## Steam Canning Safety Tips
Article and audio introduction by Samantha Kennedy, Family and Consumer Sciences
00:00
Over the last several months, as you've learned to adjust to the restrictions of the COVID-19 pandemic, you may have become more interested in producing and preserving your own food. Home food preservation, more specifically canning, has grown in popularity in recent years, and if done correctly, can be a great way to stock up on healthy and delicious fruits, vegetables, and even meats that will last months in your pantry.
Water bath and pressure canning are the two most common methods of preserving foods in canning jars. Water bath canning is used for highacid foods (pH of 4.6 or less) such as most fruits and tomatoes, and acidified foods, while pressure cannin g is used for low-acid foods (pH of more than 4.6) such as vegetables and meats.
However, another less common method of canning is steam canning. According to University of Wisconsin Extension researchers, steam canning involves processing naturally high-acid foods (e.g. peaches, pears, or apples), acidified foods (e.g. pickles and salsa), and/or jams and jellies in a pure steam environment that can maintain a temperature of 210-212 degrees F.
| This domed steam canner is the only | Just like with water bath and pressure canning, critical process parameters must be followed during |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| canner approved for steam canning. | Team canning as well. Only use approved, research-tested recipes from sources such as the USDA, the |
| Other equipment, such as Instant Pots | National Center for Home Food Preservation, and the Ball Blue Book. Only foods with processing times |
| and other multicookers, have not been | of 45 minutes or less, including modifications for elevations, should be steamed cann. Do not rely on |
| adequately tested and should not be | recipes found on the internet unless they come from one of the above sources. Even recipes found in |
| used for any type of canning. (Photo | the scanner's user manual may not be reliable, so please only use approved canning recipes to ensure a |
| source: Univ. of Wisconsin Extension) | safe final product. |
| What type of container or appliance can be used for steam canning? The only type of steamer can that has a wide | |
has been tested for safety and temperature consistency is a dome-style steam canner. Shaped almost like an upside-down stock pot, it has a wide shallow base where the water and jars go and a tall top that fits over the jars and holds in the steam, maintaining the temperature between 210212 degrees F.
What about an instant Pot? (Note: Brand names are only used as examples and do not imply endorsement ) Newer models of these appliances also known as multicooks or electric pres sure cookies -have a built-in canning function and claim that they can be used for safe home canning. However, they have not been fully tested for safety in home food preservation and are NOT recommended for ANY type of canning.
Since the equipment - its structure, materials, and function -is different from traditional canners that have been tested for safety, it is not known whether the appropriate temperature can be adequately maintained during the canning process to ensure the elimination of foodborne pathogens such as Clostridium botulinum (the bacterium causes botulism) and make sure the food is safe to eat. Therefore, it is recommended that only approved equipment be used for home canning.
The bottom line is just because it's on the Internet doesn't make it true. Always consult reliable sources for home canning information such as those listed above. Your local county Extension office is a great place to find reliable, research-based information on home canning and other topics. It is WAY better to be SAFE than SORY.
Graphic created by Helid Colpeland, Family & Consumer Sciences agent, UF/IFAS Extension Leon County
sources:
Safe Preserving: Using a Steam Canner (University of Wisconsin Extension)
Burning Issues Using Atmospheric Steam Canners (National Center for Home Food Preservation)
UF/IFAS is an Equal Opportunity Institution
O
by Samantha Kennedy
Posted: August 6, 2020
Category: Food Safety, Health & Nutrition, UE/IFAS Extension, WORK & LIFE
Tags: Canning, Families & Consumers, Family And Consumer Sciences, Food Preservation, Home Canning, Home Food Preservation, Steam Canning, Wakulla
Re
UPCOMING ONLINE CLASS: Quick Bread Basics
- New Year's Savings Tips
- Another Great Florida Panhandle Summer Plant: Brown-Eyed Susan
- ANNUAL 2022 UF/IFAS WAKULLA MASTER GARDENER VOLUNTEER PLANT SALE |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/by-ingredients/live-well-recipe-family-favorite-tomato-soup/ | Live Well Recipe: Family Favorite Tomato Soup | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Sondra Parmer"
] | 2018-07-26 | [
"Recipes",
"Nutrition",
"Healthy Eating"
] | AL | extension
## Live Well Recipe: Family Favorite Tomato Soup
Our Family Favorite Tomato Soup has only 40 milligrams of sodium in a serving Canned soups can have more than 500 milligrams or sodium in a single serving. Serves 8.
## Ingredients
3 tablespoons butter
1 medium yellow onion, diced
2 cans diced tomatoes, 14.5 ounces each
14-ounce bottle or tomato juice
2 tablespoons sugar
Black pepper to taste
1 cup 2% milk
1/4 cup fresh basil, chopped (optional)
## Directions
Melt the butter in a large pot. Add onion and cook until soft, about 5 minutes.
Add diced tomatoes and tomato juice. Stir to combine.
Stir in sugar and pepper.
Heat to almost a boil.
Turn off the heat.
Add milk and basil, if desired.
Serve warm.
Download the recipe here. Printable Family Favorite Tomato Soup (https://www.aces.edu/wpc content/uploads/2018/07/FCS\_2196 LiveWellAlabamaRecipeCards FamilyFavorite?
Click here to view the USDA Nondiscrimination Statement, (https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/live-well-alabama/usda-nondiscrimination statement/)
(https://www.aces.edu/?post\_type=aces\_content\_piece&p=3223&preview=true)
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https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/what-if-engenia-fexapan-or-xtendimax-are-not-an-option-for-soybean-weed-control.html | What if Engenia®, FeXapan® or Xtendimax® are Not an Option for Soybean Weed Control? - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [
"Todd Baughman",
"Misha Manuchehri"
] | 2020-01-06 | [] | OK | ## What if Engenia®, FeXapan® or Xtendimax® are Not an Option for Soybean Weed Control?
Published Jun. 2020 | Id: PSS-2195
By Todd Baughman, Misha Manuchehri
Print-friendly PDF sheets/print publications/pss/pss-2195-whatif-engenia-fexanap-or-xtendimaxare-not-an-option-for-soybeanweed-control-pss-2195.pdf)
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Recently the 9th Circuit Court vacated the labels for Engenia®, FeXapan® and Xtendimax® in soybean. What does that mean?
What are my options if I haven't already purchased dicamba or need to make an application after July. 31st?
Recently the 9th Circuit Court vacated the labels for Engenia®, FeXapan®
## and Xtendimax® in soybean. What does that mean?
In Oklahoma, as it currently stands, existing stocks of Engenia®, FeXapan® and Xtendimax® may be applied to Roundup® Ready Xtend cotton and soybean through July 31, 2020.
## What are my options if I haven't already purchased dicamba or need to make an application after July 31st?
Currently the following products are labeled for over-topapplications in Roundup® Ready Xtend soybean:
- · Tavium®
- · Roundup® (Glyphosate)
- · Cadet®, Cobra®, ET®, Reflex® (fomesafen), Resource® and UltraBlazer®
- · Classic®, FirstRate® and Pursuit®
- · Assure II®, Fusilade® DX, Poast® and Select® (Clethodim)
Tavium® is a premix of dicamba and metolachlor. It was not included with the 9th Circuit Court ruling because it was not labeled at the time of the case filing. It is the only dicamba formulation that currently has a federal label for use in Xtend
crops. Tavium® has the added benefit of including metolachlor for additional residual weed control. Depending on the weed spectrum in your area, it may be beneficial to include glyphosate with this herbicide. Controlling small
weeds will still be important for success with this herbicide. Special precautions and label restrictions apply to Tavium® as with the other dicamba formulations. Tavium® can be applied over-the-top through the V4 growth stage or within 45 days after planting, whichever comes first. The preharvest interval on cotton is 100 days prior to harvest. No applications can be made to double crop soybeans.
Roundup® (glyphosate) is a non-selective herbicide that has activity on a wide range of weeds including both broadleaves and grasses. The current issue with Roundup® is the number of fields that have weeds resistant to this herbicide. However, there are many weeds currently in soybeans (especially grasses) still controlled by Roundup® . Therefore, this may still be an effective tank mix partner with other postemergence herbicides.
Cadet®, Cobra®, Reflex® (fomesafen), Resource® and UltraBlazer® herbicides (PPO) have activity on many problem broadleaf weeds in Oklahoma. Prior to introduction of Xtend soybean, these were the backbone products for control of glyphosate and ALS resistant weeds in Roundup® Ready soybean. Controlling small weeds (2 to 4 inches) is critical to the success of these herbicides, especially pigweed. Reflex is the only one of these products with significant residual activity. Future rotational crops should be considered when using Reflex® .
Classic®, FirstRate® and Pursuit® herbicides (ALS) have activity on several broadleaf weeds in Oklahoma. These herbicides provide postemergence as well as residual weed control on several weeds. Timing based on weed size is extremely important for postemergence weed control with ALS herbicides. Many weeds require applications to be made prior to 2 inches in height. The biggest weakness is ALSresistant weeds including Palmer pigweed and tall waterhemp.
## Assure II®, Fusilade® DX, Post® and Select®
(clethodim) will control most grass species when applied postemergence. These herbicides do not provide any activity on broadleaf weeds like pigweed. Size of grass control will vary by species and herbicide applied. However, except for rhizome Johnsongrass, control is generally better on grasses less than 6 inches in size.
Producers who have not planted soybeans yet may want to reevaluate their current preemergence program. A preemergence herbicide program that contains two or three different active ingredients may be the most effective option this year. Additionally, growers may want to consider adding a residual herbicide to their postemergence applications to improve season-long control.
Consult all herbicide labels for restrictions, weed size, crop stage, use rates, tank mix partners and herbicide adjuvants needed. It is also important to read labels for preharvest and crop rotation intervals.
## Todd Baughman
Weed Science Extension Specialist
## Misha Manuchehri
Weed Science Extension Specialist
Print-friendly PDF sheets/print- publications/pss/pss-2195-whatif-engenia-rexapan-or-xtendmax- are-not-an-option-for-soybeanweed-control-pss-2195.pdf) Topics: Crops ( /topics/plants-and-animals/crops/)
Grains & Oilseeds ( /topics/plants-and-animals/grains-and-oilseeds/)
Herbicides ( /topics/plants-and-animals/insects-pests-anddiseases/pesticides/herbicides/)
Insects, Pests, and Diseases ( /topics/plants-and-animals/insects-pests-and-diseases/pesticides/)
Soybeans ( /topics/plants-and-animals/crops/grains-and-oilseeds/soybeans/)
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https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/miamidadeco/2023/09/22/where-to-find-weather-information-for-nursery-growers-in-miami-dade-county-when-monitoring-low-temperatures-for-cold-protection/ | Where to Find Weather Information for Nursery Growers in Miami-Dade County When Monitoring Low Temperatures for Cold Protection? | University of Florida | [
"Qingchun Liu"
] | 2023-09-22 | [
"Agriculture",
"Horticulture",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"cold protection",
"cold weather",
"Ornamentals"
] | FL | ## Where to Find Weather Information for Nursery Growers in Miami-Dade County When Monitoring Low Temperatures for Cold Protection?
Qingchun Liu, Teresa Olczyk, and William R. Lusher
Ornamental productions in Miami-Dade County are concentrated in the Homestead area, the southwest corner of the County. During the wintertime, particularly from late December through January, the temperature occasionally could drop to below 40 °F, which can cause irreversible damage to the tropical and subtropical plants without further protection.
When a strong cold front is forecasted to affect Miami-Dade County, nursery growers are on alert about the potential occurrence of nearfreezing temperatures during the night. When such a low temperature is at a critical point, growers need to decide whether to turn on the overhead irrigation to protect their high-valued plants. Growers can either set up thermometers at their nurseries to monitor the temperature onsite, or they can check on current temperatures provided by public weather services.
There are two public weather information available for nursery growers in the Homestead area: the National Weather Service (NWS) and the Florida Automated Weather Network (FAWN). Though Homestead is geographically very close to Miami, the temperature data in January for the Miami area is very different from that for the Homestead area, particularly when the lowest temperature is the concern regarding cold protection (Fig. 1 ). When looking at the temperatures for the Homestead area, the weather data from two sources were relatively close; however, the readings from FAWN were relatively lower than those from NWS, particularly in the last three years ( Fig. 1 ).
Cooler air sinks during a cold event, so air temperature closer to the ground will reflect real conditions where ornamental plants are in the nurseries. This is critical for growers when they are monitoring the temperature as it drops to near freezing. Within the last two winters, the weather station from FAWN recorded lower minimum temperatures than that of NWS for the Homestead area regarding the dangerously low temperatures for the plants ( Fig. 2 ).
In summary, FAWN may be a better source for more accurate low temperatures during an extreme cold event when nursery growers in Miami-Dade County need it for decision-making on whether to turn on the overhead irrigation to protect the valuable ornamental plants through the coldest period.
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- Unearthing The Benefits Of Hydroponic Lettuce
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http://ces.ncsu.edu | Southern Regional Strawberry Plasticulture Production Guide | North Carolina Cooperative Extension | [
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| MAR | Lincoln County 4H Spring Sock Fundraiser | TODAY 27 | MAR 27 | Embryology Program Currituck County Center Thu Mar 13 - Tue Apr 8 | TODAY 27 | MAR Small Farms' Granville County 2025 Sun Mar 23 - Sat Started 4 days ag |
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Hemlock Woolly Adelgid: Biology, Identification, and How You Can Fight Back
Hemlock woolly adelgid is a non- native invasive insect killing hemloc trees in eastern North America. L earn ...
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Preparations for Cotton Planting, March 24th Update (Collins, Edmisten, Foote, & Farrer)
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/richmond-county | Richmond County Forestry Impacts | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"James Jeuck",
"Robert Bardon",
"Dennis Hazel",
"Corey Sugerik"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Environmental Resources",
"Publications"
] | NC | ## Richmond County Forestry Impacts 2012
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
Jan. 1, 2014
Authors
James Jeuck
Robert Bardon
Dennis Hazel
Corey Sugerik
[ ] View/Download PDF
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=richmond- county#zoom=page-fit
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/yadkin-county-forestry-impacts-2016 | Yadkin County Forestry Impacts 2016 | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Stephanie Chizmar",
"Rajan Parajuli",
"Robert Bardon"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Environmental Resources",
"Publications"
] | NC | ## Yadkin County Forestry Impacts 2016
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
Aug. 22, 2018
Authors
Stephanie Chizmar
Rajan Parajiul
Robert Bardon
☐ View/Download PDF
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=yadkincounty-forestry-impacts-2016#zoom=page-fit
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/live-well-alabama/about-live-well-alabama/ | Live Well Alabama | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Katie Funderburk"
] | 2023-03-29 | [
"Nutrition",
"Health",
"Education"
] | AL | ## Contact Information
Auburn University - Live Well Alabama Katie Funderburk
- · SNAP-Ed Program Coordinator
- · Alabama Cooperative Extension System--Auburn University
- · 205 Duncan Hall, Auburn University
- · (334) 734-3419
- · kmoent017@aces.edu (mailto:kmoent017@aces.edu)
## Alabama A&M University - Urban SNAP-Ed
Tamara Warren
- · Assistant Director for Urban Human Nutrition, Diet & Health Programs
- · Alabama Cooperative Extension System--Alabama A&M University
- · P.O. Box 967, Normal, AL 35672
- · (256) 372-4981
- · tcw0004@auburn.edu (mailto:tcw0004@auburn.edu)
## Alabama Department of Public Health
Molly Killman
· Director, Nutrition and Physical Activity Division
· Alabama Department of Public Health
· RSA Tower, Suite 1010
- · P.O. Box 303017, Montgomery, AL 36130
- (334) 206-5646
- · molly.killman@adph.state.al.us
(mailto:molly.killmann@adph.state.al.us)
There is great potential for positive change and many local successes (https://www.acs.edu/blog/taglive-well-success/? c=live-well-aablamaba&orderby=title ) happen every day. With strong partnerships at the local, state, and national level, widespread and lasting change is right around the corner. Helping individuals and families develop healthy eating patterns and physically active lifestyles and building partnerships to improve the health of communities are among key Live Well Alabama efforts.
## Find SNAP-Ed Services in Alabama
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https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/building-construction-plans/large-bale-transporter-for-small-tractor-3-point-hitch | Large Bale Transporter - for Small Tractor with 3-Point Hitch | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [] | null | [] | MS | " Publications » Building & Construction Plans Archive »
Large Bale Transporter - for Small Tractor with 3-Point Hitch
## Large Bale Transporter - for Small Tractor with 3-Point Hitch
BUILDING&CONSTRUCTION PLANSARCHIVE
Publication Number: 6291
View as PDF: 6291.pdf
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https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/sustainable-parasite-control-for-sheep-and-goats | Sustainable Parasite Control for Sheep and Goats | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Leyla Ríos de Álvarez"
] | null | [
"Agriculture",
"Livestock",
"Parasite Control"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Sustainable Parasite Control for Sheep and Goats
## Sustainable Parasite Control for Sheep and Goats
PUBLICATIONS
Publication Number: P3722
View as PDF: P3722.pdf
One of the main drawbacks in small ruminant production systems worldwide is gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN), or worms. The lack of options for controlling worms is mainly a result of increasing resistance these parasites have developed in the last decades. This has caused economic losses to farmers with grazing production systems.
Since 2001, GIN infection was the most prevalent disease, reported by 74 percent of the U.S. farmers surveyed in a National Animal Health Monitoring System study. According to the 2021 Census of Agriculture, U.S. producers have 5,170,000 sheep and 2,582,000 goats. In the last decades, these numbers have decreased annually. Studies are needed to determine if parasite resistance to commercial dewormers is a factor in this decrease.
## Gastrointestinal Worm Life Cycle
Most GINS that affect sheep and goats have a direct life cycle, meaning they pass from the environment directly to the final host, without using an intermediary one. Thus, the host (sheep or
goat) has adult male and female worms in its gastrointestinal tract that mate, allowing female worms to begin excreting eggs.
Figure 1 shows that these eggs are excreted from the animal's feces into the environment, where the soil humidity, temperature, and other weather conditions provide the perfect microenvironment for the eggs to hatch. During spring, summer, and autumn, environmental conditions favor egg hatching and stage 1, 2, and 3 larvae development. During winter, conditions are less adequate for all life stages.
When the eggs hatch, the L1 larvae are produced and develop into L2 larvae inside the feces, using bacteria as a food source. A second molt allows them to develop into L3 larvae (infective larvae) and migrate outside the feces, spreading into the pastures. When animals feed on forages, they ingest these L3s, and the cycle begins again.
The displacement of these L3s depends on the structure of the grassland, rain, soil moisture, and solar radiation. Therefore, L3 larvae are present in greater proportion in the lower strata of the grassland, and their survival and dissemination are favored by the presence of rains and the low intensity of sunlight.
The L3 (infective larvae) abandon the feces and climb to grass and herb. The L3 are ingested by grazing sheep or goats.
Eggs hatch, and larvae develop to L1, L2, and L3 stages inside the fecal pellets.
The GINs that most commonly affect sheep and goats are Haemonchus contortus (barberpole worm) and Teladorsagia circumcincta (brown stomach worm), both found in the final stomach compartment or abomasum, and Trichostrongylus columbriformis (bankrupt worm or black scour worm), found in the small intestine.
Common signs of gastrointestinal parasitism in both sheep and goats are weakness, loss of weight and body condition, bristly hair, "bottle jaw," anemia, and diarrhea. There are specific clinical signs for the different parasitic species. In the case of T. colubriformis , signs can be confused with bad nutrition, starting with reduced intake, low growth rate, and soft feces; as the infestation increases, diarrhea becomes dark, and severe weight loss and even death can occur. With T. circumnecta , signs are similar, including decreased intake and loss of body weight; diarrhea is not always observed. Severe anemia is the main sign of H. contortus ; after 2 weeks of infection, an average of 5,000 worms per sheep can consume approximately 250 milliliters of blood each day, resulting in a significant reduction in red blood cells.
The animals most affected by GIN will be those that have the largest worm burdens and at the same time face malnutrition in terms of quantity and quality. This could be more common in weaned animals and ewes around partition and lactation.
## Types of Dewormers
Pharmaceutical laboratories have three families of dewormers:
- · Benzimidazole: fenbendazole (Safeguard) and albendazole (Valbazen)
- · Levamisole: levamisole hydrochloride (Prohibit and Levamed), and morantel tartrate (Rumatel)
- · Macroalytic lactones: ivermectin (Ivomec) and moxidectin (Cydectin)
In the United States, only fenbendazole, albendazole, and morantel tartrate have been approved by the FDA for use in goats. The other dewormers can be prescribed only by a veterinarian for "extralabel" use. For sheep, FDA-approved dewormers are albendazole, ivermectin, moxidectin, and levamisole. The American Consortium for Small Ruminant Parasite Control (ACSRPC) recommends combination treatments for clinically parasitized animals, using the most potent drug from each group, at the full dose, orally, one after the other, without mixing them, emphasizing that such treatment scheme must be targeted to animals with clinical evidence of parasites. However, farmers need to establish a veterinary-client-patient relationship to use these "extra-label" drugs. To control liver fluke, the only approved drug for goats is albendazole. Check the ACSRPC website for updates on these recommendations.
## Sustainable Practices for Parasite Control
Approximately 60 years ago, the first commercial veterinary dewormer, called Thiabendazole, was produced. It took only 3 years for the first case of parasite resistance to be reported. Parasite resistance is a worldwide problem and, therefore, scientists around the world are looking for alternatives.
Sustainable parasite control usually refers to using alternatives that prevent resistance and minimize disease and production losses. Integrated parasite control combines traditional control with alternatives that do not depend exclusively on commercial dewormers. Visual indicators and other control measures are used to space chemical deworming and reduce resistance to commercial chemical compounds. The goal is to maintain refugia, which is a part of the parasite population on
the farm that is maintained with no exposure to commercial dewormers, so it does not become resistant. Refugia is achieved by deworming only those animals that really need treatment (Figure 2).
purulent nasal discharge can be caused by the nasal larval stages of the Oestrus ovis fly. In addition to affecting the welfare of the animals, this infection can lead to immunosuppression and bacterial infections.
- 2. Eyes (mucous membranes of the lower eyelid): Trained individuals can examine the eyes for signs of anemia. Developed in South Africa in 1990, the FAMACHA chart is used as an indirect measure of anemia, which suggests high worm burdens of the hematophagous parasite H.
- contourus . For more information, see the ACSRPC website.
- 3. Jaw (presence of "bottle jaw"): This swelling is a typical indicator of low levels of protein in the blood that could be associated with worm infections.
- 4. Back (body condition score, or BCS): Body condition scoring is determined through observation and palpation of the back and sides of the animal. This assessment typically uses a scale from 1 to 5 (Figure 4). A poor BCS can be associated with high worm burden.
- 5. Tail (presence of diarrhea, or dag ): This scale measures the level of feces or diarrhea that accumulates on the rear end of animals and could be a sign of high worm infection.
## Alternative Practices for Parasite Control
Two kinds of practices can be included in a sustainable parasite control program: those that help control the parasite burden in the animal/host and those that help reduce infective L3 larvae from the pasture.
## Control at the Animal Level
Selection/culling : Select the most productive and parasite-resistant animals to keep in the herd, and cul l those that require constant deworming or that permanently present high parasitic loads. Consider culling older animals, which develop teeth problems that affect their intake and compromise their immunity, making them more susceptible to worms. FEC is the most accurate way to select for parasite resistance, and it is suggested that only rams/bucks with proven parasite resistance (EBVs, ram/buck tests) be used for breeding.
Parasite-resistant breeds : Some sheep and goat breeds tend to be more tolerant to parasitism and, despite their parasite load, grow and reproduce properly. For example, St. Croix was found to have a higher resistance to parasitism than other hair sheep breeds.
Selective deworming or targeted selective treatment (TST): Use indicators to maintain refugia, deworming only those animals that require it. Some indicators that can be used for TST or selective deworming are FAMACHA score (4 and 5), BCS score (lower than 3), weight loss, and diarrhea. Use any of these indicators or a combination of indicators.
Strategic supplementation : The relationship between adequate nutrition and an animal's level of immunity to diseases is well known. Animals must receive a proper diet, especially during demanding stages such as the growth, reproduction, and milk production stages.
Alternative treatments : The American Consortium for Small Ruminant Parasite Control recommends giving the smallest effective dose of copper oxide wire particles (COWP), which is 0.5-1.0 grams for lambs/kids and 1-2 grams for adults. The 2 grams could be used for adult goats and less for sheep. COWP should be used as a targeted selective treatment, using FEC or FAMACHA as
indicators. To avoid copper toxicity in animals, especially sheep, animals can be treated with COWP only once in a grazing season. For more information, see the ACSRP's page Copper Oxide Wire
Particles: Keeping It Safe.
## Control at the Grazing Level
Adequate paddock rotation/rest periods: Allow enough time between groups of animals to prevent the larvae of the first group of animals from infecting the next group. An adequate resting period varies according to the weather and time of year. The life span of L3s in the grass is approximately 2840 days in tropical conditions and up to 6 or more months in temperate conditions.
Graze young/low-immunity animals in "clean" paddocks or pastures that have not been grazed previously by contaminated adult animals.
Avoid overgrazing: The life cycle of the GIN indicates that most L3s will be in the lowest part of the forages, near the soil and feces. When animals overgraze paddocks, they eat closer to the lower parts of the forages, where there is a greater possibility of L3 contamination. Adjust stocking rate to paddock size to have enough forage during the grazing period.
Use bioactive forages or plants containing secondary metabolites: The leaves of some plants contain metabolites (tannins, saponins, lectins, and others) that can have a dewormer effect on animals and decrease their parasitic loads. Farmers will need to include temperate or tropical bioactive forages in their paddocks.
Use multispecies paddocks: Animals can select an appropriate diet that allows them to better cover their nutritional requirements, and better-fed animals are more able to resist parasitism.
Use plants of different heights: This allows animals (mainly goats) to alternate grazing with browsing and avoid the most contaminated parts of the pasture.
Use mixed animal species grazing: Grazing sheep and goats with other species, such as cattle and horses, decreases the levels of infective larvae in grazing areas. After sheep or goats finish grazing, cattle or horses can act as "vacuum cleaners" of L3 larvae, lowering the chance of infection in small ruminants. Sheep and goats are top grazers that prefer the upper, immature parts of forages, while cattle and horses prefer the lower parts. In tick-infested areas, mixed grazing is not advised because ticks will also affect sheep and goats.
Alternative treatments: A new option is to use nematophagous fungi (Duddingtonia flagrans , BioWorma), a nematode-trapping or predatory fungi that traps and kills larvae in the feces, preventing reinfection of pastures and animals.
## Summary
Parasite resistance leaves very few options for farmers who rely only on traditional deworming with commercial dewormers. To minimize the progress of parasite resistance in sheep and goat herds, more holistic and sustainable approaches are needed, reducing the effect of GIN on animals and the spread of larvae in grazing areas.
## References
Abongwa, M., Martin, R., & Robertson, A. (2017). Abrief review on the mode of action of antinematodal drugs . Acta Vet (Beogr), 67(2), 137-152.
American Consortium for Small Ruminant Parasite Control (ACSRPC). (August 22, 2019). History\_of FAMACA: Interview with Dr. Faffa Malan, Landbou . YouTube.
Bath, G., & van Wyk, J. (2009). The Five Point Check for targeted selective treatment of internal parasites in small ruminants. Small Ruminant Research , 86, 6-13.
Besier, R. (2012). Refugia-based strategies for sustainable worm control: Factors affecting the acceptability to sheep and goat owners. Veterinary Parasitology , 186, 2-9.
Burke, J., & Miller, J. (2004). Relative resistance to gastrointestinal nematode parasites in Dorper, Katahdin, and St. Croix lambs under conditions encountered in the southeastern region of the United States, Small Ruminant Research , 54, 43-51.
Druedge, J., Szanto, J., Wyant, Z., & Elam, G. (1964). Field study on parasite control in sheep: Comparison of thiabendazole, ruelene, and phenothiazine (login required). American Journal of Veterinary Research , 25(108), 1512-1518.
Kahn, L., & Woodgate, R. (2012). Integrated parasite management: Products for adoption by the Australian sheep industry. Veterinary Parasitology , 186, 58-64.
Kaplan, R. (2014a). Dewormer chart for sheep. American Consortium for Small Ruminant Parasite Control (ACSRPC).
Kaplan, R. (2014b). Dewormer chart for goats. American Consortium for Small Ruminant Parasite Control (ACSRP).
Mallet, R. (n.d.). Responsible anthelmintic use and resistance. Bimectin.
RVC. (2021). McMaster egg counting technique: Principle. The RVC/FAO Guide to Veterinary Diagnostic Parasitology.
Sangster, N. C., Cowling, A., & Woodgate, R. G. (2018). Ten events that defined anthelmintic resistance research, Trends in Parasitology , 34(7), 553-563.
Silva, B., Amarante, M., Kadri, S., Carrijo-Mauad, J., & Amarante, A. (2008). Vertical migration of Haemonchus contortus third stage larvae on Brachioria decumbens grass. Veterinary Parasitology , 158, 8592.
Taylor, M., Coop, R., & Wall, R. (2007). Veterinary Parasitology (3rd ed.). Blackwell Publishing.
Thompson, J. M., & Meyer, H. (1994). Body condition scoring of sheep. EC 1433. Oregon State University Extension Service.
USDA. (2003). Sheep 2001 Part II: Reference of sheep health in the U.S., 2001. [PDF]
USDA. (2021). Sheep and goats. [PDF] National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), Agricultural Statistics Board, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).
U.S. Food and Drug Administration Center for Veterinary Medicine. (n.d.). Antiparasitic resistance in cattle and small ruminants in the United States: How to detect it and what to do about it.
Vatta, A., Waller, P., Githiori, J., & Medley, G. (2012). Persistence of the efficacy of copper oxide wire particles against Haemonchus contortus in grazing South African goats. Veterinary Parasitology , 190, 159166.
Whittier, W. D., Zajac, A., & Umberger, S. H. (2009). Control of internal parasites in sheep . Virginia Cooperative Extension, Virginia Tech, and Virginia State University. Publication 410-027.
The information given here is for educational purposes only. References to commercial products, trade names, or suppliers are made with the understanding that no endorsement is implied and that no discrimination against other products or suppliers is intended.
## Publication 3722 (POD-02-25)
By Leyla Ríos de Álvarez , PhD, Assistant Extension/Research Professor and Small Ruminant Specialist, Animal and Dairy Sciences. Reviewed by Susan Schoenian, Sheep and Goat Specialist Emeritus, University of Maryland Extension; Juan Felipe de Jesús Torres Acosta, PhD, Lecturer and Researcher, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootécnia, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, México; Dean Jousan, MSU Extension; and Rocky Lemus, MSU Extension.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
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| FORAGE NEWS Feeding Small Ruminants: Developing a Grazing System for Sheep and Goats | FORAGE NEWS Feeding Small Ruminants: Developing a Grazing System for Sheep and Goats | FORAGE NEWS Feeding Small Ruminants: Developing a Grazing System for Sheep and Goats | FORAGE NEWS Feeding Small Ruminants: Developing a Grazing System for Sheep and Goats | FORAGE NEWS Feeding Small Ruminants: Developing a Grazing System for Sheep and Goats | FORAGE NEWS Feeding Small Ruminants: Developing a Grazing System for Sheep and Goats | |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/research-reports/site-files/documents/1982/rr82_56.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20090122163629-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## NUTRITION-DAIRY
Effect of Heating of Soybean Meal on Milk Production and Degradation of Protein in the Rumen of Lactating Dairy Cows
J.W. Ward, L.J. Bush, D. Griffin and G.D. Adams
## Story in Brief
A feeding trial utilizing lactating cows was conducted to compare soybean meal (SBM) processed in a conventional manner with meal which received extra heat during processing. There was a trend for higher milk yield by cows fed the extraheat SBM compared to cows fed control SBM in a higher production group; however, no response was observed in cows in a lower production group. Weight change was positive and similar for cows fed both types of SBM.
The extent of ruminal degradation of protein in rations containing the two types of SBM was estimated using lactating cows previously fitted with cannulae in the proximal duodenum. The percentage of feed protein by passing the rumen was 28.8 percent in cows fed extra-heat SBM compared to 27.8 percent in those fed control SBM.
## Introduction
The demand for nutrients for milk synthesis are especially high in the dairy cow during early lactation. A ration relatively high in protein content is needed to meet the requirements of lactating cows, partially because of a high rate of degradation of feed protein in the rumen. A great potential for improving the utilization of dietary protein has been demonstrated in trials wherein alternate sources of protein have been compared. Methods of treating soybean meal to enable a larger fraction of the protein to pass through the rumen without breakdown to the lower digestive tract and thus increase its feed value have been of particular interest. Alteration of soybean meal to reduce rumen degradation may increase the amount of metabolizable protein available at the site of absorptin and result in a more efficient use of this feed protein to meet the protein needs for milk synthesis. The objectives of this study were to compare the feeding value of regular soybean meal with meal heated more extensively during processing and to compare ruminal bypass of feed nitrogen in rations containing regular and extra-heat soybean meal.
## Continuous Feeding Trial
Soybean meal with a protein dispersion index (PDI) value of 10 and regular soybean meal (PDI~-40) were compared in a continuous feeding trial using lactating dairy cows. Solubility of nitrogen in NaCl was 11 and 19 percent of total nitrogen in the two soybean meals, respectively. These were included in concentrate rations at two protein levels (Table I). The higher protein rations with the two types of soybean meal were fed to cows producing 70 lb or more of milk daily, and the lower protein rations to those with lower production. It was intended that protein intake would be sufficient to meet approximately 90 percent of the National Research Council standard for milk production during the early part of the trial, thus allowing ample opportunity for any difference in efficiency of utilizing protein in the two types of soybean meal to be reflected in a difference in milk yield.
| Item | Protein level | Protein level |
|----------------------------|-----------------|-----------------|
| | High | Low |
| Ingredients, % as fed | | |
| Corn, ground | 66 | 72 |
| Soybean meal | 26 | 20 |
| Molasses, liquid | 5 | 5 |
| Dicalcium phosphate | 1 | 1 |
| Limestone | 1 | 1 |
| Salt | 1 | 1 |
| Protein content, % air dry | 17.8 | 16.0 |
On a dry matter basis, all four rations initially consisted of 60 percent grain mix, 28 percent sorghum silage and 12 percent prairie hay; thus, they were equal in energy content. Adjustments in concentrate-to-forage ratio were made to minimize overfeeding protein as milk production declined over the lactation period.
Prior to initiating the study, 40 cows (28 Holsteins; 12 Aryshires) were adjusted to rations with a 60:40 concentrate-to-forage ratio. The cows were paired within two production groups. The higher production group consisted of cows producing 70 to 84 lb daily during the preliminary period, whereas cows in the lower production group ranged from 55 to 67 lb daily during this period. The cows were approximately 4 weeks postpartum when started on the trial. Cows were fed in individual stalls twice daily, and feed weighbacks were recorded daily. Sufficient feed was offered each cow to allow some feed weighback nearly every day. When the amount of weighback exceeded 10 percent of the feed offered on 2 or 3 days during a given week, the amount of ration was reduced. Milk yield was recorded twice daily, and samples were taken at four consecutive milksings each week for fat and protein analysis. Cows were weighed on 3 consecutive days at the end of the preliminary adjustment period and at the end of each 4 weeks of the 16-week trial.
Soybean meal with a PDI value of 10 and regular soybean meal (PDI-40) were compared in a ruminal bypass study to determine the amount of feed nitrogen that bypassed the rumen. Soybean meal comprised 32 percent of the total concentrate mixtures used in this trial. Rations were formulated to meet NRC feeding standards for all required nutrients and consisted of 60 percent grain mix, 28 percent sorghum silage and 12 percent prairie hay on a dry basis.
Prior to initiation of the study, five cows (four Holsteins; one Aryshire) were fitted with T-cannulae in the proximal duodenum. After calving they were adjusted to rations with a 60:4 concentrate-to-forage ratio and were continued on rations with this percentage of concentrates throughout the trial from 4 to 22 weeks of lactation.
In a replicated crossover design, diets with chromic oxide as a digesta flow marker were fed in equal portions every 8 hours. Cows were fed in individual stalls three times daily, and feed weighbacks were recorded daily. Cows were fed the diets 2 weeks prior to two 4-day sampling periods. Duodenal digesta and fecal samples were collected every 8 hours during each of the 4-day periods.
## Results and Discussion
In the feeding trial, intakes of dry matter by cows were similar for the two soybean meal treatment groups within production levels (Table 2). Soybean meal protein represented approximately 53 percent of the total protein intake by the high production group and 47 percent of the total by the lower production group. In both groups soybean meal protein constituted a high enough percent-
| | Production group | Production group | Production group |
|-----------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|
| | Low | High | High |
| Item | PDI-40 | PDI-10 | PDI-40 |
| Feed intake | 43.2 | 43.9 | 49.8 |
| Dry matter, lb/day | 6.2 | 6.4 | 8.6 |
| Total protein, lb/day | 14.3 | 14.6 | 16.8 |
| Protein, % of DM | 1.08 | 1.12 | |
| Weight change, lb/day | .95 | .97 | 1.08 |
| Milk yield | 57.2 | 55.4 | 69.4 |
| Milk, lb/da ay | 3.8 | 3.7 | 3.6 |
| Fat, % | 3.10 | 3.17 | 2.96 |
| Protein, % | 3.10 | 3.17 | 2.96 |
age of the total protein intake that the treatment of the soybean meal could influence production responses. Protein intakes were higher in relation to the NRC standard than planned, especially in the higher production group during the second 4-week period of the trial (Table 3). This was the result of milk yield declining to the lower part of the range stipulated for cows to receive the higher protein ration. Although this situation probably decreased the likelihood for a difference between types of soybean meal to be expressed in milk yield, a response to feeding extra-heat soybean meal was observed in a previous trial (Bush et al., 1980) wherein protein intake exceeded NRC requirements.
| Item | Period of experiment | Period of experiment | Period of experiment |
|------------|------------------------|------------------------|------------------------|
| Low group | | 2 | 3 |
| SBM PDI-40 | 75 | 91 | 97 |
| SBM PDI-10 | 81 | 98 | 107 |
| High group | | | |
| SBM PDI-40 | 100 | 117 | 104 |
| SBM PDI-10 | 105 | 115 | 108 |
"Each period represents 4 weeks of the trial.
In both production groups, actual milk yield averaged over the entire 16-week trial was slightly higher for the cows fed PDI-10 soybean meal than for those fed regular soybean meal. However, in the lower production group initial daily production of cows assigned at random to receive extra-heat SBM was higher than that of cows fed control SBM (Figure 1): therefore, it was obvious that there was no response to extra-heat SBM. On the other hand, initial daily yield of cows fed both types of SBM averaged nearly the same amount in the high production
## SOYBEAN MEAL EXPERIMENT 1980
group. There was a definite trend toward higher milk yield by cows fed extraheat SBM than by the control cows in this production group (Figure 2). Comparative performance of one pair of cows in the group accounted for most of the inconsistency in response and, hence, lack of statistical significance of the difference between treatment groups. Milk composition was not affected by treatment (Table 2). Weight change was positive and similar for cows fed rations containing both types of soybean meal. The magnitude of the weight gains, i.e., approximately 1 lb/day over the 16-week trial, reflected adequate energy intake by cows in all groups.
In the bypass study, total nitrogen in digesta samples collected from the proximal duodenum was corrected for microbial nitrogen and non-ammonia nitrogen so that the portion of the protein in the total diet that bypassed degradation in the rumen was measured. Protein intake, expressed as a percentage of dry matter, and milk yield were similar for both treatments (Table 4).
## SOYBEAN MEAL EXPERIMENT 1980
| Item | SBM treatment |
|----------------------------|-----------------|
| Milk, lb/day | PDI-40 |
| DM intake, lb/day | 54.9 |
| Total protein, lb/day | 41.7 |
| Protein, % of DM | 7.3 |
| % ruminal bypass of feed N | 17.5 |
The protein from SBM in the rations comprised approximately 61 percent of total protein intake. The estimated percentage of ruminal bypass of feed protein was only slightly higher in cows fed extra-heat SBM compared to the control group (28.8 vs 27.8 percent). Therefore, based on these data and those in the feeding trial, it appeared that the extra-heat SBM (PDI-IO) used in this trial was not heated extensively enough during processing to make it a high bypass feed protein source. Nevertheless, the values obtained on percentage of feed protein bypassing the rumen of cows consuming a 60 percent concentrate ration at the rate achieved in this trial are of interest. These data will be useful as reference points for future trials in which extent of degradation of different sources of feed protein will be estimated.
## Literature Cited
Bush, L.J. et al. Okla. Agr. Exp. Sta. MP-107, pp 96-101.
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
## The Effect of Pasteurization of Colostrum on Absorption of Immune Globulins by Calves
L.J. Bush, R. Contreras, T.E. Staley and G.D. Adams
## Story in Brief
Seven batches of colostrum, collected at the first two milikings after calving, were divided so that one-half was pasteurized and the other was a control. Each was fed to an equal number of newborn calves obtained before nursing their dams. Concentration of the IgG class of immune globulins, as measured by radial immunodiffusion, was higher at 12 hours in serum of calves fed pasteurized colostrum. IgG values at subsequent sampling periods were similar for both treatment groups as were concentrations of IgM at all sampling periods.
## Introduction
The importance of the transfer of passive immunity against disease from a cow to her newborn calf by way of colostrum is well established. Moreover, this is especially important in large dairy operations where newborn calves are likely to be exposed to a wide range of disease organisms due to concentration of animals and repeated use of the same facilities for raising calves. In some instances calves | |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/powderpost-beetles-and-wood-inhabiting-fungi | Powderpost Beetles and Wood-Inhabiting Fungi | NC State Extension | [
"Michael Waldvogel",
"Larry Jahn",
"Patricia Alder",
"Christopher Hayes"
] | null | [
"Fungi",
"Wood-Damaging Pest",
"Beetle",
"Household Pest",
"Powderpost Beetle"
] | NC | ## Powderpost Beetles and Wood-Inhabiting Fungi
Wood-Damaging Pests
## Powderpost Beetles
The term "powderpost beetles" refers to several groups of small woodworking beetles. In North Carolina, our primary concern is with anobid ("an-oh-be-id") powderpost beetles, which attack the softwood species (confers), such as spruce, pine and fir that are commonly used to make floor joists, wall studs and other structural lumber. Lyctid ("lick-tid" powerpost beetles attack only hardwoods, such as oak, ash, hickory, and maple. They tend to be a problem with antiquique furniture, cabinets, wooden floors and some interior moldings/trim in houses. Infested wood may look fine on the outside with no real evidence of an underlying problem.
Powderpost beetles lay their eggs in cracks, crevices or wood pores, preferably in unsan easoned and unfinished (no paint or stain coating). The hatching larvae (immatures) feed primarily in the sapwood (outer lighter-colored wood). The name "powderpost" refers to the type of damage caused by the beetles. As the larvae feed, they produce the characteristic flour-like fecal material or "frass". Anobids usually take 2+ years to complete their life cycle. Lyctid beetles may complete their life cycle in as little as three months, but typically more typically 9-12 months (or longer). We rarely find the actual beetles and only months or years later do we discover the damage. Typically, the only indication of a powderpost beetle infestation are small round holes about ~ ½ - 16 inch in diameter scattered over the wood surface (Figure 1). In some cases, only one or a few boards are infested. In other instances, several joists may show sign of powderpost beetle activity. At first sight, people often assume that these holes are made by insects boring into the wood. The holes are actually made by adult beetles exiting the wood after they complete their life cycle. As the beetle emerges from the hole, it pushes out frass (yellow arrows in Figure 1) that will be found streaming from these holes or on the ground beneath the infested boards or surrounding the holes on horizontal wood. The frass of the lyctid beetles looks and feels like talcum powder. The frass of anoboid beetles is powdery but has a gritty texture. Fras that is yellow and caked is usually considered to be "old" and likely an indication an infestation that is no longer active. You may find exit holes and frass almost any time of the year, particularly in heated buildings or in crawlspaces (Figure 2). However, the peak time to watch for emerging beetles is usually May through August .
You cannot simply look at a piece of wood and know if beetle damage is severe enough to warrant repair or replacement. Probing the wood may give you some indication of the extent of the damage. If you are concerned about the condition of structural wood, such as floor joists, you may need to contact a general contractor or structural engineer.
EXTENSION
## Powderpost Beetle Control
Many powderpost beetle problems are related to high moisture in the wood, particularly in crawspaces. Wood moisture levels need to be closer to 13% to become less favorable to the beetles. In assessing problems in your home, the inspector needs to collect moisture readings on floor joists in several areas of the crawlspace (Figure 3). Wood in corners, particularly with poor ventilation, will generally have higher moisture readings. Weather and time of year also influence the moisture levels in wood. You can reduce moisture in the crawlspace by improving the ventilation and/or installing a 6-8 mil plastic moisture barrier covering 70-80% of the soil. In some instances, the crawlspace may be "enclosed" or encapsulated which is a more elaborate process that requires installing a dehumidifier. Spraying the wood with an insecticide is the most common method of chemical control for powderpost beetles. Pesticides available for control of powderpost beetles are listed in the North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual . Many pesticides will coat the surface and kill beetles emerging and/or prevent new infestations. Water soluble pesticides containing "borates" (disodium octaborate tetrahydrate) will penetrate the wood slightly and give extended protection against beetles and other insects as well as fungi. If wood behind walls or in other inaccessible areas is infested, then it may be necessary to fumigate which is a costly and time-consuming process that requires tarping the house and introducing the fumigant (currently just one chemical - sulfuryl fluoride). Fumigations can be very effective because they reach areas that are inaccessible with conventional insecticide sprays. However, fumigation is also limited in that it does not prevent future beetle infestations.
help determine if moisture is a problem in your crawlspace. The readings should be collected from areas throughout the crawlspace to get a better picture of conditions there .
## Fungi Associated with Wood
There are several types of fungi associated with wood, but not all of them actually cause damage.
## Surface Mold and Mildew
Mold and mildew on floor joists may indicate excessive moisture in the crawlspace. However, mold and mildew do not cause wood to decay. In these instances, chemical control is not needed to protect the mildew from decay, but you should take some steps to lower the moisture in the crawlspace (the same steps outlined for powderpost beetles). Since mold may be associated with indoor air quality and respiratory health issues, potentially severe problems should be evaluated by qualified individuals. For additional information, visit the EPA's mold website.
## Sapstain Fungi
These fungi are similar to surface molds, except that the discoloration goes deeper into the wood (Figure 4). The wood may have a blue, black or gray color; however, the staining fungi do not weaken the wood structurally. Sasptain fungi are an indication that the wood was wet at some time. However, once the wood dries, the fungus becomes dormant and stops growing. No chemical control measures are needed.
## Brown Rot and White Rot
These fungi actually cause structural damage to wood. They often produce a white cottony growth on the surface of the wood. Brown rot is one of the most common types of wood-decaying fungi. As the wood decays, it darkens, shrinks, and twists, with cracks forming across the grain of the wood. Eventually, the wood becomes dry and powdery. Wood decayed by white-rot fungi has a bleached appearance and is fibrous and soft (sponge-like). Wood that is saturated with water (30% moisture readings) will rot. If the wood moisture drops below 20%, then these fungi will not grow. Brown and white rot fungi can be controlled by removing the source of moisture that allows them to proliferate (e.g., by improving ventilation or drainage, repairing leaks). Treating the wood chemically will halt decay, but it is still important to address the source(s) of moisture that caused the initial problem. If the moisture source cannot be eliminated, decayed wood should be replaced with pressure-treated wood.
Water-Conducting Fungi
Most wood-decaying fungi only grow on moist wood and do not attack nearby dry wood. However, there are some brown-rot fungi, sometimes called "water-conducting fungi" which can conduct water for several feet through root-like strands to moisten dry wood. The most common type of waterconducting fungus in North Carolina is Meruliporia incrassata (sometimes called by its former name "Poria"). These fungi are common in the southeastern United States and can cause extensive damage in 2-3 years. The damage is similar in appearance to brown rot (Figure 5). The problem is most common in new or remodeled houses. In order to control water-conducting fungi, you must find and eliminate the source of moisture that supports fungal growth. The top priority should be to reduce and maintain the wood moisture content below 20% (preferably below 15%). Untreated wood in contact with or near the soil is most vulnerable. Where the fungus grows from a porch, the soil should be removed from the porch next to the foundation wall to prevent continued growth of the fungus into the house. Untreated wood should be at least 8 inches from the soil. If this is not possible, then treatment with a borate pesticide can be used.
## Authors
Michael Waldvogel
Extension Specialist (Household & Structural Entomology) Entomology and Plant Pathology
Larry Jahn
Retired Extension Wood Products Specialist
Patricia Alder
Training Coordinator Entomology and Plant Pathology
Christopher Hayes
Postdoctoral Research Scholar Entomology & Plant Pathology
Publication date: Sept. 1, 2005
Reviewed/Revised: May 11, 2023
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C.A&T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/insect-and-related-pests-of-shrubs/pests-of-holly | Pests of Holly | NC State Extension | [
"James Baker",
"Cathy C. Carter",
"Kelly F. Horn",
"Daniel Kline",
"John Scott",
"Howard Singletary",
"David Stephan"
] | null | [
"Insect Pests",
"Horticulture",
"Plant Pathology"
] | NC | ## Pests of Holly Key to Holly Pests
Hollies, with their tremendous variation in growth habits, leaf size, shape, and color, and sometimes showy berries, are highly desirable landscape plants. Over 11 million hollies of 42 varieties are produced in Southern nurseries each year. Although numerous insects and mites have been collected from hollies, plants often withstand prolonged infestations without visible deleterious effects. Other than in a commercial nursery, the presence of a few insects or mites on a holly is no reason for great alarm. The native holly leafminer, Japanese wax scale, and southern red mites are the most frequently reported pests of holliess in the southeastern United States.
- 1. Japanese wax scale - White, wax blobs up to 6 mm in diameter appear on limbs and twigs. They are often accompanied by sooty brown.
- 2. Native holly leafminer - irregular, elongate, yellow or brown splotches on upper leaf surface (tunnels); small, chunky maggots in tunnel. (Adults rarely found.).
- 3. Southern red mite - Small chlorotic spots on leaf surface, heavily infested leaves becoming bronze in color; tiny, spiderlike animals (spider mites) on lower leaf surface usually in spring or fall.
- 4. Tea Scale - Cottyon masses are evident on the lower leaf surface. Sooty mold may be present, and plant vigor may be impaired.
## Native Holly Leafminer
Native holly leafminer, Phytomyza licolicola Loew, Agromzyzidae, DIPTERA
## DESCRIPTION
Adult - The adult is a small (2.5-mm), black and gray fly. The first two segments of the antennae are gray, and the third segment is black. The native holly leafminer female is generally more active than the male. There is only one generation per year.
Egg - The white egg is oval and 0.25 mm long.
Larva - The pale-yellow, legless larva is tapered from front to back, with its head retracted into the body. The larva is 1.5 mm long.
Pupa - The oval pupa is reddish brown, 2 mm long, and uniformly tapered to blunt points at both ends.
## BIOLOGY
Distribution - As the name implies, the native holly leafminer is indigenous to the United States. It is found along the East Coast and westward into Ohio and Alabama.
Host Plants - The native holly leafminer has infested American, Japanese, Chinese, English, and yaupon hollies. Other hosts include winterberry (or black alder) and inkberry (or bitter gallberry) and their varieties. The fly is particularly damaging to the American holliess.
Damage - It is the most injurious insect pest of holly in the eastern United States. The larval leafmining can cause partial defoliation, especially during a dry season; and the mines make the trees unattractive. Moreover, the females insert their ovipositors into the leaf tissue, causing wounds from
which sap flows. Both females and males then feed on the sap. This wounding deforms the leaves. The leafminers prefer new growth.
Life History - There are three larval stages in the life cycle of this fly, the last of which overwintors. In March and April the larvae pupate, and adult flies begin to emerge in May. They have a brief lifespan; females live 3 days, males only 2. Eggs are inserted into the undersides of newly formed leaves, causing tiny, green blisters to appear on the leaf bottoms. Most eggs are laid near the tips of the leaves, close to the midnives. Eggs hatch in about 4 days. The larva mine into the leaves, remaining there for 9 to 10 months. The mines are yellowish brown and usually contain only one larva apiece. Each serpentine minute eventually broadens into a blotch, which contains the pupa. Just before each larva pupates, it prepares a circular exit hole covered by a thin layer of leaf cells.
## CONTROL
If only a few plants are damaged, picking the mined leaves and burning them gives some control. For specific chemical controls, see the current state extension recommendations.
Native holly leafrunner. A, Adult. B, Larva. C, Puparium. D, Ovipositor punctures. E, Mine in holly leaf.
Native holly leaffrinner. A, Adult. B. Larva. C. Puparium. D. Ovipositor punctures. E. Mine in holly leaf.
## Authors
James Baker Professor Emeritus Entomology & Plant Pathology Cathy C. Carter Kelly F. Horn Daniel Kline
John Scott
Howard Singletary
David Stephan
Retired Extension Specialist (Identification & Diagnosis) Entomology & Plant Pathology
Publication date: Jan. 1, 1993
Reviewed/Revised: Aug. 9, 2024
AG-189
## Other Publications in Insect and Related Pests of Shrubs
Pests of Azalea
Pests of Boxwood
Pests of Camellia
Pests of Conifers
Pests of Crape Myrtle
Pests of Dogwood
Pests of Euonymus
Pests of Gardenia
Pests of Holly
Pests of Ligustrum
Pests of Lilac
Pests of Pyracantha
Pests of Rhododendron
Pests of Rose
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/beef-extension/research-reports/site-files/documents/1998/3-gardner.pdf | Impact of Health on Profitability of Feedlot Steers | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20100113130657-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Impact of Health on Profitability of Feedlot Steers
1998 Animal Science
Research Report
Pages 102-108
## Authors:
Story in Brief
B. A. Gardner, H. G. Dolezal, F. N. Owens, L. K. Bryant, J. L. Nelson, B. R. Schutte and R. A. Smith
The economic impact of respiratory disease during a 150-day finishing period on net return of 204 steer calves was evaluated. Net return from feeding steers was calculated using average feeder steer prices from 1985 to 1995, carcass premium and discount averages from 1995 and 1996, and a feed cost of $165/ton DM. Feed efficiency was assumed to be equal for all cattle. Health was classified at harvest by a lung lesion scoring system. Net return for steers without lung lesions was $20.03 more than for steers with lung lesions but non-active lymph nodes. Medicine costs alone accounted for 25% of this reduction in net return for steers with lung lesions without lymph node activity with the remaining 75% due to decreased carcass value (9.4% more U.S. Standard carcasses and 3.9% less carcass weight). Compared with steers without lung lesions, steers with lesions plus active lymph nodes had $73.73 less net return of which 21% was due to medicine costs and 79% due to lower carcass weight (8.4% less) and lower quality grade (24.7% more U.S. Standard carcasses). Overall, respiratory morbidity was very detrimental to net profit of feedlot steers.
(Key Words: Health, Morbidity, Net Return.)
## Introduction
For years, cattlemen have recognized the importance of calf health and its relationship to profitability. Respiratory complications account for over 90% of all clinical treatments during the first four to five weeks at the feedyard (Martin and Lumsden, 1987) and may continue throughout the finishing phase (Edwards, 1988; Martin et al., 1982). Consequently, bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is the most costly disease among feedlot cattle throughout North America.
Although the medical costs attributable to the treatment of BRD are substantial, the impact of BRD on performance may be even more costly. Production losses, including reductions in both live and carcass weights and less desirable feed efficiencies, have been associated with BRD. Results from the Texas A&M Ranch-to-Rail program (McNeill et al., 1996) revealed that "healthy" steers realized more profit than 'unhealthy' steers when health was diagnosed clinically. The current study was conducted to determine the economic impact of respiratory disease on net profit of feedlot steers.
## Materials and Methods
Respiratory tracts were evaluated at harvest using a lung lesion scoring system and an evaluation of the activity of the bronchial lymph nodes. This health index is much more discerning diagnostically than visual or fever appraisal and more highly correlated with ADG of steers. Details of the animals, production measurements, respiratory tract evaluation procedures, and carcass characteristics are discussed in a companion paper (Gardner et al., 1998).
Value Determination. Initial value of each feeder steer was calculated using initial feedlot weight and the average 10-yr price for various steer weight classes from 1985 to 1995 (Table 1). Feedlot cost included a ration cost of $165/ton DM and a daily yardage fee of $.05/head. Because effects of health status on feed intake were not measured, we assumed that, because sick cattle gained slower, they ate less feed than healthy cattle. Consequently, in the present study, we conservatively assumed that feed efficiency of each sick animal was equal to that of the mean of all cattle. A base carcass value of $105.00/cwt for low Choice, yield grade 3.0 carcasses was used with average premium and discount prices for the years of 1995 and 1996 (Table 2) to simulate a pricing grid. In the event that a carcass qualified for more than one discount, only the largest discount was applied. Net return accounted for both actual and
opportunity costs using a 9% interest rate.
Differences in carcass value from the base price ($105.00/cwt) were partitioned by calculating the percentage of total carcass weight that received a discount for unacceptable quality grade, yield grade, or carcass weight for each lung lesion classification group.
Statistical Analysis . The data set consisted of 204 cattle fed in a single pen for which complete health and carcass data were collected. Data were analyzed for differences in net return using least squares procedures (SAS, 1985). Upon obtaining a significant F value, least squares means were used to separate treatment means with probability values generated by SAS (1985). Also, data were analyzed to determine which of the discount factors accounted for differences in net return.
## Results and Discussion
Performance and carcass traits of steers as well as initial cattle investment, feedlot expenditures, and gross carcass value are shown in Tables 3 and 4. Total calf cost was higher for calves that had lung lesions plus active lymph nodes at harvest because they happened to be heavier when they entered the feedlot. Because feed efficiency was assumed to be constant, regardless of health status, those calves that had higher daily gains had a higher feed cost. However, if calves that experienced a health complication during the finishing period were not as efficient as their healthy counterparts (McNeill et al., 1996), true net return for steers with higher ADG would be greater than presented in Table 4. The impact of current and past health status on feed efficiency needs further research attention in view of the potential to reduce morbidity through mass medication programs.
Net return for steers that did not have lung lesions at harvest averaged $20.03 more than for those that had lung lesions but non-active lymph nodes. This difference in net return can be partitioned into greater medicine cost (25%) with the remainder due to decreased carcass quality and weight (Figure 1). Steers with lung lesions as well as active lymph nodes had a $73.78 less net return than cattle with health lungs. Medicine accounted for 21% of this difference with the remaining 79% being due to decreased carcass weight (8.4% lower) and quality grade (24.7% more U.S. Standard carcass).
## Implications
Respiratory morbidity is very detrimental to net profit from feeding steers. Because carryover effects of pneumonia on performance are large, consequences of respiratory disease are costly. Any strategies that can reduce lung lesions should reduce medical expenditures and improve carcass weight and quality.
## Literature Cited
Edwards, A.J. 1988. Bovine Pract. 23:47.
Gardner, B.A. et al. 1998. Okla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Rep. P-965:37.
Martin, S.W. et al. 1982. Can. J. Comp. Med. 46:341.
Martin, W.W. and L.H. Lumsden. 1987. Can J. Vet. Res. 51:499.
McNeill, J.W. et al. 1996. J. Anim. Sci. 74(Suppl 1):135.
SAS. 1985. SAS/STATa User's Guide. SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC.
## Acknowledgements
Appreciation is extended to Brookover Companies and especially the Brookover Ranch Feedyard, Garden City, KS for providing the facilities and cattle for the present study. Also, the authors extend gratitude to Dr. Gerald Mechor for technical assistance with this manuscript.
| Table 1. Feeder steer prices for years 1986 to 1995. | Table 1. Feeder steer prices for years 1986 to 1995. |
|--------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------|
| Weight class, lb | Cost, %/cwt |
| < 500<fcel> | |
| 500 to 599 | 88.19 |
| 600 to 699 | 82.42 |
| 700 to 799 | 79.11 |
| > 799 | 75.27 |
| Table 2. Carcass premiums and discounts stratified by quality grade, yield grade, and carcass weight. | Table 2. Carcass premiums and discounts stratified by quality grade, yield grade, and carcass weight. | Table 2. Carcass premiums and discounts stratified by quality grade, yield grade, and carcass weight. |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Trait | Premium, $/cwt | Discount, %/cwt |
| Quality Grade | | |
| Prime | 5.00 | -- |
| Premium Choice | 2.00 | -- |
| Low Choice | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Select | -- | 7.00 |
| Standard | -- | 15.00 |
| Yield Grade | | |
| 1 | 3.00 | -- |
| 2 | 2.00 | -- |
| 3 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| 4 | -- | 12.00 |
| Carcass Weight | | |
| < 500<fcel> | 35.00 | |
| 500 to 549 | -- | 10.00 |
| 550 to 949 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| 950 to 999 | -- | 5.00 |
| > 999 | -- | 30.00 |
| Lesions. | Respiratory tract lesion a | Active |
|---------------------|------------------------------|------------|
| Trait | None | Non-active |
| Number of steers | 117 | 78 |
| Initial weight, lb | 638 | 639 |
| Weight d 137, lb | 1161 | 1114 |
| ADGc, lb/day | 3.48 | 3.14 |
| Dressing percentage | 63.6 | 63.6 |
| Hot carcass wt, lb | 738 | 709 | 677 |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------|---------------|---------------|
| Quality Grade | Quality Grade | Quality Grade | Quality Grade |
| Marbling score b | S140 | S133 | S103 |
| Choice, % | 5.1 | 3.8 | .0 |
| Select, % | 86.3 | 78.2 | 66.7 |
| Standard, % | 8.6 | 18.0 | 33.3 |
| Yield Grade | Yield Grade | Yield Grade | Yield Grade |
| 1, % | 2.6 | 2.5 | 2.4 |
| 1, % | 15.4 | 20.5 | 22.2 |
| 2, % | 59.0 | 60.3 | 66.7 |
| 3, % | 25.6 | 17.9 | 11.1 |
| 4, % | .0 | 1.3 | .0 |
| a Respiratory tract lesion: none = no lung lesions present; non-active = presence of a healed lesion from a previous respiratory infection; active = lesion plus active lymph node, reflecting active respiratory infection. | | | |
| b Marbling score: S1 = 'slightoo', the minimum required for U.S. Select. | | | |
Table 4. Expenditures, gross carcass value, and net return of steers stratified by respiratory tract lesions.
| Table 4. Expenditures, gross carcass value, and net return of steers stratified by respiratory tract lesions. | Table 4. Expenditures, gross carcass value, and net return of steers stratified by respiratory tract lesions. | Table 4. Expenditures, gross carcass value, and net return of steers stratified by respiratory tract lesions. | Table 4. Expenditures, gross carcass value, and net return of steers stratified by respiratory tract lesions. |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| | Respiratory tract lesion a | Respiratory tract lesion a | Respiratory tract lesion a |
| Trait, $/head | None | Non-active | Active |
| Number of steers | 117 | 78 | 9 |
| Total calf costs, $/hd | 550.70 | 551.69 | 590.52 |
| Medicine, $/hd | 8.88 | 13.78 | 24.72 |
| Feed cost, DM basis, $/hd | 241.78 | 219.68 | 184.00 |
| Yardage, $/hd | 7.50 | 7.50 | 7.50 |
| Total feed costs b , $/hd | 249.28 | 227.18 | 191.50 |
| Gross carcass value, $/hd | 732.00 | 695.78 | 656.12 |
| Net return, $/hd | (76.85) | (96.88) | (150.63) |
| | | | |
| | | Respiratory tract lesion a | Respiratory tract lesion a | Respiratory tract lesion a | Respiratory tract lesion a | Respiratory tract lesion a | Respiratory tract lesion a | Respiratory tract lesion a |
|---------------|----------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|
| | None (n = 117) | None (n = 117) | Non-active (n = 78) | Non-active (n = 78) | Active (n = 9) | Active (n = 9) | Active (n = 9) | |
| | Total lbs | % Total | Total lbs | % Total | % Total lbs | Total lbs | % Total | |
| Grade/Class | carcass | weight | Value | carcass | weight | Value | carcass | Weight Value |
| Quality Grade | | | | | | | | |
| Premium Choice | -- | -- | -- | 709.0 | .01 | 0.03 | -- | -- | -- |
|--------------------------------------|------------|------|---------|---------|-------|--------|--------|------|--------|
| Low Choice | 4691.0 | .05 | 0.00 | 1497.0 | .03 | 0.00 | -- | -- | -- |
| Select | 74687.5 | .86 | (6.05) | 43683.9 | .79 | (5.53) | 4304.0 | .71 | (4.95) |
| Standard | 6969.0 | .08 | (1.21) | 9391.1 | .17 | (2.55) | 1785.0 | .29 | (4.40) |
| Yield Grade | | | | | | | | | |
| 1 | 13133.0 | .15 | 0.46 | 10984.0 | .20 | 0.60 | 1370.0 | .22 | 0.67 |
| 2 | 5090.2 | .59 | 1.18 | 3371.6 | .10 | .21 | 4089.0 | .67 | 1.34 |
| 3 | 22311.9 | .26 | 0.00 | 10140.1 | .18 | 0.00 | 630.0 | .10 | 0.00 |
| 4 | -- | -- | -- | -785.0 | .01 | (0.17) | -- | -- | -- |
| Carcass Weight | 86347.0 | .5 | 55281.0 | | | | 6089.0 | | |
| Total | 500 to 549 | -- | -- | 1081.0 | .02 | (0.11) | 526.0 | .09 | (0.86) |
| 550 to 949 | 86347.0 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 54200.2 | .98 | 0.00 | 5563.0 | .91 | 0.00 |
| Total Premium/Discount | | | (5.62) | | | | (6.52) | | |
| Grid Price (Base Price b - Discount) | | | 99.37 | | | | 98.48 | | 96.81 |
Average price discounts or premiums
b Base carcass
## Respiratory Tract Lesion |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/supplementation-of-native-perennial-warm-season-grass-hays-and-annual-corn-silages-and-preference-a | Supplementation of Native, Perennial Warm-Season Grass Hays and Annual Corn Silages and Preference Among Silages of Annual Grasses: Dry Matter Intake and Digestibility | NC State University | [
"J.C. Burns",
"D.S. Fisher",
"E.S. Leonard"
] | null | [
"Grazing",
"Hay",
"Silage",
"Nutritive Value",
"Yield",
"Forage",
"Grass"
] | NC | NC STATE
## Supplementation of Native, Perennial Warm-Season Grass Hays and Annual Corn Silages and Preference Among Silaghes of Annual Grasses: Dry Matter Intake and Digestibility
## Contents
Abstract
Introduction
Experiment 1. Gamagrass Hay Supplemented with Two Levels of Crude Protein: Dry Matter Intake and Digestibility
Experiment 2. Mature Switchgrass Hay Supplemented with Corn, Crude Protein, or Both: Dry Matter Intake and Digestibility
Experiment 3. Immature and Mature Switchgrass Hays Each Supplemented with Four Levels of Crude Protein: Dry Matter Intake and Digestibility
Experiment 4. Assessment of the Quality and Preference by Steers Among Silagses Made from the Annals Corn.,Sorghum..and Pearmillet
Experiment 4A. The Influence of Increasing Supplemental Grain (Corn) on Dry Matter Digestibility of Temperate and Tropical Corn Silagas
Experiment 4B. Steers' Preference Among the Silages of Temperate Corn,Tropical Corn,.Forage Sorghum, and Pearlmillet
References and Related Publications
Appendix I: Data Tables
Appendix II: General Standard Procedures of Experimentation
The research reported in this publication was funded by the North Carolina Agricultural Research Service (NCARS) and by the United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS) as part of a joint forage-animal research program. Mention of trade names, proprietary products, or specific equipment does not constitute a guarantee or warranty by either NCARS or USDA-ARS and does not imply its approval to the exclusion of other products that may be suitable. Photographs courtesy of the NCARS and the USDA-ARS.
protein and differ in energy concentration. We also addressed steers' potential preferences among the silages from six annual forages consisting of one temperate and two tropical crops, two forage sorghums, and one pearlmilllet.
We present original research data in a summarized format, with associated methodology for future reference. We include a brief Results and Discussion section for each experiment, followed by a Summary section highlighting the major findings. Consequently, we direct the interested reader to these sections for an assessment of the findings that are not reiterated elsewhere.
## Introduction
The native, perennial warm-season grasses, although productive, frequently lack sufficient crude protein and energy concentrations for acceptable animal performance. This becomes increasingly important with advancing plant maturity, and especially when the grass exhibits greater stem-to-leaf proportions. Even annual tropical corn cultivars lack adequate energy concentration despite a greater proportion of the whole plant dry matter consisting of leaf and stem tissue as opposed to the grain component normally present in temperate corn cultivars.
In this bulletin, we present animal response data from four separate experiments in which we examined the use of a crude protein and corn (grain) supplement under a specific set of forage conditions within each experiment. We evaluated gamagrass (Tripasc dactyloides L. L.). a perennial, leafy, native, warm-season grass, in Experiment 1 at three concentrations of crude protein (CP). Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.), a perennial, native, warm-season grass, but with an appreciable stem component, was evaluated as a common hay source with supplementation in Experiment 2 and as an immature and mature forage in Experiment 3. In Experiment 4, we conducted two studies: In one study (Experiment A4), we compared temperate and tropical corn (Zea mays L.) silages for animal digestibility responses over a range of corn (grain) supplementation. In the second study (Experiment B), we compared the steers' preferences among six silages from an annual temperate corn, two tropical corn, two forage-type sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench), and a pearlmillet (Pennisetum americanum L.) Leeke, previously Pennisetum glaucum [L.] R. Br.). We use the term nutritive value to refer to plant composition, whereas the term quality refers to animal responses based on the nutritive value of the forage.
## Experiment 1. Gamagrass Hay Supplemented with Two Levels of Crude Protein: Dry Matter Intake and Digestibility
Gamagrass is a native, perennial warm-season grass that has potential as either a pasture forage or as a stored (hay or silage) crop in the Mid-Atlantic region. Gamagrass has a greater proportion of leaf than stem, and the leaves are rather broad compared with most perennial grasses. When used as a stored crop, gamagrass dry matter yield potential increases if cutting is delayed until the onset of heading. At this stage of maturity, however, crude protein (CP) concentrations are generally decreased and may not be adequate for acceptable animal performance. In this experiment we examined the quality of gamagrass hay harvested in the heading stage and fed with and without CP supplements.
## Materials and Methods
A well-established field of 'luka' magrass served as the experimental site. The field was flail harvested to a 3-inch stubble on March 13 to remove all residual forage and then top-dressed on March 14 with ammonium nitrate at 80 lb/acre of actual nitrogen. The gamagrass was then cut on June 9 at heading (20% heads had seeds forming) with a conventional hay conditioner set to leave a 4-inch stubble. The forage was field cured and subsequently baled with a conventional square baler. The bales were transported to an experimental hay barn and stored on wooden pallets until processed for feeding (see Appendix GP-1 for details).
We evaluated CP supplementation (S) using three treatments:
- 1. Control (S-O)-No CP supplement; hay fed with natural CP concentrations (CP = 8.32%)
- 2. Supplement 1 (S-1)-CP supplement fed at 1.61 lb/head/day (CP = 15.1%)
- 3. Supplement 2 (S-2)-CP supplement fed at 1.61 lb/head/day (CP = 29.3%)
Although the two isocaloric CP supplements were fed at similar amounts per day, the S-2 supplement had 4.36 times more soybean oil meal and double the urea content compared with the S-1 supplement (Appendix Table 11).
At each morning feeding, the appropriate steer was provided 1.61 lb of supplement weighed into plastic containers and placed in its hay manger for consumption. After the supplement was consumed, hay was then fed ad libitum to all the experimental steers (see Appendix GP-2 for details). We determined the nutritive value of the hay and weighback according to general laboratory procedures (Appendix GP-6).
The experiment was a randomized complete block design with five steers (replicates) per treatment. Fifteen steers were blocked by weight into five groups of three steers each. The three steers within a group were then randomly assigned to one of the three crude protein treatments. We analyzed the data according to the design and examined the treatments' main effects by an orthogonal set of contrasts (Appendix GP-7).
## Results and Discussion
Steers were fed at a similar daily aid libitum level averaging 12.9% in excess of consumption (Table 1.1). The nutritive values of the corn and soybean oil meal fed as supplements reflect their natural energy and CP characteristics (Table 1.2). Consumption per day of hay was greater for S-0. When the weight of hay and supplement were added, however, the daily dry matter consumption and DMI on a body weight basis were similar among treatments (Table 1.1). Supplementation, compared with no supplementation, increased both dry matter digestion (DMD) and digestible dry matter intake (DDMI), but there were no differences between supplements in either variable (Table 1.1).
The nutritive value of the as-fed has, although from a common source, indicates that some differences occurred among the three supplement treatments in in vitro true dry matter disappearance (IVTD), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF), and cellulose (CELL) (Table 1.2). These differences, however, were very small and were not considered biologically important. It is note-worthy that some selective consumption apparently occurred as the weigh-back samples were consistently lesser in IVTD and CP and greater in NDF and constituent fiber fractions (Table 1.2). This shift would be consistent with selective consumption of the leafy portion of the hay.
Fecal composition also reflected supplementation of the hay diet: increasing the CP supplementation from S-0 to S-2 increased the CP concentration in the feces (Table 1.3). This result indicates an increasing reduction in nitrogen use efficiency at greater CP levels.
(S-1 and S-2).
## Summary and Conclusion
- · The dry matter intake of the headed gamagrass was not altered significantly.
- · The addition of the S-1 supplement significantly increased dry matter digestion compared with S-0, but no benefit was noted over S-1 when fed S-2.
The positive influence of CP supplementation (S-1 and S-2) on dry matter digestion resulted in greater digestible dry matter intake from supplementation, but not between supplementation levels (S-1 and S-2).
| | Daily Intake | Daily Intake | Daily Intake | Daily Intake | Daily Intake | Daily Intake | Daily Intake | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|--------------------|--------------|------|------|------|----|------|------|------|-----------|--------|------|------|------|----|------|------|------|------|----|----|
| | Steer Weight (lb) | Ad Lib_2 (%) | Hay (lb) | S | + S (lb) | (lb/ 100 lb) | DMD (%) | DDMI (lb/100 lb) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Treatment$^{1}$ | S-0 | 596$^{3}$ | 12.8 | 12.3 | 0.00 | 12.2 | 2.04 | 53.7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Treatment$^{1}$ | S-1 | 599 | 13.0 | 10.8 | 1.61 | 12.4 | 2.06 | 55.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| S-2 | 614 | 12.8 | 11.5 | 1.61 | 13.1 | 2.13 | 56.4 | 1.35 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Treatment | 0.51 | 0.79 | 0.02 | -- | 0.97 | 0.56 | 0.12 | <0.01<nl> | S-0 vs. (S-1 | 0.47 | 0.63 | 0.01 | -- | 0.11 | 0.47 | 0.05 | <0.01<nl> | + S-2) | 0.38 | 0.65 | 0.11 | -- | 0.11 | 0.44 | 0.62 | 0.37 | | |
| S-1 vs. S-2 | 0.38 | 0.65 | 0.11 | -- | 0.11 | 0.44 | 0.62 | 0.37 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | IVTD | CP | NDF | ADF | CELL | Lign |
|--------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|
| Treatment$_{2,3}$ | AF % | WB % | A F % | W B % | W B % | A F % |
| S-0 | 64.4 | 61.7 | 7.58 | 4.70 | 77.8 | 81.4 |
| S-1 | 65.0 | 63.0 | 7.55 | 4.40 | 78.8 | 82.4 |
| S-2 | 64.4 | 62.2 | 7.71 | 4.96 | 78.0 | 80.8 |
| Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): |
| Treatment | 0.04 | 0.10 | 0.69 | 0.43 | 0.03 | 0.10 |
| S-0 vs. (S- 1+S-2) | 0.12 | 0.07 | 0.75 | 0.96 | 0.07 | 0.63 |
| S-1 vs. S-2 | 0.03 | 0.17 | 0.44 | 0.21 | 0.03 | 0.04 |
| | | Fiber Fractions | Fiber Fractions | Fiber Fractions | |
|---------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|
| Treatment$^{2}$ | CP % | NDF % | ADF % | CELL % | Lignin % |
| S-0 | 9.47$^{3}$ | 67.3 | 35.8 | 26.0 | 8.68 |
| S-1 | 10.04 | 67.0 | 36.2 | 26.4 | 8.58 |
| S-2 | 10.75 | 67.5 | 36.0 | 26.2 | 8.72 |
| Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): |
| Treatment | <0.01<fcel> | 0.59 | 0.48 | 0.74 | |
| S-0 vs. (S-1 + S-2) | <0.01<fcel> | 0.36 | 0.29 | 0.85 | |
| S-1 vs. S-2 | 0.03 | 0.22 | 0.67 | 0.59 | 0.46 |
## Experiment 2. Mature Switchgrass Hay Supplemented with Corn, Crude Protein, or Both: Dry Matter Intake and Digestibility
Switchgrass is a native, perennial warm-season grass that has potential as either pasture or a hay crop in the Mid-Atlantic region. Unlike gamagrass, switchgrass has a rather coarse stem component with modest leaf size. Like gamagrass, when used as a hay crop, switchgrass dry matter yield potential increases if cutting is delayed until the onset of heading. At this stage of maturity, however, crude protein concentrations have decreased and will probably not be adequate for acceptable animal performance. In this experiment we examined the quality of switchgrass hay harvested at the heading stage of maturity and fed with supplemental concentrates of either corn or soybean oil meal (SBOM), or both, to increase CP concentrations of the diet while keeping the energy concentrations similar.
## Materials and Methods
A well-established field of 'Alamo' switchgrass served as the experimental site. The field was burned in late February and flai harvested to a 3-inch stubble to remove all residual forage and was then top-dressed in March with ammonium nitrate at 80 lb/acre of actual nitrogen. On August 29, at full heading, one batch of switchgrass was cut with a field chopper, blown into a self-unloading wagon, and transported to a bulk-hay drier and dried overnight. The next day the dried hay was baled directly out of the bulk drier with a conventional square baler. This was repeated August 30 to acquire sufficient hay for the experiment. The bales from the two cuttings were stored on wooden pallets in an experimental hay barn until processed for feeding (Appendix GP-1).
The three treatments we evaluated consisted of the natural concentrations of crude protein (CP) in the mature hay ( CP = 4.01%) plus either a corn (CP = 8.7%) or SBMO (CP = 45.5%) supplement and a combination of both:
- 1. H+C = Hay + Corn (0.21 Ib CP)
- 2. H+CS = Hay + Corn (0.10 Ib CP) + SBOM (0.59 Ib CP) for a total of 0.69 Ib CP
- 3. H+S = Hay + SBOM (1.16 Ib CP)
The three supplements were isocloric but varied in CP concentration and were fed at similar amounts per day. Each morning, each steer was provided the appropriate supplement weighed into a plastic container (2.36 lb of corn for H+C; 1.17 lb of corn and 1.30 lb of SBOM totaling 2.47 lb for H+CS; and 2.56 lb of SBOM for H+S) and placed in its hay manger for consumption. After the supplement was consumed, the bulk hay, common to all treatments, was then fed ad libitum to all the experimental steers. We conducted the intake and digestion phases according to normal procedures (Appendix GP-2). We determined the nutritive value of the hay and weighback and chemical composition of the urine and feces according to general laboratory procedures (Appendix GP-6). Fecal samples were further processed by separating into three particle-size classes according to GP-5.
The experiment was a randomized complete block design with four steers (replicates) per treatment. Twelve steers were blocked by weight into four groups of three steers each. The three steers within a group were then randomly assigned to one of the three crude protein treatments. We analyzed the data according to the design and examined the treatment main effect for the relationship between CP fed and animal response using trend analyses. These analyses consisted of estimating the linear response and the resulting lack of fit (i.e., the quadratic component) (Appendix GP-7).
## Results and Discussion
Increasing the CP supplementation of the mature switchgrass hay did not alter DML of steers, which averaged 8.09 lb/day or 1.79 lb/100 lb of body weight (Table 2.1). Furthermore, MDD was similar among CP supplementations of switchgrass, averaging 57.0%. Similar results were observed for DDMI, which averaged 1.02 lb/100 lb of body weight.
The nutritive values of the concentrates are presented in the upper portion of Table 2.2 with both corn and soybean oil meal averaging similar in in vitro dry matter disappearance (IWMD) but differing widely, as expected, in CP concentration. The nutritive value of pooled samples of the hay fed in the intake phase reflects the maturity of the switchgrass hay having an IVMD of only 30.9% with a CP concentration of only 4.75% and NFDF of about 80%. The analysis of the weighback samples, consisting of only the hay, shows differences mainly in the linear decrease of CP concentration as supplementation of CP increased (lower portion of Table 2.2).
CP supplementation resulted in a significant increase of CP concentration in both urine and feces (Table 2.3). The CP concentration in urine increased quadratically, whereas the response was linear for feces. The NDF showed a quadratic response in feces with CP supplementation and is probably associated with the greater concentration of NDF in the corn constituent of the supplement, which
was not present in the H+S treatment (Table 2.3). Both hemicellulose and cellulose concentrations showed linear responses with hemicellulose increasing and cellulose decreasing with increasing CP supplementation. These shifts, however, are probably of minor biological importance.
Separation of fecal dry matter into particle-size classes of large, medium, and small revealed no difference among CP supplementation for either medium or small particles. The former composed an average of 18.9% and the latter 79.9% of the total dry matter (Table 2.3). While the proportion of large particles was reduced linearly with increased CP supplementation, their proportion of the total dry matter constituted
## Summary and Conclusion
- · Switchgrass, when fully headed, is of poor nutritive value averaging
- · Steers fed an increasing crude protein supplement (0.21 to 1.16 lb/day) composed of corn grain and soybean oil meal showed no significant increase in dry matter intake, dry matter digestibility, or digestible dry matter intake of mature switchgrass.
- · The major response from crude protein supplementation was evident in the feces and urine with a linear increase from 6.45% to 8.78% in the feces and a quadratic increase in the urine from 1.03% to 5.96% to 5.22% for the respective supplementations of 0.21, 0.69, and 1.16 lb/day.
| Treatment | Hay$^{2}$ | Hay$^{2}$ | Hay$^{2}$ | Hay$^{2}$ | SUP | SUP | DMI | DMI | DMI | DMI | |
|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|
| | Steer CP | WT$^{1}$ | Fed | WB | INT | Ad | Daily | Animal (lb/ | DMD | Daily | |
| Item$_{2}$ | (lb) | (lb) | (lb) | (lb) | (lb) | (%) | (lb) | (lb) | 100 lb) | (%) | (lb) |
| H+C | 0.21 | 452$^{a}$ | 6.85 | 1.29 | 5.56 | 18.5 | 2.36 | 7.98 | 1.75 | 54.9 | 4.35 |
| H+CS | 0.69 | 451 | 6.93 | 1.33 | 5.60 | 19.4 | 2.47 | 8.04 | 1.78 | 58.9 | 4.69 |
| H+S | 1.16 | 448 | 7.21 | 1.51 | 5.70 | 21.2 | 2.56 | 8.26 | 1.83 | 57.2 | 4.70 |
| Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): |
| Treatments | 0.95 | 0.94 | 0.51 | 0.99 | 0.13 | -- | 0.95 | 0.86 | 0.47 | 0.77 | |
| Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: |
| Linear | 0.77 | 0.75 | 0.29 | 0.88 | 0.06 | -- | 0.77 | 0.60 | 0.49 | 0.54 | |
| Lack of fit | 0.91 | 0.92 | 0.70 | 0.97 | 0.71 | -- | 0.92 | 0.92 | 0.32 | 0.73 | |
| Treatment$^{2}$ | Treatment$^{2}$ | Fiber Fractions (%) | Fiber Fractions (%) | Fiber Fractions (%) | Fiber Fractions (%) | Fiber Fractions (%) | Fiber Fractions (%) | |
|--------------------|--------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------|-----------------------|-------|
| Item | CP (lb) | IVMD (%) | NDF (%) | HEMI (%) | ADF (%) | CELL (%) | Lignin (%) | |
| Concentrate:$^{3}$ | Concentrate:$^{3}$ | Concentrate:$^{3}$ | Concentrate:$^{3}$ | Concentrate:$^{3}$ | Concentrate:$^{3}$ | Concentrate:$^{3}$ | Concentrate:$^{3}$ | |
| Corn (H+C & H+CS) | 88.4 | 8.70 | 15.2 | 2.82 | 12.40 | 2.37 | 0.45 | |
| SBOM (H+CS & H+S) | 88.5 | 45.52 | 10.1 | 6.43 | 3.72 | 5.26 | 1.16 | |
| Hay:$^{4}$ | Hay:$^{4}$ | Hay:$^{4}$ | Hay:$^{4}$ | Hay:$^{4}$ | Hay:$^{4}$ | Hay:$^{4}$ | Hay:$^{4}$ | |
| As-Fed | 30.9 | 4.75 | 79.7 | 47.3 | 32.3 | 37.7 | 9.05 | |
| Weightback:$^{5}$ | Weightback:$^{5}$ | Weightback:$^{5}$ | Weightback:$^{5}$ | Weightback:$^{5}$ | Weightback:$^{5}$ | Weightback:$^{5}$ | Weightback:$^{5}$ | |
| H+C | 0.21 | 29.5 | 3.51 | 80.1 | 49.0 | 31.1 | 38.5 | 9.59 |
| H+CS | 0.69 | 23.3 | 3.52 | 81.3 | 50.6 | 30.7 | 40.0 | 9.72 |
| H+S | 1.16 | 24.8 | 2.44 | 82.5 | 51.3 | 31.2 | 40.4 | 10.19 |
| Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | |
| Treatment | 0.19 | 0.02 | 0.42 | 0.41 | 0.07 | 0.43 | 0.20 | |
| Linear | 0.18 | 0.01 | 0.21 | 0.21 | 0.62 | 0.23 | 0.10 | |
| Lack of fit | 0.21 | 0.08 | 0.98 | 0.79 | 0.03 | 0.68 | 0.55 | |
$^{1}$IVMD = in vitro dry matter disappearance; CP = crude protein; NDF = neutral detergent fiber; ADF = acid detergent fiber; HEMI = hemicellulose; CELL = cellulose.
| Treatment$^{1}$ | Crude Protein | Fiber Fractions$^{2}$ | Fiber Fractions$^{2}$ | Fiber Fractions$^{2}$ | Fiber Fractions$^{2}$ | Fiber Fractions$^{2}$ | Fiber Fractions$^{2}$ | Fiber Fractions$^{2}$ | Fiber Fractions$^{2}$ |
|-------------------|------------------|-------------------------|-------------------------|-------------------------|-------------------------|-------------------------|-------------------------|-------------------------|-------------------------|
| | | | NDF | ADF | HEMI | CELL | Lignin | Large | Medium (%) |
| Item | CP (lb) | Feces (%) | Urine (%) | NDF (%) | (%) | (%) | (%) | (%) | (%) |
| H+C | 0.21 | 6.45 a | 1.03 | 73.9 | 44.2 | 29.7 | 30.4 | 12.4 | 1.8 |
| H+CS | 0.69 | 7.79 | 5.96 | 77.4 | 43.7 | 28.6 | 30.2 | 11.9 | 1.8 |
| H+S | 1.16 | 8.78 | 5.22 | 73.6 | 45.4 | 28.2 | 31.5 | 12.3 | 0.6 |
| Significance (P) | Significance (P) | Significance (P) | Significance (P) | Significance (P) | Significance (P) | Significance (P) | Significance (P) | Significance (P) | Significance (P) |
| Treatments | 0.04 | <0.01<fcel> | 0.10 | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.70 | 0.02 | 0.24 | |
| Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: | Crude Protein: |
| Linear | 0.02 | <0.01<fcel> | 0.12 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.92 | 0.01 | 0.72 | |
| Lack of fit | 0.77 | <0.01<fcel> | 0.11 | 0.57 | 0.07 | 12.3 | 0.84 | 0.11 | |
$^{1 }$H+C = hay plus corn; H+CS = hay plus corn and soybean oil meal (SBOM or S); H+S = hay plus SF
- $^{2 }$NDF = neutral detergent fiber; ADF = acid detergent fiber; HEMI = hemicellulose; CELL = cellulose.
- $^{3 }$Large = ≥ 1.7 mm; Medium =
- $^{4 }$Each value is the mean of four steers (n = 4). ↓
## Experiment 3. Mature and Mature Switchgrass Hays Supplemented with Four Levels of Crude Protein
As noted in Experiment 2, switchgrass has potential as either pasture or as a hay crop in the MidAtlantic region. When used as a hay crop, switchgrass dry matter yield potential increases if cutting is delayed until the onset of heading. Furthermore, a large proportion of the switchgrass canopy is stem, and this component increases with advancing maturity compared with leaf. As switchgrass matures, however, CP concentrations decrease and will probably not be adequate for acceptable animal performance. In this experiment, we examined the quality of switchgrass hay harvested at the vegetative (immature) stage compared to harvesting at the heading (mature) stage. Each hay was fed with soybean oil meal, corn, or both to provide increasing concentrations of CP while keeping the energy concentrations similar.
## Materials and Methods
A well-established field of 'Alamo' switchgrass served as the experimental site. The field was burned in late February and flai harvested to a 3-inch stubble to remove all residual forage. It was then toppeded in March with ammonium nitrate at 80 lb/acre of actual nitrogen. Batches of switchgrass were cut when vegetative (May 14, 16, and 22) with a field chopper, blown into a self-unloading wagon, and transported to a bulk-hay drier and dried overnight. When dry, each batch of hay was baled directly out of the bulk drier with a conventional square baler. The bales from each cutting were then transported to an experimental hay barn and stored on wooden pallets as the immature hay treatment. On July 15 and 17, a second harvest of initial growth switchgrass hay was cut in the boot stage from the same field with batches cut and handled in the same manner as above for the immature hay treatment. Bales from these batches were transported as above, combined, and then stored on wooden pallets as the mature hay treatment. The two hays remained undisturbed until processed for feeding (Appendix GP-1).
We evaluated eight treatments that consisted of the natural concentrations of crude protein (CP) in each of the immature and mature stages of switchgrass hays. We then evaluated each hay at three crude protein levels (CPL) using corn or corn and soybean oil meal supplementation.
The eight treatments evaluated were as follows:
## Immature hay:
- 1. Hay + CPLP1 = Hay (0.97 lb CP) = 0.97 lb CP
- 2. Hay + CPL2 = Hay (0.97 lb CP) + Corn (0.22 lb CP) = 1.19 lb CP
- 3. Hay + CPL3 = Hay (0.97 lb CP) + Corn (0.17 lb CP) + SBOM (0.27 lb CP) = 1.41 lb CP
- 4. Hay + CPLA = Hay (0.97 lb CP) + Corn (0.12 lb CP) + SBOM (0.54 lb CP) = 1.63 lb CP
## Mature hay:
- 5. Hay + CPLS = Hay (0.40 lb CP) = 0.40 lb CP
- 6. Hay + CPL6 = Hay (0.40 lb CP) + Corn (0.14 lb CP) + SBOM (0.43 lb CP) = 0.97 lb CP
- 7. Hay + CPL7 = Hay (0.40 lb CP) + Corn (0.09 lb CP) + SBOM (0.70 lb CP) = 1.19 lb CP
- 8. Hay + CPL8 = Hay (0.40 lb CP) + Corn (0.04 lb CP) + SBOM (0.97 lb CP) = 1.41 lb CP
The inherent CP concentration of each hay (immature stage = 7.31% CP and mature stage = 4.43% CP) served as the first level of CP (CPL1 and CPL5, respectively) and CP supplements, balanced for energy concentration (1.98 lb of total digestible energy) by adjusting the proportions of corn (10.5% CP) and soybean oil meal (SBOM, 50.7% CP), provided the other three levels within each of the two hays. The experiment was set up as a randomized complete block design with three Angus steers (replicates) per treatment. Twenty-four steer s were blocked by weight into three groups of eight steer each. The eight steer within each group were then randomly assigned to one of the eight crude protein treatments. We determined the nutritive value of the hay and weighback according to general laboratory procedures ( Appendix GF-b ).
Each morning, steers were provided 2.21 to 2.28 lb of the appropriate supplement for the immature hay treatments and 2.26 to 2.33 lb of the appropriate supplement for the mature hay treatments for consumption. After the supplements (SUP) were consumed, the appropriate hay was then fed ad libitum to all the experimental steers according to general procedures ( Appendix GP-2 ).
We analyzed the resulting animal response data and nutritive value estimates statistically according to the design with the treatment sums of squares (seven degrees of freedom) partitioned into five contrasts noted below ( Appendix GP-7 ):
Linear
Lack of fit
- 5. Maturity × SUP interaction (omitting 0 SUP) across maturity (1 and 6, 2 and 7, 3 and 8)
Linear
Lack of fit
In a second phase, we compared the mastication characteristics of the two bulk hays fed in the intake and digestion phases. In this phase, four steers fitted with esophageal caulanulas were used in a randomized complete block design for masticate collection (Appendix GP-3). Three particle-size classes were determined according to GP-5, and the nutritive value of the whole masticate and the particle-size classes were conducted according to GP-6. We analyzed the data recording to the design, providing-in this case-comparisons of masticate characteristics for only the main effect of hay (Appendix GP-7).
## Results and Discussion Animal Response.
The importance of forage maturity and sufficient nutritive value of the diet, whether from the forage or a supplement, is evident from examining steer weights even from this short-term experiment. No differences in body weight were noted among the treatments, with the exception of Treatment 4 (Table 3.1). The mean body weight of steers on Treatment 4 was similar on average to the other steers at initiation of the experiment (559 lb) but averaged greater (619 lb) at the end of the experiment than the others. This result is consistent with greater DMI (daily or on a body weight basis), DMD, and DDMI (both daily and on a body weight basis) by steers fed this treatment. Increasing the CP supplementation of the immature hay resulted in linearly increasing intakes of both dry matter and digestible dry matter on both a daily and body weight basis. Dry matter digestibility, however, was not altered by supplementation.
The effect of increasing maturity of switchgrass hay on its quality is apparent for all measurements with immature hay being greater in quality than mature hay (Table 3.1). Increasing the crude protein supplement of the mature hay, however, increased its dry matter intake, digestibility, and digestible intake (both on a daily and body weight basis). These responses, although desirable, were still lacking relative to the responses noted for the immature hay.
It is surprising, and worth noting, that the CP supplementation × Hay Maturity interactions were not significant for any of the variables measured in this study (bottom, Table 3.1). While supplementation was expected to improve the nutritive value of the hays, and subsequently their quality, the similarity in relative magnitude of improvement was not expected.
## Hay and Supplement Characteristics.
Examination of the two bulk-hay treatments clearly revealed their differences in nutritive value. The immature hay is far greater in IVTD and nitrogen (N) and lesser in NDF and its fiber constituents (Table 3.2). This difference is apparent for the hays fed in both the intake and digestion phases.
The composition of corn and SBM composing the supplements used in both phases also differed in nutritive value (Table 3.2). The noted exceptions were NDF and ash, which were similar. The corn and SBOM components were adjusted as appropriate in the supplement to provide increasing CP concentration while maintaining the supplements isocaloric.
Masticate Characteristics.
Steers masticated the two hays differently, indicated by the greater median particle size (MPS) of the whole masticate compared to the immature hay (Table 3.3). This difference indicates that steers chewed the mature hay more than the immature hay, which is consistent with its greater NDF and lesser IVTD and CP concentrations. Examination of the particle-size classes also supports greater mastication of the mature hay with a lesser proportion of masticate dry matter present as large particles and greater proportions for both medium and small particles. The particles-size classes also reflect the difference in nutritive value, with the immature hay particles being of greater nutritive value compared with mature hay particles.
## Composition of Urine and Feces.
The greater amount of CP fed with the immature hay increased the N concentration in both the urine and feces but did not alter the other constituents in the feces ( Table 3.4 ). Increasing the CP supplement fed with the mature hay only resulted in an increase in the N concentration of the feces but decreased fecal NDF and its constituent fiber fractions (except hemicellulose) and ash. Chemical composition of the fecal samples also reflect the maturity differences noted for the fed hays, with feces from the mature hay being lesser in N and greater in NDF and its constituent fiber fraction compared with the immature hay (Table 3.4 ). Overall, CP supplementation of the hays linearly increased the N concentration in both the urine and feces. Some increase in fecal NDF and little change in ash after the supplement was fed resulted in a lack of fit or quadratic response (Table 3.4 ). The CP × Hay Maturity interaction was significant for the linear component of N, hemicellulose (HEMI), and lignin and for the quadratic component of ADF and ash. This result is attributed to lack of parallel trends and is considered of little importance.
## Summary and Conclusion
- · Switchgrass hay can be useful in a ruminant production system.
- · Maturity at harvest has a major impact on the quality of the preserved forage.
- · Steers consumed 1.89% of body weight of immature switchgrass that was 65.1% digestible compared with 1.08% of mature hay that was 51.6% digestible.
- · Increasing crude protein through supplementation of immature hay increased dry matter intake to 2.41% of body weight and digestibility to 70.0%.
- · Increasing crude protein through supplementation of mature hay increased dry matter intake to 1.86% of body weight and digestibility to 57.8%.
- · Mastication of the immature and mature switchgrass hays revealed the differences noted above in terms of reduced particle size therefore implicating increased chewing of the mature hay.
Although crude protein supplementation was found to improve the nutritive value of a forage, the stage of maturity at harvest is the key element in the preservation of a forage relative to its potential subsequent quality.
| | Treatment | Treatment | Treatment | Hay$^{1}$ | Hay$^{1}$ | Hay$^{1}$ | Hay$^{1}$ | DMI | DMI | DMI | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
|--------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|---------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|--------------------|------|------|-------------|----|-------------|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
| | (H) | (H) | (H) | Steer | Steer | Steer | Ad | Ad | SUP | SUP | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | (lb CP) | (lb CP) | (lb CP) | Weight | Weight | Fed | Fed | Lib. Fed | Lib. Fed | Daily | Daily | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| No | CP) | (lb CP) | (lb CP) | (lb) | (lb) | (lb) | (%) | (lb) | (lb) | (lb) | DM | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Immature (IM): | Immature (IM): | Immature (IM): | Immature (IM): | Immature (IM): | Immature (IM): | Immature (IM): | Immature (IM): | Immature (IM): | Immature (IM): | Immature (IM): | Immature (IM): | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | 1 | 0.97 | -- | 558$^{2}$ | 11.7 | 1.4 | 12.0 | 0 | 10.4 | 1.89 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | 2 | -- | 1.19 | 529 | 9.0 | 1.1 | 12.4 | 2.2 | 10.1 | 1.90 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | 3 | -- | 1.41 | 588 | 11.8 | 1.5 | 12.5 | 2.1 | 12.5 | 2.14 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | 4 | -- | 1.63 | 619 | 14.6 | 1.8 | 12.3 | 2.3 | 15.0 | 2.41 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | 5 | 0.40 | -- | 563 | 7.0 | 0.9 | 13.6 | 0 | 6.0 | 1.08 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | 6 | -- | 0.97 | 564 | 7.5 | 1.0 | 13.6 | 2.3 | 8.8 | 1.56 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | 7 | -- | 1.19 | 556 | 8.9 | 1.1 | 12.7 | 2.3 | 10.1 | 1.83 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | 8 | -- | 1.41 | 571 | 9.5 | 1.3 | 13.2 | 2.3 | 10.6 | 1.86 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | Treatment | 0.29 | <0.01<fcel> | -- | <0.01<fcel> | IM vs. MA | 0.54 | <0.01<fcel> | -- | <0.01<fcel> | IM (4 vs. 1, 2, 3) | 0.03 | 0.01 | <0.01<fcel> | -- | <0.01<fcel> | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| MA (5 vs. 6, 7, 8) | 0.98 | 0.15 | 0.11 | 0.60 | -- | <0.01<fcel> | Crude Protein (CP): | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | 0.41 | 0.31 | 0.15 | 0.96 | -- | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Linear | 0.18 | 0.18 | 0.06 | 0.64 | -- | 0.56 | 0.95 | 0.6 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Lack of Fit | 0.18 | 0.18 | 0.06 | 0.64 | -- | 0.56 | 0.95 | 0.6 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| CP × Maturity: | 0.62 | 0.34 | 0.41 | 0.45 | -- | 0.85 | 0.84 | 0.0 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Treatment | Treatment | | Hay$^{-1}$ | Hay$^{-1}$ | Hay$^{-1}$ | Hay$^{-1}$ | DMI | DMI | DMI | DMI |
|-------------|-------------|---------|--------------|--------------|--------------|--------------|----------------|-------|-------|------------|
| | Hay (H) | Steer | Feed | WB (lb) | Ad | SUP | Animal (lb/100 | DM | (%) | Daily (lb) |
| No | CP) | (lb CP) | (lb) | (lb) | (%) | (lb) | (lb) | (lb) | (lb) | (%) |
| Lack of Fit | | 0.41 | | 0.08 | 0.07 | 0.45 | -- | 0.26 | 0.27 | 0.3 |
| | IVTD (%) | N (%) | NDF (%) | ADF (%) | ADFN (%) | HEMI (%) | CELL (%) | Lignin (%) | Ash (%) | | | | | | | | | | | |
|-------------------|------------------|------------------|------------------|------------------|------------------|------------------|------------------|------------------|------------------|------|----|------|------|-----|----|-----|-----|-----|------|----|
| Intake Phase: | Intake Phase: | Intake Phase: | Intake Phase: | Intake Phase: | Intake Phase: | Intake Phase: | Intake Phase: | Intake Phase: | Intake Phase: | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Hay: | Hay: | Hay: | Hay: | Hay: | Hay: | Hay: | Hay: | Hay: | Hay: | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Immature | 73.8$^{2}$ | 1.22 | 73.6 | 37.5 | 0.20 | 36.1 | 31.5 | 4.9 | 1.1 | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Mature | 51.4 | 0.64 | 79.7 | 45.3 | 0.17 | 34.4 | 35.9 | 7.9 | 1.4 | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Significance (P) | | 0.01 | 0.01 | <0.01<fcel> | 0.03 | 0.01 | <0.01<fcel> | Supplement: | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Corn | -- | 1.68 | 12.5 | 3.4 | -- | 9.1 | 2.9 | 0.7 | <0.01<nl> | SBOM | -- | 8.12 | 10.9 | 7.0 | -- | 3.9 | 5.4 | 1.4 | 0.20 | |
| Significance (P) | | <0.01<fcel> | <0.01<fcel> | 0.01 | <0.01<fcel> | 0.08 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Digestion Phase: | Digestion Phase: | Digestion Phase: | Digestion Phase: | Digestion Phase: | Digestion Phase: | Digestion Phase: | Digestion Phase: | Digestion Phase: | Digestion Phase: | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Hay: | Hay: | Hay: | Hay: | Hay: | Hay: | Hay: | Hay: | Hay: | Hay: | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Immature | 73.8 | 1.21 | 73.7 | 38.1 | 0.19 | 35.6 | 31.9 | 4.9 | 1.2 | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Mature | 52.8 | 0.65 | 79.3 | 44.4 | 0.16 | 34.9 | 35.4 | 7.7 | 1.3 | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Significance (P) | | 0.03 | <0.01<fcel> | 0.15 | 0.17 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.35 | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Supplement: | Supplement: | Supplement: | Supplement: | Supplement: | Supplement: | Supplement: | Supplement: | Supplement: | Supplement: | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Corn | -- | 1.66 | 12.6 | 3.4 | -- | 9.1 | 2.7 | 0.6 | 0.1 | | | | | | | | | | | |
| SBOM | -- | 8.23 | 11.2 | 6.7 | -- | 4.4 | 5.2 | 1.3 | 0.2 | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | Fiber Fractions | Fiber Fractions | Fiber Fractions | Fiber Fractions | Fiber Fractions | Fiber Fractions | Fiber Fractions | Fiber Fractions | Fiber Fractions |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|
| Item | IVTD (%) | N (%) | NDF (%) | ADF (%) | ADFN (%) | HEMI (%) | CELL (%) | Lignin (%) | Ash (%) |
| Significance (P) | -- | <0.01 0.42<fcel> | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.26 | | | |
| $^{1}$IVTD = in vitro dry matter disappearance; N = nitrogen; NDF = neutral detergent fiber; ADF = acid detergent fiber; ADFN = nitrogen concentration in the ADF fraction; HEMI = micenellulose; CELL = cellulose. $^{2}$Each value is the mean of multiple subsamples. $^{3}$ Whole-masticate median particle size (MPS) and proportion (PROP) of part nutritive value$^{1}$. | | | | | | | | | |
| | Whole Masticate | Whole Masticate | Whole Masticate | Whole Masticate | Large | Large | Large | Large | Large | Particle-size class |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-----------|-----------|----------|-----------|-----------|-----------------------|
| | MPS (mm) | IVTD (%) | CP (%) | NDF (%) | PROP (%) | IVTD (%) | NDF (%) | PROP (%) | IVTD (%) | Hay |
| Immature | 1.41$^{3}$ | 77.2 | 7.3 | 73.5 | 40.4 | 73.9 | 74.8 | 48.1 | 79.3 | |
| Mature | 1.10 | 63.2 | 4.43 | 79.0 | 25.6 | 56.8 | 80.3 | 55.2 | 64.1 | |
| Significance (P) | <0.01<fcel> | | | | | | | | | |
| $^{1}$IVTD = in vitro true dry matter disappearance; CP = crude protein; NDF = neutral detergent fiber. $^{2}$Large = ≥ 1.7 mm; Medium = | | | | | | | | | | |
| Treatment | Urine | Urine | Urine | Urine | Feces | Feces | Feces | Feces | Feces | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------|------|------|------|------|-----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
| | H (lb CP) | H+SUP (lb CP) | N (%) | NDF (%) | ADF (%) | HEMI (%) | CELL (%) | Lignin (%) | As (%) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| No | Immature (IM): | --- | 2.472 | 1.61 | 68.0 | 39.0 | 29.0 | 24.7 | 10.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 1 | 0.97 | 2.72 | 1.90 | 65.3 | 34.0 | 31.3 | 22.3 | 9.0 | 2. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 2 | --- | 1.19 | 5.94 | 1.99 | 65.1 | 35.0 | 30.1 | 22.3 | 9.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 3 | --- | 1.41 | 8.06 | 2.17 | 64.7 | 35.6 | 29.1 | 21.9 | 10.5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 4 | --- | 1.63 | 8.06 | 2.17 | 64.7 | 35.6 | 29.1 | 21.9 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | Mature (MA): | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 5 | 0.40 | --- | 3.69 | 0.91 | 78.7 | 48.6 | 30.1 | 33.3 | 12.5 | 2. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 6 | --- | 0.97 | 3.50 | 1.33 | 76.3 | 44.4 | 31.8 | 30.9 | 11.0 | 2. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 7 | --- | 1.19 | 8.22 | 1.32 | 76.0 | 45.1 | 30.9 | 31.2 | 11.4 | 2. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 8 | --- | 1.41 | 7.16 | 1.39 | 76.0 | 45.5 | 30.5 | 31.1 | 11.9 | 2. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Treatment | 0.02 | <0.01<fcel> | <0.01<fcel> | IM vs. MA | 0.37 | <0.01<fcel> | 0.01 | <0.01<fcel> | IM (4 vs. 1,2,3) | 0.01 | <0.01<fcel> | 0.64 | 0.07 | 0.14 | 0.09 | 0.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| MA (5 vs. 6,7,8,) | 0.10 | <0.01<fcel> | <0.01<fcel> | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.0 | 0.0 | ( | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------|------|------|------|------|-----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
| 5 | 0.40 | --- | 3.69 | 0.91 | 78.7 | 48.6 | 30.1 | 33.3 | 12.5 | 2. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 6 | --- | 0.97 | 3.50 | 1.33 | 76.3 | 44.4 | 31.8 | 30.9 | 11.0 | 2. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 7 | --- | 1.19 | 8.22 | 1.32 | 76.0 | 45.1 | 30.9 | 31.2 | 11.4 | 2. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 8 | --- | 1.41 | 7.16 | 1.39 | 76.0 | 45.5 | 30.5 | 31.1 | 11.9 | 2. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Treatment | 0.02 | <0.01<fcel> | <0.01<fcel> | IM vs. MA | 0.37 | <0.01<fcel> | 0.01 | <0.01<fcel> | IM (4 vs. 1,2,3) | 0.01 | <0.01<fcel> | 0.64 | 0.07 | 0.14 | 0.09 | 0.8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| MA (5 vs. 6,7,8,) | 0.10 | <0.01<fcel> | <0.01<fcel> | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.0 | ( | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Supplement: | Supplement: | Supplement: | Supplement: | Supplement: | Supplement: | Supplement: | Supplement: | Supplement: | Supplement: | Supplement: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Linear | 0.01 | <0.01<fcel> | 0.08 | 0.82 | 0.11 | 0.63 | 0. | ·· | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Lack of fit | 0.53 | 0.64 | 0.41 | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.33 | 0.07 | 0.0 | ( | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Maturity × CP: | Maturity × CP: | Maturity × CP: | Maturity × CP: | Maturity × CP: | Maturity × CP: | Maturity × CP: | Maturity × CP: | Maturity × CP: | Maturity × CP: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Linear | 0.94 | 0.03 | 0.19 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Treatment | Urine | Urine | Urine | Feces | Feces | Feces | Feces | |
|-------------|-----------|---------------|---------|---------|---------|---------|----------|----------|
| No | H (lb CP) | H+SUP (lb CP) | N (%) | N (%) | NDF (%) | ADF (%) | HEMI (%) | CELL (%) |
| Lack of fit | 0.07 | 0.25 | 0.53 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.22 | 0.09 | 0.0 |
$^{1}$NDF = neutral detergent fiber; ADF = acid detergent fiber; HEMI = hemicellulose.
$^{2}$Each value is the mean of three steers (n = 3). ⊓
## Experiment 4. Quality and Preference by Steers Among Silages Made from the Annuals Corn, Sorghum, and Pearlmillet
Temperate corn has long been the choice forage for preservation as silage because of its production potential, its relative ease of harvesting, its desirable fermentation characteristics, its resulting nutritive value after ensiling, and its degree of preference by ruminants resulting in desirable animal performance. Tropical corn has recently appeared, being generally a taller growing plant with greater dry matter productivity than temperate cultivars. Tropical corn, however, has a lesser proportion of the plant dry matter composed of grain than found in temperate corn cultivars (Tare and Brown, 1991). Also, the forage sorghums, as well as the millets, have shown potential and have been used successfully as silage crops.
We addressed two main objectives in this experiment: One objective, addressed in Experiment 4A, evaluates the effects of an added supplemental grain on the digestibility of silage from a cultivar representing a temperate corn and a cultivar representing a tropical corn. The second objective, addressed in Experiment 4B, compares steers' preferences when selecting among silages made from several annual forage species consisting of corn (temperate and tropical), sorghum, and pearlmillet.
## General Materials and Methods
Stands of the experimental annuals in Experiment 4A consisted of a temperate corn cultivar (Pioneer 3154) planted April 28 and a tropical corn cultivar (Dekalb 678C) planted June 15. In Experiment 4B, six annual forages were compared. These forages consisted of a temperate corn (Pioneer 3156), two tropical corns (subtropical Pioneer X304C and tropical Pioneer 3098), two sorghums (Pioneer 840F and Brandies, a release through New Mexico Crop Improvement Association, Las Cruces, New Mexico having increased sugar concentration and produced by Rose Seed Co., Inc., San Jon, New Mexico), and a pearmillet (3-Mil-X Hybrid). All forages were seeded on June 4 and established at the Lake Wheeler Road Field Laboratory, except Dekalb 678C, which was produced off station but on the same soil type. A no-till corn planter was used for all plantings.
The planter was set to a depth of 1.5 inches for corn and adjusted to seed 23,775 plants/acre. For
the sorghums and pearmilllet, the planter was set to a depth of 0.75 inches. The sorghum was planted at 10 lb/acre, and pearmilllet was planted at 8 lb/acre. Normal cultural practices were followed at establishment, and the forages were later top-dressed with 80 lb/acre of nitrogen. The forages to be evaluated for digestibility (Experiment 4A) were planted in long strips, field chopped, and preserved in upright experimental silos to provide adequate silage for animal evaluation.
The forages we evaluated in preference trials (Experiment 4B) were planted in a randomized complete block design with four replicates. These smaller plots (25 feet by 15 feet) provided sufficient forage for ensiling in miniature silos (5-gallon plastic containers) and quantities were adequate for preference evaluations. Forages were harvested and ensiled at the dough stage with all forages harvested between September 17 and 30. The exception was Brandies sorghum, which was not mature enough until October 28. Prior to harvest, two rows were randomly selected from within each plot and a 15-foot length was randomly selected within each row and used for evaluation. First, 10 random plant heights were taken from each sample area within each plot. The forage was then cut and weighed for dry matter determination and passed through a forage field chopper in preparation for ensiling. Two subsamples of the chopped forage were taken: one was used for dry matter determination (dried at 170°F in a forced-air oven), and the other was frozen, freeze dried, ground to pass through a 1-mm screen, and stored in a freezer for subsequent nutritive value analyses. The remainder of the chopped sample was placed, with packing, into 5-gallon plastic containers. These miniature silos were then sealed with a plastic lid (containing a rubber seal) fitted with a gas release valve for fermentation. We determined the nutritive value of the fresh forage, silage, and weighback according to general laboratory procedures (Appendix GP-6)
## Experiment 4A. The Influence of Increasing Supplemental Grain (Corn) on Dry Matter Digestibility of Temperate and Tropical Corn
Interest exists in replacing temperate corn with a tropical corn because of its greater yield potential. The two differ, however, in the proportion of grain that composes the total plant dry matter. Tropical corn cultivars typically have a lesser grain component as a proportion of the total plant dry matter, which may alter its nutritive value and consequently its quality. Our objective in this experiment was to ensile representative temperate and tropical corn cultivars under standard conditions and to determine the effect of increasing the grain component at feeding on the dry matter digestibility of the silage.
## Materials and Methods
We selected two representative cultivars for dry matter digestibility evaluation: the temperate Pioneer 3154 and the tropical DeKalb 678C. Forages were produced and ensiled as noted in General Materials and Methods above. After allowing at least 60 days for fermentation and stabilization to occur, the silos were opened, any evident surface mold was removed, and the digestion phase of the two silages was initiated.
We evaluated six treatments in this experiment:
## Temperate (TM) Corn Silage (Pioneer 3154):
- 1. TM0 = Silage (7.53% CP and 13.3% grain), no corn supplement
- 2. TM10 = Silage, corn supplement fed at 10% of DM intake
3. TM20 = Silage, corn supplement fed at 20% of DM intake
## Tropical(TP) Corn Silage (Dekalb 678C):
- 4. TPO = Silage (8.59% CP and B.0% grain), no corn supplement
5. TP10 = Silage, corn supplement fed at 10% of DM intake
- 6. TP20 = Silage, corn supplement fed at 20% of DM intake
The experiment was arranged as a randomized complete block design with three steer replicates per treatment. Eighteen steers were blocked by weight into three groups of six steers each and each steer within each group was randomly assigned to a treatment. The quantity of corn fed was based on the previous day's dry matter intake. Prior to the morning feeding, the previous day's weighback was determined and the previous day's intake (on an "as-fed" moisture basis) was calculated. This value was then multiplied by 10% and by 20%, and that quantity of corn was weighed into plastic containers that were each placed into the feeding manger of the appropriate steer. After the grain was consumed, the appropriate silage was fed to each steer in sufficient amounts to allow 15% ad libitum intake.
Because no estimate of dry matter intake was obtained, the experimental period was shortened compared with normal protocol. In this case, steers were fed the experimental diets for 14 days for adjustment and then moved into digestion crates to begin the 12-day digestion phase. This phase consisted of a seven-day adjustment to the crates followed by the experimental period consisting of a five-day total fecal collection (Appendix GP-2). We statistically analyzed the digestion data and associated silage data according to the design (Appendix GP-7).
## Results and Discussion
Silages of both forages differed in dry matter concentrations averaging 27.5% for the temperate corn and 29.4% for the tropical corn (Table 4A.1). Both forages ensiled similarly, however, with a pH averaging 3.9, but the temperate corn silage had greater concentrations of both acetic and propionic acids and lesser lactic acid.
Steers digested both corn silages similarly, averaging 69.3% for the temperate corn and 66.8% for the tropical corn (Table 4A.2). The DMD of both silages increased linearly, however, with increasing corn supplementation and with no interaction (silage type × corn supplementation) noted. We noted that the nutritive value of the silages differed, with temperate corn being generally greater in IVTD and lesser in fiber fractions than tropical com (Table 4A.3). This difference is attributed, in part, to tropical corn's greater proportion of grain. This difference is also reflected in DMD but was not of sufficient magnitude to be significant.
The composition of the feces also reflect the greater nutritive value noted above for the fed silages with the concentrations of crude protein greater and the fiber fractions lesser in feces from silages of temperate corn vs. tropical corn (Table 4A.2). Furthermore, corn grain supplementation increased fecal crude protein of both silages fed the 10% corn but not the 20% corn. In the latter case, feces from temperate silage declined in crude protein while feces from the tropical silages increased. This effect resulted in a significant silage type × corn supplementation interaction (Table 4A.2). All fiber fractions in the fecal samples showed a significant linear decline in concentration with increasing corn supplementation.
## Summary and Conclusion
These data indicate that dry matter yield potential and daily dry matter intake by cattle may be more important than DMD when assessing which type of silage to use in a production system.
| | Alcohol | Fatty Acids | Fatty Acids | Fatty Acids | Fatty Acids | Fatty Acids | Fatty Acids | |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| | Dry Matter | Meth (g/kg) | Ethanol (g/kg) | Acetic (g/kg) | Prop (g/kg) | Buty (g/kg) | Lactic (g/kg) | |
| Silage | (%) | pH | | | | | | |
| Digestion trial with corn silages (Experiment A$^{1}$): | Digestion trial with corn silages (Experiment A$^{1}$): | Digestion trial with corn silages (Experiment A$^{1}$): | Digestion trial with corn silages (Experiment A$^{1}$): | Digestion trial with corn silages (Experiment A$^{1}$): | Digestion trial with corn silages (Experiment A$^{1}$): | Digestion trial with corn silages (Experiment A$^{1}$): | Digestion trial with corn silages (Experiment A$^{1}$): | |
| Temperate (P3154) | 27.5 | 3.68 | 0.24 | 5.91 | 41.9 | 4.52 | 1.72 | 50.0 |
| Tropical (D678C) | 29.4 | 3.70 | 0.13 | 2.75 | 15.5 | 0.17 | 0.31 | 63.5 |
| Significance (P): | <0.01<fcel> | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.03 | |
| Preference Trial with corn, sorghum, and millet silages (Experiment B$^{2}$): | Preference Trial with corn, sorghum, and millet silages (Experiment B$^{2}$): | Preference Trial with corn, sorghum, and millet silages (Experiment B$^{2}$): | Preference Trial with corn, sorghum, and millet silages (Experiment B$^{2}$): | Preference Trial with corn, sorghum, and millet silages (Experiment B$^{2}$): | Preference Trial with corn, sorghum, and millet silages (Experiment B$^{2}$): | Preference Trial with corn, sorghum, and millet silages (Experiment B$^{2}$): | Preference Trial with corn, sorghum, and millet silages (Experiment B$^{2}$): | Preference Trial with corn, sorghum, and millet silages (Experiment B$^{2}$): |
| Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: |
| Pioneer 3156 | 35.6 ab | 3.81 abc | 0.20 a | 4.61 b | 13.1 c | 0.47 a | -- | 59.5 b |
| Pioneer X304C | 31.8 bc | 3.78 bc | 0.15 a | 3.33 b | 21.3 ab | 0.16 a | --- | 66.2 ab |
| Pioneer 3098 | 36.8 a | 3.87 ab | 0.20 a | 3.80 b | 14.5 c | 0.16 a | -- | 63.4 b |
| Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: |
| Pioneer 840F | 25.9 cd | 3.73 c | 0.21 a | 8.67 b | 16.5 bc | 0.21 a | -- | 70.8 ab |
| Brandies | 26.8 de | 3.77 bc | 0.21 a | 23.04 a | 16.3 bc | 0.28 a | -- | 66.1 ab |
| Cultivar: | Cultivar: | Cultivar: | Cultivar: | Cultivar: | Cultivar: | Cultivar: | Cultivar: | Cultivar: |
| 3-Mil-X Hybrid | 24.4 e | 3.88 a | 0.22 a | 2.26 b | 24.4 a | 0.17 a | -- | 75.3 a |
| Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): |
| Treatment | <0.01<fcel> | 0.78 | <0.01<fcel> | -- | 0.05 | | | |
| MSD$^{3}$ | 4.34 | 0.10 | 0.17 | 10.63 | 5.09 | 0.36 | -- | 11.4 |
| | Alcohol | Fatty Acids | Fatty Acids | Fatty Acids | Fatty Acids | Fatty Acids | Fatty Acids | |
|-----------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------|
| Silage | Dry Matter (%) | pH | Meth (g/kg) | Ethanol (g/kg) | Acetic (g/kg) | Prop (g/kg) | Buty (g/kg) | Lactic (g/kg) |
| Specific set of orthogonal comparisons: | Specific set of orthogonal comparisons: | Specific set of orthogonal comparisons: | Specific set of orthogonal comparisons: | Specific set of orthogonal comparisons: | Specific set of orthogonal comparisons: | Specific set of orthogonal comparisons: | Specific set of orthogonal comparisons: | Specific set of orthogonal comparisons: |
| Corn vs. Sorghum | <0.01<fcel> | 0.46 | <0.01<fcel> | 0.85 | -- | 0.09 | | |
| Millet vs. Others | <0.01<fcel> | 0.51 | 0.11 | <0.01<fcel> | -- | 0.01 | | |
| P840F vs. Brandies | P840F vs. Brandies | P840F vs. Brandies | P840F vs. Brandies | P840F vs. Brandies | P840F vs. Brandies | P840F vs. Brandies | P840F vs. Brandies | P840F vs. Brandies |
| Interaction lack of fit | 0.12 | 0.64 | 0.43 | 0.01 | <0.01<fcel> | -- | 0.06 | |
| Treatment | Composition$^{1}$ of Feces | Composition$^{1}$ of Feces | Composition$^{1}$ of Feces | Composition$^{1}$ of Feces | Composition$^{1}$ of Feces | | | | | | | |
|-------------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|------|------|----|----|----|----|----|
| Silage | Corn$^{2}$(%) | DMD | CP (%) | NDF (%) | ADF (%) CELL (%) | | | | | | | |
| Temp | 0 | 66.1$^{3}$ | 15.6 | 57.5 | 34.2 | | | | | | | |
| Temp | 10 | 72.1 | 17.3 | 51.4 | 29.6 | | | | | | | |
| Temp | 20 | 69.6 | 16.6 | 52.7 | 27.7 | | | | | | | |
| Trop | 0 | 63.4 | 12.5 | 65.2 | 39.0 | | | | | | | |
| Trop | 10 | 65.8 | 15.2 | 57.5 | 33.1 | | | | | | | |
| Trop | 20 | 71.2 | 15.8 | 53.9 | 30.1 | | | | | | | |
| Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | | | | | | | |
| Treatment | 0.15 | <0.01<fcel> | | | | | | | | | | |
| Temp vs. Trop | 0.24 | <0.01<fcel> | 0.01 | 0.09 | | | | | | | | |
| Corn: | Corn: | Corn: | Corn: | Corn: | Corn: | | | | | | | |
| Linear | 0.04 | <0.01<fcel> | Lack of fit | 0.52 | <0.01<fcel> | 0.22 | 0.41 | | | | | |
| Silage × Corn: | Silage × Corn: | Silage × Corn: | Silage × Corn: | Silage × Corn: | Silage × Corn: | | | | | | | |
| Linear | 0.39 | <0.01<fcel> | 0.35 | 0.22 | | | | | | | | |
| Lack of fit | 0.20 | 0.74 | 0.61 | 0.95 | 0.77 | | | | | | | |
| Treatment | IVTD | NDF (%) | Fiber Fractions | Fiber Fractions | Fiber Fractions | | | | | | | |
|---------------------------------|-----------------------|-------------------|-------------------|------------------------------|-------------------|------|-------------|------|----|----|----|----|
| Silage | Corn$^{2}$ (%) | ADF (%) | CELL (%) | Lignin (%) | | | | | | | | |
| Silage of cultivars fed$^{3}$: | 79.0 | 7.53 | 48.6 | 29.2 | 24.4 | | | | | | | |
| Pioneer 3154- Temperate | DeKalb 678C- Tropical | 73.5 8.59 | 54.8 | 32.4 | 26.0 | | | | | | | |
| Significance (P) | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.07 | | | | | | | |
| Silage left as weighback$^{4}$: | 0 | 79.9 | 9.84 | 42.1 | 24.7 | | | | | | | |
| P 3154 | 10 | 87.8 | 11.82 | 34.4 | 19.0 | | | | | | | |
| P 3154 | 20 | 89.5 | 11.81 | 34.5 | 17.7 | | | | | | | |
| D 678C | 0 | 76.5 | 10.32 | 52.4 | 30.1 | | | | | | | |
| D 678C | 10 | 78.0 | 11.69 | 45.1 | 25.7 | | | | | | | |
| D 678C | 20 | 85.1 | 12.59 | 37.6 | 19.3 | | | | | | | |
| Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | | | | | | | |
| Treatment | 0.01 | 0.31 | <0.01<fcel> | Temperate vs. Tropical Corn | 0.01 | 0.62 | <0.01<fcel> | 0.02 | | | | |
| Corn: | <0.01<fcel> | <0.01<fcel> | Linear | Lack of fit | 0.93 | 0.45 | 0.39 | 0.69 | | | | |
| Silage × Corn | 0.82 | 0.87 | 0.17 | 0.30 | 0.24 | | | | | | | |
| Treatment | IVTD (%) | NDF CP (%) | ADF (%) | CELL (%) | Lignin (%) |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------|
| Silage | Corn_2 (%) | (%) | (%) | (%) | |
| Lack of fit | 0.17 | 0.63 | 0.37 | 0.30 | 0.33 |
| $^{1}$IVTD = in vitro true dry matter disappearance; CP = crude protein; NDF = neutral detergent fiber; ADF = acid detergent fiber; CELL = cellulose. $^{⊥}$ | $^{1}$VITD = in vitro true dry matter difference; | $^{2}$Corn grain fed as a percent of the previous day's dry matter intake. $^{⊥}$ | $^{3}$Corp grain fed as a percent of the previous day's dry matter intake. $^{⊥}$ | $^{4}$Composite sample of the silage from each cultivar fed. $^{⊥}$ | |
## Experiment 4B. Steers' Preference
Among the Silages of Temperate Corn, Tropical Corn, Forage Sorghum, and Pearlmillet
As noted in Experiment 4A above, steers' dry matter digestion did not differ between the slages of a temperate and tropical corn when a corn grain supplement was fed daily over a range of 0% to 20% of daily dry matter intake. Because dry matter digestion was similar between corn types, the quantity of daily dry matter intake becomes extremely important when selecting an annual cultivar to use as silage. A number of existing annual forages can be sources of silage in a production enterprise. It is important, however, to select a forage that the intended animal will like when ensiled. Our objective in this experiment was to assess steers' preference among a number of selected adapted annual grasses when preserved as silage.
## Materials and Methods
Six forage cultivars were selected for this experiment:
- 1. Pioneer corn, 3156 (P3156)-adapted temperate cultivar
- 2. Pioneer corn, X304C (PX304C) -adapted tropical cultivar
- 3. Pioneer corn, 3098 (P3098)-adapted tropical cultivar
- 4. Pioneer sorghum, 840F (P840F) -adapted forage cultivar
- 5. Brandies sorghum (Brandies)-adapted sweeter forage cultivar
- 6. Pearmilllet, 3-Mil-X Hybrid (3-Mil-X)-adapted cultivar
The selected cultivars, all adapted to the Mid-Atlantic Region, were handled according to normal procedures along with associated cultural, harvesting, and ensiling practices as noted under General Materials and Methods above. In addition to samples taken at harvest for dry matter and nutritive value determinations, whole-plant samples were also obtained. These samples consisted of eight randomly selected whole plants that were bulked and transported to the laboratory for
morphological separations. Separations consisted of leaf, stem, and dead fractions for all forages; husk, tassel, and ear fractions for corn; and a head fraction for the sorghums and pearlmilllet (millet). All fractions were oven-dried, and proportions were expressed on a dry matter basis.
The miniature silos (5-gallon plastic buckets) were left undisturbed for at least 60 days prior to opening and subsequent evaluation of the ensiled forage in preference trials. At initiation of each preference trial, the lid of each miniature silo of the appropriate treatments was removed and any obvious mold discarded. We conducted seven preference trials with the comparisons between or among silages within each trial as listed below:
```
Trial 1: Among corn cultivars (P3156 vs. PX304C vs. P3098)
Trial 2: Between tropical corn cultivars (PX304C vs. P3098)
Trial 3: Among temperate corn and forage sorghums (P3156 vs. P840F vs. Brandies)
Trial 4: Between forage sorghums (P840F vs. Brandies)
```
Trial 3: Among temperate corn and forage sorghums (P3156 vs. P840F vs. Brandies)
Trial 4: Between forage sorghums (P840F vs. Brandies)
Trial 5: Among forage sorghums and millet (P840F vs. Brandies vs. 3-Mil-X)
Trial 6: Between millet and temperate corn (3-Milx-vs. P3156)
Trial 7: Between millet and tropical corn (3-Milx-vs. PX304C).
We evaluated each silage four times by four different steers randomly selected from a five-steer pool. Steers were assigned at random to each treatment comparison for each tria resulting in a randomized complete block design. Measurements consisted of short-term total as-fed (wet) and dry matter intakes (Kg), and time (minutes) eating for each treatment (Appendix GP-4). Intake rate (gram/minute) was then determined by dividing total intake by time eating. The data are presented in metric units because of the relatively small values resulting from short-term preference measurements. We statistically analyzed animal preference data according to the design (Appendix GP-7).
## Results and Discussion Forage Characteristics
The mean yield potential, height at harvest, and morphological composition (a composite of four field replicates) provides a comparative overview of the differences among the six cultivars evaluated for preference (Table 4B.1). Although not tested for significance, appreciable differences existed among the forages evaluated. In general, the sorghums were greater yielders with millet least. Within the corn cultivars, the tropical corn were tallest at harvest and had greater proportions of the whole plant dry matter as leaf and stem but least in the proportion of grain. Between the sorghums, Brandies was a greater yielder, being taller than P840F with a greater proportion of the whole plant dry matter as stem and lesser as heads. The nutritive value of the morphological constituents of these cultivars at harvest (prior to fermentation) provides an assessment of their potential quality if fed as forage. For completeness, statistical comparisons among the cultivars in nutritive value constituents of each morphological component of the forage are presented in the appendix (Appendix Tables 4B.1 through 4B.6).
## Silage Characteristics.
Forage of all six cultivars fermented well, regardless of species, with dry matter at harvest being greatest for corn silages, lesser for the sorghums, and least for the millet (see Experiment B in Table 4A.1). In all cases, however, silage pH was
been associated with sugar concentration (not determined). Millet had the greatest concentrations of acetic and lactic acids, while the others were similar. All cultivars had similar propionic acid concentration.
The nutritive value of the silages varied greatly among the cultivars (Table 4B.2). For example, Brandies had the greatest IVTD (76.4%) but was numerically least in NDF (57.2%) and CP (6.4%) concentrations. On the other hand, 3-Mil-X had the least IVTD (61.6%), but greatest CP (10.61%) and NDF (68.7%) concentrations. These fermentation and nutritive value characteristics, as well as the physical condition of the silage, were all integrated in influencing the steers' preferences in the following short-term preference trials.
## Steer Preference among Silages .
When given a choice among silages of corn cultivars in Trial 1, steers preferred the tropical cultivar PX304C to both the other tropical cultivar (P3098) and the temperate cultivar (Table 4B.3). Our examination of the silage characteristics indicated that only acetic acid concentration differed among the three silages, with PX304C being greatest (Table 4A.1, Preference Trial). We noted essentially no difference in nutritive value among the three silages (Table 4B.2). When the two tropical corns were compared in Trial 2, steers again prefered PX304C to P3098 (Table 4B.3). In this comparison, the preferred silage had the least DM percentage, greater acetic acid concentration, and lesser NDF, ADF, and CP (Tables 4A.1, Preference Trial and 4B.2).
When the least preferred temperate corn silage was compared with the two sorghums in Trial 3, steers showed no preference among the three silages in terms of intake or intake rate (Table 4B.3), although Brandies had greater ethanol concentrations (Table 4A.1 and temperate corn was generally of lesser nutritive value (Table 4B.2).
When offered only P840F and Brandies sorghum silages in Trial 4, steers showed no preference between silages, although Brandies was generally of greater nutritive value (Tables 4B.4 and 4A.1). Millet was included with the two sorghum silages in Trial 5, but we also found no preference among the steers for the three silages in DM intake. Intake rate was, however, greatest for P840F and least for 3-Mil-X (P = 0.06) (Table 4B.4). In this comparison, 3-Mil-X silaghe had the greatest pH and acetic acid concentrations, but Brandies silage was generally of greatest nutritive value and 3-Mil-X least (Tables 4A.1, Preference Trial, and 4B.2). Furthermore, steers expressed no preference in terms of DM intake between 3-Mil-X silagae and silages of either temperate (Trial 6) or tropical corn (Trial 7), even though 3-Mil-X was generally less in nutritive value (Tables 4B.4 and 4B.2).
## Summary and Conclusion
- · All six cultivars evaluated in this experiment ensiled readily with a pH of 3.9 or less, indicating stable silages.
- · All silages contained alcohol (methanol and ethanol), with no difference among cultivars, except for Brandies sorghum, which had greater concentrations of ethanol.
- · Fatty acid concentrations among the silages differed with 3-Mil-X millet having greatest concentrations of acetic and lactic acids and temperate corn the least.
- · The sorghum silages generally had greater nutritive value (greatest in IVTd and least in NDF), followed by corn silages, and millet had the least nutritive value.
- · Preference trials using short-term steer dry matter intake revealed that, among the three corn silages, steers preferred the tropical cultivar PX304C to the other tropical and temperate cultivars.
- · Preference between the two tropical cultivars was again in favor of PX304C.
- · No preference was evident among silages of temperate corn and the two sorghum cultivars.
· No preference was noted between the silages of the two forage sorghums, among the silages of pearlmilllet and the two sorghums, or between millet and the temperate and tropical corn silages.
- · The tropical corn PX304C has ensiling and nutritive value characteristics that appear to be conducive to selective consumption by steers.
| | Treatment | Treatment | HT | HT | Yield | Yield | Leaf | Stem | Dead | Husk | Tassel | Head | Total | Grai |
|-------------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|
| | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet | Feet |
| Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: |
| Pioneer | 5.4 | 3.25$^{1}$ | 9.7 | 27.6 | 4.6 | 9.5 | 0.5 | -- | 47.9 | 38.1 | | | | |
| Temperate | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Pioneer X304C- Tropical | 9.5 | 4.09 | 15.6 | 46.5 | 3.9 | 12.0 | 1.0 | -- | 20.9 | 13. : | | | | |
| Pioneer 3096- Tropical | 8.0 | 3.69 | 16.0 | 44.2 | 4.7 | 11.0 | 1.4 | -- | 22.7 | 15. : | | | | |
| Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: |
| Pioneer 840F | 4.6 | 5.17 | 14.8 | 37.5 | 5.2 | --- | --- | 42.5 | --- | --- | | | | |
| Brandies | 7.4 | 8.68 | 11.4 | 67.5 | 4.9 | --- | --- | 16.2 | --- | --- | | | | |
| Millet Cultivar: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 3-Mil-X | 5.5 | 2.64 | 20.6 | 57.0 | 1.6 | ---- | ---- | 20.8 | ------ | --- | | | | |
| Hybrid | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | IVTD (%) | CIP (%) | NDF (%) | ADF (%) | Fiber Fractions CELL (%) | Lignin (%) | | | | | | | | |
|-----------------|------------|-----------|-----------|--------------------|----------------------------|--------------|----|----|----|-----------|------|------|----|----|
| Treatment$_{2}$ | (%) | (%) | (%) | Corn Cultivars: | 68.2c | 9.12cd | | | | | | | | |
| Treatment$_{2}$ | (%) | (%) | (%) | Pioneer 3156 | 60.7b | 32.7bc | | | | | | | | |
| Treatment$_{2}$ | (%) | (%) | (%) | Pioneer X304C | 67.3c | 8.61d | | | | | | | | |
| Treatment$_{2}$ | (%) | (%) | (%) | Pioneer 3098 | 66.5c | 10.01cb | | | | | | | | |
| Treatment$_{2}$ | (%) | (%) | (%) | Sorghum Cultivars: | 71.9b | 9.37bc | | | | | | | | |
| Treatment$_{2}$ | (%) | (%) | (%) | Brandies | 76.4a | 6.40e | | | | | | | | |
| Treatment$_{2}$ | (%) | (%) | (%) | Millet Cultivar: | 61.6d | 10.61a | | | | | | | | |
| Treatment$_{2}$ | (%) | (%) | (%) | Significance (P): | <0.01<fcel> | | | | | MSD$_{3}$ | 1.87 | 0.74 | | |
| | Intake | Intake | Intake | Intake Rate | Intake Rate |
|----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|
| | AF (kg) | DM (kg) | Time (minutes) | AF (g/min) | DM (g/min) |
| Trial 1 (Among corn cultivars): | Trial 1 (Among corn cultivars): | Trial 1 (Among corn cultivars): | Trial 1 (Among corn cultivars): | Trial 1 (Among corn cultivars): | Trial 1 (Among corn cultivars): |
| Pioneer 3156 | 0.17 b | 0.06 b | 0.95 b | 306.4 a | 109.1 a |
| Pioneer X304C | 2.87 a | 0.91 a | 11.38 a | 251.3 a | 79.9 a |
| Pioneer 3098 | 0.33 b | 0.12 b | 1.31 b | 308.8 a | 113.9 a |
| Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): |
| Treatment | <0.01<fcel> | 0.88 | | | |
| MSD$^{2}$ | 0.89 | 0.30 | 3.51 | 553.4 | 199.2 |
| Trial 2 (Between tropical corn cultivars): | Trial 2 (Between tropical corn cultivars): | Trial 2 (Between tropical corn cultivars): | Trial 2 (Between tropical corn cultivars): | Trial 2 (Between tropical corn cultivars): | Trial 2 (Between tropical corn cultivars): |
| Pioneer X304C | 3.03 | 0.96 | 15.57 | 214.8 | 68.3 |
| Pioneer 3098 | 0.60 | 0.22 | 3.27 | 154.2 | 56.9 |
| Significance (P) | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.52 | 0.72 |
| Trial 3 (Among temperate corn and sorghums): | Trial 3 (Among temperate corn and sorghums): | Trial 3 (Among temperate corn and sorghums): | Trial 3 (Among temperate corn and sorghums): | Trial 3 (Among temperate corn and sorghums): | Trial 3 (Among temperate corn and sorghums): |
| Pioneer 3156 | 0.35 a | 0.13 a | 2.79 a | 137.9a | 49.3 a |
| Pioneer 840F | 2.30 a | 0.93 a | 9.09 a | 233.7a | 83.3 a |
| Brandies sorghum | 1.55 a | 0.41 a | 4.71 a | 277.1a | 74.5 a |
| Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): |
| Treatment | 0.55 | 0.43 | 0.53 | 0.58 | 0.69 |
| MSD | 4.70 | 1.58 | 14.87 | 358.94 | 109.2 |
| | Intake | Intake | Intake | Intake Rate | Intake Rate |
|----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|
| Item$^{1}$ | AF (kg) | DM (kg) | Time (minutes) | AF (g/min) | DM (g/min) |
| Trial 4 (Between sorghums): | Trial 4 (Between sorghums): | Trial 4 (Between sorghums): | Trial 4 (Between sorghums): | Trial 4 (Between sorghums): | Trial 4 (Between sorghums): |
| Pioneer 840F | 1.27 | 0.39 | 3.74 | 336.9 | 152.9 |
| Brandies Sorghum | 2.67 | 0.72 | 9.71 | 206.3 | 55.5 |
| Significance (P) | 0.50 | 0.56 | 0.33 | 0.49 | 0.35 |
| Trial 5 (Among sorghums and millet): | Trial 5 (Among sorghums and millet): | Trial 5 (Among sorghums and millet): | Trial 5 (Among sorghums and millet): | Trial 5 (Among sorghums and millet): | Trial 5 (Among sorghums and millet): |
| Pioneer 840F | 2.57 a | 1.14a | 6.71 a | 346.8 a | 132.4 a |
| Brandies sorghum | 0.87 a | 0.23a | 3.09 a | 207.1 ab | 55.7 ab |
| 3-Mil-X Hybrid | 0.70 a | 0.17a | 3.34 a | 109.7 b | 26.8 b |
| Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): |
| Treatment | 0.40 | 0.30 | 0.63 | 0.07 | 0.06 |
| MSD$^{2}$ | 3.80 | 1.69 | 11.01 | 213.5 | 93.7 |
| Trial 6 (Between millet and temperate corn): | Trial 6 (Between millet and temperate corn): | Trial 6 (Between millet and temperate corn): | Trial 6 (Between millet and temperate corn): | Trial 6 (Between millet and temperate corn): | Trial 6 (Between millet and temperate corn): |
| 3-Mil-X Hybrid | 1.67 | 0.41 | 5.96 | 134.3 | 33.2 |
| Pioneer 3156 | 2.67 | 0.77 | 15.51 | 198.6 | 57.3 |
| Significance (P) | 0.64 | 0.53 | 0.39 | 0.42 | 0.24 |
| Trial 7 (Between millet and tropical corn): | Trial 7 (Between millet and tropical corn): | Trial 7 (Between millet and tropical corn): | Trial 7 (Between millet and tropical corn): | Trial 7 (Between millet and tropical corn): | Trial 7 (Between millet and tropical corn): |
| 3-Mil-X Hybrid | 0.80 | 0.19 | 3.16 | 136.5 | 33.7 |
| Pioneer X304C | 2.67 | 0.79 | 8.15 | 325.7 | 97.6 |
| Significance (P) | 0.33 | 0.27 | 0.44 | 0.17 | 0.10 |
## References and Related Publications
Association of Official Analytical Chemists. 1990. Official Methods of Analysis. 15 th ed., Arlington, VA.
Burns, J. C., and W. A. Cope. 1974. Nutritive Value of Crownvetch Forage as Influenced by Structural Constituents and Phenolic and Tannin Compounds. Agron. J. 66:195-200.
Burns, J. C., K. R. Pond, and D. S. Fisher. 1994. Measurements of Intake. p. 494-532. In G.C. Fahey, Jr. et al. (ed.) Forage Quality, Evaluation, and Utilization. ASSA, CSA, and SSSA, Madison, WI.
Cochran, R. C., and M. L. Galeyan. 1994. Measurements of In Vivo Forage Digestion by Ruminants. p. 613-643. In G.C. Fahey, Jr. et al. (ed.) Forage Quality, Evaluation, and Utilization. ASSA, CSA, and SSSA, Madison, WI.
Fisher, D. S., J. C. Burns, and K. R. Pond. 1988. Estimation of Mean and Median Particle Size of Ruminant Diets. J. Dairy Sci. 71:518-524.
Teare, I. D., and E. Brown (ed.) 1991. Proceedings Southern Regional Tropical Corn Symposium, Quincy, FL. 27-28 June, 1991. Potash and Phosphate Institute/Foundation for Agronomic Research. Technical Bulletin 1991-3. Potash and Phosphate Institute Atlanta, GA, 30329.
Tilley, J., and R. A. Terry. 1963. A Two-Stage Technique for In Vitro Digestion of Forage Crops. J. Br. Grassl. Soc. 18:104-111.
Van Soest, P. J., and J. B. Robertson. 1980. Systems of Analysis for Evaluating Fibrous Feeds. p. 49-60. In W.J. Pigden et al. (ed.) Standardization of Analytical Methodology for Feeds. International Development Res. Center, Ottawa, Canada.
## Appendix I: Data Tables
| | Supplement | Supplement |
|-------------------|--------------|--------------|
| Ingredients | S-1 (lb) | S-2 (lb) |
| Soybean Oil Meal | 0.059 | 0.257 |
| Soybean Hulls | 0.788 | 0.790 |
| Corn, Yellow Dent | 0.582 | 0.197 |
| Corn, Gluten Meal | -- | 0.197 |
| Urea | 0.005 | 0.010 |
| Total | 1.434 | 1.451 |
Appendix Table 4B.1. In vitro true dry matter disappearance of silage and of forage morphological components for corn, sorghum, and millet cultivars (dry matter basis).
| | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage |
|--------------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|
| | Silage (%) | Leaf (%) | Stem (%) | Dead (%) | Husk (%) | Tassel (%) | Head (%) | Cob (%) | Grain (%) |
| Treatment$^{1}$ | Treatment$^{1}$ | Treatment$^{1}$ | Treatment$^{1}$ | Treatment$^{1}$ | Treatment$^{1}$ | Treatment$^{1}$ | Treatment$^{1}$ | Treatment$^{1}$ | Treatment$^{1}$ |
| Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: |
| Pioneer 3156- Temperate | 68.2ºc | 72.7bc | 63.0ºc | 60.1b | 62.4b | 53.0b | -- | 61.7b | 96.7a |
| Pioneer XO4C- Tropical | 67.3ºc | 70.7bc | 62.8ºc | 59.6bc | 65.9b | 54.7b | -- | 69.3a | 93.5a |
| Pioneer 3098- Tropical | 66.5ºc | 69.9c | 62.8c | 59.9b | 73.3a | 59.9a | -- | 73.9a | 96.1a |
| Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: |
| Pioneer 840F | 71.9b | 73.5b | 70.3b | 64.7a | -- | -- | 76.0a | -- | -- |
| Brandies | 76.4 a | 77.3a | 76.7a | 68.3a | -- | -- | 76.7a | -- | -- |
| Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: |
| 3-Mil-X Hybrid | 61.6d | 71.7bc | 59.8c | 55.3c | -- | -- | 58.3b | -- | -- |
| Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): |
| Treatment | <0.01<fcel> | 0.16 | | | | | | | |
| MSD$_{2}$ | 1.87 | 3.50 | 3.86 | 4.23 | 3.94 | 1.95 | 2.11 | 6.01 | 4.00 |
| | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | | | | | | | | | | | |
|--------------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|------|------|------|------|----|----|----|----|----|----|
| | Silage (%) | Leaf (%) | Stem (%) | Dead (%) | Husk (%) | Tassel (%) | Head (%) | Cob (%) | Grain (%) | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | | | | | | | | | | |
| Pioneer 3156- Temperate | 9.12 cd | 13.0 bc | 6.22 b | 7.43 a | 5.81 a | 6.97 a | -- | 5.03 a | 12.6 b | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Pioneer X304C- Tropical | 8.61 d | 12.2 c | 6.68 ab | 5.82 ab | 5.78 a | 5.63 b | -- | 7.55 a | 14.3 a | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Pioneer 3098- Tropical | 10.01 ab | 12.3 bc | 8.01 a | 7.13 a | 6.98 a | 6.85 a | -- | 8.01 a | 14.2 a | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | | | | | | | | | | |
| Pioneer 840F | 9.37 bc | 13.3 b | 4.49 c | 4.47 b | -- | -- | 13.1 a | -- | -- | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Brandies | 6.40 e | 10.9 d | 2.99 d | 4.00 b | -- | -- | 10.4 b | -- | -- | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | | | | | | | | | | | |
| 3-Mil-X Hybrid | 10.61 a | 16.7 a | 5.84 bc | 7.81 a | -- | -- | 12.5 a | -- | -- | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Treatment | <0.01<fcel> | 0.32 | <0.01<fcel> | <0.01<nl> | MSD$_{2}$ | 0.74 | 1.09 | 1.44 | 2.22 | 2.22 | 0.59 | 0.82 | 3.65 | 0.44 | | | | | | |
Appendix Table 4B.3. Neutral detergent fiber concentration of silage and of forage morphological components for corn, sorghum, and millet cultivars (dry matter basis).
| | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | |
|---------------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|
| Treatment$^{1}$ | Silage (%) | Leaf (%) | Stem (%) | Dead (%) | Husk (%) | Tassel (%) | Head (%) | Cob (%) | |
| Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | |
| Pioneer 3156 - Temperate | 60.7 b | 63.5 b | 64.4 b | 72.1 c | 77.4 a | 81.7 a | -- | 76.6 a | 21.4 a |
| Pioneer X304C - Tropical | 58.1 c | 62.2 b | 60.3 bc | 74.7 b | 72.1 ab | 77.7 b | -- | 62.5 b | 25.9 a |
| Pioneer 3098 - Tropical | 61.3 b | 62.5 b | 62.3 bc | 74.6 b | 69.5 b | 77.0 b | -- | 64.3 b | 29.5 a |
| Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: |
| Pioneer 840F | 59.2 b | 68.1 a | 59.7 c | 77.3 a | -- | -- | 37.8 c | -- | -- |
| Brandies | 57.2 c | 64.3 b | 48.2 d | 79.6 a | -- | -- | 58.5 b | -- | -- |
| Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | |
| 3-Mil-X Hybrid | 68.7 a | 63.1 b | 69.6 a | 69.7 c | -- | -- | 75.4 a | -- | -- |
| Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): |
| Treatment | <0.01<fcel> | <0.01<fcel> | 0.01 | <0.01<fcel> | 0.14 | | | | |
| MSD$_{2}$ | 2.32 | 2.99 | 4.50 | 3.79 | 6.08 | 2.34 | 6.66 | 9.77 | 9.03 |
Appendix Table 4B.4. Acid detergent fiber concentration of silage and of forage morphological components for corn, sorghum, and millet cultivars (dry matter basis).
| | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage |
|--------------------------|--------------------------|-------------|-----------|-----------|-------------|-------------|-----------|----------|------------|------------------------------------------------------------------|----------|
| | Silage (%) | Leaf (%) | Stem (%) | Dead (%) | Husk (%) | Tassel (%) | Head (%) | Cob (%) | Grain (%) | Treatment$^{1}$ | |
| Corn Cultivars: | Pioneer 3156- Temperate | 32.7 bc | 30.9 a | 35.7 bc | 44.0 a | 34.9 a | 44.3 a | -- | 38.7 a | 4.3 b | |
| Pioneer X304C- Tropical | 31.1 c | 30.2 a | 34.5 bc | 44.1 a | 30.9 b | 42.0 b | -- | 31.8 a | 6.9 a | Pioneer | |
| Pioneer 3098- Tropical | 33.7 b | 30.1 a | 36.3 b | 42.8 a | 31.1 b | 42.7 ab | -- | 31.4 a | 6.1 a | Pioneer | |
| Sorghum Cultivars: | 32.7 bc | 32.7 a | 35.1 bc | 45.5 a | -- | -- | 20.9 c | -- | -- | Pioneer | |
| Brandies | 31.8 c | 31.1 a | 32.1 c | 44.7 a | -- | -- | 26.5 b | -- | -- | Millet Cultivar: | |
| 3-Mil-X Hybrid | 39.9 a | 30.6 a | 42.0 a | 43.6 a | -- | -- | 40.3 a | -- | -- | 3- Mil-X Hybrid | |
| Significance (P): | <0.01<fcel> | <0.01<fcel> | 0.04 | 0.05 | <0.01<fcel> | <0.01<fcel> | | | | | |
| MSD$_{2 }$ | 1.74 | 3.10 | 3.71 | 3.72 | 3.34 | 1.89 | 2.73 | 7.54 | 0.78 | All values are the mean of four agronomic replicates (n = 4). ⊓ | |
Corn
Cultivars:
| Pioneer 3156- Temperate | 25.9b | 25.0ab | 28.7b | 31.4d | 29.6a | 35.0 a | -- | 32.6a | 3.47 b |
|----------------------------|-------------------|-------------|---------|-------------|---------|----------|--------|---------|----------|
| Pioneer X304C- Tropical | 25.1b | 24.2b | 27.6bc | 34.7bc | 26.2b | 33.8 a | -- | 26.0b | 4.29 a |
| Pioneer 3098- Tropical | 26.7b | 24.7ab | 29.2b | 33.6c | 26.9b | 35.0 a | -- | 26.2b | 4.39 a |
| Sorghum Cultivars: | 25.7b | 26.7a | 27.8bc | 36.1 ab | -- | -- | 14.6 c | -- | -- |
| Brandies | 26.6b | 25.0ab | 24.8c | 33.7 a | -- | -- | 20.6 b | -- | -- |
| Millet Cultivar: | 30.5a | 24.6ab | 33.4a | 31.7 d | -- | -- | 31.3 a | -- | -- |
| Hybrid | Significance (P): | | | | | | | | |
| Treatment | <0.01<fcel> | <0.01<fcel> | 0.27 | <0.01<fcel> | 0.03 | | | | |
| MSD$^{2}$ | 1.70 | 2.26 | 3.32 | 3.79 | 2.61 | 2.04 | 2.30 | 5.89 | 0.66 |
| | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Forage | Ear | Ear | Ear | Ear | |
|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------------|----|
| | Silage (%) | Leaf (%) | Stem (%) | Dead (%) | Husk (%) | Tassel (%) | Head (%) | Cob (%) | Grain (%) | Trauma | |
| Treatment$_{1}$ | Treatment$_{1}$ | Treatment$_{1}$ | Treatment$_{1}$ | Treatment$_{1}$ | Treatment$_{1}$ | Treatment$_{1}$ | Treatment$_{1}$ | Treatment$_{1}$ | Treatment$_{1}$ | Treatment$_{1}$ | |
| Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | Corn Cultivars: | |
| Pioneer | 5.78$^{d}$ | 4.55$^{a}$ | 6.95$^{b}$ | 5.88$^{ab}$ | 5.30$^{aa}$ | 8.00$^{aa}$ | -- | 6.17$^{a}$ | 1.25$^{b}$ | | |
| Temperate | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Pioneer | 5.89$^{cd}$ | 4.52$^{a}$ | 7.11$^{ab}$ | 6.38$^{ab}$ | 5.31$^{a}$ | 7.45$^{b}$ | -- | 5.95$^{a}$ | 1.98$^{a}$ | | |
| X304C- Tropical | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Pioneer | 6.10$^{c}$ | 4.59$^{a}$ | 7.07$^{b}$ | 6.35$^{ab}$ | 4.96$^{aa}$ | 7.21$^{b}$ | -- | 5.18$^{a}$ | 1.99$^{a}$ | | |
| Tropical | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | Sorghum Cultivars: | |
| Pioneer | 6.44$^{b}$ | 4.86$^{a}$ | 6.78$^{ab}$ | 6.70$^{ab}$ | -- | -- | 5.37$^{b}$ | -- | -- | -- | |
| 840F | 4.99$^{e}$ | 4.47$^{a}$ | 5.05$^{c}$ | 6.49$^{ab}$ | -- | -- | 4.99$^{b}$ | -- | -- | -- | |
| Brandies | 3.00$^{ml}$ | 4.55$^{a}$ | 7.75$^{a}$ | 7.36$^{a}$ | -- | -- | 6.96$^{a}$ | -- | -- | | |
| Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | Millet Cultivar: | |
| 3-Mil-X Hybrid | 7.59$^{a}$ | 4.55$^{a}$ | 7.75$^{a}$ | 7.36$^{a}$ | -- | -- | 6.96$^{a}$ | -- | -- | | |
| Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | Significance (P): | |
| Treatment | <0.01<fcel> | <0.01<fcel> | 0.29 | 0.01 | <0.01<fcel> | <0.01<ecel> | | | | | |
| MSD$_{2}$ | 0.31 | 0.72 | 0.66 | 1.23 | 0.61 | 0.40 | 0.68 | 1.54 | 0.37 | | |
## Appendix II: General Standard Procedures of Experimentation
The general standard procedures (GP) followed in conducting the various experiments presented in this bulletin are noted below and are not repeated elsewhere. Departure or specific details related to any one experiment are noted under the Materials and Methods section of each experiment with reference to the appropriate GP outlined below. We conducted all animal experiments in the months of October through April, and occasionally into May, thereby avoiding the hot summer months.
## GP-1. Hay Handling.
All has evaluated in the various experiments were harvested from well-established stands. When hay was field cured, the forage was cut with a mower-conditioner and baled with a conventional square baler. When hay was artificially dried, the forage was cut with a flail-chopper and blown into a self-unloading wagon and transport to a bulk drying barn at the NC State University ForageAnimal Metabolism Unit in Raleigh, North Carolina. After drying, the hay was bailed with a conventional square baler. Prior to feeding, field cured hay bales were passed through a hydraulic bale press (Van Dale 5000, J. Starr Industries, Fort Atkins, Wisconsin) with stationary knives spaced at 4 inches. This process reduced may into 3- to 5-inch lengths with essentially no visible leaf loss and both aided feeding and minimized the potential for the hay to be tossed out of the manger. Forage that was flai-chopped was reduced into 3- to 6-inch lengths when cut and required no further processing prior to feeding.
## GP-2. Dry Matter Intake and Apparent, Whole-Tract Digestibility.
We evaluated forages at the NC State Forage-Animal Metabolism Unit in an animal facility consisting of a metal structure partitioned into a feed preparation area on one end, an enclosed but well ventilated middle area equipped with digestion crates with moderate temperature control (ambient air maintained > 50 F and
The intake phase of each experiment consisted of a 21-day period with the first 7 days used for adjustment and the last 14 days to estimate daily dry matter intake (Burns et al., 1994). A recorded weight of hay was fed twice daily allowing about 13% to 15% excess. A daily sample of the fed hay was obtained for each animal and composites were made on a weekly basis. The unconsumed hay (weightback) was weighed twice daily, saved separately for each animal and treatment combination, and composited each week.
The digestibility phase consisted of 12 days and either immediately followed an intake period or was conducted as a separate digestibility evaluation. In either case, animals were moved into digestion crates. The digestion phase was conducted for 12 days and consisted of a 7-day adjustment period followed by a 5-day total fecal and urine (if applicable) collection (Cochran and Galyean, 1994). A
recorded weight of forage was fed twice daily at about 15% excess. A daily sample of the fed hays was obtained and weighback was saved separately for each animal by treatment combination and composed for the five-day collection period.
Feces were collected on a plastic sheet placed on the floor immediately in back of each digestion crate. Feces were removed periodically throughout the day, and the daily total was weighed for each of five consecutive days. Feces were thoroughly mixed daily, and 5% of the fresh weight was placed in a freezer (5°F). When part of the experimental objectives, a second sample was obtained and placed in a freezer for particle size determination.
When part of the objective, urine was collected in containers acidified with 6N HCl to maintain acidic conditions. The volume was determined daily and a 5% daily aliquot was retained. The daily aliquots were pooled by steer and stored frozen for subsequent analysis.
The weekly forage samples from the 14-day intake phase, the 5-day composite forage and fecal samples from the 12-day digestion phase, and the associated weighback samples from the intake and digestion phases were oven-dried (131°F) and weighed for dry matter determination, thoroughly mixed, and a 300 to 500g sub-sample ground in a Wiley Mill to pass a 1-mm screen and stored at room temperature until analyzed. The samples for fecal particle-size determination remained in the freezer (5°F) until freeze dried and were dry sieved as noted below under GP-5.
In experiments using a randomized complete block design, the digestion phase followed the intake phase and completed the experiment for each animal. However, in Latin square-designs, once animals completed one period, they returned to the intake facility following the digestion phase to begin the next period.
## GP-3. Masticate Collection and Processing .
Mature, esophageal-fistulated, grade British-bred steers (800 to 1,400 lb) were used in each experiment. Each steer was fed a standard hay about five days before initiation of an experiment. After adjustment to treatments (offered the previous afternoon), collections generally occurred at about 9.00 a.m. and 3:00 p.m. on two consecutive days. Animals were offered about 3 lb of hay at each collection. The esophageal cannulas were removed and bolsuses were collected by hand to ensure complete collection. The first five to six bolsuses discarded and the following 10 to 15 were collected. The boluses were placed on a large plastic tray, gently mixed, placed into two plastic bags, and immediately quick-frozen in liquid nitrogen (-319°F). Samples were then stored in a freezer (5°F) until freeze dried and then returned to the freezer until analyzed. The dried bolsuses were sampled for nutritive analyses and used for particle-size determination (see GP-5).
## GP-4. Preference Experiments.
Preference experiments were conducted with steers in individual pens measuring 8 feet by 13 feet. Prior to an experiment, animals were fed each forage being evaluated to allow an association of the forage with any post-ingestive feedback produced by the forage. The forage feeding order was randomized separately for each animal. Steers were offered about 14 lb of silage in galvanized tubs.
At approximately 30 minutes after offering the feed, an intermediate weight was obtained. This was used to calculate an intake rate by dividing forage disappearance over 30 minutes by the time in minutes spent eating.
Up to four mangers within a pen (16 feet by 26 feet) were available to a steer, allowing the maximum of four forages to be evaluated at a time. The forages and their positions were randomized at presentation. A video recorder was used to record and subsequently estimate total time spent at each feeder in order to calculate intake rate by dividing forage disappearance by minutes at a feeder.
In all preference experiments, the animals were disturbed periodically (2 to 3 minutes) after making a selection, requiring them to choose again. Care was taken to prevent consumption of all of the preferred forages. Also, sampling of all forages was conducted as appropriate for the experiment being carried out. It is notable that, in preference evaluations, some animals may eat considerable amounts of one forage and zero of another forage, although some eating time maybe recorded for the zero intake. Estimates and statistical analysis of the dry matter intake and time-eating data are valid, whereas the wide variation (including zero) makes calculation of the intake rate (g/min) data rather problematic; still, this data is included for completeness.
## GP-5. Particle Size Determination.
Particle size estimates of the masticate (boluses) and feces were obtained by passing two 15-g subsamples through a Fritsch Vibrator system (Fritsch Analysette, the Tekmor Co., Cincinnati, Ohio). In the case of masticate, the two subsamples were separated into nine particle sizes consisting of dry matter retained on 5.60-, 4.00-, 2.80-, 1.70-, 0.50-, 0.25-, 0.05- and 0.125 mm sieves and that which passed through the 0.125-mm sieve (
Particle size estimates of fecal samples were also determined as noted above, except only one sample was passed through the sieves. Sievered samples of both masticate and feces were stored either separately by individual sieve size or composites of the dry matter were made to form three particle-size classes of large (≥ 1.7 mm), medium (
## GP-6. Laboratory Analysis.
Nutritive value for all as-fed, weighback, and masticate samples and chemical composition of fecal samples, as appropriate for the various experiments, were either analyzed by wet chemistry and reported or used to develop calibration equations in association with the prediction of composition using near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS). No distinction is made in an experiment regarding the analysis via wet chemistry or NIRS prediction.
Nutritive value estimates included in vitro dry matter disappearance (IVMD) as determined by a modification (Burns and Cope, 1974) of the method by Tilley and Terry (1963). In vitro true dry matter disappearance (IVTD) was determined by 48-hour fermentation in a batch fermentation vessel (Ankom Technology Corp., Fairport, New York) with artificial saliva and rumen inoculum (Burns and Cope, 1974) and terminated with neutral detergent solution in an Ankom 200 fiber analyzer (Ankom Technology Corp., Fairport, New York). This practice removed the contribution of residual microbial dry matter. Runimal inoculum was obtained from a mature rumen fistulated steer generally fed a mixed alfalfa (Mediicago sativa L.) orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.) hay. Other nutritive value estimates of as-fed hay and masticate, and composition of feces, consisted of total nitrogen and the fiber fractions. Total nitrogen was determined colorimetrically (AOAC, 1990) with a Technicon Autoanalyzer (Bran and Luebbe, Buffalo, Illinois), and crude protein was estimated as
6.25 × nitrogen. The fiber fractions consisted of neutral detergent fiber (NDF), acid detergent fiber (ADF), lignin, and ash and were estimated using reagents according to Van Soest and Robertson (1980). Hemicellulose was determined by difference (NDF - ADF) as was cellulose (ADF - [lignin + ash]).
## GP-7. Statistical Analysis.
The data from the intake, digestibility, and masticate phases for each experiment were analyzed and presented as least square means from the application of mixed model methodology, as appropriate, based on the design for the particular experiment. Particle sizes, when determined, were expressed as a percentage of cumulative particle weight oversize (sum of dry matter weight on each sieve vs. weight from all larger sieves) and were used to determine mean and median particle size (Fisher et al., 1988). Means for all variables found significant in each experiment were compared by either trend analysis, a set of orthogonal contrast, or by a set of meaningful comparisons, as appropriate, within the analysis of variance. A minimum significant difference (MSD) was also included at times to assist in determining differences between and among treatments not accommodated by the above mentioned statistical approaches.
## Authors
## J.C. Burns
Professor Crop Science and Animal Science
## D.S. Fisher
Statistician Syngenta Biotechnology, Inc.
## E.S. Leonard
Research Analyst Crop Science
Publication date: July 27, 2015
## TB-343
The use of brand names in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C. A&T State University of the products or services named nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/oklahoma-gardening/recipes/butternut-stew.html | Butternut Stew - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2021-09-27 | [] | OK | ## BUTTERNUT STEW
This butternut stew is an easy-to-make recipe that is a fall favorite for the whole family!
## Ingredients
- · 2 teaspoons cumin seeds
- · 1 tablespoon canola or olive oil
- · 1 small yellow onion, chopped
- · 1 teaspoon sugar
- · 2 tablespoons all-purpose flour
- · 1 tablespoon chili powder
- · 1 clove garlic, minced
- · 1/2 cup chopped green pepper
## Directions
- 1. In a large saucepan heat cumin seeds over medium heat until they are toasted. Remove seeds and set them aside.
- 2. Use the same pan to heat oil over medium heat. Sauté half the toasted cumin seeds, the onion, and sugar about 5 minutes, until onion becomes lightly browned.
- 3. Add flour, chili powder, garlic, green pepper, squash, water, hominy and broth and bring to a boil. Lower heat, cover pan and simmer 10 minutes.
- 4. Uncover and cook another 10 minutes until squash is very tender. Stir in remaining seeds and cilantro and serve.
Yield: 4 servings
## Nutrition Facts
| Servings Per Recipe: 4 | |
|--------------------------|---------------|
| Amounts Per Serving | Calories: 241 |
| | % Daily Value |
| Total Fat: 5 g | 8% |
| Saturated Fat: 1 mg | 3% |
| Cholesterol: 0 mg | 0% |
Nutrition Facts
| Sodium: 602 mg | | 25% |
|--------------------|-----|-------|
| Carbohydrate: 45 g | 15% | |
| Dietary Fiber: 7 g | 29% | |
| Protein: 8 g | | 16% |
| | | |
| Vitamin A | | 316% |
| Vitamin C | | 103% |
| Folacin | | 18% |
| Calcium | | 13% |
| Iron | | 19% |
| Potassium | | 27% |
*The Percent Daily Values are based on a 2,000 calorie diet, so your values may change depending on your calorie needs. The values here may not be 100% accurate because the recipes have not been professionally evaluated nor have they been evaluated by the U.S. FDA. |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/postemergence-grass-control-in-landscapes-and-nurseries | Postemergence Grass Control in Landscapes and Nurseries | NC State Extension | [
"Joe Neal"
] | null | [
"Weed Management",
"Horticulture",
"Agriculture"
] | NC | ## Postemergence Grass Control in Landscapes and Nurseries
## Introduction
Annual and perennial grasses can be selectively controlled in most broadleaf crops and landscapes using postemergence herbicides that control only grasses -- chemicals often referred to as "postemergence graminicides." There are four gramnicides labeled for use in horticultural crops -- fenoxaprop, fluazifop-p, sehotydin and clethodim. Each graminicide is systemic (translocated) and has short-term soil residual (about 2 weeks). Although each herbicide kills grasses in the same way (acting upon the same site of action), they differ in their effectiveness on some grass weeds, safety on crops, and labeled uses.
The four postemergence graminicides labeled for use in landscape plantings are:
Fenoxaprop-ethyl - Acclaim Extra
Fluazifop-p - Fusilade II, Omamec, Grass-B-Gon
Sethoxydim - Segment, Sethoxydim, Take-Away, Poast
Clethodim - Envoy, Arrow, others
## Postemergence Graminicides
Fenoxaprop-ethyl is labeled for postemergence control of summer annual grasses in coolseason turfgrasses and landscape beds. It is most commonly used to control crabgrass in fescue or bluegrass turf. It is not as effective as the other three graminicides on perennial grasses; therefore it is less commonly used in landscapes or nurseries. While safe on most broadleaf crops and ornamentals, it has been shown to injure certain cultivars of prostrate junipers and some azaleas.
Fluazifop-p is labeled for annual and perennial grass control in ornamentales, a few vegetable crops and some fruit crops. Fluazifop-p controls perennial grasses including bermudagrass and johnsongrass, but is weak on fescues. Under certain conditions fluazifop-p can be applied to tall fescue to control other weedy grasses, but high rates can kill tall fescue. Like fenoxaprop, fluazifop-p can be safely applied over the top of most broadleaf plants but has injured certain cultivars of prostrate junipers and azaleas.
Sethoxydim controls both annual and perennial grasses. Sethoxydim is sold under several different trade names, each with specific crops and uses. Some are labeled for use in vegetable and fruit crops or some warm-season turfgases. Search for a formulation specifically labeled for use in ornamental plantings. In my research, sehotydim has provided slightly better control of crabgrass compared to fluazifop-p or clethodim, but is generally considered to be weaker on perennial grasses.
Clethodim is the only postemergence graminicide that controls annual bluegrass. It is generally considered to be one of the better graminicides for perennial grass control, including bermudagrass and fescues, but is somewhat less effective on large crabgrass compared to sehotydim.
EXTENSION
## Getting the Most Out of Graminicidie Treatments
Use the right product at the right time. Actively growing, young grasses are better controlled than established plants. The graminicides are more effective when applied to young, actively growing weeds, and less effective when applied to large, mature weeds. For example: Acclaim is most effective when applied to young plants, 1 to 3 tillers in size. At larger growth stages, higher doses and repeated applications are required. Fusilade II and Envoy are more effective on bermudagrass in early summer (with 6 to 8 inches of new growth) than in late summer when plants are flowering.
Although these herbicides are selective and generally safe on most broadleaf plants, some injury to broadleaf plants and junipers has been reported (see Table 1). Fusilade is labeled for use on more herbaceous ornamentals than the other three herbicides, but it will injure Bar Harbor juniper and a few azalea varieties. Sethoxydim is not labeled on as many ornamental species, but it has not been reported to have variable injury between varieties of a species. Cl ethediom (Envoy) is labeled for a wide range of woody and herbaceous ornamentals but the addition of some surfactants to the spray has caused increased injury to tender herbaceous plants. Read the label carefully to determine which herbicide is labeled for your ornamental plants. And, test the safety of herbicides and surfactants before wide-scale use.
As stated above, the herbicides differ in their effectiveness on several weeds. Envoy is the only postemergence graminicide that controls annual bluegrass and is the best for fescue control. Crabgrass is controlled by all four graminicides but sethoxydim tends to provide the best overall control. See the table below for a comparison of POST-graminicides on some common grass weeds.
Large crabgrass seedling. Young, vigorous seedlings are more easily controlled than older grasses
Attribution: J. Neal CC BY-NC-4.0
| Ornamental | Accclaim | Fusilade | Envoy | Segment |
|-----------------|------------|------------|---------|-----------|
| Junipers | Dir* | Dir* | OT | OT |
| Bar Harbor Jun. | No | No | OT | OT |
| Azalea | OT | Dir* | OT | OT |
| Vinca minor | OT | OT | OT | OT |
| Begonia | OT | OT* | OT | OT |
| Pansy | ? | ? | OT | OT* |
| Blue fescue | OT | No | No | OT |
For more detailed information about herbicides registered for use on ornamental plantings see the Southeastern US Pest Control Guide for Nursery Crops and Landscape Plantings.
| Grass | Acclaim | Envoy | Fusilade | Segment |
|------------------|-----------|---------|------------|-----------|
| Crabgrass | F-G | G | G | E |
| Annual bluegrass | P | G | P | P |
| Bermudagrass | P | G | G | F-G |
| Fescue | P | F | P | P |
| Johnsongrass | G | G-E | G-E | G |
| | G-E | G-E | G-E | G-E |
Pest Control Guide for Nursery Crops and Landscape Plantings.
## Author
Joe Neal
Professor of Weed Science, Extension Specialist & Department Extension Leader Horticultural Science
Publication date : Sept. 21, 2018
Reviewed/Revised: Feb. 13, 2024
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C.A.&State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
URL of this page |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/chatham-county-forestry-impacts-2016 | Chatham County Forestry Impacts 2016 | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Stephanie Chizmar",
"Rajan Parajuli",
"Robert Bardon"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Environmental Resources",
"Publications"
] | NC | ## Chatham County Forestry Impacts 2016
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
Aug. 22, 2018
Authors
Stephanie Chizmar
Rajan Parajuli
Robert Bardon
□ View/Download PDF
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=chatham- county-forestry-impacts-2016#zoom=page-fit
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
EXTENSION |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/flaglerco/2024/05/30/local-water-level-and-weather-data-at-your-fingertips/ | Local Water Level and Weather Data at Your Fingertips | University of Florida | [
"Carolyn Kovacs"
] | 2024-05-30 | [
"Coasts & Marine",
"Conservation",
"Natural Resources",
"UF/IFAS Extension",
"Water",
"Flagler County",
"flooding",
"Florida Sea Grant",
"resiliency",
"water",
"water level"
] | FL | ## Local Water Level and Weather Data at Your Fingertips
Within the past year, two new water level sensors and accompanying weather stations have been installed in Flagler County. The data from these water level sensors and accompanying weather stations is available to the public in real-time. In addition, the data collected over time will help us better understand flooding and sea level rise in our communities.
These sensors are part of the SECOORA (Southeast Coastal Ocean Observing Regional Association) Southeast Water Level Network. SECOORA is supporting the installation and long-term operation of approximately 200 new water level stations in the southeast United States, from Florida up through North Carolina. The goals of the program are to expand the real-time water level coverage throughout the southeast and to provide data that will help emergency managers, design engineers, and the public be informed and make decisions regarding coastal flooding.
Each station includes a water level sensor, a weather station, and a solar panel with a battery that can hold enough charge to power the station for over a month. The data is automatically sent from the sensors to the publicfacing websites every five minutes. The public can access the data from our local sensors through the SECOORA website or the SenseStream website. In addition to the water level data, users will find environmental conditions including air temperature, wind speed and direction, solar radiation, and the rate and total precipitation. Users can search for data from today, the past week, past month, or a custom date range. The websites can also produce graphs or allow users to download data.
Like most great things, the installation of these sensors came about through a series of collaborations. Several
universities are involved in the development, installation, and monitoring of these sensors, including the Florida Atlantic University Institute for Sensing and Embedded Network Systems Engineering (I-SENSE lab).
Based in south Florida, the I- SENSE lab was eager to connect with communities further north in the state to expand the network of sensors they have built.
One such connection was with the Flagler County Coastal Engineer, who agreed that this would be a beneficial resource for the county as they continue to work towards understanding local coastal conditions and increasing resiliency. Shortly thereafter, the I-SENSE lab drove up to Flagler County to install two sensors at the county park of Bing's Landing and at the University of Florida Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience.
As the Florida Sea Grant Agent with UF/IFAS Extension Flagler and Volusia Counties, I am happy that I was able to facilitate connections that led to these collaborations and resources for our communities. Some of my colleagues in the panhandle of Florida also worked with the I-SENSE lab to get water level sensors installed in Okaloosa County! If you work with a coastal community in Flagler or Volusia Counties interested in increasing their access to local water level data, please reach out to c.kovacs@ufl.edu.
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Category: Coasts & Marine, Conservation, Natural Resources, UF/IFAS Extension, Water Tags: Flagler County, Flooding, Florida Sea Grant, Resiliency, Water, Water Level |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/osceolaco/2021/12/27/poinsettias-in-the-garden/ | Poinsettias in the garden | University of Florida | [
"Eva Maria Pabon"
] | 2021-12-27 | [
"Home Landscapes",
"Horticulture"
] | FL | ## Poinsettias in the garden
How do you take care of poinsettias? Can they really grow outside? What would Christmas be like without poinsettias? A native of Mexico, this beautiful plant was introduced to the U.S. in 1824. The large colorful bracts are actually not flowers, but modified leaves, which serve to attract pollinators to the tiny yellowish flowers in the center. The showy display can last through March with proper care.
Once you bring a new poinsettia home in a pot, the first thing to do is to remove the decorative plastic or foil wrap. It is not uncommon for roots to rot from standing water while in the wrap. If you have a plant with drooping leaves, it may already be too late. Also dump water from saucers under the pots immediately after watering. Place the plant in a well-lighted area, and water only when the soil feels dry. A porch with full sun is OK too, as long as the plant is not subjected to freezing temperatures. Do not fertilize at this point.
By March 1, your poinsettia can be planted outside, though it will need protection from any late frosts or freezes. To help it adjust to its new situation, the pot can be temporarily placed in an area of partial sun. Next, find it a sunny location in moist but well drained soil. The preferable phoh would be between 5.5 and 6.5. Your site must not receive any artificial light at night, which will interrupt the bloom cycle. By October 1, your plant needs about 14 hours of uninterrupted darkness per day. This means that it should not be planted near streetlights, security lights, flood lights, or under a window by the house. Even passing car headlights can aggravate the process. If conditions can't be met, plants can be covered from 5 to 8 pm during the bloom setting period.
After planting, apply mulch, and water your poinsettia as needed. Fertilize once a month between March and October 1, using a balanced Nitrogen and Potassium mix which also contains magnesium. The middle number (phosphorus) should be low. Pruning may begin when flowers are faded and frost danger is over. New plants can be pruned to 12-18" from the ground. If plants are already smaller than that, stems can be taken to 4-6" from the ground. A pruning routine is necessary about once a month in
order to prevent your plant from looking like a stick with few leaves. Prune new growth back to 4 leaves per stem, each time the plant grows another 12 inches. For older established plants, prune off old blooms and about 1/3 of total height. Then use the same procedure each time the plant grows 12 inches.
Discontinue all pruning and feeding by October 1, since this is when flower buds begin to develop.
What about pests and diseases? Watch for aphids, soft scales, whiteflies, and spider mites, and treat if necessary. The poinsettia hornworm can defoliate a plant, so watch and remove if present. Also watch for fungal spots which can appear on leaves. The worst problem facing a poinsettia would be root rot, from being too wet.
If unaffected by freezing, the poinsettia will become a large shrub. With proper pruning, it will be very thick, rather than tall and spindly. November 26, 2021 Coloring of bracts has begun.
November 26, 2021 A few bracts have colored nicely already.
January 11, 2021 Display from last year's bloom season.
Pictures and Blog By Sandi Switek - Master Gardener Volunteer
2
by Eva Maria Pabon
Posted: December 27, 2021
Category: HOME LANDSCAPES, Horticulture
More From Blogs.IFAS
Water Wednesday Recap - Is Your Rain Sensor Working?
- Let's Celebrate National Arbor Day 2022
- Water Conservation Tips For The Landscape
- Managing Lawn And Landscape During Drought |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/equine-infectious-anemia.html | Equine Infectious Anemia - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [
"Elisabeth J. Giedt"
] | 2017-01-03 | [] | OK | ## Equine Infectious Anemia
Published Mar. 2017 |
Id: VTMD-9124
By Elisabeth J. Giedt
Print-friendly PDF (/factsheets/print-publications/vtmd/equineinfectious-anemia-vtmd-9124.pdf)
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Equine Infectious Anemia (EIA) is a contagious viral disease that affects horses worldwide. EIA is a disease of all equidae. Other livestock are not known to be affected by this virus. EIA is also known as swamp fever because of the higher incidence of this disease in the Gulf Coast states. The highest number of cases occurs in warm climates because of the prevalence of blood sucking insects that are the primary transmitters of this disease. Cases of EIA occur all over the nation, but 80 percent of these cases are in the nine southeastern states. Once infected, horses will remain lifelong carriers of the virus. There is no cure for EIA. Although many infected horses show no symptoms, they remain contagious for life, endangering the health of other horses. For this reason, the United States Department of Agriculture and state animal health regulatory agencies require euthanasia or strict lifelong quarantine for horses testing positive for EIAV. At this time, the State of Oklahoma requires all equidae (horses,
than consignment to a veterinarian's clinic or an approved slaughter facility must be accompanied by a record of a negative official test for EIA, commonly known as the Coggins Test, conducted within the previous 12 months."
There are acute, chronic and apparent forms of this disease. In the acute form, horses may have a high fever, depression, loss of appetite, small areas of hemorrhages on the mucous membranes, swelling of the legs (stocking up) and edema (collection of fluid) along
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the ventral abdomen. The acute form of this disease usually occurs within seven to 30 days post exposure to the virus. In the chronic form of the disease, horses may suffer recurring signs of intermittent fever, depression, lack of appetite with weight loss, anemia and weakness, often seen as incoordination of the hind quarters. Some horses become infected with EIA without detectable clinical signs of the disease and are inapparent carriers of this virus. The majority of clinical signs associated with EIA infection are related to the reaction of the horse's immune system to the virus. The severity and frequency of these recurring episodes decrease with time. Abortion or failure to conceive also may occur in EIA infected mares. Horses generally recover from either the acute or chronic form of this clinical disease, but will remain lifelong carriers of the virus.
EIA virus is found in the blood of all infected horses, even the apparent carriers. The virus is transmitted to noninfected horses primarily by blood sucking insects. Insects such as horseflies and deer flies are the most significant transmitters, but others such as mosquitoes and gnats can spread the virus. When an insect's blood meal is interrupted, the possibility of transmitting the EIA virus is augmented. The horsefly with its painful bite results in frequent interruption of feeding episodes. The fly can carry blood from an infected horse to the next horse it feeds on, thus transmitting the disease. Horses in the acute phase of the disease are more infectious because of the high level of virus circulating in their blood. Other methods of transmission include the use of virus-contaminated instruments such as needles, syringes and dental and tattooing equipment. In EIA infected pregnant mares, approximately 10 percent of their foals are born infected with the virus, apparently due to placental transmission of the virus. Transmission of the virus also may occur through natural breeding of mares and stallions, but is not a primary method.
The laboratory tests used to diagnose EIA are the Coggins or AGID test and the ELISA test. These tests are accurate in detecting EIA infected horses. EIA was difficult to diagnose and identify until 1970, when the agar-gel immunodiffusion test, commonly known as the Coggins test, was developed. More recently, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA tests) reduced the time for a lab result from at least 24 hours to less than one hour. Accurate tests allow us to identify and remove positive reactors from herds and effectively
block the spread of EIA among tested populations. When laboratory tests are performed before there has been sufficient time for antibody production against the virus, which is during the initial 45day exposure period, false negatives can occur. False positives occur when foals with circulating colostral antibodies from suckling EIA infected mares are tested. These colostral antibodies are no longer
present at approximately six to nine months of age. In Oklahoma, blood samples used for the detection of EIA must be drawn and submitted to an approved lab by a licensed, accredited veterinarian. Confirmed EIA positive horses are placed under quarantine, isolated and branded on the left neck or shoulder with a "73A." Horses are branded using a hot iron or freeze brand at least two inches high, and within 30 days of the date the laboratory completed the test, unless the equidae is euthanized. These positive horses must be euthanized, shipped for slaughter, or kept in isolation at least 200 yards from all negative equine forage for the remainder of life. According to the
Department of Agriculture rules: "The quarantine restricts not only the infected equidae but all other equidae on the premise and all equidae epidemiologically determined to have been exposed to an EIA positive animal. All exposed, contact or adjacent herds must be tested not less than 60 days or more than 120 days following the identification and removal of the last positive animal."
To control the spread of EIA in Oklahoma, positive horses must be detected and removed from the horse population. To effectively detect infected horses, especially inapparent carriers, will require more testing. Owners can take the following preventative measures to reduce the chances their horse will contract EIA:
- 1. Establish an effective fly control program using such measures as fogglers, electronic or automatic fly control. systems in barns, and/or some type of topical fly repellent
- 2. The general rule 'one horse, one needle, one syringe should be adhered to.
- 3. All instruments such as surgical, dental, tattooing, etc. should be sterilized or disinfected after each use.
- 4. All equidae entering the premises must have an EIA negative test performed in the last 12 months. Also, all equidae entering the premises (even those with a negative test) should be isolated and retested in 45 to 60 days. Every horse on the premises should be tested for EIA once a year.
The Department of Agriculture has two other EIA requirements that affect horse owners. A record of a negative official EIA test conducted
within the previous 12 months must accompany all equidae entering equine exhibitions. Equine exhibitions are defined as, but not limited to, fairs, livestock shows, breed associations, rodeos, racetracks, or other events where equidae congregate. A current EIA test also will be required at the time a horse changes ownership (foals less than six months of age, accompanied by and nursing a negative tested measure, are exempted from the testing requirement). The rule states "All equidae which are sold, battered, traded or offered for sale within Oklahoma, must be accompanied by a record of a negative official test for EIA conducted at an approved laboratory within the previous 12 months."
At this time, there is no effective treatment for EIA. Infected horses are lifelong carriers of this virus. There is currently no vaccine approved in North America to protect a horse against EIA. Investigators are working toward the development of a vaccine. The problem with vaccine development is that it not only needs to protect the animals against EIA, but investigators have to be able to distinguish between an EIA titer caused by disease and a titer caused by a vaccine. An effective vaccine would help eradicate the threat of EIA for the horse population.
## For More Information
American Association of Equine Practitioners at: https://aaep.org/(https://aaep.org/)
This map was obtained from the USDA @ https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalhealth/animaldisease-information/horse-disease-information/equineinfectious-anemia/ct\_equine\_infectious\_anemia
Elisabeth J. Giedt, D.V.M., M.B.A.
Director of Continuing Education, Extension and Community
Engagement
Center for Veterinary Health Sciences
Oklahoma State University
## Print-friendly PDF (/fact sheets/print-publications/vtmd/equineinfectious-anemia-vtmd-9124.pdf) Share Fact Sheet
| Topics: | Horses /topics/plants-and-animals/livestock/horses/) |
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| | Livestock Health & Disease /topics/plants-and-animals/livestock/health-disease-and-nutrition/livestock-health-and-disease/ |
| | Livestock /topics/plants-and-animals/livestock/) |
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/about-4-h/alabama-4-h-eligibility/ | About 4-H | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Nancy Alexander"
] | 2024-07-26 | [
"4-H",
"Youth Programs",
"Alabama Extension"
] | AL | ## Alabama 4-H Eligibility
Alabama 4-H is for young people ages 9 through 18, with Cloverbud programming for ages kindergarten through 2nd grade. The Alabama 4-H Club year is August 1 to July 31. Age is calculated on January 1 of the current 4-H year. 4-H events are open to active members of chartered 4-H clubs that have regularly scheduled, planned, experiential educational meetings.
A youth's 4-H membership ceases at the end of the 4-H year (July 31), following the member's graduation from high school. Youth whose membership age is beyond 18 who have qualified for a national contest (as a culminating event for their project learning) shall be eligible to participate in the event as long as they qualify as per the national contest policies. Youth classified as exceptional students, and thus determined eligible for a special program by the Alabama State Board of Education, shall be eligible, with approval from the Alabama 4-H state office, to participate in 4-H until the age of 21 years old or completion of high school, whichever comes first.
To quickly generate your 4-H age, check your eligibility here, or view the tables below.
## 2024-2025 4-H Club Year Age and Eligibility Chart
Cookie Notice
Print "4-H Eligibility-Cloverbud" table from our website.
Youth in this division are participants in 4-H and not actual members. On August 1, if your age is 8 but your birthday is before January 1, 2025, your 4-H age is 9. Youth born in 2020 are too young for 4-H.
Print "4-H Eligibility-Junior" table from our website.
Youth in this division are considered 4-H members. On August 1, if your age is 11 but your birthday is before January 1, 2025, your 4-H age is 12.
Print "4-H Eligibility-Intermediate" table from our website.
Youth in this division are considered 4-H members. On August 1, if your age is 13 but your birthday is before January 1, 2025, your 4-H age is 14.
Print "4-H Eligibility-Senior I" table from our website.
Youth in this division are considered 4-H members. On August 1, if your age is 15 but your birthday is before January 1, 2025, your 4-H age is 16.
Print "4-H Eligibility-Senior II" table from our website.
Youth in this division are considered 4-H members. On August 1, if your age is 18 but your birthday is before January 1, 2025, your 4-H age is 19. Youth born in 2005 should check with their county Extension office about volunteer opportunities. |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/pesticide-safety-education/site-files/documents/report/2021/jan21pr.pdf | CHEM | Oklahoma State University | [
"entokts"
] | Error: time data "D:20210107090101-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## ORKLAHOMA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE
Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources Oklahoma State University http://pestedo.okstate.edu
## January, 2021
PRACTICAL SCHOOL DATES FOR 2021
Practical school dates for 7A, 7B, and 7C categories have been scheduled for the first half of 2021 . Applicators in these categories must attend the school and pass one final exam to get certified in these categories.
With COVID-19 precautions class size is limited to 50% of capacity. Extra dates have been added to the normal schedule to compensate for the reduced size.
Cost is $200 for 7A and 7C classes and $350 for the 7B class.
Please enroll online at this website https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/pesticid e-safety-education/practical-workshop-and-re certification-dates/
| 7A | 7B | 7C January 14 |
|------------|----------|-----------------|
| February 9 | March 16 | March 17-18 |
| April 13 | May 18 | April 15 |
(OSU PSEP)
## EPA PROPOSES NEW SAFETY MEASURES FOR CHLORPYRIFOS
EPA is taking the next step in its regulatory review of chlorpyrifos, an insecticide used for a large variety of agricultural uses and non-agricultural uses. Today, EPA is proposing measures to reduce the risks identified in the agency's September 2020 draft risk assessments to better protect human health and the environment. As outlined in the proposed interim decision (PID), EPA is proposing:
Label amendments limiting application to address potential drinking water risks of concern. Additional personal protection equipment and application restrictions to address potential occupational handler risks of concern.
Spray drift mitigation, in combination with the use limitations and application restrictions identified to address drinking water and occupational risks, to reduce exposure to non-target organisms.
The PID presents proposed mitigation with the 10fold (10X) Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) Safety Factor, reflecting the uncertainties around doses that may cause pre- and post-natal neurodevelopmental effects. Under FQPA, EPA evaluates new and existing pesticides to ensure they can be used with a reasonable certainty of no harm to infants, children, and adults. EPA is required to consider the special susceptibility of children to pesticides by using an additional 10X safety factor unless adequate data are available to support a different factor. EPA additionally included a FQPA factor of 1X to reflect the range of potential risk estimates of chlorpyrifos, as illustrated in the September 2020 draft risk assessments.
Upon publication of the PID in the Federal Register, public comments will be accepted for 60 days on both the September 2020 draft risk assessments as well as the PID. By holding the comment period for both of the actions at the same time, the public has access to more information and can provide more informed, robust comments.
EPA will also consider the input and recommendations from the September 2020 FIFRA Scientific Advisory Panel (SAP) meeting once it releases its report in December 2020. Depending on the SAP's conclusions, EPA may further revise the human health risk assessment. After a thorough review of the best available science and carefully considering scientific peer review and public comments, EPA will then determine next steps in the registration review process for chlorpyrifos.
Read the PID here. Upon publication of the Federal Register notice, public comments will be accepted for 60 days in the chlorpyrifos registration review docket # EPA-HQ-OPP-2008-0850 at www.regulations.gov. (EPA December 4, 2020) https://www.epa.gov/pesticides/epa-proposes-newsafety-measures-chlorpyrifos
## COMMENT PERIOD EXTENDED FOR ATRAZINE, PROPAZINE AND SIMAZINE DRAFT BIOLOGICAL EVALUATIONS
EPA is extending the public comment period on the draft biological evaluations for atrazine, propanezine and simazine to give stakeholders more time to review and comment. The current comment period was set to close on Jan. 5, 2021, and EPA is extending the comment period an additional 45 days. Comments can be submitted to docket EPAHQ-OPP-2020-0514 on www.regulations.gov.
EPA will use feedback received from the public comment period to inform the final biological evaluations.
View the draft biological evaluations and supporting documents.
Background
In November 2020 EPA released its draft biological evaluations for atrazine, propazine and simazine for public review and comment. Biological evaluations are the beginning of EPA's Endangered Species Act consultation review process where the agency determines whether a pesticide may affect one or more individuals of a listed species and their designated critical habitats. (EPA December 23, 2020) https://www.epa.gov/pesticides/commentperiod-extended-atrazine-propazine-and-simazinedraft-biological-evaluations
## EPA INCREASES TRANSPARENCY FOR INERT INGREDIENTS IN ANTIMICROBIAL PRODUCTS
In support of the Trump Administration's ongoing commitment to increase transparency and at the request of retailers, states, and industry, EPA is allowing registrants of antimicrobial pesticide products to more efficiently disclose inert ingredients. Through today's action, consumers will be able to view inert ingredients for certain products by following a QR code or website link included on a product's label.
An inert ingredient is any substance other than an active ingredient that is intentionally included in a pesticide product. Inert ingredients play a key role in the effectiveness of a pesticidal product. For example, in some instances, inert ingredients are added to extend the product's shelf-life. The term "inert" does not imply that the chemical is nontoxic.
Websites referenced on product labels are considered labeling under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act. In these cases, companies must self-certify that the information provided on the website is consistent with their latest Confidential Statement of Formula.
Currently, the scope of this policy is limited to antimicrobial pesticide products. The agency may consider expanding to conventional pesticide and biopesticide products in the future.
For more information, please visit EPA's website.
Background
Disclosure of inert ingredients is voluntary. There is no statutory or regulatory requirement at the federal level to identify inert ingredients except where it has been required on a caseby-case basis. In such cases, the guidelines for voluntary inert ingredient disclosure do not apply. (EPA December 10, 2020) https://www.epa.gov/pesticides/epa-increasestransparency-inert-ingredients-antimicrobialproducts
## TEXAS A&M PROJECT FOCUSES ON GENETIC ENGINEERING TO CONTROL MOSQUITOES
To control mosquito populations and prevent them from transmitting diseases such as malaria, many researchers are pursuing strategies in mosquito genetic engineering. A new Texas A&M AgriLife Research project aims to enable temporary "test runs" of proposed genetic changes in mosquitoes, after which the changes remove themselves from the mosquitoes' genetic code.
The project's first results were published on Dec. 28 in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, titled "Making gene drive biodegradable."
Zach Adelman, Ph.D, and Kevin Myles, Ph.D., both professors in the Texas A&M College of Agriculture and Life Sciences Department of Entomology are the principal investigators.
Over five years, the team will receive $3.9 million in funding from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases to test and tune the self-deleting gene technology.
"People are wary of transgenes spreading in the environment in an uncontrolled manner. We feel that ours is a strategy to potentially prevent that from happening," Adelman said. "The idea is, can we program a transgene to remove itself? Then, the gene won't persist in the environment.
'What it really comes down to is, how do you test a gene drive in a real-world scenario?' he added. 'What if a problem emerges? We think ours is one possible way to be able to do risk assessment and field testing.'
## A crucial target for mosquito control
Many genetic engineering proposals revolve around inserting into mosquitoes a select set of new genes along with a 'gene drive.' A gene drive is a genetic component that forces the new genes to spread in the population.
'A number of high-profile publications have talked about using a gene drive to control mosquitoes, either to change them so they can't transmit malaria parasites anymore, or to kill off all the females so the population dies out,' Adelman said.
An often-voiced worry is that such genetic changes could carry unintended or harmful consequences.
## One plan makes the cut
In the project's first publication, the colleagues describe three ways for an introduced genetic change to remove itself after a designated period of time. The time period could, for instance, be 20 generations of mosquitoes, or
about a year. The team modeled how the genes would spread among mosquitoes based on generation times and parameters of an average mosquito's life. Of the three methods, the team has chosen one to pursue further.
This method takes advantage of a process all animals use to repair damaged DNA, Adelman said. Inside cell nuclei, repair enzymes search for repeated genetic sequences around broken DNA strands. The repair enzymes then delete what's between the repeats, he said.
So, Adelman and Myles' team plans to test in fruit flies and mosquitoes a gene drive, a DNAcutting enzyme and a small repeat of the insect's own DNA.
Once the introduced enzyme cuts the DNA, the insect's own repair tools should jump into action. The repair tools will cut out the genes for the gene drive and the other added sequences. At least, that's what should happen in theory.
Failure is not just an option, it's part of the plan
The team has already started lab work to test different gene drives and determine how long they last in flies and mosquitoes. The goal is to see a gene drive spread rapidly through a lab insect population. After a few generations, the added genes should disappear and the population should again consist of wild-type individuals.
'We assigned various rates of failure for how often the mechanism does not work as expected,' Adelman said. "The models predict that even with a very high rate of failure, if it succeeds just 5% of the time, that's still enough to get rid of the transgene." (PCT Online January 5, 2021) https://www.pctonline.com/article/texasmamosquito-control-genetic-engineering/
## NEW DICAMBA LAWSUIT
In what is becoming a familiar cycle, a group of environmental and farm groups have filed a lawsuit challenging EPA's latest round of dicamba herbicide registrations.
The lawsuit was filed by the same groups whose lawsuit against the 2018 dicamba registrations ended in a federal court vacating three dicamba registrations on June 3 of this year. See more here: https://www.dtnpf.com/...
The plaintiffs in that lawsuit -- National Family Farm Coalition, Center for Food Safety, Center for Biological Diversity and Pesticide Action Network - had vowed to challenge the EPA's new 2020 registrations of XtendiMax (Bayer), Engenia (BASF) and Tavium (Syrngenta) after they were announced in late October.
Now they have followed through, with a five-page filing in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in San Francisco, the same court that oversaw their earlier lawsuit as well.
The new dicamba lawsuit echoes the plaintiffs' past successful lawsuit against EPA in many ways. As in that older lawsuit, the plaintiffs argue that EPA broke its governing law, the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) when it granted unconditional five-year registrations for three dicamba herbicides by failing to prove the new registrations pose "no unreasonable adverse effects on the environment." And once again, the new lawsuit alleges that EPA violated the Endangered Species Act (ESA) by not consulting with the required federal agencies to ensure the new registrations wouldn't harm any endangered species or critical habitats -- a charge the court declined to consider in the past lawsuit.
But the new lawsuit also challenges EPA's sudden decision to disallow states' use of Section 24(c) special local need labels to further restrict the federal dicamba labels without "holding notice and comment on the decision," as the agency had
promised states it would do. (See more here: https://www.dtnpf.com/...).
Ultimately, the new lawsuit asks the Ninth Circuit to vacate the 2020 dicamba registrations and "craft equitable ... relief to prohibit any continued use of existing, already sold pesticide products," a callback to the EPA's decision to allow farmers and applicators to use existing stocks of dicamba after the court vacated the 2018 registrations back in June. Finally, the new lawsuit asks the court to find that EPA's unilateral decision to end restrictive 24(c) labels violates the Administrative Procedure Act and provide relief.
Two of the dicamba registrants whose products are implicated in the lawsuit -- Bayer and Syngenta -- told DTN they are reviewing the filing. Bayer's statement also stressed that the company does not believe the lawsuit will affect farmers' access to its XtendiMax herbicide in 2021.
"We are reviewing the filing, which has no immediate impact on our ability to bring XtendiMax to growers this season or on growers' ability to use XtendiMax this season," Bayer said in an emailed statement. "We look forward to bringing XtendiMax to growers and helping them have a successful 2021 season and beyond."
See the filing here: https://www.centerforfoodsafety.org/...
(Progressive Farmer, December 22, 2020) https://www.dtnpf.com/agriculture/web/ag/crops/art icle/2020/12/22/enviro-groups-sue-epa-newdicamba
STATES CHALLENGE US EPA REVISIONS TO FARMWORKER SAFETY RULE
California, New York and three other US states are challenging the Trump administration's revisions to an EPA farmworker safety rule. They allege that the changes have illegally weakened protections for farmworkers and the public.
The rule in question revamps a provision of the Worker Protection Standard (WPS) called the Application Exclusion Zone (AEZ), which effectively creates a buffer zone around pesticide application equipment and requires the area to be free of all individuals except the applicator when a pesticide is being applied.
When finalized in 2015, the WPS set the AEZ at 25 feet (7.6 m) in all directions for ground pesticide applications when sprayed from a height of more than 12 inches (30 cm) and 100 feet in all directions for all other kinds of outdoor aerial pesticide applications.
The revisions, finalized in late October, left those standards in place but narrowed the rest of the AEZ language to make it "easier to ensure people near our nation's farms are protected, while simultaneously enhancing the workability of these provisions for farm owners and protecting the environment", according to EPA Administrator Andrew Wheeler.
Under the new rule, the AEZ requirements only apply within boundaries of the agricultural establishment, a change called for by state regulators who were worried about enforcing the provision.
Farm owners and their immediate family members are now exempt from all aspects of the AEZ requirements and can shelter inside closed buildings during pesticide applications. The EPA added clarifying language so that pesticide applications that are suspended because of individuals entering an AEZ may be resumed after they have left the
area. It also simplified criteria to determine whether applications are subject to the 25- or 100-ft A EZ.
## Worry about increased risks
While the American Farm Bureau Federation, the National Association of State Departments of Agriculture and other ag interests welcome the changes, states say that the EPA is ignoring risks to public health from pesticides.
'Day in and day out, agricultural workers are exposed to increased health risks as essential workers during the Covid-19 pandemic,' said California Attorney General Xavier Becerra. 'The Trump Administration's decision to undercut existing public health protections for these workers is not only reprehensible - it's illegal. We're going to court to prove it.'
Illinois, Maryland and Minnesota have filed the suit along with California and New York, alleging that the EPA had "departed from the Agency's recent prior position without adequate justification or factual support".
Filed in the US District Court for the Southern District of New York, the complaint questions the EPA's analysis of the costs and benefits of the new rule and alleges that it has failed to provide a "reasonable and adequate explanation" for the changes as required by the Administrative Procedure Act.
In addition to harming workers and potentially members of the public near treated fields, the states say that they will face "an increased enforcement burden" against pesticide exposure because they will no longer be able to refer AEZ violations to EPA and "will bear the full enforcement burden of ensuring compliance with more protective standards".
The states add that they will have to expend "greater enforcement resources because the Final Rule makes it more difficult to determine whether pesticide contact has occurred after a farmerr efalls ill."
"States will need to take samples and often get a medical diagnosis from a doctor for any ailments stemming from pesticide exposure, which can be difficult to determine," states the complaint. "These processes will cost plaintiffs extra time, money, and resources." (Connect AGRIBUSINESS, January 4, 2021)
## NEW 2,4-D AND DICAMBA DATA
State regulators are reeling from a sudden apparent policy change by EPA that will make restricting pesticides -- such as dicamba -- beyond the federal label much harder for states to accomplish in the years ahead.
The policy change was announced in a single footnote, buried amid dozens of pages of regulatory documents accompanying EPA's three new dicamba registrations released on Oct. 30. The footnote is only three sentences long, but it packs a punch, regulators and legal experts said. It will require states to go through state law or rulemaking processes if they want to further restrict a federal pesticide, like dicamba.
That means in 2021, most states may be limited to the federal dicamba labels, and unable to implement local dicamba cutoffs and restrictions before the spray season. Only Arkansas' cutoff date of May 25, which has gone through a state rulemaking process each year, is likely to remain in place.
That footnote also reverses decades of precedent, breaks EPA's past promises to the states and threatens to damage the longstanding cooperative relationship between federal and state regulators.
At issue is Section 24(a) and 24(c) of the Federal, Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), EPA's governing law. Section 24(a) establishes that states have the right to regulate federal pesticides through state legislatures or rulemaking procedures, a time-consuming and often political process that can take years.
Section 24(c) is more nimble. It grants states the right to issue "special local needs labels" on an annual basis, to address local agricultural, environmental or public health needs by granting "additional uses" to federal pesticide labels.
For nearly three decades, EPA has interpreted Section 24(c) as also permitting states to "impose more restrictive measures" to federal labels. In 1996, the agency formalized this interpretation and published it as a guidance for states; it still stands on the agency's website
here: https://www.epa.gov/… Restrictive 24(c) state labels became particularly popular starting in 2017, as states used special local needs labels to further restrict dicamba pesticides in an effort to control widespread off-target injury reports from the herbicides.
## THE FIRST STIRRINGS OF CHANGE
In the spring of 2019, in the midst of yet another wave of state-by-state restrictions to EPA's federal dicamba labels, the agency issued a warning to the states that it was "re-evaluating" this practice and might not allow it to continue, because it violated the actual language of Section 24(c).
See more here: https://www.dtnpf.com/…
State regulators rushed to defend the practice, and pesticide officials from 10 states across the country wrote to EPA urging them not to change this policy. So did the National Association of State Departments of Agriculture (NASDA) and the Association of American Pesticide Control Officials (AAPCO).
Rick Keigwin, then director of the EPA's Office of Pesticide Programs, reassured the states that no changes would be made to the agency's 24(c) interpretation without their input.
'Before adopting any changes in this regard, we will solicit public comment on our proposed new approaches,' Keigwin wrote to both AAPCO and Alabama state regulators in letters sent in the spring and summer of 2019. 'We look forward to a robust public dialogue with our stakeholders, partners and co-regulators on this matter.'
## EPA DROPS ITS DECISION -- SORT OF
"robust public dialogue" never happened, state regulators told DTN.
"There was no public comment period, no consultation," said Leo Reed, an Indiana pesticide regulator and president of AAPCO.
Instead, on page 20 of an EPA document supporting the new 2020 dicamba registrations, EPA included a single footnote, stating that:
"FIFRA section 24(a) allows a state to regulate pesticides more restrictively than EPA under the state's own authority. However, some of the states that have imposed cut-off dates on dicamba uses have done so under section 24(c). Section 24(c) only authorizes states to issue registrations for additional uses of federal registrations to meet special local needs; if states wish to impose further restrictions on the dicamba products, or any other federally registered pesticides, they should do so under section 24(a) of FIFRA."
In an emailed response to DTN, EPA confirmed that this footnote represents an official change to its policy for all pesticides, stating that: "EPA has determined that moving forward, EPA may disapprove any state registrations under FIFRA section 24(c) that further restrict use of pesticides registered by EPA, regardless of the chemicals involved. If a state wishes to further restrict use of a pesticide, they must do so under section 24(a) of FIFRA."
The agency said the previously promised public comment period was "not appropriate as section 24(c) is being properly interpreted as written."
However, for now, the agency's guidance to Section 24(c), which permits additional state restrictions, still stands on its website.
The result is that state officials remain in a confusing legal limbo, said Brook Duer, a staff attorney at Penn State's Center for Agricultural and Shale Law.
While EPA's stance might be supported by the language of the law, the longstanding, published
interpretation permitting 24(c) restrictions represents what's known as a "binding norm" under federal administrative law, he said. "So unilaterally reversing it through a footnote, without a more transparent and public process -- like what EPA previously represented would be undertaken -- is certainly unorthodox and may even create the basis for litigation to prevent the reversal," Duer said.
"This is still totally up in the air," he added. "There's no guidance on what happens to restrictive 24(c) labels that are in effect right now -- is this a blanket invalidation of them all?"
In its press release announcing the new dicamba registrations and noting this change to 24(c), EPA linked to a very specific portion of its 24(c) guidance, a section that prohibits states from issuing labels that would "negate or void" federal label restrictions. That suggests this might be how the agency intends to implement this sudden policy change without any public deliberation, Duer said. But that portion of the guidance is immediately followed by sections of equal weight that specifically permit restrictive state 24(c) measures, he added.
"So they are cherry-picking their own previous guidance to fit the argument they suddenly want to make now," he said. "If that sounds shifty, it's because it is."
'This is not how a federal agency should be conducting itself,' he added. "Doing [this] as a footnote and slipped into a press release does not engender a positive relationship with the states who are a significant portion of the 'boots on the ground' in pesticide regulation for the benefit of all.'
## STATE REGULATORS REACT
State pesticide regulators told DTN the move by EPA was surprising and demoralizing.
"That was disappointing," said Rose Kachadoorian, a pesticide regulator from Oregon, a state with dozens of 24(c) registrations in place. "We are coregulators with EPA, and we believe we have a good relationship with EPA. But this doesn't feel like a co-regulator relationship. A change in the agency's interpretation of a law should go through a
public process, especially when it deviates from a longstanding practice that EPA has said was fine in [its written guidance]."
States do still have the authority from Section 24(a) to create more restrictions on federally registered pesticides, AAPCO's Reded said. But he worries that forcing states to create entirely new state rules or laws regarding a pesticide limits their ability to react quickly to new pesticides or new environmental conditions or concerns.
The new federal dicamba labels, for example, list specific cutoff dates: June 30 in soybeans and July 30 in cotton. Those dates aren't necessarily best for every cotton- and soybean-producing state, which range widely in geography, climate and landscape, noted Josh Stamper, a Minnesota pesticide regulator. His state has enacted a June 20-cutoff date for the past three years for dicamba use.
"Every year, we've worked with commodity groups, registrants and universities to evaluate, do we need any last-minute changes? Should we extend the cutoff date?" he explained. "The challenge with using rulemaking instead of 24(c) is that it doesn't give you the ability to respond to changing rules, changing needs or changing weather."
State rulemaking processes can vary, but for many states, proposing, drafting, accepting public comment on new regulations and working through legislatures to enact them can take at least two years, added AAPCO's Reed.
"And in the meantime, your flexibility is gone," he noted. "Once that regulation is in place, if you need to tighten it or change it, that's another two-year process."
Kachadoorian said regulators are also frustrated that it appears EPA is altering its stance on 24(c) to address a single pesticide, dicamba, potentially at the expense of countless other pesticides that require state-specific restrictive 24(c) labels.
"This was never a problem until the dicamba situation," she said.
The policy change could force some states not to register federally registered pesticides if they have
any local ecological or public health concerns, the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation told DTN in an email.
"In the past, New York State may have used the 24(c) special local needs process to register these [kinds of] products with New York State-specific restrictions," the agency statement said. "Without the option to use more restrictive 24(c) special local need registrations, these pesticides will likely not be approved for registration, making them unavailable for use in the state."
EPA ending states' ability to add their own restrictions to federal dicamba labels is especially frustrating, given that state regulators -- who are responsible for implementing and enforcing federal labels -- had no input in their development, Reed said. As a result, many concerns state regulators have raised about the language, complexity and enforceability of dicamba herbicide labels were left unaddressed once again, he said.
"These dicamba registrations were negotiated solely between the registrants and the EPA," he said. "AAPCO and its committees did offer to review any specific label language for clarity and enforceability; we made that offer to both the agency and the registrants. That hasn't happened."
## LOOKING AHEAD
Going forward, states may find it hard to challenge EPA's new stance on 24(c) in court, despite the long-standing precedent it ends, in part because the move was so unusual, Duer added.
"I think it will be hard to get very clear, precedentsetting cases that will help states try to stick up for their ability to continue to use restrictive 24(c)'s," he said.
Nor are they likely to have the resources to devote to that, especially with state regulators staring down another season of dicamba use, which has eaten up large amounts of state pesticide regulators' budgets and time in past years. In Indiana, for example, the Indiana Office of State Chemist estimates 35% of the state's entire pesticide enforcement budget went to policing dicamba use in 2020, as well as 30% in 2019 and 60% in 2018.
"I don't know if states will be the ones to spend their limited resources in court over this particular issue," Duer said. "They are in a real bind."
(Progressive Farmer, December 7, 2020) https://www.dtnpf.com/agriculture/web/ag/crops/art icle/2020/12/07/four-things-missouri-scientists-2-4
## US EPA MULLS SETTLEMENT OVER AGCHEM ASSESSMENT LAWSUITS
The US EPA is seeking public comments on a proposed out-of-court settlement on lawsuits alleging that it failed to adequately assess the potential harm of four active ingredients on endangered species. The settlement relates to lawsuits brought by US environmental group Center for Biological Diversity in 2015 and 2016 on approvals of: ChemChina subsidiary Syngenta's herbicide, bicyclopyrone, and its fungicide, benzovindiflupyr (trade-marked as Solatenol); Bayer's Crop Science division's insecticide, flupyradifurone; and Corteva legacy company Dow AgroSciences' herbicide, halauxien-methyl (trademarked as Arylex).
Under the proposed settlement, the parties, which include the ai registrants, will ask the court to order the EPA to complete final biological evaluations on two of the ais by September 30th 2025 and the remaining two by September 30th 2027. These dates could be extended if specific events occur, such as the extension of a comment period.
The EPA should initiate consultations with the National Marine Fisheries Service and/or the Fish and Wildlife Service as appropriate, based on the outcome of the evaluations. Within three months of it issuing draft biological evaluations or no later than December 2024 and December 2026, the parties would meet and discuss potential interim measures.
Public comments on the proposed settlement are requested by January 14th 2021.
The lawsuits represent a long-running dispute over compliance with the US Endangered Species Act . Since 2012, the EPA, the wildlife agencies and the USDA have been trying to implement recommendations to improve the assessment process. The EPA is required to consult wildlife agencies, but few consultations have been completed because of disagreements over assessments. This has resulted in numerous legal challenges by environmentalist groups against pesticide approvals and frustration for the industry over delayed procedures. (Connect AGRIBUSINESS, December 29, 2020)
## CEU Meetings
Please note that many of these meetings are now being done virtual. Please contact the meeting host directly if you have any questions.
```
Date: January 18-19, 2021
Title: OAAA
Location: Virtual
Contact: Sandy Wells (405) 431-0381
sandy@okaaaa.org
```
```
```
```
Date: February 24, 2021 CANCELED
Title: 2021 Veseris Annual CEU Workshop
Training
Location: Canceled
Contact: Deb Chambers (918) 630-3222
Category(s):
2 3A
3 7A
2 7B
```
```
Date: January 20, 2021
Title: Red River Crops Conference
Location: Virtual
Contact: Gary Strickland (580) 477-7962
https://www.eventbrite.com/e/red-river-crops-
conference-tickets-131490516675
CEU's:
3
3
```
## ODAFF Approved Online CEU Course Links
Online Pest Control Courses https://www.onlinepestcontrolcourses.com/
PestED.com https://www.pested.com/
Certified Training Institute https://www.certifiedtraininginstitute.com/
WSU URBAN IPM AND PESTICIDE SAFETY EDUCATION PROGRAM https://pep.wsu.edu/rcrt/receptorline/
CEU University http://www.ceuschool.org/
Technical Learning College http://www.abctlc.com/
All Star Pro Training www.allstarce.com
Wood Destroying Organism Inspection Course www.nachi.org/wdocourse.htm
CTN Educational Services Inc http://ctnedu.com/oklahoma\_applicator\_enroll.html
Pest Network http://www.pestnetwork.com/
Veseris http://www.pestweb.com/
AG CEU Online https://agecuonelin.com/courses/state/37
For more information and an updated list of CEU meetings, click on this link: http://www.kellysolutions.com/OK/applicators/course/searchCourseTitle.asp
If you have questions on pesticide certification. Please email or call: Kevin Shelton 405-744-1060 Charles Luper 405-744-5808 charles.luper@okstate.edu
## ODAFF Test Information
Testing dates and locations may be limited due to the Covid-19 emergency.
Testing will be done at testing centers in multiple locations around the state by PSI Services LLC.
For more information and instructions please go to http://pested.okstate.edu/html/new-odaff-testingprocedure or the PSI exam information website www.psiexams.com/.
Reservation must be made in advance at www.psiexams.com/ or call 855-579-4643
PSI locations.
Oklahoma City I 3800 N Classen Blvd, Ste C-20, Oklahoma City, OK 73118
Oklahoma City II NW 23rd St and Villa Avenue, Suite 60, Shepherd Mall Office Complex, Oklahoma City, OK 73107
Tulsa, 2816 East 51St Street, Suite 101, Tulsa, OK 74105
McAlester 21 East Carl Albert Parkway (US Hwy 270), McAlester, Oklahoma 74501
Woodward 1915 Oklahoma Ave, Suite 3, Woodward, OK 73801
Lawton Great Plains Technology Center, 4500 West Lee Blvd Building 300- RM 308, Lawton, OK 73505
Enid Autry Technology Center, 1201 W. Willow Rd, Enid, OK 73703
Ponca City Pioneer Technology Center, 2101 N Ash, Ponca City, OK 74601
Find us on Twitter at @OkstatePestEd
Pesticide Safety Education Program |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/anson-county-forestry-impacts-2014 | Anson County Forestry Impacts 2014 | NC State Extension | [
"Laurel Kays",
"Robert Bardon",
"Dennis Hazel"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Environmental Resources",
"Publications"
] | NC | ## Anson County Forestry Impacts 2014
## Forestry Impacts
Department
Forestry & Environmental Resources
Series
Forestry Impacts
Publication Date
Jan. 8, 2018
Authors
Laurel Kays
Robert Bardon
Dennis Hazel
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=anson - county-forestry-impacts-2014#zoom=page-fit
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/landscaping/soil-descriptions-and-plant-selections-for-bullock-county/ | Soil Descriptions and Plant Selections for Bullock County | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Charles C. Mitchell",
"Donn Rodekohr",
"David L. Koon"
] | 2018-08-09 | [
"Landscaping",
"Soil Descriptions",
"Plant Selections"
] | AL | ## Soil Descriptions and Plant Selections for Bullock County
Bullock County contains a wide variety of soil types, providing a challenge to homeowners selecting landscape plants. Soil types in
Bullock include clayey, alkaline Black Belt soils; sandy, well-drained coastal plain soils; clayey acidic Black
coastal plain soils; clayey acidic Black Belt soils; river terraces
and wetlands. This contains detailed descriptions of each soil type and a color-coded map of the county and also includes tips for tree and plant selection.
Homes are found throughout rural Bullock County on a diversity of soils unlike any other region of the South North of Union Springs are alkaline and acidic, clayey soils of the Alabama Black Belt prairie region (17.2%). Most of the county has sand and loamy upland soils of the Coastal Plain (61.5%) The rest are alluvial terraces and floodplains of rivers and creeks (8.2%), wetlands and other soils (12.2%), and water (0.9%).
Care should be taken when setting out new landscape plants grown in containers. Avoid digging a hole and putting the new plant in it. This can create what is known as the bathtub effect. The hole can fill with water, which will not drain, and the new plant will die. Mix amendments with the clayey soil and take care to spread the roots of the container-grown plant. Plant high and mulch well. Keep new plants watered in dry weather.
Cultivation may be difficult because of the plastic-like nature of these soils. They dry out slowly and become very hard when dry. Spring tillage is often difficult because of wet soils.
Therefore, use a minimum amount of tillage once raised beds are formed. Lots of organic amendments help drainage. Don't add sand as this only makes these soils more concrete-like in dry weather.
## Cookie Notice
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacyph\_pureceti for i ng periods c tir un and may have a risk of flooding. Most are in the flood plains of major rivers and streams. Excessive wetness limits the use of these
## Sandy, Well-Drained, Coastal Plain Soils (61.5%)
These soils are naturally acidic and will require ground limestone and fertilizing according to a soil test for most landscape plants and garden crops. A reddish orange subsoil color is one indication of a well-drained soil.
Surface soils could be very sandy, loamy, or clayey, but all are low in soil organic matter and benefit from generous and frequent applications of organic matter, compost, and mulches.
Frequent cultivation or filling can actually destroy surface soil structure so that hard crusts form after a rain. Plow pans or traffic pans can form 4 to 8 inches deep, which prevent roots from growing deeply and can perch water during wet weather. Farmers use subsoliding to break up these hard pans.
Gardeners can use a spade to cut slits into the subsoil or double digging to break through these dense hard pans. Raised beds are not necessary if these soils drain well.
If raised beds are used, additional irrigation during dry weather will be needed.
Erosion may be a high risk if the land is cleared and cultivated because many of these soils are on slopes. Soils have no limitations or only slight limitations for small structures, streets, landscaping, and septic tank filter fields.
Most landscape, orchard, and garden plants associated with the southern United States will grow well if properly cultivated. Acidloving plants requiring a well-drained soil do well with reasonable management. These plants include azalea, blueberry, camellia, gardenia, hydrangea, centipedesgrass, magnolia, and pine trees.
## River Terraces and Soils That May Flood (8.2%)
These soils are mostly level and may range from sandy to have a risk of flooding. Most are in the flood plains of major rivers and streams. Excessive wetness limits the use of these
soils, but they provide excellent forests and habitat for wildlife. Drainage is required for most uses other than woodland and wildlife habitat. Some of the better drained river terrace soils have been used for crop production. Most of these soils are unsuitable for home construction due to wetness, flooding, and septic tank failures. Try to protect riparian areas near streams in order to prevent stream bank erosion and to protect water quality.
## Wetlands and Other Soils (12.2%)
Consulting a detailed soil map of Bullock County will be helpful for large tracts of land.
## Double Digging
Double digging is a technique used to break up hard, compacted soils, relieve hardpans, and create a deep rooting environment in sandy to loamy soils. Double digging is ideal for creating small beds or for working up rows of garden crops for sandy or loamy soils. This technique is not necessary for cracking clays. Vegetable gardens will find it easier to double dig directly under the row and maintain this row for several years without additional tillage.
The technique consists of digging a trench the depth of the shovel where the row is to be and placing the topsoil from the trench to one side of the row. Once the trench is dug, add ground limestone to the bottom of the trench, usually about 2 pounds per 20 feet of trench, if needed. In the bottom of the
## Print "Plant Selection & Soil Types" table from our website.
Charles C. Mitchell, Extension Specialist, Professor, Agronomy and Soils, Auburn University, Don Rodekohr, Advisor Natural Resource Program, and David L. Koon, Regional Extension Agent, Home Grounds. Photos courtesy of Joey Shaw , Alumni Professor, Agronomy and Soils, Auburn University
Reviewed October 2021, Soil Descriptions and Plant Selections for Bullock County, ANR-1375
Download this article as a PDF
(https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ANR-1375.REV.\_2.pdf) Soil Descriptions and Plant Selections for Bullock County.ANR-1375 (https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ANR-1375\_REV\_.2.pdf)
## Cookie Notice
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php) |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/beef-conformation-hind-legs/ | Beef Conformation: Hind Legs | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"David L. Daniel Jr.",
"Lisa A. Kriese-Anderson"
] | 2018-09-24 | [
"Beef",
"Agriculture",
"Livestock"
] | AL | <!-- This page is cached by the Hummingbird Performance plugin v3.6.0 - https://wordpress.org/plugins/hummingbird-performance/. --><!DOCTYPE html>
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margin: 0;
padding: .5em;
}
.footable.table>thead>tr>th {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 2px solid #888;
}
tr:last-child {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 1px solid #888;
}
tbody tr:nth-of-type(odd) {
background-color: #c6ebb7 !important;
}
.ninja_button, ninja_button_print {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
line-height: 1.3333333;
padding: 14px 20px !important;
border-radius: 0;
display: inline-block;
text-align: center;
white-space: nowrap;
vertical-align: middle;
touch-action: manipulation;
cursor: pointer;
user-select: none;
background-image: none;
border: 1px solid #0000;
margin-bottom: 10px;
}
.screen-reader-text {
clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px);
height: 1px;
overflow: hidden;
position: absolute !important;
width: 1px;
word-wrap: normal !important;
}
/* slide show below nav home page */
body.home header#header {
position: relative !important;
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (min-height:770px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 82vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (max-height:769px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 150vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
.dae-headline img {
max-height: 18vh !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 42vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 55% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 6vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth, #rev_slider_24_1_wrapper {
height:42% !important;
max-height:42% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) and (max-width:600px) {
.tp-caption.tp-resizeme {
font-size: 22px!important;
line-height: 22px!important;
}
}
/*slide show text area shadow*/
.rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 35%;
top: 65%;
background: linear-gradient(to top, rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .5), rgba(0, 0, 0, .4), rgba(0, 0, 0, .2), rgba(0, 0, 0, 0));
}
.category .rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .category .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 100%;
top: 100%;
}
.category .tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 0;
}
/*Topic page slider*/
.Newspaper-Button, tp-caption.Newspaper-Button {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-width: 0 !important;
color: #424242!important;
padding: 13px 18px!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase!important;
letter-spacing: 0 !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, sans-serif !important;
}
/*GDPR cookie notice*/
#cookie-notice {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
background-color: #fff;
letter-spacing: .5px;
}
/* Remove underline in footer logos */
.logo-wrapper a {
border: none !important;
}
/*MY ACES Add Bookmark*/
.btn-add-bookmark {
display: none;
}
/* after slider padding for lead*/
.lead {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/*header-top*/
.header-top .top-menu-right {
background-color: #f9f9f9cc!important;
}
/*header-top blue link text*/
.header-top .top-menu-right a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
}
/*recent articles*/
.work-entry {
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*recent articles blue link text*/
.work-entry a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*topic page link color (needs to be darker over gray backgorund)*/
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added p {
min-height: inherit;
/*(old)color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #366d21;
}
/*We Grow Alabama cards*/
.sb-value-added {
color:#fff;
background-color: #00000090!important;
}
/*Grow green*/
.green-color {
/*color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #76CF3A;
}
/*we Grow Alabama numbers*/
.sb-value-added h5 {
padding-top:0;
font-size: 1.4em;
}
/*after numbers*/
h5 .small, h5 small {
font-weight: 400;
line-height: 1;
color: #959595 !important;
}
/*calendar band background*/
.event-ticker {
/*(old)background-color: #4f9c2e;*/
background-color: #438528;
}
/*calendar band event name*/
#vertical-ticker li h5.event-name {
/*#fff;
margin: 8px 0 2px;*/
font-size: 1em;
}
body.home header#header {
top: 0;
}
.gform_wrapper ul.gfield_checkbox li label, .gform_wrapper ul.gfield_radio li label {padding-left: 30px !important;}
.anchor {
position: absolute;
padding-top: 36px;
margin-top: -36px;
}
/*Gravity Form submit button*/
.gform_footer .btn-primary {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
}
.post-info-header-category, .post-info-header-logo, .footer-print {
display: none;
}
/*printer icon*/
a.aces-print-article {
cursor:pointer;
text-decoration:underline;
}
li.aces-print i.fa-cloud-download, li.aces-print i.fa-print {
padding-right: 7px !important;
}
/*byline line break for mobile*/
@media (min-width: 991px) {
.byline-mobile-line-break {
display:none;
}
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
.read-time {
text-align: center;
border: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
background: #f9f9f9;
color: #000!important;
border-radius: 4px;
padding: 10px 4px 3px;
font-weight: 700!important;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
}
/*About Us card deck*/
.card-margin-top {
margin-top: 1em;
}
/*About Us category text adjustment*/
.category-about-us .subcat-content, .category-aamu .subcat-content {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
padding: 20px 0;
}
/*About Us category remove dateline*/
.category-about-us.post-meta-info-content ul:first-child {
display: none !important;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.cat-4h, .cat-about-4-h, .cat-family-resources-4-h, .cat-volunteer-resources-4-h, .cat-programs-4-h, .cat-animals-4-h, .cat-arts-4-h, .cat-healthy-living-4-h, .cat-leadership-4-h, .cat-outdoor-education-4-h, .cat-science-technology-4-h, .cat-how-to-give-4-h, .cat-support-4-h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.post-format.cat-4h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* Gravity Forms OTHER spacing 2023-05-23 JMH*/
.gform_wrapper input:not([type=radio]):not([type=checkbox]):not([type=submit]):not([type=button]):not([type=image]):not([type=file]) {
padding: 5px 2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size for line height is fixed error*/
.topic-list .sb-value-added p {
line-height: 1.2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size adjustment when there is not an image for the topic link. 2019-08-16 RFF & JMH */
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added .service-block-title-large {
margin: 0 !important;
font-size: inherit !important;
}
/* Alert Menu */
.header-alert, .bg-alert {
background: #ee2400;
color: white;
}
.header-alert .navbar-nav>li>a {
text-transform: none;
}
.alert-btn {
background-color: #ee2400;
border-color: #ee2400;
color: white;
margin: 5px;
}
.nav>li>a.alert-link {
display: none;
background-color: #ee2400;
}
/*Ex TV*/
.navbar-nav>li>a.extv-link {
text-transform: none;
}
/*page icon for video pages*/
.page-header .post-format {
background-size: 65%;
}
/*video embed resposive*/
.embed-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden; max-width: 100%;
}
.embed-container iframe, .embed-container object, .embed-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
/* ExTV dark */
.category-extv .main-wrapper, .category-extv .association, .category-extv .assoc-entry, .category-extv .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv .association h1, .category-extv .association h2, .category-extv .association h3, .category-extv .association h4, .category-extv .association h5, .category-extv .association h6,
.category-extv-dark .main-wrapper, .category-extv-dark .association, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv-dark .association h1, .category-extv-dark .association h2, .category-extv-dark .association h3, .category-extv-dark .association h4, .category-extv-dark .association h5, .category-extv-dark .association h6 {
background: rgb(31, 31, 31);
color: #fff;
}
.category-extv .association .sub-divider-new, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new {
border-color: rgb(31, 31, 31);
}
.category-extv .main-wrapper a, .category-extv .association a, .category-extv .assoc-entry a, .category-extv-dark .main-wrapper a, .category-extv-dark .association a, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry a {
color:white;
}
.category-extv-dark article.assoc-entry::first-child, .category-extv article.assoc-entry::first-child {
visibility:hidden;
}
.post-grid-assoc {
border: 1px solid #454545;
}
.directory-listing, .event-listing, .search-results {
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
/*mobile phone inline image fix 07-12-2021 JMH*/
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
margin: 10px !important;
}
}
/*counties*/
.subcat-content {
padding-top: 20px;
}
.county-columns {
columns: 140px 5;
line-height: 3em;
padding: 20px 0 20px;
}
@media (min-width: 768px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 2em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 992px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.7em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 1200px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.6em;
}
}
/* end counties */
/* Custom Gallery */
.custom-gallery {
margin: auto;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-item {
float: left;
margin-top: 10px;
text-align: center;
width: 33%;
}
.custom-gallery img {
border: 2px solid #cfcfcf;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-caption {
margin-left: 0;
}
/* Decision Tree CSS */
.dt_display_title {
color: #1D63AB !important;
font: 700 1.5em Helvetica Nue,sans-serif !important;
font-size: 44px !important;
line-height: 1.2 !important;
}
.dt_display_question {
font-size: 16px !important;
line-height: 1.5 !important;
letter-spacing: .5px !important;
}
.dt_display_subtext {
font-style:italic !important;
padding: 10px 0 !important;
}
.dt_button, .answer-restart {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-color: #f39c12 !important;
color: #424242!important;
font-family: Helvetica Nue, sans-serif !important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
}
/* end Decision Tree CSS */
/* cookie notice container */
#cookie-notice .cookie-notice-container a {
color:#5EA1E4 !important;
}
/* footer bottom left*/
.footer-menu-left {
float: left;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.footer-menu-left li {
border-left: 1px solid rgba(255,255,255,.6);
padding: 0 10px;
line-height: 1.2;
}
.footer-menu-left li:first-child {
border-left: none;
padding-left: 0;
}
.footer-bottom-left {
color: #fff;
padding-bottom: 0;
}
.footer-bottom .footer-menu {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/* Print Stylesheet - LEAVE AT BOTTOM */
@media print {
*, ::after, ::before {
color: #000!important;
text-shadow: none !important;
background: 0 0 !important;
box-shadow: none !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, san-serif;
}
body {
--webkit-hyphens: auto;
--moz-hyphens: auto;
hyphens: auto;
}
.row-print {
min-height: 20px;
}
.post-info-header-category {
display: block;
position: absolute;
top: 13pt;
left: 15px;
max-width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-category h1 {
color: green !important;
display: inline;
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-weight: lighter;
letter-spacing: 2pt;
text-align: left;
text-transform: uppercase;
}
.post-info-header-category hr {
position: absolute;
margin-top: 0 !important;
margin-bottom: 0 !important;
width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-logo {
display: block;
padding: 0 !important;
position: absolute;
top: 0;
right: 45pt;
width: 190px !important;
text-align: right !important;
}
.main-cat-title, h1 {
font-size: 28pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
.main-cat-title {
margin-bottom: auto;
}
h1 {
font-size: 18pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
h2 {
font-size: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
color: #001a96 !important;
}
p, ul, li {
font-size: 10pt !important;
line-height: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
}
/*p img {
display: none;
}*/
img.wp-image-46702 {
display: block !important;
}
.post-media {
margin: 0 0 10px 0;
padding: 0;
border: none;
}
.image-overlay {
display: inline-block;
}
.header, .page-wrapper, div.container div.row, .forcefullwidth_wrapper_tp_banner, .post-format, .subcat-title, .breadcrumb, .read-time, .post-meta-info-content, .at-below-post, .addthis_tool .alignright, .like-dislike, span.small, .tags, aside.related-posts, .footer-inner, table, .ninja_button_print, .nt_edit_link, .btn {
display: none;
}
table.display-print {display: inline-block !important }
/*remove URL from gallery images*/
.gallery a[href]:after {
content: none;
}
.aces-pub a[href]:after {
content: " (" attr(href) ")" !important;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
.page-header {
border-bottom: none !important;
}
.logo {
margin-top: 0;
}
.subact-title {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.subact-title a {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.content-print {
column-count: 2 !important;
-webkit-column-count: 2 !important;
column-gap: 40px !important;
-webkit-column-gap: 40px !important;
}
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
}
.wp-caption-text {
font-size: 8pt !important;
line-height: 11pt !important;
}
.footer-print {
display: block !important;
}
.footer-print-logo {
max-width: 190px;
padding-bottom: 7pt;
}
.footer-print-content p {
font-family: Times New Roman, serif;
font-size: 7pt !important;
line-height: 6pt !important;
/*letter-spacing: -.1pt;*/
margin: 1pt 0 3pt !important;
}
.footer-print-content h2 {
font-size: 11pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
margin-top: 7px;
}
.footer-print-content hr {
padding: 0 !important;
margin: 0 !important;
}
h3.table_title:before {
content: 'Print "';
}
h3.table_title:after {
content:'" table from our website.';
}
/*video in print*/
iframe {
display:none;
}
iframe[src]:after {
content: " (" attr(src) ")" !important;
}
#cookie-notice {
display: none !important;
}
.cookie-notice-container {
display: none !important;
}
}
/*end print stylesheet*/
/* siteimprove suggested edits */
/* vendor.min.css:18 */
.form-background, .contact-bar {
background-color: #106522 !important;
}
blockquote {
color: #595959 !important;}
.subcat-content {
font-size: 1.3125em !important;
}
.tribe-events-content ol, .tribe-events-content p, .tribe-events-content ul {
font-size:1.125em !important;
}
/*end siteimprove suggested edits*/
</style>
</head>
<body class="aces_content_piece-template-default single single-aces_content_piece postid-6922 tribe-no-js">
<a class="skip-main" href="#main">Skip to main content</a>
<header id="header" class="header" role="banner" aria-label="site header">
<div class="page-wrapper">
<script>
function closeAlert() {
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=aces.edu; Path=/";
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=acesag.auburn.edu; Path=/";
jQuery("#headerAlert").css("display","none");
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
function showAlertMenu() {
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
</script>
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top header-top-desktop">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
<div ></div>
</li>
<div class="gtranslate_wrapper" id="gt-wrapper-50979901"></div> <li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/calendar/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o" aria-hidden="true"></i>Calendar</a></li>
<!-- 2023-11-18 RFF & JMH -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/discover/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>Discover</a></li>
<!-- <li> --> <!-- <a href="javascript:getLocation()">(Find Nearest)</a> -->
<!-- <span class="top-header-list visible-lg-inline-block hidden-md">, Hours: 7:45-11:45; 12:45-4:45 ~ Phone: (334) 844-4444</span> -->
<!-- </li> -->
<!-- 2019-08-06 JMH & RFF add store link and cart -->
<li><a href="https://secure.touchnet.net/C20021_ustores/web/store_main.jsp?STOREID=244&SINGLESTORE=true" target="_blank" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-shopping-cart" aria-hidden="true"></i>Store</a></li>
<!-- 2022-09-22 JMH add Be Prepared link and circle with exclaimation mark -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/alabama-ready/" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-exclamation-triangle" aria-hidden="true"></i>Be Prepared</a></li>
<!-- RFF removed MY ACES
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/login" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>
Sign In</a></li>
<li class="visible-xs-inline-block"><a href="https://www.aces.edu/my-aces" class="toggle-link"><i
class="fa fa-book" aria-hidden="true"></i> My ACES</a></li>
-->
</ul>
</nav>
</div><!-- /Top Menu right -->
</div>
</div> <!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
</div>
<div id="header-inner" class="header-inner">
<div class="header-middle">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<div class="left-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn btn-primary" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".header-top">
<span class="sr-only" aria-label="search category options">Toggle navigation</span>
<i class="fa fa-bars"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-8 col-xs-offset-0 col-sm-4 col-sm-offset-0 col-md-4 col-md-offset-0">
<div class="logo">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/" aria-label="Select to go to the home page"><img
src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/themes/aces-theme/assets/images/ACES-Logo.svg"
height="auto"
class="img-responsive"
style="display:inline-block;"
alt="Alabama Extension"></a>
</div>
</div>
<div class="right-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn primary-d alignright" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".search-row">
<span class="sr-only">Toggle search</span>
<i class="fa fa-search"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-2 col-md-2 search-row mobile-collapse collapse"></div><!-- 2019-12-10 RFF -->
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-6 col-md-6 search-row mobile-collapse collapse">
<div class="row">
<div class="col-lg-12">
<form id="aces-primary-search" action="https://www.aces.edu">
<div class="input-group search-wrapper" id="header-search" role="search" aria-label="search the site">
<label for="main-search" class="visually-hidden"><!-- Search articles, publications, and events -->Tell me about...</label>
<input type="text" class="form-control search-header" id="aces-primary-search-s" name="s" placeholder="Tell me about..." id="main-search" value="">
<input type="hidden" id="aces-primary-search-q" name="q">
<span class="input-group-btn right-home-search">
<button class="btn primary-d" type="submit">Search</button>
</span>
</div>
<!-- <input type="hidden" name="cat" value=""> -->
</form>
<script>
/** Applies the category selection to form. */
jQuery(document).ready(function ($) {
/* 2019-12-11 RFF - turned off.
var el = $('.search-category').on('click', function () {
var id = $(this).data('id'),
el = $('form input[name="cat"]');
el.val(id);
el.attr('value', id);
$('form span.cat-name').text($(this).text());
});
*/
/* 2020-04-23 RFF - added */
$('#aces-primary-search').submit(function(event) {
$('#aces-primary-search-q').val($('#aces-primary-search-s').val());
});
});
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<article id="post-6922" class="post-6922 aces_content_piece type-aces_content_piece status-publish has-post-thumbnail hentry category-beef tag-alabama-beef-cattle tag-anr1452 tag-beef-conformation-basics tag-hind-legs first last odd" role="article" aria-label="Beef Conformation: Hind Legs">
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<span class="small">Figure 6. Example of a sickle-hocked steer. Figure 7. Example of a post-legged female. Figure 8. Correct structure desired for angle between stifle, hock, and pastern. </span>
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<p><strong>*This is an excerpt from Beef Conformation Basics, ANR-1452.</strong></p>
<p>Hind leg structure is one of the primary indicators of an animal’s ability to move efficiently. Evaluating cattle while they are walking is one of the most efficient ways to gauge structural soundness. One way to determine if the angle of the hock is correct is if the rear foot is placed in the tracks left by the front foot when the animal is moving forward. Cattle with the ability to do this are usually structurally sound in regard to their hind leg conformation.</p>
<p>Large angles at the hock can seriously restrict the animal’s length of stride as far as the hind legs are concerned. When the angle of the hock is too large, the stifle, hock, and pastern are all pulled into a formation that is too linear to allow for adequate flexibility and proper function. Animals that suffer from this condition are said to be post legged. This condition causes problems for both market and breeding animals.</p>
<p>Both males and females that are post legged are usually less efficient and less durable in a pasture. In conditions in which cattle need to cover large areas for forage, structural integrity is of utmost importance. A similar statement can be made in regard to feedlot settings in which cattle need to be structurally sound in order to compete for feed. In regard to reproduction, bulls that are post legged can face issues when it comes to breeding due to the extreme angle of their hind legs and the fact that these legs support the bull’s weight during the act of breeding. These bulls may also face issues when it comes to traveling the distances associated with covering large groups of females in larger pasture settings.</p>
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<p>Just as the angle at the hock can be too large, it can also be too small, or acute. Cattle with this condition are commonly referred to as sickle hocked. With this condition, the angle of the hock is too small, and cattle usually have their hind legs and hooves placed too far underneath them. Cattle that are sickle hocked can sometimes overstep the hoof prints left by their front hooves. Although sickle-hocked cattle can also have an abnormal gate, this condition is far less detrimental to longevity and mobility than the short, inefficient strides seen in post-legged cattle.</p>
<p>The importance of being able to assess hind leg structure in beef cattle is vital to assessing potential longevity of the animal as it relates to structural integrity. Although no method is fail-safe, evaluating the pastern, hock, and stifle in order to see how they align is a solid step. Ideally, these three joints will align in an angle between 140 and 145 degrees. The calves shown in Figures 6 and 7 are examples of sickle-hocked and post- legged cattle, respectively. Figure 8 shows a 145-degree angle between stifle, hock, and pastern, which would fall into the ideal range.</p>
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<p><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/beef-conformation-basics/">Read here to learn more about beef conformation basics.</a></p>
<p><a href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/ANR-1452.REV_.3.pdf">Download a PDF of Beef Conformation Basics, ANR-1452.</a></p>
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https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/tippah-county-economic-well-being-and-poverty | Tippah County Economic Well-being and Poverty | MSU Extension- Tippah County | [
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith",
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Extension Center for Economic Education and Financial Literacy"
] | MS | " Publications " Publication" Tippah County Economic Well-being and Poverty
## Tippah County Economic Well-being and Poverty
Filed Under: Economic Development, Extension Center for Economic Education and Financial Literacy PUBLICATIONS Publication Number: P3267-71
View as PDF: P3267-71.pdf
Publication File:
tippah\_poverty\_presentation\_profile.pdf
Department: MSU Extension-Tippah County
Print PDF
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
Authors
Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor
Your Extension Experts
Dr. James Newton Barnes Extension Professor
Dr. Rachael Carter Extension Specialist II
Dr. Devon Patricia Mills
Assistant Professor
Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith Associate Extension Professor
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842
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PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3998
Economic and Community Development Programming in Mississippi
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3374
Recommended Oil and Gas Pre-Drill Parameters
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796
Talking Retail Trade
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/natural-and-constructed-wetlands-in-north-carolina | Natural and Constructed Wetlands in North Carolina: An Overview for Citizens | NC State Extension | [
"Mike Burchell",
"Bill Hunt"
] | null | [
"Wetlands",
"Water Quality",
"Wastewater",
"Stormwater",
"Restoration"
] | NC | ## Natural and Constructed Wetlands in North Carolina: An Overview for Citizens
Natural Wetlands: An Important Natural Resource
Wetlands are an important natural resource that make up a significant amount of the landscape in North Carolina. They provide many benefits to both the surrounding environment and society. Natural wetlands can occur in many different landscape positions and have diverse characteristics, such as periods of wetness (soil saturation and inundation) and vegetation types. Wetlands are often described by other names, such as swamps, marshes, or bogs, sometimes to capture their different characteristics. For example, a riverine swamp forest (Figure 1) has long periods of standing water and vegetation composed mainly of water-loving tree species, such as baldcypress, black gum, and water tupeleo. It looks and functions much differently than a coastal tidal marsh that is flooded daily and covered with salt-tolerant herbaceous plants, such as saltmeadow cordgrass and black needleruh (Figure 2).
However, both ecosystems are considered wetlands because they have three characteristics in common:
- 1. They are saturated with water near the soil surface or covered with water for significant periods during the warmer seasons (early spring to mid fall).
- 2. The soils have developed unique characteristics (including chemistry, colors, and organic matter accumulation) found only when soil is saturated with water for a significant portion of the year.
- 3. The plants that live there are biologically adapted to survive in wet soil conditions.
The NC Department of Environmental Quality (NCDEQ) Division of Water Resources Water Science Section, and the nonprofit Carolina Wetlands Association provide great descriptions of both how natural wetlands form and many of the common wetlands found here. While wetlands are found across North Carolina, the highest percentage of wetlands are located in the North Carolina coastal plain (perhaps as much as 4 million acres, according to NC Division of Coastal Management estimates).
Until the latter part of the twentieth century, wetlands were mostly regarded as obstacles to people's well-being. Estimates indicate that over 50 percent of the wetlands that existed when colonists first settled our state have been lost. Many were purposely drained and filled for agriculture, development, and mosquito control. Others were damaged inadvertently from nearby activities that resulted in filling by sediment or from pollution. Some people driven by long-standing misconceptions continue to have negative perceptions about wetlands.
But over the past 50 years, researchers have shown that the functions of natural wetlands provide numerous benefits to both society and our economy.
Depending on the type and its location in the landscape, a wetland can provide many services to society. Called ecosystem services , these benefits include the following:
- · Flood control, surface water storage, and regulation of nearby stream flows
Since the 1980s, federal and state laws have been enacted to provide natural wetlands with more protection. Now when wetlands are impacted, developers may be legally required to replace the lost habitat and functions through wetland restoration or creation. Studies by scientists and engineers have also uncovered many clues to how wetlands remove and transform pollutants, so now wetlands are also being constructed to intercept runoff and wastewater to improve and protect water quality.
of constructed wetlands.
## Wetland restoration and creation
Figure 4 shows how natural wetlands can be in pristine condition (which is rare), degraded (like most of our remaining natural wetlands), or destroyed . Wetlands are considered as degraded when they have suffered at least some minor degree of alteration to water flow, vegetation, or pollution. Wetlands can be destroyed by draining or filling for development (including roads, shopping centers, housing developments, agriculture, and forestry) or by natural disasters like fire. Wetlands that are impacted by development are required by law to be rebuilt elsewhere. In North Carolina, that process is overseen by the NDECQ and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Sometimes, wetlands that were degraded or destroyed long ago are also rebuilt through efforts from many national and state conservation groups (like the NC Coastal Federation).
Rebuilding degraded or destroyed wetlands to achieve the original wetland type and functions is called wetland restoration . Restoration is generally the preferred method of replacing lost wetlands. To successfully rebuild a wetland, the hydrology (how wet it is) and the structure (soil types and vegetation community) first must be accurately estimated from similar nearby natural wetlands. Careful planning and understanding of the type of wetland to be built is crucial for the long-term development and success of restored wetlands. Wetland restorations often require some combination of earth moving, changes in water management (like plugging drainage ditches), and replanting of desired wetland plant species. An example of these restoration techniques was demonstrated in 2003 at a Carteret County site that had been previously converted from a wetland to row-crop agriculture by draining and clearing the land in the 1970s (Figure 5).
In some instances, it might make sense to build a different type of wetland than the one that was originally on a site because the surrounding landscape or downstream water body will benefit from a different habitat or function (such as water quality improvement). A project to build a wetland of a different type than the original or in a location where a wetland may not have been present before is called wetland creation . The prototypes of created wetlands are still natural wetlands, and even more careful planning is critical to ensure a successful project. Such was the case at the North River Farms Preserve , which was previously converted from a shrub-scrub wetland to row-crop agriculture. Project partners decided to create a highly productive salt marsh rather than restore the estuarine shrub-scrub wetland that had been drained for agriculture (Figure 6).
## Wetlands constructed to improve water quality
Natural wetlands have been studied for decades for their ability to capture and transform many pollutants. In the correct landscape position, wetlands have been shown to intercept surface and groundwater and slowly release it over time. This interception allows particles of soil or debris to settle out and accumulate in the wetlands, releasing visibly cleaner water. Wetlands also can trap sediment-bound pollutants, like excess metals and phosphorous. Vegetation often grows readily and accumulates over time in wetlands, creating an environment that is high in organic matter and microbial activity. Alternating wetting and drying creates unique oxygen conditions in a wetland that stimulates microorganisms within to transform many pollutants in order to survive. For example, nitrate, which is a common form of nitrogen fertilizer often found in runoff, can pollute rivers and lakes. But when intercepted by wetlands, nitrate can be used by certain microorganisms instead of oxygen to survive when wetlands are flooded. As the water passes through the wetlands, the nitrate is transformed by the microbes into nitrogen gas that escapes to the atmosphere (the process is
called denitrification), and the water leaving the wetland is less polluted. We now try to take advantage of the unique abilities of natural wetlands by constructing wetlands in strategic locations to intercept and treat polluted water.
Stormwater runoff from developed urban areas can deliver significant amounts of water, often flowing at high velocity, directly to local streams or other water bodies. Constructed wetlands have been increasingly used over the last two decades to slow and store some of that water, much like natural wetlands do. These wetlands used in urban areas are known as stormwater wetlands and are one of several measures used by towns to reduce the effect of stormwater runoff. Wetlands not only slow runoff, but research shows they also store sediment and debris, trap phosphorous and metals, and reduce the amount of nitrogen transported downstream.
The design of these stormwater wetlands is based mostly on natural depressional wetlands with emergent (meaning rooted in the soil but can survive in ponded conditions) and floating herbaceous aquatic vegetation. Stormwater wetlands are referred to as "event-based" wetlands because they are designed to fill with water only after rainfall and to drain nearly completely within two to four days. They are often located in high visibility areas, such as near shopping centers, schools, and parks, and contain multiple varieties of wetland plants that can withstand wetting and drying periods. The plants in stormwater wetlands often include flowering varieties that can provide an aesthetically pleasing amenity to the landscape (Figure 7).
Stormwater wetlands are built to help towns meet requirements for their stormwater management plans, or in other locations through conservation grants intended to enhance local water quality. Since 2007, NCDEQ estimates that nearly 90 stormwater wetlands were permitted to be used to treat stormwater in North Carolina. The total number of stormwater wetlands operating here is likely well over 125, including those built by conservation groups for local water-quality improvements. These wetlands are typically less than an acre, but a notable exception is a 30-acre stormwater wetland constructed in 2013 in New Bern.
Wetlands can also be used to help treat more high strength municipal and industrial process wastewaters. These wetlands are known as treatment wetlands and are less common here when compared to stormwater wetlands. Treatment wetlands provide critical treatment of more polluted wastewater as part of an overall treatment plan for wastewater at several towns (including Walnut Cove and Aurora) and as part of other agricultural and waste management facilities.
These wetlands are also designed and constructed to emulate emergent marshes but have deeper water and more steady flow that is not rainfall-dependent. These wetlands generally contain only one or two species of plants because these plants must be able to tolerate deeper water and higher pollutant concentrations. Treatment wetlands are not typically in locations that are visible to the public, so aesthetics is not an important component of their design. On average, treatment wetlands are generally larger than stormwater wetlands, such as the 4.5-acre treatment wetlands in Walnut Cove. These wetlands provide final treatment of the town's wastewater before discharging to a nearby stream (Figure 8). As of 2018, less than 10 treatment wetlands were operating in North Carolina.
It is important to remember that these constructed wetlands for stormwater and wastewater treatment should not be confused with restored wetlands. Stormwater and treatment wetlands are not designed and constructed with the goal to replace lost wetland functions. Rather, these wetlands are constructed to provide key water quality benefits, often in places or landscape settings where natural wetlands did not previously exist.
Stormwater and treatment wetlands are often new wetlands built to reduce water pollution.
## Conclusions
North Carolina still has millions of acres of natural wetlands that are important components of our rich natural resources. Efforts continue to replace wetlands lost to development through wetland restoration and creation. Stormwater and treatment wetlands are also being designed and constructed to use their natural ability to reduce many pollutants in water. Scientists and engineers continue to study how to most effectively build successful wetlands so these resources can provide the most functions to society.
Unfortunately, wetlands are often misunderstood or ignored by many of the people they serve. Chances are, as you travel here and in other states, you often pass right by a wetland of some type. We hope this publication will help you to spot these wetlands, identify whether they are natural or manmade, and enjoy the services they provide.
## Resources and Acknowledgements
NC State Extension Focus-Natural and Constructed Wetlands
NCDEQ-Wetlands
NCDEQ-Division of Water Resources: NC Wetlands Information
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency--Wetlands Protection and Restoration
We would also like to thank the reviewers of this publication:
Helen Burchell, NC Public Schools (retired)
Sarah Waickowski, Biological & Agricultural Engineering, NC State University
Amanda Mueller, NCDEQ-Division of Water Resources
Daniel Hitchcock, Ph.D., P.E., Agricultural Sciences Department, Baruch Institute of Coastal Ecology and Forest Science, Clemson University
Andrea Ludwig, Ph.D., Biosystems Engineering & Soil Science Department, University of Tennessee
## Authors
Mike Burchell
Associate Professor and Dept. Extension Leader Biological & Agricultural Engineering
Bill Hunt
Professor, Extension Specialist, & University Faculty Scholar Biological & Agricultural Engineering
Publication date: Feb. 19, 2019
Reviewed/Revised: Nov. 29, 2023
AG-856
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/PP131 | Southern Wilt of Geranium | University of Florida | [
"Philip F. Harmon",
"Carrie L. Harmon",
"David Norman",
"Tim Momol"
] | 2019-04-23 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | ## Southern Wilt of Geranium
Philip F. Harmon, Currie L. Harmon, David Norman, and Tim Mormol
Southern wilt, caused by the bacterium Ralstonia solanacarum (Rs), is currently an important disease for geranium producers. Different races of Rs . solanacarum affect hundreds of plant species around the world. However., some races are specific to given areas and are adapted to different climates. Race 1 herbivour is well adapted to tropical and warm-temperate areas and is common to the southeastern United States. Another race of Rs . solanacarum , race 2 bovir (Rs.Rb3hk), is not endemic (occurring naturally) to North America. Although Rs.Rb3i is also tropical in distribution, this race is more cold tolerant and poses a threat to the US potato industry. Race 3 bovir has only been detected in a few greenhouses in the US and has been eradicated in each case.
Both race 1 and race 3 are capable of causing southern wilt disease on geranium. In an attempt to keep Rs.Rb3r2 from being introduced on imported germaniums and other susceptible crops, APHIS PQP regulates potential introductions and has the authority to quarantine and destroy plants found to be infected. Geranium plants infected with the common R . solanacarum race 1 look identical to those infected with race 3. Geranium growers have a zero-tolerance for R . solanacarum , because it likely that the discovery of any race on geranium will result in costly complications for the grower. This publication is meant to provide information to geranium producers that might help reduce their risks of substantial losses due to southern wilt disease.
## Pathogen and Disease Information
## Host Range
Plant species most susceptible to Rs.Rb3h include potato, tomato, geranium, and a few solanacumous weeds. Race 1 has a wide host range that includes potato, tomato, geranium, eggplant, pepper, tobacco, peanut, bananas, and many other Xeromonas. Numerous solanacumous weed associated species with open irrigation systems or in close proximity to the production facility could potentially serve as a source of R . solanacorumium optimum. The exact host range of the pathogen is difficult with open determination because of variation in virulence within races of Rs . solanacarum and variation in susceptibilities of host species. Some plant species may be asymptomatic but can still harbor the pathogen.
## Disease Symptoms
Symptom expression is favored by high temperatures (Rs.F-95°F). Symptoms of this disease may progress rapidly after infection, but plants may remain without symptoms for extended periods. After infection the pathogen may survive in and be spread from the infected plant.
## Wilt and Vascular Symptoms
Symptoms of southern wilt on geranium ( Pelanyomium spp.) begin with wilting of the lower leaves, a condition that may improve overnight, but will occur again the next day (Figure 1). This wilt spreads up the plant, progressing from older leaves to newer ones, resulting in the eventual collapse and death of the plant. Wilted leaves often become chlorotic (yellow) then necrotic (brown) in wedge-shaped patterns that expand towards the leaf margins (Figure 2), or leaf margins themselves may become chlorotic then necrotic (Figure 3). Leaf spots typically are not associated with the disease. Brown vascular discoloration is often apparent in and on stems (Figure 4), and stems may become soft and ooze a milky liquid (Figure 5). Roots may appear brown and rotten.
Credit: Dave Norman
Figure 4. As the bacterium spreads upward through the vascular tissues in the stem, yellow to brown stem discoloration may become apparent. The discoloration is a typical symptom of southern wilt (Ralstonia) but is generally not present with bacterial blight (Xanthomonas).
## Look-alikeys
Similar will symptoms may be caused by general root rot, various nutrient imbalances, or water stress. Bacterial blight caused by Xanthomonas campestris pathovar pelargonii also may cause wilt symptoms. Generally, leaves affected with bacterial blight will become spotted, vascular discoloration will be less pronounced or absent, and roots will remain white and healthy.
## Spread of the Pathogen
R. solangearum race 1 can be found in soils of the southern US, including Florida, Plants brought into a facility from native soil plantings could introduce the rythongen. Soil tracked into a facility on equipment, shoes, or supplies could also contain the bacterium. In addition to being soil-borne, Rs can be water-borne. The pathogen was detected in irrigation ponds and surface water in Quincy Florida in 2004 (Tim Moron, personal communication). Rs has the potential to move into recycled irrigation water from infected weed species in close association with water collection recovery areas. Since RsR3B2 is a quantifiable pathogen in the US, the pathogen introduction from overseas production facilities in Central America and Kenya is the main concern for geranium producers. Once introduced into a production facility, RsR3B2 can be transmitted through contaminated irrigation water, on equipment, by person, or in soil similar to race 1.
Shared irrigation systems (i.e. flooded beaches or floors) facilitate spread of the bacterium within a productivity facility. When contaminated irrigation water was used on geranium and other susceptible hosts, the pathogen moves with the water to the roots where it infects the bacterium may be present in the water-conducting tissues (vasculartissue). If an infected plant is pruned with tools or painled by hand, the bacteria can be spread to subsequent healthy plants. The pathogen also can be spread by splashing irrigation water. Though possible, the pathogen does not respond through spread-leaf-to-leaf or through still water vapor in air.
## Risk Reduction and Disease Management
The introduction and discovery of this pathogen in a geranium production facility could have serious financial consequences. Some basic disease management strategies, including exclusion, sanitation, and eradication, can reduce the risk of pathogen introduction and spread. These practices can not only reduce the likelihood of many diseases but can reduce the potential financial impact of an introduction.
## Inspect Offshore Plant Material
RsR3b2 is a regulated pathogen in the United States (https://www.gno.gov/fldsyps/kgp\_FR-2012-10-05/pdf?2012-2443d.pdf), Many geranium cuttings are produced in areas of the world where the pathogen is common. Movement of infected cuticles from these areas into US production facilities has occurred despite an APHS-MII testing and sampling plan for
offshore facilities shipping germanium to the U.S. Careful producers will take additional precautions to ensure they receive clean material.
Rooted geranium cuttings imported from overseas initially should be isolated from the rest of the production facility for at least 48 hours if possible. Latent infections are difficult to detect, but plants should be carefully inspected for generating willing symptoms commonly associated with bacterial diseases (see Figures). If a shared irrigation system is used for the rest of the production facility, try to provide an alternate means of irrigation separate from the main system.
Growers with symptomatic plants have two diagnostic options. 1 Growers could test symptomatic plants using a serological kit. Serological kits for detecting R$\_{2}$ solanacurant are available from a handful of companies. Agdia (http://www.agdiaa.com), offers employees using Strip testing kits (catalog number: ISK\_339000/2005). These kits come from $4.80 to $7.50 per test depending on how many amounts purchased, take about 30 min to complete, and can be ordered online or by phone. Detailed information about the kits, hey should be used, and a copy of the instructions are available on the Agdia website. The kits also come with easy-to-follow instructions that include illustrations. Other components with serological kits include: Neogen Europe Ltd., Borebae AG, Pocket Diagnostic, and Loeche Boehmer GmbH.
Growers can also send samples to a UFIFAS Extension Plant Diagnostic Center for confirmation (https://isfias.usdf.org/) 2. Growers are encouraged to consult with UFIFAS plant pathologist regarding any possible plant disease issues prior to submitting samples for testing.
R3B12 is listed as "Select Agent" under the Federal regulation on Agricultural Biotechnology Protection Act of 2002 (7 CFR Part 331). This designation indicates that R3B12 represents a significant threat to an American agriculture. It is a serological kit is used and a plant is found to be positive, submit a sample to a UFIFAS Extension Plant Diagnostic Center and contact your state Division of Plant Industry inspection for further instruction. Federal law requires that positive samples must be reported to the appropriate regulatory agencies for confirmation of race and turnover tests are listed from their corn and rice biomass of the pathogen (via PCR, carbohydrate utilization, etc.). In the event that the pathogen is found,
## Reducing Risk of Spread
A common means of disease transmission is bacterial survival in irrigation water. Best management practices are to avoid bottom-water (sub) irrigation that uses a continuous flow of water to irrigate many plants at the same time. Also avoid systems that collect excess water and return the used water to the system. Though these systems have their advantages, they do increase the likelihood of the spread of bacterial pathogens and in the case of R$\_{2}$ resourc es of the microbial loss, when possible, use drip irrigation or mist migration instead.
If rain water is collected into holding tanks, if water is taken from collection or overflow ponds, or if water is recycled and reused, incorporate some type of water treatment that will help reduce bacterial pathogens. For example, ozonating sanitizers have been shown to remove R$\_{2}$ respi cated contaminated water by 0.4 ppm residual O$\_{2}$ for 4 minutes with UV light of at least 300 j m - at 5% transmission. Various other filters and treatments are available to help remove pathogens from irrigation water. To prevent continued introduction of pathogens into the source, areas directly around collected microbes, open holding tanks, and greenhouses should be kept off free seeds. Plants or cuttings that have been put in contact with native soil so should be kept out of the ground.
Plants found to be under the drip line of infected germinators are typically discarded if R$\_{2}$ is detected. To be safe, don't place other plants under gernarians in the greenhouse. Keeps against growing well-breached and off the ground, making or placing heavy smoking where collect and pool. Keep plants from different sources and different varieties of geraniums are susceptible as when pumping, possibly working quickly, some workers usually work between moving variables, keeping them dry, sanitizing hands and gerbil dispensers and spray bottles with sanitizing chemicals are very useful. Locate sancitize shoes at the entrances of entra paces and factory-like tools, walkways include Pensham 20 Green, Sheld, Mauguit 615-ID-or L-ER, and Zero. Follow the label instructions of these and other chemical disinfectants. Influented plant material should be burned or sterilized with steam using an autoclave. Large amounts of infusions in waste should be disposed of in an approved landfill.
Hopefully one nor reading this document will ever have due deal with an R$^{32}$RB12 introduction. Unfortunately, even if all these recommendations are followed, the risk of substantial losses may be reduced but cannot be completely completed. For additional information on R$^{32}$RB12 the regulatory actions associated with this pathothong, and other recommendations, visit the APIPS PHP website for the latest Solaristonia alzearum carroce 3 bov 2 Pest Response Guidelines at http://www.aphis.usds.gov/wp/portals/our/opesticus/unipostex?id=lym&ew=meu&sa=paf3&fs=aphis\_content\_family\_and\_species&fa\_focus=2&past\_diseases=2&fa\_plant=disease2
## Related Resources
UFIFAS Extension Electronic Data Information Source (EDIS) https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu
APHIS PPQ Rosalstonia pest response guidelines:
https://www.aphis.usda.gov/arhus/opustinplaht/phreash-domestic\_pesits\_and\_disceses/sa\_pesits\_and\_diseases/sa\_parlistse/salristonia/
Bacterial wilt of row crops in Florida: https://plantspath.ifs.ulfh.edu/mediaplan/plantsfatsuclud@fcshetscircs#1207.pdf
First Report of Southern Wilth Caused by Raslstonia solarianum on Geriaanum in Florida. P. Pradhanang, T. Momol, H. Dankers, E. Momol, and J. Jones.
http://www.plantmanagementnetwork.org/uhnibr/gerecanum/
Professional Disease Management Guide for Ornamental Plants https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdiles/PPP/PPI2130.pdf
Southern Plant Disease Network (SPND) http://www.ssqspd.info/engr/
UFIFAS Pest Alerts: http://blogs.ifs.ufl.edu/pselat/
UFIFAS Extension Plant Diagnostic Center: https://edis.ifs.ufl.edu/SR007 https://plantspath.ifs.ulf.edu/extension/plant-diagnostic-center/
UFIFAS Department of Plant Pathology, Extension Fact Sheets: https://plantspath.ifs.ulf.edu/extension/fact-sheets/
Publication #PP 206
Release Date:
April 24, 2019
Reviewed At:
August 3, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32473/edsis-ppl31-3105
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprise
Contacts: Philip Harmon
View PDF
Disclaimers
The use of trade names in this publication is solely for the purpose of providing specific information. UF/IFAS does not guarantee or warranty the products named, and references to them in this publication do not signify our approval to the exclusion of other products of suitable composition.
All chemicals should be used in accordance with directions on the manufacturer's label.
## About this Publication
This document is PP 206, one of a series of the Plant Pathology Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date November 2004. Revised August 2014. Visi the EDIS website at https://cdis.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
## About the Authors
Philip F. Harmon, associate professor, Plant Pathology Department; Carrie L. Harmon, associate director, Southern Plant Diagnostic Network, Plant Pathology Department; David Norman, associate professor, Plant Pathology Department, Mid-Florida Research and Education Center; Tim Momol, professor, Plant Pathology Department; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/HS1447 | Organic Peach Production in Florida | University of Florida | [
"David Campbell",
"Danielle Treadwell",
"Ali Sarkhosh",
"Oscar E. Liburd",
"Jeff Brecht"
] | 2023-05-01 | [
"1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprises"
] | FL | ## Organic Peach Production in Florida
David Campbell, Danielle Treadwell, Ali Sarkhosh, Oscar E. Liburd, and Jeff Brecht
## Introduction
Cobbil peach, colber peach ice cream, and ripe peaches picked from the tree are some of the ways that we enjoy peaches. Organic peach acreage in the United States increased more than any other type of organic fruit between 2008 and 2011, but that increase occurred west of the Rocky Mountains (Perrez and Plattner 2013). In 2019, organic peaches were produced on 288 farms representing over 3,238 acres. These farms, primarily located in California, Washington, Colorado, and Oregon, grew 26,208 tons of peaches worth over $36 million (USDA NASS 2020). In the southeastern United States, majority of peach production occurs in South Carolina (17,566 acres) and Georgia (11,877 acres), but only three farms in these states were certified organic (organic certificate area data not published).
Approximately 2,000 acres of peaches are grown in Florida, mostly in Martin, St. Lucie, and Polk Counties, but only four farms (24 acres) are USDA organic certified (USDA NASS 2020). The combination of increased consumer demand for organic products and limited organic peach production in the Southeast may indicate that market opportunities exist for expanded organic production in Florida. In general, organic farmers in Florida are optimistic, and results from a recent survey of all USDA-certified organic farms in Florida revealed that 30% of the operations planned to increase production, while only 4% planned to discontinue production (USDA NASS 2020). Organic peach production in Florida can be accomplished with proper management, including cultivation, pruning, thinning, fertilization, irrigation, integrated pest management, harvesting, and postharvest handling (Figure 1).
This fact sheet includes recommendations for best practices and references for different types of inputs. This document also reflects other UF/IFAS Extension EDIS publications that may mention conventional inputs that would be prohibited in organic systems; please verify your certification using any additional certifications before using any certifications.
## Market Opportunities
The first domestically grown peaches are harvested as early as March in south-central Florida. In May peaches become available from Georgia, South Carolina, and California, with peak domestic production in June-August (Figure 2). In 2019, the farm-gate price for all peaches sold in May was worth 46% more than for peaches sold in June (USDA ERS 2019). In Florida, the combination of a price-premium for both early and organic fruit is offset by small fruit size as compared to the industry standard minimum 2.5 inches (6.4 cm) in diameter (Figure 3). Due to small fruit size and limited production, most Florida-grown organic peaches are sold from farm stands and pick-your own (U-Pick) operations.
Growers selling directly to the public may utilize roadside stands, farmers' markets, or community-supported agriculture models. Growers could also attract customers directly to the farm through U-Pick operations or agrittainment, including agroulism and farm entertainment. For more information on the organic industry in Florida and these other directconsumer sales activities visit the EDIS publications FE732, Economics of the Organic Food Industry in Florida (https://edis.fas.ufw.edu/fe4723), RM008, Agritamination: A Viable Option for Florida Producers ( https://edis.fas.ufw.edu/mrsd/ ), and AEC623, Florida's Agricolturism Laws ( https://edis.fas.ufw.edu/wec285 ).
## Production
## Planting Stock
If you are a producer starting a new orchard or if you plan to transition some conventional acreage to organic, keep in mind that your soil and nursery stock must be managed using approved methods. Maintain the following thinking as you develop your organic system plan: the system is certified, the input is compliant or approved for use in that system; and the crop bears the organic label.
Whether the land is owned or leased, producers seeking certification should be ready to provide 3 years of field management records to their certification agency. Complete and accurate records are necessary; even if the field has been planted to a crop. The land must have received prohibited substances for a minimum of three years before the expected harvest system itself must meet the NOP requirements (Tucker 2019). In other words, the growing USDA NOP deputy administrator clarifier that landed used for container systems as well as the container certification to sell the fruit with a certified organic label, this rule was added to ensure organic integrity.
As of 2020, all commercially available cultivars in Florida are grafted on the 'Flordagard' rootstock (Sherman et al., 1991), which provides resistance to the endemic root-knot nematode, Melodigne floridensis (Hando et al., 2004) and is productive in Florida's limited chill hour conditions. Peach cultivars are planted on other rootstocks that are suitable for different regions and growers are encouraged to confirm the scon-rootstock combination before purchase. Peach trees have an estimated life span of 10-15 years, and it is recommended that growers include replanting strategies in their organic systems plan. For example, if trees are purchased from conventional nurseries, certified organic growers will need to wait at least 12 months before marketing the fruit as organic even if the tree bears fruit before the end of the required waiting period (Table 1). Your local UF/IFAS Extension agent will be able to assist you with locating nurseries in your area (https://fsjfys.ufl.edu/find\_your\_local\_office/).
Trees from nurseries are generally not pruned but should be pruned during the next dormant season (see training and pruning section below and EDIS publication HSI111, Training and Pruning Florida Peaches, Nectarines, and Plums [https://fsjfys.ufl.edu/has563] for more information). Trees to be planted in the fall should be approximately 2.5 to 4 feet (7.22 cm tall), be generally healthy with green leaves, and have damage or visible gum on the trunk (see insect pest and pathogen management section below). Between 117 and 290 trees can be planted per acre with 10 to 15 feet (3 to 4.5 meters) between trees (within row) that are grown in rows that are 15 to 25 feet (4.5 to 7.6 meters) apart (between rows). For more information on production practices, visit the EDIS publication RFACOI8, Opportunities for Small Farms: Peach and Nectarine Production Review ( https://fsjfys.ufl.edu/sunglngd ).
## View Table
## Chill Requirements
Peach is a temperate-zone, deciduous fruit tree that requires cold temperatures (chill hours) during dormancy for optimum growth and fruit set. The minimum chil chill hours required for optimal fruit set are cultivar-specific and known as the chill unit requirement. Before breeding efforts from researchers at the University of Florida in the 1950s, most peach cultivars required approximately 650± chilis until growers now have the option for low-cull cultivars with requirements as low as 100 chili units (which permits peach production in central Florida). Chill units can be calculated by several models, but the model that defines a chilli unit as 1 hour between 32°F to 45°F (0ºC to 7°C) is appropriate for low-chill cultivars (Richardson et al., 1974; Sharpe et al., 1990). Florida growers can determine local chill unit accumulation data from the Florida Automated Weather Network (http://fawn.iis.ufl.edu/) or the AgroClimate website (http://agroclimate.org/2.and should select a cultivar suitable for their location. Peach trees will survive if the chilli unit requirements are not met, but the tree may not bear fruit, may have an uneven bloom, and may have fruit with growth defects such as a bulging sunture. For more information on cultivation, the chilling requirements, chilling unit map, marketing, labor, and planting guidelines, visit the EDIS publication RFACOI8, Alternative Opportunities for Small Farms: Peach and Nectarine Production Review (https://fsjfys.ufl.edu/csuc\_018).
Beyond meeting the winter chill requirements, early ripening is also a critical trait for Florida production. The number of days from flowering to fruit set, or the fruit development period, is shorter for low-chill cultivars such as 'Floridaward' that produces fruit in as little as 60 days after flowering. The most popular cultivars currently in 'UFBest',
"Tropic Beauty", UFSun*, and "UFone", have respective unit requirements of 100, 150, and 100, and 150 hours and fruit reactive development periods of 85, 89, 90, and 95 days. The UF/IFAS peach breeding program in the Horticultural Sciences Department is actively developing improved peach cultivars for Florida. For more information on available cultivars, visit the EDIS publication CRL1159, Florida Peach and Nectarine Varieties (https://edis.usaf.edu/smlg\_draming). Bredewinning within organic systems may produce cultivars with traits better suited for organic production, but the most important trait for all systems is chill hours.
## Establishment
Site identification and preparation are also important to maximize tree growth and fruit growth. UF/IFAS Extension encourages all growers at a soil sample to a licensed soil laboratory prior to initially planting and yearly thereafter. Visit the Extension Soil Testing Laboratory's (ESTL) website (http://sollab.fsaf.ucla.edu ESTL Home asap/) or check with your county extension office for more information about how to collect and submit a soil manure, or compost sample, and to obtain additional guidance about fertility fertility management. Optimium soil nutrient levels for conventional and organic peach trees grown in Florida are still being developed.
Although peach leaves only need 50% of the intensity of sun for maximum photosynthesis, planting in full sun is still recommended to account for cloud cover and to reduce leaf wetness. Plant trees in well-drained soils because most rootstocks are not tolerant to flooding and a higher density of trees can be planted on lighter soils. If possible, plant higher elevations because flower rings and fruit drying can be damaged when early frost occurs; colder weather sets up temperatures below lower elevations. At even higher elevations, overgrowth irrigation that helps eliminate the entire dry curing-early season freezes may be needed to avoid crop loss. For more information about specific weather conditions that will determine whether irrigation will help or harmful to your fruit during EPISD EDIS publication H31A2, Berichte Photometric Chart for Protection (https://edis.ufas.edu/e4604).
Trees can be transplanted at any time of the year. Transplanting pots in root are best planted after the last freeze in the spring, and bare-root transplants are best planted in the fall or winter. Trees should be placed in the ground, without stakes, such that the ground soil line is only an event or above the media in the transplant potor soil for fine-bare root treatments. Holes should be twice as wide as the pot and can be amended with finished compost that is mixed with native soil prior to planting. Peach trees have been grown in large pots (such as a 5 gallon #640 fl oz) or larger pot pot (for experiments and where in-ground planting is not possible, but recommendations and production estimates for pot production have not been
## Sanitation Training, Pruning, and Thinning
Growers should clean tools to remove surface dirt and plant residues, and then sanitize with approved products before tree training and pruning to reduce the risk of spreading pathogens. Although rinsing with a sanitizer is not required for tools used exclusively in certified systems, growers opting for one are required to follow dilution instructions on product label. A chlorine-based sanitizer is the most commonly used sanitizer for noncontact fond contact surfaces, such as hand tools and trimming equipment. Some bleach products have sintrafficants or fragrances that are not allowed in organic production. See the NOPAH/Sandstorm section. A 5062 standard, CFR §§ 205.601 for more information on approved sanitizers. More information on postharvest sanitation is provided in the Harvest and Storage section below.
Most peach trees in the Southeast are trained so the overall shape resembles an open vase with the trunk and limbs resembling the stem and cup of a standard wine glass, respectively. Training involves cutting limbs on young trees to promote the development of three to six scotch scaffold branches that are above and close to the rootstock/scion junction (p 2 6 r 1 0 m) above the ground). Branches extending from the rootstock to the rootstock is removed by their red leaves as opposed to the green leaves of the scion's branches, Secondary and tertiary branches grow till now develop on wood that grew in the previous year. After one to two years of pruning to develop the overall shape, yearly pruning is required.
moisture in relation to N availability. Incubation studies that describe N release and plant availability for multiple organic-approved inputs have been conducted at soil temperatures similar to Florida summer (68°F or 30°C); Cassity-Duffer et al., 2020) and winter (73°F or 22.8°C; Lazicik et al., 2020), but additional studies are needed for locally available products. General observations from these studies show that most of the N is released from these products within 30 days, poultry days and the N availability as a percentage of total N in the product over 100 days depended on material type: composted plant materials (~24%) and compost manure (~15%), per-day litter (~20%), and commercially blended fertilizers (~20%8%). In a Florida study, researchers noted that compost with an 85% fertilizer efficiency, 2% N content, and a carbon·nitrogen ratio ≤ 25.1, applied at approximately 1.5 tons/acre, may satisfy the N requirement of a mature peach tree if applied in three applications (Llivany and Oxos-Hampton 2002). UFIFAS recommendations for conventional peach production are only recommendations available at this time, and you are encouraged (and may be obligated, depending on your location in the state) to follow these recommendations. A recent fertigation study in Florida showed that excess applied nitrogen that does not leach through the soil is stored in the peach wood, including those branches that are removed in summer/postharvest pruning; therefore, the nitrogen is wasted because pruned branches are typically removed from the field (Rubio Ames et al., 2020). Notice nitrogen demand increases each year up to the fourth year (Table 2).
## Integrated Pest and Pathogen Management
Insect and pathogen (Figure 4) management is one of the most challenging aspects of successful organic production. Growers employing the most effective organic compliant practices have claimed that over 50% of their crop had been lost under high temperature and humidity conditions that promote increased insect pest and pathogen activity. In decreasing order as represented from the bottom of the triangle to the top, organic integrated pest management relies on prevention, cultural management, physical management, biological control, and chemical applications as a last resort (Figure 5).
Figure 4. Photographs of hemipteran pests, orthopteran pests, and fruit/trunk injury caused by arthropod pests, fungal diseases, and mechanical means taken at a central Florida organic peach orchard in 2018 and 2019. Red arrows indicate the location of hemipteran mouthparts.
Credit: David Campbell, UF/IFAS
their certification agency before and after application in these chemicals, growers in central Florida have been observed to observe the QT71 strain of Bacillus subtilis , pyrethriins, and a combination of rosemary oil or geranium oil/peppermint after action thresholds have been reached. The effectiveness of my plant-based essential oils have been reported as having broad-spectrum activity against many plant pathogens, including fungi, bacteria and even soft-bodied arthropods (Calo et al., 2015; Nazarro et al., 2017). Research on the effectiveness of eight essential oils to reduce Coltcollectivité Borvothia, Pycriptaria, Fusarium, Phytophthora, and Typhrophthora activity on tropical crops from promising (Scharkh et al., 2018); Sakhar et al. 2018; Sakhar et al. 2018b). In 2021, a research team led by Sarkoh harvested Thymeguard, an OMRI-listed formation of thyme oil during one hour, on four strains of peach brown rot. (Municaifolia) fructwood grown on armed medium under conditions. Preliminary results include a significant reduction in sperm germination of all four strains on the amended media.
in February 2022, the research team started an experiment applying Thygeyardworm 14 over 1 day of initially grown organic pea plants with the seed-grown apple rot but also on other peach tree diseases. Premivalents for the field experiment will be conducted before official guidance is published.
Results from competitive grants where there were awarded to other pre-produciting plants (Pennsylvania and California) have provided positive experimental findings for pest and disease injury prevention (FORFINQ 1984; SARSE 2013; While the research was completed on USDA certified organic farms, the outcomes may differ in Florida. In Pennsylvanians, researchers that report perennials in hedgerows beneath near orchard soils in Pennsylvania harbor benthic insects, such as wild crayfish and yellowjackets, are found to be suspended in phyllae. They report that ladybug beetles control green peach aphids, but sylphid rye larvae are not otherwise aphid infected. Many poniatids are dormant and would not cause spring in peach trees.
results from competitive grants where there were awarded to other pre-produciting plants (Pennsylvania and California) have provided positive experimental findings for pest and disease injury prevention (FORFINQ 1984; SARSE 2013; While the research was completed on USDA certified organic farms, the outcomes may differ in Florida. In Pennsylvanians, researchers that report perennials in hedgerows beneath near orchard soils in Pennsylvania harbor benthic insects, such as wild crayfish and yellowjackets, are found to be suspended in phyllae. They report that ladybug beetles control green peach aphids, but sylphid rye larvae are not otherwise aphid infected. Many poniatids are dormant and would not cause spring in peach trees. In other studies, kaolin clay combined with selected plant extracts (Göcêk et al., 2013) increased insect pest and effective reduction oviposated in cotton (Showler 2020), Kaolino clay holds potential for controlling fruit flies, astraptina spp., in Florida.
In California, researchers reported that a mixture of Algrowel kbp (1 or 3 lb. kg) basalt dust mix soil (8 gal or 36.7 liters), and pink mucoid yeast (1 gallon for 45.5 liters) sprayed on peach trees received brown root. The research presented the fatty value of the fruit had the full bud rot in cultivation harvest at a compared percentage of 58% for the untreated control. The Algrowel kbg was commercially available, cold-pressed, dry kbl product. The bark rock rust did wash basalt dust mixed with glass 153.7 oz. fl. 46 lbs.) of a commercially available liquid kbl. The bark rust treated with the same leafs were scraped from peach leaves in the same orchard. Less effective treatment included hydrogen peroxide, compost (teayta, assay, and volatile (alarga, laks) liquid contents) kernel vinegar, white wine spray vinegar, water vaporization with air high water content, and wettable sulfur (OREJF 1994). Producers using this approach in northern California have continued to update their materials with the NOR and NOP, and an updated list of materials is available at organicorg.in org system plate.
## Harvest and Storage
The most practical ways to determine peach maturity are to observe the change in peel color ('ground around') color around the ground from green to yellow/orange and to assess the firmness of the tip of the fruit (Brovelli et al., 1998). The 'BLush' on the peel is formed in response to sunlight exposure and is not related to maturity. Peach fruit begin to ripen at the tip or blossom end and firmness should be assessed as the ground color begins to change. By grasping the fruit with the stem between the index and middle fingers, growers can easily assess the firmness of the ripe fruit when it becomes ripe and picked too hard or assessed later in the season, the peak berry break and/or the tip will remain depressed and vulnerable to fungal infection.
Peaches are climatic, which means that when picked at the full mature stage, they can continue to ripen after harvest (non-menstrual fruit like fruit that only ripen while the harvest has not cooled immediately, the ripening process will occur rapidly). If the fruit will be packed the following day, they should cool be buffered at 20°C for up to 16 hours. After 54°S to 7°C(TO 7°C) for use at cooling hydrocooling. However, if packing will occur even after the fruit should be cooled to near 23°C (up to 15°C) up to 16 hours at 5°C to 7°C) for 3 months at 95%. Storage of 65°F to 35°F (2°C) to 7°C can favor development of a disorder called chilling injury or "internal breakdown," which causes undesirable sensory perception characterized as lack of aroma, "wow" or dry, maybe dry pulp texture, and reddish-brown flash discoloration. Lower temperatures inhibit the dehydration of chillering injury symptoms. Therefore, long-term storage should be below the 36°S to 45°F temperature range, and temporary storage should be noatchiniabilities among the fruit.
Keep broth a very narrow postharvest storage reserve above the freezing point. The fruiting habit grows slowly, but the colony growth does not grow rapidly. In addition to the benefit of the cooling concentration of reducing postharvest decays, bagging young fruit at the time reduces pathogen contamination so that the likelihood of fruit developing brown rot at harvest is reduced by 6% (Figure 6) (again, the amount of harvest, after 7 days of storage, is reduced by 32% for more information about peach brown rot including pellipsis, the EDI publication HIS1357. Beach Crop Photos./Ed. https://ifs.edu.us/fils\_pills/pdf/files/e\_HIS1537.pdf
Campbell postharvest decay, bagging young fruit at the time reduces pathogen contamination so that the likelihood of fruit developing brown rot at harvest is reduced by 6% (Figure 6) (again, the amount of harvest, after 7 days of storage, is decreased by 32%). For more information about peach brown rot including pellipsis, the EDI publication HIS1357. Beach Crop Photos./Ed. https://ifs.edu.us/fils\_pills/pdf/files/e\_HIS1357.pdf
the fruit is needed before sale, then the fruit that absorbed sanitizer would no longer be processed according to organic standards and, hence, cannot be labeled as such.
Check with your certifying agent before applying fruit coatings to ensure the product is allowed for use. Packaging materials, including bags, bins, and shipping containers that contact the fruit must be new, or if reused or shared with a noncementized segment of your operation, must be thoroughly cleaned (and done as cumulated) such before you using in your organic system.
Organic peaches must be kept separate from conventional production during harvest and collection operations as well as during cooling, packing, storage, transportation, and display shelves in stores to prevent contact with surfaces that may have residues of prohibited products. This is referred to as condensing.
For more information on postharvest handling of specialty crops, please review the UFIFAS EDIS publication, HS1207, Postharvest Storage, Packing and Handling of Specialty Crops: A Guide for Florida Small Farm Producers at http://zps.ie/ifs.udls.ufl.hsld270 or the University of California Postharvest Center's Management for Organic Fruit and Vegetable Crops.
https://www.postharvest.edu.au/Online\_Extension\_to\_Educate\_Small\_Farm\_Postharvest\_Management\_for\_Organic\_Fruit\_and\_Vegetable\_Craps/.
The populations of microbes that cause foodborne human illnesses and postharvest fruit decays can also be reduced with organic compliant sanitizers. Approved sanitizers include ozone (requires special equipment), peroxyacetic acid, acetic acid, hydrogen peroxide, and low concentrations of chlorine (hypochlorite ion; bleach), Chlorine must be labelled specifically for sanitation (food grade) and can be purchased locally, but an extra rinse with potable water is required before shipping. Other products can be distinguished by an OMRI label (eOrganic 2020). Growers should be mindful of fruit and water temperatures during hydrocooling, which requires the use of sanitizer in the recirculated water to minimize cross-contamination of fruit. Fruit will absorb soda/water (nomerizer) during the cooling process if the fruit are immersed in water that is 210°F (-12°C) cooler than the fruit. If the sanitizer, such as chlorine, requires an additional rinse before safe, then the fruit that absorbed sanitizer would no longer be processed according to organic standards and, hence, cannot be labeled as such.
Check with your certifying agent before applying fruit coatings to ensure the product is allowed for use. Packaging materials, including bags, bins, and shipping containers that contact the fruit must be new, or if reused or shared with a noncemented segment of your operation, must be thoroughly cleaned (and done as cumulated) such before you using in your organic system.
Organic peaches must be kept separate from conventional produce during harvest and collection operations as well as during cooling, packing, storage, transportation, and display shelves in stores to prevent contact with surfaces that may have residues of prohibited products. This is referred to as condensing.
For more information on postharvest handling of specialty crops, please review the UFIFAS EDIS publication, HS1207, Postharvest Storage, Packing and Handling of Specialty Crops: A Guide for Florida Small Farm Producers at http://zps.ief.ugls.ufil.hsld270 or the University of California Postharvest Center's Management for Organic Fruit and Vegetable Crops.
Table 4. Pests and management options for organic peach production systems in Florida. This table is a summary of complaint approaches only; and it does not replace the product label. Verify compliance and receive approval for use from your certification agency before using any products in your tasting or certified system. For the most current recommendations and label instructions, please visit the Southeastern Peach, Neastirean, and Plum Pest Management and Culture Guide . Please note this guide contains prohibited and approved products that have been tested and determined to be effective in the Southeast. See Pesticide experts include (1) Insecticides and Miticides: Oscar E. Liburd, UF/IFAS Entomology and Dematology Department; (2) Fungicides and Bactericides: Phil Harmon, UF/IFAS Plant Pathology Dept.; and (3) Organic Compliance: Danilele Treadwell, UF/IFAS Horticultural Sciences Department.
## Other Relevant EDIS Publications
Note : Some of the UF/IFAS Extension EDIS publications listed below provide useful information to all producers but may mention conventional inputs that are prohibited in organic systems; please verify compliance before use with your certification agency.
- · Cirl435, Calibration of Airblast Sprayers: http://edis.ifs.uf.edu/age238
- · ENY683 , Xyella Fistidiosa Diseases and Their Leighthopper Vectors: https://edis.ifs.uf.edu/in174
- ENY691 , Peachtree Borers in the Home and Control: pecah Orchard: https://edis.ifs.uf.edu/in1849
- ENY829 , Natural Enemies and Biological Conditions: https://edis.ifs.uf.edu/in120
- FPS429 , Prunus americana American Plant Humans: https://edis.ifs.uf.edu/p92
- HST20 , Introduction to Organic Crop Production: https://edis.ifs.uf.edu/cu1v18
- HSI111 , Organic Vegetable Gardening in Florida: https://edis.ifs.uf.edu/hsi125
- KSP22 , Peach Scrubs: https://edis.ifs.uf.edu/hls263
- HSI263 , Fungal Gummosis in Peach: https://edis.ifs.uf.edu/hls265
- SL443 , Tools for Evaluating Soil Health: https://edis.ifs.uf.edu/sss67
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Belingd, R. D., B. A. Majek, G. R. Lokaju, J. Hammerstedt, and A. O. Ayeni, 2004. "Orchard Floor Management Influence on Summer Annual Weeds and Young Peach Tree Performance." Weed Technol. 8 (2): 215-222, https://doi.org/10.1614/WTXD-120
Blauw, B., P. Brannen, B. Bellinger, D. Lockwood, and D. Ritchie, 2022. "Southeastern Peach, Neatarine and Plum Pest Management and Culture Guide." Bul. IIII. University of Georgia Cooperative Extension Service. http://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.html?number=BB117L
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Cassy-Duffey, K., M. Cabrera, J. Gaskin, D. Franklin, D. Kissel, and U. Saha, 2020. "Nitrogen Mineralization from Organic Materials and Fertilizers: Predicting N Release." Soil Science Society of America Journal 84 (2): 522-533. https://doi.org/10.1002/sja.2021.7
eOrganic. 2020. "Approved Chemicals for Use in Organic Postharvest Systems." https://cgaric.org/node/2669
Fergan, J. J., Chapparro, J. G. Williamson, R. Rouse, and R. Mizell, 2007. "Florida Subtropical Peaches: Production Practices." EDIS 2007 (20). https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-h348.
Gócko, K. E., L. I. Stelski, D. R. Norman, W. Bryan, and M. E. Walton, 2014. "Behavioral and Electromagnetic Resignations from Pepple Curculio," Contoculatus heinigneri , to Selected Noxious Plant Extracts and Insecticides." J. Insect Reserct 14 (1): 90. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijr/14.1.90
Gross, C. C., Y. K. Wang, and M. Alvestei (Eds.), 2016. "The Commercial Storage of Fruits, Vegetables, and Florist and Nursery Stocks." United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. Accessible, https://www.ars.usda.gov/
Halbeng, N. E., S. Kristensen, and I. S. Kristensen, 1995. Nitrogen Turmover on Organic and Conventional Mixed Farms." J. of Agr. and Environ. Ethics 8 (1): 30-51. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF0264800
Handoo, Z.A., A. P. Nyczepirz, D. Essmenujac, J. G. van der Beek, P. Castagnone-Sereno, L. K. Carta, A. M. Skantar, and J. A. Higgins, 2004. "Morphological, Molecular, and Differential Host Characterization of Melioidogine Hydrolysis n. Sp. (Nematoda): Meloidogyae, a Root-Nematode Parastizating Peach in Florida." J. of Nemata, 36 (1): 20-35. https://doi.org/10.21273/JAGS\_123.3.4
Johnson, R. S. 2008. "Nutrient and Water Requirements of Peach Trees." In The Peach: Botany, Production and Uses, edited by D. Rayne and D. Bassi, 303-321. Cambridge, MA: CAAB International. https://doi.org/10.1079/18435839.0302
Lazciki, P. D., Geisseler, M. Lloyd, 2020. "Nitrogen Mineralization from Organic Amendments Is Variable but Predictable." J. of Environ. Qual. 49 (2): 483-495. https://doi.org/10.1002/jeq2.20300
Litvenyae, M., and M. Ozores-Hampton. 2002. "Compost Use in Commercial Citrus in Florida." HortTechnology 12 (3): 332-353. https://doi.org/10.21273/IJORTECTI.12.3.32
Marceno-Castillo, D., A. Sarkosh, C. G. Limon, G. Olmste, and P. Harmon, 2018. "Peach Rust (Transpischella sp.)" EDIS 2018 (4): https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-hs126-2018
OFFR. 1994. "Peach Brown Rot." Organic Farming Research Foundation (OFR) Grant Report 96-26-12. Available upon request from OFRF.
Penn State Extenslon. 2022. "Tree Fruit Production Guide; Recentry and Perharvest Reviews." AGRS 045. https://extension.psu.edu/recentryandperharvestintervalsantibioticsands-
Pereza, A., and K. Plattner. 2013. "Fruit and Tree Nuts Outlook: Commodity Highlight. Organic Fruit and Berries." USDA Economic Research Service. FTS-3565A. https://www.ersa.usda.gov/webdocs/outlooks/370534109/5.35as.pdf
Phillips, D. A., P. J. Dittmar, H. Harmon, O. E. Liburd, D. Treadwell, and J. G. Williamson, 2021. "Organic Blueberry Production in Florida." EDIS 2021 (1). https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-his-b104.
Revee, J. R., C. M. Culmer, B. L. Black, A. Teebua, C. V. Ronansom, D. Alston, M. Rowley, and T. Lindstrom. 2017. "Establishing Peach Trees for Organic Production in Utah and the Intermontana Western." Sci. Antwort. and Stone. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scientific.2014.10.014
Roscio, T., A. Hathwe, and Stone. 2021. "Organic Farm System: Woodleaf Farm." https://organic.org/node/11429
Rubio Ames, Z. J., K. Brecht, and M. Olmstead. 2020. "Nitrogen Nitrogenization Rates in a Subtropical Peach Orchard: Effects on Tree Vigor and Fruit Quality." J. Sci. Food Agric. 100 (2): 527-539. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.1013.
SARE. 2013. "Evaluation of 12 Yellow Flesh Peach Cultivars for Organic Production in the Northeast: Final report for FNE11730." "Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Projects: https://projects.sourcearc.org/projectreports/flint\_FE11730/
Sarkosh, A., B. Schaffler, A. V.ragas, J. A. Palmerate, P. Lopez, A. Soleymani, and M. Farzaneh. 2018a. "In Vitro Evaluation of Eight Plant Essential Oils for Controlling Collectoretum, Botophyta, Ferarium, and Phyllotrophy Fruit Roots Avocado, and Mango, Papaya." Plant Protection Study. 55:143-162. https://doi.org/10.17221/4017-201PS
Sarkosh, A., B. Schaffler, A. V.ragas, J. A. Palmerate, P. Lopez, A. Soleymani, and M. Farzaneh. 2018b. "Antifungal Activity of Five Plant-Extracted Essential Oils against Anthracnose in Papaya Fruit." Bioagricultic and Hort. 14(1): 18-26. https://doi.org/10.1008/jfm45.2017.156837
Sarkoh, A. I., V. Angras, B. Schaffler, A. Palmerate, P. Lopez, A. Soleymani, and M. Farzaneh. 2017. "Postharvest Managing of Antrhacinrose Affecting Stored Avocado (Pervezamanca Mill) Fruit with Plant-Extracted Essential Olds". Food Packaging and Shelf Life-12:26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsls.2017.02.001
Showier, A. T., 2002. "Effects of Kaolin-Based Particle Film Application on Boll Weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Injury to Cotton." J. of Econ. Entomol. 95 (4): 754-762. https://doi.org/10.16303/0022-0491-95.4.754
Tucker, J. 2019. "USDA AMS Policy Memo to USDA-Accredited Certifying Agents. Certification of Organic Crop Container Systems." 3 June 2019. https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/2019\_Certifiers-ContainerCrop.pdf
USDA ERS. 2020. "Data by Commodity--Imports and Exports." 21 Jan 2021. https://data.esrs.usda.gov/reports.aspx? programArea=fruit&top=%&HardCopy=" Trucks+NewYork%PertPage%25&groupName='Noncontacts'commodalityName='Peaches&ID=1285146&idNoFS55747c4ab37ez7871cdbeed2.292
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https://www.nass.usda.gov/publications/Agcsensus2017OnlineResources/Organicsindex.php
Release Date: May 2, 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-HIS1447-2022
Critical Issue: 1. Agricultural and Horticultural Enterprise
Contacts: Danielle Treadwell
## About this Publication
This document is HIS1447, one of a series of the Horticulturall Sciences Department, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date October 2022. Revised April 2023. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ufas.edu for the currently supported version of this publication. This work is supported by Organic Agriculture Research and Extension Initiative 2016-5130025726 from the US Department of Agriculture National Institute of Food and Agriculture and Hatch Project FLA\_00545. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the US Department of Agriculture.
About the Authors
David Campbell, former graduate research assistant, Horticultural Sciences Department; Danielle Treadwell, associate professor and Extension specialist, Horticultural Sciences Department; Ali Sarkosh, assistant professor and Extension specialist, Horticultural Sciences Department; Oscar E. Liburd, professor, Entomology and Nematology Department; and Jeff Brecht, professor, Horticultural Sciences Department; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/forages-hay-soils/a-guide-grazing-cover-crops-in-cropland/ | A Guide to Grazing Cover Crops in Cropland | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Audrey Gamble"
] | 2021-10-15 | [
"Agriculture",
"Sustainable Practices",
"Soil Health"
] | AL | Cover crops are an important part of conservation agricultural systems in the southeastern United States. If managed properly, grazing of cover crops can add economic value to farm operations while improving soil health. Studies have shown that grazing of cover crops can actually increase soil organic matter if land is not overgrazed. The potential benefits of grazing cover crops may be visible in livestock gains and the long-term
productivity of following crops. Compaction from animal traffic is a major concern for producers considering the use of winter annuals for grazing. Remove livestock from winter grazing to prevent compaction when fields are wet. Contact your local Extension or Conservation District office to develop an integrated crop-livestock plan that will benefit your operation.
Find more information and research findings by visiting the Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education website (https://southern.sare.org/resources/grazing-cover-crops-in cropland/).
This product was developed with support from the Southern Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (Southern SARE) program, which is funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture -National Institute of Food and Agriculture (USDA). Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed within do not necessarily reflect the view of the Southern SARE program or the U.S. Department of Agriculture. USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer. |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/stationary-sprinkler-irrigation-system-1 | Stationary Sprinkler Irrigation System | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"Robert Evans",
"Ronald E. Sneed",
"Ron E. Sheffield",
"Jonathan Smith"
] | null | [
"Irrigation",
"Agricultural Engineering",
"Wastewater Management"
] | NC | ## Stationary Sprinkler Irrigation System
Irrigated Acreage Determination Procedures for Wastewater Application Equipment
Irrigation continues to be the most practical and cost effective method of applying wastewater to fields so that the nutrients contained in the wastewater can be used by growing crops. However, irrigation systems have inherent application limitations that make field calibration, irrigation scheduling, and determination of irrigated acreage critical for proper use of the nutrients contained in the applied wastewater.
Irrigation systems are normally designed to satisfy equipment specifications provided in manufacturers' charts. Information presented in manufacturers' charts are based on average operating conditions for relatively new equipment. Discharge rates and precipitation rates change over time as equipment ages and components wear. Poor designs and/or improper operation can also cause poor performance. As a result, equipment should be field calibrated regularly to ensure that application rates and uniformity are consistent with values used during the system design and given in manufacturers' specifications. Field calibration is a simple procedure that involves collecting and measuring the material being applied at several locations. Step-by-step guidelines for field calibration of stationary sprinkler irrigation systems are given in Extension publication AG-553-1, Field Calibration Procedures for Animal Wastewater Application Equipment: Stationary Sprinkler Irrigation System.
Irrigation must be scheduled when fields are dry enough to retain all of the applied liquid within the root zone. If soils are too wet during irrigation, some of the applied wastewater may run off the field or leach below the root zone and become unavailable to the crop. These unused nutrients could contaminate surface or ground water supplies. Determining when and how much wastewater to apply for the prevailing conditions is referred to as irrigation scheduling . Irrigation scheduling techniques and procedures are outlined in Extension publication AG-452-4 . Irrigation Scheduling to Improve Water- and Energy-Use Efficiencies .
Sprinkler irrigation systems do not uniformly apply water throughout their entire wetted area. Application depths tend to be higher near the sprinkler and decrease gradually within the first 60 to 70 percent of the wetted radius. Beyond this point, the application depth declines quickly to zero at the outer edge. Irrigation design guidelines take equipment limitations into account in establishing recommended overlap ranges to optimize uniformity of coverage. Determining the uniformly irrigated area for stationary sprinklers can be difficult for sprinklers located along the perimeter of the field, for non- uniform sprinkler spacings, or for sprinkler systems with improper overlap. This publication contains step-by-step guidelines for determining irrigated acreage of stationary sprinkler irrigation systems.
## Background
Sprinkler spacing and design guidelines have been developed primarily for freshwater irrigation with the primary goal of ensuring that those areas of the field receiving the least amount of water receive an adequate amount to sustain the crop and achieve yield goals. To achieve minimum desired application depths within the "lighter application zones," sprinkler spacings of 50 to 65 percent of the wetted sprinkler diameter have been determined to be "optimum" to compensate for the declining application along the perimeter. N narrower spacings are typically justified for smaller sprinklers and higher value crops. However, narrower spacings may also result in some zones receiving more water than necessary, and certainly more than the average. A good irrigation design considers these factors and uses a sprinkler spacing that achieves a balance between the relative proportion of "under" and "over" irrigated areas in order to achieve the most uniform application possible.
The application uniformity can be quantified using one of several uniformity indices. The uniformity index recommended for wastewater application is the Christiansen Uniformity Coefficient, Uc. Stepby-step computational procedures are outlined in Extension publication AG-553-1, referenced in the previous section. An application uniformity index of 50 is the minimum acceptable for wastewater application using stationary sprinklers. Irrigation systems should be field calibrated regularly to ensure that application uniformity is within the acceptable range. Field calibration can also be used to determine the area within a field receiving an acceptable uniform application.
## Irrigated Acrage
In an effort to answer technical specialists' questions and to provide uniform interpretations of the state's animal waste management rules, the North Carolina General Assembly formed an interagency committee in 1996. The SB 1217 Interagency Committee is composed of two representatives of each of the five agencies with responsibilities for the development and/or enforcement of animal waste management rules. The committee recently adopted guidelines and procedures for determining the irrigated acreage that can count toward the acreage needed to satisfy the land application requirements in the Certified Animal Waste Management Plan (CAWMP). The committee considered many factors including recommendations from irrigation engineers, certified irrigation designers, and industry representatives before arriving at these guidelines. The irrigated acreage determined by these procedures is intended to "reasonably and practically" account for physical limitations of the application equipment. The "irrigated acreage" computed by the procedures presented below must equal or exceed the acreage requirement specified in the CAWMP for proper nutrient use.
The irrigated area determination includes two broad categories: existing irrigation systemsthose systems installed before the guidelines were finalized-and new or expanded irrigation systems installed after the SB 1217 committee released the third revision of the Sixth Guidance
Document. Future updates and revisions may occur, so you should refer to the most recent Guidance Document for the latest interpretation and effective dates.
For the purpose of computing the irrigated acreage available to satisfy the CAWMP, the SB 1217 Interagency Committee adopted the term "CAWMP wettable acre" to be applied to existing systems. The irrigated acreage for new or expanded systems should be based on standard irrigation design guidelines, which are based on the effective design area. The term expanded irrigation system applies to new irrigation components that wet an area of a field that was not wetted before adoption of the new guidelines. These terms are defined below.
Existing irrigation systems-For stationary sprinkler systems designed and installed in accordance with standard overlap recommendations (sprinkler spacing between 50 and 70 percent of verified wetted diameter) and laid out with multiple overlapping laterals, the irrigated area allowance is the entire 'net wetted area' in the field. The net wetted area is the part of the field that gets 'wetted' by one or more sprinklers when operated during normal conditions , i.e., wind speed under 5 mph.
The 'wetted area' for a single sprinkler operated without overlap is the area inscribed within its wetted diameter as shown in Figure 1. For multiple sprinklers such as shown in Figure 2, the entire shaded area gets wetted; however, in this case, the wetted area is referred to as "net wetted area." Due to overlap, some areas are wetted by multiple sprinklers. Obviously these overlap areas cannot be counted twice, hence the term "net" is used. The sprinkler spacing is represented by the inscribed rectangle. For a stationary sprinkler system, there are two sprinkler designations within the field that affect determination of integrated acreage.
- · Interior sprinklers
- · Exterior sprinklers
An interior sprinkler is any sprinkler that receives overlap on all sides. For a rectangular spacing within the recommended spacing range (less than 70 percent of wetted diameter), an interior sprinkler receives overlap from eight adjacent sprinklers as shown in Figure 3, although only four sprinklers contribute significant overlap. An interior sprinkler is a sprinkler that receives overlap from the four adjacent sprinklers along perpendicular transects drawn through the sprinkler in question. For the sprinkler pattern shown in Figure 3, only the three center sprinklers are interior sprinklers, and the net wetted area for one interior sprinkler is represented by the center shaded rectangle. The other 12 sprinklers are exterior , and the net wetted area of one exterior sprinkler is represented by the top shaded area. Note that the two shaded areas are not the same size.
For stationary sprinkler systems arranged in a single lateral pattern, the net wetted area should be computed based on 90 percent of the wetted diameter as shown in Figure 4. The outer portion that does not overlap with an adjacent sprinkler is not included for reasons explained in the next section.
For any system in which the lateral spacing exceeds 70 percent of the wetted diameter, each lateral should be treated as a "single lateral" case. If sprinkler spacing along the lateral also exceeds 70 percent of wetted diameter, each sprinkler should be treated as a single sprinkler case.
The system layout, including determination of lateral and sprinkler spacing, lateral configuration, and number of interior and exterior sprinklers, must be determined in order to compute the CAWMP wettable acres.
## New or Expanded Irrigation Systems-
New or expanded irrigation systems should follow recommended design standards, which base the allowable irrigated area on the effectively irrigated area, referred to as the "design area."
The effective irrigated area is the wetted area that receives at least 50 percent of the target application amount. Recent field calibration measurements have determined this to be the area that falls within 78 percent of the wetted radius as shown in Figure 5. Note that application depths remain within 90 percent of the target amount out to 60 percent of the wetted radius. Between 60 and 70 percent of the wetted radius, application amounts still remain within 80 percent of the target application amount. But beyond 70 percent of the wetted radius, application amounts drop off quickly, declining to 50 percent by 78 percent of the wetted radius. Beyond 90 percent of the wetted radius, the application depth drops below 20 percent.
Traditional design spacing guidelines established by North Carolina Cooperative Extension or stationary sprinklers have been 50 to 65 percent of manufacturers' published wetted diameter. When sprinklers are arranged in a square pattern, the point of intersection of the 50 percent application amount (78 percent of wetted radius as shown in Figure 5) occurs at a sprinkler spacing of 68 percent of the wetted diameter. This is shown graphically in Figure 6. At wider spacings, there is inadequate overlap resulting in 'dry zones.' The relative proportion of dry zone (unshaded area in the center of Figure 6) increases as the spacing increases. A conservative rule of thumb for sprinkler spacing has been not to exceed 65 percent of the manufacturer's published wetted diameter.
Recent measurements on more than 50 systems determined that field-measured wetted diameters averaged 10 percent less than values published by manufacturers. A spacing based on 70 percent of field-measured diameter is roughly the same as a spacing based on 65 percent of manufacturers' values. The data presented in Figure 5 confirm irrigation design specifications previously recommended by North Carolina Cooperative Extension and should continue to be applied to new or expanded systems. Spacings greater than 70 percent of the verified wetted diameter or 65 percent of the wetted diameter published in manufacturers' literature are considered excessive and result in unacceptable uniformity.
The irrigated area allowance of a single or excessively spaced sprinkler is the area inscribed within 78 percent of the wetted radius as shown in Figure 7. This is regardless of when the system was installed. You should treat a stand-alone sprinkler or any sprinklers located on laterals in which the lateral spacing and the sprinkler spacing along the lateral exceed 70 percent as a single sprinkler. For example, in Figure 7, the spacing along the lateral is 90 percent of the wetted diameter, so the area of each sprinkler is computed as a single sprinkler rather than as a single lateral as was shown in Figure 4. In Figure 4, the shaded areas overlap, therefore computations are based on a "single lateral." In Figure 7, the shaded areas do not overlap, therefore the computations are based on each sprinkler individually.
Figure 7. Effective irrigated area of a single sprinkler when sprinkler spacing exceeds 70 percent of wetted diameter.
## Field Measurements
To accurately calculate the irrigated area, determine the wetted diameter or radius of the sprinkler system. There are two methods for determining the wetted diameter, and both require operating the system:
- · Directly measure the wetted diameter (footprint), which is the preferred method
- · Estimate wetted diameter from field-measured sprinkler pressure and values published in manufacturers' charts for the observed pressure.
Footprint measurement -Footprint measurement involves observing, marking, and measuring the farthest distances from the sprinkler that get wetted. Field data should be collected on at least two sprinklers located on two different lateral lines farthest from the pump. In both cases, the sprinklers should be located at least 1/4 of the way down the lateral line. Measurements should be made during very light wind (less than 5 mph). The wetted distance from each sprinkler should be determined at four points along the perimeter as indicated in Figure 8. The system should be operated long enough for all air to be purged from the system before starting to make measurements. With the system operating at normal pressure:
- 1. Standing just outside the wetted perimeter, observe and flag the farthest point getting wetted for each of three consecutive passes of the sprinkler.
- 2. Select one flag to mark the average distance of the three observations. Remove the other two flags.
- 3. Move 90 degrees around the wetted perimeter and repeat steps 1 and 2. Continue until the wetted perimeter has been flagged on four sides of the sprinkler as shown in Figure 8.
- 4. Move to sprinkler #2 and repeat steps 1 through 3.
- 5. Measure and record the distances from the sprinkler to each flag.
- 6. Determine the average of the four measurements for each sprinkler.
- 7. Compare the two sprinklers, and if the measure- ments are within 10 percent, compute the average of the two and this will be the wetted radius. If the difference between the measurements is more than 10 percent, repeat steps 1 through 6 for a third sprinkler.
- 8. Compare the measurements for all three sprinklers and identify the two that are closest. If their difference is less than 10 percent, compute the average of the two, and this value is the
wetted radius. If the difference is more than 10 percent, repeat steps 1 through 6 until you identify two sprinklers that fall within 10 percent of each other.
## Pressure measurement-The wetted diameter can also be estimated from pressure measurements if the pressure is measured at the sprinkler. Pump pressure is NOT an acceptable substitute.
Collect field data for at least two sprinklers located on two different lateral lines farthest from the pump. In both cases, the sprinklers should be located at least 1/4 of the way down the lateral line. The system should be operated long enough for all air to be purged from the system before measuring the pressure.
If you are using portable quick-connect risers, it is suggested that you configure one riser with a pressure gauge so that you can easily move the entire assembly to several laterals. This riserpressure gauge assembly should be an "extra" raiser and used only when pressure measurements are needed. If it is used routinely, the gauge will soon foul and give erroneous measurements.
For permanent risers, you should install a tee with a threaded reducing port in two riser pipes. You should temporarily install a pressure gauge in the threaded port to make pressure measurements. Once the measurement has been made, it is recommended that you remove the gauge and plug the port. The same gauge can be used at all locations. An alternative approach is to install a shut-off valve between the riser pipe and pressure gauge and leave the gauge permanently mounted.
It is also necessary to determine the exact size of the nozzle opening. Most manufacturers stamp the nozzle size on the end of the nozzle. If this is not readable, a drill index can be used to determine the size of small nozzles (less than 1/2 inch diameter). Simply insert the shank end of a drill bit into the nozzle opening until a bit providing a snug fit is found. Read and record the size of the drill bit.
Once you have measured the operating pressure and nozzle opening, you can estimate the wetted diameter from manufacturers' literature. When using Tables 1 through 5 to determine irrigated acreage, reduce the value taken from manufacturers' charts by 10 percent.
## Determining Irrigated Acreage
Once you have collected the necessary field data and determined the wetted radius or diameter, you can compute the CAWP wettable acres .
Computations are not difficult; but they can become cumbersome for non-uniform sprinkler spacings, sprinkler systems with improper overlap, and sprinklers located along the perimeter of the field. To simplify the determination of irrigated acreage, computations have been tabulated in Tables 1 through 5 for typical spacings and patterns. Use of these tables requires precise determination of wetted diameter, system layout, and the number of interior and exterior sprinklers as defined earlier. A flowchart for using the tables is shown in Figure 12.
Irrigated acreage based on net wetted area for existing systems is shown in columns (B), (C), and (F) in Tables 1 through 5. Irrigated acreage based on design area for new or expanded systems is shown in columns (D), (E), and (G). You should follow these general guidelines in using these tabulated values. Decisions are to be made on a field-by-field basis as referenced in the CAWMP.
- 1. Determine the number of interior and exterior sprinklers for each field.
- 2. Determine whether the system in each field satisfies the existing or new designation.
3. From the Field Data Worksheet, determine the lateral spacing and sprinkler spacing along the lateral.
- 4. Determine whether the system satisfies the multiple lateral or single lateral pattern . If the lateral spacing exceeds 70 percent of the wetted diameter but the sprinkler spacing along the lateral is less than 70 percent, you should treat the systems as a single lateral system and base the irrigated acreage read from column F (from the appropriate table) on sprinkler spacing along the lateral.
If both the lateral and sprinkler spacing exceeds 70 percent, the irrigated area should be read from Table 6.
- 5. Read the irrigated area per sprinkler for the given wetted diameter from the appropriate column based on pattern, spacing, and sprinkler type.
If the lateral or sprinkler spacing falls between the tabulated values, interpolate or round down and use the table for the next lowest value shown. For example, if the computed spacing is between 60 and 64 percent, use the 60 percent table (Table 3).
If the pattern is rectangular (rather than square as shown), for example, lateral spacing is 65 percent but sprinkler spacing along lateral is 55 percent, average these two values and use the appropriate table. In this case, use Table 3, 60 percent table. As before, if the averaged value falls between the tabulated values, interpolate between the appropriate tables or round down to the next lowest tabulated value.
6. Multiply the tabulated irrigated acreage value per sprinkler by the number of sprinklers in each category. Add all of these, and the sum is the total irrigated acreage for the field.
A flowchart summarizing the decision processes for using Tables 1 through 6 is shown in Figure 12.
## Determining Irrigated Acreage EXAMPLES
Case I: Multiple laterals with uniform spacing . Figure 9 shows a typical lateral and sprinkler pattern for a stationary sprinkler system. This existing system
has eight laterals of varying length laid out in the field.
- 1. Determine the number of interior and exterior sprinklers for each field (Field Data Worksheet item 7). Referring to Figure 9, count all sprinklers along the perimeter of the field to determine the number of exterior sprinklers. Any sprinkler not receiving overlap on four sides should be counted as an exterior sprinkler.
Number of exterior sprinklers = 30
Number of interior sprinklers = 42
- 2. Determine whether the system in each field satisfies the existing or new designation. System satisfies existing designation.
- 3. From the field data, determine the lateral and sprinkler spacing along the lateral and wetted diameter.
The appropriate Field Data Worksheet shows the lateral spacing (Field Data Worksheet item 3) is 80 feet and the sprinkler spacing (Field Data Worksheet item 3) along the lateral is 80 feet. The wetted diameter (Field Data Worksheet item 5) is 127 feet.
Sprinkler spacing as a percentage of wetted diameter is: 80 feet / 127 feet = 63 percent
Determine whether the system satisfies the multiple lateral or single lateral definition.
System satisfies multiple lateral system definition with lateral spacing equal to 63 percent of wetted diameter.
- 5. Read the irrigated area per sprinkler for the given wetted diameter from the appropriate column based on pattern, spacing, and sprinkler type.
To use the tables without interpolating, round down the wetted diameter to 125 feet and the lateral spacing to 60 percent of wetted diameter.
Using Table 3, for wetted diameter equal to 125 feet, existing system with multiple laterals, 60 percent lateral spacing, read
```
area of interior sprinkler from Column (B) =
```
0.129 acres
area of exterior sprinkler from Column (C) =
0.165 acres
- 6. Multiply the tabulated irrigated acreage value per sprinkler by the number of sprinklers in each category (column B, C, or F for an existing system; column D, E, or G for a new or expanded system). Add these. The sum is the total irrigated acreage for the field.
30 exterior sprinklers X 0.165 acres = 4.95 acres
42 interior sprinklers X 0.129 acres = 5.42 acres
Total irrigated area of field
4.95 ac + 5.42 ac = 10.37 acres
Case II: Single laterals with uniform sprinkler spacing along lateral. Figure 10 shows a typical lateral and sprinkler pattern for a stationary sprinkler system in narrow fields. Data and irrigated area must be reported on a field-by-field basis. In this example, fields are surrounded by drainage ditches spaced 330 feet apart. This existing system has one lateral per field with model 100 guns.
- 1. Determine the number of interior and exterior sprinklers for each field (Field Data Worksheet item 7 ). Referring to Figure 10, treat each lateral as a single lateral; therefore, you
do not have to distinguish between interior and exterior sprinklers. Number of sprinklers per lateral = 4
- 2. Determine whether the system in each field satisfies the existing or new designation .
System satisfies existing designation.
- 3. From the field data, determine the lateral and sprinkler spacing along the lateral and wetted diameter.
The Field Data Worksheet (item 3) shows the sprinkler spacing along the lateral is 180 feet. The wetted diameter (item 5) is 275 feet.
Sprinkler spacing as a percentage of wetted diameter is: 180 feet / 275 feet = 65.5 percent.
- 4. Determine whether the system satisfies the multiple lateral or single lateral definition.
System satisfies single lateral system definition with sprinkler spacing along laterals equal to 65.5 percent of wetted diameter.
- 5. Read the irrigated area per sprinkler for the given wetted diameter from the appropriate column based on pattern, spacing, and sprinkler type.
To use the tables without interpolating, round down wetted diameter to 270 feet and sprinkler spacing to 65 percent of wetted diameter.
Using Table 4, wetted diameter equal to 270 feet, existing system with single laterals, 65 percent sprinkler spacing, read area of sprinkler from Column (F)
0.886 acres.
- 6. Multiply the tabulated irrigated acreage value per sprinkler by the number of sprinklers per lateral. This gives the CAWMP Irrigated Acreage for the field.
- 4 sprinklers X 0.886 acres = 3.54 acres per field
Case III: Non-uniform sprinkler spacing along lateral. Figure 11 shows an irregular sprinkler pattern sometimes fitted to an odd-shaped field. This existing system has seven irregularLY spaced model 100 guns.
- 1. Determine the number of interior and exterior sprinklers for each field (Field Data Worksheet item 7). Referring to Figure 11, treat all sprinklers the same.
Number of sprinklers per field = 7
- 2. Determine whether the system in each field satisfies the existing or new designation.
System satisfies existing designation.
- 3. From the field data, determine the lateral and sprinkler spacing along the lateral and wetted diameter.
The Field Data Worksheet (Item 3) shows the sprinkler spacing along the laterals ranges from
200 to 240 feet. The wetted diameter (item 5) is 275 feet.
Sprinkler spacing as a percentage of wetted diameter varies from:
200 feet / 275 feet = 72.7 percent
240 feet / 275 feet = 87.3 percent
- 4. Determine whether the system satisfies the multiple lateral or single lateral definition.
With irregular lateral and sprinkler spacings varying from 72 to 87 percent of wetted diameter, the system satisfies neither multiple nor single lateral criteria. Therefore, treat it as an excessively spaced sprinkler system.
- 5. Read the irrigated area per sprinkler for the given wetted diameter from the appropriate column based on pattern and spacing.
Using Table 6, for wetted diameter equal to 275 feet , existing system will sprinkler spacing greater than 70 percent , read area of sprinkler from Column G
0.80 for wetted dia. = 270 feet
0.86 for wetted dia. = 280 feet Interpolating, area = 0.83 ac for wetted dia. = 275 feet
- 6. Multiply the tabulated irrigated acreage value per sprinkler by the number of sprinklers. Add these. The sum is the total irrigated acreage for the field.
7 sprinklers X 0.83 acres = 5.81 acres per field
## Summary
Animal waste management operations that rely on spray irrigation systems may be required to have a wettable acre determination completed to ensure nutrients contained in the wastewater are applied to adequate land at agronomic rates. All CAWMP will be reviewed by State Division of Water Quality or Division of Soil and Water field inspectors to determine whether a wettable acre determination is indeed required. If so, the Field Data Worksheets and Computational Worksheet that follow will have to be completed for stationary sprinkler or stationary gun systems and added to the CAWMP. A wettable acre (WA) designated technical specialist must complete and sign the Computational Worksheet to certify that the irrigation system can be operated so that the wastewater nutrients are applied to appropriate areas. Step-by-step procedures for completing the CAWMP wettable acres determination have been developed, along with tables from which irrigated acreage can be determined for various irrigation system designs.
Figure 12. Flowchart showing decision-making process for identifying which tables to use to determine CAWMP wettable acres.
## CAWMP Wettable Acre Terms
CAWMP wettable acre -the irrigated acreage that the SB 1217 Interagency Committee allows to be counted toward the land application area requirement of the Certified Animal Waste Management Plan for existing irrigation systems.
Effective design area -the portion of the wetted area that receives at least 50 percent of the target application amount (applies to new or expanded irrigation systems).
Excessively spaced sprinkler sprinkler spacing along a lateral that exceeds 70 percent of the verified wetted diameter or 65 percent of the wetted diameter value published in manufacturers' literature.
Existing irrigation system -an irrigation system that was installed before release of the third revision of the Sixth Guidance Document.
Multiple lateral irrigation system -an irrigation system with two or more laterals equally spaced between 50 and 70 percent of the verified wetted diameter.
Net wetted area -the part of the field that gets wetted by two or more sprinklers operated with partially overlapping radii (applies to existing irrigation systems).
New or expanded irrigation system -any component of an irrigation system that wets a portion of a field that was not wetted before the CAWMP wettable acre rules were finalized.
Single lateral irrigation system -an irrigation system with only one lateral per field, or laterals spaced farther apart than 70 percent of the verified wetted diameter.
Verified wetted diameter -field-measured distance from one side of a wetted perimeter to the opposite side of the wetted perimeter.
Wetted area -the area that becomes wetted as a sprinkler rotates. It is the area within the circle inscribed by the wetted radius.
Wetted diameter -the diagonal distance from one side of a wetted perimeter through the point of sprinkler rotation to the opposite side of the wetted perimeter. Wetted diameter is twice the wetted radius.
Wetted radius -the distance from a sprinkler to a point along the edge of the wetted perimeter. Wetted radius is the distance the sprinkler throws water.
## Stationary Sprinkler System Field Data Worksheet
*Locate each sprinkler or sprinkler location on the map. Indicate whether it is full circle or part circle. Show the location of the supply line. Irrigated acres are determined by lateral line, by zone, or by field.
- 1. Sprinkler make and model
number\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
- 2. Sprinkler nozzle
size\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_[inch]
- 3. Lateral spacing \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [feet] by sprinkler spacing along lateral \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (feet)
- 4. Operating pressure at the sprinkler \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_[psi]
- 5. Sprinkler wetted diameter \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(feet). \_\_\_\_\_\_measured or \_\_\_\_\_determined from chart.
- 6. Number of sprinklers operating at one time\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
7. Total number of sprinklers or sprinkler locations in the system
Exterior sprinklers:\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ full circle \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_part circle
Interior sprinklers:\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_full circle
Sprinkler locations permanently marked:\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ yes
\_\_\_\_\_no
8. Supply line \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Permanent pipe\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Portable
pipe\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
9. Lateral line size \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_[inch]. If there is more than one size, indicate the
size and approximate length of each. Can be done on the map.**
10. Lateral line length \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(feet). (Longest lateral)**
11. Supply line size \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_[inch]. If there is more than one size, indicate the size and approximate length of each. Can be done on the map.**
12. Supply line length \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(feet). Maximum pumping distance.**
13. Pump make and model number \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_**
14. Pump capacity\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [gpm]*"
15. Engine make and model number\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, or**
16. Electric motor horsepower and rpm \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_(hp)
[rom]"
Note: It is strongly recommended that you field measure the sprinkler wetted diameter. You should do this on the longest lateral about half-way down the lateral.
** Optional data, furnish where possible
## ***Information furnished by:
Signature of owner or facility
representative
Printed name of owner or facility
representative
Date\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Signature of technical
specialist
Printed name of technical
specialist
Date\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
** Only the person or people collecting the data should sign the Field Data Worksheet .
## Stationary Gun System Field Data Worksheet *
*Locate each gun or gun location on the map. Indicate whether it is full circle or part circle. Show the location of the supply line. Irrigated acres are determined by lateral line, by zone, or by field.
1. Gun make and model number
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
2. Gun nozzle size \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [inch], \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ring orifice, \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ taper bore orifice
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_[feet] \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [feet]
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
5. Gun wetted diameter \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [feet]. \_\_\_\_\_ measured or \_\_\_\_\_
determined from gun chart
6. Number of guns operating at one time
Exterior guns:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ full circle
Interior guns:
full circle
Gun locations permanently marked:
\_\_\_\_\_\_yes
no
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Portable pipe
[(Longest lateral)** \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ [feet].
(Longest lateral)*
11. Supply line size \_\_\_\_\_\_\_(inch). If there is more than one size, indicate the size and approximate length of each. Can be done on the map.**
Maximum pumping distance ***
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_**
[gpml]**
15. Engine make and model number
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, or**
(rpm)]**
Note: It is strongly recommended that you field measure the gun wetted diameter. It should be done on the longest lateral about half-way down the lateral.
**Optional data, furnish where possible *
*** Information furnished by
Signature of owner or facility representative
Printed name of owner or facility representative \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Date\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Signature of technical specialist\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Printed name of technical specialist\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Date\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
** Only the person or people collecting the data should sign the Field Data Worksheet.
## Stationary Sprinkler / Gun System Wettable Acre Computational Worksheet
- 1. Farm number (identification)
Field number (identification)
- 2. Irrigation system designation
Existing irrigation system
New/expanded irrigation system
- 3. Number of stationary sprinklers
# Interior sprinklers
# Exterior
sprinklers
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ #
\_
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Wetted diameter [feet] from Field Data Worksheet
Spacing
Sprinkler spacing along lateral [feet]
Sprinkler spacing as a percentage of wetted diameter
6. Sprinkler pattern
Multiple laterals
Single lateral
Excessively spaced sprinklers
- 7. Read the irrigated area per sprinkler for the given wetted diameter from the appropriate table and column based on pattern, spacing, and sprinkler location.
Acres per interior sprinkler from Table
\_\_\_
Acres per exterior sprinkler from Table
\_\_\_
Multiply the tabulated irrigated acreage value per sprinkler by the number of sprinklers of each category in the field. Add all of these. The sum is the total irrigated acreage for the field.
(a) Acres per interior sprinkler x \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ # Sprinklers = \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
(b) Acres per exterior sprinkler x \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ # Sprinklers = \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Total wettable acres for field (Sum: 8a + 8b)
Wettable Acre Computational Worksheet completed by:
Signature of technical specialist
## Table 1
Table 1. Irrigated Area Allowances for Stationary Sprinkler Systems with Square Spa
sprinkler spacing based on 50 percent of wetted diameter)
| wetted diameter (feet) | Existing System with proper overlap and multiple laterals | New or Expanded System with multiple laterals | Existing single lateral | existing single lateral |
|--------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------|
| net wetted area of an interior sprinkler (acres) | net wetted area of an exterior sprinkler (acres) | design area of an interior sprinkler (acres) | design area of an exterior sprinkler (acres) | net wetted area of each sprinkler (acres) |
| (A) | (B) | (C) | (D) | (E) |
| 80 | 0.037 | 0.053 | 0.037 | 0.045 |
| 85 | 0.041 | 0.060 | 0.041 | 0.051 |
| 90 | 0.046 | 0.068 | 0.046 | 0.057 |
| 95 | 0.052 | 0.075 | 0.052 | 0.063 |
| 100 | 0.057 | 0.084 | 0.057 | 0.070 |
| 105 | 0.063 | 0.092 | 0.063 | 0.077 |
| 110 | 0.069 | 0.101 | 0.069 | 0.085 |
| 115 | 0.076 | 0.111 | 0.076 | 0.093 |
| 120 | 0.083 | 0.120 | 0.083 | 0.101 |
| 125 | 0.090 | 0.131 | 0.090 | 0.110 |
| 130 | 0.097 | 0.141 | 0.097 | 0.119 |
| 135 | 0.105 | 0.152 | 0.105 | 0.128 |
| 140 | 0.112 | 0.164 | 0.112 | 0.138 |
| 145 | 0.121 | 0.176 | 0.121 | 0.148 |
| 150 | 0.129 | 0.188 | 0.129 | 0.158 |
| 155 | 0.138 | 0.201 | 0.138 | 0.169 | 0.235 |
|-------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|
| 160 | 0.147 | 0.214 | 0.147 | 0.18 | 0.25 |
| 165 | 0.156 | 0.228 | 0.156 | 0.191 | 0.266 |
| 170 | 0.166 | 0.242 | 0.166 | 0.203 | 0.283 |
| 175 | 0.176 | 0.256 | 0.176 | 0.215 | 0.299 |
| 180 | 0.186 | 0.271 | 0.186 | 0.227 | 0.317 |
| 185 | 0.196 | 0.286 | 0.196 | 0.24 | 0.335 |
| 190 | 0.207 | 0.302 | 0.207 | 0.253 | 0.353 |
| 195 | 0.218 | 0.318 | 0.218 | 0.267 | 0.372 |
| 200 | 0.23 | 0.334 | 0.23 | 0.281 | 0.391 |
| 210 | 0.253 | 0.369 | 0.253 | 0.31 | 0.431 |
| 220 | 0.278 | 0.404 | 0.278 | 0.34 | 0.473 |
| 230 | 0.304 | 0.442 | 0.304 | 0.371 | 0.517 |
| 240 | 0.331 | 0.481 | 0.331 | 0.404 | 0.563 |
| 250 | 0.359 | 0.522 | 0.359 | 0.439 | 0.611 |
| 260 | 0.388 | 0.565 | 0.388 | 0.474 | 0.661 |
| 270 | 0.418 | 0.609 | 0.418 | 0.512 | 0.713 |
| 280 | 0.45 | 0.655 | 0.45 | 0.55 | 0.766 |
| 290 | 0.483 | 0.703 | 0.483 | 0.59 | 0.822 |
| 300 | 0.517 | 0.752 | 0.517 | 0.632 | 0.88 |
| 310 | 0.552 | 0.803 | 0.552 | 0.674 | 0.939 |
| 320 | 0.588 | 0.856 | 0.588 | 0.719 | 1.001 |
| 330 | 0.625 | 0.91 | 0.625 | 0.764 | 1.065 |
| 340 | 0.663 | 0.966 | 0.663 | 0.811 | 1.130 |
|-------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|
| 350 | 0.703 | 1.024 | 0.703 | 0.86 | 1.198 |
| 360 | 0.744 | 1.083 | 0.744 | 0.91 | 1.267 |
| 370 | 0.786 | 1.144 | 0.786 | 0.961 | 1.338 |
| 380 | 0.829 | 1.207 | 0.829 | 1.014 | 1.412 |
| 390 | 0.873 | 1.271 | 0.873 | 1.068 | 1.487 |
| 400 | 0.918 | 1.337 | 0.918 | 1.123 | 1.564 |
| 410 | 0.965 | 1.405 | 0.965 | 1.18 | 1.643 |
| 420 | 1.012 | 1.474 | 1.012 | 1.238 | 1.724 |
| 430 | 1.061 | 1.545 | 1.061 | 1.298 | 1.808 |
| 440 | 1.111 | 1.618 | 1.111 | 1.359 | 1.893 |
| 450 | 1.162 | 1.692 | 1.162 | 1.421 | 1.98 |
| | wetted diameter (feet) | Existing System with proper overlap and multiple lateral | New or Expanded System with multiple laterals | Existing single lateral | Existing |
|-----|--------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------|
| | net wetted area of an interior sprinkler (acres) | net wetted area of an exterior sprinkler (acres) | design area of an exterior sprinkler (acres) | design area of an exterior sprinkler (acres) | net wetted area of each sprinkler (acres) |
| (A) | (B) | (C) | (D) | (E) | (F) |
| 80 | 0.044 | 0.061 | 0.044 | 0.051 | 0.068 |
| 85 | 0.050 | 0.068 | 0.050 | 0.057 | 0.077 |
| 90 | 0.056 | 0.077 | 0.056 | 0.064 | 0.086 |
| 95 | 0.063 | 0.085 | 0.063 | 0.072 | 0.096 |
| 100 | 0.069 | 0.095 | 0.069 | 0.080 | 0.106 |
| 105 | 0.077 | 0.104 | 0.077 | 0.088 | 0.117 |
| 110 | 0.084 | 0.114 | 0.084 | 0.096 | 0.128 |
| 115 | 0.092 | 0.125 | 0.092 | 0.105 | 0.140 |
| 120 | 0.100 | 0.136 | 0.100 | 0.115 | 0.153 |
| 125 | 0.109 | 0.148 | 0.109 | 0.124 | 0.166 |
| 130 | 0.117 | 0.160 | 0.117 | 0.134 | 0.179 |
| 135 | 0.127 | 0.172 | 0.127 | 0.145 | 0.193 |
| 140 | 0.136 | 0.185 | 0.136 | 0.156 | 0.208 |
| 145 | 0.146 | 0.199 | 0.146 | 0.167 | 0.223 |
|-------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|
| 150 | 0.156 | 0.213 | 0.156 | 0.179 | 0.239 |
| 155 | 0.167 | 0.227 | 0.167 | 0.191 | 0.255 |
| 160 | 0.178 | 0.242 | 0.178 | 0.204 | 0.272 |
| 165 | 0.189 | 0.257 | 0.189 | 0.216 | 0.289 |
| 170 | 0.201 | 0.273 | 0.201 | 0.23 | 0.307 |
| 175 | 0.213 | 0.29 | 0.213 | 0.244 | 0.325 |
| 180 | 0.225 | 0.306 | 0.225 | 0.258 | 0.344 |
| 185 | 0.238 | 0.324 | 0.238 | 0.272 | 0.363 |
| 190 | 0.251 | 0.341 | 0.251 | 0.287 | 0.383 |
| 195 | 0.264 | 0.359 | 0.264 | 0.302 | 0.404 |
| 200 | 0.278 | 0.378 | 0.278 | 0.318 | 0.425 |
| 210 | 0.306 | 0.417 | 0.306 | 0.351 | 0.468 |
| 220 | 0.336 | 0.458 | 0.336 | 0.385 | 0.514 |
| 230 | 0.367 | 0.5 | 0.367 | 0.421 | 0.562 |
| 240 | 0.4 | 0.545 | 0.4 | 0.458 | 0.611 |
| 250 | 0.434 | 0.591 | 0.434 | 0.497 | 0.663 |
| 260 | 0.469 | 0.639 | 0.469 | 0.538 | 0.718 |
| 270 | 0.506 | 0.689 | 0.506 | 0.58 | 0.774 |
| 280 | 0.544 | 0.741 | 0.544 | 0.623 | 0.832 |
| 290 | 0.584 | 0.795 | 0.584 | 0.669 | 0.893 |
| 300 | 0.625 | 0.851 | 0.625 | 0.716 | 0.955 |
| 310 | 0.667 | 0.908 | 0.667 | 0.764 | 1.02 |
| | 320 | 0.711 | 0.968 | 0.711 | 0.814 | 1.087 |
|-----|-------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|
| 330 | 0.756 | 1.029 | 0.756 | 0.866 | 1.156 | |
| 340 | 0.803 | 1.093 | 0.803 | 0.919 | 1.227 | |
| 350 | 0.851 | 1.158 | 0.851 | 0.974 | 1.3 | |
| 360 | 0.9 | 1.225 | 0.9 | 1.031 | 1.376 | |
| 370 | 0.951 | 1.294 | 0.951 | 1.089 | 1.453 | |
| 380 | 1.003 | 1.365 | 1.003 | 1.148 | 1.533 | |
| 390 | 1.056 | 1.438 | 1.056 | 1.21 | 1.614 | |
| 400 | 1.111 | 1.513 | 1.111 | 1.272 | 1.698 | |
| 410 | 1.167 | 1.589 | 1.167 | 1.337 | 1.784 | |
| 420 | 1.225 | 1.668 | 1.225 | 1.403 | 1.872 | |
| 430 | 1.284 | 1.748 | 1.284 | 1.47 | 1.963 | |
| 440 | 1.344 | 1.83 | 1.344 | 1.54 | 2.055 | |
| 450 | 1.406 | 1.914 | 1.406 | 1.61 | 2.149 | |
| wetted diameter (feet) | Existing System with proper overlap and multiple latersal | New or Expanded System with multiple lateral | Existing single lateral | new | |
|--------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------|-------|
| net wetted area of an interior sprinkler (acres) | net wetted area of an exterior sprinkler (acres) | design area of an exterior sprinkler (acres) | design area of an exterior sprinkler (acres) | net wetted area of each sprinkler (acres) | |
| (A) | (B) | (C) | (D) | (E) | |
| 80 | 0.053 | 0.068 | 0.053 | 0.057 | 0.073 |
| 85 | 0.060 | 0.076 | 0.060 | 0.064 | 0.082 |
| 90 | 0.067 | 0.086 | 0.067 | 0.072 | 0.092 |
| 95 | 0.075 | 0.096 | 0.075 | 0.080 | 0.103 |
| 100 | 0.083 | 0.106 | 0.083 | 0.089 | 0.114 |
| 105 | 0.091 | 0.117 | 0.091 | 0.098 | 0.126 |
| 110 | 0.100 | 0.128 | 0.100 | 0.108 | 0.138 |
| 115 | 0.109 | 0.140 | 0.109 | 0.118 | 0.151 |
| 120 | 0.119 | 0.152 | 0.119 | 0.128 | 0.164 |
| 125 | 0.129 | 0.165 | 0.129 | 0.139 | 0.178 |
| 130 | 0.140 | 0.179 | 0.140 | 0.151 | 0.193 |
| 135 | 0.151 | 0.193 | 0.151 | 0.162 | 0.208 |
| 140 | 0.162 | 0.207 | 0.162 | 0.175 | 0.224 |
| 145 | 0.174 | 0.223 | 0.174 | 0.187 | 0.240 |
|-------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|
| 150 | 0.186 | 0.238 | 0.186 | 0.201 | 0.257 |
| 155 | 0.199 | 0.254 | 0.199 | 0.214 | 0.274 |
| 160 | 0.212 | 0.271 | 0.212 | 0.228 | 0.292 |
| 165 | 0.225 | 0.288 | 0.225 | 0.243 | 0.311 |
| 170 | 0.239 | 0.306 | 0.239 | 0.258 | 0.33 |
| 175 | 0.253 | 0.324 | 0.253 | 0.273 | 0.349 |
| 180 | 0.268 | 0.343 | 0.268 | 0.289 | 0.37 |
| 185 | 0.283 | 0.362 | 0.283 | 0.305 | 0.39 |
| 190 | 0.298 | 0.382 | 0.298 | 0.322 | 0.412 |
| 195 | 0.314 | 0.402 | 0.314 | 0.339 | 0.434 |
| 200 | 0.331 | 0.423 | 0.331 | 0.357 | 0.456 |
| 210 | 0.364 | 0.467 | 0.364 | 0.393 | 0.503 |
| 220 | 0.4 | 0.512 | 0.4 | 0.431 | 0.552 |
| 230 | 0.437 | 0.56 | 0.437 | 0.472 | 0.604 |
| 240 | 0.476 | 0.61 | 0.476 | 0.513 | 0.657 |
| 250 | 0.517 | 0.661 | 0.517 | 0.557 | 0.713 |
| 260 | 0.559 | 0.715 | 0.559 | 0.603 | 0.771 |
| 270 | 0.602 | 0.772 | 0.602 | 0.65 | 0.832 |
| 280 | 0.648 | 0.83 | 0.648 | 0.699 | 0.894 |
| 290 | 0.695 | 0.89 | 0.695 | 0.75 | 0.959 |
| 300 | 0.744 | 0.953 | 0.744 | 0.802 | 1.027 |
| 310 | 0.794 | 1.017 | 0.794 | 0.857 | 1.096 |
| 320 | 0.846 | 1.084 | 0.846 | 0.913 | 1.168 |
|-------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|
| 330 | 0.9 | 1.153 | 0.9 | 0.971 | 1.242 |
| 340 | 0.955 | 1.223 | 0.955 | 1.03 | 1.319 |
| 350 | 1.012 | 1.297 | 1.012 | 1.092 | 1.398 |
| 360 | 1.071 | 1.372 | 1.071 | 1.155 | 1.479 |
| 370 | 1.131 | 1.449 | 1.131 | 1.22 | 1.562 |
| 380 | 1.193 | 1.528 | 1.193 | 1.287 | 1.647 |
| 390 | 1.257 | 1.61 | 1.257 | 1.356 | 1.735 |
| 400 | 1.322 | 1.693 | 1.322 | 1.426 | 1.825 |
| 410 | 1.389 | 1.779 | 1.389 | 1.498 | 1.918 |
| 420 | 1.458 | 1.867 | 1.458 | 1.572 | 2.013 |
| 430 | 1.528 | 1.957 | 1.528 | 1.648 | 2.11 |
| 440 | 1.6 | 2.049 | 1.6 | 1.726 | 2.209 |
| 450 | 1.674 | 2.143 | 1.674 | 1.805 | 2.31 |
## Table 4
Table 4. Irrigated Area Allowances for Stationary Sprinkler Systems with Square Spa
sprinkler spacing based on 65 percent of wetted diameter)
| wetted diameter (feet) | Existing System with proper overlap and multiple laterals | New or Expanded System with multiple lateral s | | |
|----------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------|-------|
| | net wetted area of an interior sprinkler (acres) | net wetted area of an exterior sprinkler (acres) | design area of an exterior sprinkler (acres) | |
| (A) | (B) | (C) | (D) | (E) |
| 80 | 0.062 | 0.075 | 0.062 | 0.063 |
| 85 | 0.070 | 0.085 | 0.070 | 0.072 |
| 90 | 0.079 | 0.095 | 0.079 | 0.080 |
| 95 | 0.088 | 0.106 | 0.088 | 0.089 |
| 100 | 0.097 | 0.117 | 0.097 | 0.099 |
| 105 | 0.107 | 0.129 | 0.107 | 0.109 |
| 110 | 0.117 | 0.142 | 0.117 | 0.120 |
| 115 | 0.128 | 0.155 | 0.128 | 0.131 |
| 120 | 0.140 | 0.169 | 0.140 | 0.143 |
| 125 | 0.152 | 0.183 | 0.152 | 0.155 |
| 130 | 0.164 | 0.198 | 0.164 | 0.167 |
| 135 | 0.177 | 0.214 | 0.177 | 0.180 |
| 140 | 0.190 | 0.230 | 0.190 | 0.194 |
| 145 | 0.204 | 0.247 | 0.204 | 0.208 |
| 150 | 0.218 | 0.264 | 0.218 | 0.223 |
| 155 | 0.233 | 0.282 | 0.233 | 0.238 | 0.292 |
|-------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|
| 160 | 0.248 | 0.301 | 0.248 | 0.253 | 0.311 |
| 165 | 0.264 | 0.32 | 0.264 | 0.27 | 0.331 |
| 170 | 0.28 | 0.339 | 0.28 | 0.286 | 0.351 |
| 175 | 0.297 | 0.36 | 0.297 | 0.303 | 0.372 |
| 180 | 0.314 | 0.38 | 0.314 | 0.321 | 0.394 |
| 185 | 0.332 | 0.402 | 0.332 | 0.339 | 0.416 |
| 190 | 0.35 | 0.424 | 0.35 | 0.357 | 0.439 |
| 195 | 0.369 | 0.446 | 0.369 | 0.376 | 0.462 |
| 200 | 0.388 | 0.47 | 0.388 | 0.396 | 0.486 |
| 210 | 0.428 | 0.518 | 0.428 | 0.437 | 0.536 |
| 220 | 0.469 | 0.568 | 0.469 | 0.479 | 0.588 |
| 230 | 0.513 | 0.621 | 0.513 | 0.524 | 0.643 |
| 240 | 0.559 | 0.676 | 0.559 | 0.57 | 0.7 |
| 250 | 0.606 | 0.734 | 0.606 | 0.619 | 0.759 |
| 260 | 0.656 | 0.794 | 0.656 | 0.669 | 0.821 |
| 270 | 0.707 | 0.856 | 0.707 | 0.722 | 0.886 |
| 280 | 0.76 | 0.921 | 0.76 | 0.776 | 0.953 |
| 290 | 0.816 | 0.987 | 0.816 | 0.833 | 1.022 |
| 300 | 0.873 | 1.057 | 0.873 | 0.891 | 1.094 |
| 310 | 0.932 | 1.128 | 0.932 | 0.951 | 1.168 |
| 320 | 0.993 | 1.202 | 0.993 | 1.014 | 1.244 |
| 330 | 1.056 | 1.279 | 1.056 | 1.078 | 1.323 |
| 340 | 1.121 | 1.357 | 1.121 | 1.144 | 1.405 |
|-------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|
| 350 | 1.188 | 1.438 | 1.188 | 1.213 | 1.489 |
| 360 | 1.257 | 1.522 | 1.257 | 1.283 | 1.575 |
| 370 | 1.328 | 1.607 | 1.328 | 1.355 | 1.664 |
| 380 | 1.401 | 1.696 | 1.401 | 1.429 | 1.755 |
| 390 | 1.475 | 1.786 | 1.475 | 1.506 | 1.848 |
| 400 | 1.552 | 1.879 | 1.552 | 1.584 | 1.944 |
| 410 | 1.63 | 1.974 | 1.63 | 1.664 | 2.043 |
| 420 | 1.711 | 2.071 | 1.711 | 1.746 | 2.144 |
| 430 | 1.793 | 2.171 | 1.793 | 1.83 | 2.247 |
| 440 | 1.878 | 2.273 | 1.878 | 1.916 | 2.353 |
| 450 | 1.964 | 2.378 | 1.964 | 2.005 | 2.461 |
Table 5
Table 5. Irrigated Area Allowances for Stationary Sprinkler Systems with Square Spacing (Later.
based on 70 percent of wetted diameter)
| wetted diameter (feet) | Existing System with proper overlap and multiple laterals | New or Expanded System with multiple laterals | Existing single lateral | existing single lateral |
|--------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------|
| net wetted area of an interior sprinkler (acres) | net wetted area of an exterior sprinkler (acres) | design area of an interior sprinkler (acres) | design area of an exterior sprinkler (acres) | net wetted area of each sprinkler (acres) |
| (A) | (B) | (C) | (D) | (E) |
| 80 | 0.072 | 0.083 | * | 0.082 |
| 85 | 0.081 | 0.094 | * | 0.093 |
| 90 | 0.091 | 0.105 | * | 0.104 |
| 95 | 0.102 | 0.117 | * | 0.116 |
| 100 | 0.112 | 0.129 | * | * |
| 105 | 0.124 | 0.143 | * | 0.142 |
| 110 | 0.136 | 0.157 | * | * |
| 115 | 0.149 | 0.171 | * | 0.170 |
| 120 | 0.162 | 0.186 | * | 0.185 |
| 125 | 0.176 | 0.202 | * | * |
| 130 | 0.190 | 0.219 | * | * |
| 135 | 0.205 | 0.236 | * | * |
| 140 | 0.220 | 0.254 | * | * |
| 145 | 0.237 | 0.272 | * | * |
| 150 | 0.253 | 0.291 | * | * |
| 155 | 0.270 | 0.311 | * | * | 0.308 |
|-------|---------|---------|-----|-----|---------|
| 160 | 0.288 | 0.331 | * | * | 0.329 |
| 165 | 0.306 | 0.352 | * | * | 0.349 |
| 170 | 0.325 | 0.374 | * | * | 0.371 |
| 175 | 0.344 | 0.397 | * | * | 0.393 |
| 180 | 0.364 | 0.419 | * | * | 0.416 |
| 185 | 0.385 | 0.443 | * | * | 0.439 |
| 190 | 0.406 | 0.467 | * | * | 0.463 |
| 195 | 0.428 | 0.492 | * | * | 0.488 |
| 200 | 0.45 | 0.518 | * | * | 0.513 |
| 210 | 0.496 | 0.571 | * | * | 0.566 |
| 220 | 0.544 | 0.627 | * | * | 0.621 |
| 230 | 0.595 | 0.685 | * | * | 0.679 |
| 240 | 0.648 | 0.746 | * | * | 0.739 |
| 250 | 0.703 | 0.809 | * | * | 0.802 |
| 260 | 0.76 | 0.875 | * | * | 0.868 |
| 270 | 0.82 | 0.944 | * | * | 0.936 |
| 280 | 0.882 | 1.015 | * | * | 1.006 |
| 290 | 0.946 | 1.089 | * | * | 1.079 |
| 300 | 1.012 | 1.165 | * | * | 1.155 |
| 310 | 1.081 | 1.244 | * | * | 1.233 |
| 320 | 1.152 | 1.326 | * | * | 1.314 |
| 330 | 1.225 | 1.41 | * | * | 1.398 |
| 340 | 1.300 | 1.497 | * | * | 1.484 |
|-------|---------|---------|-----|-----|---------|
| 350 | 1.378 | 1.586 | * | * | 1.572 |
| 360 | 1.458 | 1.678 | * | * | 1.663 |
| 370 | 1.54 | 1.773 | * | * | 1.757 |
| 380 | 1.624 | 1.87 | * | * | 1.853 |
| 390 | 1.711 | 1.969 | * | * | 1.952 |
| 400 | 1.8 | 2.072 | * | * | 2.054 |
| 410 | 1.891 | 2.176 | * | * | 2.157 |
| 420 | 1.984 | 2.284 | * | * | 2.264 |
| 430 | 2.08 | 2.394 | * | * | 2.373 |
| 440 | 2.178 | 2.507 | * | * | 2.485 |
| 450 | 2.278 | 2.622 | * | * | 2.599 |
## Table 6
Table 6. Irrigated Area Allowances for Stationary Sprinkler Systems on any Pattern Where Later
Spacing Is Greater than 70 percent of Wetted Diameter
| wetted diameter (feet) | Existing System with proper overlap and multiple laterals | New or Expanded System with multiple lateral s | New or Expanded System with multiple lateral s | New or Expanded System with multiple lateral s | Existing single lateral |
|---------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------|
| | net wetted area of an interior sprinkler (acres) | net wetted area of an exterior sprinkler (acres) | design area of an exterior sprinkler (acres) | design area of an exterior sprinkler (acres) | net wetted area of each sprinkler (acres) |
| (A) | (B) | (C) | (D) | (E) | (F) |
| 80 | 0.070 | 0.070 | * | * | 0.070 |
| 85 | 0.079 | 0.079 | * | * | 0.079 |
| 90 | 0.089 | 0.089 | * | * | 0.089 |
| 95 | 0.099 | 0.099 | * | * | 0.099 |
| 100 | 0.110 | 0.110 | * | * | 0.110 |
| 105 | 0.121 | 0.121 | * | * | 0.121 |
| 110 | 0.133 | 0.133 | * | * | 0.133 |
| 115 | 0.145 | 0.145 | * | * | 0.145 |
| 120 | 0.158 | 0.158 | * | * | 0.158 |
| 125 | 0.171 | 0.171 | * | * | 0.171 |
| 130 | 0.185 | 0.185 | * | * | 0.185 |
| 135 | 0.200 | 0.200 | * | * | 0.200 |
| 140 | 0.215 | 0.215 | * | * | 0.215 |
| 145 | 0.231 | 0.231 | * | * | 0.231 |
| 150 | 0.247 | 0.247 | * | * | 0.247 |
| 155 | 0.264 | 0.264 | * | * | 0.264 |
|-------|---------|---------|-----|-----|---------|
| 160 | 0.281 | 0.281 | * | * | 0.281 |
| 165 | 0.299 | 0.299 | * | * | 0.299 |
| 170 | 0.317 | 0.317 | * | * | 0.317 |
| 175 | 0.336 | 0.336 | * | * | 0.336 |
| 180 | 0.355 | 0.355 | * | * | 0.355 |
| 185 | 0.375 | 0.375 | * | * | 0.375 |
| 190 | 0.396 | 0.396 | * | * | 0.396 |
| 195 | 0.417 | 0.417 | * | * | 0.417 |
| 200 | 0.439 | 0.439 | * | * | 0.439 |
| 210 | 0.484 | 0.484 | * | * | 0.484 |
| 220 | 0.531 | 0.531 | * | * | 0.531 |
| 230 | 0.58 | 0.58 | * | * | 0.58 |
| 240 | 0.632 | 0.632 | * | * | 0.632 |
| 250 | 0.686 | 0.686 | * | * | 0.686 |
| 260 | 0.742 | 0.742 | * | * | 0.742 |
| 270 | 0.8 | 0.8 | * | * | 0.8 |
| 280 | 0.86 | 0.86 | * | * | 0.86 |
| 290 | 0.923 | 0.923 | * | * | 0.923 |
| 300 | 0.987 | 0.987 | * | * | 0.987 |
| 310 | 1.054 | 1.054 | * | * | 1.054 |
| 320 | 1.123 | 1.123 | * | * | 1.123 |
| 330 | 1.195 | 1.195 | * | * | 1.195 |
| 340 | 1.268 | 1.268 | * | * | 1.268 | |
|-------|---------|---------|-----|-----|---------|----|
| 350 | 1.344 | 1.344 | * | * | 1.344 | |
| 360 | 1.422 | 1.422 | * | * | 1.422 | |
| 370 | 1.502 | 1.502 | * | * | 1.502 | |
| 380 | 1.584 | 1.584 | * | * | 1.584 | |
| 390 | 1.669 | 1.669 | * | * | 1.669 | |
| 400 | 1.755 | 1.755 | * | * | 1.755 | |
| 410 | 1.844 | 1.844 | * | * | 1.844 | |
| 420 | 1.935 | 1.935 | * | * | 1.935 | |
| 430 | 2.029 | 2.029 | * | * | 2.029 | |
| 440 | 2.124 | 2.124 | * | * | 2.124 | |
| 450 | 2.222 | 2.222 | * | * | 2.222 | |
$^{ }$2,000 copies of this public document were printed at a cost of $3741.25 or $1.87 per copy.
## Authors
Robert Evans
Professor Biological & Agricultural Engineering
Ron E. Sneed
Ron E. Sheffield
Jonathan Smith
Extension Assistant Biological & Agricultural Engineering
Publication date: May 1, 1999
Reviewed/Revised: Sept. 23, 2024
AG-553-06
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/ST175 | Coccoloba uvifera: Seagrape | University of Florida | [
"Edward F. Gilman",
"Dennis G. Watson",
"Ryan W. Klein",
"Andrew K. Koeser",
"Deborah R. Hilbert",
"Drew C. McLean"
] | 2019-04-21 | [] | FL | Skip
## Coccoloba uvifera: Seagrape
Edward F. Gilman, Dennis G. Watson, Ryan W. Klein, Andrew K. Koeser, Deborah R. Hilbert, and Drew C. McLean
## Introduction
Reaching a height of 35 to 50 feet, seagrape can take on a variety of shapes, depending upon its location but typically forms a multi-stemmed vase shape if left unpruned. The large, almost circular, broad, leathery, evergreen leaves of seagrape have distinctive red veins. The leaves frequently turn completely red before they fall in winter. The new young foliage is a beautiful bronze color which is set off nicely against the dark green, shiny leaves. The inconspicuous ivory flowers are produced on foot-long racemes and are followed by dense clusters of ¾-inch diameter green grapes on female trees only, ripening to a luscious deep purple in late summer. Males do not produce fruit. The grapes are often used to make a delicious jelly and are also popular with birds and squirrels.
Common name(s): Seagrape
## Family: Polygonaceae
USDA hardiness zones: 10A through 11 (Figure 2)
Origin: native to Florida, Central America, northwest portion of South America and the Caribbean
UF/IFAS Invasive Assessment Status: native
Uses: street without sidewalk; screen; specimen; shade; hedge; reclamation; fruit; tree lawn 3-4 feet wide; tree lawn 4-6 feet wide; tree lawn > 6 ft wide; urban tolerant; highway median; bonsai.
## Description
Height: 35 to 50 feet
Spread: 20 to 30 feet
Crown uniformity: symmetrical
Crown shape: vase
Crown density: moderate
Growth rate: moderate
Texture: coarse
Foliage
Leaf arrangement: alternate
Leaf type: simple
Leaf margin: entire
Leaf shape: orbiculate
Leaf venation: reticulate, brachidodrome, pinnate
Leaf type and persistence: evergreen, broadleaf evergreen
Leaf blade length: 8 to 12 inches
Leaf color: green with red veins
Fall color: red
Fall characteristic: not showy
Flower
Flower color: cream-colored
Flower characteristics: not showy; emerge in clusters on racemes
Flowering: primarily spring to early summer, but may also occur year-round
Fruit
Fruit shape: elliptical
Fruit length: ¾ inch
Fruit covering: fleshy achene
Fruit color: green to reddish purple
Fruit characteristics: attracts birds; snowy; fruit/leaves a litter problem
Fruiting: emerges in early summer and ripens by early fall
## Trunk and Branches
Trunk/branches: branches droop; showy; typically multi-trunked; no thorns
Bark: smooth and mottled with whitish, gray, and brown, thin-peeling plates
Pruning requirement: needed for strong structure
Breakage: susceptible to breakage
Current year twig color: brown
Current year twig thickness: thick
Wood specific gravity: unknown
## Culture
Light requirement: full sun, partial sun, or partial shade
Soil tolerances: clay; sand; loam; alkaline; acidic; well-drained
Drought tolerance: high
Aerosol salt tolerance: high
## Other
Winter interest: no
Outstanding tree: no
Ozone sensitivity: unknown
Verticillium wilt susceptibility: unknown
Pest resistance: resistant to pests/diseases
## Use and Management
The contorted, twisting trunk (which can grow to two feet in diameter) and upright branching habit makes seagrape an interesting, picturesque shade tree or specimen planting or, it can be pruned into a dense hedge, screen, or windbreak. Because of its size and coarse texture, seagrape as a clipped hedge is more suited to foundation plantings for large buildings where it will lend a tropical effect. It is also used as a seaside hedge in commercial landscapes, but requires hand pruning, since the large leaves do not lend themselves well to shearing.
Pruning is required two or three times during the first 10 years after planting to train the multiple trunks so they are wellattached to the tree. Be sure branches do not develop embedded bark, since they will be poorly attached to the trunk and could split from the trunk. But the wood and the tree is generally very strong and durable following this developmental and corrective pruning. The tree will then perform well with little care, except for occasional pruning of lower branches to create
clearance for vehicles. Some people object to the litter created by the large, slowly-decomposing leaves which fall from the tree during the year.
Requiring full sun and sandy, well-drained soils, seagrape is excellent for seaside locations since it is highly salt- and drought-tolerant. Plants should be well-watered until established and then should only require occasional pruning to control shape.
There is a variegated cultivar available.
Propagation is by seed or cuttings.
## Pests
Stems are subject to seagrape borer which can kill branches.
A nipple gall causes raised, red nipples on the upper leaf surface.
## Diseases
No diseases are of major concern.
## References
Koeser, A. K., Hasing, G., Friedman, M. H., and Irving, R. B. 2015. Trees: North & Central Florida . Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
Koeser, A.K., Friedman, M.H., Hasing, G., Finley, H., Schelb, J. 2017. Trees: South Florida and the Keys . Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
## Publication #ENH334
Release Date:
April 22, 2019
Contacts: Andrew Koeser
## Related Pages
Southern Trees Fact Sheets |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/WC099 | Application Letters and Resumes | University of Florida | [
"Ricky Telg"
] | 2022-12-11 | [
"Other"
] | FL | Skip to main content
## Application Letters and Resumes
Ricky Telg
This publication about application letter and resume writing is the third of a four-part series on developing effective business communication practices. This series also covers business communication writing, proper telephone communication techniques, and personal statement writing.
## Introduction
An application letter , sometimes called a cover letter, is a special kind of business letter that accompanies a resume for a job. A resume is a summary of your education, job experience, and job-related skills that you send to potential employers. From it and the accompanying application letter, potential employers learn about you and decide whether to interview you for a job.
Remember that a potential employer's first impression of you will be based solely on this initial application letter and resume. If the application letter and resume are sloppy, the employer may conclude that you do not care, you do not look after details, and you are not focused. Do your best to make sure your application letter and resume are free of errors and present you in the best possible light.
## Application Letters
A resume is important, but the application letter is equally important . Most prospective employers read not only a resume, but also the letter -if not initially, then on the second pass. The application letter is a great opportunity to sell your unique credentials. It provides the employer with a first impression of you.
Writing an application letter is similar to writing any other business letter. However, the emphasis in an application letter is on promoting your abilities, qualities, and characteristics so that the prospective employer believes that you are the right person for the job. The letter details specific experiences that show what you can do for the employer if you are hired. An application letter also gives you the opportunity to demonstrate your writing skills.
Customize your letter for each job application. Such items as including the correct company name and employer name, job title, and contact information are important and make a good first impression. If possible, do not send an application letter to "To Whom It May Concern" or "Dear Sir or Madam." Find out the employer's name and spell the name correctly. Also, make sure you get the employer's gender correct if the name, such as, "Chris," "Ashley," or "Jamie," could be either for a male or female. Match the job requirements and desired qualifications with your skills and credentials.
The letter should include an opening paragraph that explains which job you are applying for and how you found out about the job. The body of the letter provides specific examples of activities or courses you have been involved in that make you right for the job. One way to match up your qualities with the mission of the organization is to find out what the company does and some of its recent activities, and then write about how your specific experiences can support that. Much of this information can be found on a company's website. If you are applying for a job at a local company, you may be able to get information about the company by asking people in your community. In addition, the application letter connects the content of your resume to the facts of the specific company and job description. In the letter, do not ask about salary and benefits. Those topics should be covered in the job interview, not in the application letter.
The end of the application letter should include information on how the employer can contact you, and you should request a job interview. Also, you can state that you will follow up after a designated period of time (usually two to three weeks) if you have not heard from the employer. This shows that you are interested in the job, and it provides a timeframe for the employer to get back with you.
Remember that you are not asking for a job in the application letter; you are asking for a job interview . During the interview is when you "push" for a job. The application letter is your foot in the door. In order to get your foot in the door, the application letter must look appealing. Otherwise, you may get your foot slammed in the door.
Also, thank you letters are important components of the job search. Thank you letters can distinguish you from the crowd because so few people write and send them. After a job interview, send a thank you letter. Send the letter within three days following a job interview and tell the interviewer something new about you (possibly something you learned after the interview), relate your skills more clearly to the job you are seeking, and let the employer know why you want to work for the company. In the first paragraph, thank the person for the interview. In the second paragraph, reiterate two or three of your strong points. In the last paragraph, close with another "thank you."
A general outline for an application letter is available at the end of this publication, as is a list of application letter "dos" and "don'ts."
## Resumes
Resumes can be written in various formats, but all resumes have certain elements in common. Your name, address, phone number, and e-mail address should be displayed at the top of the resume, usually in boldfaced text. Be sure your e-mail address sounds somewhat professional. Avoid such e-mail addresses as "2hotu4," "iluvcowboys," or other similar addresses. You can never go wrong with a simple e-mail address made up of your full name or just your last name. Try to keep your resume to one page. Place references on a second page.
Other common components to include are education, work experience, and a brief description of honors and awards. In the "education" section, include your major academic interests. Include your grade point average only if you believe it will increase your chances of getting an interview. In the "work experience" section, list any work or major volunteer experience you have done in chronological order, putting the most recent work first. Use verbs that describe what you did. Do not use "worked" as a verb, if at all possible. For example, do not say "worked as a waiter." Instead, say "waited tables." If you are currently working, the verbs for your current job should be in the present tense. For any previous work, verbs should be past tense. All resumes should be objective and factual. False information misrepresents you.
Components that are optional include a professional objective statement , which is usually near the top of the resume. A professional objective statement tells what you hope to achieve and is usually written this way: "To be employed as a customer service representative for a major agricultural business," or "To use my agricultural mechanics skills in a farm implement dealership." The objective statement is optional because everyone's real objective is to get a job interview. Sometimes an objective statement is helpful to the person reading your resume. Including a professional objective statement is up to you. Just make sure that it enhances your resume and does not detract from it.
Another optional section is "interests and activities." Only include interests and activities that you know will enhance your resume. Do not include information that may hinder your chances of getting an interview. In this section you may wish to include volunteer and school activities.
You may want to list contact information (name, phone number, e-mail address) for references on a second page. List three references who can discuss your work experience, educational qualifications, and your character. Examples of references may include a former employer or coworker, a teacher, or a member of the clergy. Do not list family members as references.
Just like the application letter, the resume should be free of misspellings, typographical errors, and grammatical errors. As for the look of the resume, do not use unusual typefaces; use a traditional-looking type style. Also use basic white or offwhite paper. Avoid bright or unusual paper colors.
The common formats for resumes are the chronological resume and the functional resume . The chronological resume is probably the more common format. A chronological resume is written in reverse chronological order, with headings grouped by what a person has done, such as "education," "employment experience," and "interests/activities."
The functional resume classifies the experiences that demonstrate your skills and capabilities into categories, such as "professional," "technical," "communication," "leadership," "management," and "sales." A functional resume usually finishes with a reverse chronological listing of your job experiences. Until you have a lot of experiences that you can group together by skills and capabilities, you may not wish to use a functional resume.
Examples of chronological and functional resumes are available at the end of this publication.
## Additional Information
Oliu, W. E., Brusaw, C. T., & Alred, G. J. (2020). Writing that works: Communicating effectively on the job (13 th ed.). Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's.
Pearslall, T. E. (2009). The elements of technical writing (3 rd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
General Outline for an Application Letter
Applicant's name Applicant's street address Applicant's address (city, state, zip code)
Date of letter
Employer's name and title
Employer's street address
Employer's address (city, state, zip code)
Salutation:
Opening paragraph: State why you are writing. Name the position or type of work for which you are applying. Mention how you heard of the job opening or the organization.
Middle paragraph(s): Explain why you are interested in working for this employer and specify your reasons for designing this type of work. If you have had relevant work experience or related education, be sure to point it out, but do not repeat your entire resume. Emphasize skills or abilities you have that relate to the job for which you are applying. Be sure to do this in a confident manner, and remember that the reader will view your application letter as an example of your writing skills.
Closing paragraph: You may refer the reader to your enclosed resume (which gives a summary of your qualifications) or whatever documents or other media (CD-ROMs, DVDs, newsletters you developed) you are using to illustrate your training, interests, and experience. Have an appropriate closing to pave the way for the interview by indicating the actions or steps you will take to initiate an interview date.
Sincerely,
Your signature
Your name (typed)
Attachment (for your resume)
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
## Publication #WC099
Release Date: December 12, 2022
Critical Issue: Other
Contacts: Ricky Telg
View PDF
About this Publication
This document is WC099, one of a series of the Department of Agricultural Education and Communication, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date July 2010. Revised December 2022. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
About the Authors
Ricky Telg, professor, Department of Agricultural Education and Communication; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
## Business Communication
Telg, Ricky W.
Specialist
University of Florida
Agricultural Education and Communication |
https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2015/03/08/energy-efficient-mortgages-what-they-are-and-how-they-work/ | Energy Efficient Mortgages: What they are and how they work | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2015-03-08 | [
"Energy",
"Energy Conservation",
"Housing"
] | GA | ## Energy Efficient Mortgages: What they are and how they work
Written by
March 8, 2015
Pamela Turner
For most of us, our home is, or will probably be, our largest financial investment. And, if you are anything like the average financially savvy American, then you are likely looking for ways to cut down on cost and make the most out of every opportunity to save a few hundred dollars here and there. As the single largest housing expense after your mortgage payment, your utility costs can have a direct impact on how large a mortgage you can afford, so finding a way to reduce your utility costs can go a long way to making homeownership more affordable.
Here is the good news! You can save money on the cost of utilities by purchasing new energy-efficient heating and cooling systems or by making home improvements, such as adding more insulation to older homes. These investments can end up saving you money through lower utility bills. The best part is that, as a new homebuyer, or current homeowner, you may be able to use an Energy Efficient Mortgage (EEM) to finance the cost of these improvements. And, if you are wondering what an EEM is or how it works, well, I heard about it for the first time just a few weeks back and thought it might an interesting thing to look into so I started digging around for information and here's what I found.
Energy Efficient Mortgage Programs (EEM) allow new homebuyers and current homeowners to finance the cost of energy efficient improvements into their mortgages, without the need to qualify for additional financing, because cost effective energy improvements result in lower utility bills making more funds available for their mortgage payments. The main advantages for consumers are:
- Increased purchasing power
- Opportunity to upgrade current home
- Reduced utility bills
- Increased indoor comfort
Let's take a look at what types of EEM are available.
Conventional EEMS allow the lender to increase the borrower's income by the amount of the estimated energy savings and thereby increases the purchasing power of the homebuyer. While Freddie Mac does not offer EEMS, they do allow underwriting flexibilities for energy efficient improvements with all of their offerings.
The Veteran's Administration (VA) EEM is available to qualified military personnel, reservists and veterans for energy improvements when purchasing an existing home and is capped at $3,000 - $6,000 in energy improvements.
## The Federal Housing Administration(FHA)EEM increases the mortgage loan amount by the cost of "effective energy improvements." This means you can finance 100% of the cost of energy efficient improvements (up to $4,000 or 5% of the home's value, up to a max of $8,000, whichever is greater).
Here are some examples of improvements that may qualify for your EEM:
- · Replacing furnace/cooling system with an energy-efficient unit
- · Installing a heat pump
- · Insulating an attic, crawl space, and/or pipes and air ducts
- · Replacing windows and doors EnergyStar rated ones
- · Installing soar heating and cooling systems
- · Installing a programmable thermostat
existing or new mortgage without the need to qualify for additional financing. The overall savings in utility bills will more than pay for any increase in your monthly mortgage payment. Talk to your mortgage lender about getting an energy efficient mortgage today.
Thank you to Guest Blogger: Judith Aboagye, a Ph.D. Student in The University of Georgia Department of Financial Planning, Housing, and Consumer Economics.
Posted in: Energy, Energy Conservation, Housing
Tags: buying a home, conservation, energy efficiency, Energy Efficient, Energy Star, greener living, Mortgages, UGA
## 3 responses to "Energy Efficient Mortgages: What they are and how they work"
Sharon m S Gibson March 8, 2015
Great blog
Sent from my iPhone
>
Reply
Trina
July 24, 2015
problem finding lenders who will even investigate the program
Reply
Pamela Turner July 24, 2015
You are right, it is difficult to find lenders who offer EEMs. Try finding a lender who markets themselves as a company that emphasizes sustainability. There are more details about EEM on the RESNET web pages - https://www.resnet.us/energy-mortgage. RESNET is the Residential Energy Services Network.
Reply
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/by-ingredients/live-well-recipe-easy-skillet-dinner/ | Live Well Recipe: Easy Skillet Dinner | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Sondra Parmer"
] | 2018-07-26 | [
"Recipes",
"Nutrition",
"Healthy Eating"
] | AL | <!-- This page is cached by the Hummingbird Performance plugin v3.6.0 - https://wordpress.org/plugins/hummingbird-performance/. --><!DOCTYPE html>
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button.hustle-button-close {color: #38C5B5;background: transparent;border-radius: 0;position: absolute;z-index: 1;display: block;width: 32px;height: 32px;right: 0;left: auto;top: 0;bottom: auto;transform: unset;}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 button.hustle-button-close .hustle-icon-close {font-size: 12px;}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 button.hustle-button-close:hover {color: #49E2D1;}.hustle-ui.module_id_2 button.hustle-button-close:focus {color: #49E2D1;} .hustle-ui.module_id_2 .hustle-layout .hustle-group-content blockquote {border-left-color: #38C5B5;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
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text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
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top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
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color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
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text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout a{
text-decoration: underline !important;}</style><link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo-150x150.png" sizes="32x32" />
<link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" sizes="192x192" />
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<style type="text/css" id="wp-custom-css">
/*gtranlate*/
a.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink img {
height:18!important;
width:18!important;
}
/*video container*/
.video-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
padding-top: 30px;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden;
}
.video-container iframe, .video-container object, .video-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
.entry-content img, .entry-content iframe, .entry-content object, .entry-content embed {
max-width: 100%;
}
/* table css */
h3.table_title, h3.footable_title {
background-color: #117b2a;
color: #fff;
font-weight: bold;
margin: 0;
padding: .5em;
}
.footable.table>thead>tr>th {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 2px solid #888;
}
tr:last-child {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 1px solid #888;
}
tbody tr:nth-of-type(odd) {
background-color: #c6ebb7 !important;
}
.ninja_button, ninja_button_print {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
line-height: 1.3333333;
padding: 14px 20px !important;
border-radius: 0;
display: inline-block;
text-align: center;
white-space: nowrap;
vertical-align: middle;
touch-action: manipulation;
cursor: pointer;
user-select: none;
background-image: none;
border: 1px solid #0000;
margin-bottom: 10px;
}
.screen-reader-text {
clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px);
height: 1px;
overflow: hidden;
position: absolute !important;
width: 1px;
word-wrap: normal !important;
}
/* slide show below nav home page */
body.home header#header {
position: relative !important;
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (min-height:770px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 82vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (max-height:769px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 150vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
.dae-headline img {
max-height: 18vh !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 42vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 55% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 6vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth, #rev_slider_24_1_wrapper {
height:42% !important;
max-height:42% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) and (max-width:600px) {
.tp-caption.tp-resizeme {
font-size: 22px!important;
line-height: 22px!important;
}
}
/*slide show text area shadow*/
.rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 35%;
top: 65%;
background: linear-gradient(to top, rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .5), rgba(0, 0, 0, .4), rgba(0, 0, 0, .2), rgba(0, 0, 0, 0));
}
.category .rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .category .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 100%;
top: 100%;
}
.category .tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 0;
}
/*Topic page slider*/
.Newspaper-Button, tp-caption.Newspaper-Button {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-width: 0 !important;
color: #424242!important;
padding: 13px 18px!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase!important;
letter-spacing: 0 !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, sans-serif !important;
}
/*GDPR cookie notice*/
#cookie-notice {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
background-color: #fff;
letter-spacing: .5px;
}
/* Remove underline in footer logos */
.logo-wrapper a {
border: none !important;
}
/*MY ACES Add Bookmark*/
.btn-add-bookmark {
display: none;
}
/* after slider padding for lead*/
.lead {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/*header-top*/
.header-top .top-menu-right {
background-color: #f9f9f9cc!important;
}
/*header-top blue link text*/
.header-top .top-menu-right a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
}
/*recent articles*/
.work-entry {
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*recent articles blue link text*/
.work-entry a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*topic page link color (needs to be darker over gray backgorund)*/
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added p {
min-height: inherit;
/*(old)color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #366d21;
}
/*We Grow Alabama cards*/
.sb-value-added {
color:#fff;
background-color: #00000090!important;
}
/*Grow green*/
.green-color {
/*color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #76CF3A;
}
/*we Grow Alabama numbers*/
.sb-value-added h5 {
padding-top:0;
font-size: 1.4em;
}
/*after numbers*/
h5 .small, h5 small {
font-weight: 400;
line-height: 1;
color: #959595 !important;
}
/*calendar band background*/
.event-ticker {
/*(old)background-color: #4f9c2e;*/
background-color: #438528;
}
/*calendar band event name*/
#vertical-ticker li h5.event-name {
/*#fff;
margin: 8px 0 2px;*/
font-size: 1em;
}
body.home header#header {
top: 0;
}
.gform_wrapper ul.gfield_checkbox li label, .gform_wrapper ul.gfield_radio li label {padding-left: 30px !important;}
.anchor {
position: absolute;
padding-top: 36px;
margin-top: -36px;
}
/*Gravity Form submit button*/
.gform_footer .btn-primary {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
}
.post-info-header-category, .post-info-header-logo, .footer-print {
display: none;
}
/*printer icon*/
a.aces-print-article {
cursor:pointer;
text-decoration:underline;
}
li.aces-print i.fa-cloud-download, li.aces-print i.fa-print {
padding-right: 7px !important;
}
/*byline line break for mobile*/
@media (min-width: 991px) {
.byline-mobile-line-break {
display:none;
}
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
.read-time {
text-align: center;
border: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
background: #f9f9f9;
color: #000!important;
border-radius: 4px;
padding: 10px 4px 3px;
font-weight: 700!important;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
}
/*About Us card deck*/
.card-margin-top {
margin-top: 1em;
}
/*About Us category text adjustment*/
.category-about-us .subcat-content, .category-aamu .subcat-content {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
padding: 20px 0;
}
/*About Us category remove dateline*/
.category-about-us.post-meta-info-content ul:first-child {
display: none !important;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.cat-4h, .cat-about-4-h, .cat-family-resources-4-h, .cat-volunteer-resources-4-h, .cat-programs-4-h, .cat-animals-4-h, .cat-arts-4-h, .cat-healthy-living-4-h, .cat-leadership-4-h, .cat-outdoor-education-4-h, .cat-science-technology-4-h, .cat-how-to-give-4-h, .cat-support-4-h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.post-format.cat-4h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* Gravity Forms OTHER spacing 2023-05-23 JMH*/
.gform_wrapper input:not([type=radio]):not([type=checkbox]):not([type=submit]):not([type=button]):not([type=image]):not([type=file]) {
padding: 5px 2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size for line height is fixed error*/
.topic-list .sb-value-added p {
line-height: 1.2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size adjustment when there is not an image for the topic link. 2019-08-16 RFF & JMH */
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added .service-block-title-large {
margin: 0 !important;
font-size: inherit !important;
}
/* Alert Menu */
.header-alert, .bg-alert {
background: #ee2400;
color: white;
}
.header-alert .navbar-nav>li>a {
text-transform: none;
}
.alert-btn {
background-color: #ee2400;
border-color: #ee2400;
color: white;
margin: 5px;
}
.nav>li>a.alert-link {
display: none;
background-color: #ee2400;
}
/*Ex TV*/
.navbar-nav>li>a.extv-link {
text-transform: none;
}
/*page icon for video pages*/
.page-header .post-format {
background-size: 65%;
}
/*video embed resposive*/
.embed-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden; max-width: 100%;
}
.embed-container iframe, .embed-container object, .embed-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
/* ExTV dark */
.category-extv .main-wrapper, .category-extv .association, .category-extv .assoc-entry, .category-extv .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv .association h1, .category-extv .association h2, .category-extv .association h3, .category-extv .association h4, .category-extv .association h5, .category-extv .association h6,
.category-extv-dark .main-wrapper, .category-extv-dark .association, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv-dark .association h1, .category-extv-dark .association h2, .category-extv-dark .association h3, .category-extv-dark .association h4, .category-extv-dark .association h5, .category-extv-dark .association h6 {
background: rgb(31, 31, 31);
color: #fff;
}
.category-extv .association .sub-divider-new, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new {
border-color: rgb(31, 31, 31);
}
.category-extv .main-wrapper a, .category-extv .association a, .category-extv .assoc-entry a, .category-extv-dark .main-wrapper a, .category-extv-dark .association a, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry a {
color:white;
}
.category-extv-dark article.assoc-entry::first-child, .category-extv article.assoc-entry::first-child {
visibility:hidden;
}
.post-grid-assoc {
border: 1px solid #454545;
}
.directory-listing, .event-listing, .search-results {
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
/*mobile phone inline image fix 07-12-2021 JMH*/
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
margin: 10px !important;
}
}
/*counties*/
.subcat-content {
padding-top: 20px;
}
.county-columns {
columns: 140px 5;
line-height: 3em;
padding: 20px 0 20px;
}
@media (min-width: 768px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 2em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 992px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.7em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 1200px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.6em;
}
}
/* end counties */
/* Custom Gallery */
.custom-gallery {
margin: auto;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-item {
float: left;
margin-top: 10px;
text-align: center;
width: 33%;
}
.custom-gallery img {
border: 2px solid #cfcfcf;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-caption {
margin-left: 0;
}
/* Decision Tree CSS */
.dt_display_title {
color: #1D63AB !important;
font: 700 1.5em Helvetica Nue,sans-serif !important;
font-size: 44px !important;
line-height: 1.2 !important;
}
.dt_display_question {
font-size: 16px !important;
line-height: 1.5 !important;
letter-spacing: .5px !important;
}
.dt_display_subtext {
font-style:italic !important;
padding: 10px 0 !important;
}
.dt_button, .answer-restart {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-color: #f39c12 !important;
color: #424242!important;
font-family: Helvetica Nue, sans-serif !important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
}
/* end Decision Tree CSS */
/* cookie notice container */
#cookie-notice .cookie-notice-container a {
color:#5EA1E4 !important;
}
/* footer bottom left*/
.footer-menu-left {
float: left;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.footer-menu-left li {
border-left: 1px solid rgba(255,255,255,.6);
padding: 0 10px;
line-height: 1.2;
}
.footer-menu-left li:first-child {
border-left: none;
padding-left: 0;
}
.footer-bottom-left {
color: #fff;
padding-bottom: 0;
}
.footer-bottom .footer-menu {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/* Print Stylesheet - LEAVE AT BOTTOM */
@media print {
*, ::after, ::before {
color: #000!important;
text-shadow: none !important;
background: 0 0 !important;
box-shadow: none !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, san-serif;
}
body {
--webkit-hyphens: auto;
--moz-hyphens: auto;
hyphens: auto;
}
.row-print {
min-height: 20px;
}
.post-info-header-category {
display: block;
position: absolute;
top: 13pt;
left: 15px;
max-width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-category h1 {
color: green !important;
display: inline;
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-weight: lighter;
letter-spacing: 2pt;
text-align: left;
text-transform: uppercase;
}
.post-info-header-category hr {
position: absolute;
margin-top: 0 !important;
margin-bottom: 0 !important;
width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-logo {
display: block;
padding: 0 !important;
position: absolute;
top: 0;
right: 45pt;
width: 190px !important;
text-align: right !important;
}
.main-cat-title, h1 {
font-size: 28pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
.main-cat-title {
margin-bottom: auto;
}
h1 {
font-size: 18pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
h2 {
font-size: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
color: #001a96 !important;
}
p, ul, li {
font-size: 10pt !important;
line-height: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
}
/*p img {
display: none;
}*/
img.wp-image-46702 {
display: block !important;
}
.post-media {
margin: 0 0 10px 0;
padding: 0;
border: none;
}
.image-overlay {
display: inline-block;
}
.header, .page-wrapper, div.container div.row, .forcefullwidth_wrapper_tp_banner, .post-format, .subcat-title, .breadcrumb, .read-time, .post-meta-info-content, .at-below-post, .addthis_tool .alignright, .like-dislike, span.small, .tags, aside.related-posts, .footer-inner, table, .ninja_button_print, .nt_edit_link, .btn {
display: none;
}
table.display-print {display: inline-block !important }
/*remove URL from gallery images*/
.gallery a[href]:after {
content: none;
}
.aces-pub a[href]:after {
content: " (" attr(href) ")" !important;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
.page-header {
border-bottom: none !important;
}
.logo {
margin-top: 0;
}
.subact-title {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.subact-title a {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.content-print {
column-count: 2 !important;
-webkit-column-count: 2 !important;
column-gap: 40px !important;
-webkit-column-gap: 40px !important;
}
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
}
.wp-caption-text {
font-size: 8pt !important;
line-height: 11pt !important;
}
.footer-print {
display: block !important;
}
.footer-print-logo {
max-width: 190px;
padding-bottom: 7pt;
}
.footer-print-content p {
font-family: Times New Roman, serif;
font-size: 7pt !important;
line-height: 6pt !important;
/*letter-spacing: -.1pt;*/
margin: 1pt 0 3pt !important;
}
.footer-print-content h2 {
font-size: 11pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
margin-top: 7px;
}
.footer-print-content hr {
padding: 0 !important;
margin: 0 !important;
}
h3.table_title:before {
content: 'Print "';
}
h3.table_title:after {
content:'" table from our website.';
}
/*video in print*/
iframe {
display:none;
}
iframe[src]:after {
content: " (" attr(src) ")" !important;
}
#cookie-notice {
display: none !important;
}
.cookie-notice-container {
display: none !important;
}
}
/*end print stylesheet*/
/* siteimprove suggested edits */
/* vendor.min.css:18 */
.form-background, .contact-bar {
background-color: #106522 !important;
}
blockquote {
color: #595959 !important;}
.subcat-content {
font-size: 1.3125em !important;
}
.tribe-events-content ol, .tribe-events-content p, .tribe-events-content ul {
font-size:1.125em !important;
}
/*end siteimprove suggested edits*/
</style>
</head>
<body class="aces_content_piece-template-default single single-aces_content_piece postid-4285 tribe-no-js">
<a class="skip-main" href="#main">Skip to main content</a>
<header id="header" class="header" role="banner" aria-label="site header">
<div class="page-wrapper">
<script>
function closeAlert() {
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=aces.edu; Path=/";
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=acesag.auburn.edu; Path=/";
jQuery("#headerAlert").css("display","none");
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
function showAlertMenu() {
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
</script>
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top header-top-desktop">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
<div ></div>
</li>
<div class="gtranslate_wrapper" id="gt-wrapper-88538983"></div> <li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/calendar/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o" aria-hidden="true"></i>Calendar</a></li>
<!-- 2023-11-18 RFF & JMH -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/discover/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>Discover</a></li>
<!-- <li> --> <!-- <a href="javascript:getLocation()">(Find Nearest)</a> -->
<!-- <span class="top-header-list visible-lg-inline-block hidden-md">, Hours: 7:45-11:45; 12:45-4:45 ~ Phone: (334) 844-4444</span> -->
<!-- </li> -->
<!-- 2019-08-06 JMH & RFF add store link and cart -->
<li><a href="https://secure.touchnet.net/C20021_ustores/web/store_main.jsp?STOREID=244&SINGLESTORE=true" target="_blank" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-shopping-cart" aria-hidden="true"></i>Store</a></li>
<!-- 2022-09-22 JMH add Be Prepared link and circle with exclaimation mark -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/alabama-ready/" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-exclamation-triangle" aria-hidden="true"></i>Be Prepared</a></li>
<!-- RFF removed MY ACES
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/login" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>
Sign In</a></li>
<li class="visible-xs-inline-block"><a href="https://www.aces.edu/my-aces" class="toggle-link"><i
class="fa fa-book" aria-hidden="true"></i> My ACES</a></li>
-->
</ul>
</nav>
</div><!-- /Top Menu right -->
</div>
</div> <!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
</div>
<div id="header-inner" class="header-inner">
<div class="header-middle">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<div class="left-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn btn-primary" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".header-top">
<span class="sr-only" aria-label="search category options">Toggle navigation</span>
<i class="fa fa-bars"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-8 col-xs-offset-0 col-sm-4 col-sm-offset-0 col-md-4 col-md-offset-0">
<div class="logo">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/" aria-label="Select to go to the home page"><img
src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/themes/aces-theme/assets/images/ACES-Logo.svg"
height="auto"
class="img-responsive"
style="display:inline-block;"
alt="Alabama Extension"></a>
</div>
</div>
<div class="right-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn primary-d alignright" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".search-row">
<span class="sr-only">Toggle search</span>
<i class="fa fa-search"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-2 col-md-2 search-row mobile-collapse collapse"></div><!-- 2019-12-10 RFF -->
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-6 col-md-6 search-row mobile-collapse collapse">
<div class="row">
<div class="col-lg-12">
<form id="aces-primary-search" action="https://www.aces.edu">
<div class="input-group search-wrapper" id="header-search" role="search" aria-label="search the site">
<label for="main-search" class="visually-hidden"><!-- Search articles, publications, and events -->Tell me about...</label>
<input type="text" class="form-control search-header" id="aces-primary-search-s" name="s" placeholder="Tell me about..." id="main-search" value="">
<input type="hidden" id="aces-primary-search-q" name="q">
<span class="input-group-btn right-home-search">
<button class="btn primary-d" type="submit">Search</button>
</span>
</div>
<!-- <input type="hidden" name="cat" value=""> -->
</form>
<script>
/** Applies the category selection to form. */
jQuery(document).ready(function ($) {
/* 2019-12-11 RFF - turned off.
var el = $('.search-category').on('click', function () {
var id = $(this).data('id'),
el = $('form input[name="cat"]');
el.val(id);
el.attr('value', id);
$('form span.cat-name').text($(this).text());
});
*/
/* 2020-04-23 RFF - added */
$('#aces-primary-search').submit(function(event) {
$('#aces-primary-search-q').val($('#aces-primary-search-s').val());
});
});
</script>
<div class="mission-statement" id="header-mission" style="display:none;"><p>The <strong>Alabama
Cooperative Extension System</strong> operates as the primary outreach organization
that ensures all people have access to information that improves their quality of life
and economic well-being.</p></div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div><!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
<div class="page-wrapper">
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top-mobile">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
<div ></div>
</li>
<div class="gtranslate_wrapper" id="gt-wrapper-59898206"></div> <li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/calendar/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o" aria-hidden="true"></i>Calendar</a></li>
<!-- 2023-11-18 RFF & JMH -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/discover/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>Discover</a></li>
<!-- <li> --> <!-- <span class="top-header-list visible-lg-inline-block hidden-md">, Hours: 7:45-11:45; 12:45-4:45 ~ Phone: (334) 844-4444</span> -->
<!-- </li> -->
<!-- 2019-08-06 JMH & RFF add store link and cart -->
<li><a href="https://secure.touchnet.net/C20021_ustores/web/store_main.jsp?STOREID=244&SINGLESTORE=true" target="_blank" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-shopping-cart" aria-hidden="true"></i>Store</a></li>
<!-- 2022-09-22 JMH add Be Prepared link and circle with exclaimation mark -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/alabama-ready/" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-exclamation-triangle" aria-hidden="true"></i>Be Prepared</a></li>
<!-- RFF Removed MY ACES
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/login" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>
Sign In</a></li>
<li class="visible-xs-inline-block"><a href="https://www.aces.edu/my-aces" class="toggle-link"><i
class="fa fa-book" aria-hidden="true"></i> My ACES</a></li>
-->
</ul>
</nav>
</div><!-- /Top Menu right -->
</div>
</div> <!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
</div>
<!-- Header Bottom Container -->
<div class="header-bottom header-top mobile-collapse collapse">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row">
<!-- Navigation -->
<div class="navbar navbar-inverse bg-primary">
<nav class=" navbar-collapse js-navbar-collapse pull-left" role="navigation"
aria-label="main navigation">
<ul class="nav navbar-nav nav-mobile">
<li class="dropdown mega-dropdown">
<a href="#" class="dropdown-toggle nav-toggle" data-toggle="dropdown">Topics <i class="fa fa-caret-down"></i> </a>
<div id="topics-dropdown" class="container dropdown-menu mega-dropdown-menu">
<ul class="container mega-nav-wrapper">
<li class="col-xs-12 col-sm-3">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/4h/">
<img src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/4h.jpg"
class="img-responsive"
alt="kids in 4 H">
<div class="sub-menu-link">Alabama 4-H<i
class="fa fa-caret-right fa-margin-left"></i><i
class="fa fa-caret-right"></i>
</div>
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<article id="post-4285" class="post-4285 aces_content_piece type-aces_content_piece status-publish has-post-thumbnail hentry category-by-ingredients category-live-well-recipes category-meal-types category-time-savers tag-30-minutes tag-alabama-snap-ed tag-beef tag-budgeting tag-by-ingredients tag-dinner tag-fcs2196 tag-healthy-eating tag-live-well-alabama tag-live-well-recipes tag-main-dish tag-meal-types tag-meals tag-meat tag-onion tag-recipes tag-time-savers tag-tomato tag-turkey tag-vegetables tag-zuchini first last odd" role="article" aria-label="Live Well Recipe: Easy Skillet Dinner">
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Live Well Recipe: Easy Skillet Dinner </div>
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<li>July 26, 2018</li>
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<div class="at-above-post addthis_tool" data-url="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/by-ingredients/live-well-recipe-easy-skillet-dinner/"></div><p>Try our Easy Skillet Dinner. Cooking with garlic salt? Try garlic powder for the same great flavor without the added salt. Serves 6.</p>
<h1>Ingredients</h1>
<p>Cooking spray</p>
<p>1 pound lean ground beef or turkey</p>
<p>1 medium onion, chopped</p>
<p>garlic powder, 1 teaspoon</p>
<p>2 medium zucchinis, diced</p>
<p>3 tomatoes, diced</p>
<p>1 can tomato paste, 6 ounces</p>
<p>2 teaspoons dried Italian seasoning</p>
<p>Salt and pepper to taste</p>
<h1>Directions</h1>
<p>Spray cooking spray in a skillet.</p>
<p>Cook meat, onion and garlic powder over medium heat. Cook until meat is cooked through and onion is soft, about 10 minutes.</p>
<p>Add zucchini, tomatoes, tomato paste and seasoning. Simmer over medium heat for 10 minutes.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/FCS_2196_LiveWellAlabamaRecipeCards_EasySkilletDinner_081717L.pdf">Download the recipe here: Printable Easy Skillet Dinner</a></p>
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<p><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/live-well-alabama/usda-nondiscrimination-statement/">Click here to view the USDA Nondiscrimination Statement.</a></p>
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https://extension.okstate.edu/announcements/cow-calf-corner-newsletter/the-newsletter-november-29-2021.html | Cow-Calf Corner • The Newsletter - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2021-11-29 | [] | OK | ## Cow-Calf Corner · The Newsletter
Monday, November 29, 2021
## Cattle Markets Back on Offense
Derrell S. Peel, Oklahoma State University Extension Livestock Marketing Specialist
As 2021 winds to a close, cattle markets seem to finally be able to move out from under the specter of the pandemic impacts that began 18 months ago. Indeed, the constant turmoil of a series of Black Swan events have kept the industry on the defensive for over two years. The recent breakout of fed cattle markets after struggling under the weight of beef packer capacity constraints clears the way for cattle markets to move forward with the optimism that has been building in the industry in recent months.
There continues to be, of course, many challenges facing the cattle industry in 2022. COVID impacts are ongoing with much uncertainty; and U.S. and global economies will continue struggling with pandemic ripple effects for many months. Higher input prices will impact cattle operations and test better profitability prospects in the coming year.
Continuing drought is an ongoing threat and may impact the industry and many producers in affected regions. It is uncertain whether or how and where drought will affect the cattle industry in 2022. La Niña conditions have redeveloped this winter which may result in some relief in parts of northern regions while southwestern regions, that did see some
improvement in 2021, could see redeveloping drought conditions. In drought regions, producers will continue to be on defense.
Despite these challenges, many producers may be able to spend more time looking forward in the coming year. Producers can evaluate and plan their individual objectives and goals while the industry figures out what the trajectory is for the next couple of years at least. The beef cow herd has been declining since 2019 and declined even faster in 2021. It will decline again in 2022 and likely in 2023. However, strong domestic beef demand bolstered by even stronger demand and potential in international markets suggests that cyclical expansion could resume in the not-to-distant future. Exactly what the future path will be remains to be determined but producers should consider strategic and tactical plans for industry outcomes.
Winter is a good time to consider both animal and forage production and management plans for the coming year. Once calf marketing is complete and herd culling decisions are implemented, a relative down-time is ideal for a bit of review of the past year and planning for next year with a series of questions. What are the conditions of pastures and rangeland going into the next growing season; should grazing plans or stocking rates be adjusted? Were production and reproductive rates and weaning weights as expected? What is the current body condition of the cows? What is the herd health status? Are upcoming herd nutritional needs evaluated and matched with feed and supplement resources? Planning now can help manage costs and production next year. Take time to consider these and other questions before the new year.
The industry has waited many months for a bit of relative stability. Are you ready to be on offense rather than defense? There will no doubt be adversity and producers must be prepared for risks and negative outcomes, but you also need to be ready to grab the opportunities that will come. The cattle industry can look forward to 2022.
## Selection for Improved Cow Efficiency
Mark Z. Johnson, Oklahoma State University Extension Beef Cattle Breeding Specialist
Reproductive performance in the cowherd is low in heritability, meaning it is largely influenced by environment, particularly nutrition. Mature Weight (MW) is moderate in heritability (35%) meaning response to selection pressure to downsize cows can be accomplished more effectively. Most beef cattle registries calculate MW EPDs.
Among the benefits of modern genetic prediction in beef cattle is being able to compare the genetic values of our herd bulls (or AI sires) across time and geography. If we weighed cows this fall and realized our nature cow weights are getting out of hand. We should take a look at the MW EPDs of the bull (or bulls) that sired them. The registration paper on our herd bulls permits us to look at EPDs of our current (past) bull battery and use it as a means to guide change in the future.
Excessive MW is typically the result of selection pressure being applied to increase weaning and yearing weights while ignoring the MW EPD value. Because of the positive genetic correlation between weights at all ages it is an unintended, but natural consequence that MW will increase over time when no selection pressure is applied to this trait. If we want less MW in our cow herd, this can be done by selecting bulls with lower MW EPDs in the future.
A review of genetic trends in beef breeds is informative. Over the past 30 years we see birth weight EPDs have stayed constant (or in some breeds have actually went down), while WW and YW have went up. The point: in spite of those genetic correlations mentioned above, we have improved calving ease, while raising WW and YW over time. The same can be accomplished by including MW among the traits we select for
in our breeding program. Bottomline: we don't need to sacrifice WW or YW in order to keep MW in check. It is possible to identify sires that can improve the traits we want while decreasing MW.
The consequence over time, less mature size results in lower nutritional requirements of our cowherd. As this happens we see improved cowherd performance. The same amount of forage for the same number of cows with less mature weight will result in improved Pregnancy Percentages, Percent Calf Crop Weaned and Pounds Weaned per Exposed Female.
## Improving Hay Feeding Efficiency
David Lalman, Oklahoma State University Extension Beef Cattle Specialist
Most agricultural economists argue that finding ways to minimize the amount of hay fed in a cow-calf enterprise is one of the keys to profitability. In contrast, over the last 50 years, hay production has steadily increased, while the beef cow inventory has remained relatively constant. During the same period, the dairy cow and horse inventories have declined substantially. For perspective, hay production per beef cow in Oklahoma has increased from about ¾ of a ton in the mid 70's to about 2.25 tons per beef cow more recently (Fig. 1). Thus, making efficient use of harvested hay continues to represent "low-hanging fruit" in both seedstock and commercial cattle operations.
Feeding strategies for large round bales can be separated into use of a hay feeder and rolling bales out. A major advantage to rolling bales out is improved distribution of hay waste and manure over the pasture, which should lead to improved soil fertility. Hoof action is also distributed over a larger feeding area, and this could lead to less soil compaction and (or) less sod/plant damage compared to concentrated feeding areas associated with hay feeders. The disadvantage to relying on unrolling hay is the need to feed every day if standing forage availability is limited. Hay waste is basically a function of the amount of hay provided per animal each day. The more restricted the amount of hay fed, the lower the waste and visa versa. In other words, if two or more days' worth of hay must be fed at a time, expect hay waste to exceed 25% of the original bale weight. Granted, the term "waste" may be considered a matter of perspective, because the "wasted" hay does provide soil nutrients and organic matter to the system.
Hay waste when feeding is a large cost to most of our cowcalf production systems in Oklahoma. Next week's article will cover hay feeder designs to reduced hay feeding waste.
See Paul Beck talk about rotating hay feeding areas on a Sunup TV program aired on January 12, 2019. Rotating hay locations (https://www.youtube.com/watch? for cattle(1/12/19)- ve=vjstEqEQ0N1NY) YouTube
Dave Lalman discusses how to get the most out of your hay on SunUp TV from October 22, 2018.
Getting the most out of (https://www.youtube.com/watch? your hay(10/20/18) - v=UoqiKS05q-k&t=22s) YouTube |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/building-construction-plans/cattle-shed | Cattle Shed | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [] | null | [] | MS | Home » Publications » Building & Construction Plans Archive » Cattle Shed
## Cattle Shed
BUILDING & CONSTRUCTION PLANS ARCHIVE
Publication Number: 5676
View as PDF: 5676.pdf
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webtbeam or call 662325-2262.
Select Your County Office
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/beef/low-stress-cattle-handling/ | Low-Stress Cattle Handling | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"W. F. \"Frank\" Owsley"
] | 2018-09-19 | [
"Beef",
"Cattle Handling",
"Agriculture"
] | AL | BEEF
extension
## Low-Stress Cattle Handling
Everyone involved in beef cattle production will at some time work cattle. Sound cattle handling practices will affect the wellbeing of cattle, individual animal health, and herd productivity. These practices are the result of decades of practical experience, research, and, most important, common sense.
Unfortunately, working cattle can be source of stress for you and your animals. Stressed cattle will have a poorer performance and a greater risk of health problems than nonstressed cattle. Minimizing stress is as simple as making the right thing easy and the wrong thing hard. Good handling techniques as well as functional facilities will more often than not actually save time and money. You will pay for handling facilities whether you own them or not.
The following points on handling and the use of cattle handling facilities will make working cattle easier for you and your animals.
## Have a Plan
Have a plan for working cattle. Know what you are going to do long before you get cattle up. Having a simple list of what you are doing, the tools you need, and what cattle you are working is a start. Look at the overall flow pattern of cattle through the facility. Walk through the facility, making sure that everything is working and free from obstructions. Obstructions can be as simple as a closed gate or a coat hanging on the fence. Mud holes, drains, step-ups, shadows, and 'zebra' lighting also obstruct smooth cattle flow. Cattle will work better and have less chance of injury if they can keep their footing, so make sure that alleys are not slick with mud or manure.
Have enough skilled labor to carry out your plan. Inexperienced people are easily frightened by cattle and may be hurt if they do not understand cattle behavior.
It helps if your workers or helpers know what they are doing and what you expect.
## Cookie Notice
Cattle work better when they are handled frequently. Anything new or different causes them to become nervous and can lead to handling difficulty or production iosses. Allow cattle to become familiar with the working pens by occasioning the feeding in the pens https://www.auburn.edu/admin/instration/oacp/privacy.php?ard\_barging\_cqreicn\_tha
How close can you get to your cows before they move away? This distance is the edge of the flight zone (Figure 1). Cattle will move when you enter their flight zone and will stop when you leave it. The flight zone is larger when-when-when-at-are-approved head-on, excitable, or not used to being handled. The flight zone is smaller when you confine the animal to a single-file chute or when the animals are used to being handled. Knowing the flight zone will help you work cattle with less stress (Figure 2).
Cat&s are sensiibvive to sudden, loud or frightful, nad. Nodious Excessive noise makes cattle nervous and more difficult to work. dangerous
| temperament or disposition of the cattle. Time, timid cattle may show little negative reaction. Nervous, flighty cattle may end up in the next county after a well-intended shout. In working facilities made of metal, avoid metal-on-metal contact. Install rubber bumpers where gates clang against metal. Avoid unnecessary shouting or other noise when possible.
Cattle have a strong herd instinct and become nervous or aggressive when alone. Work at least two or three animals at a time and have a dominant animal in the group. The fate of a cattle drive was often determined by identifying the lead steer. Understanding this basic concept of cattle behavior alone will reduce the stress of handling.
| |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Taken from "The Cattle Industry's Guidelines for the Care and Handling of Cattle", National Cattlemen's Beef Association |
Opinions vary on the best way to move cattle. Some are convinced that working cattle on horseback is best, while others think working on foot is better. Remember that cattle do not like anything new. They are creatures of habit. According to Temple Grandin in BEEF magazine, August, 2000, cattle's memories are sensory: pictures, sounds, and smells. A person on a horse or a four- wheeler is different than a person on the ground.
In the tight confines of a pen or alley, plastic paddles, sorting flags, broom cans can be used to move cattle. Each uses sight or sound to cook chocolate. Notice and brooms provide a visual barrier; plastic 'rattle' paddies provide both a voice barrier and an audible noise. A sorting stick works as a subtle prod, which like a solid wall but e.s y to handi. Ncne of these (https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp)privacy.php
## Avoid Injury
Many injuries to cattle or the people working cattle can be prevented by planning and understanding cattle behavior. Paying attention while working cattle will further reduce the incidence of injury.
Pay close attention to the facilities. Gates and panels can break or come loose, causing protruding objects, sharp comers, low overhangs, or other traps that can harm animals or humans.
Cattle are large, strong, and often unpredictable. It is unwise to relax around them too much or to try to work them without adequate facilities. Cattle are stronger than humans, and humans are smarter cattle; therefore, humans should try to outthink cattle, not wrestle them. If available, use the catwalk along the cattle working or loading chutes to work cattle rather than standing behind them.
Stay alert when working cattle. Cattle usually become unruly when least expected. Make certain that everyone is cautious at all times. If workers become fatigued, it is best to rest awhile.
If cattle are to be worked in close quarters, either work close to the animals or stay out of kicking range. Cattle cannot kick hard when you are very close. This is not recommended, however, because the danger of being stepped on greatly increased.
Cattle that are not properly restrained in good facilities can cause accidents by throwing their heads or kicking. This may result in dangerous, painful jabs by vaccination needles, castration knives, or implanting tools. It is also difficult to deliver precise dosages of vaccines, pour-on insecticides, dewormers, or other products without good facilities. Improperly delivered product dosages can increase animal stress by inducing overdose reactions or, alternately, by not doing the proper job because too little product is delivered.
Many of the tools and products used in working cattle can be harmful if improperly used. Read and follow directions carefully. Accidental ingestion of chemicals by humans, spilling certain products (especially organophosphates) on the skin or in the eyes, or accidental injection can be stressful to people. If accidents happen, contact a physician immediately. Take the label with you so the physician can have full knowledge of the product that is causing the problem.
Keep a first-aid kit available near the cattle working area. Firstaid training is recommended to handle possible emergencies.
## Summary
Careful planning, understanding cattle behavior, and paying attention to details will reduce the stress associated with working cattle.
When you start thinking about getting cattle up to work, remember the following:
Have enough skill
Make sure the facilities are ready Download a PDF of Low-Stress Cattle Handling, ANR-1394. Remember that the initial movement determines everything ( https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/ANR- 1394\_REV\_3pdf )
- Don't get stressed yourself
For more information on the Alabama Bee Quality Assurance program, visit www.alabamabqa.com.
Cookie Notice
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php) |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/self-esteem-in-children | Self-Esteem in Children | NC State Extension | [
"Karen DeBord"
] | null | [
"Parenting",
"Child Development",
"Adolescent Development",
"Children",
"Teenager"
] | NC | ## Self-Esteem in Children
When we hear words like:
"Great job! You have worked hard" ...we may want to work even harder.
When we hear words like:
"Shut up! What do you think you're doing?" ...we may not venture a try the next time.
When we are given a caring touch on the shoulder or a hug that says someone cares …we may feel good about who we are and think good thoughts.
When we are yanked by the shirt or arm and told to sit down and shut up ...we may feel we have done something wrong by simply being.
Self-esteem is the degree to which children feel accepted and valued by adults and peers who are important to them. The development of a sense of self is very complex. It is developed from within a person and shaped as well by the people around them (Katz, 1995). Being able to manage one's own life, feelings, and decisions comes from the foundation of a strong sense of self. Being able to manage helps people cope when difficulties arise.
The development of self comes in phases and is shaped by experiences. Developing a sense of trust in the people who care for them is the first important stage of developing a sense of self in children. Children must learn to trust others so they in turn can learn to trust themselves. Adults who give warm, loving touches, cuddle their children, and answer their calls for what they need are providing the essential first ingredients to a healthy sense of self in their child-making the young one feel wanted, valued, and loved.
When children begin to toddler and walk, they need to have a safe, supportive environment to explore. It is a child's job to explore and learn about things. Without this natural desire to touch, taste, and feel things around them, they could not learn or get ready for school. Children need a place where they do not have to hear over and over words like, "Stop, get down, or NO." Childproof the environment, paying attention to safety while giving children bright, interesting playthings. These do not have to be costly. Even a cardboard box or plastic spoons and bowls will be interesting to children.
If children do not feel they can explore independently, they will feel ashamed and doubt their abilities. By about 18 months of age, children begin to be independent. Parents who expect this need for independence and do not begin a power struggle will be rewarded later with a child who is interested in and excited about learning on his or her own. These children will learn to depend on themselves and not adults for every answer.
Young children begin to see themselves as separate from their parents as they acquire language. They begin to name themselves as "self" or "me" and use the word "mine," often to an extreme. They are VERY self-centered and even think the world revolves around them until about age 7. They have difficulty thinking about another person's point of view, and they even think others are thinking what they are thinking. Their brains are developing very rapidly, but they are still incomplete, and children simply cannot think like adults yet! They are impulsive, self-centered, and do not think
through, nor plan, their actions. This is the critical stage for parents to be patient and work hard to set a positive example for what they want mirrored in their child. The groundwork that has been laid as a young child follows older children into adulthood.
Self-control , another part of the development of self, is first seen in bladder and bowel control. But it is not until about age 6 or 7 that children are better able to control behaviors like whining or fussing. With guidance, however, control eventually will come. In the meantime, talk to children about expectations for their behavior. Being a good role model works best. Telling them only once will not work, however. Telling and showing them many, many times will be required as they mature.
Parents and teachers of teens may want to persuade teens to give up the ever-common arguing for the sake of arguing. But arguing gives teens a chance to learn to express themselves appropriately while trying out their own theories. The identity phase strongly influences behavior during this time and is influenced by adults who are respected by youth who can accept or reject the teen's personhood. Peer acceptance plays a large part in building a positive sense of self as well.
## What helps children mature with a positive sense of self?
Age-With age, a child will learn increased control, gain memory, develop cognitively, and learn language and a sense of how to plan for the future.
Supported waiting-Children have difficulty waiting, but can be supported while they wait. Talk to them. For example: "In 5 more minutes, dinner will be ready. I know you can wait that long."
Follow through-Follow through after a child waits. Do not imply a reward will come if it will not. This is part of trust!
Modeling-Adults who control their own anger, aggression, language, and needs provide positive models for their children.
Feeling in control-Provide children with age-appropriate choices. Offer two choices you can live with, and give the child an opportunity to learn to make decisions by choosing.
## Many Dimensions of Self-Esteem
Feelings of self-worth are many-faceted. It is not just ONE big area. Adults and children alike may feel good about one aspect of themselves and not good about another. For example, children have feelings about how well they do in school, about how they make and keep friends, about their athletic abilities, their physical appearance, and their conduct or behavior. All of these aspects make
up the total sense of self worth.
Susan Harter, a psychologist from Colorado, measures how children 8 years of age and older feel about them selves with questions such as these. Children are asked which half of the statement is most like them.
Some kids feel very good about their schoolwork. BUT
Other kids worry about whether they can do the schoolwork assigned to them.
Some kids are happy with the way they look. BUT
Other kids are not happy with the way they look.
Children as young as age 4 are generally assessed with pictures to determine their sense of esteem or worth.
## Counterpoint
Many people believe that low self-esteem lies at the root of many of society's problems (Katz, 1995). However, other studies on children's school achievement argue that telling children how wonderful they are over and over can be counterproductive and actually make children perform worse. A study by Baumeister, Boden, and Smart (1996) found that achievement comes first and self-esteem follows.
This and other studies (Harter, 1983) lend caution against empty , self-building words to inflate a child's ego (Shokrai, 2000). Remember the delicate balance. It is important to have meaningful communication with children, but be sure they learn to motivate themselves toward high performance without remarks from others.
Parents and caregivers can support children as they grow. Helping children learn to feel secure about them selves and helping them learn how to make decisions about everyday events will serve as solid footing for lifelong learning. Doing well in school, being able to manage feelings, and making friends and keeping them are all areas that must be learned. Children who are able to cope in these ways will feel positive about their abilities, and this will serve them well into adulthood.
## Strategies for Nurturing a Positive Sense of Self
trip to the store today with
you! You were fun to be with."
- · Prepare children for social settings. Before going to a friend's house, talk about what will be expected.
But, as an adult,
remember their age has a bearing on their actions.
## Quickie Self-Esteem Builders
- · Help your child plan and shop for a meal.
- · Help your child identify a hobby.
- · Talk about traditions.
- · Get to know his/her friends.
- · Visit libraries, museums, and parks together.
- · Walk together.
- · Spend quiet time together.
- · Be available.
- · Help your child learn good body habits, such as wash- ing hands and brushing teeth.
- · Answer questions.
- · Respect your child's needs.
- · Get to know your child's teacher.
- · Read together.
- · Work on a chore chart together.
- · Play a game together.
- · Draw together, and talk about the drawings.
- · Accept any answers about their stories or art.
- · Look at a magazine together.
- · Practice pouring, measuring, and scooping.
- · Dance together.
- · Play an imagination game.
- · Use words like: "You've got what it takes, how clever, well done, I like you, that's neat, you deserve a big hug, and you're so smart!"
## Stretch and Think
More than 40 years ago, one teacher reflected:
I've come to the frightening conclusion that I am the decisive element in the classroom. It's my personal approach that creates the climate. It's my daily mood that makes the weather. As a teacher, I possess a tremendous power to make a child's life miserable or joyous. I can be a tool of torture or an instrument of inspiration. I can humiliate or humor, hurt or heal. In all situations, it is MY response that decides whether a crisis will be escalated or de-escalated and a child humanized or dehumanized.
Haim Ginott from Teacher and Child , 1972.
Think about how this could hold true for your role as a teacher or parent.
## Summary of key concepts :
- The sense of self develops in phases.
- Being able to explore safely, children begin to test their limitations.
- Self-control is difficult for young children. Parents need great patience in the early years!
- Self-esteem has many parts, including how children feel about their schoolwork, athletic ability, their appearance, and behavior. One may be high and another low.
- Be sure that praise is genuine.
- Model the behaviors you want to build in your child.
- Name and talk about feelings.
## Sources of Information
Baumeister, R. F., J. M. Boden, and L. Smart. (1996). Relation of Threatened Egotism to Violence and Aggression: The Dark Side of High Self-Esteem, Psychological Review , Vol. 103, No. 1.
Ginott, Haim (1956). Between Parent And Child . New York: Avon.
Ginott, Haim (1969). Between Parent And Teenager . New York: Avon.
Harter, S. (1985). Self-perception profile for children. University of Denver.
Harter, S. (1983). Developmental Perspectives of the Self System. In Paul H. Mussen (Ed.) Handbook of Child Psychology Volume IV Socialization, Personality, and Social Development . Pp. 275-385).
Katz, L. (1996). How Can We Strengthen Children's Self Esteem. ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education.
Katz, L. (1998). Self-esteem and Narcissism: Implications for Practice. EDO-PS-93-9. ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education.
Shokraii, N. H. The Self-Esteem Fraud: Why Feel-Good Education Does Not Lead to Academic Success. Center for Equal Opportunity.
## Author
Karen DeBord
Professor Emeritus Agricultural & Human Sciences
Publication date: March 1, 2001
Reviewed/Revised: Feb. 20, 2025
FCS-506
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2019/06/01/fawns/ | Fawns | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2019-06-01 | [
"Environment"
] | GA | ## Fawns
Written by
June 1, 2019
Pamela Turner
Early this morning I was watering my flowers when I saw two fawns resting under the azaleas in the front yard. When they walked they were still wobbly, so they were probably born today. It was a wonderful reminder of the softer side of life. There is something magical about babies. Of course these adorable fawns won't be as adorable when they get older and start munching on my hosta.
Their mother wasn't around, so initially I wondered if they had been abandoned or if she was foraging in the woods. A bit of research and I learned more than I ever knew about fawns. According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife, fawns are born without scent, that along with the spots on their backs help provide camouflage from predators. Their mother leaves them hidden while she goes foraging for food, coming back to nurse them several times a day. After about 2 months the fawns begin foraging alongside their mother. At about 3 to 4 months old they lose their spots. Interestingly, young males leave their mother after a year, but females may stay for up to two years.
The fawns under my azalexas will probably be gone by morning, or at least in a few days. If you find baby animals, don't touch them and don't assume they have been abandoned. If an animal has been orphaned contact a licensed wildlife rehabilitator .
Enjoy the beauty that surrounds you!
Posted in: Environment
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https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2021/03/17/how-many-poisons-are-in-your-bag/ | How many poisons are in your bag? | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2021-03-17 | [
"Children",
"Family",
"Healthy Children",
"Safety"
] | GA | ## How many poisons are in your bag?
Written by
March 17, 2021
Pamela Turner
We have all been spending more time at home lately due to COVID-19. Most schools are still utilizing virtual learning at home in some way or another as part of their safety protocol to limit the spread of the virus. These virtual learning days may minimize exposure for the children to the coronavirus, but could potentially expose these school aged children to other hazards at home. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), calls for poisonings during the quarantine period in 2020 were higher than during the same months in 2019. While most calls were due to ingestion of cleaning supplies, they also reported an increase in consumption of hand sanitizer by children.
Hand sanitizer is just one item that may be a potential hazard we carry in our purse or bag every day. Mothers and grandmothers are notorious for having everything in an effort to be prepared for many situations. While the intent of carrying these items is to aid family members, we may be exposing them to poisonous substances like over-the-counter medications. These pills may look like candy to a young child. Medications that are not kept in childhood containers can easily be obtained and ingested by young children, resulting in an could easily ingest them and lead to an accidental poisoning.
There are many other items that may be found in the purses and bags that we carry. These include items like the following.
If there are young children in your home, or you interact with them, you need to pack your purse or bag responsibly. Consider adding zip perouches to contain items like those listed above. Choose a pouch that is not clear and not attractive to young children. All medications, prescription and over-thecounter, should be kept in the original containers. If you have small children, request that the pharmacist package prescription medications in child-proof containers. When selecting over-thecounter medications, choose those with childproof lids. If your bag or purse has a hidden compartment, consider using this area to store potentially hazardous products. It is a good practice to regularly check the quantities of the medications you carry. Knowing how much you are carrying will be helpful if your bag or purse gets into the wrong little hands. If you suspect that a child has consumed or ingested a poisonous product, contact your local poison control center at 1-800-222-1222.
Written by: Nicole Walters, Family and Consumer Sciences Extension Agent, University of Georgia
Adapted from the March 2021 edition of the Healthy indoor environments: Where we live, learn and play newsletter.
Posted in: Children, Family, Healthy Children, Safety.
Tags: child safety, hand sanitizer, home safety, poisoning, young children
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/north-carolina-organic-commodities-production-guide/chapter-7-crop-production-management-peanuts | Chapter 7: Crop Production Management - Peanuts | NC State Extension | [
"David Jordan",
"LeAnn Lux",
"Derek Washburn"
] | null | [
"Peanut Production",
"Organic Production",
"Field Crop",
"Peanut",
"Organic Field Crop"
] | NC | ## Chapter 7: Crop Production Management - Peanuts
Producing peanuts that meet certified organic criteria set by the USDA with restrictions set by the National Organic Program (NOP) can be challenging compared with conventional peanut production. However, demand for organically produced peanut is strong, and markets are available.
The two major agronomic challenges with organic production are obtaining adequate plant stands and effectively controlling weeds. While disease, insect, and nematode control can be difficult to achieve, in most instances the impacts of insects and nematodes, and in some cases in-season diseases, may reduce yields but are not catastrophic. In contrast, the susceptibility to fungal disease in peanut seedlings without fungicide seed treatment and the challenge of controlling grassy weeds in an organic peanut system can result in complete crop failure. Growers interested in producing peanuts using organic principles should plant when soil conditions favor rapid emergence of seedlings. Fields with low infestations of weeds should be selected for production.
Challenges also exist from a post-harvest perspective. The certification process does not end in the field but carries through all processing steps. This can be a major constraint to organic adoption because current shellers in the Virginia-Carolina region are too large to invest in transitioning their plants to a relatively small volume of peanuts for organic certification. For example, Hampton Farms markets several products that are certified organic, but all production is based in New Mexico because of shelling and processing logistics and certification requirements at the post-harvest level.
From 2016 to 2019, the North Carolina Agricultural Foundation provided funding to develop elements of an organic peanut value chain in North Carolina. This project included efforts to increase efficiency of production, determine consumer demand and potential farmer involvement, and establish a pilot project with selected certified organic growers in the state. The goal of the project was to assist growers in producing certified organic peanut for the in-shell trade.
Our goal in this chapter is to provide information on requirements for certified organic production, basic agronomic practices required for certified organic production of peanuts, challenges with pest management in certified organic production, and estimated costs of certified organic production.
## General Agronomic Practices
## Variety Selection
Variety selection most likely will vary little in organic and conventional production systems. One of the major focal points of the breeding program at North Carolina State University is the development and release of varieties that express field tolerance or resistance to pathogens and tomato spotted wilt. Detailed information on the strengths and weaknesses of varieties to diseases are provided in Chapter 6. "Peanut Disease Management," of the Extension publication Peanut Information (AG331). Briefly, the Virginia market-type varieties Bailey and Sullivan have relatively good resistance to leaf spot diseases, tomato spotted witl, Cylindrocladum black rot, and Sclerotinia Blight, especially relative to older varieties. However, these varieties are not immune, and a well-implemented production package that includes crop rotation and cultural controls is needed for success. The resistance characteristics of these and other varieties are important to consider in both conventional and organic systems. It is important to note that growers might plant Spanish, Valencia, or runner market types, and possibly Virginia market-type varieties not commonly grown in North Carolina, in
their organic production systems. If that is the case, make a strong effort to know the susceptibility of these varieties to pathogens commonly found in North Carolina. Detailed information on the strengths and weaknesses of varieties to diseases are provided in Chapter 6., "Peanut Disease Management," in the current edition of Peanut Information .
## Crop Rotation and Sequence
Crop rotation serves as the foundation of successful peanut production in North Carolina for conventional production systems (see Chapter 3., "Peanut Production Practices," and Chapter 6., "Disease Management" in the current edition of Peanut Information for more details. Principles of good rotation for conventional peanut production also hold true for organic production. Rotations to non-hosts reduce populations of disease-causing fungi and nematodes and can minimize the negative impact of these pathogens on peanut health and productivity. This practice is especially critical in organic production due to the absence or limited efficacy of fungicides, nematicides, and seed treatments that are OMRI-approved for disease control. Long rotations are necessary to suppress diseases, especially those caused by soilborne plant pathogens.
Corn, cotton, small grains, and other grasses typically are the best rotation crops for reducing pathogen infestations. However, some grain and grass species are not good rotations for nematode suppression. Soils should be assayed before planting for potential nematode problems, and infested areas should be avoided. Sweetpotato is also a good rotation crop for peanut while soybean and tobacco are generally considered less effective rotation crops. Knowledge of specific pathogens and nematodes is important in developing effective cropping sequences and may allow plantings of less effective crops in some cases. However, it is generally accepted that over time, less-effective rotations and crop sequences will create challenges in protecting yield.
Crop rotation does not have a major impact on most insects that affect peanut. However, crop diversity can impact insect pests on farms and subsequent movement from crop to crop. See Chapter 5., "Peanut Insect and Mite Management," in the current edition of Peanut Information for discussions of spider mites and other arthropods that are mobile.
Weed control in previous crops can have a major impact on weeds in both organic and conventional production systems (see Chapter 4., "Peanut Weed Management," in the current edition of Peanut Information ). However, there are no salvage treatments in organic production systems for weeds, and farmers should avoid fields with moderate-to-heavy weed pressure. It is necessary to ensure weeds that were controlled relatively well in previous crops do not grow and reproduce after these crops are harvested. Fields should be tilled as needed after harvest to keep weeds from reproducing late in the summer or early in the fall. Managing the soil seed bank is a critical component of organic crop production.
## Tillage System
Reduced-tillage systems are used by approximately 20% of peanut growers in North Carolina. While conservation tillage has been adopted more widely in other row crops, the requirements of digging pods and vine inversion are often more challenging in reduced-tillage systems. In these systems, peanuts are often grown in seedbeds with residue from the previous crop or in a desiccated cover crop. Pod loss is often greater when peanuts are dug in fields that are flat and not tilled without new rows prepared in spring. This is also the case for organic production systems.
A second major challenge in reduced tillage in organic systems is controlling weeds prior to planting but before peanuts emerge. There is simply no way to control winter vegetation and emerged summer weeds without synthetic herbicides. Although reduced tillage often results in fewer weeds
emerging with the crop, and high residue cover crops such as cereal rye can suppress weeds to a great degree, these approaches are generally not completely effective and would interfere with the multiple cultivations with a tine weed that are needed during the first month of the season (see the next section on weed management). Soils in reduced tillage, especially if seedbeds are flat, often warm more slowly in spring. These soils often hold more soil water, resulting in cooler soils that impact stand establishment, especially when pathogens that affect seed and seedlings are present. Higher seeding rates are required to obtain adequate stands. While cover crops can suppress weeds, timing of planting peanuts in late May often decreases biomass available for weed suppression. Leaf spot, stem rot, and tomato spotted wilt can be suppressed in reduced tillage, but challenges with stand establishment and early season weed control far outweigh potential benefits.
## Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition
Soil fertility in conventional production systems is often addressed in the crop preceding peanut, although growers are encouraged to sample soils frequently for nutrients to obtain timely recommendations and to adjust soil pH to optimum levels (see Chapter 3, "Peanut Production Practices" in the current edition of Peanut Information ). However, more and more growers in conventional production systems are applying remedial amounts of fertilizer to make sure peanuts do not lack essential nutrients. Addressing fertility in organic production systems can be more challenging than in traditional production systems. OMRI-approved organic fertilizers have slower rates of mineralization, meaning they are less readily available to plants when applied. For this reason, farmers should consider applying adequate amounts of fertilizer in the previous crop to meet the demands of the following peanut crop.
OMRI-approved inoculants that contain Bradyrhizobia bacteria essential for biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) are available for peanuts. It is very important to apply adequate amounts of inoculant to seed or in the seed furrow at planting to ensure adequate infection of roots for BNF (see Chapter 3 on peanut production in Peanut Information for more details). This is especially the case if organic peanuts are planted in fields without a history of peanut production. In these fields, there is no backup in the form of native Bradyrhizobia species. Synthetic nitrogen fertilizer can be applied quickly if inoculants fail in conventional production systems, and much of the yield potential can be realized when ammonium sulfate is applied after an inocuplant failure; however, this is not an option in organic production systems.
Supplemental calcium in the form of calcium sulfate or gypsum should be applied to Virginia markets types to ensure adequate kernel development. OMRI-approved gypsum sources are available and should be applied at pegging. OMRI-approved formulations of manganese and boron are also available. These micronutrients are often needed to optimize peanut yield. Growers are also cautioned that use of poultry or swine litter, even from many years ago, can result in levels of zinc that limit yield. Fields should be avoided if zinc levels exceed NCDA&CS indices of 250.
## Digging Pods and Inverting Vines
Digging peanut and inverting vines will be similar in organic production systems compared with traditional production systems in most instances. However, more weeds, especially annual grasses, are likely to be present in organic systems than in conventional systems, and this can increase pod loss during digging and vine inversion. Weeds above the canopy can be mowed within two weeks of digging, but it is important to track rows precisely so that peanut rows can be clearly seen for
effective digging. Rapid and haphazard mowing can make tracking rows extremely difficult. To prevent pod loss during the digging process, the implement must be positioned within just a few inches of optimum tracking.
Farmers might experience greater pod shed due to less-effective fungicides for leaf spot in organic systems compared with conventional systems. In some fields, peanut will need to be dug prior to optimum pod maturity to prevent excessive yield loss. The balance between pod loss from defoliation caused by leaf spot disease and not allowing enough time for peanut to reach full maturity is discussed in more detail in Chapter 3. "Peanut Production Practices," and Chapter 6. "Peanut Disease Management" in Peanut Information .
## Weed Management
DO NOT attempt to grow peanuts in fields with moderate-to-high levels of weeds, especially if annual or perennial grasses, common ragweed, nutsedge, or Palmer amaranth are present. Grasses are particularly hard to manage because of their fibrous root system, which makes them difficult to remove by hand or hoeing and causes greater pod shed during digging and vine inversion.
While heavy-residue cover crops-cereal rye in particular can suppress weeds, tillage systems that allow frequent cultivation within the first month of the season have proven to be the most effective approach to organic peanut production. In these systems, fields are weed-free at the time of planting peanut at a depth of 3 inches. Cultivation with a tine weed should begin no later than three days after planting even though peanuts have not emerged. This operation will kill young seedlings below the soil surface, especially grasses. At least five more cultivates at weekly intervals are recommended using a spring-loaded tined weeder. The root system of peanuts planted at a depth of 3 inches will be anchored relatively well, and while some tolerant damage will occur and some plants will be occasionally removed from soil by tones, intensive cultivation in this manner is the only way to minimize weed interference and prevent weed-control failure. Cultivators with sweeps can also be used as peanut plants grow larger. Soil from these cultivars can be deposited around the base of each plant to bury and suppress weeds in the peanut drill line. This approach to weed control is different from recommendations in conventional production systems with respect to cultivation. In conventional systems, in-season cultivation is discouraged because of movement of soil that may contain pathogens onto peanut plants. Cultivation also brings soil to the surface that has not been treated with herbicide. Nonetheless, an aggressive approach to in-season cultivation with a tine weeder that covers the entire row is absolutely critical for success in organic peanut production. The value of weed control from these operations outweighs the negative impact of increased infection by pathogens.
Some weeds will need to be removed by hand in organic production systems. This practice is also true of conventional production systems when herbicides are not completely effective, especially when herbicide-resistant biotypes are present. In organic production, however, timeliness of weed removal by hand is needed not only to avoid interference with yield by weeds but also to minimize damage to peanut plants when physically removing weeds by hand or with implements.
There are currently no OMRI-approved chemicals that control weeds effectively in peanut.
## Insect Management
Thrips, southern corn rootworm, caterpillars, leaf hoppers, and spider mites can be suppressed in conventional tillage systems with insecticides. There are a few OMRI-approved insecticide options to control foliar-feeding insects. Products that contain spinosads, neem extract (azadirachtin),
Bacillus thuringiensis , insecticidal soaps, and pyrethrins are available as organic products for insect management. Growers should adjust cultural practices to minimize the likelihood of an infestation and the impact of insects (see Chapter 5, "Peanut Insect and Mite Management," in the current edition of Peanut Information ). However, sometimes a practice that minimizes the impact of one insect on peanut can increase the potential for another insect to damage the crop. For example, planting as late as possible in May minimizes injury potential from thrips in some years and can lower incidence of tomato spotted wilt compared with earlier plantings. Planting later in May increases potential from southern corn rootworm. In light, sandy soils, however, which pose a low risk from rootworms, this later planting may be a viable option to suppress early-season thrips damage.
Unlike the catastrophic nature of a failure in stand establishment and early season weed control in organic peanut, yield loss from insects is often more incremental and generally will not result in complete yield loss. However, the presence of numerous arthropods that affect yield individually can ultimately result in yield losses that approach 15% to 20%. Maintaining good plant health will always make the plants more tolerant of insect feeding and less likely to suffer yield loss.
Unfortunately, the search for host plant resistance to insects in peanuts has not been productive, and varieties currently grown in North Carolina do not offer adequate resistance to insects to be considered a control strategy. While thrips vector tomato spotted wilt virus and variety selection can have a major impact on expression of tomato spotted wilt in peanuts, resistance is not associated with impacts on thrips but is related to physiological effects of the virus within the peanut plant. Likewise, variety selection can impact damage from southern corn rootworm but is not related directly to resistance to feeding by the insect. Less pod scarring from southern corn rootworm occurs with some varieties because the resistant variety requires less time to reach optimum maturity and possesses hulls that are more fully developed when larvae begin feeding on pods. See both the Southern Corn Rootworm index and the Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus index in Chapter 5, "Insect and Mite Management," in the current Peanut Information for more information on management of these pests.
Several OMRI-approved insecticides are available that are effective in controlling leaf hoppers, thrips, and caterpillars. Although insecticidal soaps can suppress spider mites, they require excellent coverage. And under the hot, dry conditions that create spider mite outbreaks, these products may cause severe phytotoxicity. However, while any and all of these insect pests can injure peanuts, they often do not occur at populations that result in serious yield reductions, and an overall organic production program can help preserve beneficial organisms that help limit pest populations.
## Disease and Nematode Management
Seedling diseases may be the greatest threat to organic peanut production because they can result in almost complete stand failure depending on weather and soil conditions at planting. This threat is the case even in conventional production systems whenseededisntreatedwithfungicides. Several OMRI-approved products are available to suppress seedling pathogens, but these products are often less effective than the synthetic seed treatments in conventional production systems that are described in Chapter 6, "Peanut Disease Management." in the current edition of Peanut Information .
As stated in the introduction to this chapter, failure to establish an adequate stand and ineffective weed control are considered the most yield-limiting challenges in organic peanut production. For this reason, farmers are encouraged to plant peanut as late as possible within the effective planting window (late May) and increase the seeding rate by 50% to 75% compared with seeding rates used in conventional production systems where synthetic fungicides are applied to seed before planting. Soil is warmer in late May than in early and mid-May, and this warmth most often results in more
rapid emergence of peanut. The longer peanut seed and seedlings remain in soil prior to emergence, the more likely it is that soilborne pathogens will cause seeds to rot. Pathogens also cause seedlings to die before and after emergence.
With the exception of systemic insecticides that suppress thrips, cultural practices that are effective in reducing tomato spotted wilt are the same for conventional and organic production. Planting in May and at a seeding rate that ensures four to five plants per foot can reduce incidence of tomato spotted wilt virus.
Most Virginia market type peanut varieties grown in North Carolina express resistance to one or more diseases typically found in peanut fields. Varieties available for both conventional and organic producers are much more effective at withstanding disease than varieties grown a decade ago or longer. However, current varieties are not completely immune to disease. In both organic and conventional production systems, there is concern that these varieties are less effective in withstanding disease now than when they were first adopted by growers.
Several OMRI-approved fungicides (usually copper and sulfur compounds) are available that can be used in organic peanut production with restrictions on conditions for use. These fungicides are not as effective as synthetic fungicides used to control leaf spot and require more frequent applications at shorter intervals. These products are most effective at protecting against infection when applied as a preventative in disease risk environments. Good coverage is essential. There are no OMRIapproved fungicides for control of diseases caused by soilborne pathogens such as stem rot and Sclerotinia blight. Biological control products are only marginally effective against soilborne pathogens and nematodes. As mentioned above, rotation is critical for maximizing the potential benefits of other disease control tactics. Yield most likely will be lower in organic production systems than in conventional production systems due to less effective management options for economically important diseases.
## Current Research in North Carolina
Research on the potential for organic peanut production in North Carolina, supported through the North Carolina Agricultural Foundation, was completed from 2016 to 2019. Trials at research stations were conducted to investigate differences in yield between organic peanut production and conventional peanut production. To mirror an organic peanut production system, researchers used higher seeding rates, untreated peanut seed, and did not use conventional insecticides or fungicides throughout the trial. Researchers did use an organically approved copper fungicide to control leaf spot within the organic plots. For the conventional comparison, peanut was planted at a typical seeding rate with fungicide-treated seed, and conventional insecticide and fungicide were used in the trial. Yield in the simulated organic system was approximately 20% lower than yield in the conventional system. Yield most likely would be even lower due to weed interference and possible fertility issues in the organic system. These studies were helpful in demonstrating yield potential in organic peanut production compared with conventional production with respect to disease and insect control.
The project also included participation with two experienced organic growers who were interested in incorporating peanut into their established organic production systems. One of these growers had a substantial amount of organically produced tobacco and sweetpotato. While the research station field trials for organically managed peanuts were successful, the participating growers were unable to produce an organic peanut crop for 2017 or 2018. Rainfall disrupted cultivation after planting in 2017 and a heavy rain severely delayed planting and cultivation in 2018. The timing of rainfall in both years resulted in an inability to manage weeds with tillage. The limitation in tools that allow weeds to be controlled quickly without tillage pose a major challenge to organic peanut production,
and as growers consider this approach and marketing opportunities, they will need to be aware that a higher frequency of failure will occur compared with conventional production systems, at least with weed management tools currently available in peanut.
There is an old adage among farmers that, "a dry year will scare you to death, but a wet year will kill you." That phrase was coined during a time when few herbicides were available and most weed control in peanut was achieved through cultivation and hoering. Researchers involved with organic peanuts in Georgia indicated that they have had more success in dry years than during years with average or above-average rainfall. In fact, most organic peanuts are grown in New Mexico under arid conditions with irrigation. In that system, water can be managed in a way that does not interfere with weed control operations. Likewise, dry conditions and low humidity strongly suppress the activity of many plant pathogens. In North Carolina, the challenge of timely weed control with cultivation and hoeling will exist for organically produced peanuts because rain can be unpredictable and abundant in May and June.
As part of this project, surveys were conducted to capture the attitudes and perspectives of organic growers lacking experience with peanuts, conventional peanut growers who might be interested in expanding their operation to include organic peanut, and small specialty shops that cater to consumers who prefer organically certified food. Results from the survey of 218 conventional peanut growers in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia indicated that 20% of these growers were interested in growing peanuts organically. Growers were asked what price point they would need to receive to consider organic production, their expectations of organic peanut yield, and what their top concerns were for organic production. About half of the respondents indicated they would need a price point triple that of conventional peanut, and 27% indicated they'd need to receive a price point double that of conventional peanut; while 9% and 16% indicated they would need to receive a price point of 1.5 and 2.5 times that of conventional peanut production, respectively.
Yield expectations among conventional growers for organically produced peanuts varied. Six percent of conventional growers indicated they would expect no difference in yield; nearly one fourth indicated they would expect a 25% decrease in yield; over half indicated a 50% decrease in yield; and 12% expected a 75% decrease in yield from transitioning to organic management. The top concerns of conventional growers in transitioning to an organic system (in order of importance) were disease, weed pressure, insect pressure, nematodes, stand establishment, and fertility. Another concern for growers was the three-year transition period to certified organic production, access to organic markets, and maintaining a split operation of organic-conventional production. Overall, the survey indicated a considerable interest in organic production by conventional peanut growers, but substantial concerns over production challenges, yield potential, and market access as well as the need for a significantly higher price point to consider transitioning to organic production.
## Acknowledgment of Previous Contributing Authors
Rick L. Brandenburg, Extension Specialist, Department of Plant Pathology and Entomology
Chris Reberg-Horton, Extension Specialist, Department of Crop and Soil Sciences
S. Gary Bullen, Extension Economist, Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics
Amanda Kaufman, Graduate Student, Department of Food, Bioprocessing, and Nutrition Sciences
Lisa Dean, Research Food Technologist, Market Quality and Handling Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Southeast Area
Bob Sutter, Chief Executive Officer, North Carolina Peanut Growers Association Inc.
## Authors
David Jordan
Extension Peanut Specialist Crop & Soil Sciences
LeAnn Lux
Extension Specialist and Assistant Professor Entomology & Plant Pathology
Derek Washburn
NC Farm School Associate Agricultural & Resource Economics
Publication date: March 19, 2024
AG-660
## Other Publications in North Carolina Organic Commodities Production Guide
| Chapter 1: Introduction | |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----|
| Chapter 2: Organic Crop Production Systems | |
| Chapter 3: Crop Production Management - Corn | |
| Chapter 4: Crop Production Management - Wheat and Small Grains | |
| Chapter 5: Crop Production Management - Organic Soybeans | |
| Chapter 6: Crop Production Management - Flue-Cured Tobacco | |
| Chapter 7: Crop Production Management - Peanuts | |
| Chapter 8: Crop Production Management - Sweetpotatoes | |
| Chapter 9: Soil Management | |
| Chapter 10: Weed Management | |
| Chapter 11: Rolled Cover Crop Mulches for Organic Corn and Soybean Production | |
| Chapter 12: Organic Certification | |
| Chapter 13: Marketing Organic Grain Crops and Budgets | |
| Chapter 14: Organic Market Outlook and Budgets | |
| Chapter 15: Resources for More Information on Organic Commodity Production | |
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
URL of this page |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/japanese-beetle-in-industrial-hemp | Japanese Beetle in Industrial Hemp | NC State University | [
"Hannah Burrack",
"Melissa Pulkoski"
] | null | [
"Japanese Beetle",
"Industrial Hemp",
"Hemp",
"Beetle"
] | NC | ## Japanese Beetle in Industrial Hemp
## Overview
Scientific Name(s)
Popilla japonica Newman
Damage Appearance
Holes or chewing damage
Field Distribution
Localized
Season
Pre-harvest, harvest
Cropping System
Feeds on multiple crop and non crop plants
## Biology
The Japanese beetle ( Popillia japonica Newman ) is a moderately sized (approximately an inch long) scarab beetle with a bright metallic green in the head/thorax and copper wing covers$^{1}$. Beetles also have six distinct pairs of white hair twigs along their abdomen that help distinguish it from other similar beetles. An adult Japanese beetle can feed on foliage, fruits and flowers of over 300 species of plants in at least 79 plant families$^{2}$.
Adults males and females can be distinguished by the spine on the front tbibia . In females, the spine is rounded and males it is sharper$^{3}$. Japanese Beetles have one generation per year, and adult females lay 40-60 eggs in the soil that hatch into grumbs about 10 days later $^{4}$. The grumbs feed until October and will remain inactive until spring (March / April) when they start to feed again. In the southeast, grubs will pupate in May with adults emerging in June, starting the process over.
Japanese beetle life cycle.
Attribution : Jim Baker, North Carolina State University, Bugwood.org CC¸y NC 4.0
Attribution: Whitney Cranshaw, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org ccBY-NC 4.0
## Damage in Industrial Hemp
Adult Japanese beetles chew holes that can eventually skeletonize the leaves by feeding on the tissue between the veins, leaving a lace-like appearance and can damage flowers. In large numbers, adults can completely defoliate plants. The grubs may cause damage to the roots in the ground prior to May and again in August and September just before harvest$^{3}$, although they may prefer grass roots.
Japanese beetle feeding in tobacco.
Attribution: Sterling Southern, NC State University CC BY-NC-ND
## Sampling and Thresholds
Start monitoring for Japanese beetles in early June and visually inspect plants for injury.
As industrial hemp is a relatively new crop in North Carolina, no research has been done to determine the threshold for concern. Further investigation is needed since the hemp crop is grown for different markets (i.e. fiber, seed, CBD).
## Management Options
Disclaimer: The following recommendations have been known to work in other plant systems, however, their effectiveness in hemp needs further investigation. We are developing a table for industrial hemp materials in the North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual , but for the time being the Industrial Hemp portal is the best resource for up to date information. As laws and regulations are constantly changing in regards to hemp check with your local extension agent with any label or regulatory concerns.
## Organic insecticides
Insecticides registered in hemp are limited. Some formulations of azadiractin, the active ingredient in neem oil, have been shown to have some activity against adult Japanese beetles, and some of the current federally registered pesticides contain azadiractin. Paenibacillus popilliae or milky spore disease may be effective against larvae in soil surrounding hemp fields but is not currently registered in hemp.
## Biological Control
Two types of beneficial insects attack Japanese beetles. The parasitoid wasps Tiphia vernalis and Tiphia popilliovora attack Japanese beetle larvae, and parasitoid flies ( Istocheta aldrich ) attack adult beetles$^{3}$. All three of these insects were introduced in the US for Japanese beetle control and now occur naturally where Japanese beetle is established.
## Citations
- 1. Japanese beetles in yards and gardens
- 2. Potter DA, Held DW. Biology and management of the Japanese beetle. Annu Rev Entomol . 2002;47(1):175-205. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145153.
- 3. Japanese Beetle Pest Management in Primocane-Bearing Raspberries
- 4. Japanese Beetles
## Support
The information in this factsheet was developed with support from the North Carolina Tobacco Trust Fund Commission.
## Authors
Hannah Burrack
Professor and Extension Specialist (Berry, Tobacco and Specialty Crops) Entomology & Plant Pathology
Melissa Pulkoski
Graduate Student Entomology & Plant Pathology
Publication date: April 22, 2020
Recommendations for the use of agricultural chemicals are included in this publication as a convenience to the reader. The use of brand names and any mention or listing of commercial products or services in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C.A&T State University nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned. Individuals who use agricultural chemicals are responsible for ensuring that the intended use complies with current regulations and conforms to the product label. Be sure to obtain current information about usage regulations and examine a current product label before applying any chemical. For assistance, contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension county center.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/AE446 | Smart Irrigation Controllers: Operation of Evapotranspiration-Based Controllers | University of Florida | [
"Michael D. Dukes",
"Mary L. Shedd",
"Stacia L. Davis"
] | 2022-07-18 | [
"2. Water Quality, Quantity, and Supply"
] | FL | ## Smart Irrigation Controllers: Operation of Evapotranspiration-Based Controllers
Michael D. Dukes, Mary L. Shedd, and Stacia L. Davis
This article is part of a series on smart irrigation controllers. The rest of the series can be found at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/entity/topic/SERIES\_Smart Irrigation Controllers .
## Introduction
Florida has sandy soils in many areas of the state resulting in poor water retention to meet plant water needs. During dry periods, there may not be enough rainfall to maintain acceptable landscape quality. Also, rainy periods have infrequent, high intensity rain events causing only a small portion of water to infiltrate and remain in the root zone while the rest is lost to deep percolation and runoff. Drought conditions can occur in as little as a few days without rain. Previous research has shown that homeowners using in-ground, automatic irrigation systems, typical in Florida, apply 47% more water for landscape irrigation than homeowners without automatic irrigation systems. This over-irrigation is largely due to a "set it and forget it" mentality despite seasonal fluctuations in plant water needs (Maver et al., 1999).
"Smart Irrigation Control" technologies for irrigation have been developed to apply irrigation to the landscape based on plant water needs while conserving increasingly limited water resources. One type of technology is an evapotranspiration-based irrigation controller, or ET controller. General information on ET controllers and other smart irrigation technologies can be found in What Makes an Irrigation Controller Smart https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/ae444 .
This publication will present the operational techniques of several commercially available ET controllers that are being studied at the University of Florida.
## Irrigation Scheduling
The water requirement of plants can be determined from a balance of water inputs and outputs to the root zone and is called a soil water balance (Figure 1). Rainfall and irrigation enter the root zone as inputs. A shallow water table could also provide water for plant needs through capillary action. Water exits the soil and plant system from runoff, deep percolation, evaporation, and transpiration; these are considered outputted from the soil water balance. Evaporation is the loss of water to the atmosphere from the soil surface and transpiration is the loss of water from respiration of the plants (Allen et al. 1998). When calculating the soil water balance, evaporation and transpiration are combined into one term, evapotranspiration (ET),
Figure 1. Water-based inputs and outputs occur in the root zone of a plant assuming well drained conditions without a shallow water table. Credit: Mary L. Shedd, UF/IFAS Figure 1. Water-based inputs and outputs occur in the root zone of a plant assuming well drained conditions without a shallow water table.
Equation 1 is used for calculating the change in soil water in the root zone (Irrigation Association [IA] 2005). Generally, on sandy soils common in Florida, unless there is excessive compaction or other properties that decrease infiltration of water, it can be assumed that there is negligible surface runoff. Also, irrigation is scheduled so that, ideally, there are negligible losses. Deep percolation is minimized by irrigation events that do not exceed the soil water holding capacity, while surface runoff is minimized by using irrigation events just long enough to infiltrate the soil but not runoff (i.e. cycle/soak). The change in storage is typically very small in Florida's sandy soils between necessary irrigation events. These assumptions reduce Equation 1 to an equation used to calculate the irrigation depth required:
$$\Delta S = R - E T _ { C } + I - D - R O$$
$$A S = C l a n g e i n s o u t \, w a t e \, s t o r a g e \, ( i n ) \\ R = R a i n f a l l \, ( i n ) \\ E T _ { C } = C r o p \, e v a p o t \, a n s p u r i a t i o n \, ( i n ) \\ I = N e t \, i r i g a t i o n \, ( i n ) \\ D = D e p \, p e r c o l a t i o n \, ( i n ) \\ R = S u f f a c e r u n o f \, ( i n )$$
Equation 1. This equation is used to balance the change in soil water storage in the root zone of a plant, also termed the soil water balance equation.
Equation 2 is a simplified version of Equation 1 used to calculate net irrigation depth required by assuming negligible drainage, runoff, and change in storage.
Effective rainfall refers to the amount of rainfall that is stored in the root zone (IA 2005). The ability of the soil to retain water is the soil water holding capacity (IA 2005). Rainfall that is greater than the soil water holding capacity of the root zone is assumed to drain or run off and is no longer useful to the plant. So how much water can your soil hold?
## Calculating Soil Water Content
The root zone of a plant is the depth of soil from the surface that can be used by the plants to obtain water for physiological processes. The amount of water that can be stored in the root zone is a function of the type of soil texture. The permanent wilting point (PWP) of the soil is defined as the depth or percentage of water in the root zone causing plants to wilt permanently without recovery (IA 2005; Figure 2). Alternately, field capacity (FC) is defined as the water level when the rate of downward movement in the root zone due to gravity has substantially decreased after saturation (IA 2005). Theoretically, irrigation should be applied before reaching PWP and filled to FC. Both PWP and FC vary with soil texture where the more sandy a soil the less water that can be stored and the more clayey a soil, the more water that can be stored.
Credit: Mary L. Shedd, UF/IFAS
Based on the above definitions, the amount of water available for use by the plant falls between FC and PWP and is termed available water, AW (IA 2005; Equation 3). To prevent plant stress, AW should not be allowed to reach the PWP before irrigation is scheduled; irrigation should be applied when the available water level drops by a percentage known as the maximum allowable depletion, MAD (IA 2005). 50% is often a rule of thumb in absence of more specific information. The amount of water allowed to be used before irrigation is required is called readily available water, RAW (IA 2005; Equation 4). As time passes, water is lost from the root zone through ETc . Daily values of ET$\_{e}$ are added cumulatively, taking into
account effective rainfall, until it equals or is greater than RAW. Once the RAW is depleted, irrigation should occur to fill the soil water store to field capacity.
Equation 3. Formulas used to calculate the available water in the root zone.
Equation 4. Formula used to calculate the readily available water in a root zone where MAD is a fraction from 0 to 1.
## Calculating Evapotranspiration
Reference evapotranspiration (ET$\_{O}$) is defined as ET from a reference surface using grass at a 0.12 m height that is adequately watered, actively growing, completely covering the soil, and with a fixed surface resistance (Allen et al. 2005). The ASCE standardized reference evapotranspiration equation is considered the standard for ET calculations and is commonly used to calculate ET$\_{O}$ as seen in Equation 5. This equation is used for daily ET$\_{O}$ calculations and is based on wind speed, temperature, relative humidity, and solar radiation (Figure 3). More information on this method and calculation details can be found at https://asclibrary.org/doi/book/10.1061/9780784408056 .
Equation 5. ASCE standardized reference evapotranspiration equation (Allen et al. 2005).
Figure 3. The variables used in the ASCE standardized reference evapotranspiration equation (Allen et al. 2005). Note that 1 inch/day = 25.4 mm/day.
Plant ET (ET$\_{C}$) is defined as ET applicable to a specific plant other than the reference crop. ET$\_{C}$ can be calculated for a specific plant material by applying a crop coefficient (K$\_{C}$), using the following equation:
Equation 6. This equation is used to calculate ET loss for a specific crop or plant from reference ET using a crop coefficient.
Crop coefficients can be found in a number of references depending on the specific crop, horticultural practices, and geographical location.
## ET Controllers
ET controllers are irrigation scheduling devices that use the principles of the soil water balance to schedule irrigation amounts and timing. The basic operation of ET controllers is described in What Makes an Irrigation Controller Smart https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/ae442 .
## Signal-Based Controllers
These controllers utilize wired (phone) or wireless (cellular or paging) communication to receive ET$\_{0}$ data. Weather information is gathered from publicly available or dedicated weather stations near the controller location. Some manufacturers gather the climatic information from the weather stations, calculate a daily value for ET$\_{0}$ , and then broadcast the value directly to the controller each day. Other manufacturers may broadcast weather data from weather stations and the controller then calculates ET$\_{0}$ . ET$\_{C}$ is calculated from the ET$\_{0}$ and crop coefficients depending on the plant type selected. The advantage of these controllers is that they adjust in response to actual weather conditions. However, the disadvantage to this approach is that the weather conditions at the weather station data source may not be representative of conditions at the controller location. In particular, Florida site-specific rainfall is very important since rainfall can satisfy much of the plant water requirement. An adequate signal is also important for ensuring accurate soil water balance calculations. Some ET controllers utilize historical data until the signal to the controller is regained; others use the last broadcastEDTo value for each day the controller is not in communication. Signal-based controllers generally have the option of adding an external antenna if the built in antenna is insufficient. Newer to the market are signal-based controllers that utilize Wi-Fi to receive weather data.
## Standalone Controllers
These controllers utilize sensors installed on-site to measure weather conditions and then calculate real-time ET$\_{0}$ based on the data collected. The sensors collect readings at intervals anywhere from every second to every fifteen minutes and then daily ET$\_{0}$ is calculated from those values. On-site sensors could include: temperature, solar radiation, or even a full weather station (Riley 2005). However, installing weather stations at every home is not practical or economically feasible; therefore, simplified ET estimation methods are typically used. For example, the Weathermatic Smartline controller uses Hargreaves equation instead of the ASCE standardized ET$\_{0}$ equation. Hargreaves equation is temperature dependent allowing the sensor to measure only temperature (Jensen et al. 1990). The advantage of this approach is that ET is measured on-site and signal fees are not required. The disadvantage is that simplified methods are not accurate across a wide range of climate conditions (Jensen et al. 1990).
## Add-on ET Controllers
Some ET controllers are add-on devices to automatic timers and are not equipped with the ability to calculate runtimes. Instead, they use the soil water balance to determine if an irrigation event will occur.
## Conclusion
Detailed programming recommendations for several controllers in Florida conditions can be found in Programming Guidelines for Evapotranspiration-Based Irrigation Controllers https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/AE445 .
Note that the University of Florida does not endorse any particular brand but that the information contained here is for illustrative purposes only.
## References
Allen, R.G., L.S. Pereira, D. Raes, and M. Smith. 1998. Crop evapotranspiration - Guidelines for computing crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation and drainage paper 56. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/X0490E/x0490e00.htm (accessed March 2019).
Allen, R.G., I.A. Walter, R. Elliot, T. Howell, D. Itfenius, and M. Jensen (eds). 2005. The ASCE Standardized Reference Evapotranspiration Equation. American Society of Civil Engineers Environmental and Water Resource Institute (ASECEWRI). 59 pp.
Irrigation Association [IA]. 2005. Landscape Irrigation Scheduling and Water Management. Available at: http://www.irrigation.org/gov/pdf/I A\_LISWM\_MARCH\_2005.pdf (accessed January 12. 2007).
Jenson, M.E., R.D. Burman, and R.G. Allen. 1990. Evapotranspiration and Irrigation Water Requirements. ASCE Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practices No. 70. American Society of Civil Engineers. New York, New York.
Mayer, P. W., W. B. DeOreo, E. M. Opitz, J. C. Kiefer, W. Y. Davis, B. Dziegielewski, and J. O. Nelson. 1999. Residential End Uses of Water. AWWA Research Foundation and American Water Works Association. Denver, Colorado.
Riley, M. 2005. The cutting edge of residential smart irrigation technology. California Landscaping . July/August pp. 19-26.
## Publication #AE446
Release Date: July 19, 2022
DOI: 10.52473/edis-ae446-2009
Critical Issue: 2. Water Quality, Quantity, and Supply
Contacts: Michael Dukes
View PDF
About this Publication
This document is AE446, one of a series of the Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, UF/IFAS Extension. Original publication date January 2009. Revised March 2019 and July 2022. Visit the EDIS website at https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu for the currently supported version of this publication.
About the Authors
Michael D. Dukes, associate professor; Mary L. Shedd, graduate student; Stacia L. Davis, graduate student, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering; UF/IFAS Extension, Gainesville, FL 32611.
## Related Pages
Agricultural and Biological Engineering
## Smart Irrigation Controllers series
5 Publication(s)
## Evapotranspiration
Dukes, Michael D.
Specialist
University of Florida |
https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/ST091 | Bauhinia spp.: Orchid Tree | University of Florida | [
"Edward F. Gilman",
"Dennis G. Watson"
] | 2019-04-28 | [] | FL | ## Bauhinia spp.: Orchid Tree
Edward F. Gilman and Dennis G. Watson
## Introduction
This deciduous to semiveergreen tree has a vase-shaped, open canopy with lower branches removed made up of large, blobed, light green, papery leaves. Unpruned trees form a rounded crown. The orchid-like blooms, in shades of purple, red, pink, white, or yellow, are three to four inches across and produced in abundance at various times of the year, depending upon species. Orchid tree makes a spectacular specimen or shade tree or fits well into mixed shrubbery borders.
Figure 1. Middle-aged Bauthinia spp.: Orchid Tree Credit: Ed Gilman
## General Information
Scientific name:
Bauhinia
spp.
Pronunciation: bah-HIN-ee-uh species
Common name(s): Orchid tree
## Family: Leguminosae
USDA hardiness zones: 9B through 11 (Fig. 2)
Origin: not native to North America
Invasive potential: According to the UF/IFAS Assessment of the Status of Non-Native Plants in Florida's Natural Areas (Fox et al . 2005), Bauhinia spp . (orchid tree) is invasive and not recommended for use in the southern zone of Florida (counties are listed by zone at https://assessment.ifas.ufl.edu ); may be used with caution in central Florida, but should be managed to prevent its escape $^{1}$; and it is not considered a problem species and may be used in north Florida.
Uses: deck or patio; shade; specimen; reclamation; street without sidewalk; parking lot island 200 sq. ft.; tree lawn 3-4 feet wide; tree lawn 4-6 feet wide; tree lawn > 6 ft. wide; highway median
Availability: not native to North America
## Description
Height: 25 to 30 feet
Spread: 25 to 35 feet
Crown uniformity: irregular
Crown shape: vase, round
Crown density: moderate
Growth rate: fast
Texture: coarse
Filage
Leaf type: simple
Leaf margin:
cleft, lobed
Leaf shape: orbiculate
Leaf venation: palmate
Leaf type and persistence: deciduous, semievergreen, evergreen
Leaf blade length: 2 to 4 inches
Leaf color: green
Fall color: no color change
Fall characteristic: not showy
## Flower
Flower color:
white/cream/gray, purple, red, pink, yellow
Flower characteristics: very showy
Fruit
shape: elongated, pod or pod-like
Fruit length: 6 to 12 inches Fruit covering: dry or hard
Fruit color: brown
Fruit characteristics: does not attract wildlife; showy; fruit/leaves a litter problem
## Trunk and Branches
Trunk/bark/branches: branches droop; not showy; typically multi-trunked; thorns
Pruning requirement: needed for strong structure
Breakage: susceptible to breakage
Current year tug color: brown
Current year tug thickness: thin, medium
Wood specific gravity: unknown
## Culture
Light requirement: full sun, partial sun or partial shade
Soil tolerances: clay; sand; loam; acidic; slightly alkaline; well-drained
Drought tolerance: high
Aerosol salt tolerance: moderate
Other
Roots: not a problem
Winter interest: yes
Outstanding tree: no
Ozone sensitivity: unknown
Verticillium wilt susceptibility: unknown
Pest resistance: free of serious pests and diseases
## Use and Management
Growing best in full sun or high, shifting pine shade, orchid tree thrives in any well-drained soil but in alkaline soils will show intervenal chlorosis (yellowing) on the leaves. The flowers are followed by many brown, woody, 12-inch-long seed pods, which are unattractive on the tree and a nuisance when they drop. The wood tends to be weak and sprouts are often seen growing from the base of the tree, creating an unkempt appearance. Some people consider the fallen leaves messy because they are large and decompose slowly.
In flower, orchid tree makes a beautiful street tree effect with foliage and flowers arching over the road. However, the drooping branches must be removed as they develop, to allow for vehicle clearance beneath. Because sprouts will have to be removed regularly and the tree is bare for a month or two, this is considered by many to be a high-maintenance tree not suited for large-scale street tree planting. But it is a tough tree growing in most soils with pH below 7.5.
Many species, cultivars, and varieties are available. Bauthinia blakeana , the Hong Kong orchid tree, is seedless and would not present such a litter problem. It is also the most spectacular and most wanted Bauthinia spp., bearing six-inch, orchid-like flowers of rich reddish or rose purple during the winter but is very tender to freezing temperatures. Bauthinia variegata , most popular, produces in winter and spring most nearly orchard-like blossoms of purplish casts or pure white in cultivar 'Candi' Bauthinia purpurea , most variable, produces narrow-petaled, red-purple to blue-purple flowers in late fall and early winter while leaves are on the trees. Bauthinia monadra produces pink, single-stained flowers all summer. Bauthinia acuminata also blooms all summer but with white flowers. Bauthinia acuminata , with white flowers, is hardy as far north as hardiness USDA hardness zone 8b but has a tendency to produce many root suckers.
Propagation is by seeds, or cuttings for the rare types.
## Pests
Chewing insects and borers may present a problem for orchid tree.
## Diseases
No diseases are of major concern. Interveinal chlorosis occurs on high pH soil from micronutrient deficiency.
Publication #ENH250
Release Date: April 29, 2019
Contacts: Michael Andreu
View PDF
## Related Pages
## Southern Trees Fact Sheets
676 Publication(s)
Orchid-Tree |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/images/landscaping-and-gardening-for-birds/hla-6435-table-2.pdf | HLA-6435 Table 2 | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20170222180812Z00'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | | | ENVIRONMENT | ENVIRONMENT | ENVIRONMENT | PEOPLE | PEOPLE | WILDLIFE | WILDLIFE | WILDLIFE | REMARKS |
|----------------------------------------------|---------------|---------------|-----------------|----------|-----------|-----------------------|------------|------------|-----------|
| Sun Shade | PT. Sun Moist | Dry | Flowers Foliage | Fruit | Seed Nuts | Fruit Flowers Shelter | | | |
| TREES - Small ( | | | | | | | | | |
| American Persimmon | | | | | | | | | |
| (Diosproys virginiana) | | | | | | | | | |
| American Red Plum (Prunus americana) X | | | | | | | | | |
| Carolina Buckthorn | | | | | | | | | |
| Crabapple (Malus spp.) | | | | | | | | | |
| X | | | | | | | | | |
| X | | | | | | | | | |
| Supr/F WY | | | | | | | | | |
| Sp | | | | | | | | | |
| Sum/F | | | | | | | | | |
| Sum | | | | | | | | | |
| Funeral fruit edible in late fall | | | | | | | | | |
| funerals | | | | | | | | | |
| sum/f | | | | | | | | | |
| fruit edible in late fall | | | | | | | | | |
| furries, intense fall foliage color | | | | | | | | | |
| greener | | | | | | | | | |
| FRUIT BEAUTIFUL | | | | | | | | | |
| summer | | | | | | | | | |
| yrs | | | | | | | | | |
| yellow thorny | | | | | | | | | |
| furries, intense fall foliage color | | | | | | | | | |
| young thorns | | | | | | | | | |
| furries, intense fall foliage color | | | | | | | | | |
| years | | | | | | | | | |
| year | | | | | | | | | |
| yr | | | | | | | | | |
| grown and male & female, most are evergreen, | | | | | | | | | |
| stems often spin, spreads prolifically, | | | | | | | | | |
| stems be a problem | | | | | | | | | |
| lustrous foliage, fragrant flowers | | | | | | | | | |
| glossary aromatic foliage, | | | | | | | | | |
| colors well in fall | | | | | | | | | |
| birds like purple-black | | | | | | | | | |
| brings, intense fall foliage color | | | | | | | | | |
| wildflower | | | | | | | | | |
| strutting, intense fall foliage color | | | | | | | | | |
| varities only, select cedar apple rust | | | | | | | | | |
| and scab resistant types | | | | | | | | | |
| need winds protection in western OK | | | | | | | | | |
| nests wind protection in western OK | | | | | | | | | |
| YR | | | | | | | | | |
| YR | | | | | | | | | |
| YR | | | | | | | | | |
| furries, intense fall foliage color | | | | | | | | | |
| furries, intense fall foliage color | | | | | | | | | |
| furries, intense fall foliage color | | | | | | | | | |
| furries, intense fall foliage color | | | | | | | | | |
| furries, intense fall foliage color | | | | | | | | | |
| furries, intense fall foliage color | | | | | | | | | |
SOURCE: The New Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/about-4-h/how-4-h-is-delivered/ | About 4-H | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
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margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-cta{
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-icon{
font-size: 14pt!important;
top: -24px !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-button-close{
margin-top: 40px;
margin-right: 20px;
width: 4em;
height: 2em;
background: #f39c12 /*green*/;
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-icon-close:before{
content: "OK";
color: #424242 /*#FFFFFF*/!important;
border: none;
text-align: center;
font-family: 'Open Sans'!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase !important;
padding: 8px 18px;
text-decoration: underline !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout{
background-color: #063f79;
border: thin solid #002973;
padding-left: 1em;
padding-right: 1em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout .hustle-title{
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white;
margin-bottom: .5em;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p{
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-family: "Helvetica Nue", sans-serif !important;
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout p a{
color: white !important;}.hustle-ui.hustle_module_id_2[data-id="2"] .hustle-layout a{
text-decoration: underline !important;}</style><link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo-150x150.png" sizes="32x32" />
<link rel="icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" sizes="192x192" />
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<meta name="msapplication-TileImage" content="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/aces-square-logo.png" />
<style type="text/css" id="wp-custom-css">
/*gtranlate*/
a.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink span {
color:#195794!important;
font-size: 13px!important;
text-decoration:underline!important;
}
.glink img {
height:18!important;
width:18!important;
}
/*video container*/
.video-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
padding-top: 30px;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden;
}
.video-container iframe, .video-container object, .video-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
.entry-content img, .entry-content iframe, .entry-content object, .entry-content embed {
max-width: 100%;
}
/* table css */
h3.table_title, h3.footable_title {
background-color: #117b2a;
color: #fff;
font-weight: bold;
margin: 0;
padding: .5em;
}
.footable.table>thead>tr>th {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 2px solid #888;
}
tr:last-child {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 1px solid #888;
}
tbody tr:nth-of-type(odd) {
background-color: #c6ebb7 !important;
}
.ninja_button, ninja_button_print {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
line-height: 1.3333333;
padding: 14px 20px !important;
border-radius: 0;
display: inline-block;
text-align: center;
white-space: nowrap;
vertical-align: middle;
touch-action: manipulation;
cursor: pointer;
user-select: none;
background-image: none;
border: 1px solid #0000;
margin-bottom: 10px;
}
.screen-reader-text {
clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px);
height: 1px;
overflow: hidden;
position: absolute !important;
width: 1px;
word-wrap: normal !important;
}
/* slide show below nav home page */
body.home header#header {
position: relative !important;
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (min-height:770px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 82vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (max-height:769px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 150vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
.dae-headline img {
max-height: 18vh !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 42vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 55% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 6vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth, #rev_slider_24_1_wrapper {
height:42% !important;
max-height:42% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) and (max-width:600px) {
.tp-caption.tp-resizeme {
font-size: 22px!important;
line-height: 22px!important;
}
}
/*slide show text area shadow*/
.rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 35%;
top: 65%;
background: linear-gradient(to top, rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .5), rgba(0, 0, 0, .4), rgba(0, 0, 0, .2), rgba(0, 0, 0, 0));
}
.category .rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .category .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 100%;
top: 100%;
}
.category .tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 0;
}
/*Topic page slider*/
.Newspaper-Button, tp-caption.Newspaper-Button {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-width: 0 !important;
color: #424242!important;
padding: 13px 18px!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase!important;
letter-spacing: 0 !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, sans-serif !important;
}
/*GDPR cookie notice*/
#cookie-notice {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
background-color: #fff;
letter-spacing: .5px;
}
/* Remove underline in footer logos */
.logo-wrapper a {
border: none !important;
}
/*MY ACES Add Bookmark*/
.btn-add-bookmark {
display: none;
}
/* after slider padding for lead*/
.lead {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/*header-top*/
.header-top .top-menu-right {
background-color: #f9f9f9cc!important;
}
/*header-top blue link text*/
.header-top .top-menu-right a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
}
/*recent articles*/
.work-entry {
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*recent articles blue link text*/
.work-entry a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*topic page link color (needs to be darker over gray backgorund)*/
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added p {
min-height: inherit;
/*(old)color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #366d21;
}
/*We Grow Alabama cards*/
.sb-value-added {
color:#fff;
background-color: #00000090!important;
}
/*Grow green*/
.green-color {
/*color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #76CF3A;
}
/*we Grow Alabama numbers*/
.sb-value-added h5 {
padding-top:0;
font-size: 1.4em;
}
/*after numbers*/
h5 .small, h5 small {
font-weight: 400;
line-height: 1;
color: #959595 !important;
}
/*calendar band background*/
.event-ticker {
/*(old)background-color: #4f9c2e;*/
background-color: #438528;
}
/*calendar band event name*/
#vertical-ticker li h5.event-name {
/*#fff;
margin: 8px 0 2px;*/
font-size: 1em;
}
body.home header#header {
top: 0;
}
.gform_wrapper ul.gfield_checkbox li label, .gform_wrapper ul.gfield_radio li label {padding-left: 30px !important;}
.anchor {
position: absolute;
padding-top: 36px;
margin-top: -36px;
}
/*Gravity Form submit button*/
.gform_footer .btn-primary {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
}
.post-info-header-category, .post-info-header-logo, .footer-print {
display: none;
}
/*printer icon*/
a.aces-print-article {
cursor:pointer;
text-decoration:underline;
}
li.aces-print i.fa-cloud-download, li.aces-print i.fa-print {
padding-right: 7px !important;
}
/*byline line break for mobile*/
@media (min-width: 991px) {
.byline-mobile-line-break {
display:none;
}
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
.read-time {
text-align: center;
border: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
background: #f9f9f9;
color: #000!important;
border-radius: 4px;
padding: 10px 4px 3px;
font-weight: 700!important;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
}
/*About Us card deck*/
.card-margin-top {
margin-top: 1em;
}
/*About Us category text adjustment*/
.category-about-us .subcat-content, .category-aamu .subcat-content {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
padding: 20px 0;
}
/*About Us category remove dateline*/
.category-about-us.post-meta-info-content ul:first-child {
display: none !important;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.cat-4h, .cat-about-4-h, .cat-family-resources-4-h, .cat-volunteer-resources-4-h, .cat-programs-4-h, .cat-animals-4-h, .cat-arts-4-h, .cat-healthy-living-4-h, .cat-leadership-4-h, .cat-outdoor-education-4-h, .cat-science-technology-4-h, .cat-how-to-give-4-h, .cat-support-4-h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.post-format.cat-4h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* Gravity Forms OTHER spacing 2023-05-23 JMH*/
.gform_wrapper input:not([type=radio]):not([type=checkbox]):not([type=submit]):not([type=button]):not([type=image]):not([type=file]) {
padding: 5px 2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size for line height is fixed error*/
.topic-list .sb-value-added p {
line-height: 1.2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size adjustment when there is not an image for the topic link. 2019-08-16 RFF & JMH */
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added .service-block-title-large {
margin: 0 !important;
font-size: inherit !important;
}
/* Alert Menu */
.header-alert, .bg-alert {
background: #ee2400;
color: white;
}
.header-alert .navbar-nav>li>a {
text-transform: none;
}
.alert-btn {
background-color: #ee2400;
border-color: #ee2400;
color: white;
margin: 5px;
}
.nav>li>a.alert-link {
display: none;
background-color: #ee2400;
}
/*Ex TV*/
.navbar-nav>li>a.extv-link {
text-transform: none;
}
/*page icon for video pages*/
.page-header .post-format {
background-size: 65%;
}
/*video embed resposive*/
.embed-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden; max-width: 100%;
}
.embed-container iframe, .embed-container object, .embed-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
/* ExTV dark */
.category-extv .main-wrapper, .category-extv .association, .category-extv .assoc-entry, .category-extv .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv .association h1, .category-extv .association h2, .category-extv .association h3, .category-extv .association h4, .category-extv .association h5, .category-extv .association h6,
.category-extv-dark .main-wrapper, .category-extv-dark .association, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv-dark .association h1, .category-extv-dark .association h2, .category-extv-dark .association h3, .category-extv-dark .association h4, .category-extv-dark .association h5, .category-extv-dark .association h6 {
background: rgb(31, 31, 31);
color: #fff;
}
.category-extv .association .sub-divider-new, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new {
border-color: rgb(31, 31, 31);
}
.category-extv .main-wrapper a, .category-extv .association a, .category-extv .assoc-entry a, .category-extv-dark .main-wrapper a, .category-extv-dark .association a, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry a {
color:white;
}
.category-extv-dark article.assoc-entry::first-child, .category-extv article.assoc-entry::first-child {
visibility:hidden;
}
.post-grid-assoc {
border: 1px solid #454545;
}
.directory-listing, .event-listing, .search-results {
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
/*mobile phone inline image fix 07-12-2021 JMH*/
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
margin: 10px !important;
}
}
/*counties*/
.subcat-content {
padding-top: 20px;
}
.county-columns {
columns: 140px 5;
line-height: 3em;
padding: 20px 0 20px;
}
@media (min-width: 768px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 2em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 992px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.7em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 1200px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.6em;
}
}
/* end counties */
/* Custom Gallery */
.custom-gallery {
margin: auto;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-item {
float: left;
margin-top: 10px;
text-align: center;
width: 33%;
}
.custom-gallery img {
border: 2px solid #cfcfcf;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-caption {
margin-left: 0;
}
/* Decision Tree CSS */
.dt_display_title {
color: #1D63AB !important;
font: 700 1.5em Helvetica Nue,sans-serif !important;
font-size: 44px !important;
line-height: 1.2 !important;
}
.dt_display_question {
font-size: 16px !important;
line-height: 1.5 !important;
letter-spacing: .5px !important;
}
.dt_display_subtext {
font-style:italic !important;
padding: 10px 0 !important;
}
.dt_button, .answer-restart {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-color: #f39c12 !important;
color: #424242!important;
font-family: Helvetica Nue, sans-serif !important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
}
/* end Decision Tree CSS */
/* cookie notice container */
#cookie-notice .cookie-notice-container a {
color:#5EA1E4 !important;
}
/* footer bottom left*/
.footer-menu-left {
float: left;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.footer-menu-left li {
border-left: 1px solid rgba(255,255,255,.6);
padding: 0 10px;
line-height: 1.2;
}
.footer-menu-left li:first-child {
border-left: none;
padding-left: 0;
}
.footer-bottom-left {
color: #fff;
padding-bottom: 0;
}
.footer-bottom .footer-menu {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/* Print Stylesheet - LEAVE AT BOTTOM */
@media print {
*, ::after, ::before {
color: #000!important;
text-shadow: none !important;
background: 0 0 !important;
box-shadow: none !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, san-serif;
}
body {
--webkit-hyphens: auto;
--moz-hyphens: auto;
hyphens: auto;
}
.row-print {
min-height: 20px;
}
.post-info-header-category {
display: block;
position: absolute;
top: 13pt;
left: 15px;
max-width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-category h1 {
color: green !important;
display: inline;
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-weight: lighter;
letter-spacing: 2pt;
text-align: left;
text-transform: uppercase;
}
.post-info-header-category hr {
position: absolute;
margin-top: 0 !important;
margin-bottom: 0 !important;
width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-logo {
display: block;
padding: 0 !important;
position: absolute;
top: 0;
right: 45pt;
width: 190px !important;
text-align: right !important;
}
.main-cat-title, h1 {
font-size: 28pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
.main-cat-title {
margin-bottom: auto;
}
h1 {
font-size: 18pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
h2 {
font-size: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
color: #001a96 !important;
}
p, ul, li {
font-size: 10pt !important;
line-height: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
}
/*p img {
display: none;
}*/
img.wp-image-46702 {
display: block !important;
}
.post-media {
margin: 0 0 10px 0;
padding: 0;
border: none;
}
.image-overlay {
display: inline-block;
}
.header, .page-wrapper, div.container div.row, .forcefullwidth_wrapper_tp_banner, .post-format, .subcat-title, .breadcrumb, .read-time, .post-meta-info-content, .at-below-post, .addthis_tool .alignright, .like-dislike, span.small, .tags, aside.related-posts, .footer-inner, table, .ninja_button_print, .nt_edit_link, .btn {
display: none;
}
table.display-print {display: inline-block !important }
/*remove URL from gallery images*/
.gallery a[href]:after {
content: none;
}
.aces-pub a[href]:after {
content: " (" attr(href) ")" !important;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
.page-header {
border-bottom: none !important;
}
.logo {
margin-top: 0;
}
.subact-title {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.subact-title a {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.content-print {
column-count: 2 !important;
-webkit-column-count: 2 !important;
column-gap: 40px !important;
-webkit-column-gap: 40px !important;
}
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
}
.wp-caption-text {
font-size: 8pt !important;
line-height: 11pt !important;
}
.footer-print {
display: block !important;
}
.footer-print-logo {
max-width: 190px;
padding-bottom: 7pt;
}
.footer-print-content p {
font-family: Times New Roman, serif;
font-size: 7pt !important;
line-height: 6pt !important;
/*letter-spacing: -.1pt;*/
margin: 1pt 0 3pt !important;
}
.footer-print-content h2 {
font-size: 11pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
margin-top: 7px;
}
.footer-print-content hr {
padding: 0 !important;
margin: 0 !important;
}
h3.table_title:before {
content: 'Print "';
}
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How 4-H is Delivered </div>
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<li>November 14, 2024</li>
<li class="meta-author">Posted by: Nancy Alexander</li>
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<div class="at-above-post addthis_tool" data-url="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/about-4-h/how-4-h-is-delivered/"></div><p>Alabama 4-H has multiple delivery modes to ensure that we are providing access and opportunity to all youth. The primary delivery modes are clubs, enrichment, camping, in-school clubs, and individual study.</p>
<h1>Clubs</h1>
<p>Organized group of at least five youth, led by trained adults, with a planned program that is carried on throughout the year or most of the year with at least five regular meetings. 4-H focus is on a variety of self-chosen learning experiences and activities, may meet in any location, has elected youth officers, and has a set of governing rules approved by the membership. 4-H clubs typically meet after school, evenings, or on weekends.</p>
<p>The purpose of 4-H clubs is to provide positive youth development opportunities to meet the needs of young people to experience belonging, mastery, independence, and generosity–the Essential Elements–and to foster educational opportunities tied to the land grant university knowledge base.</p>
<h1>Enrichment</h1>
<p>4-H enrichment is organized groups of youth receiving a sequence or one time learning experience as part of Alabama Extension outreach associated with any of the following programs:</p>
<ul>
<li>Agronomic Crops</li>
<li>Animal Science and Forages</li>
<li>Commercial Horticulture</li>
<li>Community Resource Development</li>
<li>Consumer Science and Personal Finance Management</li>
<li>Family and Child Development</li>
<li>Farm Management and Agriculture Enterprise Analysis</li>
<li>Food Safety, Preparation, and Preservation</li>
</ul>
<p>Programming may be delivered in cooperation with school officials, youth serving organizations, and other local, state, or federal partners.</p>
<h1>Camping</h1>
<p>Because 4-H camping is education-based, it is recognized as a delivery mode with Alabama 4-H. As defined by the American Campaign Association, and as accepted by Alabama 4-H, “organized camping is a sustained experience that provides creative, recreational, and educational opportunities in group living in the out-of-doors. It utilizes trained leadership and the resources of natural surroundings to contribute to each camper’s mental, physical, social, and spiritual growth.” A 4-H camper is any youth who is registered for a 4-H sponsored residential or day camping event through the local Extension office and meets the 4-H age and eligibility requirements.</p>
<h1>In-School Clubs</h1>
<p>Organized group of youth in fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades led by trained adults, with a planned program that is carried on during the school year. Clubs meet during school hours, for no less than 30 minutes, and have elected officers.</p>
<h1>Individual Study</h1>
<p>Planned learning that occurs independently of a formal group setting, self-directed, and under the supervision of adults in any 4-H subject matter/project area. Examples include self study, home study, and project book work. The primary purpose of 4-H individual study is to involve youth in a new and non-traditional 4-H environment tailored to meet their specific personal needs.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/4HYD-2163-Independent-Membership_082124bL-G.pdf">Download a PDF of 4-H Independent Membership Guidelines and Agreement, 4HYD-2163.</a></p>
<p>The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Alabama A&M University and Auburn University) is an equal opportunity educator, employer, and provider. If you need a reasonable accommodation or language access services, contact Nancy Alexander at <a href="mailto:alexana@auburn.edu">alexana@auburn.edu</a>.</p>
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https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/okaloosaco/2023/04/18/lawn-landscape-help-available-at-plant-clinic/ | Lawn, Landscape Help Available at Plant Clinic | University of Florida | [
"llw5479"
] | 2023-04-18 | [
"Events",
"Florida-Friendly Landscaping",
"Fruits & Vegetables",
"Home Landscapes",
"Invasive Species",
"Lawn",
"Pests & Disease",
"Turf",
"Lawn problem",
"plant clinic",
"Plant diagnostics",
"weed identification & control"
] | FL | ## Lawn, Landscape Help Available at Plant Clinic
An upcoming plant clinic in Fort Walton Beach is designed to provide answers to lawn, landscape and/or garden problems.
Plant Clinic sign for April 23, 2023
The plant clinic will be held Friday, April 21 from 9 a.m. to 12 noon at the temporary UF/IFAS Extension Annex located at the Okaloosa Technical College (OTC) in Fort Walton Beach.
The plant clinic is not a seminar or lecture type program but provides a place for individuals to bring samples of their lawn, landscape or garden plants for diagnosis, including weeds and insects for identification.
place for individuals to bring samples of their lawn, landscape or garden plants for diagnosis, including weeds and insects for identification.
To participate, bring a fresh sample of the weed, plant, insect, etc., to the clinic. This may include a plant stem with several leaves, a 4-inch square of grass with roots attached, etc.
I as well as UF/IFAS Extension Master Gardener Volunteers will be onsite to help diagnose samples brought in for diagnosis. Bringing completely dead plants or samples from the middle of a dead lawn area is not helpful for diagnosis. It's best to bring samples that exhibit early symptom development and that have plant parts that are still partially alive (green) for accurate diagnosis.
You also may bring a sample of soil from your lawn, landscape or garden for pH testing. Use a clean shovel, trowel or soil probe to collect a representative sample by taking thin slices or cores of soil to a depth of six to eight inches from ten different spots throughout the plant bed, lawn or garden. Thoroughly mix all the small soil slices/cores together in a clean bucket. Place one to two cups of this mixture in a closable plastic bag or small throwaway plastic container and bring to the clinic for testing. Attach a slip of paper with your name, phone number and where the sample was taken (e.g. lawn, vegetable garden, flowerbed, etc.).
Our former location on Hollywood Blvd. closed. We are now in a temporary location in the back of the OTC Campus at 1976 Lewis Turner Boulevard in Fort Walton Beach.
1
by lIw5479
Posted: April 18, 2023
Category: Events, Florida-Friendly Landscaping, Fruits & Vegetables, HOME
LANDSCAPES, Invasive Species, Lawn, Pests & Disease, Turf
Tags: Lawn Problem, Plant Clinic, Plant Diagnostics, Weed Identification &
Control
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · June Plant Clinic This Friday (6-21-24) In Fort Walton Beach
- · Care Of Freeze-Injured Citrus Trees
- June Gardening May Include Visit To Plant Clinic
- Home Fruit Gardening 101 Seminar |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/vitamins-and-the-body.html | Vitamins and the Body - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [
"Janice R. Hermann"
] | 2019-09-10 | [] | OK | ## Vitamins and the Body
Published Oct. 2019 |
Id: T-3156
By Janice R. Hermann
Print-friendly PDF sheets/print- publications/t/vitamins-and-thebody-t-3156.pdf)
```
JUMP TO: Types of Vitamins /
Dietary Reference Intakes /
What about Supplements? /
Too Much of a Good Thing? /
Vitamins and the USDA MyPlate Plan /
Vitamins Provided by Each USDA MyPlate Plan
Food Group
F
References
```
Vitamins are essential nutrients, which means that it is necessary to eat them to live and be healthy. In fact, the word vitamin comes from the Latin word for life, which is "vita." Vitamins are part of important processes throughout the body. For example, vitamins help release energy from food, help keep skin and nerves healthy, and help make red blood cells.
The body needs more than a dozen different vitamins to remain healthy. Vitamins are all different from each other, and one vitamin cannot substitute for another in the body. Some vitamins have several different closely related forms that occur naturally in food. Because vitamins can have various forms, there may see several different names for the same vitamin. This can be confusing when trying to choose a healthful diet. Look at the vitamin table at the end of this fact
sheet to help recognize different names for vitamins. This table also will help explain the functions and good sources of each vitamin.
## Types of Vitamins
The two major types of vitamins are fat soluble vitamins and water soluble vitamins.
## Fat Soluble Vitamins
The fat soluble vitamins are A, D, E, and K. They are usually found with fats in food, and the body absorbs them best when people eat them with some fat. Do not worry about adding fat to the diet so that there will be enough fat soluble vitamins.
Only a small amount of fat is needed to help absorb fat soluble vitamins. Some of the good sources of vitamin E are vegetable oils and nuts, and good sources of vitamin D are egg yolk and fish oil. These are also high in fat. Whole grains and deep green leafy vegetables also are good sources of fat soluble vitamins. Even in these, there is enough fat to absorb the vitamins.
Fat soluble vitamins are not easily washed out of food into cooking water because they mix with fat, not water. As a result, these vitamins are not easily lost when one cooks food in water.
## Water Soluble Vitamins
The water soluble vitamins are all of the B vitamins, or "B complex" and vitamin C. The B vitamins are thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, biotin, and pantothenic acid. All of the water soluble vitamins are easily lost in cooking water. Because they are water soluble, they are washed out into the water that food is being cooked in. The best way to preserve vitamins when cooking is to use as little water as possible and cook vegetables for as short a time as possible. Save the cooking water, to use in other foods like soup or low fat gravy.
People do not store extra water soluble vitamins in their bodies. When they eat more than is needed, the extra is washed out through the kidneys in urine. Because water soluble vitamins are not stored, eat foods that are good sources of them often.
## Dietary Reference Intakes
The dietary reference intakes for vitamins were developed by nutrition experts and are constantly updated when new research on vitamins is completed. Based on the recommended intakes, most healthy people can meet their needs for vitamins if they follow the USDA MyPlate Plan. This includes eating the recommended amount of foods from each of the USDA MyPlate Plan food groups every day.
| Vitamin | Function | Food Sources |
|-------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Fat-Soluble Vitamins | Maintains healthy skin and eyes. | Liver, whole or fortified margarine, butter. |
| Beta-carotene (Provitamin A) | Functions like vitamin A, and may have important functions as an antioxidant. | Leafy green (spinach, broccoli, Brussels sprouts) and deep yellow orange fruits and vegetables (sweet potatoes, cantaloupe, squash). |
| Vitamin | Function | Food Sources | |
|---------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------|
| D (cholecalciferol) | Helps the body absorb calcium and phosphorus. Antioxidant protects body tissues and membranes. | Fish oils, egg yolk, liver, fortified milk, fortified cereals. | |
| K | Necessary for normal blood clotting. | Vegetable oils, whole grains, nuts (almonds). Green leafy vegetables, liver, egg yolk, soybean oil, lentils, chickpeas, and can be made by intestinal bacteria. | |
| Water Soluble Vitamins | Helsp the body use carbohydrates. | Pork, beef, liver, whole or enriched grains, meat. Milk, egg whites, leafy vegetables, whole or enriched grains, meat. | |
| Thiamin (B1) | Helps the body use carbohydrates. | Milk, egg whites, leafy vegetables, whole or enriched grains, meat. | |
| Riboflavin (B2) | helps the body break down nutrients for energy. | like riboflavin and thiamin, helps the body break down nutrients for energy. | Meat, peanuts, whole or enriched grains (except whole corn). |
| Nicin(B3) (nicotinamide) | Niacin(B3) like riboflavin and thiamin, helps the nutrientsof energy. | like riboflavin and thiamin, helps the bodybreakdown nutrientsfor energy. | meat, peanuts, whole or enriched grains (exceptwhole corn). |
| Vitamin | Function | Food Sources |
|-----------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| B6 (pyridoxine) (pyridoxal) (pyridoxamine) | Functions in use of amino acids | Whole grains, corn, meat, egg yolk, green leafy (components of vegetables protein). Green leafy vegetables, liver, asparagus, beans, peas, lentils and lima beans. |
| Folate (folic acid) (folacin) (pterylglutamic acid) | Needed for rapidly growing body tissue. | Asparagus, beans, peas, lentils and lima beans. |
| B12 (cobalamin) (cyanocobabamin) | Like folate, needed for rapidly growing body tissue. Necessary for normal nerve maintenance. | Meats, milk, eggs, cheese. |
| Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) | Helps the body make collagen, a connective protein found all over the body. Aids wound healing, bone formation, capillary wall health. Helps absorb iron, acts as an antioxidant vitamin. | Citrus fruits, tomatoes, cabbage, potatoes, chili peppers, strawberries, broccoli, spinach and other greens, cantaloupe. |
## What about Supplements?
Nutrition researchers constantly study the US food supply to determine if there is a risk of vitamin deficiencies. As more has been learned about vitamins, those that could be lacking in our diets have been added to foods. For example, in the early 1900s, many children suffered from rickets, a vitamin D deficiency disease. Today, vitamin D is added to milk to prevent rickets in children. A deficiency of thiamin causes the disease beri beri, and a deficiency of niacin causes the disease pelagra. Even in the 1930s, many people in this country died of a niacin deficiency. Starting in 1941, these vitamins were required to be added to refined flour, corn meal, and rice to prevent these diseases.
Most people gain no extra benefits by taking vitamin supplements to get more vitamins than the dietary reference intakes. Reasons given for taking vitamin supplements, such as vitamins will make them feel better or give them more energy, are not true unless they suffer from a vitamin deficiency. A vitamin deficiency could be caused by eating an imbalanced diet, for example, never eating food from one of the food groups, going on a very low calorie diet to lose weight, or having a greater need for certain vitamins. The first two reasons require improving the diet, while the third category, having increased needs, may require supplementation. For example, pregnant and breastfeeding women are usually prescribed multiple vitamin and mineral supplements. Some people, particularly older adults may not eat an adequate diet for a variety of reasons. Arthritis and other disorders make it difficult to prepare foods. Lack of teeth or chewing problems may make it difficult to eat foods like fruits, vegetables, meats, and high fiber foods. Some people have diseases that interfere with absorption of vitamins. Others take medicines that interfere with absorption of vitamins. Discuss this with a doctor or a registered dietitian.
## Too Much of a Good Thing?
Bodies store fat soluble vitamins in fatty tissues and in the liver. Because they are stored, too much can build up and make people ill. This occurs only if a person takes extra supplements of these vitamins for a long time. The two fat soluble vitamins that are most toxic are vitamin A and vitamin D. Regular foods do not contain enough vitamins to cause a toxicity, people only need to worry if they take high dose supplements regularly.
The body protects people or individuals from absorbing too much vitamin A from many food sources. For example, one raw carrot contains over 2,000 mg of vitamin A. This is such a large dose that seems it would be harmful to eat carrots. But the vitamin A in vegetables is actually a form called beta carotene. Beta carotene has to be converted into vitamin A. The body will not make too much vitamin A from beta carotene no matter how much they eat.
Vitamin D also can be very toxic if consumed in large quantities. Vitamin D toxicity can cause hardening of body arteries and organs like the liver and kidneys. This happens because vitamin D helps absorb calcium from the diet. Too much vitamin D results in absorption of so much calcium that the body cannot store it where it should go, which is in the bones. Then the calcium is deposited in other tissues, where it prevents the tissues from functioning.
Even though individuals cannot store toxic amounts of water soluble vitamins, very high doses can cause annoying or harmful side effects. For example, a feeling of being hot, flushing of the face, and a rash can occur only minutes after taking a very large dose of niacin. Taking large doses of vitamin C can cause diarrhea in some people, and letting chewable vitamin C tablets dissolve in the mouth can cause tooth damage, because vitamin C is an acid. Taking large doses of vitamin B6 for several months may cause nerve damage that can be permanent.
The important fact to remember is that these vitamins are essential in small amounts but can be harmful in very large amounts.
## Vitamins and the USDA MyPlate Plan
Most foods contain a variety of vitamins. But, no one food has enough of all of the vitamins to meet the total requirement. An eating plan made up of a variety of foods should meet vitamin needs. Eating foods from each of the USDA MyPlate Plan food groups in the recommended amounts is the best way to get the vitamins you need.
## Vitamins Provided by Each USDA MyPlate Plan Food Group
Each USDA MyPlate Plan food group provides important vitamins. The grain group provides folate, niacin, riboflavin, and thiamin. The vegetable group provides folate, vitamin C, and vitamin E. The fruit group provides folate, vitamin A, and vitamin C. The dairy group provides riboflavin, vitamin B12, and when fortified vitamins A and D. The protein foods group provide niacin, thiamin, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12. Bean, peas and lentils are also sources of folate, thiamin, and vitamin E. And lastly oils provide vitamin E.
Necessary vitamins can be provided in a low fat diet. Steamed broccoli is a good source of vitamins A and C. Broccoli with cheese sauce is high in fat and saturated fat. A slice of whole wheat bread is low fat, but a croissant is very high in fat. When choosing foods from the protein foods group, be sure to choose lean, trimmed products, and don't add extra fat in preparation. For example, round steak is a low fat red meat
choice, while spare ribs are much higher in fat. In the dairy group, skim milk is fat free, but whole milk has 50 percent of its calories from fat.
Most foods contain a variety of vitamins. But no one food has enough of all of the vitamins to meet the total requirement. An eating plan made up of a variety of foods from each of the USDA MyPlate Plan food groups is the best way to get the vitamins you need. Each group is a good source of different combinations of vitamins. If a food group is left out or too few servings consumed, people cheat themselves of vitamins needed for good health.
## References
United States Department of Agriculture. ChooseMyPlate.gov. Accessed at: www.choosemyplate.gov
United States Department of Agriculture. Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010. Accessed at:
http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/DietaryGuidelines.htm
Whitney, E.N. & Rolfes, S.R. Understanding Nutrition, 13th ed. 2013. Thomson/Wadsworth Publishing Co., Belmont, CA.
Janice R. Hermann, PhD, RD/LD Nutrition Specialist
Print-friendly PDF ( /factsheets/printpublications/t/vitamins-and-thebody-t-3156.pdf)
## Topics:
Health, Nutrition & Wellness ( /topics/youth-family-health-and-home/healthnutrition-and-wellness/)
YES |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/ffgs/2020/06/12/florida-land-steward-update-june-12-2020/ | Florida Land Steward Update, June 12, 2020 | University of Florida | [
"Chris Demers"
] | 2020-06-12 | [
"Conservation",
"Forests",
"Natural Resources"
] | FL | ## Florida Land Steward Update, June 12, 2020
Private forest landowners interested in establishing and managing a longleaf pine forest are encouraged to sign up. This enrollment period is open until July 8, 2020 . The program offers landowners technical guidance and incentive payments for conducting certain approved forest management practices that help establish or improve longleaf pine stands. The program offers incentive payments for: longleaf pine seedling establishment, timber stand improvement, prescribed burning, native plant understory establishment, mechanical underbrush treatments, and invasive plant control treatments.
The Longleaf Pine Private Landowner Incentive Program application period is open today through July 8th. The Commissioner's office press release announcing the Program is included below. The application form, 2020 Technical Guidelines booklet, and general information are available on the program webpage at: https://www.fdacs.gov/Divisions-Offices/Florida-ForestService/For-Landowners/Programs/Longleaf-Pine-Private- Landowner-Incentive-Program
For more information contact your Florida Forest Service County Forester or Jen Tucker-Jenks, Conservation Programs Manager, (850) 681-5874, Jennifer.Tucker-Jenks@FDACS.gov
The State of Florida and the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) have announced the successful end of negotiations on the
administration of $380.7 million in grant funding to help Florida's timber industry recover following Hurricane Michael in 2018. It is expected that timber producers could begin to receive funding as
soon as this fall. Read Governor Ron DeSantis's press release here. See more details on the Florida Forestry Association's 411 bulletin. We will keep you posted on the latest on this funding in Florida Land Steward Updates.
## Prepare Your Property for Hurricane Season
Hurricane season is here! As we have learned in recent years, powerful hurricanes can make their way inland and do considerable damage to forest and agricultural lands and enterprises. There is no way to fully prepare for major devastation in advance, but there are some strategies and steps you can take to prepare yourself and your land for a major storm and recover more smoothly. Get the tips in the Spring-Summer issue of the quarterly Florida Land Steward newsletter (direct link).
## FUNDING AVAILABLE FROM THE NATURE CONSERVANCY (TNC) TO TREAT COGONGRASS IN CENTRAL PANHANDLE REGION OF FLORIDA
TNC North Florida Program has received a grant from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for 120 total acres of cogongrass treatment in counties surrounding the Apalachicola National Forest. Private landowners in Calhoun, Gadsden, and Liberty Counties who would like to be considered for this funding should contact Brian Pelc, (850) 222-0199 x103, bpclc@tnc.org
## EMERGENCY FOREST RESTORATION PROGRAM DEADLINE FOR HURRICANE MICHAEL EXTENDED THROUGH OCTOBER 30, 2020
The USDA Florida Farm Service Agency State Committee has authorized an additional six-month extension to the Emergency Forest Restoration Program(EFRP) and Emergency Conservation Program.(ECP) late filed period. This allows producers impacted by
Hurricane Michael to apply for assistance under EFRP and/or ECP and be considered timely if application is made by the new deadline of October 30, 2020 . Contact your local FSA office to set up an appointment. Find your local FSA office here.
## CONSERVATION STEWARDSHIP PROGRAM - FLORIDA PANTHER
Ranchers in Southwest Florida are encouraged to apply for CSP so they can be paid to help the Florida panther. Apply by June 15. Contact District Conservationist MitchellAman at 863-674-5700 for more information.
## CONSERVATION ASSISTANCE FOR FLORIDA FARMERS AND RANCHERS IN 11 WEST FLORIDA COUNTIES
USDA's Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) is accepting applications from agricultural producers until June 15, 2020 for a Regional Conservation Partnership Program project that improves climate resiliency. NRCS will provide financial and technical assistance to eligible farmers and landowners toward conservation practices that improve natural resources in 11 Florida counties through the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQI).
Producers in the following counties are encouraged to apply: Bay, Calhoun, Franklin, Gadsden, Gulf, Jackson, Jefferson, Leon, Liberty, Wakulla, and Washington. The Climate Resiliency for Alabama, Florida and Georgia project in the Apalachicola-Chattahoobee-Flint and Ochlockonee River Basins is led by the Flint River Soil and Water Conservation District. The project area covers more than 15 million acres in eastern Alabama, western Georgia, and the Florida panhandle. For more information contact your local USDA service center
## CONSERVATION ASSISTANCE FOR FOREST IMPROVEMENTS
Agricultural producers in Florida can apply for financial assistance until June 15 for a Regional Conservation Partnership Program (RCPP) project to improve forested lands from USDA's Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). NRCS will provide financial and technical assistance to farmers, ranchers and landowners for conservation practices that improve forest ecosystems through the EnvironmentalQualityIncentivesProgram(EQI). For more information contact Chakesha Harvey, 352-338-3425
## ANNOUNCING STATE ACRES FOR WILDLIFE
ENHANCEMENT (SAFE) INITIATIVE THROUGH USDA FARM SERVICE AGENCY'S CONSERVATION RESERVE PROGRAM (CRP)
State Acres for Wildlife Enhancement allows producers to install practices that benefit high priority State wildlife conservation objectives by using targeted restoration of vital habitat. This effort is based on locally developed conservation proposals that address highest priority wildlife objectives. SAFE proposals may be developed and put forth by a Federal, State, or local agency, or by a private organization. Ideally, all partners will develop proposals under a cooperative and collaborative agreement. For more details see this USDA fact sheet about the SAFE initiative. Submit proposals by June 19, 2020 . Please direct questions to Amy Roller, Agriculture Program Specialist, Farm Service Agency, amy.roller@usda.gov, 352379-4520.
## TAX TIPS FOR FOREST LANDOWNERS FOR THE 2019 TAX YEAR
The extended tax filing deadline is July 15 . The Federal income tax laws contain forestry-specific provisions that are important for those managing and conserving timber. This publication provides forest owners, foresters, loggers, and timber businesses a guide to the applicable Federal income tax laws, including the latest tax law changes, for filing 2019 tax returns. The information is not intended to render legal or accounting advice and is current as of September 30, 2019. Access the 2019 timber tax tips and more related information at https://www.timbertax.org/
## HAVE AN EVENT OR RELATED NEWS TO SHARE?
Drop a line to Chris Demers , cdemers@ufl.edu
## SIGN UP FOR FLORIDA LAND STEWARD EMAIL UPDATES
Don't miss out on news and events! Sign up for the regular email updates! Send an email to cdemers@ufl.edu to be added to the email listserv. Florida Land Steward email updates are sent once a week or every other week and include the latest calendar of workshops, tours and other events; a link to the current issue of this quarterly
newsletter; updates on cost-share and other assistance programs, opportunities, and resources; and other stewardship related news and information.
```
O
by Chris Demers
Posted: June 12, 2020
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Category: Conservation, Forests, Natural Resources
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
More From Blogs.IFAS
· Flatwoods Fire And Nature Festival 2025 A Chance To Learn About
Prescribed Burning
· Forest Restoration And Management At Jenkins Millview Trace
· Florida Land Steward Update, June 17, 2022
· Florida Land Steward Update, February 3, 2023
``` |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/wheat-research-and-extension/variety-testing/site-files/docs/partners-in-progress-reports/pip-2019.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20200127134603-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Wheat Research at OSU 2019
Supported by the
Oklahoma Wheat Commission
and the
Oklahoma Wheat Research Foundation
Oklahoma State University Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service
P-1058
## Wheat Research at OSU 2019
Supported by the
Oklahoma Wheat Commission and the Oklahoma Wheat Research Foundation
Oklahoma Wheat Research Foundation
Oklahoma State University Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service
P-1058
The pesticide information presented in this publication was current with federal and state regulations at the time of printing. The user is responsible for determining that the intended use is consistent with the label of the product being used. Use pesticides safely. Read and follow label directions. The information given herein is for educational purposes only. Reference to commercial products or trade names is made with the understanding that no discrimination is intended and no endorsement by the Cooperative Extension Service is implied.
Oklahoma State University, as an equal opportunity employer, complies with all applicable federal and state laws regarding non-discrimination and affirmative action. Oklahoma State University is committed to a policy of equal opportunity for all individuals and does not discriminate based on race, religion, age, sex, color, national origin, marital status, sexual orientation, gender identity/expression, disability, or veteran status with regard to employment, educational programs and activities, and/or admissions. For more information, visit https://eeo.oksstate.edu .
This report of the Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Dean and Director of the Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources and has been prepared and distributed at a cost of $2.908.16 for 400 copies, 1219 GH.
## Table of Contents
Partnerships Enhance Wheat Research..............................................................ii
As the Green Blade Riseth ...........................................................................1
Genetic Improvement and Variety Release of Hard Winter Wheat.....................2
Wheat Pathology Research and Developing
Disease-Resistant Germplasm....................................................................4
Pest Resistance Discovery and Introgression...........................................12
Bird Cherry-Oat Aphid (BCOA) Resistance Discovery............................18
Gene Discovery and Genomic Technology ....................................................20
Genetic Variation on a Genomewide Scale................................................24
Nitrogen-Use Efficiency at the Genetic Level ........................................26
Wheat Breeding and Cultivar Development................................................30
Improving Oklahoma Wheat Yield and Quality ......................................................40
through Weed Management......................................................................................47
Wheat Variety Trials............................................................................................50
Wheat Variety Trials-Protein Trials ....................................................................57
## Partnerships Enhance Wheat Research
Partners in Progress Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station has a long-standing partnership with the Oklahoma Wheat Commission (OWC) and the Oklahoma Wheat Research Foundation (OWRF) to develop wheat varieties that are specifically adapted to the climate, diseases and pests found in Oklahoma and the surrounding area.
The partnerships not only provide partial funding for our research programs; they also are sources of valuable feedback from producers to help keep our research programs focused and relevant.
These partnerships are truly one of the best examples of the Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources (DASNR) working in a cooperative relationship with commodity groups to achieve common goals.
The Partners in Progress Wheat Research Report is one of a series of annual reports from the Experiment Station highlighting research results
and impacts of funded projects. This information is utilized throughout the year in educational programs and is distributed to Oklahoma wheat producers to keep them up to date on the latest research findings. The research contained in this report aims to meet the needs of Oklahoma wheat producers.
At the start of this report is a summary of accomplishments for fiscal year 2018-19 and follow up with detailed narratives that describe progress.
The long-term continuous support of our wheat research programs from the OWC and the OWRF has allowed our faculty to make significant progress toward the common goal of keeping Oklahoma wheat farmers competitive in regional, national and international markets. This support makes us truly partners in progress.
Keith Owens Associate Vice President Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources Oklahoma State University
## Oklahoma State University Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources Mission Statement
The mission of Oklahoma State University's Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources is to discover, develop, disseminate and preserve knowledge needed to enhance the productivity, profitability and sustainability of agriculture; conserve and improve natural resources; improve the health and well-being of all segments of our society; and to instill in its students the intellectual curiosity, discernment, knowledge and skills needed for their individual development and contribution to society.
## As the Green Blade Riseth
Aasthegreenbladeriseth from the buried grain, which then emerges, we must continue with tenacity and strength! The 2019 wheat harvest season was anything but effortless for Oklahoma wheat producers as they faced continued saturation of moisture within wheat fields across the state. It was concerning to see the potential for end-use bakers seek lost to lessthan-favorable conditions at harvest time with an abundance of rain.
While producers persevered in getting the crop out, researchers at OSU continued work in many areas with fitting results and evaluations that are allowing us to move forward in the world of wheat. Management studies and continued efforts for end-use quality strength within the OSU variety development program tell the story of stronger, more durable varieties that certainly rose to the challenge.
In 2019, global production increases with unfavorable foreign trade negotiations impacted price by making the marketing of this crop more challenging for U.S. wheat producers. The end-use qualities from the Southern Plains, however, were much more favorable than expected and actually had higher quality rankings than much of the global wheat crop in other places. The wheat quality from Oklahoma in 2019 was much more favorable than what was harvested in the Australian and Argentine markets when dealing with kernel size, test weights protein levels and falling numbers. With a more favorable trade outlook based on new negotiations between the U.S., China, Canada and Mexico, we are more hopeful things will look better as we move into the winter and spring months.
To carry on with the successes of more sound quality, given the adversity of environments that this crop faced from planting to harvest, the OSU small grains variety programs moved full steam ahead. The program evaluated 505 Wheat Improvement Team experimental lines for seeding reaction to leaf rust, powdery mildew and tan spot, with 26 of these lines also being evaluated for adult plant resistance (APR) to leaf rust and 105 evaluated for APR to powdery mildew. In total, more than 43,000 single plant ratings were made, according to Dr. Bob Hunger, OSU Extension Wheat Pathologist. Also, the top six of seven varieties planted for acreage in Oklahoma were developed by the OSU Wheat Improvement Team (WIT), according to an Oklahoma Wheat Commission sponsored survey conducted by USDA-NASS in 2019.
This year, a long-awaited beardedless cultivar OK Corral was released from OSU, replacing the
performance of varieties like Deliver and Peter represent a significant breakthrough with higher yielding ability, while also having better end-use quality and pest resistance for Hard Red Winter (HRW) wheat.
The data collected from OSU research plots made available in the variety performance tests yield summary helps ensure farmers and ranchers have an opportunity to observe the newest genetics in research demonstration plots throughout Oklahoma. The unique OSU small grains variety testing program is made possible with the teamwork of OSU Extension and farmer cooperators who allow trials on privately owned land. At many universities, these efforts are restricted to research station plots only, but the OSU variety testing program goes the extra mile to ensure wheat varieties are tested by farmers before release for real-world settings in Oklahoma wheat fields. OSU variety test plots are distinctly different due to the influence of GrainGen® varieties. While dual-purpose wheat gives producers more options for increasing profitability on the farm, studies continue to show grazing capacities on the varieties in the OSU wheat research program and essentially linked to grain quality via adaptation. This gives producers planting OSU varieties and edge, allowing them to plant varieties that have the end-use qualities millers and bakers want, while having forage opportunities for grazing should the market influence them to have different management strategies.
Wheat research in public institutional settings, highlighted by programs such as the OSU WIT, will not be possible without the continued support from Oklahoma wheat producers. The OWC and ORWF, along with OSU's WIT and DASNR, continue to work on items beneficial to both the producer and the buyer, which is not as heavily emphasized in other public or private research settings. We are making great strides with the wheat research and Extensions programs at OSU, and want to thank the producers for the support with the check-off funds that keep these programs at the front of technology discovery and transfer. The WIT at OSU is motivated by the desire of commitment to excelence and provides a framework to help make peat producers successful. We are glad to be partners in progress.
Mike Schulte, Executive Director Oklahoma Wheat Commission 8820 Silver Hill Drive Oklahoma City, OK 73132 Phone: 405-608-4350 Fax: 405-848-0372 Email: mschulte@okwheat.org www.okwheat.org
## Genetic Improvement and Variety Release of Hard Winter Wheat
Wheat Improvement Team (WIT)
2018-2019 progress made possible through OWRF/OWC support
- · Claimed the top six of seven varieties for planted acreage in Oklahoma, according to a survey sponsored by the Oklahoma Wheat Commission conducted by USDA-National Agricultural Service in 2019 (WT).
- · Released a long-awaited beardless cultivar, OK Corral, from the OSU pipeline to fill the productivity gap left by older OSU releases Deliver and Pete (WT).
- · Placed 12 candidates under preliminary or extended seed increase by Oklahoma Foundation Seed Stocks, six of which await a final decision by WIT to prepare release documentation. One candidate (OK168512) was confirmed to have strong resistance to wheat streak mosaic with top-tier yielding ability in the Oklahoma panhandle, whereas one candidate (OK16D101089) features a novel BYD resistance gene complex never before deployed in Oklahoma. One candidate (OK14124-2) provides a legitimate option for late-planted acres in Oklahoma with accelerated maturity, while OK12912C-138407-2 provides a legitimate option to Doublestop CL+ in central Oklahoma. OCW4S71T/W-6, a hard white candidate, features blanket protection to eight diseases common in central Oklahoma and to another devastating disease that hopefully never appears in Oklahoma called what blast (WIT).
| OK168512 | Overley+/Fuller//2*CSU exptl. |
|-------------------|---------------------------------|
| OK16D101089 | OK12621/Bentley |
| OK14124-2 | N104430/OK05303/Fuller |
| OK12912C-138407-2 | NS19D2308-13/OK03926C/OK03928C |
| OCW04S717T-6W | CMMYT seln/KS exptlt./KSS91W047 |
- · Evaluated 1,781 wheat breeder lines (including 805 WIT lines) in the field for reaction to the wheat soil-borne mosaic/wheat spindle streak mosaic complex. The latest WIT release, OK Corral, features a high level of resistance (Hunger).
- · Evaluated 505 WIT experimental lines in the greenhouse for seedling reaction to leaf rust, powdery mildew and tan spot, with 260 of these lines also being evaluated for adult plant resistance (APR) to leaf rust and 105 also evaluated for APR to powdery mildew. In total, more than 43,000 single-plant ratings were made (Hunger).
- · Identified 16 WIT experimental lines (plus Doublestop CL+) as resistant to wheat streak mosaic by tests conducted in Nebraska (Hunger).
- · Transformed isolates of Pyrenophora trichri-repentis (causal fungus of tan spot of wheat) to track and compare infection in tan spot susceptible and resistant wheat cultivars (Hunger).
- · Expanded the OSU wheat germplasm base by continuing to import and hybridize with experimental lines from Hungary, Romania and Turkey (Hunger, Carver).
- · Produced agronomically desirable experimental lines with moderate to high tolerance to bird cherry-oat feeding during seeding growth. End-use quality has not yet been fully characterized (Giles, Zarrabi, Carver).
WIT is now 21 years in operation and one of the longest-running research teams serving in any capacity at OSU. Faculty from three DASNR academic units form a complete team that combines fundamental and applied components of wheat research to propel a common cause: to advance Oklahoma's wheat industry with development of improved cultivars and dissemination of the knowledge that best captures their genetic potential.
WT'slatestcommercialproduct,OK Corral,will fill a widening gap in wheat genetics intended for graze-out and wheat-for-hay acres. The challenge was not in producing a forage-type cultivar suited for those uses, but instead to produce a complete cultivar with the requisite forage capacity and grainproducing capacity with quality. OK Corral fits that bill by having these noted
WIT was delighted to welcome two new members in 2019; Misha Mauchheri , weed management and wheat herbicide tolerance ; and Amanda de Oliveira Silva , wheat information exchange and physiology (with emphasis on maximizing protein yield).
Recurring research projects in wheat response to diseases and insects, development of improved molecular tools to optimize breeding efficiencies, better understanding of nitrogen responsiveness and cultivar development are common themes of WIT's output. These must continue to sustain or build upon the advances made thus far. However, each year, WIT breaks new ground on several research fronts and uses this report to highlight exciting new discoveries that lay the foundation for future success.
Just a few of the advances reported here are:
- · confirmation of useful levels of wheat streak mosaic resistance in high yielding and functionally appealing genetic backgrounds,
- · identification of BCOA tolerance at a yield level suitable for commercialization,
- · emergence of new greenbug, leaf rust and powdery mildew resistance genes with their ancillary markers, and
- · discovery and cloning of the gene responsible for Duster's Hessian fly resistance.
Locally adapted germplasm with wheat streak mosaic or barley yellow dwarf resistance has finally reached the level of commercial readiness. All that lies ahead is to identify the best choices for deployment in Oklahoma. These decisions are on the release pocket for early 2020, including a realistic hard
red winter alternative to spring wheat in late-planting situations and a new Clearfield ® wheat.
WIT also has expanded its reach to more effectively serve wheat producers in far western Oklahoma, now in its eighth year of executing a smaller but highly targeted cultivar development program at Goodwell as a part of the larger conventional breeding program. A typical breeding cycle, without doubled haploids, requires about nine to 12 years, so this part of the WIT pipeline will soon be accessible to seed producers in the High Plains.
In addition to advances in research, almost all WIT members engage with the agricultural community directly to enable wheat growers to make timely, effective management decisions.
## Wheat Pathology Research and Development of DiseaseResistant Germplasm
## Bob Hunger
Entomology and Plant Pathology
Evaluating wheat lines for multiple disease reactions is critical to developing improved wheat cultivars. More than 100 diseases of wheat are caused by a variety of organisms including fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes. The key diseases addressed by WIT include the wheat soil-borne mosaic/wheat spindle streak mosaic(WSBM/WSSM) complex, leaf rust, stripe rust, powdery mildew; leaf spotting diseases such as tan spot, Septoria tritici blotch and spot blotch; mite-transmitted virus diseases such as wheat streak mosaic (WSM); and aphid-transmitted virus
diseases such as barley yellow dwarf (BYD). Not all of these diseases can be evaluated every year in Oklahoma due to lack of disease pressure in the field or ineffective methods to provide consistent and reliable results. Hence, WIT has focused its efforts on a combination of field and greenhouse tests to characterize breeding lines for reaction to the WSBM/WSSM complex, leaf rust, powdery mildew, tan spot and the aphid / BYD complex, while relying on external evaluations for information related to diseases such as stripe rust and WSM.
| | Diseasea | Diseasea | Diseasea | Diseasea | Diseasea | Diseasea | Diseasea | |
|-------|---------------------------------|------------|------------|------------|------------|------------|------------|-----|
| Year | Testing location | WSBM/WSSM | LR | YR | PM | TS | STB | BYD |
| 2010 | Field | 1,500 | 400 | 400 | 400 | 400 | 400 | |
| 2011 | Field | 1,400 | 324 | 67 | 262 | 262 | | |
| 2012 | Field | 1,030 | 427 | 65 | 170 | 105 | | |
| 2013 | Field | 2,410 | 347 | 197 | 95 | 277 | | |
| 2014 | Field | 1,700 | 347 | 150 | 277 | 705 | | |
| 2015 | Field | 1,500 | 466 | 141 | 411 | 75 | 160 | |
| 2016 | Field | 1,421 | 385 | 115 | 385 | 145 | 145 | |
| 2017 | Field | 1,523 | 385 | 385 | | | | |
| 2018 | Field | 1,800 | 331 | 331 | 331 | 331 | | |
| 2019 | Field | 2,136 | 465 | 465 | 465 | 465 | | |
| Total | Field & greenhouse evaluations | 805 | 505 | 505 | | | | |
## Building a disease package for
Oklahoma wheat cultivars
Table 1 summarizes the number of lines evaluated for reaction to eight diseases during the last 10 years. Table 2 provides a historical perspective of disease screening that occurred from 1983 through 2019. As indicated in these tables, evaluation of breeder lines for disease resistance involves both field and greenhouse testing. Field testing under naturally high disease pressure is ideal, but greenhouse testing allows for testing large numbers of lines in a shorter time period with minimal bias of
| | Year evaluations | Year evaluations | Evaluation | Evaluation | Number of lines evaluated |
|----------------------------|--------------------|--------------------|--------------|--------------|-----------------------------|
| Disease | started | location a | evaluated | | |
| WSBM/WSSM b | 1983 | GH | 500 | | |
| Leaf rust | 1983 | GH - seedling | 38,014 | | |
| Leaf rust | 2017 | GH - adult plant | 22,496 | | |
| Leaf rust | 1983 | Field | 3470 | | |
| Powdery mildew | 2000 | GH | 5,230 | | |
| Powdery mildew | 2011 | Field | 3,615 | | |
| Tan spot | 2003 | GH | 1,630 | | |
| Tan spot | 2014 | Field | 45 | | |
| Septoria tritici blotch | 2004 | GH | 1,200 | | |
| Septoria tritici blotch | 2014 | Field | 215 | | |
| Barley yellow dwarf | 2011 | Field | 505 | | |
| Stot blott/common root rot | 2014 | GH | 25 | | |
| Total | 1983-2018 | GH | 31,257 | | |
| Total | Field | GH + field | 43,886 | | |
GH=greenhouse
WSBM/WSSM = complex of wheat soil-borne and wheat spindle streak mosaic.
competing diseases. Greenhouse testing total of 43,806 plant ratings made in also provides results if the disease is the greenhouse. These ratings were lacking in the field. Often, greenhouse combining with field ratings from testing identifies susceptible lines to remove from the pipeline, with lines line advancement toward cultivar identified as resistant subsequently tested in the field for confirmation. Hence, greenhouse testing typically is conducted on many or all of the breeder nurseries (23 were tested in 2019 for a total of 805 lines), whereas evaluation in field nurseries is directed more at the diseases occurring at a high severity in a given year.
In 2019, funding provided by the Oklahoma Wheat Research Foundation (OWRF) directly supported seedling and adult plant evaluations in the greenhouse for leaf rust (505 lines; 10,780 single-plant ratings), powdery mildew (505 lines; 11,858 single-plant ratings) and tan spot (505 lines; 21,168 single-plant ratings) for a combined
of both diseases. The nursery was planted in mid to late September 2018 to enhance the opportunity of infestation with aphids carrying the BYD virus. To enhance incidence and severity of powdery mildew, the nursery was fertilized with 100% of the amount of nitrogen recommended from a soil test, as well as 50% of that amount again
applied in late winter. This was done because high nitrogen favors powdery mildew.
In 2019, powdery mildew and aphids/BYD were lacking around Stillwater and the state. Hence, no powdery mildew or BYD field ratings were possible; however, greenhouse testing for reaction to powdery mildew provided information on both the reaction of seedlings as well as adult plants for many of the OSU breeder lines under observation (see next section on powdery mildew). Moving forward, BYD field ratings are anticipated, given the history of BYD incidence in the Stillwater area. These field ratings will be needed to validate genotypic predictions of novel sources of BYD resistance emerging from the variety development pipeline (see Carver report).
## Post-vernalization greenhouse tests for adult plant reactions to leaf rust and powdery mildew
The combination of seedling ratings with adult plant resistance (APR)
| | Seedling rating a (greenhouse) | Adult plant rating a (greenhouse) | Adult plant field rating b |
|-----------------------|-----------------------------------|--------------------------------------|-------------------------------|
| Deliver (APR control) | S | MR | R |
| TAM 110 (S control) | S | S | S |
| Chisolm | S | S | S |
| Duster | MR | R | R |
| Gallagher | MR | R | R |
| Smith's Gold | S | MS | MR |
| Bentley | S | I | MS |
| Lonerider | S | MR | I |
| Joe | MR | R | R |
| Entry Seedling ratinga | Adult plant rating a (post-vernalization) |
|-------------------------------|---------------------------------------------|
| Bentley MR | R |
| OK09915C-1 (Doublestop CL+) R | R |
| OK12912C-138407-2 R | R |
| OK149132C MR | MR |
| OK128084C R | MR |
| OK09922C-1-14RH-3C19 | R |
| OK149072C-17HR-1 I MS | MS |
| OK149072C-17HR-2 | I |
| OK15932C-17HR-1 R | R |
| OK15927C-17HR-1 | MR |
| OK15919C-17HR-2 R | R |
| OK15919C-17HR-4 R | R |
| OK15928C-17HR-2 R | MR |
| OK15928C-17HR-3 R | I |
| OK15924C-17HR-2 R | R |
| OK15924C-17HR-3 R | R |
| OK15922C-17HR-2 R | R |
| OK15909C-17HR-4 R | R |
| OK15909C-17HR-5 R | MR |
| OK16903C-17HR-1 R | MR |
| OK16906C-17HR-2 R | MR |
| OK16907C-17HR-3 I | R |
| OK16908WC-17HR-1 R | R |
| OK188402C R | R |
| OK188403C R | MR |
| OK188405C S | I |
| OK188407C R | MR |
| OK188410C R | R |
| OK188413C R | R |
| OK188417C MS | S |
| OK188420C R | R |
| OK188421C MS | S |
| OK188422C I | MS |
| OK188423C R | R |
| OK188425C | R |
. S = susceptible; MS = moderately susceptible; I = intermediate; MR = moderately resistant; R = resistant; Seg = segregating for reaction.
## Leaf spotting diseases and WSM
Repetated attempts to establish a field nursery to evaluate reactions to the leaf spotting diseases tan spot and Septoria tritici blotch have not been successful. However, testing of seedlings in the greenhouse for reaction to tan spot has
been reliable and consistent. Hence, future efforts are planned to expand tan spot testing to include adult plant tests, as has been done successfully for leaf rust and powdery mildew. An experimental Septoria greenhouse assay in the seedling stage also will be pursued.
Wheat streak mosaic testing is conducted in western Nebraska in cooperation with Dr. Gary Hein, University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Hein established a field trial similar to WIT's test for reaction to the WSBm/WSSM complex. In his test, wheat is planted in the summer and grows much as volunteer wheat would in a typical field after a hailstorm. Wheat to be tested is then planted in the fall into this volunteer wheat, which by then is heavily infested with the wheat curl mite and the Wheat streak mosaic virus. (Figure 1). When symptoms occur in the spring, visual ratings are taken on a scale of 0 to 3 (0 = resistant/no symptoms and 3 = susceptible/severe symptoms) and a Soil Plant Analysis Development (SPAID) meter is used to take readings that indicate the amount of leaf greenness. With SPAD values, the higher the value, the greener the leaf. Since WSM causes severe yellowing and tissue death, SPAD readings from susceptible plants will be lower because leaves are less green. Twenty OSU wheat lines (19 experimental lines and Doublestop CL+) were tested in 2018-19. Sixteen of those lines and Doublestop CL+ were identified as being as or more resistant than the resistant check cultivar Mace (Table 5). This testing has allowed WIT to rapidly move toward release of a WSM-resistant cultivar
adapted to Oklahoma. The most likely candidate for release consideration is OK168512 (see Carver's report).
## Investigations into the wheat
## tan spot pathosystem
Tan spot, caused by the fungus Pyrenophora trtitici-repentis (PTR), primarily affects wheat plants by the production of toxins named ToxA, ToxB and ToxC. ToxA induces necrosis or tissue death, whereas ToxB and ToxC induce chlorosis or tissue yellowing (Figure 2). Research during 201819 revealed that PTR race 1, which produces ToxA , is the most common race in Oklahoma and that 95% of Oklamoma PTR isolates carry the gene to produce ToxA . No isolates were identified to carry the gene to produce ToxB and the tools to diagnose ToxC have not been sufficiently developed to investigate this toxin.
Since PTR ToxA is a major pathogenicity factor, isolates containing and lacking the ToxA gene were selected and transformed to express green fluorescence in order to compare the infection and colonization process on susceptible versus resistant wheat differentials. Two isolates containing the ToxA gene and two isolates lacking the ToxA gene were transformed using Agrobacterium -mediated transformation. Using these transformed isolates, the
| Entry (reaction by UNL) | SPAD a reading (leaf greenness) | Visual rating (0-3) b |
|---------------------------------|------------------------------------|--------------------------|
| Mace (R)b | 44.9 | 0.5 |
| Tomahawk (S) | 39.5 | 1.9 |
| Doublestop CL+ (MR) | 41.9 | 1 |
| Doublestop CL+ reselection (MR) | 44.2 | 1 |
| OK168512 (MR) | 45.1 | 1 |
| OK168517 (MR) | 42.7 | 1 |
| OK16107125 (R) | 44.1 | 0.5 |
| OK16107055 (R) | 43.8 | 0 |
| OK12222 (R) | 42.6 | 0.5 |
| OK16107028 (S) | 41.6 | 3 |
| OK16107109 (S) | 40.6 | 2 |
| OK16107112 (S) | 40.6 | 2.5 |
a SPAD reading indicates leaf greenness and overall canopy hygiene. Higher values indicate better hygiene. Symptoms of WSM cause yellowing and necrosis (tissue death), so lower SPAD values indicate more pronounced WSM symptoms.
b Higher visual ratings indicate increasing susceptibility to WSM.
infection process was compared on a tan spot susceptible variety (Glenlea; Figure 3) and a tan spot resistant variety (Salamouni; Figure 4). Symptoms were scored at three, five and seven days post inoculation (DPI) and fungal infection was observed directly using epifluorescence microscopy. On the susceptible cultivar Glenlea, necrosis was first observed at three DPI and continued to expand on the leaf tissue through the epidermal and mesophyll cells (Figure 3). On the resistant cultivar Salamouni, the fungus penetrated the leaf tissue as indicated by the green
## fluorescence, but at five DPI, the plant started to produce a hypersensitive response (cell death) that prevented the fungus from spreading to other parts of the plant (Figure 4). These results are preliminary and will continue to be pursued to define the mechanism(s) of resistance to tan spot.
## Novel wheat germplasm imported from European countries
Nor el wheat germplasm was exchanged once again in 2019 with the national wheat breeding programs in Hungary, Romania and Turkey. This
germplasm was used to hybridize with lines adapted to Oklahoma for the purpose of introgressing novel and useful traits into the OSU wheat gene pool. Expanding the OSU wheat gene pool in this manner is a constant goal.
## Related activities not directly funded by OWRF
The 2019 Oklahoma wheat crop was tested (20 samples from 10 counties) for the presence of Karnal bunt. Results from this testing were used to certify that Oklahoma wheat was produced in areas not known to be infested with Karnal bunt, which allows Oklahoma wheat to move freely into the export market. The area used to evaluate foliar fungicides in 2019 was flooded twicein late May and early June-and that flooding combined with strong winds resulted in extensive lodging before plants matured. Because of that lodging and driftwood deposited in the trial, the trial was abandoned and not harvested. Electronic updates on the status of wheat diseases were provided to wheat producers, Extension educators and Personnel in the wheat industry.
## Pest Resistance Discovery and Introgression
Xiangyang Xu USDA-ARS
## Wheat, peanut and other field crops research unit
This part of the WIT report is dedicated to using multiple tools from several disciplines, including wheat pathology and entomology, molecular
genetics and wheat pre-breeding to diversify and fortify the germplasm base on which WIT's development pipeline depends. Gene introgression is a highly worthy, but time-consuming process that often involves multiple steps to reach a commercial product. A research project may be mentioned here but go unmentioned in a subsequent Partners in Progress report, as gene introgression plays out over several breeding cycles. Every attempt will be made to connect work reported here to past Partners in Progress reports.
## Genetics behind greenbug resistance
Greenbug is a worldwide insect pest that poses a serious threat to wheat production, and resistance sources are needed for wheat improvement. Thanks to the support of OWRF, a greenbug-resistant line PI 595379-1 was identified and reported in Partners in Progress, 2018 . As a follow-up in 2019, WIT tested the response of PI 5953791 to a set of economically important greenbug biotypes and found that PI 595379-1 confers a wide spectrum of resistance to greenbug biotypes B, C, E, H, I and FL (Table 6). Genetic analysis was conducted for the response to greenbug biotype E, a biotype common to Oklahoma, in an F$\_{2,3}$ population derived from the cross PI 595379 x PI 243735. A single gene, herein designated Gb8 , conferred resistance to biotype E. Linkage analysis placed Gb8 in a 2.7-Mb interval in the terminal bin of chromosome 7DL (7DL3-0821.0), spanning 595.6 to 598.3 Mb in the Chinese Spring reference sequence (IWGSC RefSeq v1.0) (Figure 5). Gb8 cosegregated with a newly developed SSR marker Xstars508 , positioned at 596.4 Mb in the reference sequence. Allelism
| Biotype | PI 595379-1 | Largo | CI 17959 | W7984 | Custer |
|-----------|---------------|---------|------------|---------|----------|
| B | | | | | |
| C | R | S | S | S | S |
| E | R | R | R | R | S |
| F | S | S | S | S | S |
| H | R | R | S | S | S |
| I | R | R | R | R | S |
| FL | R | S | S | S | S |
tests showed that Gb8 was different from three permanently named genes on the same chromosome arm and the estimated genetic distance between Gb8 and Gb3 was 15.35 ± 1.35 cm.
PI 595379-1 is a reselection of PI 595379 (KS95WGRC33) that is phenotypically similar to wheat cultivar TAM107.Except for greenbug resistance, no obvious difference was observed in other traits between PI 595379 and PI 595379-1. Therefore, Gb8 can be directly used in wheat improvement programs using linked molecular markers as tags to the resistance allele, such as Xstars505 , Xstars506 , Xstars508 and Xstars511 . WIT initiated a project aimed at transferring Gb8 into WIT breeding lines OK16D101089, OK16107131 and OK161607155 , which carry Hessian fly resistance from Duster and BYD resistance gene Bdv2/3. PI 595379 also carries genes conferring resistance to leaf rust ( Lr41 ), Septoria tritici blotch , glume blotch, Stagonospora nodorum blotch, tan spot and wheat curl mite, so it is expected that PI 595379-1 also carries these genes. Successful characterization of these genes in PI 595379-1 will make it feasible to simultaneously transfer multiple biotic stress resistance genes from this source to elite Oklahomaadapted cultivars.
Another greenbug resistance gene, Gb5 , was originally identified in older accessions CI 17883, CI 17884 (TA 3516 ) and CI 17885 (pedigree: CI 15092 /T. speletoides / Fletcher/3 5*Centurk), and it confers resistance to greenbug biotypes C, E, I, K, TX5 and TX7. Gb5 was located to an alien chromosomal segment transferred from Triticum speltoides chromosome PS 7S to wheat chromosome 7A. This chromosome translocation consists of the complete long arm of speltoides chromosome 7S, most of the short arm of 7S and the terminal region of the short arm of wheat chromosome 7A. Lukaszewski et al. (2000) transferred the alien chromosome segment to spring wheat cultivar Pavon F76 and used recombination induced by the pH1b mutation to reduce the length of the alien chromosomal segment, leading to the development of the breeding line PI630919 (UCRBBW9-8) containing a shorter interstitial translocation carrying Gb5 .
To determine the location of Gb5 , Pavon F76, PI 603919 and TA3516 were genotyped using a set of SSR markers newly developed by Wt. PI 603919 is a near-isogenic line of Pavon F76, and TA3516 carried the original translocation segment. The
Figure 5. Linkage (left) and physical (right) map of Gb8 . Marker names are shown at the right of the linkage map and the left of the physical map. Genetic distances in CM are given on the left of the linkage map and the physical positions of some markers on the Chinese Spring reference assembly (IWGSC RefSeq v1.0) are provided to the right of the physical map.
genotyping results indicated that the T. speltoides chromosome segment in PI 603919 is approximately 73 Mb, spanning from 655 to 728 Mb in the Chinese Spring reference sequence. As reported in Partners in Progress , 2018, WIT genotyped a recombinant inbred (RIL) population derived from the cross TA3516 × Bainong418 and identified a large set of single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers between bread wheat chromosome 7AL and T. speltoides chromosome 7SL . Given that the T. speltoides chromosome segment in PI 603919 carries Gb5 , four genotyping by sequencing (GBS) markers in the target region were selected and successfully converted to PCR-based, high-throughput Kcompetitive Allele Specific PCR (KASP) markers. These
## New resistance genes for powdery mildew and leaf rust
In addition to the phenotyping work discussed in Hunger's report, a high breeding priority is to identify novel powdery mildew resistance genes that can be readily used either alone or complexed with known resistance genes. An F$\_{2}$ population and 227 F$\_{233}$ families derived from the cross Xinmai 208 × Stardust were generated to map a powdery mildew resistance gene Xinmai 208, a high-yielding Chinese wheat cultivar. Genetic analysis indicated that Xinmai 208 carried a
single dominant powdery mildew resistance gene, designated herein Pm65 . Linkage analysis delimited Pm65 to a 0.5 cM interval covering 531.8 Kb (763,289,667-763,821,463 bp) on chromosome 2AL in the Chinese Spring reference sequence (Figure 7). An allislemst indicated that Pm65 is a new gene about 10.3 cM distal to the Pm4 locus. Pm65 was 0.3 cM proximal to Xstars355 and 0.2 cM distal to Xstars356. It conferred near immunity to 19 of 20 Bgt isolates collected from
different wheat-growing regions of the U.S. (Table 7). Coming from a highyield potential cultivar, Pm65 can be directly used to enhance powdery mildew resistance in wheat. The newly developed SSR markers Xstars355 and Xstars356 have the potential to tag Pm65 for line selection, which will prove useful as 108 F$\_{3}$$\_{·}$$\_{5}$ experimental lines featuring Pm65 introgressed into a
Stardust background and were planted in fall 2019 at Stillwater. Mb Xgdm93 Xgdm93 Xstar347 Xhbg327 Xstar348 XtaAetPR5 Xstar355 Xstar356 Xstar362 Xstar362 Xbarc122 XxBarc122 Xxrstars348 XrEsPm4 XxtaAetPR5 Xxrstars374 Xpms6 Xstar356 Xstar362 Xstar362 Xstar377 Xstar377 Xstar377 Xstar377 Xxrstars377 Xstar377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 Xxrstars377 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As with powdery mildew resistance genes, most leaf rust resistance genes have lost effectiveness in the Great Plains of the U.S. because of the abundant variation in Puccinia triticina Erikss. (Pt) populations. Identification of novel leaf rust resistance genes is imperative for sustainable wheat production. To characterize the leaf rust resistance gene in Iranian landrace PI 622111, an F$\_{2}$ population and 175 F$\_{2}$ lines derived from PI 622111 × Yuyuan 3 were evaluated for seedling responses to Pt race Pt52-2 (MIPSD). The χ $^{2}$tests indicated a single gene segregated in the F$\_{2}$ and F$\_{3}$ populations (χ $^{2}$$\_{3}$1 = 1.15,
df = 1, p = 0.28; χ $^{2}$= 2.39, df = 2, p = 0.30). Based on F$\_{2}$$\_{,}$$\_{3}$$\_{phenotypic data,}$ 12 F$\_{2}$ plants showing homozygous resistance and 12 F$\_{2}$ plants exhibiting homozygous susceptibility were sequenced to develop GBS markers, leading to the identification of locus S5B\_9219863 , positioned at 9,219,863 bp on the short arm of chromosome 5B in the Chinese Spring reference sequence. All resistant or susceptible plants carried the nucleotide 'A' or 'G', respectively, representing different alleles at the S5B\_9219863 locus.
Thus, the leaf rust resistance gene in PI 622111 is close to S5B\_9219863 .
| Bqt isolate | State | Region | Jaqalene | CI 14123 | Ronos | Xinmai 208 |
|---------------|----------------|--------------|------------|------------|---------|--------------|
| GAP-A-2-3 | Georgia | Southeast | S$^{*}$ | S | R | R |
| GAP-B-2-2 | Georgia | Southeast | S | S | R | R |
| MSG-A-3-1 | Mississippi | Southeast | S | R | R | R |
| MSG-C-3-4 | Mississippi | Southeast | S | S | I | R |
| NCC-B-1-3 | North Carolina | Mid-Atlantic | S | S | R | R |
| NCF-D-1-1 | North Carolina | Mid-Atlantic | S | R | I | R |
| MIR(14)-D-3-3 | Michigan | Great Lakes | S | R | R | R |
| MIR(14)-E-1-3 | Michigan | Great Lakes | S | R | R | R |
| NYA-E-3-3 | New York | Great Lakes | S | S | R | R |
| NYB-E-1-2 | New York | Great Lakes | S | S | R | S |
| PAF(14)-D-1-2 | Pennsylvania | Great Lakes | S | S | R | R |
| PAF-E-2-2 | Pennsylvania | Great Lakes | S | R | R | R |
| MTG1-1a | Montana | Northwest | S | R | R | R |
| MTG1-3a | Montana | Northwest | S | R | R | R |
| NEI 1-3 | Nebraska | Great Plains | S | R | R | R |
| NEI 3-1 | Nebraska | Great Plains | S | R | R | R |
| NEI 5-5 | Nebraska | Great Plains | S | S | R | R |
| OKH-A-2-3 | Oklahoma | Great Plains | S | R | R | R |
| OKS-A-2-2 | Oklahoma | Great Plains | S | S | R | R |
| OKS-B-2-2 | Oklahoma | Great Plains | S | R | R | R |
A total of 1,445 SSR loci was identified in the terminal region (0-13.5 Mb) of chromosome 5BS, and 48 of them were chosen to develop SSR markers. Linkage analysis delimited the leaf rust resistance gene in PI 622111, designated Lr622111 , to an interval of 1.1 Mb linked by Xstars669 (6.5 Mb) and Xstars678 (7.6 Mb) (Figure 8). Lr622111 was 0.5 cm proximal to Xstars669 and 6.1 cm distal to Xstars678 . Lr622111 is a new gene differing from Lr52, a leaf rust resistance gene located also on 5BS, response to Pt races. Lr62211 will be used to enhance leaf rust resistance in WIT germplasm.
## BCOA Resistance
into laboratory colonies to maintain wild-type virulence; 2) a laboratory phenotyping assay was once again validated by confirming susceptibility of previously screened entries tested in the 2019 OET2 and OET3 nurseries; and most importantly, 3) tolerance to BCOA feeding was validated among experimental lines developed within this project and simultaneous to field testing in breeding trials across Oklahoma. Twenty-two of those entries were classified as moderately tolerant to highly tolerant (Table 8). Five entries are undergoing further field testing in small plots (infested vs. non-infected) to demonstrate the yield benefits of seedling tolerance.
| Experimental line Score (1-5) | Experimental line Score (1-5) | Classification |
|---------------------------------|---------------------------------|---------------------|
| OK19105021 | 2.3 | highly tolerant |
| OK19105023 | 2.5 | highly tolerant |
| OK19105100 | 2.5 | highly tolerant |
| OK19105010 | 2.6 | tolerant |
| OK1980035 | 2.6 | tolerant |
| OK19105055 | 2.6 | tolerant |
| OK19105120 | 2.7 | tolerant |
| OK19105115 | 3 | tolerant |
| OK19105122 | 3 | tolerant |
| OK19105126 | 3 | tolerant |
| OK19105004 | 3.1 | tolerant |
| OK19105110 | 3.1 | moderately tolerant |
| OK19105001 | 3.2 | moderately tolerant |
| OK19105134 | 3.3 | moderately tolerant |
| OK19105139 | 3.3 | moderately tolerant |
| OK19105038 | 3.4 | moderately tolerant |
| OK19105059 | 3.5 | moderately tolerant |
| OK19105050 | 3.6 | moderately tolerant |
| OK19105060 | 3.6 | moderately tolerant |
| OK1980063 | 3.6 | moderately tolerant |
| OK19105111 | 3.6 | moderately tolerant |
| OK19105130 | 3.6 | moderately tolerant |
| OK16D101089 (check) | 3.5 | moderately tolerant |
Gene Discovery, Transformation and Genomic Applications
## Liuling Yan Plant and Soil Sciences
Functional validation of the candidate gene for TaHf-A1 for Hessian fly resistance in Duster
Hessian fly (HF) is one of the most destructive pests of U.S. wheat, and the Great Plains (GP) biotype is the most prevalent in the southern Great Plains. In previous work of this laboratory, WIT reported that only three candidate genes remained to be identified in the targeted 169 Kb region of TaHf-A1 , the locus discovered by this group as the genetic key to unlocking HF resistance in Duster. The TaHf-A1 locus on the short arm of chromosome 1A contains a unique gene that coners stable resistance against biotype GP.
In 2019, TaHf-A1 was cloned in this laboratory, marking the first wheat gene to be cloned for insect resistance. More than 35 genes for Hessian fly resistance have been reported in wheat, but none of them has been cloned. No gene has been cloned for any resistance against other insects, including greenbug, Russian wheat aphid and wheat curl mite.
Transgenic experiments were performed in 2019 to validate candidate gene TaRG4 for TaHf-A1. Over-expression of TaRG4 in susceptible cultivar Jagger was sufficient to provide resistance to biotype GP in two individual transgenic T$\_{0}$ plants. Furthermore, the TaRG4 protein provided a positive bait to identify effectors or avirulent proteins from HF biotype GP. Experiments on T$\_{1}$ populations derived from self-pollinated
T$\_{0}$ plants are currently in progress to further validate the function of TaHf-A1 at a level that qualifies for publication.
Long before the TaHf-A1 sequence is published in 2020, molecular markers will have been developed to accelerate deployment of this gene in the WIT and other wheat breeding programs. A preliminary but diagnostic polymerase chain reaction, or PCR, marker was developed and tested among five Oklahoma elite cultivars. Both Gallagher and Iba have Duster in their pedigree, but they differ in that Gallagher inherited the resistance allele from Duster, while Iba did not (Figure 9A). The Duster resistance allele was not effectively selected (by the breeder) during line development. The PCR products were digested with restriction enzyme ClaI to show polymorphic band patterns for the resistance allele and the susceptibility allele.
To more effectively and efficiently select the Duster resistance allele in current and future breeding materials, a Kompetitive Allele SpecificPCR (KASP) marker for the Duster resistance allele is preferred (Figure 9B). The FAM TM axis shows the Duster allele in blue and the HEX TM axis shows the Billings allele in green, whereas the non-template control is indicated in black. FAM and HEX are trademarked names of dyes used in the assay and more broadly in DNA sequencing. This KASP assay can be used to accurately distinguish between the Duster resistance allele and the susceptible allele in Billings and many other cultivars to serve as a highthroughput screening platform. This will be critical in further proliferation of the Duster HF resistance trait throughout the WIT development pipeline. While 13 of 31 experimental lines in the most advanced breeding nursery (OET3) in
2019-20 are positive carriers of Dusterderived HF resistance, this frequency could be and should be much higher if marker-based selection was initiated earlier in the line development process. Otherwise, hundreds of experimental lines are chosen to enter the line-testing phase sight unseen for HF resistance. This luck-of-the-draw strategy will soon change due to more sophisticated selection strategies outlined here and in Xu's report.
## Development and deployment of KASP markers for QYld.osu-1BS
Another favorable gene discovered in Duster is QYld.osu-1B , which actually is a very large quantitative trait locus (QTL) on the short arm of chromosome 1B, that was found to increase grain yield 20% to 25% compared with the same genetic locus in Billings, another OSU cultivar with high yield potential conferred by other yield genes. Previously, this laboratory located QYld.osu-1B to an approximate 25 Mb region on chromosome 1BS (short arm) in Duster.
In 2019, the targeted region was "narrowed" to an approximate 18 Mb span, by testing progeny plants of recombinants screened from 6,406 gametes. However, the abnormally low recombination rate in the QYld. osu-1B region has inhibited cloning of the gene responsible for QYld.-osu1B using a conventional positional cloning approach. Positional cloning of the gene in a genomic region with low recombination rate is a difficult task, even though a draft of genomic sequences in wheat is available. Before the gene is cloned, unique sequences identified in the QYld.osu-1BS region can be used as molecular markers for accelerating deployment of the gene for QYld.osu-1BS in WIT breeding populations. Amazingly, none of about 200 hard winter wheat lines from Southern Plains breeding programs carried the same allele at QYld.osu-1B from Duster.
This laboratory has identified four KASP markers corresponding to unique sequences in QYld.osu-1B from Duster that can be used with greater impact
Figure 10. Sequence although different sequences within the complete MNR-B genes from Duster, Billing, Chinese genes of the region Exon and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 11. Sequence along with the differences found between Duter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 12. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 13. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 14. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 15. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 16. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 17. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 18. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 19. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 20. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 21. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 22. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 23. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 24. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 25. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 26. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 27. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 28. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 29. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 30. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 31. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 32. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 33. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 34. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 35. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 36. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 37. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 38. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 39. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 40. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 41. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 42. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 43. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 44. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
Figure 45. Sequence along with the differences found between Diter and other sources available in the WIRC database. The AGT were aligned with a red rectangle. Top and bottom alignments were split arbitrarily
and utility in conventional selection. One example of a unique sequence identified in the QYld.osu-1B region is NMR, short for nitrogen metabolic regulator (TraesCS1B02G037100). In the NMR-B1 gene sequence, Duster was unique compared with orthologous and homoelogous genes in diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid wheat, whereas Billings was 100% identical to Chinese Spring (Figure 10).
The corresponding four highthroughput KASP assays targeting unique sequences in Duster are displayed in Figure 11. KASP-12 was designed for the SNP at 1,253,260 bp,
KASP-17 was designed for the SNP at 10,104,175bp, KASP-8 was designed for the SNP at 18,386,168 bp and KASP-10 was designed for the SNP at 24,163,331 bp. Execution of all four assays ensures the whole genomic region of the Duster allele may be tracked in breeding populations derived from Duster or its progeny known to carry QYld. osu-1BS . With the purported yield benefit of QYld.osu-1BS and no known detriment to end-use quality, these assays provide a platform to introgress a highly valuable piece of Duster's genome into contemporary cultivars.
## Genetic Variation on a Genomewide Scale
Charles Chen Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
Oklahoma is located in a climatically marginal region between the more humid eastern and semi-arid western climates, where drought stress historically led to the emigration of over 59,000 residents at a cost exceeding $1 billion in federal assistance in the 1930s. In 2012, Oklahoma alone lost more than $2 billion in drought-related agricultural damage. As the frequency of extreme climate disasters continues to rise, WIT aims at unraveling both the genetic and regulatory elements responsible for the drought-mediated physiological response and thereby ensuring improved resilience of Oklahoma's winter wheat crop.
## Drought-induced structural changes in the Duster genome
Duster seeds were sown for a greenhouse drought experiment, using 100 plants in 30 pots, equally watered on a regular schedule apart from the treatment period. Water stress was imposed at the boot stage, where water was withheld for six days (drought treatment, DT), while control pots continued with regularly scheduled watering (control, wellwatered treatment, WW). The drought treatment showed a gravimetric loss of approximately 10% and mean relative water content decrease of 15.2% (Figures 12A and 12B). The mean differences between WW and DT plants for rates of photosynthesis and transpiration were indicative of increased levels of
activity in WW as demonstrated by positive values whereas a negative value of instantaneous water use efficiency (IWUE) suggested drought stress (Table 9). Rates of photosynthesis and transpiration reflected 70% and 37 % of untreated (well-watered) plant potential, respectively, which led to an increase of IWUE by 52% in response to drought.
To investigate DNA structural changes in the Duster genome in response to the drought treatment, WIT and colleagues in the OSU biochemistry and molecular biology department developed a protocol to extract nuclei and to cleave the genome regions protected by the condensation of DNA due to applied drought stress. This new technique allows WIT to uncover the drought-induced, differential accessibility of the wheat genome that is directly associated with regulation of gene expression.
As shown in Figure 13A, about 1.5% of the Duster wheat genome was found differentially accessible, represented by 20.32 Mb (1.4%) in WW and 157.17 Mb (1.1%) in DT. With only 10.35 Mb of accessible regions shared between treatments (Figure 13A), highly differential DNA structural changes occurred as a result of environmental stress.
| Measurement | Mean | s.d. |
|---------------|--------|--------|
| Pn | 2.15 | 0.51 |
| Tr | 2.66 | 0.88 |
| IWEE | -1.57 | 1.13 |
Representation across sub-genomes were proportional to their size, with the B and D genomes having the highest and lowest frequencies of accessible regions, respectively (Figure 13B). In WW, accessible regions where higher transcriptional activities can be expected were mostly found in the telomeres, corresponding with increased gene density (Figure 14). Most obvious in the D genome, DT consistently exhibited lower accessibility, indicative of a reduced level of transcriptional activity in the D genome, except for a 500 kb region in the telomere region. Though inaccessible of the Duster genome in response to drought stress was evident genomewide, a number of droughtinduced, accessible genome regions were identified on chromosomes 1B, 4A, 6A and 6B, and in the cromoreme region of chromosomes 5A and 5B ( Figure 14 ).
Compared with the control treatment, accessibility of the droughttreated Duster genome was reduced significantly in the gene body, or genomic regions, comprised of the transcriptional regions of the genome (introns and exons), as well as in the regulatory regions comprised of promoter regions and transcription start and termination sites. All of this suggest a role for DNA structural changes in regulation of transcriptional activity, which is the first main stage of gene expression (Figure 15). Functional interpretation using GO (gene ontology) term enrichment analysis revealed that the differential accessibility of Duster genome under drought stress was significantly associated with thylakoid structures (GO: 0009579, P = 3.47E-24) and photosynthesis (GO:0015979, P value = 2.62E-21) (Table 10).
The enrichment results offer insights on Duster's yielding capacity under water stress, suggesting that regions of the genome remained accessible for transcriptional activities related to chloroplast development and carbon sequestration for carbohydrate synthesis, while repressing other transcriptional activities by genomewide chromatin condensation.
## Nitrogen-use Efficiency at the Genetic Level
## Brian Arnall
## Plant and Soil Sciences
The wheat variety trials allow WIT a good opportunity to see how multiple genetics from all breeding programs react across a wide range of environments. Using the report submitted by Dr. Silva (see page 57), varieties can be easily differentiated in terms of protein production. With more than 50 cultivars tested in 2018-19,
| Gene ontology category | Adjusted p -value |
|--------------------------------|---------------------|
| Thylakoid | 3.47e-24 |
| Thylakoid part | 3.47e-24 |
| Photosynthetic membrane | 5.16e-22 |
| Photosystem | 2.62e-21 |
| Homosystem | 5.15e-21 |
| Macromolecular complex | 8.97e-17 |
| Protein complex | 4.58e-14 |
| Photosystem II | 1.41e-13 |
| Photosystem II reaction center | 2.11e-13 |
| NADH dehydrogenase activity | 2.61e-12 |
two showed consistency in producing relatively high protein values. Green Hammer and Doubleblast Cl+ ranked as the best or not different from the best in 60% of the locations tested. Green Hammer was evaluated at 15 locations, whereas Doublestown was evaluated in 21 locations. The next most consistent variety was LCS Chrome, which produced relatively high protein values in 24% of the 21 locations tested. These results discriminate only on the basis of protein quantity; not protein quality. Doublestop Cl+, Green Hammer and LCS Chrome differ markedly in protein quality, expressed as dough strength or mixing tolerance from high to lower ranking, respectively.
The previous workofevaluatingonly a few candidate cultivars across a range of nitrogen rates was discontinued in 2019. The nitrogen use efficiency work at Tipton, however, was expanded. Instead of testing all intermediate and advanced experimental lines under nitrogen stress and just a few advanced lines under optimum nitrogen, all advanced lines were tested with three rates of nitrogen (extreme stress or 25% optimum, moderate stress at 50% optimum and optimum nitrogen). All lines were still tested at 25% optimum nitrogen.
A strong and positive yield correlation was observed with the addition of nitrogen, averaging 37 (25%), 41 (50%) and 47 (optimum) bushels per acre for the indicated nitrogen treatments for one set of advanced lines and checks. A second set of advanced lines and checks averaged 32 bushels per acre (25%), 36 bushels per acre (50%) and 41 bushels per acre (optimum). Lines that rank in the topyielding group in the optimum nitrogen treatment, yet retain 70% or more of
their potential yield at the 25% nitrogen level, are prioritized for advancement in the breeding program and plausibly represent germplasm with improved nitrogen uptake or utilization capacity, strictly on a yield-performance basis.
Due to the surprising results seen from the delayed nitrogen study that was first reported at the Oklahoma Wheat Growers Association wheat review in August 2018, the study was repeated for a third year at two locations, the Lake Carl Blackwell (LCB) research station near Perry and the Ballagh research farm near Newkirk. Due to excessive rainfall at planting trials were established later than normal. A cool winter and spring delayed stem elongation compared with the first two cropping seasons. Nitrogen applications were initiated before symptom differences could be visually distinguished between the nitrogen-rich strip (pre-plant) and the rest of the field. Similar to the two previous years of this study, the timing of nitrogen application influenced wheat yield and protein. At LCB, the yield increased with a delay of nitrogen application until early March, with yields decreasing below the pre-plant nitrogen treatment when nitrogen was applied in mid-April. At the Ballagh farm, there was no yield benefit from delaying nitrogen after preplant, but there was a steady increase in wheat protein with delayed nitrogen application; again at this location yield decreased when nitrogen application was delayed past mid-April. At both of these locations, crop development in mid-April was past Feekes 7 growth stage. After three cropping seasons with extremely different weather patterns, this work showed that the pre-plant nitrogen application never produced
higher yield than in-season nitrogen applied prior to mid-April or before Feekes 7. In most cases, nitrogen applied in-season produced yields and protein values greater than those of the pre-plant nitrogen treatment. The message from this project is multi-fold:
- 2) There is no reason to rush applying top-dress nitrogen. The application window is much wider than ever expected, and the better the yield and quality will likely be when
3) Make the application of nitrogen when conditions are most conducive to getting the nitrogen into the soil profile to limit losses.
This report was shared on the OSUNPK.com Blog site at https:// osunpk.com/2019/08/14/how-longcan-wheat-wait-for-nitrogen-one-moreyear-of-data/
The future of this project entails a deep dive into how cultivars respond to nitrogen stress. At two locations, five cultivars have been sown with and without nitrogen. These cultivars represent lines that have been identified as high and low NUE cultivars. At critical points during the growing season, tissue samples will be collected to determine nutrient concentrations in different portions of the plant and to better understand how improved NUE is being achieved.
## Wheat Breeding and Variety Development
## Brett Carver
## Plant and Soil Sciences
What is fast becoming the recurring theme year after year, the 2018-19 crop season had little to do with previous seasons. Even more striking, the environmental conditions of 2019 were a polar opposite to those of 2018. Dramatic shifts in growing conditions from one year to the nextenablea wheat breeder to paint with a very broad stroke, that is, expose their breeding material to a wide range of selection pressures that can lead to cultivars with broader adaptation. However, this constant helter-skelter shift in selection pressures wreak havoc on interpretation of yield and quality results in any given year. This is the key rationale in advising producers to make variety choice decisions not on the convenience of single-year results so readily available in the form of this year, but instead on the reliability of trial results from the past three years. It is not known what nature will throw at the wheat crop from one year to the next, but we do know next year will likely not resemble the one just past.
To illustrate the polarity in conditions between 2018 and 2019, Table 11 summarizes the disease pressures most likely to occur in Oklahoma and impact selection decisions in the OSU wheat breeding program. Certainly, there are other diseases to consider, such as Fusarium head blight (head scab) or stem rust, but their frequency is too low to rely on field selection in Oklahoma for resistance. Compare
that lineup with the most influential diseases experienced in 2019 (Table 12). This combination of leaf rust, Septoria tritici blotch and bacterial leaf streak was historic. Never before in this century has such a unique amalgamation of selection pressures wielded its influence on OSU breeding populations. Natural resistance to all three diseases, as expressed in the experimental line OWC04S717-6W, was infrequent because breeding lines and the populations that produced those lines had not been adequately exposed beforehand. In the preceding crop year (2018), the primary influences were season-long drought stress and multiple April freeze events with little, if any, influence by diseases. That is polarity by nature.
| Fungal | Viral | Bacterial |
|-------------------------|---------------------------|--------------------------------------------|
| Leaf rust | Barley yellow dwarf | Bacterial leaf streak |
| Stripe rust | Wheat soil-borne mosic | Powdery mildew Wheat spindle streak mosaic |
| Septoria tritici blotch | Wheat streak mosaic | Triticum mosaic |
| Snapet blotch | Stagonospora glume blotch | |
| Dryland root rot | Wilden 19 crop season | |
| Fungal | Viral | Bacterial |
|-------------------------|-----------------------|-------------|
| Leaf rust | Bacterial leaf streak | |
| Septoria tritici blotch | | |
of 25 to 30 advanced (elite) experimental lines, five to eight contemporary cultivars and the long-term check Chisholm. No fungicide treatment is applied in these trials, with the exception of the Okmulgee site. A plot of the mean of all experimental lines across sites for a given year, adjusted as a percentage of the Chisholm mean, provides a running assessment of genetic progress through time (Figure 16), starting with 1998 OET3 and ending with 2019 OET3.
The use of a long-term check like Chisholm assumes the genetic composition of this variety does not change through time; thus, its response
(e.g., for yield) is strictly a response to changing environmental conditions. Another critical assumption, and one that does not always hold, is Chisholm's response to changing environmental conditionsis no different from the environmental response of the experimental lines to which it is compared.
In Figure 16, genetic gains have been positive as expected (and highly erratic), but one trend is perplexing if not disturbing. The rate of genetic gain, relative to Chisholm, from 1998 to 2016 was 1.4% per year, but tackling on the last three years has dropped the overall gain by one-half to 0.7%. Since 2017,
advanced lines in this trial obviously have not performed as well relative to the long-term check as those lines tested in 2016 and before. A doomsday interpretation of Figure 16 is that genetic progress for yield only is headed in the wrong direction, considering the past three years.
One obvious common factor to the depressed gains in 2017 and 2019 was leaf rust, which was extremely heavy in both years, though other less common diseases factored into 2019 yields. Yields of experimental lines susceptible to leaf rust, Septoria tritici blotch and bacterial leaf streak fared very poorly relative to the susceptible check, Chisholm, even though Chisholm is considered susceptible to leaf rust.
In 2018, the causal factor behind the relative yield decline was likely multiple spring freeze events in April. The April 2018 freeze events are not as concerning as leaf rust to future genetic gains, given this was a temporary combination of weaker freeze tolerance of the germplasm tested in 2018 and unusual freeze pressure.
Experimental lines reacted to the conditions in 2017, 2018 and 2019 no differently from or less favorably than Chisholm did, as if they were not genetically equipped to handle the conditions. The converse argument could be made in 2015 (Figure 16), when stripe rust attacked Chisholm like never before, whereas most elite lines in the OET3 handled the stripe rust epidemic quite well because they were prepared for it (i.e., they were selected for it) following the epidemics of 2010 and 2012.
Thus, the recent downturn in genetic gains since 2017 is considered only temporary, albeit significant. The advanced materials cycling through
the WIT pipeline during this three-year period did not have the advantage of adequate exposure to leaf rust during years leading up to OET3 testing -from 2010 through 2016. WIT has somewhat righthted that ship already, but this correction will take more time. In the meantime, recent cultivar releases have emphasized stronger levels of adult plant resistance to leaf rust, including all-season resistance, when the opportunity presented itself. Recent releases such as Green Hammer and Skydance, and pending releases such as OK16D101089, OK12912C-138407-2 and OK14124-2, represent steps in that direction. Instituting a reliable adult plant assay for leaf rust resistance in greenhouse conditions since 2017 also will reverse the downward trend in Figure 1 (see Hunger's report).
Finally, this downward trend, was programmatically self-inflicted. If the breeder's objective is always to select lines exceeding a certain threshold for grain yield and nothing below it, then gains have a much lower likelihood. However, this is not how the world of wheat breeding turns. The remainder of this report should make clear one emerging practice of WIT that does not necessarily lend itself to incremental gains in the OET3 mean for yield. This practices entails putting the right genetics in the right spot, if only for a limited area, to fill certain gaps of opportunity. Examples may include i) a cultivar with exceptional disease resistance and yielding ability in a certain restricted geographic area, but lacks broad adaptation to inflate the yield mean on a statewide basis, or ii) a cultivar that will yield (and bake)exceptionally well under certain management conditions (e.g., late planted conditions), but
racks adaptation in the conventional management system. These are only two examples, but there are more.
## Filling the opportunity gaps
Other than Spirit Rider (for optimally managed conditions) and Skydance (for organic production), the last seven cultivars released since 2017 were targeted for vast wheat acres in certain regions of the Southern Plains. For example, Lonerider was intended for production in the High Plains of Texas, Oklahoma, Colorado and Kansas, while Showdown has adaptation to an equally expansive region in the central corridor of the Southern Plains. These general utility cultivars could address some specific needs. For example, the high-end dough strength of Baker'sAnn could be used to condition otherwise poor-performing flours in customized flavour blends, but all seven cultivars are known to advance fitnesss of the crop on a broader ecological scale. Nonetheless, the release of a home run hitter may forsake critical needs on smaller acreages with enhanced economic value.
Beardless wheat. OK Corral (OK12206-127206-2), released by ODAES in September 2019, represents a significant breakthrough in yield ability, end-use quality and pest resistance for HRW wheat adapted to the Southern Plains. It just happens to have one distinguishing characteristic: its spikes lack awns. OK Corral has the pedigree
Y98-912/OK0061TW//OK03716W. Extracting information from the pending application for plant variety Protection, Y98-912 was an advanced experimental line developed by the former WestBred soft wheat breeding Program (located in Indiana) and was tested in the 2003 USDA-ARS
Uniform Eastern Soft Red Winter Wheat Nursery. Y98-912 was eventually released as a soft red winter wheat cultivar named W2-912. OK00611W was an advanced experimental hard white line produced by WIT in the early 2000s that traced to a sister headrow selection of OK Bullet. Thus, the pedigree of OK00611W is Jagger/ KS96WGRC39. OK03716W was an advanced hard white experimental line developed by OAEs with the pedigree, N44 / OK94P455. N44 was developed at the Institute of Plant Breeding in Odessa, Ukraine and was introduced in a germplasm exchange with USDAARS in the fall 1994. OK94P455 was developed as an experimental line in the former Pioneer hard winter wheat breeding program and was derived from Pioneer and Kansas State University experimental lines according to the expanded pedigree, W0405D/ KS831957 // W3416/KS831957 .
Altogether, no released wheat cultivar from OSU resembles this pedigree, a distinction that may impact future discovery and characterization of important pest resistance genes in OK Corral. The first gene discovery project, taken up already in Dr. Yan's laboratory, will be focused on its potentially novel Hessian fly resistance, which resembles Duster in phenotype, but confirmed to carry a different resistance gene than Duster.
In lieu of a spot in the 2019 OSU WVTs, OK Corral was extensively tested in the 2019 OE12 breeding nursery (elite lines) statewide. OK Corral averaged 7 bushels per acre superior to Bentley and Gallagher, where its best relative yield performance occurred in central, southwest and the panhandle of Oklahoma (Table 13). OK Corral has a history of wide variability in test
| Grain-only yield | | |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------|
| Dual-purpose yield | | |
| Forage yield | | |
| Test weight | | |
| Leaf rust | | |
| Stripe rust | | |
| Powdery mildew | | |
| WSBM/WSSM complex | | |
| Hesslan fly | | |
| Shattering | | |
| Standability | | |
| Acid soils | | |
| Kernel size | | |
| Protein | | |
| Bread baking | | |
| Below-average or | Average or | Above-average or |
| susceptible | intermediate | resistant |
| Figure 17. Trait comparison chart for OK Corral at time of release (September 2019). | Figure 17. Trait comparison chart for OK Corral at time of release (September 2019). | |
| weight from unacceptable to above | test weight (Table 14). WIT's objective | lowing weight from unacceptable to above |
| and this was the only holdup | for the next beardless candidate cultivar is to exceed the test weight of OK Corral lacks in test weight (about 1.9) | will be favored for final evaluation in 2020. This line will be |
| OK Corral lacks in test weight (about 1.9) | Corral, so on that basis alone, the earlier | is to exceed the test weight of OK |
| bounds per bushel less than Gallagher), | final evaluation in 2020. This line will be | was usually a few |
| grazing tolerance and Hessian fly | named for future reference OK11208E- | in the 2020 OET3, |
| resistance (Figure 17). | 24C19 as it is tested in the 2020 OET3, and the best nine component selections | will be subjected to breeder-seed |
| WT continues to evaluate an second | increase and purification at Stillwater prior to transfer to OFSS in fall 2020. | will be subjected to breeder-seed |
| (Deliver/Santa Fe) with potentially | greater-than-zero-tolerance (between 17 | prior to transfer to OFSS in fall 2020. |
| higher-yielding ability and acceptable | to test weight and end-use quality. Because | will be used for all |
| aggregate for various plant types | with significant differences in the 46-line | Will be used for all |
| when originally formed as an F line | Presence of WSM resistance | throughout the WTF pipeline is at an |
| into three near-isolines, or closely related sibs which differ in one or a few | all-time high. While other sources of | more often |
| genes, varying in maturity date by about | some with unknown origin like the | resistance are widely available, |
| nine days (Figure 18). Interestingly, in | specific gene sources are commonly | used. Wsm1 was originally deployed in |
| statewide grain yield (a decrease of 17 | the USDA-ARS (Lincoln, NE) cultivar | will be used for all |
| bushes per acre in Okmulgee alone), but more importantly, a 3-pound loss in | Intermediate wheatgrass, a species of | will be used for all |
| Heading date | Heading date | Grain yield | Grain yield | Grain yield | Test weight | Test weight |
|----------------|----------------|---------------|--------------------|---------------|---------------|---------------|
| | statewide | Statewide | Okcarch DP$^{a}$/A | Okmulgee | statewide | |
| day of year | | | | bou/A | lb/bu | |
| Gallagher | 124 | 52 | 43 | 80 | 56.7 | |
| OK11208-Early | 121 | 54 | 57 | 84 | 56.3 | |
| OK11208-Medium | 127 | 48 | 59 | 67 | 54.1 | |
| OK11208-Late | 130 | 45 | 56 | 67 | 53.4 | |
| OK Corral | 125 | 60 | 68 | 69 | 54.9 | |
| Trial mean | 123 | 53 | 55 | 70 | 56.1 | |
| LSD (0.05) | -- | 4 | 7 | 9 | 1.8 | |
Thinopyum. Wsm2 was first reported in the Colorado State University experimental line CO960293-2, then first deployed commercially in hard winter wheat cultivars Snowmass and RonL, but its origin remains unknown. Both sources confer virus resistance by temperature-dependent impairment
only confers resistance to WSM. The flip side is germplasm introgressed with Wsm1 shows greater linkage drag, a term commonly used among breeders to indicate the corresponding reduction in yield or quality in a cultivar due to inadvertent introduction of deleterious genes along with the target gene (such as Wsm1) during introgression. Germplasm created at Kansas State University featured a shorter chromosome segment carrying Wsm1 from Thinopyrum and putatively less linkage drag. This germplasm eventually led to the development of adapted, but unimproved, populations at CSU, which were distributed to HRW wheat breeders in the Great Plains. Dozens of WIT experimental lines were produced by WT from those unimproved CSU populations, leading to the elite experimental line and candidate cultivar OK168512 and several sister lines originally reported in Wheat Partners in Progress 2018.
The pedigree of OK168512 can be stated as Overley (+ Wsm1)/Fuller // CO050270/3 /CO050337-8. Overley (+ Wsm1 ) possessed the reduced translocation segment with Wsm1 from Thinopyrum . This parent was produced at KSU and crossed with the HRW cultivar Fuller. The subsequent hybrid was crossed at CSU with CO050270, a CSU experimental line also used to produce the HRW cultivar Langin. Finally, that resulting hybrid was crossed at CSU with CO050337-8, another CSU experimental line and sub-related to the HRW cultivar Denali. The nonselected and F2 seed population from that hybrid was provided to interested wheat breeders. OK168512 was created in 2016 by WIT as a fixed line and tested in replicated breeder nurseries from 2016 to 2019, earning a
spot in the 2019 WWT in the Oklahoma panhandle region where it placed in the top-yielding group among all cultivars (Table 15) and features similar or better characteristics expected of a cultivar lacking WSM resistance (Figure 19).
## Arrival of BYD resistance
Among the last five HRW cultivars released (Showdown, Green Hammer, Baker's Ann, Skydance and OKCorral), all have the common characteristic of lacking a desirable level of BYD tolerance. The primary reason for this weakness is genetics. None of the five cultivars claim Duster as a parent, or
| Entry | Grain yield$^{a}$ (bu/A) | Test weight$^{b}$ (lb/bu) |
|---------------------|----------------------------|-----------------------------|
| OK168512 | 81 | 59.1 |
| Joe Langin | 85 | 58.7 |
| WB-Grainfield | 83 | 57.1 |
| Showdown | 82 | 56.7 |
| Lonerider | 82 | 58.1 |
| Bentley | 81 | 56.8 |
| Iba | 80 | 58.9 |
| SY Monument | 78 | 56.9 |
| TAM 204 | 76 | 53.4 |
| WB4303 | 76 | 53.3 |
| TAM 112 | 75 | 58.4 |
| TAM 114 | 74 | 59 |
| Gallagher | 74 | 56.6 |
| Mean (30 varieties) | 77 | 57.1 |
| LSD (0.05) | 5 | 0.8 |
- · Test sites included Balko, Goodwell (irrigated), Hooker and Keyes. Entries with shaded values are not statistically different from the highest-value entry (among 30 varieties) within a column.
The complete report can be found at http://wheat. oksstate.edu/variety-testing/summary-of-allregions/2018-19-panhandle-region-summary-yield-results
even as a grandparent, and Duster is in seven of the 10 tested replicated WIT's most common source of BYD tolerance. Duster derivatives with better BYD protection than most would be Gallagher, Ibana and Smith's Gold (but not Lonerider). However, even the level of resistance present in those cultivars is not perfect or complete.
A more complete BYD protection package must come with the addition of a unique gene source, that when stacked with the BdVl-conferred resistance from Duster, produces an incrementally higher level of resistance. The second gene for BYD resistance targeted by WT for almost 10 years is called Bdv2/3, transferred from soft red winter wheat germplasm developed by Purdue University. WIT has informally called this two-gene stack BYD2G, now present in the candidate cultivar OK16D101089.
In the 2019 WTVs, OK16D101089 placed in the top statistical yield group
| Chickasha (fung.) | +16 | -2 | 73 |
|---------------------|-------|------|------|
| Atulus | +8 | -4 | -2 |
| Waters | +19 | -4 | -1 |
| Walkers | +1 | -4 | -1 |
| Union City | +10 | -4 | -1 |
| Thomas | +15 | -4 | -1 |
| Lahoma (fung.) | +11 | -4 | -1 |
| Knightier | +19 | -4 | -1 |
| Kingfisher | +2 | -4 | -1 |
| OK16D101089 | +6 | -4 | -1 |
| Bentley | +37 | -4 | -1 |
of the Southern Plains, but poorly adapted to the High Plains (Figure 21). As a footnote, OK16D101089 was not the highest yielding candidate tested in the 2019 OSU WVTs. That status belonged to OK16729W, which edged out all other cultivars when analyzed across the four regional trials (wheat. okstate.edu/variety-testing/summaryoff-all-regions/2018-19-regional-triallocation-summary-yield-results).
## The best of the rest
Three advanced lines round out a release decket designed to fill significant opportunity gaps for 2020. Taking a diametric approach from the Grazein Grain® breeding system, WIT found OK14124-2 well fit for lateplanted conditions (December) with minimal yield drag caused by plantingdelayed maturity. To the contrary, its extreme earliness makes OK14124-2 wellGLYPHGLYPHcreatitiltobelayedplanting. Other OAES 2019 releases to GLYPHt this adaptation window were Green Hammer and Baker's Ann, but in non-replicated strip plots, their
Figure 21. Yield rank value, from 1 (highest yield) to 49 (lowest yield), for OK16D101089 in the 2019 Southern Regional Performance Nursery (SRPN) conducted by USDA-ARS across the entire HRW region of the Great Plains at 26 sites. This nursery contained 49 entries, six of those developed by OSU. The red box indicates the region of best adaptation for OK16D101089 based on higher yield ranks in the 2019 SRPN.
conundrum, becomes how best to launch a variety that end users would stand to benefit immensely but could disrupt their same supply chain if not maintained, at least in part, in an identity preserved production system. Mainly intended for grain production, threshability could be problematic with beardless wheat, but this likely is not the case with OCW04S717T-6W. Indirect evidence, in the form of test weight patterns, provides WIT the best clue for threshability, and thus far, test weight of OCW04S717T-6W has been acceptable to above average.
The USDA-ARS Hard Winter Wheat Quality Laboratory in Manhattan, Kansas provided critical industry relevant data on functionality for all candidate cultivars reported thus far, including the 2019 release OK Corral (Table 17). Their analysis usually is conducted in the spring of each year; thus, the data reported in Table 17 represents the 2018 crop. Consideration of milling and baking quality is not an afterthought to WIT, nor is it an exercise in just squeaking by. Acultivar without class-appropriate quality may fly under the radar of a commodity based marketing system, but through time, this aircraft becomes an albatross to the greater market class. None of the candidates, including OK Corral, fall short of industry standards, and even some such as OK14124-2, OK12912C-138407-2 and OCW04S717T6W have the functionality and physical characteristics to well exceed industry
## Candidate cultivar lineup, 2019-2020
Following the 2019 harvest, and after thorough consideration of all advanced lines under breeder seed increase in 2018-2019, WIT submitted breederseedofournewHRWandHWCidents(forgrow-outandonfarmevaluationbyOkahoufondan Seed Stocks, or OFSS, in 2019-2020. Another 10 candidates previously under Foundation Seed increase in 2018-2019 were carried over to 20192020. Eleven of these candidates are characterized fully in Tables 18 and 19. The first five candidates highlighted in orange were discussed in this report and they await foundation seed production and release approval (if requested). Those in the unshaded area remain under WIT's watch for further yield and quality testing, and for specific performance traits of interest to WIT, while foundation seed production ramps up.
This summary looks unlike the one presented in the 2018 Partners in Progress report. Several candidates favored in 2018 were since terminated due to poor protection against leaf rust in 2019 (OK14P212, OK168513, OK149132C and OK14736W)or lacking the desired level of industry assessed, functional quality (OK1059018 reseln, OK16D101073).
| Number of years of | |
|-------------------------------------------------------------------------|----|
| Sustainability, second flush, no highlight. | |
| First fall of 2019 with Oklahoma Foundation Seed | |
| Highlighted, second flush, no highlight. | |
| Feature traits | |
| Good MSW WSM resistance in BVDY protection; unexperienced; unaffordable | |
| Highlighted, second flush; strength, forage, harvest | |
| Expectational quality with HW/HR/HW (with H-term) | |
| Quality with HW/HR/HW (with H-term) | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
| Highlighted, second flush; straw strength, forage, harvest | |
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Partners in Progress WHEAT
## Improving Oklahoma Wheat Yield and Quality through Weed Management
Misha Manuchehri and Gary Strickland Weed Science
## Weed Management Strategies for Control of Herbicide Resistant Italian Rye Grass
Most Italian ryegrass populations in Oklahoma are resistant to ALS herbicides such as Finesse® Cereal & Fallow and PowerFlex® HL. Recently, ACCase (Axial ® XL) resistant Italian ryegrass populations also have been identified in Oklahoma with the first resistant biotypes being confirmed in Caddo and Grady counties. Due to Axial ® XL resistance, there are little to no postemergence herbicide options; however, there are several products (Axiom ® DF, Anthem ® Flex and Zidua ® ) that can be applied at the delayed preemergence timing, shortly after wheat emergences. When applied at the proper rate and incorporated by rainfall, these products have the potential to control ryegrass 90% to 97% throughout the winter wheat season (Figure 22).
## Use of the Clearfield ® and CoAXium ® Systems to Manage Feral Rye and Rescuegrass
Studies using both Clearfield ® and CoAXium ® herbicide tolerant technologies have been conducted during the last three growing seasons and will continue to be evaluated. Rescuegrass control was the highest following postemergence fall or fall + spring applications of Beyond ® + NIS or MSO (data not shown). Exceptional control was achieved following quizofop-p-ethyl (Aggressor ® -CoAXium ® System herbicide), regardless of application timing or surfactant used (Figure 23). Feral rye control with Aggressor ® was at least 99% in 2018-19 for fall and early spring applications regardless of rye density, herbicide rate or surfactant (Figure 24). However, late spring Aggressor ® applications significantly reduced wheat yield due to crop injury (data not shown) and poorly controlled feral rye (Figure 24). Studies currently are being carried out to further investigate the potential challenge with late spring applications.
To date, the OSU Weed Science Herbicide Resistance Screening Program has screened close to 2,000 suspected herbicide-resistant weed biotypes. From these screenings, three new cases have been documented and posted to weedscience.org, the website for the International Survey
## Wheat Variety Trials
Robert Calhoun, Brett Carver, Jeff Edwards, Branden Watson and Christopher Gillespie Plant and Soil Sciences
## Bob Hunger
## Entomology and Plant Pathology
According to the August 2019 USDA crop report, Oklahoma wheat production was estimated to be approximately 110 million bushels, which is about 57% greater than 2018 production (Table 20) and 12% greater than 2017 production. The increase in total grain production is the result of 250,000 more harvested acres than in 2018 and much greater yield per acre. The 4.3 million acres planted in the 2019 crop year was a 2% decrease compared to the previous year, and was 16% lower than the previous 10-year average. The number of harvested acres was estimated at 2.75 million, which is 10% greater than in 2018 (Table 20). The statewide average yield was projected at 40 bushels per acre, which would be a new record. This is 12 bushels per acre (43%) greater than the 2018 state average and 11.5 bushels per acre (40%) greater than the previous 10-year average.
| Table 20. Oklahoma wheat production for 2018 and 2019 as estimated by USDA NASS, August 2019. | |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------|
| Harvested acres | 2.5 million |
| Yield (bu/ac) | 28 |
| Total bushels | 70 million |
The 2018-2019wheatgrowingseason was challenging from establishment through grain fill, but the end result was a harvest that exceeded expectations for most producers. Dual-purpose wheat producers in most areas of the state benefited from a full profile of moisture in early September and favorable conditions for wheat growth. Wheat forage production was well above average, with some varieties producing more than 2 tons of forage per acre by mid-December (see CR-2141, "Fall forage production and first hollow stem date for small grain varieties during the 2018-2019 crop year" for more information).
The same rains that fueled fall forage growth kept many grain-only producers from planting in a timely fashion. Sowing wheat in late October through the end of November was the norm, and many wheat fields entered the winter months still trying to emerge or with only one or two leaves. Cool conditions further delayed development and occurrence of first hollow stem was approximately one week later than the long-term average. Fortunately, moderate temperatures and ample moisture allowed a lateemerging and under-developed wheat crop to add t illers and develop a plant canopy.
Conditions for wheat development and grain fill remained mostly favorable until excessive rainfall events in May had many producers again questioning whether or not a wheat crop would be harvested in 2019. The October 1, 2018 to July 22, 2019 time frame was the fourth wettest on record for Oklahoma, and May stood out as an extreme month in an already wet production year. The Oklahoma Mesonet station at Lohoma recorded 12.7 inches of rainfall in May 2019, which is approximately 8 inches more than normal. The Kingfisher station reported 15.9 inches of May rainfall, which is more than 10 inches above normal. Several fields were complete losses due to flooding, and several additional fields were severely lodged from waterlogged soil conditions. There was concern that waterlogged soil conditions would adversely affect seed development and seed fill, resulting in poor yields or low test weights.
These wet and cool conditions also paved the way for severe disease incidence and severity in the 2019 Oklahoma wheat crop, especially in north-central Oklahoma. Few diseases were observed during the fall of 2018, with leaf rust at a low incidence being the primary disease reported. Lack of disease in the fall was probably the result of a significantly later planting date across much of the state. Foliar disease was slow to start in the spring, but with the cool and moist weather extending into the late spring, both rusts (leaf and stripe) and the leaf spot diseases (Septoria, Stagonospora and tan spot) were much more widespread and severe across Oklahoma in 2019. Often, Septoria and Stagonospora were found on the upper wheat leaves and flag leaf, which is atypical in Oklahoma.
At many locations, foliar diseases were not observed until well into May, and a few locations (e.g. northwestern Oklahoma and the Panhandle) had lighter foliar disease pressure than the rest of Oklahoma. Most locations in north-central and central Oklahoma had at least one foliar disease of moderate to high severity with a few locations having a high severity of several diseases. Septoria and leaf rust remained the most prominent diseases across the state. Physiological leaf spot was detectable on some cultivars when symptoms of Septoria or leaf rust were delayed or suppressed by a fungicide treatment.
Rootots (primarily dryland root rot caused by the fungus Fusarium) and black chaff (caused by the bacterium Xanthomonas)weremoreprevalentthan typicalforOklahoma.Fusariumhead blight(scab)alsooccurprimarilyin northeastern Oklahoma,but fortunately did not occur at a high incidence over the main wheat area of Oklahoma. Barley yellow dwarf was sporadic and was observed at only a few locations. The wheat curl mite-transmitted virus diseases (wheat streak mosaic, Triticum mosaic and High Plains Disease) were found, but at a much lower level as found in the past couple of years. Delayed planting is a recommended management strategy for these insectvectoreddiseases,andthedelayed planting associated with the wet fall probably helped reduce the incidence of barley yellow dwarf and the mitetransmitted virus diseases. Powdery mildew was observed at a lower incidence and severity than in most years. In summary, it was a very active year for diseases in Oklahoma with the mild and wet weather facilitating many diseases. The mild and wet
weather also improved yield prospects by the time producers were making decisions regarding application of foliar fungicides, and many producers chose to protect yield potential with foliar fungicides. Data from fungicide treated and nontreated variety trial comparisons at Lahoma, Apache and Chickasha provide indication of the impact of foliar disease on grain yield and suggest that applying a foliar fungicide was a profitable decision for many Oklahoma wheat farmers in 2019.
Harvest started approximately one week later than normal with no reports of wheat harvested prior to Memorial Day in 2019. Rainfall resulted in a very slow and intermittent start to harvest, and waterlogged soil conditions presented challenges. Weather and soil conditions improved by mid-June, and harvest continued at a steady pace until conclusion in the latter half of July in the Oklahoma Panhandle. Grain yields exceeded expectations with some of the best yields coming from Harper County west through the Panhandle. The delayed harvest and waterlogged soil conditions did result in some low test weights, but the extent of the damage varied by geography and variety.
## Testing Methods
Seed was packaged and planted in the same condition as it was delivered from the respective seed companies. Most seed was treated with an insecticide plus a fungicide, but the formulation and rate of seed treatment used was not confirmed or reported in this document.
Conventional-till plots were eight rows wide with 6-inch row spacing and were sown with a Hege$^{®}$small-plot
cone seeder. No-till plots were seven rows wide with 7.5-inch row spacing and were sown with a Great Plains no-till drill modified for cone-seeded, small-plot research. With the exception of dryland locations in the Panhandle, plots were planted 25 feet long and trimmed with the plot combine to 19 feet at harvest. Panhandle dryland locations were 35 feet long at planting and trimmed to 29 feet at harvest. Wheel tracks were included in the plot area for yield calculation for a total plot width of 60 inches. Experimental design for all sites other than Apache and Lohama was a randomized complete block with four replications. Apache and Lohama were a split-plot arrangement of a randomized complete block with four replications where whole plots were fungicide treated or non-treated, and sub-plots were wheat variety.
Conventional-til plots received 50 pounds per acre of 18-46-0 in-furrow at planting. No-til plots received 5 gallons per acre of 10-34-0 at planting. The Marshall dual-purpose (DP) trial, Union City, Walters and forage trials, were sown at 120 pounds per acre. The Panhandle irrigated and dryland locations were sown at 90 and 45 pounds per acre, respectively. All other locations were sown at 60 pounds per acre. Grazing intensity, nitrogen fertilization and insect and weed control decisions were made on a location-by-location basis and reflect standard management practices for the area.
Plots were harvested with a Hege$^{®}$or Wintersteiger Delta$^{®}$small plot combine. Grain weight, test weight and moisture content were collected from each plot, and grain yields were corrected to 12% moisture content. Grain moisture at all sites was generally below
12%, and maximum and minimum grain moisture for all plots at a location typically ranged no more than 2%. The Afton plots were harvested, but data not reported, as the trial coefficient of variation (c.v.) exceeded 25. The Marshall plots were not harvested due to severe weed pressure.
## Data Interpretation
Yield and test weight data for each location and regional summary were analyzed using the appropriate statistical methods. At the bottom of Table 21, the mean and least significant difference (LSD) values are reported. The LSD is a test statistic that aids in determining whether there is a true difference in yield or test weight. In this report, one can be 95% confident the difference between two varieties is real if the difference is equal to or greater than the LSD value. Data that is not significant is indicated by NS. For example, if the LSD value is 4 bushels per acre in a trial which Variety A yielded 30 bushels per acre and Variety B yielded 26, then Variety A would be considered to have a statistically greater yield. However, if Variety C yielded 27 bushels per acre, then Variety A and Variety C would be considered to have a similar yield. In that same example trial, there is a 5% chance that the 4-bushelserper-acre difference between Variety A and Variety B does not truly exist, but random chance caused the 5-bushel difference. These chance factors may include differences in fertility, moisture availability and diseases, for example. To aid in determining the varieties with the highest yields and test weights, values highlighted in gray do not differ statistically from the highest value
within a column. The performance of a variety may vary from year to year, even at the same location. Tests over two or more years and at multiple locations more accurately predict the variety performance.
## Additional Information on the Web
A copy of this publication as well as additional information about wheat management can be found at:
OSU Small Grains
OSU Small Grains
## Funding Provided By
Oklahoma Wheat Commission Oklahoma Wheat Research Foundation Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station Entry fees from participating seed companies
## Area Extension Staff
Brian Pugh, OSU Area Agronomist, District Josh Bushong, OSU Area Agronomist, West District Heath Sanders, OSU Area Agronomist, West District
## County Extension Educators
Thomas Puffinbarger, Alfalfa Loren Sizelove, Beaver David Nowlin, Caddo Kyle Worthington, Canadian
Sug Farrington, formerly Cimarron Kimbreley Davis, Cotton Ron Wright, Custer Rick Nelson, Garfield Shiann Burns, Grady Kassie Junghanns, formerly Grant Darrell McBee, Harper Gary Strickland, Jackson and Greer Bryan Kennedy, Kingfisher Troy Gosney, Major Courtney May, formerly Ottawa Dr. Britt Hicks, Texas & Area Extension Livestock Specialist Greg Highfill, Woods
David Victor, North Central Research Station,Lahoma Cameron Murley, Oklahoma Panhandle Research and Extension Center, Goodwell Michael Pettijohn, South Central Research Station, Chickasha Mike Schulz, Southwest Research and Extension Center, Altus
## Student Workers
Cade Miller Dallas Williams
We sincerely thank our variety trial cooperators for donation of land, time and resources. Variety trial cooperators not otherwise listed in this document include: Dean Fuxa, Marshall Greg Leonard, Afton
| | | | Apache | Apache | Apache | Apache | Apache | Apache | Apache | Apache | Apache | | |
|------------|-------------------|----|----------|----------|----------|-----------|----------|----------|----------|-----------|----------|----|----|
| | | | Altus | Alva | Apache | Fungicide | Balko | Buffalo | Cherokee | Chickasha | MWM | | |
| Licensee | Variety | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| AGSECO | AG Gallant | 59 | 68 | - | - | 81 | 72 | 53 | 29 | 66 | 74 | | |
| AGSECO | AG Icon | 67 | 75 | - | - | 88 | 66 | 59 | 47 | 68 | 90 | | |
| AgIMAXX | AM Eastwood | 49 | 59 | 40 | 65 | 81 | - | 39 | 27 | 62 | 93 | | |
| OGI | Baker's Ann | 58 | - | - | 85 | - | 60 | 39 | 39 | 69 | 100 | | |
| Bentley | 57 | 73 | 55 | 84 | 86 | 84 | 47 | 41 | 65 | 85 | 63 | | |
| AgriPro | Bob Dole | 49 | 90 | - | - | 86 | 86 | 68 | 54 | 78 | 83 | | |
| PlainsGold | Canvas | 71 | - | - | - | - | - | 32 | 54 | 60 | 98 | | |
| CROPLAN | CP7826 | 57 | 70 | 61 | 74 | 83 | - | 47 | 41 | 64 | 67 | | |
| CROPLAN | CP7869 | 67 | - | - | - | - | - | 30 | 56 | 91 | - | | |
| CROPLAN | CP7909 | 57 | - | - | - | - | - | 49 | 79 | 90 | - | | |
| PlainsGold | Crescent AX | 44 | - | - | - | 87 | - | - | 38 | 71 | 96 | - | |
| GI | Dublostop CL Plus | 51 | 81 | 65 | 68 | 87 | 72 | 63 | 58 | 68 | 79 | 69 | |
| GRI | Duster | 66 | 63 | 55 | 76 | 91 | - | 36 | 34 | 70 | 88 | | |
| Gallagher | Sagier | 56 | 73 | 83 | 94 | 78 | 78 | 57 | 77 | 86 | 65 | | |
| GRI | Green Hammer | 70 | - | 64 | 73 | - | - | 60 | 44 | 72 | - | | |
| IGI | Iba | 62 | 67 | 48 | 80 | 92 | 74 | 53 | 30 | 72 | 93 | 59 | |
| KWA | Joe | 64 | 78 | - | 97 | - | - | 50 | 42 | 65 | 97 | 68 | |
| KWA | KS Venada | 40 | - | - | - | - | - | 39 | - | 68 | 80 | - | |
| KWA | KS080093K-18 | 53 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 32 | 58 | 91 | - | |
| PlainsGold | Langlin | 52 | 69 | - | - | 86 | 80 | 52 | 32 | 71 | 89 | - | |
| KWY | Lary | 57 | 66 | - | - | 93 | 75 | 46 | 52 | 62 | 85 | 47 | |
| LCs | LCH15ACC7-7 | 61 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 35 | 71 | 88 | - | |
| LCs | LCs Chrome | 52 | 80 | 70 | 68 | 86 | 74 | 55 | 41 | 57 | 94 | 66 | |
| LCs | LCs Pistol | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 34 | 67 | 28 | 86 | |
| OGI | Londerier | 58 | 60 | - | - | 93 | 75 | 47 | 28 | 86 | 70 | 94 | |
| Dyna-Gro | Long Branch | 59 | 57 | - | 91 | 75 | 32 | 21 | 50 | 77 | 41 | | |
| OGI | NF 101 | 46 | - | 47 | 65 | - | - | 29 | 61 | 72 | - | - | |
| GOI | Ruby Lee | 50 | 64 | 76 | 82 | 81 | - | 53 | 49 | 47 | 76 | 87 | |
| GG | Showdown | 74 | 72 | 57 | 76 | 94 | 83 | 56 | 42 | 63 | 90 | 60 | |
| OSG | Skydance | 50 | 70 | 72 | 79 | - | - | - | 54 | 72 | 83 | - | |
| OGI | Smith's Gold | 64 | 66 | 77 | 90 | 80 | 81 | 51 | 46 | 65 | 79 | 64 | |
| OGI | Spirit Rider | 50 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 41 | 78 | 92 | 62 | |
| STardust | Stardust | 60 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 27 | 59 | 74 | 74 | |
| AgriPro | SY Achieve CL2 | 44 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 45 | 75 | 78 | 56 | |
| AgriPro | SY Benefit | 33 | - | 54 | 75 | - | - | - | 33 | 65 | 71 | 45 | |
| AgriPro | Sy Flint | 51 | - | 54 | 78 | - | - | - | 40 | 67 | 87 | 47 | |
| AgriPro | SY Grit | 38 | 63 | 50 | 77 | 93 | 71 | 47 | 31 | 60 | 91 | 47 | |
| AgriPro | Sy Monument | - | 74 | - | - | 91 | - | 57 | - | - | 98 | 66 | |
| AgriPro | SY Razor | 33 | - | 63 | 67 | 67 | - | - | 43 | 59 | - | - | |
| AgriPro | SRUgged | 56 | 73 | 58 | 67 | 91 | 82 | 54 | 44 | 64 | 90 | 60 | |
| Watley | TAM 112 | 49 | 48 | - | - | 84 | 73 | 34 | 26 | 63 | 76 | - | - |
| AGSECO | TAM 114 | 66 | 73 | - | - | 97 | 81 | 50 | 29 | 67 | 82 | - | |
| Watley | TAM 204 | - | - | 54 | 88 | 87 | 67 | 39 | 20 | 63 | 84 | 42 | |
| WestBred | WB4269 | 65 | 72 | 77 | 80 | 87 | 79 | 51 | 50 | 75 | 91 | 70 | |
| WestBred | WB4303 | 43 | 67 | 59 | 71 | 91 | 88 | 67 | 37 | 73 | 96 | 70 | |
| WestBred | WB4418 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 35 | 66 | 93 | - |
| WestBred | WB4515 | 50 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 33 | 60 | 62 | 59 | |
| WestBred | WB4699 | 58 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 42 | 74 | 90 | - | - |
| WestBred | WB4792 | 67 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 38 | 73 | 98 | - | |
| WestBred | WB-Grainfield | 56 | 59 | - | - | 94 | 84 | 42 | 33 | 63 | 94 | 55 | |
| KWA | Zenda | 57 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 44 | 69 | 79 | - | - |
OSU Experimentals
OCWWD45717+6W OK149132C OK14P212 OK14P736W OK15MASBx78-1 OK16729W OK168512 OK16D101089
Mean
LSD (0.05)
Note: shaded values are not statistically different from the greatest value within a column (i.e., location).
## Wheat Variety Trials Protein Content
Amanda de Oliveira Silva, Robert Calhoun, Brett Carver and Jeff Edwards Plant and Soil Sciences
Protein is just one of many attributes that determines end-use quality and marketability of winter wheat. In fact, some millers and bakers would argue functionality of wheat protein is more important than the quantity of protein. While varietal differences exist, variability in protein among environments is generally much larger than variability among varieties. Factors such as nitrogen fertility and drought stress, for example, can sharply impact final protein wheat content.
To reflect these management and environmental impacts on wheat protein content, data is reported by variety and location in Table 22. In Table 23, the wheat protein content by variety is reported as a deviation from the location mean, as this allows for easier comparison of wheat protein among varieties across locations. Doublestop CL Plus, for example, showed a positive deviation from the location mean in 95% of this year's trials, indicating a tendency for above-average wheat protein content. In the other hand, showed a negative deviation from the location mean in 90% of the trials, indicating a tendency for lower-than-average wheat protein content. Adequate nitrogen fertility as recommended by a recent soil test or sensor-based nitrogen management program can help ensure varieties with
one month following harvest. Samples were nondestructively analyzed for protein content on a 12% moisture basis using a Diode Array Near Infrared instrument (NIR) (model DA 7200, Perten Instruments, Sweden).
## Additional Information on the Web
A copy of this publication, as well as additional information about wheat management, can be found at: Website: www.wheat.okstate.edu Blog: www.osuwheat.com
@OSU\_smallgrains OSU Small Grains YouTube OSU Small Grains
Funding provided by: Oklahoma Wheat Commission Oklahoma Wheat Research Foundation Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station Entry fees from participating seed companies
We sincerely thank our variety trial cooperators for donation of land, time and resources. Variety trial cooperators include:
Southwest Research and Extension Center, Altis
Jerad Bradt and Wes Mallory, Alva
Bryan Vail, Apache
Kenton Patzkowsky, Balko
NRCS, Buffalo
Kenneth Failes, Cherokee South-Central Research Station,
Chickasha
Oklahoma Panhandle Research and
Extension Center, Goodwell
Brook Strader, Homestead
Dan Herald, Hooker
J.B. Stewart, Keyes
Don Schieber, Kildare
Tary Helt, Kingfisher
North CentralResearchStation,Lahoma
Don and Roger Kirby, Lamont
Keith Miller & Bill Jackson, Thomas
Don and Ray Bornemann, Union City
Jimmy Kinder, Walters
| | | Apache | Apache | Apache | Apache | Apache | Apache | Apache | Apache | Apache | Apache | |
|-------------------|----------------|----------|----------|-------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------|--------------------------------------|----------|----------|----------|----------|-----|
| | | Altas | Ana | Apache Fungicide | Bâko Buffalo | | Chickashis Chickahoe Chickasha IWM | | | | | |
| | Location mean | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | Variety | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | % wheat protein relative to location mean---------------------------------- | | | | | | | |
| Licensee | AG Gallant | 0.5 | 0.0 | - | 0.4 | -0.2 | -1.3 | -0.4 | -0.5 | -0.2 | | |
| AGSECO | AG Icon | 1.7 | 0.6 | - | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.8 | | |
| AgriMAXX | AM Eastwood | -1.0 | 0.0 | 0.7 | -0.2 | 0.1 | - | 0.3 | 0.3 | -0.5 | -0.4 | |
| OGI | Baker's Ann | 0.4 | - | - | 0.1 | - | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.5 | -0.1 | |
| OGI | Bentley | -0.3 | -0.6 | -0.1 | -0.4 | -0.3 | 0.0 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.5 | -0.1 | |
| AgriPro | Bob Dole | 0.6 | -0.2 | - | - | 1.0 | -0.1 | -0.1 | -0.3 | -0.3 | 1.4 | |
| PlainsGold | Canvas | -1.2 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.2 | 0.4 | -1.0 | |
| CROPLAN | CP7826 | -0.4 | -0.1 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 0.9 | 0.3 | 2.5 | -0.2 | |
| CROPLAN | CP7869 | -0.1 | - | - | - | - | - | 1.3 | 0.2 | -0.1 | - | |
| CROPLAN | CP7909 | -0.4 | - | - | - | - | - | -1.0 | -1.0 | -1.0 | - | |
| PlainsGold | Crescent AX | -1.1 | -1.1 | - | - | - | - | -0.6 | -0.1 | -0.9 | - | |
| OGI | Doublestop CL | Plus | 0.4 | 1.3 | 0.1 | 1.3 | 1.4 | 1.2 | 0.8 | 1.8 | 2.3 | |
| OGI | Duster | -0.8 | 0.5 | -0.2 | -0.3 | -0.1 | -1.0 | -0.1 | -0.2 | 0.0 | 0.6 | |
| OGI | Gallagher | -0.9 | -0.1 | -0.9 | -0.9 | -0.9 | -0.9 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.6 | -0.3 | |
| OGI | Green Hammer | 0.4 | - | 0.3 | 0.5 | - | -1.1 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 0.3 | - | |
| OLI | Iba | -0.5 | 0.4 | -0.3 | -0.1 | -0.1 | -0.8 | -0.2 | -0.7 | -0.9 | -0.5 | |
| KWA | Joe | 0.1 | -0.6 | - | - | - | - | -0.8 | -0.6 | -0.5 | -0.4 | |
| KWA | KS Venada | -0.2 | - | - | - | - | - | -0.8 | 0.6 | 0.3 | - | |
| KSU | KS080093K-18 | - | - | - | - | - | - | -0.8 | 0.0 | -0.3 | -0.2 | |
| PlainsGold | Langin | 0.0 | - | - | - | - | - | -0.8 | -0.7 | -0.7 | - | |
| KWA | Larry | -0.3 | -0.5 | - | -0.5 | -0.6 | -0.8 | -0.2 | -0.5 | -0.4 | -0.5 | |
| LCS | LCH15ACC7-7 | 0.1 | - | - | - | - | - | -0.0 | -0.3 | -0.2 | - | |
| LCS | LCS Chrome | 0.7 | 0.0 | 0.4 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 1.1 | 1.0 | 0.2 | 0.5 | |
| LCS | LCS Pistol | -0.3 | - | - | - | - | - | -0.9 | 0.3 | -0.1 | - | |
| OGI | Lonerider | -0.5 | 0.2 | - | -0.3 | -0.3 | 0.6 | 1.6 | 0.4 | 0.3 | - | |
| Dyna-Gro | Long Branch | 0.2 | 0.5 | - | - | -0.4 | 1.3 | 0.9 | 0.6 | -0.5 | 0.6 | |
| OGI | NF 101 | 0.3 | - | -0.2 | -0.2 | -0.4 | - | -0.6 | -0.0 | 0.6 | - | |
| OGI | Ruby Lee | -0.3 | 0.5 | -0.4 | 0.4 | 0.7 | -0.0 | 0.3 | 1.0 | 0.1 | -0.5 | |
| OSU | Shownown | -0.5 | 0.6 | -0.2 | -0.3 | 0.7 | -0.7 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.3 | -1.1 | |
| OGI | Skydance | 0.5 | 0.7 | -0.6 | 0.0 | - | - | -0.1 | 0.7 | 1.4 | -1.1 | |
| OGI | Smith's Gold | -0.5 | 0.5 | -0.6 | 0.2 | 0.0 | -0.2 | 0.0 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.0 | |
| OGI | Spirit Rider | -0.4 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.7 | -0.5 | -0.1 | 0.4 |
| OGI | Stardust | 0.8 | - | - | - | - | - | 0.9 | 1.4 | 0.5 | 0.3 | |
| AgriPro | SY Achieve CL | 0.2 | - | - | - | - | - | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.4 | |
| AgriPro | SY Benefit | -0.5 | - | -0.4 | -0.3 | - | - | -1.0 | -0.5 | -0.9 | -1.1 | |
| AgriPro | Sy Flint | -0.1 | - | -0.6 | -0.3 | - | - | -0.6 | -0.5 | 0.0 | -0.6 | |
| AgriPro | S Grit | 0.3 | -0.7 | 0.2 | -0.3 | -0.6 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 0.6 | 0.9 | -0.5 | |
| AgriPro | SY Monument | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.0 | - | - | - | |
| AgriPro | SY Razor | 0.5 | 0.1 | 0.6 | 0.0 | - | - | -0.6 | 0.5 | - | -0.4 | |
| AgriPro | Sy Rugged | -0.1 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0.0 | -0.1 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 0.2 | -0.8 | -0.4 | |
| Watley | TAM 112 | 0.0 | 0.5 | - | -0.2 | -0.6 | -1.1 | -0.3 | -0.4 | -0.3 | - | |
| AGSECO | TAM 114 | 0.3 | -1.0 | - | - | -0.5 | -0.9 | -0.7 | -0.3 | -0.5 | 0.5 | |
| Watley | TAM 204 | 0.3 | 0.8 | - | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.9 | 0.5 | -0.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | |
| WestBred | WB4269 | -0.4 | -0.2 | -0.7 | -0.3 | 0.7 | 0.4 | -0.8 | -0.9 | -0.7 | -0.6 | |
| WestBrest | WB4303 | 0.6 | 0.1 | -0.1 | 0.0 | 0.8 | 1.0 | -0.3 | 0.8 | 0.8 | -0.1 | |
| WestBrest | WB4418 | -0.3 | - | - | - | - | - | 0.6 | -0.1 | -0.3 | - | |
| WestBred | WB44515 | 0.0 | - | - | - | - | - | 1.1 | 0.7 | 1.0 | -0.2 | |
| WestBrest | WB4595 | -0.2 | - | - | - | - | - | -1.0 | -1.2 | -0.8 | - | |
| WestBrest | WB4699 | -0.9 | - | - | - | - | - | -1.1 | -2.1 | -0.9 | - | |
| WestBrest | WB4792 | -0.3 | - | - | - | - | - | -0.9 | -0.3 | -0.9 | - | |
| WestBred | WEB Grainfield | -1.2 | -0.8 | - | - | - | -0.8 | -0.4 | -0.6 | -0.8 | | |
| KWA | Zenda | -0.5 | - | - | - | - | - | -1.1 | -0.5 | -0.1 | - | |
| OSU Experimentals | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| OCW04S7171-FW | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.8 | 1.0 | - | 1.4 | |
| OK149132C | 0.5 | 0.2 | - | - | - | - | - | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.8 | - | |
| OK14P212 | 0.4 | -0.3 | 1.1 | -0.5 | -0.6 | 0.0 | 0.8 | - | - | - | 0.0 | |
| OK14P736W | 0.5 | -0.6 | 1.2 | 0.0 | 0.4 | -0.1 | -0.1 | -0.4 | -0.5 | -1.0 | - | |
| OK15MASBx7 8-1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
| OK16729W | 0.5 | - | - | - | - | - | - | -0.9 | - | -0.9 | - | |
| OK168512 | 0.4 | - | - | 0.0 | - | 0.2 | 0.5 | - | - | - | - | |
| OK16D101089 | 0.0 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.5 | 0.0 | - | - | |
| | | | Horaia | Horaia | Horaia | Horaia | Horaia | Horaia | Horaia | Horaia | |
|--------------------------------|--------------------|------|--------------|-------------|------------|----------|-----------|----------|-------------------|----------|------|
| | | | Hooker Keyes | Kilda Keyes | Kingfisher | Lahoma | Fungicide | Lamont | Thomas Union City | Walters | |
| Location mean | | | | | | | | | | | |
| Variety | | | | | | | | | | | |
| AgSECO | | | | | | | | | | | |
| AGSC0 | AG Gallant | 0.3 | 0.0 | - | - | -1.3 | -1.1 | - | - | - | |
| AGSECO | AG Icon | 0.9 | -2.0 | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 1.1 | 0.9 | 0.6 | 0.1 | |
| AGIMAXX | AM Eastwood | -0.1 | 0.2 | -0.9 | -1.1 | 1.2 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 1.0 | |
| OGl | Baker's Ann | 0.4 | - | 0.1 | - | 0.7 | 0.9 | 1.1 | - | - | |
| OGI Bentley | -0.7 | 0.2 | -0.4 | -0.9 | -0.2 | 0.2 | -0.4 | -0.4 | 0.4 | 0.0 | |
| AgrPi Pro | Bob Dole | - | - | -0.5 | 0.9 | -0.3 | 0.1 | -0.6 | - | - | |
| PlainsGold | Canvas | - | - | - | - | 0.0 | -0.2 | - | - | - | |
| CROPLAN | CP7826 | 2.7 | 1.3 | 0.6 | 1.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 1.4 | -0.1 | |
| CROPLAN | CP7869 | - | - | - | 0.4 | 0.0 | 0.0 | - | - | - | |
| CROPLAN | Cp9309 | - | - | - | - | -1.0 | -1.4 | - | - | - | |
| PlainsGold | Cp9899 | - | - | - | - | -1.4 | -0.9 | - | - | - | |
| DUGLYPH(cmap:df00)etop CL Plus | Doublestop CL Plus | 1.0 | 1.8 | 1.0 | 1.5 | 0.5 | 1.2 | 0.3 | 1.0 | -0.2 | |
| OGl | Duster | 0.3 | -0.6 | - | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.1 | 1.3 | 0.3 | -0.1 | -0.1 |
| OGl | Gallagher | 1.3 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.0 | -0.7 | 0.4 | -0.5 | 0.1 | 0.0 | |
| OGl | Green Hammer | - | - | 1.0 | 2.0 | 0.7 | 1.7 | 1.0 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 1.0 |
| LOA | Jb | -0.8 | -0.8 | 0.7 | 0.0 | -0.4 | -0.8 | -0.3 | -0.3 | -0.1 | -0.7 |
| KWA | Keo | -1.1 | -0.4 | -0.5 | 0.0 | -0.4 | -0.4 | -1.0 | - | - | |
| KWa | KS Venas | -1.2 | -1.3 | - | - | -0.3 | 0.3 | - | - | - | |
| KSU | KS080093K-18 | -1.2 | -1.3 | - | - | 0.2 | 0.2 | - | - | - | |
| PlainsGold | Langlin | -1.0 | - | - | -0.8 | -0.6 | -0.6 | - | - | - | |
| KWA | Larry | -0.7 | 0.1 | -0.9 | 0.1 | -0.9 | -0.5 | -0.7 | -0.4 | - | |
| LC5 | LSHACCQ7-7 | - | - | - | - | -0.4 | -0.5 | - | - | - | |
| LC5 | LCSChrome | 0.3 | 0.7 | 0.4 | 1.2 | 0.5 | 0.9 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.4 | |
| LC5 | LCSPilot | - | - | - | - | 0.7 | 0.1 | - | - | - | |
| OGl | Longer | 0.0 | 0.6 | - | - | 1.4 | 0.0 | - | - | - | |
| Dyna-Gro | Long Branch | -1.0 | -0.8 | 0.2 | 0.8 | 0.4 | - | - | 0.9 | - | |
| OGl | NF 101 | - | - | - | - | -0.6 | 0.2 | - | - | 0.0 | -0.2 |
| OGl | Ruby Lee | 0.6 | 1.0 | -0.2 | -0.2 | -0.8 | 0.7 | -0.6 | -0.7 | 1.0 | |
| OGl | Showdown | -0.6 | -0.5 | -0.2 | -0.8 | -0.3 | -0.7 | -0.1 | 0.2 | 0.2 | |
| OGl | Skydance | - | - | - | - | 0.4 | 0.9 | - | - | - | |
| OGl | Smith's Gold | -0.5 | -0.2 | 0.3 | 0.2 | -0.1 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.1 | -0.6 | |
| OGl | Spirit Rider | - | - | - | 0.7 | 0.8 | 0.5 | - | - | - | |
| OGl | Stardust | - | - | - | 0.5 | 1.1 | 0.6 | 0.8 | - | - | - |
| AgrPi Pro | SY Achive Cl2 | - | - | -0.5 | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.4 | - | - | - | |
| AgrPi Pro | SyBenefit | - | - | - | -1.0 | -0.7 | -1.0 | -1.5 | - | -0.7 | |
| AgrPi Pro | Sv Flint | - | - | - | 0.1 | -0.8 | -0.6 | -0.7 | -1.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
| AgrPi Pro | Syr Git | 0.5 | 0.3 | -0.6 | -1.1 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.0 | -0.5 | 0.3 | 0.3 |
| AgrPi Pro | Syr Monument | -0.1 | -0.3 | -0.2 | -0.2 | -0.1 | -0.4 | -0.1 | 0.1 | - | - |
| AgrPi | SAZ Razor | -0.6 | -0.6 | -0.4 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.5 | -0.1 | -0.8 |
| Watley | TAM112 | -0.2 | -0.1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| AGSECO | TAM14 | 0.0 | 0.4 | - | - | -0.1 | -0.2 | - | - | - | |
| Watley | TAM 204 | 0.2 | -0.1 | - | -1.8 | 0.0 | -0.0 | - | 1.1 | 0.6 | - |
| WestBred | WB4269 | -0.7 | -0.2 | -0.3 | -0.4 | -0.4 | -0.7 | -0.2 | -0.7 | -0.7 | -0.3 |
| WestBred | WB4303 | 1.5 | 0.9 | 0.2 | -0.6 | 0.2 | 1.2 | 0.3 | -0.3 | 0.2 | - |
| WestBred | WB4418 | - | - | - | - | 1.1 | 0.4 | - | - | - | - |
| WestBred | WB4515 | - | - | - | 0.7 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.5 | -0.7 | 0.7 | - |
| WestBred | WB4595 | - | - | - | - | -0.4 | -0.6 | - | - | - | - |
| WestBred | WB4699 | - | - | - | - | -1.0 | -1.2 | - | - | - | - |
| WestBred | WB4792 | - | - | - | -1.1 | -0.8 | -1.0 | - | - | - | - |
| WestBred | WB-Grainfield | -0.7 | -0.7 | -1.3 | 0.0 | -0.4 | -0.5 | - | - | - | - |
| KWA | Zenda | - | - | -0.8 | - | -1.0 | -0.2 | -1.1 | - | - | - |
| OSU Experimentalts | OCW04S717T-6W | - | - | -0.6 | 0.3 | 1.3 | - | - | -0.5 | 0.4 | - |
| OSU Experimentalts | OK149132C | - | - | 1.3 | 0.1 | -0.2 | - | - | 0.8 | 0.4 | - |
| OSU Experimentalts | OK14P212 | 0.0 | 0.1 | - | - | - | - | - | 0.6 | 0.7 | -1.0 |
| OSU Experimentalts | OK14P736W | -0.7 | -0.3 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| OK15MASBx87-81 | OK15MASBx78-81 | - | - | - | -0.1 | -0.5 | - | - | - | - | - |
| OK15MASBx87-81 | OK16729W | - | - | - | - | -0.9 | -0.6 | - | - | - | - |
| OK15MASBx87-81 | OK168512 | -0.9 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| OK15MASBx87-81 | OK16DI01089 | - | - | -0.1 | -0.1 | -0.8 | 0.1 | - | -0.1 | -0.4 | 0.0 |
## AG RESEARCH | |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/building-construction-plans/low-cost-solar-collector-for-grain-dryer | Low Cost Solar Collector for Grain Dryer | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [] | null | [] | MS | Home » Publications » Building & Construction Plans Archive » Low Cost Solar Collector for Grain Dryer
## Low Cost Solar Collector for Grain Dryer
BUILDING&CONSTRUCTION PLANSARCHIVE
Publication Number: 6341
View as PDF: 6341.pdf
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http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/soil-testing-and-interpretation-of-results-for-christmas-tree-plantations | Soil Testing and Interpretation of Results for Christmas Tree Plantations | NC State Extension | [
"Craig McKinley",
"James Shelton",
"Ray Tucker",
"Jeff Owen",
"Craig McKinley"
] | null | [
"Forestry",
"Christmas Tree Notes",
"Soil Testing",
"Soil",
"Fertilizer",
"Christmas Tree"
] | NC | ## Soil Testing and Interpretation of Results for Christmas Tree Plantations
Christmas Tree Notes
## Introduction
A well-planned fertilization program begins with a representative soil test for each field and careful analysis of the soil test report. The following note provides general guidelines for collecting soil samples, a summary of soil test results, and information for evaluating those results to develop an efficient Christmas tree fertilization program. This discussion is based upon analysis and results provided by the North Carolina Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services (NCDA&CS) Agronomic Division , which provides low-cost soil and plant tissue analysis to NC citizens. Soil test reports present a range of soil property and nutrient levels. In addition, they identify those nutrients that are deficient or excessive in comparison to established optimis ts for the selected Christmas tree species. Recommended applications for major nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) and secondary nutrients (calcium and magnesium ) are provided. Soil test reports are the best way to determine optimum lime and fertilizer applications for a field. When collected after a nutrient application, soil tests can indicate the progress made toward solving a particular soil deficiency or problem. The ability to interpret soil test results is a skill that can lead to better tree growth, greater crop uniformity across a field, and ultimately higher profits .
## Soil Sampling
## Deciding on Soil Sample Areas
Typically, Christmas tree growers take at least one soil sample per field or management unit. Sample areas are ideally between one and two acres but might be smaller or larger depending on the management unit. Separate samples should be collected for distinct blocks of trees, different species of tree (if managed differently), different age groups, and noticeably different soil types. At least initially, separate samples should also be taken for different landscape positions that can reflect differences in soil depth and fertility. Distinct landscape positions may include ridges, upper slopes or "shoulders," side slopes, "toe slopes" or lower slopes, and bottomland. Each can have different characteristics according to their loss or accumulation of soils over time. Aspect can also influence soil development with more organic matter accumulation occurring on north or eastern aspects. Previous land use can also justify separate samples such as former annual crop fields, garden plots, or the areas around former lime piles and burn piles.
## Sample More Areas Initially, Combine Later
In a large field, a grower might initially collect a separate soil sample from the upper slope and toe slope as well as from the east and west aspects or sides of the field. Distinctly different results between upper and lower parts of the field would justify collecting separate samples in the future. If the east and west sample results came back virtually the same, future sampling would combine the east and west areas into a single sampling area across the field. Multiple sample areas can always be combined in the future if test results are the same. However, one sample will never reveal important differences if it is collected across distinct sites.
## Soil Sampling throughout the Christmas Tree Crop Rotation
With an eight to ten year crop rotation, Christmas trees require a very different sampling schedule compared to annual crops. It would be helpful to monitor soil nutrient levels at least every 2-3 years during the rotation. Prior to setting trees, a grower has particular need for information about new ground. A soil test prior to site preparation can provide an indication of soil properties such as the weight to volume ratio and humic matter content. It is also better to identify possible nutrient deficiencies or toxicities before trees are set than after (when fewer management options are available). Once trees are set and growing, a new test every other year would be ideal to track the impact of recent treatments and determine what is best for future lime and fertilizer applications. As trees approach their intended market size, they require more nutrients to maintain optimal growth. Additional soil and plant tissue samples are especially useful the year before harvest to identify problems or help a grower fine-tune fertilizer applications. Thus from site preparation to harvest, a Christmas tree field might require sampling three or four times.
## The Best Tools for Soil Sampling
Use a soil probe or tube to collect the most uniform samples. While a shovel or spade can be used to collect small wedges of soil, they will not be as uniform as the soil core provided by a soil probe. A plastic bucket is recommended. Metal buckets can change soil test results, particularly zinc levels, if a galvanized bucket were used.
## Considerations about Soil Sample Depth
Typical soil samples collected from plowed fields are eight inches deep. If soils are mixed to that depth during tillage, that depth of soil sample is appropriate. In most Christmas tree fields little or no tillage occurs. Nutrients are top-dressed on the soil surface. While some nutrients like nitrogen and potash will leach through the soil profile to deeper levels, others like phosphorus and calcium tend to move slowly and become stratified in the layer in which they were applied. If recently applied nutrients are largely in the top 4 inches, an 8-inch soil sample would dilute nutrient levels with additional low-nutrient soil. This could result in soil test recommendations to apply more fertilizer than is truly needed. A 0-4 inch sample better reflects both the area enriched through top-dressed fertilizer and the shallow root zone of a Fraser fir. Other Christmas tree species are likely to be more deeply-rooted, but surface applied nutrients will still be mostly in the top four inches unless the soil is very sandy.
## Two-depth Soil Sampling
Some growers will occasionally collect 2-depth soil samples to learn more about their fields. This can be accomplished simply by knocking soil from the probe into two adjacent buckets and by keeping the top portion separate from the bottom. As with a normal sample, the surface four inches represent the portion altered be redteported+fessoritelimeapplications . The lower 5-8 inch sample often indicates residual nutrients from past crop history or native forest soil conditions. During a drought, the lower zone may reflect nutrient levels from which trees are feeding because surface soils are too dry. Two depth sampling can often explain gaps between applied fertilizer and tree performance.
## Collecting a Reliable Sample
It is important to collect more soil than the lab needs to insure a representative soil sample. Soil nutrients can be quite variable. Collection of multiple sampling points can help to average out any abnormally high or low samples collected. Lime and fertilizer recommendations need to be targeted toward average conditions for the field, not extremes that might represent a spilled fertilizer bag during a previous application or an old burn site. If collecting random samples across a field, a minimum of 20 soil samples should be taken.
## Systematic Plot Soil Sampling
If fertilizer and lime have been applied to Christmas tree fields by hand, some effort should be taken to sample across possible patterns to capture both fertilized and unfertilized areas. One soil sampling approach in Christmas trees is to collect sub-samples systematically around a smaller number of randomly selected trees. If 4 soil cores were collected with a soil probe around individual trees and 5 trees were sampled across the sample area, the sample would represent a mix of 20 cores. By sampling above and below the tree and on each side of it in-row, soil is likely to include both fertilized and unfertilized areas. Ten or more trees could be sampled in larger blocks. After thorough mixing in the bucket, the half-point needed for the soil test was packaged and remaining soil is scattered back onto the field. Some growers have marked and returned to the same trees or plots throughout a rotation in an effort to be more precise.
## Disease Management Concerns
Soil sampling should be practiced with consideration of disease management, particularly Phytopthora root rot (PRR). If diseased trees or previously infected areas exist in a field, do not sample those areas at the same time as the rest of the field. Soil-borne diseases can be transmitted on soil moved on tillage equipment or shoes. Even a shovel or soil probe can move contaminated soil. If a soil sample is needed from an area with PRR, sample that area last or at a different time. Be sure to clean tools, buckets, pots, and hands after working with any soil that might be contaminated. After cleaning, a rinse tools with a 10% solution of Clorox (90% water). Sanitation practices are critical to minimizing potential disease spread.
## Acquiring Soil Boxes
Soil boxes can be obtained from local N.C. Cooperative Extension center, NCDA&CS Regional Agronomists, or fertilizer dealers. Sample boxes should be labeled carefully. Be sure to keep a map or log of the samples you collected to avoid confusion when the results come back. Only fill soil to the level indicated on the side of the box. A soil sample information sheet should be completed and submitted along with the samples to the address shown on the box or sheet. If samples are to be sent by U.S. mail, write "Soil Sample" on the outside of the container in which they are shipped.
## Interpreting the Soil Test Report
This section provides detailed descriptions of the different test result categories provided in an NCDA&CS soil report. The following headings represent the columns in the second row provided for each soil sample. Particular considerations related to Christmas tree production are provided.
## Soil Class
North Carolina soils are grouped into three classes: mineral (MIN), mineral-organic (M-O), and organic (ORG). The classification is based on the percent of humic matter in the soil (HM%) and in some cases, the soil's weight to volume ratio (W/V). This classification can help to identify very different responses to lime and fertilizer.
Soils on which Christmas trees are grown are almost all classified as mineral and designated as MIN. Soil chemistry in mineral soils is largely driven by the clay component as opposed to the organic component in mineral-organic and organic soils. Mineral soils contain more exchangeable aluminum than the other soil classes. For optimum growth, most crops require a higher target pH in mineral soils and more lime to overcome negative effects of aluminum. For most crops grown on
mineral soils the target pH is 6.0 - 6.5, on mineral-organic soils 5.5, and on organic soils 5.0. Fraser fir and Norway spruce are among the few acid-loving crops that have a target pH of 5.0 - 5.5 on mineral soils.
However, about five percent of Christmas tree fields have soils that are high enough in organic matter to be classed as mineral-organic soils rather than mineral. These high-elevation mountain soils usually are dark brown or black in color. They tend to have higher cation exchange capacity (CEC) values, lower pH levels, lower calcium levels, and different behavior of other nutrients as well. Because of their greater buffering capacity, raising the pH can be slow, require additional applications of lime, and might not even be necessary. Target pH for Fraser fir should be 5.0 on such sites. The optimum calcium level for Fraser fir should be reduced from 55% to 45%. By recognizing the difference of these high elevation sites, a grower can avoid making a number of costly mistakes.
## HM-%
Percent humic matter is a measure of the soluble chemically-active constituents of organic matter in the soil (humic and fulvic acids), not total organic matter. There is no direct correlation between the percent humic matter and total organic matter of a soil. The amount of humic matter can vary somewhat with the weather and season. The absolute HM% value is not critical but generally the higher the value, the better. It generally runs three percent or lower. Percent humic matter is used to calculate lime recommendations. Percent humic content should not be used as a guide for herbicide application since those should be based upon total organic matter. In general, the percent humic content increases as a soil's weight to volume ratio decreases.
## W/V
Weight/volume refers to the weight per unit volume of the soil and is expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). The ratio will change according to soil texture and organic matter content. As the organic matter content goes up, the W/V ratio declines. It is another value on a soil test report that can be used to classify soil type. Sands, clays, and organic soils will exhibit different weight to volume ratios. Organic soils have the lowest W/V ratios nearing 0.5 g/cm3. Sands have the highest W/V ratios that can approach 1.5 g/cm3. Clays usually fall between those two extremes. A clay loam will typically have a value of around 1.0 g/cm3, whereas a sandy loam may be 1.15 g/gm3 or higher. The W/V ratio is generally inversely related to the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil. Organic soils with a low W/V ratio generally have a high CEC.
## CEC
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is a relative measure of the nutrient-holding capacity of a soil. It is expressed in units of meq/100 cm3 and is calculated by adding extractable calcium, magnesium, potassium and exchangeable acidity. CEC levels in Christmas tree soils range between 3.5 for sandy sites to 15 meq/100 cm3 for clayey or organic soils. A value of 8 meq/100 cm3 is considered to be normal.
The CEC will vary with any changes in soil pH, organic matter and clay content. Chemical exchange sites within clay particles and the surface of organic matter provide the locations where nutrients are bound to soil. Without these exchange sites, positively charged nutrients including nitrogen, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and most micronutrients would leach away.
A high CEC is generally considered to be desirable. Nutrients are less likely to leadch and adequate nutrient reserves are more likely to be maintained. Higher nutrient reserves translate into more pounds of nutrient per acre. The down-side of a soil with a high CEC is that it will require larger nutrient applications to change nutrient levels and alter balances between nutrients. Once optimums are achieved in a high CEC soil, they will generally hold for a longer period of time. Most organic soils and some clays tend to have high CEC levels. However, if a Christmas tree field has a CEC of
10 meg/100 cm3 or above, it may require special consideration whether it classifies as a mineralorganic soil or not. As discussed in regards to Soil Class, such soils should have a lower target soil pH and reduced calcium and magnesium requirements.
Sandy soils, by nature, have low CEC values and little can be done to change it. Such soils retain smaller nutrient reserves and leach any excess fertilizer not bound to the CEC. A farmer would be wise to apply smaller more frequent applications of fertilizer to not overwhelm the soil's nutrient holding capacity. Higher applications would simply be lost to leaching and subject crops to greater risk of salt injury. Depending on how your fields test for CEC, you might want to use very different fertilizer application strategies.
## BS-%
The base saturation percent is an expression of the portion of the cation exchange capacity (CEC) that is occupied by nutrient cations, principally calcium, magnesium and potassium. Generally, higher base saturations reflect higher supplies of plant nutrients and less acidity in the soil to interfere with plant growth. As base saturation increases so does the pH of a soil. A well-limed and fertilized soil will have a base saturation of 80 percent or higher.
In fields that have produced several rotations of Christmas trees, have a history of previous row crops, or have been limed to reach a higher target pH, base saturation can sometimes be excessively high. When the base saturation is 95% or greater, readily available nutrients like calcium and potassium may block availability of other cations including micronutrients. Issues associated with high base saturation will usually be corrected in the process of reducing associated high pH. Foliar application of micronutrients have sometimes been used to overcome deficiencies where soil availability is limited.
## Ac
Extractable acidity (Ac) is the portion of cation exchange capacity that is occupied by the acidic cations aluminum and hydrogen. Like CEC, it is calculated as milli-equivalents per 100 centimeters cubed (meq/100 cm$^{3}$). This value is one of the factors along with pH that is used to calculate the lime requirement of the soil. Extractable acidity will be relatively low when the soil is properly limed. If a soil has a high Ac value, more time will be needed to make an equivalent change in pH than for a soil that had a low Ac value. Thus it could be an important factor to consider when looking at soil reports for a potential new field. High Ac values can be a particular concern in some high elevation soil types especially if they have not been previously farmed.
## pH
pH is expressed as a logarithmic 14-point scale representing the concentration of hydrogen ions in soil solutions. The pH value is a measure of how acid or basic a soil is. As pH goes lower, the more acid soil. A pH of 6.0 is ten times more acidic than a neutral pH of 7.0. A pH of 5.0 is 100 times more acidic than a 7.0 pH.A pH of 2.0 would represent the approximate acidity of lemon juice. Values above 7.0 indicate a basic soil.
Soil pH is used along with the Ac factor to determine limiting rates. In addition to supplying essential calcium and magnesium, lime neutralizes aluminum, which becomes toxic to plant roots when the soil pH is too low. The efficiency of plant uptake and use of phosphorus is also enhanced when soils are properly limed. The pH measurement can reflect acidity levels that severely limit availability of several plant nutrients. For instance, as soil pH values drop below 5.5, they increasingly limit availability of phosphorus. Soil pH's above 6.0 limit availability of the micronutrient, manganese. Managing soil pH to optimize availability of nutrients is a critical task for any farmer or land manager.
Target soil pH values are listed by conifer species in Table 1. A higher target pH during the establishment of Fraser fir, Hemlock and Norway spruce allows more lime to be applied to acidic mountain soils early in production. This allows Christmas tree growers to achieve optimum pH levels
sooner than would be possible if the lower maintenance soil pH were used. The distinction between establishment and maintenance phases of production is for the field, not the crop. Soil in new fields can have extremely low pH values that are difficult and take time to raise with surface applied lime. Once fields are established to optimum production, the pH seldom will return to initial low levels. As multiple crops are produced, the maintenance target pH of 5.5 provides enough limite without incurring the equally problematic risk of overshooting the 5.8 pH target.
| White Pine, Virginia Pine | pH 5.5 |
|------------------------------------|---------------------------|
| Fraser Fir, Hemlock, Norway Spruce | pH 5.8, establishment |
| | pH 5.3 - 5.5, maintenance |
| Leyland Cypress | pH 6.0 |
| Blue Spruce, Red Cedar | pH 6.5 |
## P-I and K-I
These are index values representing the nutrient availability of phosphorus and potassium to plants. Generally, these index values are considered to be low if the index is below 25; medium if it is 26 to 50; and high if it is 51 to 100. Values above 100 are considered very high. Optimum values vary for individual crops, with index values in the range of 50 to 70 desired for most Christmas tree species.
However, for Fraser fir Christmas trees grown on highly acidic mountain soils, the target index values for phosphorus and potassium are usually elevated to a range of 80 to 100. Vigorous Christmas trees have the potential to double their volume every growing season and place a high demand on soil fertility, phosphorus in particular. High levels of phosphorus are needed for good bud set. Further, mountain soils typically have high phosphorus-fixing capacity that limits nutrient availability to plants. By targeting a higher P-index, enough phosphorus can be applied to insure a small portion is available to Christmas trees.
Many Christmas tree growers try to 'front-load' a majority of their expected rotational phosphorus needs during site preparation when it can be combined with some form of tillage. This is the best way to overcome a soil's phosphorus-fixing capacity -- sooner in the rotation rather than later. Even with extra phosphorus applied during site preparation, annual surface applications are needed to insure optimal growth. On new fields, target phosphorus levels can take several years or even the entire rotation to be achieved. However, at some point in the life of a Christmas tree field, very high phosphorus will likely be present in the surface layers of the soil. At that point, further annual surface applications become an unnecessary cost. Regular monitoring with soil and tissue samples insure that a fertilizer program remains on track and phosphorus is applied when needed.
The target index for potassium (K-I) has also been elevated to 80-100 for optimal Christmas tree production in the mountain region. Potassium (K) deficiencies are associated with slow growth, weak color, and spindle-shaped foliage (short needles at the tips and base of shoots with more
normal lengths in the middle of individual shoots.) More frequently, growers have induced salt injury to trees by applying too much potassium or allowing workers to improperly place handfuls of fertilizer over tree roots.
Potassium leaches quite readily. Dieficiencies tend to occur after extended wet periods when soluble potassium has been washed out of the soil. Potassium deficiency can also be induced by applications of calcium either as lime or gypsum. Monitor potassium status with soil and plant analysis at least every two years to ensure an adequate supply.
Excess potassium is a more widespread problem than potassium deficiency - often a result of overreliance on balanced fertilizers. Potassium fertilizers are very salty and can result in root injury where carelessly applied. Excess potassium can induce deficiencies of calcium, magnesium and several micronutrients. Excesses of potassium can be corrected with lime or gypsum applications in addition to foliar applications of the deficient nutrients. High levels of potassium will also drop over time as a result of leaching.
## Ca% and Mg%
These values refer to the percent of the cation exchange capacity (CEC) that is occupied by calcium and magnesium. These nutrient values also correlate to a soil's percent base saturation (BS-%). On fertile soils, calcium is usually the predominant cation. However, many non-cropland soils are severely deficient in calcium and magnesium. Large applications of lime may be needed initially, even for an acid-loving crop like Fraser fir. Where calcium is particularly low, additional applications of gypsum (calcium sulfate) may be needed to supplement calcium without raising the pH further. For mineral soils with a CEC of "8" or below, the target Ca % should be 50-55, and the target Mg% should be 10-15. In mineral-organic soils where the CEC is "10" or above, targets should be reduced to 45 Ca% and 10 Mg%.
The Mg% value should be used to determine which kind of lime is applied to a field or if a magnesium fertilizer is needed. If the Mg% is low, Dolomitic lime which contains both calcium and magnesium would be the preferred choice. If Mg% levels are adequate, calcite lime, containing only calcium, would be a better choice. Non-liming sources of magnesium that do not significantly alter soil pH include ground-applied magnesium sulfate, sulfate of potash magnesia, magnesium oxisulate, and foliar applications of magnesium sulfate or esoph salts.
Balancing pH, Ca-,% and Mg-% can be the most difficult aspect of managing soil fertility in Christmas trees. Growers can spend a decade or more struggling to get soil test numbers up where they should be and then have to fight to get excess levels on some fields down again. Deficiencies of calcium can affect all aspects of growth but are not most noticeable in a pattern of late summer / early fall needle drop. Difciencies of magnesium can appear as poor color or marginal needle yellowing. High levels of calcium and / or magnesium are not usually expressed directly as toxicities, but appear as severe manganese (Mn) micronutrient deficiencies. Most often Mn deficiency symptoms are associated with lime piles or old burn piles.
## Mn-I, Zn-I and Cu-I
Manganese, zinc and copper are three micronutrients that are routinely reported on soil samples. The values expressed are indices. A value of 25 and above for any of these three micronutrients is considered adequate for normal plant growth. Each element is treated somewhat differently.
Manganese and zinc each have additional nutrient availability indices to provide a better fit to variable soil conditions.
Because manganese is highly limited at higher pH levels, a manganese availability index (Mn-AI) is used which takes soil pH into account. The Mn-Al increases as pH increases. Many NC soils, manganese levels may be over 100. In other crops, this can result in manganese toxicity symptoms, especially at lower pH's. Manganese toxicity symptoms have only been observed on Christmas trees at much higher levels in NC soils. More frequently, Christmas trees exhibit manganese
deficiency symptoms in high pH soils. Manganese is still present in higher pH soils, but not readily available for plant uptake. Manganese deficiencies in Fraser fir Christmas trees are visible as stunted, yellow growth in the midsection of trees.
An alternate availability index is also applied to zinc soil test index values. Availability of zinc is indirectly related to pH of the soil. The zinc availability index is calculated differently for each soil class based upon the target pH for that class. The zinc index is multiplied by a factor of "1" for mineral soils, "1.25" for mineral-organic soils, and "1.66" for organic soils. As with the standard indices, a value of 25 is considered to be adequate for most crops. Zinc deficiencies and toxicities are rare in Christmas trees, but do occur. When observed, zinc deficiencies have usually been created by saturation of other cations rather than the absence of zinc. Zinc deficiencies appear as uniformly stunted needles with white tips and margins.
## Suggested Lime and Fertilizer Treatments
Lime and fertilizer recommendations are shown under " Recommendations " on the report. These suggested treatments are based upon soil test results listed on the second line of the individual soil sample report. The equations that generate suggested treatments for Christmas trees represent an integration of research and practical experience with different species across North Carolina.
Under the suggested treatment the following categories appear:
## Lime
Any lime suggested on your report is designed to raise and maintain the soil pH at an appropriate value for the Christmas tree crop being grown. Liming decisions should be made with consideration of calcium and magnesium indexes. The magnesium level determines the choice between dolomitic lime that contains both calcium and magnesium and calcic lime that only contains calcium. For an acid-loving crop such as Fraser fir, the use of gypsum as a pH neutral calcium source may also be an important soil fertility tool used alone or in conjunction with lime. Generally as a safety factor, single applications of lime are limited to no more than 1.5 tons (3000 pounds) per acre and gypsum to 0.75 tons (1500 pounds) per acre.
The choice of which liming material to buy is very important and involves consideration of several criteria. No liming products are immediately soluble in water. Rather the products slowly react with the acidity of the soil to dissolve over time. The speed of this reaction increases with finer particle size. This is why lime products sold in NC must meet certain standards for particle size (reported as the percentage passing through certain mesh sizes). Products also contain different chemical compositions and amounts of calcium. Their acid-neutralizing ability can be compared using their estimated calcium carbonate equivalent. Products with values closer to 100 approximate pure calcium carbonate more closely. Liming materials can range from about 20% to 40% actual calcium. Recommendations are based on the assumption that a 20% material is used. If a more concentrated material is used, be sure to cut the application rate.
After lime is applied and has had time to dissolve (usually a year), soil tests can be used to monitor changes to soil acidity. If the pH is still low, additional lime would be recommended and could be applied. If the pH rises above optimum levels for the tree species being grown, soil amendments to
reduce pH may be needed. For large reductions in pH, sulfur applications are recommended. If the needed pH reduction is small, the acidifying effects of annual nitrogen fertilizers may be enough. Soil test results can be used to make those determinations.
For more information on soil acidity and liming, go to the following resource: Soil Facts: Soil Acidity and Liming: Basic Information for Farmers and Gardeners by Carl Crozier, NC State University, and David Hardy, NCADA&CS Agronomic Division
https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/soil-acidity-and-liming-basic-information-for-farmers-and-gardeners
## N
The value presented is the suggested amount of nitrogen to be applied to the crop annually per acre. Values are based on research, not the soil sample tested. Nitrogen levels in soil will change throughout the year and do not provide a reliable indicator of need.
Nitrogen is very mobile in the soil where it undergoes a number of microbial transformations. It can leach rapidly. In periods of excess precipitation, nitrogen deficiency can develop in the course of a month. Ammonium forms of nitrogen are less likely to leach and can stay in the soil longer than nitrate forms particularly in colder months.
Nitrogen is necessary for tree growth. The greatest demands for nitrogen are in spring and early summer. Trees with nitrogen deficiency produce short needles and exhibit poor yellow-green color. New growth can be weak and spindly over the entire tree. Nitrogen needs to be applied 3 to 6 weeks before bud break to insure adequate levels are available.
Nitrogen recommendations for Christmas trees are provided in Table 2. Recommended rates increase with the size of the tree. Young Christmas trees that have been in the field one or two years need less nitrogen annually. Research has demonstrated that no additional growth occurs with higher nitrogen rates and there is greater risk of salt injury to young unestablished root systems. Remember, the nitrogen recommendation on the soil report will always be for 100 to 120 pounds to the acre since tree size is not provided. Nitrogen applied above the rates recommended in Table 2 increases the risk of ground water contamination and/or soluble salt injury (particularly when applied near the tree by hand).
| | Nitrogen (ounces per tree) | Nitrogen (ounces per tree) |
|------------------|------------------------------|------------------------------|
| Tree Age (years) | Species | Spring |
| 1 | All species | 1/2 |
| 2 | All species | 1/2 |
| 3 | Fir, spruce, hemlock | 1/2 - 2/3 1/3 - 1/2 |
| 3 | White & Virginia pine, cedar | 1/2 |
| 4 | Fir, spruce, hemlock | 2/3 1/3 |
| 4 | White & Virginia pine, cedar | 1/2 1/2 |
It is best if the annual nitrogen requirement is provided in two applications. In Christmas tree research studies, the best growth occurred when nitrogen was split between spring and fall applications. Split applications reduce the salts in solution at any given time. Spring fertilization can be made from up to six weeks before bud break using nitrate forms of nitrogen and even earlier with ammonium sources. Fall fertilization should occur after August 15 or when growth has fully matured and cooler temperatures are likely.
Nitrogen can be applied using several types of material. The decision of which material to use should also consider recommended amounts of phosphorus and potassium on the soil report. If both phosphorus and potassium are needed a number of different blended fertilizers can be used. Select the product that best fits the ratio between nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium recommendations. If only nitrogen and phosphorus are needed, diammonium phosphate is the optimal choice. If nitrogen alone is needed, there are several choices. Urea is one of the most concentrated materials allowing more trees to be treated per unit purchased. It also has the lowest salt index and risk of salt injury among nitrogen sources. Ammonium sulfate is the most acidic material and can be used to make small reductions in soil pH while satisfying the nitrogen requirement. Calcium Nitrate contains a more soluble form of calcium that can be beneficial when Christmas trees are deficient in calcium and lime would be too slow-acting.
The suggested annual rate of phosphate P$\_{2}$O$\_{5}$ provided on the soil report is calculated from the P-I value, soil class, and proven requirements of the Christmas tree species being grown. Different equations have been developed for most crop and soil conditions. The rates of phosphate (P$\_{2}$O$\_{5}$) shown on a Christmas tree soil report are given in pounds per acre.
Availability of phosphorus is severely limited in many NC soils. Some native soils have little or no available phosphorus when first soil tested. When phosphorus fertilizer is applied to these acidic soils, much of it is converted to insoluble forms that plants are unable to take up. Surface applied phosphorus is often trapped in the top inch or two of the soil profile where it may not be accessible to roots.
To overcome the phosphorus-fixing capacity of soils, several strategies must be employed. The least expensive way to increase phosphorus availability is to lime acidic soils to raise soil pH. While it would be better to lime well before applying phosphorus, simultaneous applications are better than no lime at all. Any means of incorporating phosphorus will also increase availability in the root zone. Where limited to surface applications, front-loading larger applications of phosphorus early in the rotation is one way to increase nutrient availability sooner.
For a perennial crop like Christmas trees, incorporation of fertilizers can only happen during site preparation prior to planting. Tillage practices such as plowing, disking, or harrowing can mix surface applied phosphorus to some extent. A fertilizer hopper can be modified to direct phosphorus fertilizer into trenches cut during sub-soiling or field cross-checking prior to planting. These methods have the advantage of deeper placement and enough concentration of material for some of it to remain in available forms longer.
The most common phosphorus material applied in western NC is Diammonium Phosphate (18-460). It is slightly more water soluble than other forms and more likely to move down into the root zone. It has a 1:5 ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus providing opportunities for large applications of phosphorus. Monoamonium Phosphate (11-48-0) functions in a similar fashion to 18-46-0 but has an even lower ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus. In new field applications, 11-48-0 could maximize the phosphorus with a minimal addition of nitrogen. Unfortunately, availability of 11-48-0 is limited. Triple Super Phosphate (0-46-0) is a relatively insoluble form, but is the least salty material and works well
disked-in or used in deep phosphorus applications. Growers have also used fine-ground rock phosphate (0-35-0) which can work well on acidic mountain soils. Whatever materials are used, apply enough material to overcome the fixing capacity of the soil so that trees can actually use it.
Phosphorus applications should be based on soil and tissue reports as with other nutrients. However, applications should aim not only at correcting existing deficiency but at building soil levels for future growth. Particularly in new field situations, Phosphorus applications should probably exceed soil test recommendations. Even where levels are adequate, maintenance applications are recommended to provide soluble P on an annual basis. On the other hand, extremely high levels (P1 over 100) can impact availability of several other nutrients and should be avoided. Excess phosphorus can be a water quality problem if soil moves off site. A two-depth soil sample can indicate the depth to which phosphorus is available and the need for more surface-applied fertilizer.
## K$\_{2}$O
This value is the suggested rate of potash (K$\_{2}$O) in pounds per acre to be applied annually. Similar to phosphorus, the K$\_{2}$O rate is calculated from the K-I value, soil class, and proven requirements of the Christmas tree species being grown. Quite differently from phosphorus, potassium (K) does move down through the soil profile without being incorporated.
Lower rates of potassium are recommended during establishment of new field transplants to avoid root injury. However after the first two years in the field, vigorously growing trees have larger, more robust root systems that can withstand and higher rates of fertilizer. Established trees require more potassium on an annual basis.
When the soil test recommends applying more than 100 lbs of K$\_{2}$O per acre, apply half in the spring and half in the fall. Applying more than 50 lbs K$\_{2}$O lacre at one time increases the risk of soluble salt injury to roots, especially if weather turns dry after application.
The decision of which potassium fertilizer to use should consider the risk of salt injury in addition to cost of material. Potassium Sulfate (0-0-50) is the least salty source of K and should be used during the growing season from April to October. Murate of Potash (0-0-60) is a less costly choice but contains twice the amount of salt. Murate of Potash should only be used during the dormant season when soils are cool and less likely to incur droughty conditions. Most blends contain 0-0-60 because of cost. Blends therefore represent a greater risk of salt injury since they contain the combined salt contributions of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium materials.
## Mg
A blank or zero indicates no special need for magnesium. In this case, a calcitic lime source may be used to raise soil pH. A $ will appear in this column when magnesium is low. If magnesium is low and soil pH needs to be raised, domotic lime should be used to both raise the pH and provide magnesium. If magnesium is needed ($), but the pH is already high enough, other non-liming sources of magnesium should be used rather than dolomitic lime. This is also true if a magnesium deficiency is induced by high levels of calcium. In most fields, magnesium requirements are satisfied in the course of liming.
Non-liming sources of magnesium that do not significantly alter soil pH include ground applied magnesium sulfate, sulfate of potassium magnesia, magnesium oxisulfate, and foliar applications of magnesium sulfate or esoph salts. Blending small amounts of magnesium fertilizers with N-P-K fertilizers may ensure a more uniform application.
For most soils an application of 25 pounds per acre of actual magnesium is recommended as a corrective action. However, the soil test and information from the lime or fertilizer label can be used to calculate the actual magnesium contribution provided by a lime application and how much additional magnesium might be needed from other sources. For more information regarding magnesium fertilizers see Christmas tree note 5.
## S, Mn, Zn, Cu, and B
Sulfur, a secondary nutrient, and manganese, zinc, and copper micronutrient recommendations are simply listed as sufficient or not according to the availability index on the report. A zero appears in the appropriate column if the soil level is considered to be adequate and a $ appears if an application is recommended. The $ appears if the micronutrient availability index for the crop is 25 or below. This symbol also refers to the $ Note, which provides further information on micronutrient rates of application. If soil pH is high enough to affect Mn availability, a pH$ or $PH notation will appear in the Mn column. Potential zinc toxicity is indicated by a Z under the appropriate column of the report. Possible copper toxicity is tagged by a C under the copper column. Soil is not tested for boron due to its variability in the soil. Plant tissue analysis provides additional insights regarding micronutrient levels in Christmas trees and should be considered after trees become established.
Note: Accompanying each soil test report is NCDA Note 5, "Christmas Trees" which provides additional information on lime and fertility requirements for Christmas trees.
## Soil Sampling as Part of a Comprehensive Soil Fertility Program
Soil samples are the most important source of information available to support soil fertility and Christmas tree nutrition. However, they are not a stand-alone tool. They should be used as part of an overall soil fertility management plan. Other sources of information that can be vital to making the best decisions include: farm and field cropping history, influences of recent weather, the use of plant analysis test results to show how Christmas trees are responding to soil treatments, the knowledge and experience of the Christmas tree grower or manager, and expertise of NC Extension Service county agents or NCDA & CS soil agronomists. In addition, the decision on what to apply may involve soil test results from neighboring blocks or similar ages of tree, or even the remaining life of the farm lease. For instance, a grower might opt for faster-acting gypsum instead of lime if the percent calcium is low and soil pH is marginally adequate and there is only the current season to harvest remaining trees on leased land.
Further, a single soil test only reflects one point in time and the mixed soil in one sample box. The real benefit of soil and tissue sampling to a Christmas tree farmer comes with time and experience. Several samples collected over several years show trends in soil fertility. A manager can see the impact of treatments over time and get a sense of how difficult it is to correct a problem like high pH. If one sample is skewed by what went into the box, the context of other samples allows the grower to discount unreasonable results.
Soil testing and fertilization can be a little like sailing a boat. The captain knows which direction is the boat is going, but to get there he or she must track across the wind. The boat seldom points exactly toward the objective. With soil and tissue sampling, the goal is to approach optimums for plant growth, add nutrients when results are low, and correct with balancing treatments when the mark is overshot. The real return in taking soil and tissue samples is in long-term productivity. The truth is growers who take soil samples and pay attention to the results grow better trees.
This discussion introduces only a few of the many aspects of Christmas tree fertilization. Should questions arise regarding North Carolina soil testing or recommended fertilization practices, please contact your local N.C. Cooperative Extension center, or the NCDA&CS Agronomic Division at 919733-2656.
## Authors
Craig McKinley Extension Forestry
James Shelton
Retired Soil Scientist Soil Science
Ray Tucker
Retired Director, NCDA Soils Lab NCDA&CS Agronomic Division
Jeff Owen
Area Extension Specialist (Christmas Trees) Forestry & Environmental Resources
Craig McKinley
Former Extension Specialist Extension Forestry
Will Kohlway
Extension Specialist Extension Forestry
Publication date: April 23, 2014
Reviewed/Revised: Sept. 6, 2019
The use of brand names in this publication does not imply endorsement by NC State University or N.C. A&T State University of the products or services named nor discrimination against similar products or services not mentioned.
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
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Care animals/gardening-
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https://site.extension.uga.edu/greenway/2012/07/27/trash-screens/ | Trash Screens | University of Georgia | [
"Pamela Turner"
] | 2012-07-27 | [
"Uncategorized"
] | GA | ## Trash Screens
Written by
July 27, 2012
Pamela Turner
Lest we think Australia is free from trash and debris, take a look at this photo of a screen on the river in Melbourne which is designed to catch trash.
Like many large cities, they have trash on the streets too, especially cigarette butts. I am not certain that smoking is higher in Australia than in the states, but we all noticed excessive amounts of cigarette smoke.
Yuck!
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https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/pip-soybean/soybean-research-at-osu-2011-p-1034.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20120125085149-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Soybean Research at OSU 2011
Supported by the
Oklahoma Soybean Board and the United Soybean Board
Oklahoma State University Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service
P-1034
## Soybean Research at OSU 2011
Supported by the
## Oklahoma Soybean Board and the United Soybean Board
## Oklahoma State University Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service
The pesticide information presented in this publication was current with federal and state regulations at the time of printing. The user is responsible for determining that the intended use is consistent with the label of the product being used. Use pesticides safely. Read and follow label directions. The information given herein is for educational purposes only. Reference to commercial products or trade names is made with the understanding that no discrimination is intended and no endorsement by the Cooperative Extension Service is implied.
Oklahoma State University, in compliance with Title VI and VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Executive Order 11246 as amended, Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, and other federal laws and regulations, does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, age, religion, disability, or status as a veteran in any of its policies, practices or procedures. This includes but is not limited to admissions, employment, financial aid, and educational services.
This report at the Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Dean of the Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources and has been prepared and distributed at a cost of $1,984.77 for 500 copies. Q211 GH & TE.
## Table of Contents
| Foreword .......................................................................................................................... ii | Foreword .......................................................................................................................... ii |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Research and Producer Partnerships .........................................................................1 | |
| Oklahoma Soybean Quality Program .......................................................................2 | |
| The Potential for Varying Soybean Seeding Rate......................................................6 | |
| Effects of Row Spacing, Seed Rate and Maturity Group on Late-Planted Soybean Under Irrigated and Dryland | |
| Conditions in Oklahoma..............................................................................................8 | |
| Evaluation of Preemergence and Early Postemergence Herbicides | |
| to Improve Weed Control in Oklahoma Soybean Production....................................12 | |
| Soybean Disease Management....................................................................................16 | |
| Relationships Between Soil Profile Characteristic and | |
| Soybean Yields in 2010 .................................................................................................21 | |
## Foreword
Does the "fifth" stay the same as last year?
This is the only place that said Oklahoma Soybean Commission, so I changed it. Let me know if it's incorrect.
The 2011 Partners in Progress-Soybeans publication is the fifth in a series of annual reports from the Oklahoma State University's Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources summarizing work supported by the Oklahoma Soybean Board (OSB) and the United Soybean Board (USB).
As partners, we have a history of cooperation that began when the first furrows were turned in Oklahoma soil. This collaboration continues to this day. In keeping with this spirit of coopera -tion, it is our intention that soybean research be directed as closely as possible to the needs of our state's producers.
Although this report focuses on soybean research progress of the past year, it is the continued support of a project over time that leads to successes such as variety releases and development of new technology.
History has proven that a united effort between soybean producers and Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station (OAES) agricultural scientists is beneficial to Oklahoma agriculture. Progress in OAES soybean research means progress for Oklahoma soybean producers.
Clarence Watson, Associate Director Oklahoma Agricultural Experiment Station Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources Oklahoma State University
Oklahoma State University Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources Mission Statement
The Mission of the Oklahoma State University Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources is to discover, develop, disseminate, and preserve knowledge needed to enhance the productivity, profitability, and sustainability of agriculture; conserve and improve natural resources; improve the health and well-being of all segments of our society; and to instill in its students the intellectual curiosity, discernment, knowledge, and skills needed for their individual development and contribution to society.
## Research and Producer Partnerships
As the name suggests, the OSB addition, the university effectively and OSU have enjoyed a partnership utilizes their mission of Extension that designed to help Oklahoma soybean is a part of the land grant university, to producers to produce at a profit. The disseminate the research results to the Soybean Check Off Board is proud to continue the symbiotic relationship with the researchers at OSU. Research their involvement in the annual
is practical, objective and timely. This productive partnership will continue to benefit an increasing number of Oklahoma soybean farmers.
Rick Reimer, Secretary Oklahoma
## Oklahoma Soybean Quality Program
Nurhan T. Dunford Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering
Chad Godsey
Plant and Soil Sciences
## 2011 progress made possible through OSB/USB support
- · Soybean samples from 2010 and 2011 crop years were analyzed for their fatty acid, protein, oil, ash and moisture contents using standard wet chemistry protocols.
- · Palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids were the major fatty acids in all soybean samples. Linoleic acid comprised more than 50 percent of the fatty acids.
- It appears in general oil content of the 2011 samples was lower than 2010 samples.
- · The soybean samples from Vinita had the highest amount of green beans as compared to the samples from Stillwater, Fort Cobb and Miami.
## Problem Statement:
Both seed and oil quality are very important factors affecting market value, processing aspects and storage quality of soybeans. Although there is a national soybean quality program, information on Oklahoma grown soybeans is very limited.
The main objective of this study is to establish a "Soybean Seed and Oil Quality Program" at OSU and provide technical assistance to soybean Extension personnel, growers and processors in the state.
Material and Methods In 2010, 30 soybean samples were collected from OSU soybean variety field trials. These samples were analyzed for their protein, oil, ash, moisture and fatty acid composition using standard wet chemistry protocols. The soybean oilex-
traced from the samples was analyzed for its fatty acid composition.
In 2011, about 30 soybean samples were collected from OSU soybean variety fields in Stillwater, Fort Cobb, Vinita and Miami. Due to bad weather conditions, we were able to obtain only one sample from a farmer's field. Similar to the previous year, these samples were analyzed for their protein, oil, ash, moisture and fatty acid compositions. This year's samples also were evaluated for the presence of green and unacceptable (dark color and deformed bean shape) beans and seed weight (weight of 100 beans). Color of the seed samples also was measured.
## Results
We reported protein, oil, moisture and ash content of the soybean samples
from the 2010 crop year in the Okla- homa Soybean Board (OSB) and United Soybean Board (USB) 2010 Partners in Progress - Soybeans report. In this article, we report fatty acid compositions of the 2010 samples (Table 1). Palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids were
the major fatty acids in all the samples. More than 50 percent of the fatty acids comprised of linoleic acid. Although there were slight variations in the fatty acid composition among the soybean samples, the differences were not significant for practical purposes.
Table 1: Fatty acid composition (% , w/w ) of soybean varieties grown at different locations in Oklahoma in 2010.
| Sample Name | Fatty Acid Name | Fatty Acid Name | Fatty Acid Name | Fatty Acid Name | Fatty Acid Name |
|---------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|
| Sample Name | Palmitic | Stearic | Oleic | Linoleic | Linolenic |
| 24WE | 11.1 | 4.1 | 24.8 | 54.0 | 7.3 |
| 35WE | 10.7 | 4.0 | 24.5 | 54.3 | 8.3 |
| 16NE | 11.9 | 4.4 | 25.0 | 53.8 | 6.6 |
| 24NE | 12.3 | 4.4 | 25.4 | 53.3 | 5.9 |
| 24PA | 11.5 | 4.5 | 26.5 | 53.1 | 6.6 |
| 35NE | 10.5 | 4.3 | 24.6 | 55.5 | 6.4 |
| 2NE | 11.4 | 4.3 | 24.0 | 55.9 | 5.5 |
| 35PA | 11.3 | 4.1 | 23.9 | 53.8 | 8.9 |
| 42PA | 11.7 | 4.2 | 23.5 | 53.9 | 8.2 |
| 16PA | 11.6 | 4.4 | 25.2 | 53.9 | 5.4 |
| 15NE | 9.6 | 4.0 | 23.5 | 56.7 | 7.8 |
| 42NE | 11.3 | 4.2 | 23.0 | 55.2 | 7.1 |
| 42WE | 11.0 | 4.1 | 24.4 | 53.7 | 7.5 |
| 2WE | 8.7 | 4.0 | 29.0 | 55.0 | 4.3 |
| 15PA | 9.6 | 4.0 | 23.6 | 55.8 | 8.7 |
| 16WE | 8.4 | 3.8 | 26.1 | 57.1 | 5.5 |
| 2PA | 9.4 | 4.2 | 26.3 | 54.8 | 7.5 |
| 15WE | 8.1 | 3.7 | 25.8 | 57.2 | 6.6 |
| 2FT | 8.9 | 4.0 | 28.4 | 54.3 | 6.0 |
| 15CH | 10.2 | 4.3 | 26.3 | 55.0 | 5.1 |
| 16CH | 11.2 | 4.2 | 23.9 | 55.7 | 5.9 |
| 35CH | 10.7 | 4.2 | 24.1 | 55.3 | 6.9 |
| 2CH | 11.0 | 4.2 | 24.9 | 55.5 | 5.2 |
| 24CH | 11.4 | 4.4 | 24.6 | 54.6 | 6.4 |
| 42FT | 10.3 | 4.1 | 25.4 | 56.1 | 4.3 |
| 16FT | 8.3 | 4.1 | 28.4 | 56.5 | 4.1 |
| 42CH | 10.9 | 4.0 | 22.3 | 56.7 | 6.6 |
| 24FT | 10.5 | 4.0 | 24.4 | 55.6 | 5.7 |
| 15FT | 8.6 | 4.2 | 29.2 | 55.9 | 3.4 |
| 35FT | 9.8 | 4.0 | 26.0 | 55.4 | 6.0 |
| | | | | | |
Sample label abbreviations are as follows: 2=Rev4.5R10MG4.5; 15=S51-T8MG5.1; 16= MORSOYRTS4824MG4.8; 24RC5007SMG5.0; 35=570RRMSGM5.7; 42=HBKR5425MG5.4.
MG refers to soybean maturity group.
FT = FORT COBB; CH=CHEROKEE; NE= NEWKKIRK; PA=PAULS VALLEY; WE= WEBBERS FALLS;
What is w / w ?
I don't see MG in the table. Does it need to be referenced?
This year's soybean samples were received in our laboratory in November 2011. The chemical compositions of the samples, which have been analyzed so
far are shown in Table 2. It appears that in general oil and protein contents of the 2011 samples were lower than those for 2010 samples.
Table 2: Chemical composition of 2011 soybean samples.
| Sample Name* | Chemical Composition (%, w/w) | Chemical Composition (%, w/w) | Chemical Composition (%, w/w) | |
|----------------------|---------------------------------|---------------------------------|---------------------------------|------------|
| | Oil | Ash | Moisture | Protein |
| ESStilwaterS46-A1#1 | 12.68±0.24 | 5.50±0.05 | 4.31±0.09 | 36.41±0.17 |
| ESStillwaterS49-A5#3 | 14.59±0.22 | 5.17±0.00 | 4.29±0.01 | 35.44±0.40 |
| VinitaAGAS650#4 | 11.51±0.28 | 4.69±0.03 | 3.98±0.02 | 39.27±0.34 |
| VinitaP94190#5 | 12.43±0.27 | 4.82±0.04 | 4.02±0.02 | 38.54±0.11 |
| VinitaP5191#6 | 11.61±0.14 | 4.64±0.04 | 5.53±0.05 | 40.35±0.06 |
| ESFTCobbS47-R3#2 | 12.99±0.22 | 5.60±0.03 | 5.37±0.00 | 33.75±0.12 |
| ESFTCobbAG4730#4 | 12.07±0.27 | 5.81±0.08 | 5.54±0.02 | 36.60±0.22 |
| ESFTCobbGAG4903#6 | 11.52±0.25 | 6.00±0.03 | 5.37±0.02 | 34.08±0.14 |
| ESMiamiAG4903#6 | 11.17±0.13 | 5.01±0.04 | 5.76±0.01 | 39.91±0.33 |
| ESMiamiRev48R21#27 | 12.46±0.29 | 4.56±0.06 | 5.29±0.01 | 38.83±0.35 |
| | | | | |
"Detailed information (variety, planting and harvest date, weather, etc.) on soybean varieties examined in this study can be found at www.oilseeds.okstate.edu.
Table 3 shows the quality data (proportion of the green and unacceptable beans in the samples and seed weight, 100 seeds) for the 2011 samples. The highest amount of green beans was found in the samples collected from Vinita, 61 percent - 6.7 percent of the
| Sample Name | Green beans (%, w/w) | Unacceptable beans* (%, w/w) | Bean weight (g/100 beans) |
|----------------------|-------------------------|---------------------------------|------------------------------|
| EsStillwaterS46-A1#1 | 1 | 0.5 | 14.61±0.61 |
| EsStillwaterS49-A5#3 | 4.6 | 0.3 | 13.78±0.59 |
| VinitaAG5605#4 | 6.1 | 0.5 | 12.92±0.45 |
| VinitaP4910#5 | 6.2 | 0.9 | 16.26±0.88 |
| VinitaP5191#6 | 6.7 | 1.6 | 15.60±0.36 |
| ESFTCobbS47-R3#2 | 1.1 | 0.3 | 11.04±0.22 |
| ESFTCobbAG4730#4 | 1.1 | 0.2 | 13.34±0.09 |
| ESFTCobbAG4 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 12.94±0.28 |
| ESMiamiAG4903#6 | 1 | 5.2 | 12.98±0.21 |
| ESMiamiRev48R21#27 | 3.5 | 5.2 | 14.74±0.64 |
"Does not include green beans.
## Ongoing Work
Currently, 2011 crop year soybean samples, which are not reported in this article, are being analyzed for their proximate composition, fatty acid composition, bean quality parameters and color.
## The Potential for Varying Soybean Seeding Rate
Chad Godsey Plant and Soil Sciences
2011 progress made possible through OSB/USB support
- Changing the soybean seeding rate based on soil maps and past yield history has potential to reduce seeding costs.
- Precision farming technologies are a valuable tool to help with on-farm research.
## Introduction
Precision agriculture technologies related to crop production have had a low adoption rate in Oklahoma. Many Oklahoma producers recognize the role of these technologies in the midwestern corn and soybean belt but are concerned about their economic feasibility in this state. Automated or embedded technologies such as swarm control are being adopted faster than management technologies such as yield monitors and variable rate controllers. One technology that may have a great amount of potential in Oklahoma is variable rate seeding. With the inherent variability in soil type, which affects soil water holding capacity and depth of top soil in the majority of dryland soybean fields in Oklahoma, it is likely that one flat seeding rate is not ideal. Currently, only a few producers have the capability of changing the seeding rate on the go, but as newer planters are purchased, producers need to know if this technology will pay in order to make the investment.
Both yield data and soils maps can be a useful tool in identifying management zones. Typically, these management zones can be either consistently high yielding, consistently low yielding or average. Higher yielding areas may respond better to higher seeding rates,
while low yielding areas may benefit from a lower seedling rate. With the technology and soil data readily available, the potential to improve yield and save on seed cost exists.
The objective of this project was to evaluate the feasibility of using soil maps and/or past yield to make variable seeding recommendations.
## Methods
A soybean field in Kay County was identified where the producer had the capability to vary the seeding rate. The tractor was equipped with a GreenStar 3 monitor. Areas of the field were targeted that we felt may respond differently to seeding rate. These areas were identified by using historical yield data that the producer partner had collected and soil maps through the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) website. To evaluate variable seeding rates, we randomly placed strips where the seeding rate was varied (Figure 1). The width of these strips were 60 ft wide. Seeding rates evaluated were 90,000 seeds/A; 125,000 seeds/A; and 140,000 seeds/A. Yield monitor data was collected by the producer.
All yield data points were filtered and erroneous data points were deleted.
| Seeding Rate (seeds/A) | Seeding Rate (seeds/A) | Seeding Rate (seeds/A) |
|--------------------------|--------------------------|--------------------------|
| Strip | 90,000 | 125,000 |
| 1 | 13.8 | 140,000 |
| 2 | 13.7 | * |
| 3 | 10.8 | 11.4 |
| 4 | 13.0 | 8.9 |
| 5 | 11.6 | 13.0 |
| 6 | 14.7 | 9.4 |
| 7 | 11.8 | 11.9 |
| 8 | 5.0 | 5.9 |
| 9 | 2.9 | 8.3 |
| 10 | 7.7 | 7.1 |
| 11 | 7.7 | 7.2 |
| 12 | 12.8 | 13.1 |
| 13 | 13 | 9.3 |
| 14 | 6.8 | 6.6 |
| 15 | 12.9 | 8.3 |
| 16 | 12.1 | 8.3 |
| 17 | 18 | 8.1 |
| 18 | 17 | 9.8 |
| | Avg. | 10.1 |
'Blank cells indicate that cells were not evaluated adjacent to the other two populations.
## Effects of Row Spacing, Seed Rate and Maturity Group on Late-Planted Soybean Under Irrigated and Dryland Conditions in Oklahoma
A.S. Barreiro and Chad Godsey Plant and Soil Sciences
## 2011 progress made possible through OSB/USB support
- For irrigated soybean, a plant population of 180,000 resulted in the highest yields.
- Given the harsh environmental conditions, no response was observed among treatments at the dryland location.
## Introduction
Soybean production has increased significantly in Oklahoma past few years. However, some production aspects, unique to the state, still need to be addressed. Amajority of the soybean acreage is double cropped after winter wheat harvest in June. This results in a soybean planting date after June 10, which is the date that has been identified as the point when yield potential starts to decrease. The purpose of this study is to determine the best planting strategies in regard to row spacing, seeding rate and maturity group (MG) for late-planted soybean under irrigated and dryland conditions in Oklahoma. This study was initiated in 2011 at the OSU Eastern Research Station in Haskell, under dryland conditions, and at the Agronomy Research Station in
Stillwater under irrigated conditions. At both locations, the established plots were 10 ft x 25 ft. The two soybean varieties (REV 48R22 and AG 5632) used in the study were glyphosateresistant and were selected based on their performance from previous varietystwooils(www.oiseseds.okstate.edu). Row spacings of 7.5 in, 15 in and 30 in were evaluated. Plots with 30 in row spacing were planted with a four-row Monosem vacuum planter (Monosem, Inc. Edwardsville, Kan.), Plots with 7.5 in and 15 in row spacing were planted with a Great Plains Drill model 3P600 (Great Plains Mfg., Salina, Kan.) with seven rows spaced at 7.5 in. Inoculants, soil fertility and pest management practices were conducted according to OSU recommended practices.
| Irrigated Study | Irrigated Study | Irrigated Study | Irrigated Study |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|
| This experiment was planted June | | | |
| 27, using a complete randomized block design with three applications and three variables (MG, row spacing and seeding rate). Table 5 shows all different treatments utilized for each replication. One and a half inches of irrigation was applied weekly throughout the growing season. | Treatment | Row Spacing | Rate seeds/acre |
| Maturity Group | Spacing | Seed Rate | Seed |
| 4.8 | 7.5 | 100,000 | 100,000 |
| 102 | 140,000 | 113 | 110 |
| 103 | 180,000 | 114 | 100,000 |
| 104 | 30 | 115 | 140,000 |
| 105 | 180,000 | 116 | 117 |
| 106 | 5.6 | 118 | 110 |
| 5.6 | 7.5 | 100,000 | 119 |
| 108 | 140,000 | 120 | 180,000 |
| 109 | 30 | 121 | 100,000 |
| 110 | 140,000 | 122 | 100,000 |
| 111 | 140,000 | 123 | 180,000 |
| 112 | 124 | 130,000 | 155,000 |
## Dryland Study
This experiment was planted on July 14 th , using the same experimental design and variables. Table 2 shows all different treatments utilized for each replication.
| Treatment | Maturity Group | Row Spacing | Seed Rate seeds/acre |
|-------------|------------------|---------------|------------------------|
| 101 | 4.8 | 7.5 | 80,000 |
| 102 | 102 | 105,000 | 130,000 |
| 103 | 104 | 155,000 | 155,000 |
| 105 | 107 | 80,000 | 105,000 |
| 108 | 107 | 130,000 | 155,000 |
| 109 | 30 | 80,000 | 155,000 |
| 110 | 111 | 105,000 | 130,000 |
| 112 | 155,000 | 80,000 | |
| 113 | 7.5 | 105,000 | |
| 114 | 105,000 | 130,000 | |
| 115 | 155,000 | 130,000 | |
| 117 | 15 | 80,000 | |
| 118 | 105,000 | 130,000 | |
| 119 | 130,000 | 130,000 | |
| 120 | 155,000 | 80,000 | |
| 121 | 30 | 80,000 | |
| 122 | 105,000 | 130,000 | |
| 123 | 130,000 | 155,000 | |
All plots were harvested using a Winterseiger Delta plot combine (WINTERSTEIGER Inc., Salt Lake City, UT), at maturity. Grain yield and moisture were determined. All harvested plots were collected in bags to determine seed mass.
## Results for Irrigated Soybean
In 2011, climate conditions were not conducive to high yielding soybean, even with irrigation. The heat was extreme during reproductive stages, which limited yield potential. Yields from the irrigated location are given in Figure 3.
MG 4.8 (REV 48R22) soybean performed better when planted in 30 in row spacing compared to 7.5 in, regardless of plant population. No difference in yield was found between seed rate of 100,000 seeds/A and 140,000 seeds/A for both row spacing. However, plants at 180,000 seeds/A had greater yield,
## Results for Dryland
As mentioned previously, very high temperatures and extensive periods without rainfall were observed in 2011. Our study under these conditions and with a late planting date provided poor soybean yields, however differences between some treatments were observed as shown in Figure 4.
For all three row spacings from MG 4.8, no difference in yield was observed between seed rate of 80,000 seeds/A and 105,000 seeds/A. Row spacings of
7.5 in and 15 in had greater yields, 10 bu/A and 12.9 bu/A, respectively, compared to 30 in at 130,000 seeds/acre. For both MG 4.8 and 5.6, 30 in row spacing performed better when planted at the highest population (155,000 seeds/A). For MG 5.6, with exception of soybean with 30 in row spacing at the highest seed rate, there were no differences in yield among the other treatments.
These studies will be expanded to more locations in 2012, and hopefully we will experience better growing conditions.
## Evaluation of Preemergence and Early Postemergence Herbicides to Improve Weed Control in Oklahoma Soybean Production
Joe Armstrong Plant and Soil Sciences
## 2011 progress made possible through OSB/USB support
- Many of the preemergence (PRE) herbicides evaluated in this trial provided excellent control of large crabgrass and Palmer aranth, despite the drought conditions experienced after planting and application.
- Early postemergence (POST) herbicides can be used to control weeds that are present at the time of application and extended the period of soil-residual activity to prevent future weed emergence and growth.
- Is it improve or prevent? Is it improve
- · Preemergence herbicides give the opportunity to diversify chemical weed management strategies and are important to improve prevent the development and spread of herbicideresistant weeds in Oklahoma.
## Introduction
Weed control is a continual issue facing soybean producers in Oklahoma. Evaluation of herbicide options is essential for producers to make informed decisions for weed management in soybeans and other crops in rotation. PRE herbicides, such as Valor SX®, Authority® , and Prowl H O$\_{A}$ are valuable for early-season weed control; however, many producers have shifted to using only POST applications for weed control in soybean, especially when growing Roundup Ready®, or glyphosateresistant varieties.
The use of POST-only weed control programs presents several potential
problems. First, by not using a soilapplied herbicide at planting or included with a burndown treatment, soybean yields may suffer due to early season weed competition. Research from Nebraska has shown that soybean yields for a crop planted in 30-in rows are negatively impacted by weeds as early as seven days after planting (Knezivic et al. 2003). PRE herbicides work through activity in the soil that controls weeds prior to or shortly after their emergence. As a result of improved early season weed control, PRE herbicides also can lengthen the window of time during which POST applications need to be
made to prevent yield loss during the growing season. This "cushion" can be very important if weather conditions or workload prevent timely application of POST treatments. Finally, most producers who use a POST-only program are using primarily a single herbicide (glyphosate) for weed control. Unfortunately, this over-reliance on glyphosate has led to the development of populations of marestail, waterhemp and other weeds throughout Oklahoma that can no longer be controlled with glyphosate. To prevent or delay the development of herbicide-resistant weeds, it is necessary to use additional herbicides from other modes of action to diversify the chemical weed control program. The easiest way to include additional herbicides is to use a PRE herbicide that will provide soil residual weed control during the growing season. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate an extensive list of PRE herbicide options for soybean production in Oklahoma.
## Materials and Methods
A field trial was established at the OSU Cimarron Valley Research Station near Perkins in 2011. Asgrow AG47360 was planted May 31 in 30-in rows following a tillage operation to control any weeds that were present. A total of 34 PRE and early POST herbicide treatments were evaluated. PRE treatments were applied June 1 and early POST treatments were applied June 17 when soybeans were at the cotyledon to second trifoliate growth stage. Each treatment was replicated four times and visual estimates of crop injury and weed control were collected by comparing herbicide treatments to the untreated control at multiple times during the growing season. Weed control was evaluated on a scale of 0 to 99 percent,
where 0 represented no weed control and 99 percent represented complete control. In this report, weed control data collected 30 days after planting is presented.
## Results and discussion
Despite the drought conditions after planting and application, many of the PRE and early POST herbicides evaluated in this study performed very well and provided excellent control of large crabgrass and Palmer amaranth through at least 30 days after planting (Table 7). For example, all of the Valor SX$^{®}$ and Authority$^{®}$containing products provided good to excellent control of large crabgrass (≥86 percent) and Palmer amaranth (≥98 percent). Many other herbicides also provided excellent control of Palmer amaranth.
In addition to PRE herbicides with soil residual activity, four early POST herbicides that also have soil residual activity were evaluated. These products -Warrant™, Prefix™, Sequence ® and Anthem™ -either have some POST activity or weeds or must be tank-mixed with glyphosate to control any weeds that are present. With the exception of Prefix™ and Sequence ® on large crabgrass, all of these treatments provided excellent weed control. Early POST treatments are gaining in popularity because they allow for an extended period of soil activity when used forlowing a traditional PRE application (also known as overlapping residuals). Glyphosate-resistant weeds, such as waterhemp, can grow very quickly and become difficult to control with POST treatments in a matter of only a few days. Therefore, maximizing the amount of soil activity with multiple herbicides is often the best solution for preventing these weeds from gaining a foothold.
Several herbicides provided poor control of the weeds evaluated in this trial. This is likely due to one of three different reasons. First, when selecting a PRE herbicide, it is very important to know which weeds are likely to present in each field. For example, FirstRate$^{®}$ provides 97 percent control of Palmer amaranth, but only 57 percent control of large crabgrass. This is simply due to the selective nature of this herbicide.
Second, some herbicides may have shorter residual activity in the soil than others. Sharpen$^{®}$, for example, is an excellent herbicide for burndown weed control, but has relatively short residual activity in the soil and will not successfully control weeds through the early stages of the growing season. Finally, the poor weed control for some herbicides can most likely be attributed to the lack of precipitation after planting and application. All soil-applied PRE herbicides require precipitation to be moved into the soil for maximum performance. The precipitation does not have come immediately after application, but must be received before the herbicide breaks down due to light, temperature and biological degradation.
Most of the products evaluated in this trial are commercially available; however, three yet-to-released herbicides were also investigated. Zidua$^{®}$, a new PRE herbicide that will be sold by BASF, contains pyroxasulfone as its active ingredient. Pyroxasulfone also will be sold as part of pre-mix in Fierce™ (Valor SX ® + pyroxasulfone) and Anem™ (Cadet® + pyroxasulfone). Pyroxasulfone belongs to the same herbicide mode of action as Dual Magnum® and Outlook®, and is very effective on a wide range of weed species. In this trial, PRe applications of Zidua®, Fierce™ and Anthem™ provided at least 97 percent control of large crabgrass and
Palmer amaranth 30 days after application. Anthem TM also was evaluated as an early POST treatment and, when tank-mixed with glyphosate to improve weed control, appears to be an effective herbicide to provide residual activity in a POST application. These products are not currently available for use in Oklahoma, but registration is expected sometime in 2012.
## Conclusions
Results from this trial indicate that several PRE herbicide options can provide excellent early season control of large crabgrass and Palmer amaranth, despite receiving minimal precipitation after application. However, not all PRE herbicides provided the same level of control. Therefore, the decision of which PRE herbicide to use should be made based on the weed species present, size of the weed populations in each individual field and subsequent crops to be planted in rotation.
PRE herbicides will not usually eliminate the need for POST applications, but will reduce weed populations present during the growing season and may reduce the number of treatments required for satisfactory weed control. Additionally, the use of PRE herbicides will improve control of marestail, Palmer amaranth or other weeds that are resistant or tolerant to glyphosate and other commonly used herbicides.
For more information on herbicide modes of action, please see OSU Fact Sheet PS-2778 "Understanding Herbicide Mode of Action." For a detailed list of the herbicide pre-mixes and ratios of the component products evaluated in this trial, please see OSU Current Report CR-2781 "Components and Ratios of Pre-mix Herbicides for Use in Soybean." Both of these documents are available at www.weedscience.okstate.edu.
## Acknowledgements
Thank you to the OSB for providing funding to conduct this trial and the various industry partners that provided support.
| Herbicide treatment | Application timing | Rate/A | Pre-mix components | Large crabgrass amaranth - % control - |
|-------------------------------------|---------------------------|----------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------|
| Valor ® SX | PRE | 3 oz | n/a | 94* 99* |
| Valor ® XLT | PRE | 3 oz | Valor ® SX + Classic® | 88* 99* |
| Fierce ® nv Enlive ® | PRE | 3 oz | Valor ® SX + pyroxasulfone Valor ® SX + Classic ® + Harmony® | 98* 98* 98* 98* |
| Enlite ® | PRE | 2.8 oz | Valor ® SX + Classic ® + Harmony® | 86* 86* 99* |
| Authority ® First / Sonic | PR | 4 oz | Authority ® + First Rate ® | 93* 93* |
| Authority ® MTZ | PR | 10 oz | Authority ® + Sensor ® | 91* 99* |
| Authority ® Assist | PR | 5 fl oz | Authority ® + Pursuit ® | 95* 98* |
| Authority ® XL | PR | 4 oz | Authority ® + Classic ® | 94* 99* |
| Spartan ® / Authority ® | PR | 6 fl oz | n/a | 95* 99* |
| Sharpen ® | PR | 1 fl oz | n/a | 29 69 |
| OpTill ® TM | PR | 2 oz | Sharpen ® + Pursuit ® | 96* 97* |
| Verdict ® TM | PR | 5 fl oz | Sharpen ® + Outlook ® | 33 79 82* 82* |
| Sencor ® | PR | 5.33 oz | n/a | 82* 76 |
| Linex ® | PR | 1 pt | n/a | 38 |
| Python ® | PR | 1.14 oz | n/a | 86* 99* |
| Linex ® + Dual Magnum ® | PR | 1 pt + 1.33 pt | n/a | 98* 99* |
| Linex ® + Valor ® SX | PR | 1 pt + 3 oz | n/a | 93* 99* |
| Linex ® + Prowl ® H,O | PR | 1 pt + 2 pt | n/a | 82* 71 |
| Linex ® + Sencor ® | PR | 0.5 pt + 4 oz | n/a | 74 92* |
| Canopy ® | PR | 3 oz | Classic ® + Sensor ® | 53 96* |
| FirstRate ® | PR | 0.6 oz | n/a | 57 97* |
| Boundary ® | PR | 2.5 pt | Dual Magnum ® + Sensor ® | 98* 98* |
| Dual Magnum ® | PR | 1.33 pt | n/a | 99* 95* |
| Outlook ® | PR | 16 fl oz | n/a | 92* 87 |
| Prowl ® H,O | PR | 2 pt | n/a | 63 36* |
| Intro ® | PR | 2.5 qt | n/a | 95* 94* |
| Zidua ® (pyroxasulfone) | PR | 2 oz | n/a | 97* 98* |
| Anthem ® | PR | 6 fl oz | Cadet ® + pyroxasulfone | 97* 97* |
| Prefix ® TM | PR | 2 pt | Reflex ® + Dual Magnum ® | 97* 99* |
| Warrant ® t + glyphosate early-POST | PR | 3 pt + 0.75 lb ae | n/a | 93* 97* |
| Prefix ® TM | early-POST | 2 pt | Reflex ® + Dual Magnum ® | 71 93* |
| Sequence ® | early-POST | 2.5 pt | Dual Magnum ® + glyphosate | 73 96* |
| Anthem™ ® + glyphosateearly-POST | uptfl oz + 0.75 lb ae n/a | 6 fl oz + 0.75 lb ae | n/a | 90* 91* 0 |
Consider deleting the two paragraphs in red, since the beginning of this pub acknowledges the OSB and other partners.
## Soybean Disease Management
John Damicone, Tyler Pierson and J.J. Stoekel Entomology and Plant Pathology
## 2011 progress made possible through OSB/USB support
- · Seed treatments provided limited improvement in plant stand, but not during late planting dates (June and July) when temperatures were high.
- · Seed treatments did not increase yield on any of the planting dates under a low-yielding environment in 2011.
- · In the absence of soybean rust and frogeye leaf spot, fungicide programs did not statistically increase yield of soybeans, although some numerical improvements in yield were observed.
- · In 2011, soybean cyst nematode (SCN) pressure was not adequate to assess the effects of resistant varieties or a seed treatment developed for nematode control.
## Seedling Diseases and Stand Establishment
Soybeans are one of the few crops that do not normally include seed treatment with fungicide to control seedling disease (seed rot and damping off). Recent observations are that stand establishment is a problem in many soybean fields. In particular, stands appear to be more erratic in the production of fullseason soybeans planted in June and July. Seedling diseases caused by the fungi Fusarium , Rhizoctonia and Pythium may be involved in stand establishment when conditions are not ideal for germination and emergence. The evaluation of seed treatments at various planting dates may provide growers useful information for maximizing stand establishment and yield potential.
Plant stand and yield responses to soybean seed treatments were evaluated at various planting dates at the
Cimarron Valley Research Station in Perkins. Seed treatments were applied using a rotary drum in a total slurry volume of 8 oz / 100 lbs seed. Planting dates were intended to be two weeks apart from April through June, but varied due to weather and soil conditions. Stand counts were taken 14 days to 21 days after each planting date. Plots were harvested on Dec. 1 and Nov. 4 with a plot combine. Yields were adjusted to 13 percent moisture.
Compared to the 30-year average, rainfall was only 59 percent of normal from June through October. Average daily temperature was 5 to 8°F above normal each month from June through August and there were 61 days above 100°F. The summer cropping period was the hottest and one of the driest on record. The crop was under drought
stress until September, when rain was received and the temperature cooled. Emergence was good (50 percent or more) for planting dates in May but was poor for the planting dates in June and July. Seed treatment effects on plant stand were statistically significant only for the May 31 planting date, when the Trilex+Gaucho treatment increased stand compared to the untreated check. The Trilex+Gaucho treatment numerically increased stand over all planting dates. However, yields were low because of the prolonged drought stress and did not differ among planting dates or treatments.
## Foliar Diseases
Soybean rust is a new threat to soybean production in the U.S. Since 2004, rust has been a yearly problem in the southeastern U.S., and was found in Oklahoma each year from 2007 to 2009. However, rust was only a significant problem in 2007 when it was first detected in July. The sentinel plot program and rust monitoring activities by soybean growers and crop advisers in the state have increased the awareness of the presence of other foliar diseases in addition to soybean rust. In Oklahoma, Septoria brown spot is present in most old soybean fields and causes noticeable premature defoliation. Other diseases
| | Planting date | Planting date | Planting date | Planting date | Planting date | Planting date |
|-----------------------------------------|-----------------|--------------------------|-----------------|-----------------|-----------------|-----------------|
| Treatment and rate/cwt seed | May 10 | May 31 | June 16 | July 1 | average* | |
| | | Plant stand (no./ft row) | | | | |
| Check | | 3.9 b y | | 2.4 | 1.2 | |
| Thiram 42S 2 fl oz | 6.1 | 4.3 b | 2.2 | 0.9 | 3.4 | |
| Trlexix 2000 1 fl oz | 5.5 | 4.1 b | 2.8 | 0.6 | 3.3 | |
| Trlexix 2000 1 fl oz + Gaucho 1.6 fl oz | 5.9 | 5.5a | 2.1 | 1.3 | 3.7 | |
| Average* | 5.7 | 4.4 | 2.4 | 1.0 | | |
| LSD (P=0.05)w | NS a | 0.8 | NS | NS | | |
| | | Yield (bu/A) | | | | |
| Check | 8.0 | 8.1 | 8.1 | 7.7 | 8.0 a | |
| Thiram 42S 2 fl oz | 8.0 | 8.8 | 8.9 | 6.6 | 8.1 a | |
| Trlexix 2000 1 fl oz | 8.1 | 7.3 | 9.2 | 4.9 | 7.4 a | |
| Trlexix 2000 1 fl oz + Gaucho 1.6 fl oz | 7.6 | 9.5 | 8.2 | 8.1 | 8.4 a | |
| average* | 7.9 a | 8.4 a | 8.6 a | 6.8 a | | |
This table isn't referenced in the text. Where can it be mentioned?
Are either of these a typo? Also, what do the "a" and "b" represent?
found in the state include frogeye leaf spot, bacterial blight, Cercospora blight and downy mildew. Frogeye leaf spot is generally accepted to reduce soybean yields when severe.
Fungicides registered for use on soybeans to control rust and other foliar diseases include strobilurins (Headline$^{a}$, Quadris$^{b}$) and triazoles (Alto$^{d}$), Domark$^{e}$, Folcuri$^{f}$, Laredo$^{d}$, Tilt$^{g}$) and pre-mixtures of triazoles and stroblulinrs (Quill$^{g}$, QuadrisXtra$\_{a}$, Stratego$^{g}$). All of these fungicides act as protectants and have some degree of systemic activity. Triazoles are being promoted as having excellent activity in situations where rust is already present in the field. Strobilurin fungicides such as Headline$^{g}$ are being promoted for plant health benefits that claim increases in yield in the absence of disease.
Fungicide programs recommended for soybean rust and experimental fungicides were evaluated on the variety Pioneer$^{g}$ 95M82 at the Oklahoma Vegetable Research Station in Bixby. Treatments were applied broadcast at 25 gal/ A at 40 psi at the R3 (beginning plot) growth stage. Disease incidence, the percentage of leaflets with symptoms, and defoliation, the percentage of
Table 9. Evaluation of fungicides for control of foliar diseases of soybeans at Bixby in 2011.
| Treatment and rate/A (timing) | Diseased leaves (%) | Defoliation (%) | Yield (bu/A) |
|-----------------------------------|-----------------------|-------------------|----------------|
| Untreated check | 57.8 | 9.9 | 15.0 |
| Approach 2.08F 6 fl oz (R3) | 55.8 | 13.7 | 18.4 |
| Approach 2.08E 9 fl oz (R3) | 66.7 | 19.2 | 17.8 |
| Topguard$^{g}$ 1.04F 7 fl oz (R3) | 51.1 | 22.2 | 10.1 |
| Stratego$^{g}$ 2.08E 8 fl oz (R3) | 70.0 | 16.7 | 13.9 |
| Headline$^{g}$ 2.08E 6 fl oz (R3) | 52.5 | 14.2 | 12.1 |
| LSD (P=0.05)$^{g}$ | NS$^{x}$ | NS | NS |
Valley Research Station in Perkinson the variety 95M82. Treatments were applied broadcast in 25 gal/ A at the R3 (beginning pod) growth stage and /or at the R5 (beginning seed) growth stages. Disease incidence, the percentage of leaflets with symptoms, and defoliation, the percentage of leaflets defoliated, was visually assessed in three areas per plot at the R7 (beginning maturity) growth stage on Oct. 18. Plots were harvested on Dec. 1 using a small-plot combine and yields were adjusted to 13 percent moisture.
Compared to the 30-year average, rainfall was only 59 percent of normal from June through October. Average daily temperature was 5°F to 8°F above normal each month from June through August and there were 61 days above 100°F. The summer cropping period was the hottest and one of the driest on record. The crop was under drought stress until September, when rains were received and the temperature cooled. Plants bloomed for an extended period of time that permitted a late crop set.
| Treatment and rate/A (timing) | Diseased leaves (%) | Defoliation (%) | Yield (bu/A) |
|--------------------------------------|-----------------------|-------------------|----------------|
| Untreated check | 43.3 ayr | 45.0 | 20.1 |
| Approach 2.08F 6 fl oz (R3) | 31.7 b | 56.6 | 23.6 |
| Approach 2.08F 9 fl oz (R3) | 26.7 b | 38.3 | 21.5 |
| Headline* 2.08E 6 fl oz (R3) | 28.3 b | 40.8 | 25.1 |
| Headline* 2.08E 6 fl oz (R3, R5) | 30.8 b | 31.7 | 21.0 |
| Quilt Xcel® 2.2F 10.5 fl oz (R3) | 28.3 b | 36.7 | 20.8 |
| Quilt Xcel® 2.2F 10.5 fl oz (R3, R5) | 33.7 b | 31.6 | 22.8 |
| LSD (P=0.05)* | 8.3 | NS * | NS |
seed treatment (Poncho ® /Votivo ® ) for control of SCN. The trial was conducted at the Oklahoma Vegetable Research Station in Bixbyin a field infested with SCN. The seed treatment was applied using a rotary drum in a total slurry volume of 8 oz/ 100 lbs seed. Soil samples (8-10 cores from the root zone of each sub plot) were taken Sept. 19. SCN eggs were extracted, stained and counted.
Compared to the 30-year average, rainfall was only 64 percent of normal from June through October. Average daily temperature was 4°F to 7°F above normal each month from June through August and there were 37 days above 100°F. The summer cropping period was the hottest and one of the driest on record. Heavy rain (4.38 in) in the two weeks after planting caused poor stand establishment. The trial was replanted in an adjacent field in early June, but an
| Variety (SCN reaction - source of resistance)* | Untreated check | Poncho ® / Votivo ® d 2 fl oz | Treatment and rate/cwt seed |
|--------------------------------------------------|-------------------|---------------------------------|-------------------------------|
| SCN (no. eggs/100 cc soil) | | | average¥ |
| Stine ® 5420-4 (R - PI 88788) | 23.3 | 18.3 | 20.8 a¥ |
| Stine ® 5400-4 (S) | 20.0 | 6.7 | 13.3 a |
| Pioneer ® 95M60 (R - Hartwig) | 18.0 | 20.3 | 19.2 a |
| Pioneer ® 95M50 (R - PI 88788) | 17.6 | 4.2 | 10.9 a |
| Pioneer ® 95Y30 (S) | 27.3 | 14.0 | 20.7 a |
| Pioneer ® 95Y70 (S) | 8.3 | 19.2 | 13.7 a |
| Average¥ | 19.1 a | 13.8 a | 16.4 a |
| Treatment LSD (P=0.05)¥ | NS u | | nsu |
z R-resistant and S=susceptible.
- x Averaged over treatment.
Values in a column or row followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P=0.05.
w Averaged over variety.
v Fisher's least significant difference.
w Treatment effect not significant at P=0.05.
even poorer stand resulted from the hot weather. The crop was under drought stress until September, when rains were received and the temperature cooled. Plants bloomed for an extended period of time that permitted a late crop set. Charcoal rot was severe, killing up to 20 percent of the plants prior to pod fill. The trial was not harvested for yield because of the erratic stand, but soil samples were taken from surviving plants. SCN egg counts were very low and highly variable (cv=128). SCN levels were 20 times to 50 times below those observed in the same field in 2010. The effects of variety and seed treatment on SCN levels were not statistically significant. SCN levels were not sufficient for determining the effects of variety or seed treatment on nematode control.
## Relationships Between Soil Profile Characteristic and Soybean Yields in 2010
Jason Warren and Chad Godsey Department of Plant and Soil Sciences
## 2011 progress made possible through OSB/USB support
- · Depth to limiting layer influences dryland soybean yields.
- No single item should be used to delineate management zones, consider use of yield data, soils maps, etc.
This summary is part of the fieldscale variability study initiated in 2010. Various techniques may be used to create management zones for precision management of soybean fields. Grid soil sampling. EC measurements and yield maps are good tools that may be used to evaluate field level variability. Soil maps also may be useful but are often criticized for not being accurate enough for the creation of management zones. The purpose of the research presented here was to collect site specific soil profile data to explain some of the variability observed in soybeans that could not be explained by soil maps, grid soil sampling or EC measurement.
## Materials and Methods
In January 2011, soil cores were collected to the depth of bed rock or 43 in from soybean fields located in Ottawa, Kay and Washita counties. Fields located in Ottawa and Kay counties were rain fed and the field located in Washita County was irrigated. Soil core collection locations were selected to provide
a range in soybean yields, so that profile characteristics could be used to evaluate yield variability. After collection, soil cores were transported back to Stillwater in plastic sleeves. Soil profile descriptions included the depth, texture, clay content, structure, consistency and color of each horizon. This data allows for the determination of the depth to limiting layer, which was defined as the top of the first horizon containing a category content greater than 35 percent, and redoximorphic features (grey masses intermixed with soil matrix, indicators of poor drainage or perennial water table)(Figure 5) at the Kay and Ottawa county locations. The texture of soils at the Washita County location ranged from sandy loams to sandy clay loams, therefore, it was assumed that clay content and drainage would not limit yield. Because these soils were sand, it was assumed that whole profile clay content would be positively correlated with yield. The higher clay soils within this field were assumed to have greater water holding capacity and therefore greater yield potential.
Should this be 2011?
Should this be 2011? Do you mean "technique" instead of "technic"? What is EC?
## Results and Discussion
The map presented in Figure 6 shows yield, the soil map and core collection location at the Ottawa County field. The whole field is mapped as a Taloka silt loam, therefore the NRCS soil map is not useful to delineate management zones for this field. The yields vary between 11 bu/A and 59 bu/A at this location and were regressed against
the depth to limiting layer in Figure 7. Figure 7 shows that generally the yield is positively related to depth to limiting layer as expected. However, the weak relationship suggests that other variables influence yield. The core represented by the circled point in Figure 7 was collected from a drowned out area on the back side of a terrace. The three points above the cluster points falling on the line were collected from high yielding areas of the field and may result from elevated fertility in these areas.
The map presented in Figure 8shows yield, the soil map and core collection locations at the Kay County field. Visual comparison of yield and the soil map demonstrates that the Port silt loam (Kc, west side of field) is a highly productive soil. This is no surprise as it is a deep, well-draining soil with moderate texture and deep deposits of organic matter resulting from its recent formation in a flood plane. In contrast, Kirkland (KnB) and Tabler (TaA) soils can contain horizons with elevated clay content, which restrict root growth and
on soybean yields, therefore, yields are soybean yields in Oklahoma. Depth generally high and uniform outside the to limiting layer could be a useful tool areas of disturbance previously men -ioned.
## Summary
In summary, depth to limiting layer appears to greatly affect dryland | |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/pesticide-safety-education/site-files/documents/report/2022/dec22pr.pdf | CHEM | Oklahoma State University | [
"entokts"
] | Error: time data "D:20221205093513-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## OKLAHOMA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE
Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources · Oklahoma State University http://pested.okstate.edu
## December,2022
| 1 OKLAHOMA PESTICIDE LAW & RULES CHANGES | OKLAHOMA PESTICIDE LAW & RULES CHANGES |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 2 EPA ADVANCES EARLY PESTICIDES PROTECTIONS FOR ENDANGERE D SPECIES, INCREASES REGULATORY CERTAINTY FOR AGRICULTURE | EPA APPROVES STRONGER PLANS FOR CERTIFICATION OF PESTICIDE APPLICATORS |
| SALES | SYNGENTA,CORTEVA SUD ON GENERIC |
| 6 AMAZON TO PAY CALIFORNIA NEARLY $5 MILLION FOR ILLEGAL PESTICIDE SALES | Commercial/Non-commercial license holders whose name begins a number, or the letter A-L must now |
| 7 N.C. STATE STUDY: COMMON VETERINARY DRUGS SHOW EFFECTIVENESS AGAINST BED BUGS | renew before September 30. License holder whose name that begin with the letter M-Z will not change and must renew before December 31. |
| STAKEHOLDER GROUPS CALL ON CONGRESS TO REAFFIRM FEDERAL PESTICIDE PREEMPTION | Recordkeeping requirements added were: |
| 8 COURT GRANTS MOTION TO CHANGE VENUE IN DICAMBA LAWSUIT | Name and certification number of the certified applicator who made or supervised the application and name of the non-certified applicator under direct supervision, if any. |
| 10 CEU MEETINGS | Size of the area treated. |
| 12 ONLINE CEU LINKS | For an updated copy of the Oklahoma Combined Pesticide Law & Rules you can find at |
| 12 ODAFF TEST INFORMATION | posted.okstate.edu or go to https://ag.ok.gov/wp- content/uploads/2020/11/2022-Combined-Pesticide- Manual.pdf (OSU PSEP) |
## CHEM
## OKLAHOMA PESTICIDE LAW & RULES CHANGES
ODAFF has published on their website an updated copy of the Oklahoma Combined Pesticide Law & Rules. These changes are now in effect.
Some of the changes are license renewals for Commercial/ Non-commercial companies and additions to recordkeeping.
Commercial/Non-commercial license holders whose name begins a number, or the letter A-L must now renew before September 30. License holder whose name that begin with the letter M-Z will not change and must renew before December 31.
EPA ADVANCES EARLY PESTICIDES PROTECTIONS FOR ENDANGERE D SPECIES, INCREASES REGULATORY CERTAINTY FOR AGRICULTURE
Today, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) released an Endangered Species Act (ESA) Workplan Update that outlines major steps to increase protections for wildlife and regulatory certainty for pesticide users. The Workplan Update details how EPA will pursue protections for nontarget species, including federally listed endangered and threatened (i.e., listed) species, earlier in the process for pesticide registration review and other Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) actions. These early protections will help EPA comply with the ESA, thus reducing the Agency's legal vulnerability, providing farmers with more predictable access to pesticides, and simplifying the ESA-FIFRA process that, left unchanged, creates both significant litigation risk and a workload far exceeding what EPA has the resources to handle.
This update is a follow-up to EPA's April 2022 ESA Workplan that addresses the complexity of meeting its ESA obligations for thousands of FIFRA actions annually. Among other things, the ESA Workplan prioritizes certain FIFRA actions for ESA compliance, outlines how EPA will pursue early mitigation for listed species under FIFRA, and describes directions for expediting and simplifying the current pesticide consultation process.
When EPA registers a pesticide or reevaluates it in registration review, it has a responsibility under FIFRA to determine whether the pesticide presents unreasonable adverse effects to human health or the environment. EPA conducts human health and ecological risk assessments to determine what risks are posed by a pesticide and whether changes to the use(s) or proposed use(s) are necessary to protect human health or the environment. In 2007, an amendment to FIFRA formalized a requirement that EPA review each registered pesticide every 15 years. This amendment set
the registration review deadline for pesticides registered before Oct. 1, 2007, as Oct. 1, 2022. EPA shared an update on its registration review work in Sept. 2022.
EPA also has a responsibility under the ESA to ensure certain pesticide registrations do not jeopardize the continued existence of listed species or adversely modify their designated critical habitats. In the past few decades, EPA has seen an increase in litigation due to the Agency's failures to meet its ESA obligations when taking FIFRA actions. Over the next six years, existing court-enforceable deadlines will require EPA to complete ESA reviews for 18 pesticides-the most the Agency estimates it can handle during this period based on its current capacity and processes. Ongoing litigation and settlement discussions for other lawsuits cover dozens of additional pesticides and will likely fill the Agency's ESA workload well beyond 2030. If EPA's ESA efforts continue at this pace, a future court may decide to drastically curtail pesticide use until EPA meets its obligations. This unsustainable and legally tenuous situation not only provides inadequate protection for listed species but also creates regulatory uncertainty for farmers and other pesticide users.
## ESA Workplan Update
Today's document is EPA's first update to the ESA Workplan and covers four main goals:
- 1. Describes EPA's overall approach to mitigating ecological risks in registration review, which includes prioritization of registration review cases based on opportunities to reduce a pesticide's risk to human health or the environment.
- 2. Proposes a menu of FIFRA Interim Ecological Mitigation measures that EPA will draw from for many future conventional and biological pesticide registration and registration review actions to protect nontarget species. For each FIFRA action, EPA will consider this menu and propose, based on the risks and benefits of the particular pesticide, which specific measures to include on the pesticide label.
- 3. Proposes label language to expand the use of online endangered species protection bulletins to implement geographically specific mitigation measures for individual listed species. These measures are designed to focus protections only
On Nov. 17, EPA is hosting a webinar to discuss these efforts and answer questions (register here). EPA will continue to share progress on existing and future ESA initiatives with stakeholders through updates to its website and other public forums.
## FIFRA Interim Ecological Mitigation measures to protect nontarget species
The first strategy described in EPA's ESA Workplan is to "meet ESA obligations for FIFRA actions." As part of its work to execute this strategy, EPA has identified a menu of Interim Ecological Mitigation measures it will use as a starting point to address pesticide risks to nontarget species during registration and registration review.
The menu of Interim Ecological Mitigation will include measures to reduce pesticide spray drift and pesticide runoff and will be considered as part of EPA's upcoming proposed interim registration review decisions. While EPA intends for this set of Interim Ecological Mitigation measures to apply widely to many pesticides, EPA will consider the menu of options for any given pesticide depending on the level of risk that it poses to species and the exposure route.
In contrast to identifying mitigation measures pesticideby-pesticide or species-by-species as EPA has typically done in the past, EPA anticipates that this approach will more efficiently establish protections for nontarget species, including listed species, and standardize the protections across similar pesticides.
## Endangered species protection bulletins and other label language
To better protect listed and other nontarget species, EPA will also work with registrants to add language on pesticide incident reporting, advisory language to protect insect pollinators, and language to most outdoor-use pesticide labels that directs users to reference Bulletins Live! Two.
Bulletine Live! Two is a website where pesticide users can find endangered species protection bulletins. These bulletins describe geographically specific use limitations to protect threatened and endangered species and their designated critical habitat.
EPA expects that once consultation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service is completed for any given outdoor-use pesticide, endangered species protection bulletins may be necessary for at least one listed species.
EPA also expects that working with registrants to proactively add the reference to Bulletins Live! Two to pesticide labels in advance of consultation will ultimately save the Agency, state partners, and registrants time and resources by minimizing the number of amendments to labels.
Improving the pesticide consultation process and new approaches to identifying mitigation for multiple species and pesticides
The ESA Workplan Update also describes initiatives that will help EPA and other federal agencies improve approaches to mitigation under the ESA and improve the interagency consultation process outlined in the ESA Workplan. These initiatives include EPA's work to identify ESA mitigation measures for pilot species, incorporate early ESA mitigation measures for groups of pesticides (e.g., herbicides), and develop region-specific ESA mitigations.
EPA is accepting public comment on the proposed set of interim mitigation measures and the proposed revisions to label language included in the Workplan Update appendix for 75 days in docket EPA-HQ-OPP-20220908 at regulations.gov.
Read the ESA Workplan Update.
## EPA APPROVES STRONGER PLANS FOR CERTIFICATION OF PESTICIDE APPLICATORS
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has approved 13 state and federal agency certification plans that comply with the improved federal standards to enhance worker safety under the 2017 Certification of Pesticide Applicators (CPA) rule.
The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) requires authorities to have an EPA-approved plan to certify applicators of restricted use pesticides (RUPs). To date, of the nation's 68 certification programs, EPA has reviewed all proposed modified plans and has approved eight plans from states and territories and five from federal agencies, of which all are now starting to be implemented.
In 2017, EPA updated the CPA regulations, setting stronger standards for people who apply RUPs. Improvements include enhancing applicator competency standards to ensure RUPs are used safely, establishing a nationwide minimum age for certified applicants and persons working under their direct supervision, and protection for noncertified applicators by requiring training before they can use RUPs (under the direct supervision of a certified applicator), among others.
The implementation of revised certification programs is crucial to reducing potential RUP exposures to certified applicators and those working under their direct supervision, other workers, the public, and the environment.
The following approved state and territory certification plans meet or exceed the standards mandated in the 2017 CPA rule:
- · Alaska (Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation)
- · California (California Department of Pesticide Regulation)
- · Nebraska (Nebraska Department of Agriculture)
- · New York (New York State Department of Environmental Conservation)
- · Oregon (Oregon Department of Agriculture)
- · Puerto Rico (Puerto Rico Department of Agriculture)
- · Vermont (Vermont Agency of Agriculture, Food and Markets)
- · U.S. Virgin Islands (U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Planning and Natural Resources)
In addition, the following federal agency certification plans meet or exceed the standards mandated in the 2017 CPA rule:
- · U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Services, Plant
- Protection and Quarantine
- · U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service
- · U.S. Department of Defense
- · U.S. Department of Energy; Bonneville Power
- Administration
- · U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management
State, territory and tribal authorities with existing plans can continue using those plans until November 4, 2023, consistent with EPA's recently issued extension (87 FR 50953, August 19, 2022). EPA is working closely with authorities to address challenges in revising their plans and will continue to approve plans on a rolling basis. After November 4, 2023, only authorities with EPAapproved modified certification plans can continue to certify applicants of RUPs.
EPA makes these certification plans available to the public by:
- · Tracking the progress of certification plan reviews and approvals here.
- · Approving certification plans as they are ready and announcing the approvals in batched Federal Register Notices (approximately quarterly).
Upon publication, the Federal Register Notice will be available in docket EPA-HQ-OPP-2022-0509 at www.regulations.gov .
(EPA, November 22, 2022) https://www.epa.gov/pesticides/epa-approvesstronger-plans-certification-pesticide-applicators
## SYNGENTA, CORTEVA SUED ON GENERIC SALES
Two farmers are seeking damages in separate classaction lawsuits filed against Syngenta Crop Protection and Corteva Inc., alleging the companies pay distributors to block competitors from selling less-expensive generic pesticides and other products to farmers.
The Federal Trade Commission and attorneys general from 10 states sued the companies at the end of September, alleging they run so-called "loyalty programs" in which distributors only get paid if they limit business with competing manufacturers.
Following the FTC lawsuit in the U.S. District Court for the District of Middle North Carolina, Jackson CountyIllinois-farmer Charles Anderson and Chautauqua County-New York-farmer Frederick C. Crocut filed identical class-action lawsuits in the same court.
Both farmers are seeking a jury trial on alleged anti-trust violations including conspiracy to restrain trade, monopolization, violation of state anti-trust laws, state consumer-protection laws and unjust enrichment.
Syngenta and Corteva are two of the largest pesticide manufacturers operating in the United States. Syngenta, based in Switzerland, is a subsidiary of a Chinese stateowned company. Corteva, headquartered in Indianapolis, is the company formed as part of a merger between DuPont and Dow Chemical Company.
"Defendants also maintain their so-called 'rebates' (in reality, exclusion payments meant to impede generic sales) at levels that ensure distributors will profit more from selling defendant's branded products than they would from selling generic products, even at high volumes," the lawsuits said.
'Additionally, defendants strictly enforce the terms of the loyalty programs and penalize distributors who do not meet loyalty thresholds. In some instances, the consequences of missing a loyalty threshold can be so severe that distributors have declined to purchase or promote generic products at all, have endeavored to exceed loyalty thresholds, and have deferred purchases of generic products until the end of the season, in order to minimize the risk of inadvertently missing a loyalty threshold.'
The lawsuits said loyalty-program "complexity" and a "lack of transparency" to farmers and generic manufacturers "harmed by the conduct and deferred payment timing" cause distributors to retain loyalty program payments as profit and "make them less likely to pass on loyalty program payments to farmers in the form of lower prices."
In an Oct. 21, 2022, letter sent to Syngenta distributors and retailers, Syngenta Crop Protection, LLC, President Vern Hawkins said the company would continue to offer the loyalty program while the legal cases play out.
In the letter, Hawkins said the lawsuit by FTC and the 10 states including California, Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, Indiana, Minnesota, Nebraska, Oregon, Texas and Wisconsin, makes "false and misleading allegations" regarding Syngenta's discount program and that the company intends to defend the program.
"Please rest assured that our program will remain available for all customers who choose to participate while we defend this matter," Hawkins wrote.
Although the FTC lawsuit alleges the discount program "coerces" distributors and retailers to not buy generic products, Hawkins said it was not true and that distributors and retailers "always have the free choice not to participate in Syngenta discount programs and to
purchase whatever generic companies' products or other innovator companies' products they want."
Hawkins said despite FTC claims, the U.S. crop protection industry is "very competitive and distributors, retailers and farmers have many crop protection product choices."
He went on to say, "We are disappointed that the FTC has chosen to disregard the pro-competitive effects these discount programs provide to you, including greater choice and lower prices."
Corteva offered the following statement to DTN in response to the FTC complaint in September: "Corteva Agriscience believes there is no basis for the complaint filed by the Federal Trade Commission on Sept. 29, 2022, and that the FTC's case faces significant hurdles on both the facts and the law. We will vigorously defend our position that Corteva's customer marketing programs are fully compliant with the antitrust laws and are, in fact, pro-competitive programs that benefit both channel partners and farmers.
"Corteva's marketing programs, contrary to the FTC's assertion that they block generics from entering the market, facilitate the company's pro-competitive mission of providing innovative products, services, support and stewardship to customers through Corteva's network of distributors and retailers. As always, our aim is to provide significant value and choices to customers, allowing them to be more sustainable, productive and profitable in their operations. Corteva also equips them to provide consumers with a wider range of healthy and nutritious food options, as well as to produce fuel, feed and fiber to support the needs of society.
"As a U.S.-based innovator of crop protection products, this case threatens the pro-competitive investments that Corteva makes and that growers rely on to protect America's crops. We are confident that we will prevail in this litigation and that there is no basis for the FTC's complaint."
Read more on DTN:
"Syngenta, Corteva Sued by FTC, States," https://www.dtnpf.com/...
(Progressive Farmer, November 10, 2022) https://www.dtnpf.com/agriculture/web/ag/crops/art icle/2022/11/10/farmers-file-class-action-lawsuits
## AMAZON TO PAY CALIFORNIA NEARLY $5 MILLION FOR ILLEGAL PESTICIDE SALES
The California Department of Pesticide Regulation (DPR) announced it has reached a multimillion-dollar legal agreement with online retail giant Amazon.com Services (Amazon) for the illegal sale of pesticides in California.
Under the terms of the agreement, Amazon will pay DPR a total of $4.97 million - $3.69 million in unpaid pesticide sales assessment fees and related late penalties, and $1.28 million in civil penalties associated with retail sales of unregistered pesticides into California. Amazon also agreed to register as a pesticide broker, and report and pay the mill assessment associated with all future retail sales of registered pesticides into California.
'It is critical that those selling pesticides in California, especially companies with Amazon's resources, reach and influence, comply with pesticide laws that protect the health of all Californians and our environment,' said DPR Director Julie Henderson. 'DPR's action should send a message to all pesticide sellers, including online sellers, that California will take action to protect the health and safety of its people and environment.'
DPR's review of the company uncovered multiple violations. Among them, Amazon sold unregistered pesticides in California, failed to report and pay required mill assessment fees associated with the sale of registered pesticides in California, and failed to hold a valid pesticide broker's license.
Under California law, pesticides must be registered by the state before they are sold. OPR evaluates a product's potential human health and environmental risks and efficacy prior to registration, and as needed, sets statespecific rules limiting use. Sales of unregistered
pesticides are illegal and can present human health and environmental risks.
The mill assessment is charged at the first point of sale of a pesticide in California. Mill revenues help fund DPR programs including worker safety training, environmental monitoring and enforcement. The assessment also allows DPR to track pesticides sold into the state. These programs are integral to DPR's mission to protect human health and the environment for all Californians.
(PCT Online November 4, 2022) https://www.ptconline.com/article/amazon-paycalifornia-illegal-pesticide-sales/
## N.C. STATE STUDY: COMMON VETERINARY DRUGS SHOW EFFECTIVENESS AGAINST BED BUGS
Two common drugs used by veterinarians to combat parasites may be effective against bed bugs, with one showing especially strong potential, according to a new study from North Carolina State University that examined the drugs in the context of controlling resurgent bed bug populations on poultry farms.
Fluralaner and ivermectin, which are used to kill fleas and ticks on household pets like dogs and cats, among other uses, were tested for their effectiveness in killing bed bugs. In a collaboration between entomologists and veterinary scientists from NC State's College of Veterinary Medicine, researchers tested bed bug mortality rates in different experiments: after the pests consumed blood mixed with the drugs on the lab bench and after bed bugs bit and fed off chickens that had either ingested or received topical treatment with the drugs.
Fluralaner is a relatively new, longer-lasting antiparasitic drug used mostly for companion animals; however, Europe and Australia have approved its use for
the poultry industry. Besides household pet uses, ivermectin effectively serves anti-parasitic uses in human populations, particularly in Africa, as well as in larger animals.
Both drugs showed powerful efficacy on the lab bench, killing most bed bugs, although fluralaner performed much more effectively on bed bugs that showed resistance to common insecticides.
"The drugs affect receptors in the insect's nervous system," said Coby Schal, Blanton J. Whitmire Distinguished Professor of Entomology at NC State and the corresponding author of a paper describing the work.
Fluralenar was highly effective at killing bed bugs that fed on chickens dosed with the drug. Ivermectin, meanwhile, was ineffective against bed bugs that fed on dosed chickens.
'We used the recommended dosage of ivermectin, either in a topical form or ingested, but neither was able to kill bed bugs,' said Maria González-Morales, a former Ph.D. student at NC State and the first author of the paper.
The researchers say that chickens could be quickly metabolizing or clearing ivermectin from their systems.
"The bed bug is a globally important insect," Schal said. "The last few decades have seen a resurgence of bed bugs in homes, and now we're seeing bed bugs return to poultry farms. Since there is no proven method to stop bed bugs in commercial farms, the potential problems on poultry farms could be massive. We're trying to get ahead of it by developing technologies that can eliminate bed bugs."
"The health effects to poultry from bed bug infestation are not well documented, but anodotally poultry farmers see animal welfare concerns like stress and anemia, which could negatively affect meat or egg production," González-Morales said.
"There are also concerns for workers on these farms considering how easily bed bugs can spread from poultry to people," Schal added.
The researchers say that dosing fluralaner in poultry drinking water could serve as an effective measure against bed bugs. A combination of monitoring, education, heat treatments and fluralaner could hold the key to eradicating bed bugs from infested poultry farms, they add.
The study appears in Parasites & Vectors. Andrea E. Thomson, Olivia A. Petritz, Roccio Crespo, Ahmed Haija, Richard G. Santangelo co-authored the paper. Funding was provided by the Blanton J. Whitmire Endowment at NC State, and grants from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Healthy Homes program (NCHHU0053-19) and the National Science Foundation (DEB-1754190).
(PCT Online November 30, 2022) https://www.pctonline.com/article/commonveterinary-drugs-effectiveness-against-bed-bugs/
## STAKEHOLDER GROUPS CALL ON CONGRESS TO REAFFIRM FEDERAL PESTICIDE PREEMPTION
More than 300 stakeholder groups called on Congress to reaffirm federal pesticide preemption on labeling and packaging. The groups warn failing to do so could result in dangerous consequences for food security, the environment, public health, vital infrastructure, and other uses where pesticides provide important societal benefits.
The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act says that states "shall not impose or continue in effect any requirements for labeling or packaging in addition to or different from those required" by the federal government. Recently, some states have sought to impose label requirements that contradict federal findings. The stakeholder groups claim this could erode public trust and lead to conflicting labels, disrupting commerce and access to vital tools.
"State labels that conflict with EPA's scientific guidance threaten public confidence in EPA's authority and science-based regulation and contributes to the misunderstanding of the critical role pesticides play in sustainably feeding a growing world," said Tom Haag, president of the National Corn Growers Association, in a news release.
Three hundred and thirty-two agricultural, environmental, academic, infrastructure, and other stakeholder groups signed a letter to congressional leadership, asking them to reaffirm that states may not impose additional labeling or packaging requirements that conflict with federal findings.
'Farmers and other pesticide users need predictable access to these tools to protect their crops and maintain important conservation practices,' said Brad Doyle, president of the American Soybean Association, in a news release. 'Contradictory state labels that would create an unworkable patchwork risk disrupting access to pesticides, which would harm our food supply and the ability to protect our environment.' (Successful Farming, November 14, 2022)
https://www.agriculture.com/news/crops/stakeholde r-groups-call-on-congress-to-reaffirm-federal -pesticide-preemption
## COURT GRANTS MOTION TO CHANGE VENUE IN DICAMBA LAWSUIT
A Beaumont Court of Appeals decision in Timmons v. Monsanto will result in a lawsuit filed by Texas grape growers against Bayer, BASF, and Monsanto for alleged damage from dicamba drift being moved from Jefferson County to counties where the plaintiffs' vineyards are located.
## Factual Background
In June of 2021, 57 Texas grape growers and four grape processors filed suit against Bayer Crop Science, Monsanto, and BASF in state court in Jefferson County,
Texas. [Read Complaint here.] The lawsuit was related to alleged drift damage caused by the dicamba tolerant cotton cropping system sold by the defendants and sought $114 million in economic damages and $456 million in punitive damages. The plaintiffs brought strict liability for design defect and negligent design claims related to the design, development, and manufacturing of the dicamba resistant cotton cropping systems. Plaintiffs' allege that the defendants acted as a joint venture with regard to the cropping system.
## Litigation Background
The plaintiffs brought the suit in Jefferson County, Texas, the home of BASF's nationwide dicamba manufacturing facility. None of the plaintiffs' property at issue is located in Jefferson County.
BASF removed the case to federal court in the Eastern District of Texas, citing diversity jurisdiction. The parties agreed to transfer the case to the Multidistrict Litigation In re : Dicamba Herbicides Litigation pending in the US District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri.
In January 2022, the US District Court for the Eastern District of Missouri granted the Plaintiffs' motion to remand the case back to state court because the case lacked complete diversity. In order for diversity jurisdiction to allow a case to be heard in federal court, the parties have to be citizens of different states. Here, one of the 57 plaintiffs was Hilltop Winery at Paka Vineyards, LLC ("Hilltop"), which is a citizen of New Jersey. Defendant BASF is also a citizen of New Jersey. BASF argued that Hilltop was improperly included as a plaintiff to destroy diversity jurisdiction and should, therefore, be disregarded in the court's analysis. The federal court disagreed, finding Hilltop to be in the same area, claiming the same damage as all of the other plaintiffs. Because diversity jurisdiction was not present, the case was remanded back to state court in Jefferson County. [Read order here.]
Back in state court, the defendants filed a motion to change venue, seeking to have the case transferred to the location where the allegedly damaged vineyards are located, rather than in Jefferson County. The trial court denied the motion. The defendants appealed.
## Plaintiffs' Arguments
Plaintiffs argued venue was proper in Jefferson County based on Texas Civil Practice and Remedies Code section 15.002(a)(1)'s permissive venue provision, which allows suit to be brought in a county in which all or a substantial portion of the events or omissions giving rise to the claim occurred. They claim this is the case because BASF "researched, designed, formulated, compounded, developed, tested, manufactured, produced, processed, assembled, inspected, distributed, marketed, labeled, promoted, packaged, advertised, and sold" its dicamba-based Engenia product to use with the Xtend crop system, and Engenia is manufactured exclusively in Jefferson County, Texas. Defendants argued this was untrue because none of the activities giving rise to the claims occurred in Jefferson County. While Engenia may be manufactured there, plaintiffs do not allege improper manufacturing, the defendants noted.
Alternatively, plaintiffs argued venue was proper under section 15.002(a)(3), which allows a suit to be brought in the county of the defendants' principal office in the state, because BASF manufactures Engenia in Jefferson County. They abandoned this argument at the hearing on the venue motion, admitting that Harris County was BASF's principal place of business in Texas.
Finally, Plaintiffs claim venue is proper as to Bayer and Monsanto under section 15.005, which provides that if venue is proper against one defendant, the court has venue of all defendants in all claims or actions raising out of the same transactions or occurrence. Defendants claim this is irrelevant because Jefferson County venue is not proper to any of the defendants.
## Defendants' Arguments
Defendants argue that the proper venue is the counties where the vineyards are located per Texas Civil Practice and Remedies Code section 15.011 as this claim is based on damage to real property. Plaintiffs claim this statute is designed for disputes related to title and ownership of land and does not apply in this products liability case.
## Beaumont Court of Appeals Opinion
The Beaumont Court of Appeals reversed and ordered the case be transferred to the counties wherein the plaintiffs' vineyards are located. [Read order here.]
To establish mandatory venue under section 15.011, a party seeking transfer must show all or part of the property is located in the county of transfer and the suit is one of the actions described in section 15.0011, which states "actions for recovery of real property or an estate or interest in real property, partition of real property, to remove encumbrances from the title to real property ,for recovery of damages to real property ,or to quiet title to real property shall be brought in a county in which all or part of the property is located." (Emphasis added.)
The court found this case is about the recovery of damages to real property. "The [plainiffs] are suing for cumulative permanent damage to farmland, not merely for damages to a seasonal grape crop." Further, the court noted, "the [plainiffs] seek to recover from the [defendants] damages the defendants' dicamba-based seed system inflicted on the vineyards." Perennial crops and trees were considered by courts to be land under a prior version of the statute, and this court agreed.
Thus, the court ruled that "a suit for damages to vineyards and grape crops is a suit for recovery of damages to real property" and should be filed in the counties where the plaintiffs' real property is located. It remanded the case to the trial court to proceed with this transfer.
Do note, this decision was issued on November 17, 2022, so the plaintiffs are still within the window of time to seek review by the Texas Supreme Court. (Southwest FarmPress November 29, 2022)
https://www.farmprogress.com/grapes/court-grantmotion-change-venue-dicamba-lawsuit
## CEU Meetings
Please note that many of these meetings are now being done virtual. Please contact the meeting host directly if you have any questions.
Date: December 5, 2022 Title: East Central Pesticide Conference Location:
Contact: Adair County Extension Jennifer (918) 696-2253
CEU's:
Category(s):
1
1A
1
1A
10
Date: December 6, 2022
Title: There's a Fly in My Soup - IPM in Restaurants
Location: US Environmental Protection Agency (Virtual)
Contact: Dr. Marcia Anderson (908)-577-2982 https://register.gotowebinar.com/register/?6504/16 00249648652
CEU's:
Category(s):
2
7A
2
8
2
10
Date:
December 6, 2022
Title: Cross Timbers Ag Producers Meeting Location: Lincoln County Contact: Cody Linker (918)-258-0560
CEU's:
Category(s):
7
1A
2
6
7
10
Date: December 8, 2022
Title: Exhibition
Location: Independence, MO
Contact: Spencer Duncan KCPA (785) 271-9220
https://kpca.wildapricot.org/events
| CEU's: | Category(s): |
|----------|----------------|
| 7 | 7A |
| 7 | 7B |
Date: December 13, 2022
Title: How The Mesonet Can Assist with Pesticide
Application & ODAFF Rules and Regulations
Location: McClain County OSU Extension
Contact: Justin McDaniel OSU Extension McClain
County (405) 527-2174
CEU's:
Category(s):
2 1A
3A
6
Date: December 20, 2022
Title: Herbicide Resistance & Record Keeping
Location: McClain County OSU Extension
Contact: Justin McDaniel OSU Extension McClain
County (405) 527-2174
CEU's:
Category(s):
2 1A
2 3A
2 6
Date: December 13, 2022
Title: OSU Certified Applicator CEU Conference IIIA Pest Management in Wheat
Location: OSU Extension Offices (Virtual)
Contact: Todd Baughman OSU Extension
(580) 224-0623
CEU's:
Category(s):
3
IA
3
IO
3
## Date: December 13, 2022
Title: OSU Certified Applicator CEU Conference IIIB Pesticide Labels and Certified Applicator Testing Location: OSU Extension Offices (Virtual) Contact: Todd Baughman OSU Extension
Contact: Todd Baughman
(580) 224-0623
CEU's:
Category(s):
3
IA
3
IO
Date: December 14, 2022
Title: Target Specialty Oklahoma Fall Workshop 2022
Location: Reed Center Midwest City, OK
Contact: Jennifer Gonzalez 800-352-3870
CEU's:
Category(s):
2
3A
1
6
4
7A
1
7B
4
10
Date: December 14-15, 2022
Title: OSU Winter Crop School
Location: OSU Student Union Stillwater OK
Contact: Brian Arnall OSU Extension (405) 744-1722 https://secure.touchnet.com/C20271\_ustores/web/store\_c at.jsp?STOREID=15&CATID=59
CEU's:
Category(s):
2
1A
## ODAFF Approved Online CEU Course Links
Online Pest Control Courses
https://www.onlinepestcontrolcourses.com/
PestED.com
https://www.pestede.com/
Certified Training Institute
https://www.certifiedtraininginstitute.com/
WSU URBAN IPM and PESTICIDE SAFETY
EDUCATION PROGRAM
https://pep.wsu.edu/recerterionline/
CEU University
http://www.ceuschool.org/
Technical Learning College
http://www.abctlc.com/
All Star Pro Training www.allstarce.com
Wood Destroying Organism Inspection Course www.nachi.org/wdocourse.htm
CTN Educational Services Inc http://ctnedu.com/oklahoma\_applicator\_enroll.html
Pest Network
http://www.pestnetwork.com/
Veseris
http://www.pestweb.com/
AG CEU Online
https://agecueonline.com/courses/state/37
Target Specialty Products Online Training https://www.target-speciality.com/training/online training
For more information and an updated list of CEU meetings, click on this link:
http://www.kellysolutions.com/OK/applicators/cou rses/searchCourseTitle.asp Find us on Twitter at @OksstatePestEd
## ODAFF Test Information
Testing will be done at testing centers in multiple locations around the state by PSI Services LLC.
For more information and instructions, please go to https://bit.ly/3sf4y0x .
Reservation must be made in advance at www.psieexams.com/ or call 855-579-4643
PSI locations.
Oklahoma City 3800 N Classen Blvd, Ste C-20, Oklahoma City, OK 73118
Tulsa 2816 East 51St Street, Suite 101, Tulsa, OK 74105
McAlester 21 East Carl Albert Parkway (US Hwy 270), McAlester, Oklahoma 74501
Woodward 1915 Oklahoma Ave, Suite 3, Woodward, OK 73801
Lawton Great Plains Technology Center, 4500 West Lee Blvd Building 300- RM 308, Lawton, OK 73505
Enid Autry Technology Center, 1201 W. Willow Rd, Enid, OK 737303
Ponce City Pioneer Technology Center, 2101 N Ash, Ponca City, OK 74601
Norman Moore Norman Technology Center, 4701 12th Ave NW, Norman, Oklahoma,73070
South Penn - Moore Norman Technology Center 13301 S. Pennsylvania, Oklahoma City, OK 73170
If you have questions on pesticide certification. Please email or call:
Kevin Shelton
405-744-1060 kevin.shelton@okstate.edu or
Charles Luper
405-744-5808
charles.luper@okstate.edu |
https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/l/utilizing-livestock-risk-protection-for-feeder-cattle-l-472.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20190909150209-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## Utilizing Livestock Risk Protection (LRP) for Feeder Cattle
Market prices fluctuate daily, creating uncertainty for cattle producers who need to buy or sell advantageously. Selling today versus tomorrow can sometimes mean the difference between a profit and a loss. A risk management tool available to protect against potential decreases in market prices is the Livestock Risk Protection (LRP) insurance program for feeder cattle, lambs and swine (United States Department of Agriculture Risk Management Agency, 2018). Livestock producers who engage in LRP insurance will receive indemnity payments when the actual ending value is below the coverage price (USDA RMA, 2018). However, utilizing the LRP program does not guarantee a profit. A producer engaged in the program can lose money on their livestock and still not receive an indemnity payment if they did not insure their livestock with a high enough coverage price. This program is administered through the USDA RMA.
## Program Overview
When considering price risk management options, there are a few tools available to feeder cattle producers, such as futures and options contracts and various insurance programs. The Livestock Risk Protection (LRP) insurance program provides a price risk management tool for feeder cattle producers (USDA RMA, 2018). LRP protects producers from potential price declines by establishing a price floor, similar to a put option. Feeder cattle put options are based on 50,000-pound contracts (CME Group, 2017), while LRP can be utilized to insure as few as one animal (USDA RMA, 2018). Therefore, LRP is available to any size operation and provides downside risk price protection to smaller operations that cannot fulfill a contract. When the Feeder Cattle Index falls below the coverage age price, which is selected by the producer, an indemnity payment is made (USDA RMA, 2018). Indemnity payments are determined by the actual ending value of the CME Feeder Cattle Cash PriceIndex and the selected coverageprice(USDA
Cooperating Agencies:
For example, if a producer purchases winter stocker steers in November, plans to graze them for 115 days and sell them in March, they should choose a 17-week LRP policy. The coverage price will act as a price floor, so the producer wants to make sure that the floor will at least cover their costs (USDA RMA, 2018), if they are unwilling to accept any of the price risk themselves. To make this decision, the producer must know their break-even price, the price at which to sell livestock to cover costs. When looking at coverage options offered on a given day, choose a coverage plan above break-even price to be fully protected. Include the risk management cost into break-even by adding 87 percent of the premium cost (13 percent is subsidized) to the break-even value (USDA RMA, 2018). Some producers may be willing to sell insure to a point, then they would select a coverage price to meet the remaining need. Additionally, a producer may or may not decide to insure the entire herd, or may spread out their risk by insuring some livestock at different coverage levels than others to reduce the amount of premium paid.
## LRP Effectiveness Example
To understand the effectiveness of LRP for a small operation, use of the program was simulated across a historical five-year period for an Oklahoma winter stocker operation (2013-2017) and a historical four-year period (2014-2017) for an Oklahoma summer stocker operation.
## Winter Stocker Scenario
It was assumed as a producer purchased 20 head of 500-pound steers in November each year, and sold them as 750-pound feeder steers as the following March at OKC-West Livestock Market in El Reno. Each November, the expected break-even price (estimated here using historical prices to account for production costs) was calculated and an LRP policy was chosen accordingly, insuring all cattle at the same coverage level. Table 1 shows the cost and LRP coverage for each year.
Based on calculations using the decision support tool, the producer's LRP policy only triggered an indemnity payment in one out of five years, when the actual ending value fell below the coverage price.' Figure 1 illustrates the difference in net
Table 1. Values from a winter stocker operation engaging in LRP during a five-year period.
| Effective Date | Endorsement Length, weeks | Breakeven $/cwt | Premium Cost $/cwt | Breakeven w/ LRP, $/cwt | Price $/cwt | Actual Ending Value, $/cwt | Indemnity payment,$/cwt |
|------------------|------------------------------|--------------------|-----------------------|----------------------------|----------------|-------------------------------|----------------------------|
| 11/13/13 | 17 | 139.49 | 0.62 | 140.11 | 148.02 | 173.88 | - |
| 11/19/14 | 17 | 204.83 | 1.66 | 206.48 | 216.04 | 212.61 | 3.43 |
| 11/18/15 | 17 | 148.16 | 5.70 | 153.86 | 154.08 | 161.52 | - |
| 11/16/16 | 17 | 108.83 | 3.37 | 112.20 | 112.24 | 128.22 | - |
| 11/15/17 | 17 | 130.16 | 1.85 | 132.01 | 138.11 | 142.81 | - |
| | | | | | | | |
Note: Based on purchasing 20 head of 500-pound steer steers in November each year, and selling them as 750-pound feeder steers the following March at OKC-West Livestock Market in El Reno, OK.
Calculations were made using the USDA RRA LRP Coverage Prices, Rates and Actual Ending Values Criteria.
Note: Based on purchasing 20 head of 500-pound steer s in November each year, and selling them as 750-pound feeder steers the following March at OKC-West Livestock Market in El Reno, OK.
Calculations were made using the USDA RRA LRP Coverage Prices, Rates and Actual Ending Values Criteria.
cash profit if the producer operated on a cash-only basis without risk management versus utilizing LRP.
Each year, excluding 2014, the producer would have profited more without engaging in LRP; however, they would also have been more exposed to risk. The actual ending value was increased relative to the coverage price in most cases, thus leading to the cash-only scenario being more profitable. Although the producer incurred the additional cost of participating in LRP each year and only received a payment one of those years, a price floor was built in, protecting them from a potential loss if prices had fallen unexpectedly. In most cases, the actual ending value is greater than expected, resulting in the cash scenario being more profitable. Notably, the producer did not experience a loss during the five-year period due to LRP because the LRP premium cost was incorporated into the break-even point prior to selecting a coverage option.
## Summer Stocker Scenario
It was assumed that a producer purchased 77 head of 500-pound steers in June each year, and sold them as
650-pound feeder steers in September at OKC-West Livestock Market in El Reno. Each June, the expected break-even price (estimated here using historical prices to account for production costs) was calculated and an LRP policy was chosen accordingly, insuring all cattle at the same coverage level.' Table 2 shows the cost and LRP coverage for each year.
The producer's LRP policy triggered an indemnity payment two out of four years, when the actual ending value fell below the coverage price. Figure 2 illustrates the difference in net cash profit if the producer operated on a cash-only basis without risk management.
Each year, excluding 2015, the producer would have profited more without engaging in LRP. In 2015, not employing any riskmanagement would have caused the producer to lose $0.34 per hundred weight. The producer did not experience a loss across the four-year period due to LRP because they incorporated the LRP premium cost into their break-even price prior to selecting a coverage option. The producer incurred the additional cost of participating in LRP each year and only received a payment that covered the premium cost one of those years.
## Conclusion
When deciding to purchase an LRP policy, consider whether the program is suitable to meet risk management goals. Outcomes will differ for producers in different regions, operating in different cash markets with varying objectives. Producers should be aware of the change in policy options provided daily, being sure to include the premium cost in the break-even price when determining which coverage will be adequate to cover all production costs. Producers can see how this program would impact their operation by utilizing the USDA RMAs LRP Coverage Prices, Rates and Actual Ending Values Criteria interactive tool found at https://www.rma.usda. gov/en/Information-Tools/Livestock-Reports . Although the given scenarios did not consistently show a higher return for producers who used LRP, they did not show negative returns. Remember, the purpose of LRP is to provide protection from loss due to declining market prices rather than increase profits (USDA RMA, 2018). A producer has to decide whether the protection is worth the cost or if they can afford to be insured against market price downturns.
| Effective Date | Endorsement Length, weeks | Breakeven $/cwt | LRP Producer Premium Cost $/cwt | Coverage Price Breakeven w/ LRP $/cwt | Actual Ending $/cwt | Indemnity Payment,$/cwt |
|------------------|------------------------------|--------------------|-------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------|------------------------|----------------------------|
| 6/11/14 | 13 | 188.47 | 1.31 | 189.61 | 189.79 | 226.98 |
| 6/10/15 | 13 | 215.39 | 3.18 | 218.16 | 218.55 | 205.54 |
| 6/15/16 | 13 | 131.55 | 6.26 | 136.99 | 138.15 | 133.49 |
| 6/14/17 | 13 | 131.16 | 4.66 | 135.22 | 138.12 | 149.46 |
Note: Based on purchasing 77 head of 500-pound steers in June each year, and selling them as 650-pound feeder steers the following September at OKC-West Livestock Market in El Reno, Okla.
Calculations were made using the USDA RRA LRP Coverage Prices, Rates and Actual Ending Values Criteria.
Note: Based on purchasing 77 head of 500-pound steers in June each year, and selling them as 650-pound feeder steers the following September at OKC-West Livestock Market in El Reno, OK. Calculations were made using the USDA RMA LRP Coverage Prices, Rates and Actual Ending Values Criteria.
L-472
##
## Natalie Graff
Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Agricultural Economics, Texas A&M University
## Mckenzie Carvalho
Undergraduate Research Assistant, Department of Agricultural Economics, Oklahoma State University
## Myriah Johnson
Economics Program Lead and Agricultural Economics Consultant, Noble Research Institute, LLC
## Amy Hagerman
Department of Agricultural Economics, Oklahoma State University Assistant Professor,
Oklahoma State University, as an equal opportunity employer, complies with all applicable federal and state laws regarding non-discrimination and affirmative action. Oklahoma State University is committed to a policy of equal opportunity for all individuals and does not discriminate based on race, religion, age, sex, color, national origin, marital status, sexual orientation, gender identity/ expression, disability, or veteran status with regard to employment, educational programs and activities, and/or admissions. Visit https://eeo.okstate.edu/.
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Director of Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma. This publication is printed and issued by Oklahoma State University as authorized by the Vice President for Agricultural Programs and has been prepared and distributed at a cost of 20 cents per copy. 0719 GH. | |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/agribusinessand-cooperative-management/site-files/docs/newsletters/what-drives-interest-in-mergers-among-cooperatives.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [
"kenkel"
] | Error: time data "D:20210209153342-06'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | ## What Drives Interest in Mergers Among Cooperatives?
## Phil Kenkel
## Bill Fitzwater Cooperative Chair
It is no secret that the long term trend in cooperatives, as in other agribusiness sectors, is toward consolidation. The number of agricultural cooperatives in the U.S. has steadily decreased over time. Cooperative consolidation has not resulted in a significant drop in the number of locations being managed under the cooperative umbrella. In general, cooperative consolidation has led to a fewer number of larger firms managing a larger asset base for the same total membership base.
Historically, financial hardship has been a key driver of cooperative consolidation. During the mid 1980s to mid 1990s, cooperative consolidation occurred in cycles as financially stressed cooperatives merged with other firms or were purchased by private firms. Since the late 1990s cooperative consolidations across the U.S. has been more consistent. It also appears to be driven by slightly different factors.
Economies of scale and scope and improvement in equity structures have been the historical driving force of cooperative consolidation. As cooperative firms explore reinvestment in grain storage and crop nutrient handling, it is natural for them to consider unification as a means of creating those assets at an increased economy of scale. Cooperative unification can also be a pathway to more rapid equity redemption. The length of the equity revolving period is closely linked to profitability. Larger cooperatives tend to achieve scale economies that generate higher profitability and allow them to revolve allocated equity more rapidly.
Human resource issues are a more recent factor contributing to cooperative mergers. Across the U.S. many agricultural cooperatives find themselves with CEOs close to retirement age. Cooperative boards often find themselves trying to recruit management talent from a small pool and are competing with neighboring cooperatives. As boards of directors ponder an eventual management succession they also often consider the option of merging with another cooperative as a means of accessing top quality management talent.
While the most recent cycle in cooperative mergers has been somewhat flatter, relative to historic waves, it is interesting to speculate on why merger activity waxes and wanes. Cooperative unification has always been driven by the goals of achieving economies of scale and scope. Cooperatives are driven by efficiency because efficiency driven profit gains benefit both the cooperative and the member. I propose that there are three factors that lead to merger cycles: improvement in member communication, infrastructure reinvestment, and shared information on the merger process.
I'll elaborate on those points in my next newsletter. | |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/pesticideinformation/2020/12/16/wps-training/ | WPS Training | University of Florida | [
"Dr. Brett Bultemeier"
] | 2020-12-16 | [
"Agriculture",
"Brett Bultemeier",
"EPA",
"Pesticide Information Office",
"pesticides",
"safety",
"worker protection standard",
"WPS"
] | FL | ## WPS Training
## 2021?
The Worker Protection Standard (WPS) applies to farms and operations that produce agricultural plant products. It was designed to protect those employees/workers that might encounter pesticides as part of their duties on that farm. This applies not only to those workers who may directly assist in pesticide applications, but also those who harvest crops or work on pesticide application equipment.
There are 3 main types of "categories" someone could fall into under WPS:
- 1) Applicator - someone who has a pesticide license. All WPS protections still apply, but because a license requires a higher level of certification, all license holders can serve as WPS trainers.
- 2) Handler- directly involved in pesticide application or transports opened pesticide products. A handler is someone that would load pesticides, rinse used pesticide containers, flagging, repair or clean equipment used for pesticide applications.
Handler helping load pesticide into spray rig. Photo Credit Garo
3) Worker- involved in agricultural activities, but not part of pesticide application. This is someone who might harvest crops from the field, fix irrigation lines, or perform other essential duties on the farm where they are not directly involved with but might be exposed to pesticides as part of their duties. Basically, anyone that enters an area treated with pesticides within 30 days of the application is a worker.
Workers. Not involved in application, but possibly exposed to pesticides.
Handlers and workers must attend a WPS training each year to be in compliance. Thankfully, compliance training is not overly difficult or time consuming. The training generally consists of having the workers and handlers to watch an EPA approved video, be shown central posting locations around the facility, and be given the opportunity to ask questions. The person that performs the training must either be a licensed applicator or an EPA approved trainer. Remember, every worker or handler must do this training every year!
```
Before WPS workers might be in the field
as spraying occurred.
```
There are other requirements to WPS, including central posting of treatment schedules, marking treated areas, providing decontamination stations and a host of other safety
and communication protocols. A helpful resource to make sure you have the necessary components in place is the
How to Comply with WPS Manual produced by the Pesticide Educational Resources Collaborative (PERC) in collaboration with the EPA. It is a helpful guide that walks through what is needed. Additionally, the UF/IFAS has a series of videos that review WPS or even serve as a train the trainer module UE WPS Modules.
Don't let this important requirement pass you by. More importantly, don't miss an opportunity to improve safety
for all your employees. Be sure to schedule training and discuss WPS with your team.
## Click To Subscribe
## Helpful Links:
```
How to Comply- http://pesticideresources.org/wps/htc/index.html
```
```
UF Modules- https://ifas.catalog.instructure.com/?query=WPS
```
```
EPA approved Handler Training Video-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=z2RGYppZw E&feature=youtu.be
```
```
EPA approved Worker Training Video-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=IsoQ9PMyO2dU&feature=youtu.be
```
```
Spanish- https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=kdmO1Y57JtS&feature=youtu.be
```
```
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=IZWEHv98RYl&feature=youtu.be
```
o
by Dr. Brett Buttemeier
Posted: December 16, 2020
Category: Agriculture, Blog Community, UE/IFAS, UF/IFAS Extension
Tags: Brett Buttemeier, EPA, Pesticide Information Office, Pesticides,
Safety, Worker Protection Standard, WPS
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- Please Allow Me To Introduce Myself
- PPE: Is It A Costume Or Invincible Armor?
- What PPE Do I Need?
- The Heads Up On Roundup |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/supplemental-wildlife-food-planting-manual-for-the-southeast | Supplemental Wildlife Food Planting Manual for the Southeast | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Mr. Bill Hamrick",
"Dr. Bronson Strickland",
"Mr. T. Adam Tullos"
] | null | [
"Wildlife Management",
"Food Planting",
"Habitat Management"
] | MS | Home » Publications » Publications » Supplemental Wildlife Food Planting Manual for the Southeast
## Supplemental Wildlife Food Planting Manual for the Southeast
Filed Under: Northern Bobwhite Quail, Waterfowl, White-Tailed Deer, Wildlife Economics and Enterprises PUBLICATIONS Publication Number: P2111
View as PDF: P2111.pdf
Supplemental file:
P2111 accessible-2.doc
Wildlife species require suitable areas to survive and increase population numbers. These areas must provide the food, cover, and water needs of different animal species. Together, these components create an animal's habitat. This publication provides information about wildlife habitat management techniques and food plantings that will increase natural food production and supplement the diets of game species. Supplemental food plantings are not to be considered an alternative to sound habitat management practices. Management of native vegetation, from forbs (broadleaf weeds) and grasses to mature trees, impacts habitat quality much more than any food planting or supplemental efforts. This publication is written to help landowners, recreation clubs, and hunters in the southeastern United States better manage habitats for white-tailed deer, eastern wild turkey, bobwhite quail, mourning dove, rabbits, and various waterfowl species. It briefly reviews wildlife habitat and food planting management techniques to increase natural food production and supplement the diets of game species. Also, these same techniques benefit many nongame wildlife species. Information in this guide is based on proven wildlife management techniques, experience of wildlife managers, and ongoing wildlife research.
Download the PDF above for more information.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
## SELECT A COUNTY
## Authors
## Your Extension Experts
Mr. James Thomas Callicutt Extension Instructor I
Mr. Bill Hamrick
Senior Extension Associate
Wildlife & Fisheries
Dr. Bronson Strickland
Extension Professor
Wildlife Management
Mr.T.Adam Tullos
Extension Instructor
Wildlife & Fisheries Enterprises; Forestry & Wildlife Management
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P2308
Natural Resource Enterprises Wildlife and Recreation - A Checklist of Considerations for Landowners
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P4010
UWIN Camera Survey Training Guide for Volunteer Community Scientists
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3604
A Cost-Production Comparison of Common Food Plot Plantings for Deer
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P2312
Business Considerations for Private Landowners
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P1446
Attract More Wildlife Through Timber Management |
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margin: 0;
padding: .5em;
}
.footable.table>thead>tr>th {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 2px solid #888;
}
tr:last-child {
vertical-align: bottom;
border-bottom: 1px solid #888;
}
tbody tr:nth-of-type(odd) {
background-color: #c6ebb7 !important;
}
.ninja_button, ninja_button_print {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
line-height: 1.3333333;
padding: 14px 20px !important;
border-radius: 0;
display: inline-block;
text-align: center;
white-space: nowrap;
vertical-align: middle;
touch-action: manipulation;
cursor: pointer;
user-select: none;
background-image: none;
border: 1px solid #0000;
margin-bottom: 10px;
}
.screen-reader-text {
clip: rect(1px, 1px, 1px, 1px);
height: 1px;
overflow: hidden;
position: absolute !important;
width: 1px;
word-wrap: normal !important;
}
/* slide show below nav home page */
body.home header#header {
position: relative !important;
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (min-height:770px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 82vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: landscape) and (max-height:769px) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 150vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 65% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 12vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_wrapper, #rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth {
height:83% !important;
max-height:83% !important;
}
.dae-headline img {
max-height: 18vh !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) {
.g-overflow-hidden {
max-height: 42vh !important;
}
.tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 55% !important;
}
.tp-caption a.btn {
top: 6vh !important;
}
.tparrows {
top: 40% !important;
}
#rev_slider_24_1_forcefullwidth, #rev_slider_24_1_wrapper {
height:42% !important;
max-height:42% !important;
}
}
@media (orientation: portrait) and (max-width:600px) {
.tp-caption.tp-resizeme {
font-size: 22px!important;
line-height: 22px!important;
}
}
/*slide show text area shadow*/
.rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 35%;
top: 65%;
background: linear-gradient(to top, rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .6), rgba(0, 0, 0, .5), rgba(0, 0, 0, .4), rgba(0, 0, 0, .2), rgba(0, 0, 0, 0));
}
.category .rev_slider .slotholder .kenburnimg img:after, .category .rev_slider .slotholder:after {
height: 100%;
top: 100%;
}
.category .tp-parallax-wrap {
top: 0;
}
/*Topic page slider*/
.Newspaper-Button, tp-caption.Newspaper-Button {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-width: 0 !important;
color: #424242!important;
padding: 13px 18px!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
text-transform: uppercase!important;
letter-spacing: 0 !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, sans-serif !important;
}
/*GDPR cookie notice*/
#cookie-notice {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
background-color: #fff;
letter-spacing: .5px;
}
/* Remove underline in footer logos */
.logo-wrapper a {
border: none !important;
}
/*MY ACES Add Bookmark*/
.btn-add-bookmark {
display: none;
}
/* after slider padding for lead*/
.lead {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/*header-top*/
.header-top .top-menu-right {
background-color: #f9f9f9cc!important;
}
/*header-top blue link text*/
.header-top .top-menu-right a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
}
/*recent articles*/
.work-entry {
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*recent articles blue link text*/
.work-entry a {
/*(old)color: #1D63AB;*/
color: #195794 !important;
background-color: #ffffff !important;
}
/*topic page link color (needs to be darker over gray backgorund)*/
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added p {
min-height: inherit;
/*(old)color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #366d21;
}
/*We Grow Alabama cards*/
.sb-value-added {
color:#fff;
background-color: #00000090!important;
}
/*Grow green*/
.green-color {
/*color: #4f9c2e;*/
color: #76CF3A;
}
/*we Grow Alabama numbers*/
.sb-value-added h5 {
padding-top:0;
font-size: 1.4em;
}
/*after numbers*/
h5 .small, h5 small {
font-weight: 400;
line-height: 1;
color: #959595 !important;
}
/*calendar band background*/
.event-ticker {
/*(old)background-color: #4f9c2e;*/
background-color: #438528;
}
/*calendar band event name*/
#vertical-ticker li h5.event-name {
/*#fff;
margin: 8px 0 2px;*/
font-size: 1em;
}
body.home header#header {
top: 0;
}
.gform_wrapper ul.gfield_checkbox li label, .gform_wrapper ul.gfield_radio li label {padding-left: 30px !important;}
.anchor {
position: absolute;
padding-top: 36px;
margin-top: -36px;
}
/*Gravity Form submit button*/
.gform_footer .btn-primary {
background-color: #f39c12;
border-color: #f39c12;
color: #424242!important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
font-weight: 700!important;
}
.post-info-header-category, .post-info-header-logo, .footer-print {
display: none;
}
/*printer icon*/
a.aces-print-article {
cursor:pointer;
text-decoration:underline;
}
li.aces-print i.fa-cloud-download, li.aces-print i.fa-print {
padding-right: 7px !important;
}
/*byline line break for mobile*/
@media (min-width: 991px) {
.byline-mobile-line-break {
display:none;
}
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
.read-time {
text-align: center;
border: 1px solid #e5e5e5;
background: #f9f9f9;
color: #000!important;
border-radius: 4px;
padding: 10px 4px 3px;
font-weight: 700!important;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
}
/*About Us card deck*/
.card-margin-top {
margin-top: 1em;
}
/*About Us category text adjustment*/
.category-about-us .subcat-content, .category-aamu .subcat-content {
font-size: 16px;
line-height: 1.5;
padding: 20px 0;
}
/*About Us category remove dateline*/
.category-about-us.post-meta-info-content ul:first-child {
display: none !important;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.cat-4h, .cat-about-4-h, .cat-family-resources-4-h, .cat-volunteer-resources-4-h, .cat-programs-4-h, .cat-animals-4-h, .cat-arts-4-h, .cat-healthy-living-4-h, .cat-leadership-4-h, .cat-outdoor-education-4-h, .cat-science-technology-4-h, .cat-how-to-give-4-h, .cat-support-4-h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* 4-H Category icon colors*/
.post-format.cat-4h {
background-color: #396;
}
/* Gravity Forms OTHER spacing 2023-05-23 JMH*/
.gform_wrapper input:not([type=radio]):not([type=checkbox]):not([type=submit]):not([type=button]):not([type=image]):not([type=file]) {
padding: 5px 2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size for line height is fixed error*/
.topic-list .sb-value-added p {
line-height: 1.2em !important;
}
/* Category topics font size adjustment when there is not an image for the topic link. 2019-08-16 RFF & JMH */
.topic-list-new-a .sb-value-added .service-block-title-large {
margin: 0 !important;
font-size: inherit !important;
}
/* Alert Menu */
.header-alert, .bg-alert {
background: #ee2400;
color: white;
}
.header-alert .navbar-nav>li>a {
text-transform: none;
}
.alert-btn {
background-color: #ee2400;
border-color: #ee2400;
color: white;
margin: 5px;
}
.nav>li>a.alert-link {
display: none;
background-color: #ee2400;
}
/*Ex TV*/
.navbar-nav>li>a.extv-link {
text-transform: none;
}
/*page icon for video pages*/
.page-header .post-format {
background-size: 65%;
}
/*video embed resposive*/
.embed-container {
position: relative;
padding-bottom: 56.25%;
height: 0;
overflow: hidden; max-width: 100%;
}
.embed-container iframe, .embed-container object, .embed-container embed {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 0;
width: 100%;
height: 100%;
}
/* ExTV dark */
.category-extv .main-wrapper, .category-extv .association, .category-extv .assoc-entry, .category-extv .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv .association h1, .category-extv .association h2, .category-extv .association h3, .category-extv .association h4, .category-extv .association h5, .category-extv .association h6,
.category-extv-dark .main-wrapper, .category-extv-dark .association, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new,
.category-extv-dark .association h1, .category-extv-dark .association h2, .category-extv-dark .association h3, .category-extv-dark .association h4, .category-extv-dark .association h5, .category-extv-dark .association h6 {
background: rgb(31, 31, 31);
color: #fff;
}
.category-extv .association .sub-divider-new, .category-extv-dark .association .sub-divider-new {
border-color: rgb(31, 31, 31);
}
.category-extv .main-wrapper a, .category-extv .association a, .category-extv .assoc-entry a, .category-extv-dark .main-wrapper a, .category-extv-dark .association a, .category-extv-dark .assoc-entry a {
color:white;
}
.category-extv-dark article.assoc-entry::first-child, .category-extv article.assoc-entry::first-child {
visibility:hidden;
}
.post-grid-assoc {
border: 1px solid #454545;
}
.directory-listing, .event-listing, .search-results {
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
@media (max-width: 991px) {
/*mobile phone inline image fix 07-12-2021 JMH*/
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
margin: 10px !important;
}
}
/*counties*/
.subcat-content {
padding-top: 20px;
}
.county-columns {
columns: 140px 5;
line-height: 3em;
padding: 20px 0 20px;
}
@media (min-width: 768px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 2em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 992px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.7em;
}
}
@media (min-width: 1200px) {
.county-columns {
line-height: 1.6em;
}
}
/* end counties */
/* Custom Gallery */
.custom-gallery {
margin: auto;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-item {
float: left;
margin-top: 10px;
text-align: center;
width: 33%;
}
.custom-gallery img {
border: 2px solid #cfcfcf;
}
.custom-gallery .gallery-caption {
margin-left: 0;
}
/* Decision Tree CSS */
.dt_display_title {
color: #1D63AB !important;
font: 700 1.5em Helvetica Nue,sans-serif !important;
font-size: 44px !important;
line-height: 1.2 !important;
}
.dt_display_question {
font-size: 16px !important;
line-height: 1.5 !important;
letter-spacing: .5px !important;
}
.dt_display_subtext {
font-style:italic !important;
padding: 10px 0 !important;
}
.dt_button, .answer-restart {
background-color: #f39c12 !important;
border-color: #f39c12 !important;
color: #424242!important;
font-family: Helvetica Nue, sans-serif !important;
font-size: 14pt!important;
}
/* end Decision Tree CSS */
/* cookie notice container */
#cookie-notice .cookie-notice-container a {
color:#5EA1E4 !important;
}
/* footer bottom left*/
.footer-menu-left {
float: left;
width: 100%;
text-align: center;
margin-bottom: 20px;
}
.footer-menu-left li {
border-left: 1px solid rgba(255,255,255,.6);
padding: 0 10px;
line-height: 1.2;
}
.footer-menu-left li:first-child {
border-left: none;
padding-left: 0;
}
.footer-bottom-left {
color: #fff;
padding-bottom: 0;
}
.footer-bottom .footer-menu {
margin: 20px 0;
}
/* Print Stylesheet - LEAVE AT BOTTOM */
@media print {
*, ::after, ::before {
color: #000!important;
text-shadow: none !important;
background: 0 0 !important;
box-shadow: none !important;
font-family: Helvetica Neue, Helvetica, san-serif;
}
body {
--webkit-hyphens: auto;
--moz-hyphens: auto;
hyphens: auto;
}
.row-print {
min-height: 20px;
}
.post-info-header-category {
display: block;
position: absolute;
top: 13pt;
left: 15px;
max-width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-category h1 {
color: green !important;
display: inline;
font-size: 14pt !important;
font-weight: lighter;
letter-spacing: 2pt;
text-align: left;
text-transform: uppercase;
}
.post-info-header-category hr {
position: absolute;
margin-top: 0 !important;
margin-bottom: 0 !important;
width: 800px !important;
text-align: left !important;
}
.post-info-header-logo {
display: block;
padding: 0 !important;
position: absolute;
top: 0;
right: 45pt;
width: 190px !important;
text-align: right !important;
}
.main-cat-title, h1 {
font-size: 28pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
.main-cat-title {
margin-bottom: auto;
}
h1 {
font-size: 18pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
}
h2 {
font-size: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.2pt;
color: #001a96 !important;
}
p, ul, li {
font-size: 10pt !important;
line-height: 13pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
}
/*p img {
display: none;
}*/
img.wp-image-46702 {
display: block !important;
}
.post-media {
margin: 0 0 10px 0;
padding: 0;
border: none;
}
.image-overlay {
display: inline-block;
}
.header, .page-wrapper, div.container div.row, .forcefullwidth_wrapper_tp_banner, .post-format, .subcat-title, .breadcrumb, .read-time, .post-meta-info-content, .at-below-post, .addthis_tool .alignright, .like-dislike, span.small, .tags, aside.related-posts, .footer-inner, table, .ninja_button_print, .nt_edit_link, .btn {
display: none;
}
table.display-print {display: inline-block !important }
/*remove URL from gallery images*/
.gallery a[href]:after {
content: none;
}
.aces-pub a[href]:after {
content: " (" attr(href) ")" !important;
}
.gallery-item {
width: 100% !important;
}
.page-header {
border-bottom: none !important;
}
.logo {
margin-top: 0;
}
.subact-title {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.subact-title a {
color: #008000 !important;
}
.content-print {
column-count: 2 !important;
-webkit-column-count: 2 !important;
column-gap: 40px !important;
-webkit-column-gap: 40px !important;
}
.wp-caption, .wp-caption img {
width: 100% !important;
height: 100% !important;
}
.wp-caption-text {
font-size: 8pt !important;
line-height: 11pt !important;
}
.footer-print {
display: block !important;
}
.footer-print-logo {
max-width: 190px;
padding-bottom: 7pt;
}
.footer-print-content p {
font-family: Times New Roman, serif;
font-size: 7pt !important;
line-height: 6pt !important;
/*letter-spacing: -.1pt;*/
margin: 1pt 0 3pt !important;
}
.footer-print-content h2 {
font-size: 11pt !important;
letter-spacing: -.1pt;
margin-top: 7px;
}
.footer-print-content hr {
padding: 0 !important;
margin: 0 !important;
}
h3.table_title:before {
content: 'Print "';
}
h3.table_title:after {
content:'" table from our website.';
}
/*video in print*/
iframe {
display:none;
}
iframe[src]:after {
content: " (" attr(src) ")" !important;
}
#cookie-notice {
display: none !important;
}
.cookie-notice-container {
display: none !important;
}
}
/*end print stylesheet*/
/* siteimprove suggested edits */
/* vendor.min.css:18 */
.form-background, .contact-bar {
background-color: #106522 !important;
}
blockquote {
color: #595959 !important;}
.subcat-content {
font-size: 1.3125em !important;
}
.tribe-events-content ol, .tribe-events-content p, .tribe-events-content ul {
font-size:1.125em !important;
}
/*end siteimprove suggested edits*/
</style>
</head>
<body class="aces_content_piece-template-default single single-aces_content_piece postid-4203 tribe-no-js">
<a class="skip-main" href="#main">Skip to main content</a>
<header id="header" class="header" role="banner" aria-label="site header">
<div class="page-wrapper">
<script>
function closeAlert() {
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=aces.edu; Path=/";
document.cookie = "headerAlert=false; Domain=acesag.auburn.edu; Path=/";
jQuery("#headerAlert").css("display","none");
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
function showAlertMenu() {
jQuery(".alert-link").css("display","block");
}
</script>
<!-- Header Container -->
<div class="header-wrapper light-top-header">
<!-- Header Top Container -->
<div class="header-top header-top-desktop">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<!-- <div class="col-lg-6 col-md-5 col-xs-12">-->
<!---->
<!-- <div class="top-menu-left"><!-- Top Menu Left -->
<!-- <button type="button" class="btn btn-xs btn-primary nearest-btn">Nearest Office</button>-->
<!-- </div><!-- /Top Menu Left -->
<!---->
<!-- </div>-->
<div class="col-lg-12 col-md-12 col-xs-12">
<nav class="top-menu-right" role="navigation" aria-label="quick links"><!-- Top Menu right -->
<ul class="list-inline">
<!-- <li><a href="#" class="toggle-link" lang="es"><i class="fa fa-bullhorn"-->
<!-- aria-hidden="true"></i> Media Room</a>-->
<!-- </li>-->
<li style="display: none; visibility: hidden;" aria-hidden="true">
<div ></div>
</li>
<div class="gtranslate_wrapper" id="gt-wrapper-56026424"></div> <li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/calendar/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-calendar-o" aria-hidden="true"></i>Calendar</a></li>
<!-- 2023-11-18 RFF & JMH -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/discover/" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>Discover</a></li>
<!-- <li> --> <!-- <a href="javascript:getLocation()">(Find Nearest)</a> -->
<!-- <span class="top-header-list visible-lg-inline-block hidden-md">, Hours: 7:45-11:45; 12:45-4:45 ~ Phone: (334) 844-4444</span> -->
<!-- </li> -->
<!-- 2019-08-06 JMH & RFF add store link and cart -->
<li><a href="https://secure.touchnet.net/C20021_ustores/web/store_main.jsp?STOREID=244&SINGLESTORE=true" target="_blank" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-shopping-cart" aria-hidden="true"></i>Store</a></li>
<!-- 2022-09-22 JMH add Be Prepared link and circle with exclaimation mark -->
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/blog/category/alabama-ready/" class="toggle-link" ><i class="fa fa-exclamation-triangle" aria-hidden="true"></i>Be Prepared</a></li>
<!-- RFF removed MY ACES
<li><a href="https://www.aces.edu/login" class="toggle-link"><i class="fa fa-user" aria-hidden="true"></i>
Sign In</a></li>
<li class="visible-xs-inline-block"><a href="https://www.aces.edu/my-aces" class="toggle-link"><i
class="fa fa-book" aria-hidden="true"></i> My ACES</a></li>
-->
</ul>
</nav>
</div><!-- /Top Menu right -->
</div>
</div> <!-- /Row-->
</div> <!-- /Container -->
</div>
</div>
<div id="header-inner" class="header-inner">
<div class="header-middle">
<div class="container"> <!-- Container -->
<div class="row"><!-- Row-->
<div class="left-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn btn-primary" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".header-top">
<span class="sr-only" aria-label="search category options">Toggle navigation</span>
<i class="fa fa-bars"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-8 col-xs-offset-0 col-sm-4 col-sm-offset-0 col-md-4 col-md-offset-0">
<div class="logo">
<a href="https://www.aces.edu/" aria-label="Select to go to the home page"><img
src="https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/themes/aces-theme/assets/images/ACES-Logo.svg"
height="auto"
class="img-responsive"
style="display:inline-block;"
alt="Alabama Extension"></a>
</div>
</div>
<div class="right-button col-xs-2 visible-xs">
<button class="btn primary-d alignright" type="button" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".search-row">
<span class="sr-only">Toggle search</span>
<i class="fa fa-search"></i>
</button>
</div>
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-2 col-md-2 search-row mobile-collapse collapse"></div><!-- 2019-12-10 RFF -->
<div class="col-xs-12 col-sm-6 col-md-6 search-row mobile-collapse collapse">
<div class="row">
<div class="col-lg-12">
<form id="aces-primary-search" action="https://www.aces.edu">
<div class="input-group search-wrapper" id="header-search" role="search" aria-label="search the site">
<label for="main-search" class="visually-hidden"><!-- Search articles, publications, and events -->Tell me about...</label>
<input type="text" class="form-control search-header" id="aces-primary-search-s" name="s" placeholder="Tell me about..." id="main-search" value="">
<input type="hidden" id="aces-primary-search-q" name="q">
<span class="input-group-btn right-home-search">
<button class="btn primary-d" type="submit">Search</button>
</span>
</div>
<!-- <input type="hidden" name="cat" value=""> -->
</form>
<script>
/** Applies the category selection to form. */
jQuery(document).ready(function ($) {
/* 2019-12-11 RFF - turned off.
var el = $('.search-category').on('click', function () {
var id = $(this).data('id'),
el = $('form input[name="cat"]');
el.val(id);
el.attr('value', id);
$('form span.cat-name').text($(this).text());
});
*/
/* 2020-04-23 RFF - added */
$('#aces-primary-search').submit(function(event) {
$('#aces-primary-search-q').val($('#aces-primary-search-s').val());
});
});
</script>
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<article id="post-4203" class="post-4203 aces_content_piece type-aces_content_piece status-publish has-post-thumbnail hentry category-healthy-soils category-indicators-of-soil-health category-soil-health-benefits category-what-is-soil tag-alabama-healthy-soils tag-conservation-cropping-systems tag-conservation-practices tag-conservation-systems tag-farm-conservation-practices tag-row-crop-soils tag-soil-conservation tag-soil-conservation-systems tag-soil-health tag-soil-health-benefits first last odd" role="article" aria-label="Improved Water Use and Storage">
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<div class="at-above-post addthis_tool" data-url="https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/healthy-soils/improved-water-use-and-storage/"></div><p>Water is an essential soil component, especially from a plant’s perspective. Though plants require air and water found in soil pores, roots can only absorb nutrients from soil water. Dissolved nutrients in solution establish equilibrium between the soil water and the soil particles and organic matter.</p>
<p>Sandy soils are often better drained than more clayey ones because of the larger pore spaces between particles. This also creates lower nutrient availability for plant roots. The small pore spaces in clayey soils attract and hold more water against the pull of gravity, making them slower to drain. However, this also makes a better environment for available plant nutrients.</p>
<p>Soil health is the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals, and humans. Remember: soil contains living organisms. These organisms require the basic necessities of life to survive. Food, shelter and water are necessary for soil to produce valuable food and fiber.</p>
<p>While soil isn’t a moving, growing medium, it is teeming with life. Billions of bacteria, fungi, and other microbes call soil their home. These organisms are the basis of a strong, symbiotic ecosystem—and water is an extremely important part of that ecosystem.</p>
<h1>Soil can be managed to:</h1>
<ul>
<li>Provide nutrients for plant growth, absorb and hold rainwater for use during dryer periods.</li>
<li>Filter and buffer potential pollutants from leaving fields.</li>
<li>Serve as a firm foundation for agricultural activities.</li>
<li>Provide habitat for soil microbes to flourish and diversify to keep the ecosystem running smoothly.</li>
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<p>Conservation agriculture systems can help minimize soil surface disruptions. Cover crops help protect soil surfaces and increase organic matter in the soil. Use of conservation tillage practices and cover cropping improve water use efficiency by increasing the amount of water which infiltrates into the soil. Soil water storage capacity also increases. The soil stores this water until crops need it. Cover crops can also reduce water losses through evaporation and transpiration.</p>
<h1>More Information</h1>
<p>For more information on improved water use and storage, visit <a href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/60100500/FactSheets/FS06.pdf">https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/60100500/FactSheets/FS06.pdf</a> .</p>
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https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/covington-county-veterans-admin-profile | Covington County Veterans Admin Profile | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Dr. James Newton Barnes",
"Dr. Rachael Carter",
"Dr. Devon Patricia Mills",
"Dr. Rebecca Campbell Smith"
] | null | [
"Economic Development",
"Publications"
] | MS | Home
» Publications » Publications » Covington County Veterans Admin Profile
## Covington County Veterans Admin Profile
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Economic Development |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P3377-17 | |
| View as PDF: P3377-17.pdf | |
| Publication File: | |
| covington_county_vet_presentation.pdf | |
| Department: MSU Extension-Covington County | |
| The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662- 325-2262. | |
## Related Publications
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3842
Understanding Farm Asset Depreciation and Tax Implications
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PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3375
Chain-of-Custody Water Testing and Well Yield Testing
PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3796 Talking Retail Trade
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https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/specialty-cover-crops-soils/cover-crops-for-alabama/ | Cover Crops for Alabama | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [
"Audrey Gamble"
] | 2023-08-03 | [
"Cover Crops",
"Agriculture",
"Soil Health"
] | AL | Learn about cover crops grown to benefit the following crop or soil and how to choose the right ones.
Cover crops are planted in the off-season and usually are not intended for harvest. Cover crops are grown to benefit the following crop and improve the soil. "Green manure" is another term often used for soil-building cover crops. Cover crops can protect the soil, feed the soil ecosystem, increase soil organic matter, and supply nutrients to following crops. Selecting the right cover crops allows growers to improve yields while providing soil and water conservation benefits.
Properly managed cover crops protect the soil surface from water and wind erosion and remediate soil compaction. Growing cover crops feeds the soil ecosystem by excluding compounds from their roots- sugars, organic acids, amino acids, and more. These materials glue soil particles together into aggregates, improving soil structure. After termination, decomposed plant residue becomes soil organic matter that provides food for soil organisms-bacteria, fungi, arthropods, and others-and increases the soil's water storage capacity. Cover crops can also improve soil fertility in several ways. Legumes and their associated bacteria produce nitrogen that can serve as fertilizer for following crops. Similarly, the cover crop takes unused nutrients from the previous crop, reducing leaching losses and cycling nutrients in the cropping system. Deep-rooted cover crops scavenge nutrients from deep in the soil. These nutrients may become available to following crops as the residue decomposes.
## Read More
Download a complete PDF version of Cover Crops for Alabama. ANR-2139 (https://www.aces.edu/wpccontentuploads/2023/08/ANR-2139\_CoverCropsforAlabama\_092622dL\_G.pdf)
The Alabama Cooperative Extension System (Alabama A&M University and Auburn University) is an equal opportunity educator, employer, and provider. If you need a reasonable accommodation or language access services, contact Audrey Gamble at avg0001@auburn.edu (mailto:avg0001@auburn.edu).
Crops for Alabama, ANR-2139
Cover Crops for Alabama 092622dL\_G.pdf)
Download this article as a PDF
Cookie Notice ( https://www.acs.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/ANR-2139\_CoverCropsforAlabama\_092622dL\_G.pdf ) Cover Crops for Alabama. ANR-2139 (https://www.aces.edu/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/ANR-2139\_CoverCropsforAlabama\_092622dL\_G.pdf)
(https://www.auburn.edu/administration/oacp/privacy.php) |
https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/healthy-soils/what-is-a-conservation-system/ | Healthy Soils | Alabama Cooperative Extension System | [] | 2018-07-26 | [] | AL | Conservation systems are cropping systems that minimize surface soil disturbance and maximize plant or residue cover on the surface. Successful conservation systems maintain or increase soil organic matter content while enhancing farm profitability and sustainability.
A conservation system is comprised of two components:
- · conservation tillage
- · high-residue cover crop
The best conservation systems in the Southeast minimize surface soil disruption and protect the soil with a cover crop and plant residue throughout the year. |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/best-management-practices-for-plant-nutrient-management | Best Management Practices for Plant Nutrient Management | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [
"Larry Oldham",
"Keri D. Jones"
] | null | [
"Soils",
"Soil Fertility"
] | MS | " Publications " Published
## Best Management Practices for Plant Nutrient Management
| PUBLICATIONS | Filed Under: Soils, Soil Fertility |
|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------|
| Publication Number: P3681 | |
| View as PDF: P3681.pdf | |
| Sustainability managing plant nutrients is key to a successful farm business and environmental stewardship. Crops grown in Mississippi offer unique challenges due to varying production systems on diverse soils in a warm, humid environment. | |
| best management practices (BMPs) are research-proven, achievable management options for use on a site-specific basis to minimize undesirable environmental effects. BMPs are selected based on soil types, slopes, climate, crops, nutrient management history, relevant cost-share programs, distance to surface water, and farm management goals and objectives. There is no "one-size-fits-all" option. | |
| Landowners and managers should work with local USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service offices, county Soil and Water Conservation Districts, approved technical service providers, or other trusted advisers to develop nutrient and conservation management plans to maintain crops and the environment. | |
## BMPs for Soil Fertility Management
The four Rs-using the right amount of the right fertilizer at the right time in the right place -are the foundation of nutrient management.
The right amount of fertilizer depends on whether the intended crop will benefit from added nutrients. This BMP begins with a well-designed soil testing program for phosphorus, potassium, selected other nutrients, and soil acidity using a reputable laboratory for analysis. Sometimes, zero phosphorus fertilizer is the answer for the current crop. Soils should be tested on a 2-to 3-year cycle. Calibrate and maintain equipment to ensure proper rates are applied.
When using animal byproducts (manures or poultry litter) for crop nutrition, get an analysis of the plant-available nutrients in the actual material that will be used whenever possible. Standardized animal byproduct table values are available, but accurate nutrient content of manure varies with animal type, diet, and management.
The right fertilizer for the situation requires knowing crop requirements and fertilizer properties. See Extension Publication 2500 Inorganic Fertilizers for Crop Production for information about available fertilizers and their properties. In addition, information on crop nutrient needs is available in Extension Publication 2647 Nutrient Management Guidelines for Agronomic Crops Grown in Mississippi and other crop-specific publications available at http://extension.msstate.edu/publications .
Testing soils as a basis for nitrogen (N) fertilizer recommendations has not been standardized for Mississippi's warm, humid conditions. Nitrogen fertilizer properties that affect management include volatilization (conversion to a gaseous form) of nitrogen in surface-applied urea and urea-ammonium nitrate fertilizers. Loss increases when these fertilizers are used at temperatures above 65°F, in high
humidity, or on soil surfaces with high organic matter or surface residues. MSU Extension nitrogen rate recommendations are available for individual crops in Extension Publication 2647 Nutrient Management Guidelines for Agronomic Crops Grown in Mississippi .
Placing fertilizers in the right place also requires knowledge of fertilizer properties and calibrated, well-maintained equipment. Know the correct application width for the equipment, especially for spin spreaders, and the material being applied.
In some situations, placing fertilizers in a band near the row improves nutrient use efficiency. Incorporating animal manures into soil lessens the potential for nutrient movement. Avoid applying fertilizer materials near surface water bodies or field borders.
Applying at the right time for the crop increases use efficiency and decreases the potential for nutrient movement. Nitrogen use efficiency is best when applied close to the time of crop uptake. Applying nitrogen weeks before planting increases potential nitrogen loss from the field. Avoid fall applications of inorganic potash fertilizers if the soil cation exchange capacity (CEC) is less than 8 to avoid leaching loss.
## Managing Plant Nutrients
- · Use the USDA's Web Soil Survey to get accurate soil maps and relevant information for each field or management unit.
- · Implement soil sampling for each field or management unit to determine baseline levels of phosphorus, potassium, other cations, and soil acidity. See Extension Publication IS346 Soil Testing for the Farmer and the MSU Extension Soil Testing Laboratory page for more information.
- · Use reputable, accredited soil-testing laboratories for analysis and recommendations. The MSU Extension Soil Testing Laboratory may be required for some government cost-share programs.
- · Estimate realistic yield potential. A fair method is to average yields from the last 5 to 7 years.
- · If possible, test animal manures for plant-available nutrients when used in crop production. Table values help for planning, but the accurate nutrient content of manure depends on several animal management factors.
- · Estimate residual nutrients in the soil if manure was applied in the previous one to three growing seasons.
- · If animal manures have been applied extensively in fields, environmental assessment tools such as the Phosphorus Index can evaluate nutrient transport chances in the landscape. These tools use site-specific soil erosion, soil tests, landscape position, and applied BMPs. Contact your local Natural Resource Conservation Service office for more information.
- · Match nutrient application to available nutrient sources with estimated fertility needs.
- Keep and maintain records of nutrient applications.
## BMPs to Manage Nutrient Movement in the Landscape
Plants require about 18 different nutrients to complete their life cycle. Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are obtained through photosynthesis; all other nutrients largely enter the plants via root uptake from the surrounding soil. See Extension Publication 2647 Nutrient Management Guidelines for Agronomic Crops Grown in Mississipi , IS1038 Micronutrients in Crop Production, and IS1039 Secondary Plant Nutrients: Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulfur for more information on soil nutrient properties, including bioavailability and plant growth relationships.
The nutrients of most environmental interest are nitrogen and phosphorus. They may leach (move downward) through the soil to groundwater or move via overland flow (runoff) to adjacent surface
waters. Nitrogen moves readily as it dissolves in water, and most forms do not attach readily to the soil. Conversely, phosphorus strongly attaches to soil particles and chiefly moves in the landscape when those particles move via erosion. A small portion of the phosphorus will dissolve and be transported to adjacent waters. The total capacity for nutrient movement is a function of the water flow rate.
BMPs for nutrients are intended to avoid, control , or trap their movement in agricultural landscapes. Appropriate BMPs are site-specific based on the field and farm. Nutrient management, as described above, is an avoiding BMP. For more information about BMPs to manage plant nutrients, see Extension Publication 2647 Nutrient Management Guidelines for Agronomic Crops Grown in Mississippi .
## Publication 3681 (POD-08-21)
By Larry Oldham, PhD, Extension Professor; and Keri D. Jones, PhD, Laboratory Coordinator, Plant and Soil Sciences.
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
| Select Your County Office | Select Your County Office |
|----------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| SELECT A COUNTY | ▶ |
| Authors | Dr. Keri Denley Jones Laboratory Coordinator Soil Testing Lab Related News JUNE 27, 2024 Kids studied soil science at a field day in Verona |
| MARCH 23, 2023 Sweet potato growers given free nematode soil testing | JUNE 5, 2024 MSU invites youth to first soil science day |
| March 6, 2023 Careful management helps offset high fertilizer costs | MARCH 23, 2023 Sweet potato growers given free nematode soil testing |
| SEPTEMBER 14, 2022 MSU Extension cohosts Land Stewardship Field Day | September 14, 2022 |
| Related Publications | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ... next_ last_2 |
|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------|
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: P2678 | |
| Urea-Based Fertilizers in Forage Production | |
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3238 | |
| Soil Acidity, Phosphorus, and Potassium Nutrient Levels: Key to Forage Nutrient Management | |
| Planning | |
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: P2562 | |
| Fertilizer Calculator for Pastures in Mississippi Excel Program (V.05) Instruction Sheet | |
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: P3962 | |
| Potassium in Mississippi Soils | |
| PUBLICATION NUMBER: P4033 | |
| Soil Steaming 101 | |
| Recent Issues | Recent Issues |
| NORTH MISSISSIPPI FRUIT AND VEGETABLE GROWERS July - August 2017 | |
| April 2017 | |
| North MISSISSIPPI FRUIT AND VEGETABLE GROWERS | |
| September - October 2016 | |
| June - July 2016 | |
| January - February 2016 | | |
https://extension.msstate.edu/publications/building-construction-plans/beef-cattle/gates-and-fences | Gates and Fences | Mississippi State University Extension Service | [] | null | [] | MS | Home » Publications » Building & Construction Plans Archive » Beef Cattle » Gates and Fences
## Gates and Fences
BEEF CATTLE
Publication Number: 5961
Filed Under: Agriculture
View as PDF: 5961.pdf
The Mississippi State University Extension Service is working to ensure all web content is accessible to all users. If you need assistance accessing any of our content, please email the webteam or call 662325-2262.
## Select Your County Office
SELECT A COUNTY
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| MISSISSPI P MARKETMAKER | Vol. 15, No. 4 / The Demographic Profiles of U.S., Gulf States and Mississippi Seafood Processing Workers and Owners | Vol. 15, No. 4 / The Demographic Profiles of U.S., Gulf States and Mississippi Seafood Processing Workers and Owners | Vol. 15, No. 4 / The Demographic Profiles of U.S., Gulf States and Mississippi Seafood Processing Workers and Owners | Vol. 15, No. 4 / The Demographic Profiles of U.S., Gulf States and Mississippi Seafood Processing Workers and Owners | Vol. 15, No. 4 / The Demographic Profiles of U.S., Gulf States and Mississippi Seafood Processing Workers and Owners | Vol. 15, No. 4 / The Demographic Profiles of U.S., Gulf States and Mississippi Seafood Processing Workers and Owners | Vol. 15, No. 4 / The Demographic Profiles of U.S., Gulf States and Mississippi Seafood Processing Workers and Owners | Vol. 15, No. 4 / The Demographic Profiles of U.S., Gulf States and Mississippi Seafood Processing Workers and Owners | Vol. 15, No. 4 / The Demographic Profiles of U.S., Gulf States and Mississippi Seafood Processing Workers and Owners | Vol. 15, No. 4 / The Demographic Profiles of U.S., Gulf States and Mississippi Seafood Processing Workers and Owners | Vol. 15, No. 4 / The Demographic Profiles of U.S., Gulf States and Mississippi Seafood Processing Workers and Owners |
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| MISSISSPI P MARKETMAKER | Vol. 15, No. 3 / The Demographic Profiles of Animal Production and Aquaculture Producers and Workers | Vol. 15, No. 3 / The Demographic Profiles of Animal Production and Aquaculture Producers and Workers | Vol. 15, No. 3 / The Demographic Profiles of Animal Production and Aquaculture Producers and Workers | Vol. 15, No. 3 / The Demographic Profiles of Animal Production and Aquaculture Producers and Workers | Vol. 15, No. 3 / The Demographic Profiles of Animal Production and Aquaculture Producers and Workers | Vol. 15, No. 3 / The Demographic Profiles of Animal Production and Aquaculture Producers and Workers | Vol. 15, No. 3 / The Demographic Profiles of Animal Production and Aquaculture Producers and Workers | Vol. 15, No. 3 / The Demographic Profiles of Animal Production and Aquaculture Producers and Workers | Vol. 15, No. 3 / The Demographic Profiles of Animal Production and Aquaculture Producers and Workers | Vol. 15, No. 3 / The Demographic Profiles of Animal Production and Aquaculture Producers and Workers | Vol. 15, No. 3 / The Demographic Profiles of Animal Production and Aquaculture Producers and Workers |
| DAWG TRACKS SAFETY TALK Blind Spots | DAWG TRACKS SAFETY TALK Blind Spots | DAWG TRACKS SAFETY TALK Blind Spots | DAWG TRACKS SAFETY TALK Blind Spots | DAWG TRACKS SAFETY TALK Blind Spots | DAWG TRACKS SAFETY TALK Blind Spots | DAWG TRACKS SAFETY TALK Blind Spots | DAWG TRACKS SAFETY TALK Blind Spots | DAWG TRACKS SAFETY TALK Blind Spots | DAWG TRACKS SAFETY TALK Blind Spots | DAWG TRACKS SAFETY TALK Blind Spots | DAWG TRACKS SAFETY TALK Blind Spots |
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https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/print-publications/t/dietary-fat-saturated-fat-trans-fat-and-cholesterol-t-3153.pdf | Oklahoma State University | [] | Error: time data "D:20170630134838-05'00'" does not match format '%m/%d/%Y %H:%M:%S'. Please provide a date in 'm/d/yyyy hh:mm:ss' format. | [] | OK | Janice R. Hermann, PhD, RD/LD Nutrition Specialist
## Fats
The basic units of fats are fatty acids and glycerol. There are over forty different types of fatty acids. Fatty acids can be
- · Saturated fatty acids
- Monounsaturated fatty acids
- Polyunsaturated fatty acids
Fatty acids are long chains of carbons with hydrogens attached. Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated. A saturated fatty acid has all the carbons in the chain filled with hydrogens. An unsaturated fatty acid is missing hydrogens and as a result the carbon bonds to each other twice, forming what is called a double bond. If there is one place in the fatty acid missing hydrogens (or one double bond), the fatty acid is monounsaturated. If there are two or more places in the fatty acid missing hydrogens (two or more double bonds), the fatty acid is polyunsaturated.
The body can make saturated fatty acids and the body can change some saturated fatty acids into monounsaturated fatty acids if the body needs them. However, our body is not able to make two polyunsaturated fatty acids, linoleic acid (omega-6) and linolenic acid (omega-3). These two polyunsaturated fatty acids are therefore essential and must be provided from the diet. From these two polyunsaturated fatty acids the body can make other polyunsaturated fatty acids in the body.
Fats are made up of two substances, fatty acids and glycerol. Glycerol is a water-soluble compound that can bind up to three fatty acids. When one fatty acid is attached to a glycerol the compound is called a monoglyceride. When two fatty acids are attached to a glycerol the compound is called a diglyceride. And when three fatty acids are attached to a glycerol, the compound is called a triglyceride. Most fats in food and in our bodies are in the form of triglycerides.
| Common Fats/Oils | Saturated Fatty Acids (%) | Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (%) | Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (%) | Polylungulated Fatty |
|-----------------------|------------------------------|------------------------------------|------------------------------------|------------------------|
| Corn | 13 | 25 | 55 | |
| Olive | 17 | 71 | 10 | |
| Palm | 52 | 38 | 10 | |
| Rapeseed (Canola oil) | 7 | 53 | 22 | |
| Soybean | 15 | 23 | 51 | |
| Butter | 65 | 26 | 1-3 | |
| Lard | 42 | 46 | 6-8 | |
| Tallow | 53 | 42 | 2 | |
basic part of cell membranes. Fats are part of many body compounds that help regulate blood pressure, blood clotting, blood lipids and immune response to injury and infection. Body fat cushions internal organs and protects them from being damaged. The fat layer below the skin insulates the body from heat loss. Fats also are important sources of the fat-soluble vitamins. Fats are a concentrated source of energy. One gram of fat provides 9 calories. Our bodies use this energy or store it as fat for later use. It is efficient to store energy as fat instead of carbohydrate because fats are calorie dense. Almosthalf the weight of fat compared to carbohydrate is needed to provide the same amount of calories. In addition, water is also stored with carbohydrates, further increasing stored carbohydrate weight. Storing fat means the body has less weight to carry. Plants do not move around so the weight of stored energy is not a problem. Plants can easily store energy as the bulkier carbohydrate. Excess fat, carbohydrate and protein, beyond what our body needs, are converted into fats and stored for later use.
Although fat is important in the diet, many adults eat more fat than they should. Diets high in saturated fats and trans fats are a risk for heart disease. High total fat diets are a risk factor for cancer and obesity. By increasing the risk of obesity, high fat diets may indirectly increase risk of diabetes and high blood pressure.
## Sterols
Sterols are compounds that have a multiple-ring structure. Cholesterol is one of the best-known sterols. Both plant and animal foods contain sterols, but only animal foods contain cholesterol.
The body needs cholesteroleveryday. Cholesterol serves as the starting material for many important body compounds including bile acids, sex hormones, adrenal hormones and vitamin D. Cholesterol is also needed to form cell membranes and the myelin sheath around nerve fiber. The liver makes about 800 to 1500 mg of cholesterol each day, much more that the cholesterol provided in the diet, out of fragments from fats, proteins and carbohydrates. Cholesterol is made in many cells, but liver cells make the majority of cholesterol. In a healthy body, if we eat more dietary cholesterol, the body makes less cholesterol. If we eat less dietary cholesterol, the body makes more cholesterol. Dietary fats can affect blood cholesterol levels. Saturated fats and trans fats increase blood cholesterol levels in responsive people. In fact, saturated fats and trans fats can raise blood cholesterol more than dietary cholesterol. Cholesterol is carried in the blood in lipoproteins to body tissues where it is used. LDL lipoproteins carry cholesterol from the liver through the body. HDL lipoproteins are released from the liver and circulate in the blood to pick up excess cholesterol from the body and carry it back to the liver to be removed from the body.
## Recommended Blood Cholesterol and Triglyceride Concentrations
Totalbloodcholesterolmeasurementsincludecholesterol in boththeLDLandHDLlipoproteins.However,LDLand HDLlipoproteinshavedifferentfunctionsinbody.LDLlipoproteinscarrycholesterolfromliverintothebody.HDL lipoproteinstheleverandcirculesthen
blood to pick up excess cholesterol from the body and carry it back to the liver to be removed from the body. Higher LDL cholesterol increases your risk of heart disease. Higher HDL cholesterol decreases your risk of heart disease. Measuring LDL cholesterol and HDL cholesterol is a better indicator of heart disease than just total cholesterol alone.
Total cholesterol levels below 200 mg/dl are desirable. Total cholesterol levels between 200 and 239 mg/dl are considered sidered borderline and levels over 240 mg/dl are high risk. LDL-cholesterol levels below 100 mg/dl are desirable. LDLcholesterol levels between 130 and 159 mg/dlare considered borderline and LDL-cholesterol levels over 160 mg/dl are high risk. Triglyceride levels below 150 mg/dl are desirable. Triglyceride levels between 150 and 199 mg/dl are considered borderline. Triglyceride levels over 200 mg/dl are considered high risk. HDL-cholesterol levels equal to or above 60 mg/dl are desirable, HDL-cholesterol levels between 59 and 40 mg/ dl are considered borderline and HDL-cholesterol levels below 40 mg/dl are considered high risk. Exercising, losing excess weight and not smokingpromethehigherHDL-cholesterolelvels .
## Recommended Dietary Fat, Saturated Fat and Trans Fat Intakes
High dietary fat, saturated fat and trans fat intakes are associated with increased risk for many diseases.The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) recommends a diet low in saturated fat and trans fat and one which provides 20 to 35 percent of the daily calories intake from fat. The top end of this range is slightly higher than previous recommendations. This revision recognizes that diets with up to 35 percent of calories from fat can be compatible with good health if calorie intake is reasonable and saturated fat and trans fat intakes are low.
- The Dietary Guidelines recommendations for fat intake are: · Consume less than 10 percent of calories from saturated fatty acids and keep trans fatty acid consumption as low as possible.
- · Keep total fat intake between 20 to 35 percent of calories, with most fats coming from sources of polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, such as fish, nuts and vegetable oils.
- · When selecting and preparing meat, poultry, dry beans and milk or dairy products, make choices that are lean, low-fat, or fat-free.
- · Limit intake of fats and oils highs in saturated and/or trans fatty acids and choose products low in such fats and oils.
## Fat, Saturated Fat, Tans Fat and Cholesterol on the Food Label
The Nutrition Facts Panel on food labels lists the number of grams of total fat, saturated fat, trans fat and milligrams of cholesterol in one serving of food. The Nutrition Facts Panel also lists the percent Daily Value one serving provides for fat and cholesterol based on a 2,000-calorie reference diet. You can use the Nutrition Facts Panel to compare the fat, saturated fat, trans and cholesterol content of foods. The following terms are used on food labels to describe the fat and saturated fat content of foods.
- · Fat free: less than 1/2 gram of fat per serving.
- · Saturated fat free: less than 1/2 gram of saturated fat and 1/2 gram trans fat per serving.
| | Total Cholesterol | Total Cholesterol | LDL Cholesterol | LDL Cholesterol | HDL Cholesterol Triglycerides |
|------------|---------------------|---------------------|-------------------|-------------------|---------------------------------|
| Desirable | Less than 200 | Less than 100 | 60 or greater | Less than 150 | 150-199 |
| Borderline | 200 - 239 | 130 - 159 | 40-59 | Greater than 200 | Greater than 200 |
| High Risk | Greater than 240 | Greater than 160 | Less than 40 | Greater than 200 | |
- · Low fat: 3 grams or less fat per serving.
- · Low saturated-fat: one gram or less saturated fat per serving and less than 1/2 gram trans fat per serving.
- · Reduced or less fat: at least 25 percent less fat per serv ing compared to a similar food.
- · Reduced or less saturated fat; at least 25 percent less saturated fat and trans fat per serving compared to a similar food.
## Guidelines for Lowering Fat Intake
Lowering dietary fat intake does not mean you have to omit all fat from your diet. You do need some fat in the diet, but just not too much. Some general guidelines for fat intake in the diet are:
- · Choose lower fat alternatives more often.
- Use lower fat cooking methods
- Eat smaller portions of high fat foods.
- · Eat high fat foods less often.
- Balance foods higher in fat with foods lower in fat.
## Healthy Choices to Lower Fat through the USDA MyPlate Food Groups
## Grain Group:
oils are high in polyunsaturated fats. Canola oil and olive oil are high in monounsaturated fats.
- · Choosing a polyunsaturated or monounsaturated oil does not mean its okay to use unlimited amounts. For good health it is important to use less of all types of fats and oils. Polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats have the same number of calories as saturated fats.
- · Regular stick margarine contains less saturated fat than butter, but the same amount of total fat and calories.
- · Tub and soft-spread margarine are lower in saturated fat than stick margarine. Reduced-fat and fat-free margarine have less total fat and calories.
- · Use non-stick pan and vegetable sprays instead of margarine or oil for browning, sautéing, or frying foods.
- · Regular salad dressings and mayonnaise are high in fat. There are several reduced-fat and fat-free salad dressings and mayonnaise available.
## References
Whitney, E.N. & Rolles, S.R. (2015). Understanding Nutrition , 14th ed., Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, Belmont, CA. United States Department of Agriculture. Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015-2020 . Accessed at https://health. gov/diaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/ United States Department of Agriculture. ChooseMyPlate. gov. Accessed at www.choosemyplate.gov | |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/brief-instructions-for-freezing-fruit | Brief Instructions for Freezing Fruit | NC State Extension | [] | null | [
"Cooking",
"Nutrition",
"Canning",
"Fruit",
"Health"
] | NC | ## Brief Instructions for Freezing Fruit What Fruits Freeze Best?
Most fruits freeze satisfactorily in some form. They usually retain their flavor after freezing, but the texture may be somewhat softer than it is for fresh fruit.
As with any frozen product, quality is determined by freshness of the original product, type of pack and any special treatment given prior to freezing. Most fruits are fully prepared and sweetened for serving or cooking before they are packaged for freezing.
## Before Packing
All fruits need to be washed in cold water. Wash a small quantity at a time to prevent bruising. You may find a perforated or wire basket useful. Lift washed fruits out of the water and drain thoroughly. Don't let fruit stand in water; it may become water-soaked or lose food value and flavor.
In general, fruit is prepared for freezing in about the same way it is prepared for serving. Large fruits usually do better if cut in pieces or crushed before freezing. Most fruits can be frozen successfully in several forms; even good parts of less perfect fruits can be crushed or pureed before packing.
It is best to prepare enough fruit for only a few containers at one time, especially if a fruit happens to turn dark rapidly. Two or three quantities at a time is a good quantity.
Some instructions call for fruit to be crushed. For soft fruits, use a wire potato masher, pastry fork, slotted spoon or food processor. If fruits are firm, they may be crushed more easily with a food chopper, or food processor. For making pureses, a food processor or food mill is best.
Use equipment made of aluminum, earthenware, enamelware, glass, plastic or stainless steel. Never use galvanized ware in direct contact with fruit or fruit juices. The acid in the fruit can dissolve the zinc, which can be harmful in large quantities.
Metallic off-flavors may result from using iron utensils, chipped enamelware, or tinware that is not well tinned.
## Ways to Pack
Most fruits have better texture and flavor if they are packed in sugar or syrup. Others may be packed without sweetening.
Fruits that are whole or in pieces may be packed one of three ways: syrup pack, sugar pack, and unsweetened. Directions are also given for packing crushed fruits, pureses and fruit juices. The intended use will determine the type and size of pack you select.
## Sugar Pack - General Instructions
Cut fruit into bowl or shallow pan. Sprinkle with sugar to taste. Mix gently until juice is drawn out and sugar is dissolved.
Put fruit and juice into containers. Place crumpled wax paper or plastic wrap on top to hold fruit down in its juice. Seal containers.
## Unsweetened Pack - General Instructions
Pack prepared fruit into containers, with added liquid or sweetening or cover with water containing ascorbic acid, or cover with artificially sweetened syrup as follows:
You may use a non-caloric sweetener to freeze all fruits except peaches and strawberries. These last two freeze best with an artificial syrup.
When using a non-caloric sweetener, add the sweetener to water or fruit juice, following the recommendations on the package label. Mix non-caloric sweetener and fruit well. Pack fruit into container. Seal and freeze.
A non-caloric syrup can be made for peaches and strawberries. To make the syrup, add two level teaspoons of powdered pectin to one quart cool water. Warm the mixture to the simmering point, stirring constantly. Then cool.
Following package directions, add ascorbic acid or an ascorbic acid mixture to the quart of artificial syrup. At this point, you may sweeten the syrup with a non-caloric sweetener or you may leave it plain.
Slice peaches or strawberries into the container, and cover immediately with the no-calorie syrup. Leave one half-inch of head space. Place crumpled wax paper or plastic wrap on top to hold fruit down in syrup. Seal cartons and freeze.
## Syrup Pack - General Instructions
Select the type syrup according to the sweetness of the fresh product. It takes ½ to ¾ cup of syrup for each pint package of fruit.
Dissolve sugar in water or liquid and cool. It's a good idea to make the syrup the day before and refrigerate.
When packing fruit into containers be sure syrup covers the fruit so that top pieces will retain best quality. To keep fruit under syrup, place a small piece of crumpled wax paper or plastic wrap on top and press fruit down under syrup before sealing the container.
| Type of Syrup | Sugar to One Quart Liquid | Sugar to One Quart Liquid | Yield |
|-----------------|-----------------------------|-----------------------------|---------|
| Light | 2 cups | 5 cups | |
| Medium | 3 cups* | 5½ cups | |
| Heavy | 4¼ cups | 6½ cups | |
## To Keep Fruit From Darkening
Some fruits such as apricots, peaches, pears, apples, light cherries and light figs need treatment in addition to sugar to prevent darkening.
- Use an anti-browning agent available in the grocery store following package instructions, or
- Dissolve one teaspoon ascorbic acid and one tablespoon of citric acid in one gallon cold water. As soon as fruit is peeled, drop into this solution until it is packed for freezing, or
- In Sugar pack. Dissolve 1 teaspoon ascorbic acid (this equals 3,000 milligrams if tablets are used) in ½ cup water. Add 1 tablespoons of this solution to each pint of fruit. Mix well.
- In Unsweetened pack. Sprinkle dissolved ascorbic acid over fruit and gently mix. Use same proportion as for a sugar pack.
- In Syrup pack. Dissolve 1 teaspoon ascorbic acid in 2 tablespoons water and add to 1 quart of chilled syrup, or
- Steaming fruit just until hot before packing will control darkening. This method works best for fruit that will be cooked before use.
## Apples, Slices
Select full-flavored apples that are crisp and firm, not mealy in texture. Wash, pare, core and slice.
Syrup pack. Prepare syrup. Add ½ teaspoon crystalline ascorbic acid to each quart of syrup. Slice apples directly into cold syrup in container, starting with ¼ cup syrup to a pint container. Press fruit down in containers and add enough syrup to cover. Leave head space. Seal and freeze.
Baking or pie slices. Drop slices or halves in boiling water for 2 minutes. Cool quickly in ice water. Pack apples into containers. Apples may be sprinkled with sugar if desired. Seal and freeze.
## Applesauce
Select full-flavored apples. Wash apples, pare if desired, core, and slice. To each quart of apple slices add ¼ cup water; cook until tender. Cool and strain if necessary. Sweeten to taste with ¼ to ½ cup sugar for each quart of sauce, if desired.
Pack into containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
## Apricots, Halves or Slices
Select firm, ripe, uniformly yellow apricots. Sort, wash, halve, and pit. Peel and slice if desired.
If apricots are not peeled, heat them in boiling water ½ minute to keep skins from toughening during freezing. Then cool in cold water and drain.
Syrup pack . Prepare syrup and cool. For a better quality frozen product add ¾ teaspoon crystalline ascorbic acid to each quart of syrup. Pack apricots directly into containers. Cover with syrup, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
Sugar pack. Dissolve ¼ teaspoon crystalline ascorbic acid in ¼ cup cold water and sprinkle over 1 quart of fruit. Mix sugar (¼ - ½ cup per quart) with fruit and stir until sugar is dissolved. Pack apricots into containers and press down until fruit is covered with juice, leaving head space. Seal
and freeze.
## Blackberries, Boysenberries, Dewberries, Loganberries, Youngberries
Whole. Select firm, plump, fully ripe berries with glossy skins. Green berries may cause off-flavor. Sort and remove any leaves and stems. Wash and drain.
- · Sugar pack . To 1 quart berries, add sugar to taste. Turn berries over and over until most of the sugar is dissolved. Fill containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
- · Syrup pack . Pack berries into containers and cover with cold syrup. Select type of syrup depending on the sweetness of the fruit. Leave head space. Seal and freeze.
- · Unsweetened pack . Pack berries into containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
Crushed or pureed . Prepare for packing in the same way as for whole berries. Then crush or press through a sieve for puree. Add sugar to taste. Stir until sugar is dissolved. Pack into containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
## Blueberries, Elderberries, Huckleberries
Whole. Select full-flavored ripe berries all about the same size, preferably with tender skins. Sort, wash, and drain. If desired, steam for 1 minute and cool immediately. Preheating in steam tenderers skin and makes a better flavored product.
- · Syrup pack . Pack berries into containers and cover with cold syrup. Leave head space. Seal and freeze.
- · Unsweetened pack . Pack berries into containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
## Cherries, Sour
Whole. Select bright-red, tree-ripeened cherries. Stem, sort and wash thoroughly. Drain and pit.
- · Syrup pack . Pack cherries into containers and cover with cold syrup. Select type of syrup depending on tartness of cherries. Leave head space. Seal and freeze.
Crushed . Prepare for packing as for whole sour cherries. Crush coarsely. Sweeten as desired. Mix thoroughly until sugar is dissolved. Pack into containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
Pureed . Select and prepare for packing same as for whole cherries. Then crush cherries, heat to boiling point, cool, and press through a sieve or use a food processor. To 1 quart fruit puree add ½ - ¾ cup sugar. Pack puree into containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
Juice . Select and prepare as for whole sour cherries. Then crush cherries, heat slightly to start flow of juice, and strain juice through a jelly bag. Cool, let stand overnight, and pour off clear juice for freezing. Or juice may be packed as soon as it cools; then strained when it is thawed for serving. Sweeten to taste or pack without added sugar. Pour into containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
## Cherries, Sweet
Whole. Sweet cherries should be prepared quickly to avoid color and flavor changes. Red varieties are best for freezing. Select well-colored, tree-ripened fruit with a sweet flavor. Sort, stem, wash and drain. Remove pits if desired; they tend to give an almond-like flavor to the fruit. Pack cherries into containers. Cover with cold syrup made with ½ teaspoon crystalline ascorbic acid per quart of liquid. Leave head space. Seal and freeze.
Crushed . Prepare cherries as for freezing whole. Remove pits and crush cherries coarsely. To each quart of crushed fruit, add sugar to taste and ¼ teaspoon crystalline ascorbic acid. Mix well. Pack into containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
Juice . Frozen sweet cherry juice may lack flavor and tartness. For a tastier product, add some sour cherry juice-either before freezing or after thawing. Select well-colored, tree-ripened fruit. Sort, stem, wash, and drain. Remove pits and crush. For red cherries, heat slightly (to 165°F) to start flow of juice. Do not boil. Extract juice in a jelly bag.
For white cherries, extract juice without heating. Then warm juice (to 165°F) in a double boiler or over low heat.
For either red or white cherry juice, cool the juice, let stand overnight, and pour off clear juice for freezing. Or juice may be packed as soon as it cools; then strained when it is thawed for serving. Sweeten to taste or pack without adding sugar. Pour into container, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
## Coconut, Fresh
Shred coconut meat or put it through a food chopper or processor. Pack into containers and cover with the coconut milk if desired. Leave head space. Seal and freeze.
## Cranberries
Whole. Choose firm, deep-red berries with glossy skins. Stem and sort. Wash and drain.
- · Unsweetened pack . Pack into containers without sugar. Leave head space. Seal and freeze.
Pureed . Prepare cranberries as for freezing whole. Add 2 cups water to each quart of berries. Cook until skins have popped. Press through a sieve. Add sugar to taste, about 2 cups for each quart of puree. Pack into containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
## Figs
Whole or sliced . Select tree-ripped soft-ripe fruit. Make sure figs have not become sour in the center. Sort, wash and cut off stems. Peel if desired. Slice or leave whole.
- · Syrup pack . Use a light syrup. For a better product add ¾ teaspoon crystalline ascorbic acid or ½ cup lemon juice to each quart of syrup. Pack figs into containers and cover with cold syrup, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
- · Unsweetened packed . Pack into containers, leaving head space. Cover with water or not as desired. If water is used, crystalline ascorbic acid may be added to retard darkening of lightcolored figs - ¾ teaspoon to each quart of water. Leave head space. Seal and freeze.
Crushed . Prepare figs as directed for freezing whole or sliced. Crush them coarsely. Add sugar to taste and ¼ teaspoon crystalline ascorbic acid per quart crushed fruit. Pack figs into containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
## Fruit Cocktail
Use any combination of fruits desired-sliced or cubed peaches or apricots, melon balls, orange or grapefruit sections, whole seedless grapes, bing cherries, or pineapple wedges.
Pack into containers, cover with cold light or medium syrup, depending on fruits used. Leave head space. Seal and freeze.
## Grapefruit, Oranges
Sections or slices . Select firm tree-ripened fruit heavy for its size and free from spots. Wash and peel. Divide fruit into sections, removing all membranes and seeds. Slice oranges if desired. For grapefruit with many seeds, cut fruit in half, remove seeds, cut or scoop out sections. Pack fruit into containers. Cover with cold syrup made with sugar if desired and excess fruit juice and water if needed. Leave head space. Seal and freeze.
Juice . Select fruit as directed for sections. Squeeze juice from fruit, using squeezer that does not press oil from rind. Sweeten or pick without sugar. Pour juice into containers immediately. Seal and freeze.
## Grapes
Whole or halves . Select firm ripe grapes with tender skins and full color and flavor. Wash and stem. Leave seedless grapes whole; cut table grapes with seeds in half and remove seeds.
Juice . For beverages, select as for whole grapes. For jelly making, select as recommended in specific jelly recipe. Wash, stem, and crush grapes. Strain them through a jelly bag. Let juice stand overnight in refrigerator or other cool place while sediment sinks to bottom. Pour off clear juice for freezing. Pour juice into containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze. If tartrate crystals form in frozen juice, they may be removed by straining the juice after it thaws.
## Melons : Cantaloupe, Crenshaw, Honeydew, Persian, Watermelon
Slices, cubes or balls . Select firm-fleshed, well-colored, ripe melons. Cut in half, remove seeds, and peel. Cut melons into slices, cubes, or balls. Pack into containers and cover with cold light syrup. Leave head space. Seal and freeze.
## Peaches
Halves and slices . Select firm,ripe peaches with no green color in the skins. Sort, wash, pit and peel. For a better product, peel peaches without a boiling-water dip. Slice if desired.
- · Syrup pack . Use light or medium syrup. For a better quality product, add ½ teaspoon crystalline ascorbic acid for each quart of syrup. Put peaches directly into cold syrup in container. Press fruit down and add syrup to cover, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
- · Sugar pack . Add sugar to taste and mix well. To retard darkening, sprinkle ascorbic acid dissolved in water over the peaches before adding sugar. Use ¼ teaspoon crystalline ascorbic acid in ¼ cup cold water to water of fruit. Pack into containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
- · Water pack . Pack peaches into containers and cover with cold water containing 1 teaspoon crystalline ascorbic acid to each quart of water. Leave head space. Seal and freeze.
Crushed or pureed . To loosen skins, dip peaches in boiling water ½ to 1 minute. The riper the fruit the less scolding needed. Cool in cold water, remove skins, and pit. Crush peachs coarsely. Or, for puree, press through a sieve, or use a blender or food processor or heat pitted peaches 4 minutes in just enough water to prevent scorching and then press through a sieve or use blender or food processor. Sweeten if desired. For better quality, add ¾ teaspoon crystalline ascorbic acid to each quart of fruit. Pack into containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
## Pears , Halves or Quarters
Select pears that are well ripened and firm but not hard. Wash fruit in cold water. Pare, cut in halves or quarters, and remove cores. Heat pears in boiling light or medium syrup for 1 to 2 minutes, depending on size of pieces. Drain and cool. Pack pears into containers and cover with cold syrup
made with ¾ teaspoon crystalline ascorbic acid to quart of cold syrup. Leave head space. Seal and freeze.
## Persimmons, Pureed
Select orange-colored, soft-ripe persimmons. Sort, wash, peel, and cut into sections. Press the fruit through a sieve or use a food processor. To each quart of persimmon puree add ½ teaspoon crystalline ascorbic acid or 1½ teaspoons crystalline citric acid to help prevent darkening and flavor loss. Persimmon puree made from native varieties needs no sugar. Puree made from cultivated varieties may be packed with or without sugar. Pack puree into containers. Leave head space. Seal and freeze.
## Pineapple
Select firm, ripe pineapple with full flavor and aroma. Pare and remove core and eyes. Slice, dice, crush, or cut the pineapple into wedges or sticks.
Unsweetened pack . Pack fruit tightly into container without sugar. Leave head space. Seal and freeze.
Syrup pack . Pack fruit tightly into containers. Cover with light syrup made with pineapple juice, if available, or with water. Leave head space. Seal and freeze.
## Plums and Prunes
Whole, halves, or quarters. Choose firm tree-ripened fruit of deep color. Sort and wash. Leave whole or cut in halves or quarters.
- · Unsweetened pack . Pack whole fruit into containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze. To serve uncooked, dip frozen fruit in cold water for 5 to 10 seconds, remove skins, and cover with medium syrup to thaw.
- · Syrup pack . Pack cut fruit into containers. Cover fruit with cold syrup made with ½ teaspoon crystalline ascorbic acid to a quart of syrup. Leave head space. Seal and freeze.
Juice . For juice to be served in beverages, select fully ripe fruit. For juice to be used for jelly making, select as recommended in specific jelly recipe. Wash plums, then simmer until soft in enough water to barely cover. Strain through a jelly bag. Cool. Sweeten to taste. Pour into containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
## Raspberries
Whole . Select fully ripe, juicy berries. Sort, wash carefully in cold water, and drain thoroughly.
Juice. Follow directions for cherry juice.
## Rhubarb
Stalks or pieces . Choose firm, tender, well-colored stalks with good flavor and few fibers. Wash, trim, and cut into 1- or 2- inch pieces or in lengths to fit the package. Heating rhubarb in boiling water for 1 minute and cooling promptly in cold water helps retain color and flavor.
- · Unsweetened pack . Pack either raw or preheated mubarb tightly into containers without sugar. Leave head space Seal and freeze.
- · Syrup pack . Pack either raw or preheated rhubarb tightly into containers, cover with cold medium syrup. Leave head space. Seal and freeze.
Pureed . Prepare rhubarb as for rhubarb stalks or pieces. Add 1 cup water to 1½ quarts rhubarb and boil 2 minutes. Cool and press through a sieve or use a food processor. Sweeten if desired. Pack into containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
## Strawberries
Whole . Choose firm, ripe, red berries preferably with a slightly tart flavor. Large berries are better sliced or crushed. Sort berries, wash them in cold water, drain well, and remove humls.
- · Syrup pack . Put berries into containers and cover with cold medium syrup, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
- · Sugar pack . Add sugar to taste and mix thoroughly. Put into containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
- · Unsweetened pack . Pack into containers, leaving head space. For better color, cover with water containing 1 teaspoon crystalline ascorbic acid to each quart of water. Seal and freeze.
Sliced or crushed . Prepare packing as for whole strawberries, then slice, or crush partially or completely. Add sugar to taste and mix thoroughly. Pack into containers, leaving head space. Seal and freeze.
Publication date: Aug. 1, 1995
Reviewed/Revised: July 9, 2024
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025 URL of this page |
https://extension.okstate.edu/programs/farm-management-and-finance/farm-labor/recruiting-interviewing-and-hiring-agricultural-employees/index.html | Recruiting, Interviewing, and Hiring Agricultural Employees - Oklahoma State University | Oklahoma State University | [] | 2020-11-05 | [] | OK | ## RECRUITING, INTERVIEWING & HIRING AGRICULTURAL EMPLOYEES
## ublications
re-(https://www.michigan.gov/documents/mdcr/Preemploymentguide62012\_388403\_7.pdf)
employment
nquiry
uide
eOC Files Nationwide Hiring Discrimination ( https://www.eeoc.gov/newsroom/eeoc-nationwide-
.awsuit Against Kaplan Higher Education disability-discrimination-case-against-autozone-
orp
employment Tests and Selection ( https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/guidance/employment-tests-and-
procedures
selection-procedures)
employer's Supplemental Tax Guide(https://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/p15a.pdf)
- -9 Employment Eligibility Verification(https://www.uscis.gov/i-9)
ntructions for Completing Form I-(https://www.uscis.gov/i-9-central/handbook-for-employers-m-
?
274)
I-2A Temporary (https://www.uscis.gov/working-in-the-united-states/temporary-
agricultural Workers
workers/h-2a-temporary-agricultural-workers)
helpful Tips on Using Oklahoma's New Hire (https://www.ok.gov/oesc/newhire/app/helpful\_hints.php)
reporting System
information on Federal New Hire
(https://www.acf.hhs.gov/css/employers/employer-
reporting Requirements
responsibilities/new-hire-reporting)
state New Hire Reporting Requirements(https://www.acf.hhs.gov/css/resource/state-new-hire-
EFTPS)
reporting-websites)
!was Poster Advisor(https://webapps.dol.gov/elaws/posters.htm)
## orms
orm-l-9(Spanish)(https://www.uscis.gov/sites/default/files/document/forms/i-9-spanish.pdf)
JES-112 Oklahoma New Hire Reporting
(https://www.ok.gov/oesc/newhire/app/forms/oes-
:orm
112.pdf)
## ideo Presentation
## uman Resource Issues for the Farm and Ranch, Part I |
https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/escambiaco/2024/07/24/weekly-what-is-it-shipwrecks/ | Weekly “What is it?”: Shipwrecks | University of Florida | [
"Carrie Stevenson"
] | 2024-07-24 | [
"Change Category",
"ecotourism",
"Pensacola Bay",
"recreation",
"Weekly What Is It"
] | FL | ## Weekly "What is it?" : Shipwrecks
In 1992, the detection of this large iron anchor in Pensacola Bay led to the discovery of the first Luna shipwreck, circa 1559. It is on display at the UWF Archaeology Institute. Photo credit: Carrie Stevenson, UF IFAS Extension
Pirates of the Caribbean was always my favorite ride at Disney. Being prone to seasickness, this low-key little water journey was as close as my childhood imagination could fathom to truly sailing the high seas. But that type of adventure always appealed to me even if, in reality, I'd have been miserable on a crossAtlantic boat trip. Sailing a wooden ship for months through tempestuous seas or windless, hot days takes a level of fortitude I cannot quite muster. But, back in the day, plenty of folks did.
days takes a level of fortitude I cannot quite muster. But, back in the day, plenty of folks did. The Age of Exploration between the 15$^{th}$ and 18$^{th}$ centuries literally changed the face of the world. It fueled scientific exploration, trade, some really complicated politics,
and spread devastating disease to the "New World." For good or bad, our history and storybooks are filled with tales of the sea. And sprinkled among the triumphant stories are plenty of absolute catastrophes -a quick perusal of the Florida coast and our own Pensacola Bay are concrete proof of that. Just last month, two sailors were rescued by the US Coast Guard out in the Gulf. They had to abandon their sailboat, Lady Catherine III , amidst an unexpected storm .and the boat (seen in banner photo above) eventually washed ashore at Pensacola Beach.
My friends at the University of West Florida and Florida Public Archaeology Network are local experts on shipwrecks. UWF is home to one of just a handful of undergraduate maritime/underwater
archaeology programs in the country. They regularly dive wrecks and have discovered three of the seven Tristan de Luna ships that sunk locally in 1559.
Silver bars are among the treasure recovered from the Atocha shipwreck, now valued at $1.1 billion. Photo credit: Carrie Stevenson, UF IFAS Extension
While the books and movies hype up trous of gold, silver, and jewels in shipwrecks, those are pretty few and far between. But they're not
unheard of. Perhaps the most famous example is the discovery of the Atocha , a ship laden with 40 tons of gold and silver that sunk during a hurricane in 1622 off the Florida Keys . According to one estimate, the findings totaled a value of $1.1 billion in today's dollars. You can see much of this loot on display at the Mel Fisher Maritime Museum in Key West.
Most shipwrecks are less dramatic than the pirate dreams of treasure-laden chests. Ships are lost due to running aground, fire, bad weather, practice for military operations, or simply abandoned in the water when new technology renders them obsolete. Many of the ships off the Florida coast are more modern, associated with 20th century military operations or commercial and private vessels sunk up to the present day. Near Pensacola, the Oriskany and USS Massachusetts were scuttled Navy ships that now serve as artificial diving and fishing reefs.
While "shipwreck" often conjures images of big oceangoing sailing ships, we have an entire
"Maritime Heritage Trail" further inland in the Blackwater River that includes wrecks of smaller boats in service after the colonial days. Most of these were intentionally left to break down and decay. Several of these boats were in frequent use in the 19 th and early 20 th centuries as transport for the busy brick and timber industries in our region. Others were used as ferry services and entertainment cruises for people in the days before bridges across Pensacola and Escambia Bays existed.
A UWF archaeology dive platform floats in a protected bayou near campus. Photo credit: Carrie Stevenson, UF IFAS Extension
7
by Carrie Stevenson
Posted: July 24, 2024
Category:
Tags: Ecotourism, Pensacola Bay, Recreation, Weekly What Is It
## More From Blogs.IFAS
- · Weekly "What Is It?" : Farm-City Week
- · Weekly "What Is It?" : Native Azaleas
- · National Estuaries Week 2022 - Water Quality
- · Weekly "What Is It?" : Iron Bacteria |
http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/excerpt-of-energy-transformation-curriculum | Excerpt of Energy Transformation Curriculum | N.C. Cooperative Extension | [
"NA"
] | null | [
"4-H",
"Education",
"Energy"
] | NC | ## Excerpt of Energy Transformation Curriculum
4-H Curriculum: Grades 6-8
Department
4-H Youth Development
Series
4-H Curriculum: Grades 6-8
Publication Date
July 13, 2020
Authors
□ View/Download PDF
http://static/publication/js/pdf\_js/web/viewer.e56617a9a878.html?in\_frame=true&slug=excerpt-ofenergy-transformation-curriculum#zoom=page-fit
N.C. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status.
This publication printed on: March 27, 2025
URL of this page |
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